Yokai and Prehistory

Contents Articles Archeria (animal)

1

Bakeneko

2

Biwa

9

Carpolestes simpsoni

16

Castoroides

17

Jorōgumo

21

Josephoartigasia monesi

23

Kitsune

25

Nekomata

37

Oni

42

Tengu

48

Yōkai

63

References Article Sources and Contributors

72

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

74

Article Licenses License

76

Archeria (animal)

1

Archeria (animal) Archeria Temporal range: Early Permian

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Subphylum:

Vertebrata

Class:

Amphibia sensu lato

Superorder:

†Reptiliomorpha

Order:

†Anthracosauria

Family:

†Archeriidae

Genus:

†Archeria Case, 1918 Species

• • •

A. crassidisca A. robinsoni A. victori Stovall, 1948

Archeria was an eel-like anthracosaur which lived in the Early Permian. It was medium-sized aquatic predator with a length of 2 m (7 ft).[1]

References [1] http:/ / www. palaeocritti. com/ by-group/ emblomeri/ archeria

Archeria crassidisca.

Bakeneko

Bakeneko The bakeneko (化 け 猫, "changed cat") is a type of Japanese yōkai, or supernatural creature. According to its name, it is a cat that has changed into a yōkai. It is often confused with the nekomata, another cat-like yōkai, and the distinction between the two can often be quite ambiguous. There are legends of bakeneko in various parts of Japan, but the tale of the Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance in Saga Prefecture is especially famous (see below).

Origin The reason that cats are seen as yōkai in Japanese mythology "The Bakeneko of the Sasakibara Family" (榊 原 家 の is attributed to many of the characteristics that they possess: 化 け 猫) from the Buson Yōkai Emaki by Yosa Buson. It depicts a cat in Nagoya that would wear a napkin on its head for example, the way the irises of their eyes change shape and dance. In this book, it states that "every night, nekomata depending on the time of day, the way their fur seems to cause (猫 ま た) would go out and dance," and unlike the sparks due to static electricity when they are petted (especially nekomata which has two tails, this cat has only one tail. in winter), the way they sometimes lick blood, the way they can walk without making a sound, their wild nature that remains despite the gentleness they can show at times, the way they are difficult to control (unlike dogs), the sharpness of their claws and teeth, their nocturnal habits, and their speed and agility.[1][2] There are many yōkai animals other than cats in old tales that have similar attributes: the deep tenacity of snakes, the ability of foxes (kitsune) to shapeshift into women, and the brutality of tanuki in eating humans depicted in the Kachi-kachi Yama folktale from the Edo period. Cats in particular, however, have acquired a great number of tales and superstitions surrounding them, due to the unique position they occupy between nature and civilization. As cities and towns were established and humans began living farther apart from nature, cats came with them. Since cats live close to humans yet retain their wild essence and air of mystery, stories grew up around them, and gradually the image of the bakeneko was formed. One folk belief concerning the bakeneko is that they would lick the oil of oriental lamps,[3] and in the Edo period encyclopedia, the Wakan Sansai Zue, it is said that for a cat to lick this oil is an omen of some strange event about to occur. People in the early modern period used cheap oils from fish, like sardine oil, in the lamps, and that could explain why cats would want to lick them. Also, the diet of Japanese people at that time was based mainly on grains and vegetables, and the leftovers would be fed to the cats. However, since cats are carnivores, such a diet would have been lacking in protein and fat, and therefore they would have been even more attracted to the oil in the lamps. Furthermore, the sight of a cat standing up its hind legs to reach the lamp, with its face lit up and eyes round with anticipation, could have seemed eerie and unnatural, like a yōkai. The mysterious air that cats possess was associated with the image of prostitutes who worked in the Edo period red-light districts. This was the origin of a popular character in kusazōshi (among other publications), the bakeneko yūjo.

