Zimmermann, M. - The Ornamentation of Baroque Music

Manfredo Zimmermann

The Ornamentation of Baroque Music

A Guide to Learning How to Embellish

1 © 2019 Music-Ornaments, Manfredo Zimmermann, Ettlingen, Germany All Rights Reserved Music Settings and Compositions: Manfredo Zimmermann Edited by: Ulrich Reifenrath Translated by: Ernst Peppel, edited by David Lasocki Sample Music: Harpsichord Accompaniment by Yuko Inoue Cover Photo: “The Concert“ by Georg Platzer Courtesy of Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nürnberg www.music-ornaments.com

2 Preface .................................................................................................................................................... . 4 General Hints on the Performance of Music before 1800 ...................................................................... 6 The Principle of Inequality ................................................................................................................... 6 Dealing with Dissonances .................................................................................................................... 7 The Messa di voce ............................................................................................................................... 7 Intonation ............................................................................................................................................ 8 Modern and Original (Urtext) Editions of Music ................................................................................. 9 Time Signatures, Their Character and The Scope of Note-Values .................................................... 10 The French and Italian Styles............................................................................................................. 11 The Essential Ornaments ....................................................................................................................... 15 The Trill

.............................................................................................................................................. 15 The Mordent ..................................................................................................................................... 20 The Appoggiatura .............................................................................................................................. 21 The Slide ............................................................................................................................................ 24 The Chûte .......................................................................................................................................... 25 The Turn ............................................................................................................................................ 25 The Accent ......................................................................................................................................... 26 Special Ornaments ................................................................................................................................ 27 Vibrato ............................................................................................................................................... 27 Closing Cadences ............................................................................................................................... 29 Tempo rubato .................................................................................................................................... 32 Inequality (Inégalité) ......................................................................................................................... 34 Free Ornamentation .............................................................................................................................. 38 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 38 Some Rules ........................................................................................................................................ 41 Basic Thought .................................................................................................................................... 42 Buildup Exercises ............................................................................................................................... 43 Reduction .......................................................................................................................................... 52 Paths Not Walked Before .................................................................................................................. 54 Cadenzas and Improvisation ................................................................................................................. 63 Divisions (on a Ground) ......................................................................................................................... 71 Appendix..................................................................................................................................... ........... 77 Historical Examples of Ornamented Movements

............................................................................. 77 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 86 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 87 Primary Sources ................................................................................................................................. 87 Secondary Sources ............................................................................................................................ 88

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Preface “Actually, nobody ever questions the necessity of using ornaments in music, as is evidenced by such ornaments being found everywhere in rich abundance. In fact, they even seem indispensable, given their usefulness and benefits. They link the notes together, fill them with life and, where necessary, place specific emphasis and weight upon them. Ornaments also make the music sound more pleasing, thereby attracting greater attention. In addition, they help to disclose and better convey the true musical character of the piece, be it sad, cheerful or otherwise. Ornaments always have the potential to contribute substantially to truly ensure the improvement of a performance’s quality as well as much of its subject matter. Through ornaments even a composition of lesser quality can be polished. Without ornaments, by comparison, even the best melody remains empty and ineffective, and because of this the clearest content is always bound to appear unclear.” (Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Versuch (1753), Part I, Chapter 2, §1) This handbook targets practicing musicians who are looking for a new direction and new ideas about musical ornamentation. Here they will find a comprehensive compendium covering the entire ornamentation practice of the Baroque (from approximately 1650) as well as that of the pre-Classical era. In addition, handbook users have the opportunity to access live play-along basso continuo accompaniments for various exercises and grounds and thus to play their own ornaments in a real sound environment. Almost all musicians who practice, play, or perform a composition from the seventeenth or eighteenth century have asked themselves the following question: “Should I actually ornament this piece?” If the answer is “yes,” that immediately triggers the following further questions: “Where? How? What should I, what can I. or what am I allowed to ornament?”

Exactly at this point and in this situation the present handbook seeks to be of practical help. At once both reference guide and exercise tool, the handbook constitutes an ideal companion for the interpretation of music from the basso-continuo age in historically informed style. All elements of Baroque ornamentation are dealt with in depth and detail. Practical tips, methodically structured exercises, and audio music samples provide musicians with all the tools needed for develop individual and stylistically informed ornamentation. The various historical examples permit insights into the practical art of ornamenting that prevailed during the musical epochs in question. For particular aspects of ornamentation, such as improvising cadenzas or improvisation over a ground, progressive exercises are offered. All the useful tips on performance practice should also give you a better understanding of musical style.

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This book puts together the countless experiences I had during my many years of mentoring the seminar Performance Practice and Ornamentation at the Hochschule für Musik und Tanz in Cologne. Regarding Accompaniments A novelty of the book is the integrated inclusion of Soundfiles. Many exercises, and in due course also grounds, are supported by an original harpsichord accompaniment, available for both modern instruments (a′=440 Hz) and historical instruments (a′=415 Hz). In addition various audio samples help you to understand some of the ornaments better. The basso continuo accompaniments represent so-called Loops, which make it possible to repeat the exercise many times without the necessity to keep restarting. The 60 sound examples, which match the numbers in boxes next to the musical examples, can be downloaded from the separately downloadable directory, Sound E-Book, and played by double-clicking. Some Clarifying Remarks I am aware that a handbook conceptually designed to serve as a practice-oriented tool cannot cover all aspects and all the background of such a comprehensive and complex subject as ornamentation in detail. My focus is on opening a door to ornamentation for all practicing musicians. To achieve this goal, merely reading or browsing through this handbook will definitely not suffice. I feel sure that once you have managed to work and “practice” yourself through the various chapters and pertinent exercises, you will be in a position to surprise and delight yourself as well as your audience with the artful ornamentation skills you have acquired. A further handbook volume dealing with ornamentation in the Late Renaissance and

Early Baroque is planned. The Exception Proves the Rule (in the old-fashioned sense of “prove” meaning “test”). This general statement is certainly applicable in the field of ornamentation. Strict and static rules do not exist. However, with so-called “rules of thumb” you will generally be on the safe side. The systematic and repetitive practicing of the various (accompanied) ornamentation examples constitutes, from the psychological perspective of learning, an important method to acquire stylistically typical patterns. Through the harmonic underpinning, a musical context is created which, in this same or a similar form, will be found again in every piece of music to be ornamented. My personal wish is that through this handbook, on the one hand, any fear and shyness still existing within you towards generating you own ornaments will disappear; and that, on the other hand, the creative enrichment of music will bring you fun and pleasure. With these wishes in mind, let’s get started! Manfredo Zimmermann 5