2

Bakeneko

Folk legends As with the nekomata, another cat-like yōkai which is said to derive from a cat whose tail split into two when it grew older, there are folk beliefs across Japan about how aged cats would turn into bakeneko. There are tales of cats raised for twelve years in Ibaraki Prefecture and Nagano Prefecture, and for thirteen years in Kunigami District, Okinawa Prefecture, that became bakeneko. In Yamagata District, Hiroshima Prefecture, it is said that a cat raised for seven years or longer would kill the one that raised it. There are also many regions where when people began raising a cat, they would decide in advance how many years they would raise it because of this superstition.[4] Also, depending on the area, there are stories in which cats that were killed by humans in a brutal manner would become bakeneko and curse that human. The stories of bakeneko are not only about aged cats, but are also sometimes stories of revenge against cruel humans.[5] The strange abilities attributed to the bakeneko are various, but include shapeshifting into humans,[6][7] wearing a towel or napkin on the head and dancing,[8] speaking human words, cursing humans, manipulating dead people, possessing humans, lurking in the mountains and taking wolves along with them to attack travelers, and many other things. As an unusual example, on Aji island, Oshika District, Miyagi Prefecture and in the Oki Islands, Shimane Prefecture, there is a story of a cat that shapeshifted into a human and wanted to engage in sumo. However, concerning the legend that cats could speak, it has been pointed out that it may have arisen because humans would misinterpret the cat's meowing as human language, and for this reason some would say that the cat is not a type of yōkai. In 1992 (Heisei 4), in the Yomiuri newspaper, there was an article that argued that when people thought they had heard a cat speak, upon listening a second time, they realized that it was simply the cat's meowing and that it was only coincidence that it resembled a word in human language. In the Edo period (1603-1867), there was a folk belief that cats with long tails like snakes could bewitch people. Cats with long tails were disliked, and there was a custom of cutting their tails. It is speculated that this is the reason that there are so many cats in Japan with short tails nowadays, because natural selection has favored those with short tails.[9] Folk beliefs that cats can cause strange phenomena are not limited to Japan. For example, in Jinhua, Zhejiang, in China, it is said that a cat, after having been raised for three years by humans, would then start bewitching them. Because it is said that cats with white tails are especially good at this, there arose the custom of refraining from raising white cats. Since it is said that their ability to bewitch humans comes from taking in the spiritual energy of the moon, it is said that when a cat looks up at the moon, whether its tail has been cut or not, it should be killed on the spot.[10]

Writings and literature Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance There is a legend that took place in the time of Nabeshima Mitsushige, the second daimyo of the Saga Domain, Hizen Province, concerning the bakeneko. Mitsushige's retainer Ryūzōji Matashichirō served as the daimyo's opponent in the game of go. Ryūzōji displeased Mitsushige and was put to the sword. Ryūzōji's mother, while telling of the sorrows in her heart to the cat that she raised, committed suicide. The cat licked the mother's blood and became a bakeneko. It would go into the castle and torment Mitsushige every night. Mitsushige's loyal retainer Komori Hanzaemon finally killed it, and saved the Nabeshima family.[11] Historically, the Ryūzōji clan was older than the Nabeshima clan in Hizen. After Ryūzōji Takanobu's death, his assistant Nabeshima Naoshige held the real power, and after the sudden death of Takanobu's grandchild Takafusa, his father Masaie also committed suicide. Afterwards, since the remnants of the Ryūzōji clan created disturbances in the public order near the Saga castle, Naoshige, in order to pacify the spirits of the Ryūzōji, built Tenyū-ji (now in Tafuse, Saga). This has been considered the origin of the disturbance, and it is thought that the bakeneko was an