General Hints on the Performance of Music before 1800 The Principle of Inequality Until the French Revolution absolutism was generally accepted as the norm in politics and society. Only in consequence of the revolutionaries strong demand for “liberté, égalité et fraternité“ (freedom, equality, and brotherhood) did a change of public thinking begin to set in, and as we know today, this process evolved extremely slowly and mainly “on paper“. Prior to that everything in the life of the people and the world around them was based on hierarchy and God-given order. The mostly pyramidal structures of the system that existed in society, church, politics, and the family were such that the people, as a rule, accepted total subordination relative to the next higher hierarchical level (father/patriarch, emperor, pope, etc.), ensuring that a clearly defined power structure opened up and branched out like a handheld-fan, making it difficult for people to act in their own defence. This meant that for people of those times the concept and term equality, if it existed at all in their own thinking, would have been given an interpretation entirely different from our present day notion. This is also reflected in the music. While we today, being shaped by a musical tradition still rooted in the era of Romanticism, perceive a 4/4-measure as a sequence of notes consisting of four quarter notes (without any additional interpretation hints) and thus conceived as four equally long sounding

notes of precisely identical loudness, musicians in the eighteenth century, from the thinking and feeling of their time, would interprete this sequence of notes in a completely different manner. For them, these equal looking note values were indicative of a natural inner hierarchy. The first note in the measure was the most important one and also the strongest, the recognition of which could be expressed, and so indicated, by both dynamics and articulaton. The second note had to be weaker (softer, shorter), and the third one stronger (louder) again, but not as much as the first note. In line with such logic, the fourth note would be weak again. This ranking order was then also applied and adapted to all other note values: eighth notes, sixteenth notes, etc. If composers, as an exception, wished to suspend this inner inequality, they would have to so signify it for the musicians, through a specific written instruction such as “les notes égales“ or alternatively, by placing dots or wedges above the notes concerned. That way every single time signature had its own inherent rules of accentuation that all musicians in those days not only knew of in theory, but which had absorbed to become second nature to themin their musical practice. Among other things, it was expected of performers that their way of playing would be nuanced to the extent of enabling the attentive listner to recognize the time signatures underlying the music performed. 6

Dealing with Dissonances Aside from the rules of accentuation, one of the most important aspects of musical performance at least until 1800 was the consciously purposeful and differentiated way of treating dissonances (and in contrast also consonances). At that time the second, fourth and seventh were regarded as dissonant intervals. The generally applicable basic rule is the following: Dissonances are to be played strong or emphasized. By contrast, consonances (especially if they are resolutions of preceding dissonances) are to be played weaker or more relaxed. Observance of this rule has far-reaching consequences for musicians. It demands of them a strengthened “vertical“ hearing ability, a conscious perception of harmonic processes and a clear understanding of the harmonic function of each individual note played. Nowadays, regrettably, this particular form of intense hearing education is often neglected. One-sided attention is paid to the melodic “long line“ and its further refinement. However, if the harmonic elements of “suspense and release“ could be included in the melodic phrasing, it would clearly lead to a perceptible increase in the musical expressiveness and impact of the composition.

The Messa di voce “She was not able to sustain a whole note sufficiently long, she had no messa di voce, she did not know how to sustain; in a word, she sang artfully but without brains….” (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, letter to his father, 19 February 1778) One aspect of performance often ignored today is the varied treatment of the single note. However, if we consider how musicians and theorists placed great emphasis on playing every tone of a sounding duration while artfully shaping it at the same time, this treatment reaches an entirely new and exciting dimension. The so-called messa di voce (“Placing the voice”) was a term originating from Italian vocal technique, soon also adopted by instrumentalists. In fact, the number-one desire of all musicians has always been to artfully imitate the human singing voice and the so-called bel canto. Until way into the nineteenth century, it was considered good musical taste to further shape a sustained tone by applying the messa di voce. The musician began playing in a scarcely audible pianissimo, then increasing the sound volume to forte, and subsequently reducing it again until the tone ended in the initial pianissimo. This principle of tone-shaping has far-reaching consequences, as it means that sostenuto was not the rule but the exception. Johann Joachim Quantz commented on the messa di voce for woodwind instruments: 7

“If one has to hold a long note for either a half or full measure, which the Italians call messa di voce, then one must at first play the note with the tongue very softly, almost just like breathing it; then continue pianissimo, letting the strength of the tone grow until the middle of the note, from where the strength of the tone is reduced again until you reach the end of the note, where a finger vibrato can be played on the next open hole.” (Versuch, chapter XIV, §10) This finger vibrato, which the French called flattement, is technically playable only on woodwind instruments that have open finger holes. It is interesting that this particular tone shaping ornament was used only for especially selected parts of a composition. This subject is also dealt with in great detail by Greta Moens-Haenen in her highly recommendable book Das Vibrato in der Musik des Barock.

Intonation Equal temperament,1 especially used as for keyboard instruments, is a compromise, like all other tuning systems. Unfortunately, an ideal and perfect system does not exist. In the Baroque, aside from so-called meantone tuning, which was common early on, a variety of different systems were “invented“ (by Kirnberger, Werckmeister,

Valotti, and Rameau, among others). Within the twelve half-tone interval steps of the octave, designers distributed the so-called Pythagorean comma (the small interval between enharmonically equivalent notes) in different ways, thereby generating “good,” “neutral,” but also some “bad or even unusable” keys. The consequence was, especially in the Renaissance, that musicians confined themselves to keys with a maximum of four accidentials. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the trend led in the direction of “well tempered intonation.” Regardless of this, every key had its own typical sound color. In addition, with regard to the intonation of thirds, fifths, and sixths, musicians tried to play especially “clean.” In reality this meant that the interval of a second was split into two unequal half-tones. The interval C–C sharp was a small half-tone, C–D flat a large half-tone. As a consequence, major thirds became narrower, and accordingly, minor thirds became “wider” (the opposite happened with sixths). Nowadays this interval-based intonation practice has been regrettably forgotten to a great extent. But everyone who has ever played a major triad with a low-intoned third will immediately feel the warmth and roundness of that particular sound. To elaborate on and dig deeper into the sound-supporting function of the combination tones arising from musical interaction would certainly exceed the framework of this book.

1 This is the tuning system that divides an octave into twelve equally long half-tones. The consequence is that none of the intervals sounds “clean”: all the fifths are too narrow, the major thirds are too wide, etc. 8

Modern and Original (Urtext) Editions of Music Modern editions of historical musical works are helpful and practical for the musician. Compared with any facsimile reproduction they are easy to read and in most instances also optically flawless. But such editions can lead to a kind of gullibility and general belief that “everything important is written down on the page, and all I have to do is comply with what the notation prescribes.” This belief even becomes strengthened if, in addition, the word “Urtext” appears on the edition, leading us to conclude that everything on the page must be the original desire of the composer, which is seldom the case. Original (Urtext) editions are oriented towards and guided by the available basic historical material, both printed and manuscript. Because many manuscripts are copies, or even copies of copies, texts of the same work may be found with greatly deviating content, which means that it is almost impossible to compile anything like a single “original text.” Following are some critical remarks on this issue:

We can distinguish three main types of edition: a) An edition expressly designated as an “Urtext” where, based upon a critical essay or substantial preface, it can be taken for granted that the historical texts are reproduced without any editorial additions. b) An edition in which editors also include their own additions, supplements, or interpretative suggestions, which are clearly marked as such. Sometimes the original “Urtext” version is reflected in the score, while the edited version is found in the parts. c) Finally, an edition that does not clearly indicate what came from the historical texts and what from the editor—which in my view is useless and not to be recommended at all. In playing from genuine “Urtext” edition you should not automatically believe that everything necessary is spelled out and specified there, and that once you follow the written notes you are so-to-speak fulfilling the wish and imagination of the composer. Notation alone can never completely express a musical event. Too many interpretative parameters are simply impossible to express in notes. In addition, it must be borne in mind that the role of musicians before 1800 was entirely different from their role today. Then it was expected that musicians themselves would creatively intervene with the process of composition. This meant that composers (often identical with the performing musicians) would, as a rule, provide a kind of “skeleton” to be augmented by performers with their own fantasy, creativity, and ornamentation skills, thus following the principle: Notation is a source of inspiration. For exactly this reason and apart from other differences, we find hardly any dynamic signs and only scarce articulation directions in the works of the Baroque era. So, for example, a 9

legato appearing only in the first measure means that in the course of this whole movement legato articulation continues to be applicable, in accordance with the patterns that customarily prevailed. Musicians had even more freedom in the performance of slower movements. Performers who played only what was notated without adding their own ornamentation, notwith standing the best intonation and the most beautiful sound of the instrument, would be considered musically imperfect and therefore mediocre artists. No wonder that we may find slower movements already partially and “ostensibly” ornamented and evidently used as patterns encouraging more extensive ornaments, through which the maestros subtly got their pedagogical intentions across to posterity. How variable and manifold these ornaments can be in the end is perfectly revealed to

us by comparing the numerous surviving versions of an Adagio by Arcangelo Corelli (see p. 40), which various contemporaries ornamented in their individual styles.

Time Signatures, Their Character and The Scope of Note-Values Until the nineteenth century, the time signature of a movement had an important impact on its character, tempo, and other interpretative aspects. Markings such as Adagio, Allegro, and Presto were supplementary and could change the basic character of the tempo (tempo giusto). An important aspect of the interpretation of music before 1800 is the ability to recognize whether or not a group of notes has a character that requires ornamentation. For this purpose we have to know that at that time every single time signature had its own precisely defined scope of underlying note values, which constituted a kind of skeleton of the movement. This scope includes the so-called smallest continuous values that can or should be played more or less unequal (inégal), depending on the case (see chapter Inégalité). Any still-faster notes were looked at as ornamenting notes and interpreted accordingly. Following is a list of the most common time signatures together with their respective note value ranges (naturally also including dotted notes): C (4/4) principally consists of: whole, half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes (the last of which can be played inégal where necessary). Any smaller values must be treated as ornamental notes. Important: Without special tempo indications the C measure, in its basic tempo also called tempo giusto, can range from moderate to very slow. 2/4 consists of half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. By nature it is fast and agitated. 2/2 by character is swift and lively. It consists of whole, half, quarter, and eighth notes (the last of which can be played inégal). 10

Important: In French music we mostly find only a single “2“ to identify the time signature. It had to be played even faster than the (Italian) Alla breve time. In 3/4 we find as basic note-values: half, quarter, and eighth notes (the last of which can be played inégal where necessary). 3/2 is made up of whole, half, and quarter notes (the last of which can be played inégal where necessary). 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8 are usually fast and consist of quarter, eighth, and (sometimes) sixteenth notes. Principally, a dotted quarter (three eighths) will be played and emphasized as the basic beat.

The French and Italian Styles A unique situation in the history of music began to divide musical Europe towards the end of the seventeenth century. What had happened? About 1670, in the most important music nations of that time, so-called national styles started to emerge and take shape. In France this happened under the direction of Jean Baptist Lully, to whom King Louis XIV had granted all powers and privileges for the coordination of the musical activities at the Court. In Italy, just a little later, Arcangelo Corelli established himself as a musician who set quality standards for solo (violin) perfomance and the concerto grosso. Stylistically, these newly developing national styles significantly varied from one other. At the European royal Courts, preference was mostly given to only one of these styles, and thus musicians had to play in either the Italian or the French style of composition. François Couperin remarked on this issue in the preface to his L’art de toucher le clavecin: “In my opinion mistakes are made in the way we notate our music, and the reason for this has its roots in how we write down our language. In fact, what we notate deviates from the actual performance; that is why foreigners play our music less well than their own; and vice versa, the Italians notate their music in precisely the note values they want them to be played. For example, we play several stepwise consecutive eighth notes as if they are dotted and yet we notate them as being equal.” In France the common music life was dominated by the dance. Consequently, we find in compositions a majority of dance-like movements (often pulled together in suites or for ballet performances) combined with shorter, concise pièces as well as character pieces (tombeau, plainte, etc.). What proved the greatest extravaganza and was celebrated as such was the opera (mostly in the form of the tragédie lyrique or comédie ballet), in which dance played an ever-present role. The Italians, by contrast, in their instrumental music preferred sonatas, concertos, or concerti grossi. Their opera managed with almost no ballet; what else distinguished it from French opera were, among other things, the strong and melody-dominated, overwhelming, and highly virtuosic arias often composed specifically for castratos. 11

This distinction is also mirrored in the ornamentation of both styles. The French meticulously notated all ornaments (agréments), mostly using specific signs. Almost every longer note received an agrément. For this reason musicians had to recognize and understand the respective signs, which often was far from easy because many composers “invented” their own. The ornamentation of the Italians was oriented towards extensive virtuosic melodic passages. Yes, trills, mordents, etc. were also used, but in the overall scheme of ornamentation they played a minor role. Quantz describes these distinctions related to style and musical taste in a trenchant manner:

“The Italians, in how they compose, are unrestrained, brilliant, vivid, expressive, deeper emotionally, exalted in thought, slightly bizarre, free, dashing, cheeky, excessive, occasionally negligent in metrics; they are also singing, flattering, tender, touching and rich in invention. Their compositions are aimed more at connoisseurs than ordinary music lovers. While the French, in how they compose, are vivid, enunciating, natural, pleasing and comprehensible to the audience, and also of greater precision in metrics than the Italians; they neither engage in deeper thoughts nor are audacious, but rather, restricted, slavish, always resembling themselves, low in their manner of thinking, arid in invention. They rehash the ideas of their ancestors over and over again, and compose more for ordinary music lovers than for connoisseurs.” (Versuch, chapter XVIII, §76) From this viewpoint Quantz defines a “German mixed style”, selecting and combing the best elements and features from both Italian and French ways of notation and ornamentation. For us it is significant stylistically to identify the composition to be ornamented. Most composers were committed to one specific musical style. Only a few were in a position to write music in all “languages,” among them Georg Philipp Telemann and Joseph Bodin de Boismortier. Especially for the interpretation of movements with dance character, it was accepted throughout Europe that principally French rules and conventions would prevail. The following examples are typical of their musical style. The images alone of the written notes clearly differ from one another, thereby forcing interpreters into totally different roles.

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This piece written by Michel Pignolet de Montéclair shows us in a wonderful way the filigree elaboration of the ornamentation in the doubles (ornamental variations). This can serve as good inspiration for similar movements. The following example, written by Corelli himself, is generous and goes overboard in the virtuosic garlands. Most of the ornaments do not “fit” into the rhythmic structure, therefore musicians will probably not be able to play the cascades of notes properly and accurately without a certain amount of tempo rubato.

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The Essential Ornaments The Trill “Trills lend great splendour to the musical performance and, like appoggiaturas, are indispensable. If an instrumentalist or a vocalist possessed all the artistic skill that good taste demands of performance but had no ability to strike good trills, his entire artistry would remain fragmentary and incomplete.” (Quantz, Versuch, chapter IX, §1)

A trill is understood as a fast alternation between two notes that form the interval of a second (major or minor). This can be done once or several times. The trill (trillo, tremblement, cadence, shake, etc.) probably constitutes the most frequently used ornament in the music. Especially in Baroque and Classical Music, the trill is ever present in its variety of forms. At almost every cadence, “good taste” calls for a trill, and apart from this there are many other notes that always need be adorned with ornaments. Often, practicing musicians today when confronted with a trill sign (+, t, tr, and others) react reflexively and try to get their fingers in the right position as fast as possible to properly execute the trill. Here it often remains unnoticed that there are a great number of possible interpretations that give the trill specific forms of musical expression and character. The sign itself says nothing about how the trill should be performed. The speed of the alternations of pitch affects the nature of the musical expression. For a piece with sad character, the speed should principally be slower than for a more cheerful movement. Similarly, in a room with much echo, a trill should be played more slowly than in a room with “dry” acoustics. But let us try to perform a quasi-“medical autopsy” of the trill structure. Generally, it can be divided into three sections: 1. introduction (appoggiatura) 2. the actual trill-motion 3. ending 1. From about 1670, the trill was started principally on the upper neighbor note. With few exceptions this rule remained in place until after 1800. Only from then on was it demanded of most theorists and composers to begin the trill on the main note. Prior to 1670 it had also been standard practice to begin the trillo or the tremolo on the main note. So this rule demands of musicians that they begin the trill with a note that in most cases is not notated and thus invisible. Therefore, they must ignore the visible tone (the main note) and instead play (hit or press) the invisible upper-neighbor note. Over time this mental hurdle will be overcome through practicing and eventually becomes a reflex. In case the note with the trill is indicative of having to be “on the beat,” then the trill should really begin “on the beat” and not be anticipated. This mistake is often made, mostly with shorter notes, probably because of fear there will not be enough time to properly execute 15

the trill alternations. This fear is, however, unfounded when musicians restrict themselves to only one trill alternation. The problem of how to deal with the correct beginning of a trill becomes even more

interesting when it comes to longer notes. Especially in slower pieces, you clearly achieve increased expressivity if the suspended note (the upper neighbor) is played relatively long and also with emphasis. As the upper neighbor is mostly dissonant, musical expression becomes stronger. Following are some examples of how the beginning of a trill can be varied: a. on a short note

b. on a longer note

Additional variants for the beginning of a trill are shown by, among others, Johann Sebastian Bach in his ornamentation table (Clavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach)

2. The actual trill alternations, as already mentioned, can be faster or slower, depending on the emotional character (Affekt or Affect) of the musical passage in question. But also other variants can expand the scope of expression:

a. accelerating trill

b. decelerating trill

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Long trills were preferred to be played while accelerating, this also being a method intended to prevent (mechanical) uniformity.

Remarks: In many historical sources (especially in teaching books for woodwind instruments) we find something peculiar: In cases where the normal and “logical“ finger motions of the trill create an interval that is too narrow, an alternative is offered in the trill tables where the result will be a kind of overextended (wide) interval but with the effect of allowing a clear distinction between the trill and the often also used flattement (finger vibrato). The latter, as the name suggests, should have a flattering and soft character. 3. Every trill must be brought to an end one way or another. Often the composer himself stipulates how the ending should be played, but just as often we will find no such indication and then have to decide on our own how to resolve the ornament. In many cases the trill alternation ends with a “point d’arrêt” (stopping point). This variably long ending point can be followed by an anticipation of the subsequent tone. In that case it was customary to provide for a small “gap” between the point d’arrêt and the anticipation.

The following examples show the most common formulas for ending a trill:

a. without resolution b. with anticipation 1 2

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34 c. with grace notes d. „Double cadence coupé“ What must be considered, too, are the dynamics of a trill, or, to put it more precisely, its dynamic development. Basically, the emphasis of a note played on the beat is always at the beginning of the note. Exceptions to this are longer notes where a messa di voce (the tone progression and regression from p to f and back) is expected. Remarks: It is frequently heard that at the very moment the finger or fingers begin trilling, the tone seems to be “pressed up.” Mostly this has to do with the technical difficulty of combining the fast finger movements with the prescribed dynamic relaxation. What results from this situation is a crescendo, or possibly an accent, just when the trill commences. But exactly at this point, from the harmonic perspective, a tonal relaxation is called for. Where may or should trilling be used? In many instances trills were already notated by the composer. Often, however, the trill sign is missing, as it was taken for granted that a musician “with good musical taste” knew exactly where and how a trill was to be played. Following are some typical examples of musical situations where a trill may be applied:  on expanded altered notes

5  on notes (on the beat) if their interval to the bass note is a third or a tenth 18

6  in cadences, deceptive cadence or others forms of finishing a musical phrase.

7 Special Cases: a. Passing Notes: With (mostly shorter) passing notes moving downwards, the trill is preferrably used as additional stimulant. The trill could also begin on the upper neighbor note.

8 b. Written-out appoggiaturas: Sometimes the appoggiatura of the trill is notated by the composer as a real note. This is mostly done above a 6/4 chord, in which case you slur the trill to the appoggiatura and begin trilling directly on the principal note.

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The Mordent The mordent (battement, pincé, beat), as its name in the various languages suggests,

is by its character a lively to partly even aggressive ornament that emphasizes and accentuates selected notes. Depending on the composer, we find a variety of signs, which in the end all prove to mean the same thing: rapid alternation with the lower-neighbor note. This alternation can be executed once or multiple times.

Francesco Geminiani describes the mordent as follows: “This ornament can express a variety of passions; for example, if carried out with power and played long enough, it expresses rage, anger and determination. If it is played less powerfully and in shorter time, it expressess cheerfulness and satisfaction. If played rather gently at the beginning then switching to crescendo, the emotions evoked convey feelings of dismay, fear, grief and lament. If the ornament is played shorter with the note softly crescendoing, then it expresses love and enjoyment.” (The Art of Playing the Violin, London, 1752)

Ornamentation Table of J. S. Bach: from the Clavier-büchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach

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The Appoggiatura “Appoggiaturas in the performance are considered both ornamental and a matter of

necessity. Without them a melody would seem very thin and plain. For a melody to be regarded as galant, it has to contain more consonances than dissonances. If many of the former are used in a row, and if after some rapidly played notes a long consonance were to follow, this might become tiring for the audience. Dissonances must therefore be used here and there in order to cheer up the listeners again. Appoggiaturas can contibute a lot to accomplish this, because if placed before the third or sixth (calculated from the bass note), they are transformed into dissonances of a fourth or seventh, but based on the following note, the necessary resolution will occur.” (Quantz, Versuch, chapter VIII, §1) This special one-note ornament (also known as Vorhalt, Vorschlag, acciaccatura, port de voix, coulé, accent, etc.) is undoubtedly is the most versatile, and also one that raises many questions. Unfortunately, the notation system in use was not in a position to provide clear and definite answers. Short or long, before or on the beat, stressed or unstressed: those are decisions that not always easy to make. But when taking a closer look we come across various hints and indications to help us decide how these special ornaments should be played. Originally, there were two ways of notating an appoggiatura: • By a (small) note (mostly an eighth or a sixteenth note) placed in front of the principal note.

• By a specific sign, which can differ from composer to composer.

Appoggiaturas are played • before the beat, always short and unstressed, • on the beat, stressed and – depending on the performance situation – anywhere from short to long As composers did not always (or only partially) notate suspensions and grace notes, the possibility should generally be taken into consideration to insert these ornaments yourself. To do this there are a few simple rules about how you can identify musical passages where such insertions would “fit in”:

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1. Longer Appoggiaturas (on the Beat):

• If the melody line reaches a “good” (stressed) note with the interval of a second downwards.

• If the melody line reaches a “good” (stressed) note with the interval of a second upwards.

• If there is an especially expressive note on a “good” measure.

Important: When playing an appoggiatura purposely generate a dissonance, a state of harmonic tension, which is subsequently resolved into a consonance. This means that the appoggiatura must always to be played stronger than the resolution. 2. Short Appoggiaturas (before the beat) • Repeated notes.

• The rhythmic figure eighth–sixteenth–sixteenth.

10 22

• Descending thirds.

The Structuring of Appoggiaturas:

11

Particularly in the French music style we can read over and over again (Hotteterre, Montéclair, etc.) that a port de voix (appoggiatura from the lower neighbor) is followed by a battement (mordent). This combination of two ornaments is often fully notated.

12

13

Sometimes we may find an “appoggiatura to an appoggiatura.” As the former is usually a consonance, it must be played short and before the beat in order not to neutralize the dissonance.

Duration: As already stated, the appoggiatura played before the beat is always short, mostly as short as possible. The appoggiatura on the beat varies in length. Depending on the length of the principal note, tempo and Affect of the piece as well as its harmonic tensions, it may

be played in a more stretched (appoggiato) or passing (en passant) manner. 23

Change of Musical Taste: From about 1750, when the galant style became increasingly popular, musicians began to play appoggiaturas in a precise arithmetic relation to the principal note: • For duple-value notes the length of the appoggiatura was exactly half the value of the principal note.

• For triple-value notes the length was 2/3 of the principal note.

Important: To achieve a clear structure it is recommended to allow a short articulation break before the appoggiatura. That way the latter receives a clearer and stronger expression. In concluding I wish to encourage you to make use of appoggiaturas more generously. Especially when the piece has few dissonances: that is, when the “good” notes of the melody build a third, sixth, or octave in relation to the bass line. In this case an appoggiatura can provide more harmonic relish. Remarks: The crossed (-through) appoggiatura, which regrettably is sometimes found in today’s editions of Baroque works, was introduced in the nineteenth century. It was supposed to serve as an explicit designator of a short appoggiatura.

The Slide The slide (port de voix double) is an ornament often and readily used to strengthen the musical expressiveness or to highlight a specific note. It begins one third below the principal note. Depending on the desired expressiveness, the slide is played on the beat (vigorous effect, emphasis is strengthened) or before the beat (flattering, emphasis is weakened). The slide is appreciated when playing larger leaps upwards.

24

The speed of the slide depends on the prevalent Affect.

In this case we can imagine a form of interpretation which lies more or less “in between,” i.e., neither on the beat nor clearly before. The consequence on the Affect is especially yearning and expressive. An even more strengthening effect would be if the slide on the beat is followed by a stretch of the first note.

The Chûte This special ornament is an anticipation of a lower note. The expression resembles a sigh. “With a chûte the voice (melody), after having sustained the tone for a while, softly and almost dyingly drops to the next lower tone” (Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, Principes de musique, 1736).

The Turn The turn (called tour de gosier in France) is played around a single note. This may happen at the beginning of the note or in the course of it. It mostly starts with the upper-neighbor note. The use of this ornament became more prevalent in the late Baroque and the Classical period than earlier on.

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With regard to the second version Montéclair writes: “With this version of the turn the beginning of the note is emphasized, whereas the ornament itself is executed lightly and fast. Another trill may be added.”(Principes de musique).

The Accent An exceptionally special ornament that has almost passed into oblivion is the accent (also called aspiration). This ornament, originally borrowed from vocal technique, is a short and mostly faint raise of a note at the very end of a longer, expressive note. The accent is usually played on a descending interval, but also if the pitch level remains the same in connection with a dotted note. Primarily, the accent is applied in lamenting, gentle, and emotionally sensitive musical pieces.

14 Important: Play the accent as late as possible, quite lightly and very short: so to speak “unobtrusively.”

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Special Ornaments Vibrato This ornament – yes, until some time into the twentieth century vibrato was seen this way – was used in the Baroque period sensibly and with great nuance. Depending on the instrument, or also on the language, this tone vitalization was called Bebung, flattement, tremolo, trillo, sweetening, close shake, or balancement. The term “vibrato” was yet unknown in the Baroque. Since this special topic is extensive and has to be treated differently for each instrument, I will deal with only general aspects here. For those who want to learn more about vibrato in the Baroque, there is a book available that I heartily recommend: Das Vibrato im Barock by Greta Moens-Haenen (see Bibliography/Secondary-Sources). Vibrato (I will stay with this general term) has been seen from its inception as one of the many ornaments that musicians used consciously and purposefully. And, in fact, not primarily for the vitalization or embellishment of tones, but with the intent to emphasize and highlight a specific Affect or character. Perceiving this as the basic attitude and mind-set for using the vibrato makes an important difference. Almost every time vibrato was also associated with the Messa di voce, at the tonal climax of which the vibrations were intended to serve as, so to speak, the ultimate cream topping. This is how Roger North, a widely travelled music lover, describes it vividly: “Next, I would like for them to be taught, how to make a sound imperceptibly swell up and down so that it also resembles a gust of wind which begins with a gentle draught of air then gradually swelling up to a strength bending all that`s around subsequently calming down again and dying out. And coming next after this upswell of the note will be a gentle and slow vibration, but not through to the trill.“ (Roger North on Music) Another form of vibrato, often wrongly interpreted today, was notated as follows:

This notation meant: •for wind instruments: a vibration generated by the muscular breathing apparatus • for violinists: a bow-vibrato resulting from varying the pressure exerted on the string The tone is articulated solely at the beginning; subsequently you generate the rhythmically notated, measured vibration. Not meant here in any circumstances — contrary to what is so often heard — is a portato articulation. In the second example with dots above the notes, the vibration is to be stronger. 27

In summary, the following can be said: • The use of the vibrato is partly determined by the Affects prevailing in the music. • Particularly when the music had a gentle, sad, or sweet character, the use of vibrato was much loved. • Likewise, music arousing feelings of fear, horror, or fury and anger. • Vibrato was used, too, to emphasize the means of expression: at points of culmination, at dramatic moments, towards the end of a climax, or for harmonic surprises. • The more rhetorical the music, the more targeted was the vibrato applied. A Special Case: For woodwinds, on which nowadays (naturally!) breath vibrato is used, it was never or only sparsely mentioned in the sources and textbooks of the Baroque. Often negatively evaluated, it was compared to the voices of elderly people, who can no longer sing a straight tone. Since all woodwinds at that time had open finger holes, the so-called flattement (Quantz called it Bebung) was executed readily on these instruments. The respective finger or fingers generated a vibration in that they “kneaded,” in up and own movements, the air columns leaking out of the finger holes. Of interest in this connection is the following example. Pierre Danican Philidor marked the tones, on which he expected a flattement using a wave line.

(From Deuxième Oeuvre, Septième Suite) 28

Important: Important: a continuous vibrato was demonstrably not used in the Baroque, according to the evidence. If, from case to case, writings on this subject appeared, then it was only to reject this type of ornament entirely.

Closing Cadences Each musical section had to be formally concluded by a cadence. These cadences were generally perfect (the last harmonic interval was dominant–tonic), plagal (the last interval was subdominant–tonic), half or imperfect (cadence on the dominant), or deceptive (moving from the dominant one step into a harmony, such as the submediant, which is not the tonic). Primarily, we are interested in perfect and imperfect cadences, as these types represent those most frequently used.

Good taste required that on the penultimate note a trill was to be played. However, before

doing so performers liked to perform more or less extravagant ornamentations, known as cadenzas (from the Italian word for cadence). These cadenzas were sometimes written out by the composers themselves. But generally there was confidence in the fantasy and skills of the musician. Some surviving cadenzas of Giuseppe Tartini in his Traité des agréments de la musique show us how imaginatively musical thought and inspiration can be brought to a conclusion.

29

440 Hz = 15 415 Hz = 16

440 Hz = 17 415 Hz = 18

Many slow movements end with an imperfect cadence, whereupon the musicians continue playing, now mostly attacca. Often we also find, written above such an impect cadence, the designation Adagio (even if the movement itself is already so captioned), a hint at a measure-free performance.

30

440 Hz = 19 415 Hz = 20

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Tempo rubato The tempo rubato in an Adagio, which the left hand does not know about, they cannot really understand. With them the left hand will give in. (Mozart, letter of 23 October 1777)

Since about 1720 the terms tempo rubato (Italian for stolen time) or rubamento di tempo have designated a musical performance style in which the melody line, through prolongation or shortening of individual note-values with subsequent equalization, begins to distinguish itself from the accompaniment voice(s). This method is usually used in slow or moderate movements, but above all in cantabile passages. Rubato in the past was also synonymous with words such as Rückung, anticipation, suspension, syncopation, and prolongation. It produces a rhythmically free performance, freed from the basic measure, and in which the occasional loss of synchronous playing is compensated for by a gain of musical expressiveness. Until way into the nineteenth century, tempo rubato was an interpretative action limited to the melody line. In the case of keyboard instruments, the right hand would take over. In exactly this sense we can understand Mozart`s annoyance about a wrongly executed rubato. On this basis, when it comes to a profusion of ornamentation (Corelli, Tartini, Locatelli), we may be inclined to also take into account (without stress) a “coming too late.” But so that the punctual, synchronous musical interaction with the bass would be sacrificed to an organic, musical, and expressive performance. For this, however, it is absolutely necessary that the bass line (on keyboard instruments the left hand) does not give in rhythmically. The bass as musical grounding – always musically arranged – must be played in a strictly metrical manner. “False“ Stressing: The playing of “false” emphasis was understood as an additional variant of tempo rubato.

Rhythmic Shift (German: Rückung): A specific form of the rubato is the so-called Rückung. This means that equal note-values (as a rule not the fastest notes) are rhythmically shifted, resulting in a kind of syncopation. Through this “offbeat” way of playing, you avoid a synchronicity with the supporting accompaniment voices, palpably strengthening overall musical “Through a Rückung the common harmony is either anticipated or suspended.” (C. P. E. Bach, “Versuch…“, Chapter XXVI, § 1)

32

Such an exemplary Rückung can be found in J. S. Bach’s Sonata for Flute and Obbligato Harpsichord in B minor, II, Largo e dolce, measure 5:

and also in measure 14:

Remark: In slow, sensitive, and melodic movements you will recognize a tendency to “non synchronicity.” This means that on the (good) beats, the melody line often plays tied notes, which is done for the purpose of avoidance of simultaneously played notes, which would have produced music that is uneven, angular, and poorer in its expressiveness.

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Inequality (Inégalité) As already outlined in the Introduction, inequality constituted a fundamental social condition prevailing in the life of the people throughout pre-revolutionary Europe (until the end of the eighteenth century). Consequently, it was only logical to also find inégalité in the music of the time and the way it was performed. Basically, structured by time signatures and note values, everything was hierarchically organized. The position within the framework of measures was indicative of the weight, emphasis, and inner strength of each individual note. But much to our regret, this hierarchy is not visibly reflected in the musical notation. The notation, especially in printed form, unfortunately suggests the exact opposite: absolute equality. Various other parameters such as harmony, counterpoint, and hints by the composer can indeed impact the hierarchy and occasionally reverse it entirely.

What is commonly not known: already in the early Baroque, especially in Italy, for the purpose of increasing expressivity, musicians were expected use the inégalité style of music performance. Giulio Caccini in his treatise Le nuove musiche, Antonio Brunelli in his diminutions textbook Varii esercitii, and others describe their understanding of inégalité.

Here we may be certain that no arithmetic punctuation is meant, but a simple long–short or short-long inequality in relation to the emotional Affect of the music. Starting in the second half of the seventeenth century, this notated structural pattern was first adopted in France, from where it then branched out into the other European music centers. Which note value is played inégal at any time depends on the time signature (see section “The Time Signatures, their Character”). In general it can be said that the smallest passing note-value is played unequal. 34

Exceptions: In certain circumstances the unequal playing pattern was suspended: • repeated notes • greater leaps (starting with a fourth) • triplets • a very fast tempo • slurred notes (three or more) • if dots or wedges appear above the notes • if so indicated by the composer (les notes égales). The exact degree (extent) of inequality cannot be defined precisely. In most cases there is no exact arithmetic ratio (2:1, 3:2, or similar). Mostly, it is somewhere in between. Depending on the musical context, the inégalité can range from a soft hint to a dotted note. So, for example, a magnificent ouverture has a much stronger inequality than an affectionate rondeau. Important: Particularly with stronger inequality, avoid the audience gaining the impression that there are dotted notes. For such successful avoidance it is necessary that musicians do not allow any articulation gaps to occur between the notes.

21 In this example we can hear how the inequality keeps increasing until it actually reaches a dotted note. Especially in the case of paired slurs, the musical expressivity can often be increased through a reversal of inégalité (also called “lombardic rhythm”).

An Exceptional Case: When the bass in a sarabande plays continuous eighth notes, they should (exceptionally) be played as equal. This unwritten law was commonly known. In those special exceptions the composer gave an indication les croches inégales. This can be seen nicely and conspicuously in the following sarabande by Hotteterre. The demanded inègalitè is an exception, and therefore must be called for. Also to be mentioned here is the paired slurring, which is not commonly used in such a case. The upper voice plays normally, which also means unequal. 35

The following example illustrates that this special rule for the interpretation of a sarabande bass also applied outside France:

Attention should be paid to the fact that the bass line consistently moves in equal eighth notes, while the melody line is dotted. However, what is meant here is certainly not a rhythmic dotting. These eighth notes are to be vocally unequalized. In summing this up, it must be stated that the unequal way of playing was far more widespread than is assumed today. Outside France we can still find countless sources that deal with this subject. Into the workbook of his prominent student the Prussian King Frederick II, Quantz transcribed Solfeggio exercises with instructions as to where and how inégal they were to be played. The following example composed by C. P. E. Bach, who like Quantz was in the service of the Prussian Court, shows that at least in Sans Souci the unequal way of playing was cultivated. Quantz annotated that the sixteenth notes were to be played unequal. 36

Another noteworthy example is the annotation of Quantz concerning an Allemande composed by his former colleague in Dresden Johann Martin Blochwitz (Quantz spells it “Blochwis“).

When he demands inequality for the passing sixteenth notes within the moderate tempo of an Allemande, then the question must be asked whether this would also be thinkable in the following example:

The notational image of J. S. Bach`s Allemande resembles that of Blochwitz in every respect. And Bach, after all, lived in Saxony, which was not too far away from Potsdam…. Perhaps the thought of an unequal mode of playing in works of Johann Sebastian Bach may appear a little revolutionary, but if one seriously digs deeper into this question, then one will come to the conclusion that a light, flexible inequality adds to this music a vitalizing element of swing that replaces the otherwise uniform movement.

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Free Ornamentation “I wish to give guidance to those who are still lacking the necessary knowledge and experience of how variations can be made in diverse ways through simple notes in most common intervals, without violating basic harmonic rules rooted in the voicing.” (Quantz, Versuch, chapter 13, §3)

Introduction The second major section in this handbook deals with free ornamentation: embellishments that are not defined by a specific sign. And also, in most cases they were not notated by the composer, so practicing musicians had to invent such embellishments themselves. An attentive look at the history sources (manuscripts, prints, textbooks, and other related writings or documents) shows us that, much more than we can imagine nowadays, music was ornamented and varied. When we look at contemporary forms of art such as painting, architecture, literature, or even fashion, then turn to the field of music, how could we ever imagine that in music the obsession with lavish and exaggerated ornamentation that existed in the other arts was neglected? Nevertheless, it is exactly this kind of free ornamention that often makes musicians feel uncertain or blocked, so in the end they play only the notated music. Let me assure you, however, that free ornamention is not an insurmountable obstacle. Through the following exercises and learning steps you will soon be able to play your very own and unique creations. In order for you to fully absorb the musical vocabulary and the various phrases into your “flesh and blood,” work through the following exercises. When doing so you should experience that this kind of practicing is a lot of fun, because it is very musical, after all.

Important: Free ornamentation is always based on the harmony. This means that you must at all times be fully conscious of the underlying harmonic structure. The key and its associated chords determine the notes that are used for melodic elaboration.

Last but not least, I would like to draw your attention to the recommendation of J. J. Quantz. (Versuch, chapter 10, §20): “Listen to as many as possible superb musicians [playing ornaments]! This view into the workshop of composers and musicians is the very best source of inspiration.

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The question frequently raised is: “This movement is already ornamented; why, then, should I add more embellishments or alter any of them?“ The above example from a violin sonata of Franz Benda answers this question clearly and distinctly. Variations, amendments, new phrases, other melodic lines, and the addition of “essential ornaments” were not only permitted but considered highly desirable, even if the piece at hand appeared to be already ornamented. This gave musicians the opportunity to present themselves and their talent in the best light. In the following example you will see how incredibly varied ornamentation can be. It is the beginning of a violin sonata by A. Corelli, ornamented by different musicians. 39

(Extract from Neal Zaslaw’s article “Ornaments for Corelli’s Violin Sonatas Op. 5,” Early Music, February 1996)

It is more than astonishing what creative diversity and richness in imagination are bundled together here. With this in mind, I suspect that you will no longer wish to play music that is not ornamented. 40

Some Rules

In free ornamention you can play almost any melodic phrase that you please. Nevertheless, you should follow some rules in order to be on the safe side and to avoid harmonic and compositional errors in the language of the period. When a melody moves in intervals of seconds, it is virtually “safe.” You can move in any direction as long as you play notes belonging to the prevailing key signature (as continually modified by the accidentals).

In case of a skip (a third or larger), observe the following: 1. You are permitted to “jump,” both upwards and downwards, to every note

belonging to the harmony of the underlying chord.

2. If you hit a note outside the harmony, leave it by contrary motion in the interval

of a second.

1. Dissonances on the beat are preferably prepared beforehand (here by

suspensions).

By all means avoid parallel fifths and octaves in relation to the bass line. Not only because it sounds ugly, but because it was forbidden back then. 41

Important: If the melody voice runs in contrary motion to the bass line, forbidden parallels will never arise.

These rules sometimes also tolerate exceptions, but when you comply with them fully, you are always on the safe side. That’s it! I hope that you can begin to see the rich possibilities that will enable you to create beautiful and inspired ornaments in a unique way.

Basic Thought To understand how a complex, expanding free ornamentation can be successfully accomplished, keep in mind the following guideline: A beautiful, rounded, perfect, unique ornament is nothing but a simple ornament of a simple ornament of a simple ornament, etc. This could look as follows:

42

Buildup Exercises We start out with simple intervals, ornamenting them in a variety of ways. For the moment these are small learning steps, which will, however, enable you to build up a comprehensive repertoire of musical phrasings and patterns in anticipation of your own “great performance breakthrough.”

That makes it necessary to systematically practice short patterns. They will give you all the components you need to eventually compose complicated and extensive musical figurations yourself. But take courage: before you write your own ornaments, you will be playing the recommended patterns over and over, thereby feeding them into your memory. This whole exercise can be enriched by clicking on the respective Soundfiles for accompaniment and support by a real basso continuo. These Soundfiles are so-called loops that allow you to play one ornament after the other without interruption.

Tartini shows us how he thinks a C-major-scale should be ornamented (Traité des aAgréments) Quantz also built up his ornamentation lessons systematically:

43 For modern instruments click on “440 Hz,” for historical instruments “415 Hz.”

440 Hz = 22

415 Hz = 23

44

440 Hz = 24 415 Hz = 25

440 Hz = 26 415 Hz = 27

45

440 Hz = 28 415 Hz = 29

46

440 Hz = 30 415 Hz = 31

47

440 Hz = 32 415 Hz = 33

440 Hz = 34 415 Hz = 35

48

440 Hz = 36 415 Hz = 37

49

440 Hz = 38 415 Hz = 39

50

440 Hz = 40 415 Hz = 41

440 Hz = 42 415 Hz = 43

51

Reduction

440 Hz = 44 415 Hz = 45

415 Hz = 47

440 Hz = 46

The process of reduction will be an extremely important chapter in your learning. It means that when you have an already ornamented piece, you will create an imaginary “original“ version of it. That is to say, a version reduced to its bare essentials, but in this form still musically reasonable and comprehensible. Through this process you will be learning in which way and form the composer created the ornaments in the first place. As our first example we take a beautifully ornamented Adagio by Francesco Barsanti, from his Sonata in C major: 52

59

53

A reduction must proceed in harmonic accordance with the unchanged bassline, and in its simplicity, it should also make melodic sense.

Paths Not Walked Before It becomes even more exciting when, starting from a reduction, you choose to “invent“ an entirely different ornamentation, while the bass and the harmonic structure remain unchanged. Only the melody goes a different way. As the end result, a completely new piece has been created. 54

55

As you can see: building upon the unchanged fundamental structure (basso continuo), a “new piece of music” is born. Not least, J. S. Bach often assigned such compositional exercises to his students. You can even dare to turn to the great master himself. What is achievable when the adagio movement of the Flute Sonata in B minor is dressed up with a new melody can be seen and heard on the following pages.

56

60

57

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One specific insight you will be gaining through such a process is that almost no composition from this past epoch can claim ultimate absoluteness and unchangebility. (This statement primarily applies to accompanied solo works. A complex fugue or an orchestral work is naturally excluded from it, as well as compositions that have a strong contrapuntal structure throughout.)

A Special Challenge: Undo the ornaments in the following movement from G. P. Telemann’s Methodical Sonata in B-flat major and then invent a new melody of your own. Pay special attention to the voice leading (no consecutive fifths and consecutive octaves), and lay emphasis on an appealing, attractive melody and rhythmic variety. 59

60

61

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Cadenzas and Improvisation “The purpose of the cadenza is nothing other than to unexpectedly surprise the audience one more time at the end of the piece and to leave behind a special

impression in their minds.” (Quantz. Versuch, chapter XV, §5) From about 1720, increasingly often in sonata and concerto movements — but also in the da-capo arias of vocalists — we find fermatas, usually with an underlying 6/4 chord. Here it was expected of the musicians to play or sing a solo cadenza, preferably an improvised one. Cadenzas were generally kept shorter than what we play and sing today. For instance, the rule of thumb for woodwinds was that a cadenza should be no longer than two breaths. For bowed or plucked strings or keyboard instruments, which could produce their own harmony, cadenzas were allowed to be longer. Many musicians are hesitant and shy to play a self-composed or even improvised cadenza. Instead, they seem to prefer a preprinted, over-long creation by a virtually unknown editor or composer. In the following I would like to give you some methodical directions for writing a simple (but individual) cadenza. You will see that with some practice and imagination the road to your own creation is not as long as you might have thought. And, who knows, perhaps these exercises will enable you some day to even play a cadenza ex tempore (improvised)? When looking at original cadenzas from the eighteenth century, we see that in principle they all consist of only a few basic elements. Simplified and reduced to the essentials we are just talking about scales and triads. In most instances, these devices are naturally not played naked but varied or ornamented one way or another. Principally, the same or similar patterns and structures are always recognizable. The variations or figurations, too, consist of always-recurring patterns that are put together in various forms. This is what I call the “LEGO principle”: With a manageable number of patterns, virtually infinite combinations open up. Some of these musical figures are subsequently shown as examples. They relate to a quarter note on the note C and can be further varied through additional articulation and different rhythms.

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Variations:

And now the exercises: 1. Play scales and triads in encompassing the entire memory. That way you are that can be readily recalled solid playing technique.

as many keys as possible (major and minor), range of your instrument, and preferably from building up secure and stable patterns of motion any time. They constitute the cornerstone of any

2. Play these “LEGO bricks” on all steps of the scale. Also transpose them into all common keys. 3. Vary these exercises. Change the articulation, the dynamic structure, and the musical expression. Invent your own variations. If these musical cornerstones are practiced systematically, you will discover not only that your playing technique will become more elaborate. Your own creative imagination will increase palpably and, supported by reliable technical means, your improvisation skills will become better and better. And this is exactly the aspect of playing music that so many (classical) musicians feel in need of. 1. The following patterns of a scale exercise are representative of all keys.

64

It is useful to play the scales in as many different articulations as possible.

65

2.

Here the idea is to vary the basic pattern of scales and triads. This will enable you to internalize all the different musical figures, which will later be availabe and retrievable to you as important components for writing a cadenza. Important: This principle of systematic playing and exercising is the basis for the ability to improvise imaginatively and also create individual cadenzas.

Of course, there are no limits to your imagination in finding additional variations. 66

Also use the same principle for triads!

So, how will a typical cadenza be put together? • The best thing is to start out with a particular scale or triad. If the initial note is low, play an ascending melody; if it is high, then the melody goes downwards. • If you feel it is appropriate, weave one or other musical ideas from the piece into the cadenza. • In the middle of the cadenza, a fermata may be placed on the fifth degree of the key (for woodwinds an opportunity to breathe). A fine effect is created when this note is reached by way of the secondary dominant chord. - Carry on playing with the various musical figures until you reach the final trill.

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This structure was sketched clearly and descriptively by Tartini in his Traité des agréments:

The word mode is used by Tartini as general term for a free configuration of the spaces between the notes. Informative for us, too, are the kinds of patterns he offers for the structuring of keys and chords.

Original Cadenza by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach

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In this context it is, of course, interesting and instructive to take a keen look at the eighteenth century. How did musicians at that time create their own cadenzas?

Fortunately for us, there are plenty of examples that have surved. Be inspired!

It is noteworthy that all historical cadenzas, from today's point of view, are kept short. 69

Remark: Keep in mind one important aspect: The dominant Affect of the movement should always be reflected again in the cadenza. A comment on this by Quantz: “Just as a merry cadenza is made up of extended leaps and happy phrases intermingled with triplets and trills and so forth, a sad cadenza consists almost completely of dissonances mixed with small intervals.” (Versuch, chapter XV, §15) 70

Divisions (on a Ground) Divisions, also called variations, on a “ground” were a much-liked form of performing partially improvised music in the Baroque. In most cases the ground consisted of a short harmonized bass line that kept repeating, over which a melody instrument played constantly changing variations. This specific form of playing was particularly widespread in England.

From The Division Flute (London, 1706) 71

It is understandable that musicians today would like to be in a position to write variations of the kind we are talking about themselves. This is not as difficult as commonly thought. In any case, for your initial attempts you will at least need manuscript paper and pencil (or the modern electronic equivalent). Writing things down yourself makes the result an important document. First, it is a significant learning process to write music yourself; second, it ensures that at any time you can draw on those variations that you like best because they sound so good. Divisions usually had two major starting situations: - A (harmonized) bass line - A (mostly known) melody with its underlying bass We will start with the first situation, which gives more freedom, and therefore you can experiment better. As your first piece I recommend that you choose a simple, relatively short ground, such as the following:

440 Hz = 48 415 Hz = 49 Start with very simple variations. Always vary in small steps, so you remain in control of what you are playing at all times. For better rhythmic orientation the bass in the sound-files divides the notes into quarter notes. • First, use only one note of the notated harmony per measure.

• Now vary these notes by building in rests or changing the rhythm. • Intersperse melodic components here and there in every measure. 72

• Then put all the melodic components in sequential order.

• Change the rhythm, too. • Remember: with contrary motion you are avoiding consecutive fifths and octaves.

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Important: Remember to add trills, mordents, slides, etc. For the subsequent grounds write and play wonderful divisions. When you follow the same method as you used with the first ground, you will have successfully composed beautiful and individual variations in a short time. Remark: To monitor what your own divisions sound like, switch on the accompaniment. One melody known all over Europe (since the sixteenth century), La Follia (madness), has already been arranged and varied by countless composers. It is excellent as a basis for improvisation and naturally also for writing your own variations.

74

440 Hz = 50 415 Hz = 51

440 Hz = 52 415 Hz = 53

440 Hz = 54 415 Hz = 55

440 Hz = 56 415 Hz = 57

In conclusion, here are a few more popular melodies from the 17th and 18thcentury, which musicians at that time used all over for musical diminishing purposes. Have fun improvising and playing! 75

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Appendix Historical Examples of Ornamented Movements Here you will find a short selection of pieces that composers ornamented

themeselves. This opens up a wonderful way for us to take a look at the authentic ornamentation practice of the Baroque. This is perhaps the most important source of inspration and orientation available to us today. Back then it was normal for every good musician to extemporize in the finest manner. Indeed, the art of improvisation was the daily bread and butter of these musicians. And there is another important aspect to remember: at that time exclusively contemporary works were performed, which meant that all musicians, from beginners to professionals, were surrounded and influenced by one and the same composition styles. As a result of this they were sensitized to the difference between the French and the Italian style, which they may have perceived as comparable to how we perceive the differences between pop and jazz in our own time. The first example shows the beginning of one of the six “Sonatas with altered reprises” that C. P. E. Bach dedicated to Princess Amalia of Prussia in 1760. It documents in a marvellous way how outstanding musicians dealt with repeats at that time. You can see how on the repeat the compose basically leaves the harmonic structure unchanged, while for the rest he freely and imaginatively alters both melody and inner voices. Knowing how much Haydn and Mozart both treasured and adored C. P. E. Bach, we may assume that they followed the same principles in their own performance style. This means that on repeats Haydn and Mozart did not exactly reproduce what was notated.

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The next example is a movement from the Methodical Sonatas by Telemann. Here it can be seen that the original melody, from today`s perspective is not just “platter Gesang” (a simple air, Quantz). Nevertheless, musicians of the day playing an unornamented interpretation would have certainly been rejected by the audience.

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Johann Sebastian Bach`s last student, Johann Gottfried Müthel, already ornamented his Sonata to meet the taste of the Rococo period. This galant and sensitive style paved the way for the so-called Viennese Classical Style.

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