3

Bakeneko expression of the Ryūzōji's grudge in the form of a cat.[12] Also, the inheritance of power from the Ryūzōji clan to the Nabeshima clan was not an issue, but because of Takanobu's death, and Nabeshima Katsushige's son's sudden death, some point out that this kaidan (ghost story) arose from a dramatization of this series of events.[13] This legend was also turned into a shibai (play) afterwards. In the Kaei period (1848-1854), it was first performed in Nakamura-za as "Hana Sagano Nekoma Ishibumi Shi" (花 嵯 峨 野 猫 魔 碑 史). The "Sagano" in the title is a place in Tokyo Prefecture, but it was actually a pun on "Saga." This work earned great popularity throughout the whole country, but due to a complaint from the Saga domain, the performances were quickly stopped. However, since the machi-bugyō(a samurai official of the shogunate) who filed the complaint for the performances to be stopped was Nabeshima Naotaka of the Nabeshima clan, the gossip about the bakeneko disturbance spread even more.[14] After that, the tale was widely circulated in society in the kōdan "Saga no Yozakura" (佐 賀 の 夜 桜 』) and the historical record book "Saga Kaibyōden" (佐 賀 怪 猫 伝). In the kōdan (a style of traditional oral Japanese storytelling), because Ryūzōji's widow told of her sorrow to the cat, it became a bakeneko, and killed and ate Komori Hanzaemon's mother and wife. It then shapeshifted and appeared in their forms, and cast a curse upon the family. In the historical record book, this was completely unrelated to the Ryūzōji event, however, and a foreign type of cat, which had been abused by Nabeshima's feudal lord Komori Handayū, sought revenge and killed and ate the lord's favorite concubine, shapeshifted into her form, and caused harm to the family. It was Itō Sōda who exterminated it. In the beginning of the Shōwa period (1926-1989), there were kaidan (horror or ghost stories, especially scary folktales) films such as the "Saga Kaibyōden" (佐 賀 怪 猫 伝) and the "Kaidan Saga Yashiki" (怪 談 佐 賀 屋 敷) that became quite popular. Female actors like Takako Irie and Sumiko Suzuki who played the part of the bakeneko became well known as the "bakeneko actresses."

Other Cats as yōkai in literature date back to the Kamakura period (1185-1333). In the collection of setsuwa (oral tradition of folktales before the 14th century), the Kokon Chomonjū from this period, there can be seen statements pointing out cats that do strange and suspicious things, saying "these are perhaps ones that have turned into demons."[15] Old stories about bakeneko from that time "Ume no Haru Gojūsantsugi" (梅 初 春 五 十 三 駅) by Utagawa Kuniyoshi. A period are often associated with kabuki that was performed in 1835 (Tenpo 6) in Ichimura-za. It depicts a cat that has temples, but it is thought that the shapeshifted into an old woman, a cat wearing a napkin and dancing, and the shadow of a reason for this is that when Buddhism cat licking a lamp. came to Japan, in order to protect the sutras (sacred texts) from being chewed on by rats, cats were brought along too. During the Edo period (1603-1867), tales about bakeneko began to appear in essays and kaidan collections in various areas. Tales of cats

4

Bakeneko

5

transforming into humans and talking can be seen in publications like the "Tōen Shosetsu" (兎 園 小 説), the "Mimibukuro" (耳 嚢),[16] the "Shin Chomonjū" (新 著 聞 集), the "Seiban Kaidan Jikki" (西 播 怪 談 実 記),[17] and so on. Similarly, tales of dancing cats can be seen in the "Kasshi Yawa" (甲 子 夜 話), and the "Owari Ryōiki" (尾 張 霊 異 記), for example. In the fourth volume of "Mimibukuro," it states that any cat anywhere that lives for ten years would begin to speak as a human,[18] and that cats born from the union of a fox and a cat would begin speaking even before ten years had "Shōzan Chomon Kishū" by Miyoshi Shōzan. Here, a man who passed.[19] According to tales of cats that transform, aged has become suspicious of a cat attempts to kill it because it speaks cats would very often shapeshift into old women. The in human language. Edo period was the golden age for kaidan about bakeneko, and with shibai like the "Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance" being performed, these became even more famous. In Makidani, Yamasaki, Shisō District, Harima Province (now within Shisō, Hyōgo Prefecture), a tale was passed down about a certain person in Karakawa who was a bakeneko. The same kind of tale was also found in Taniguchi, Fukusaki village, Jinsai District, of the same province, where it is said that in Kongōjō-ji a bakeneko who troubled a villager was killed by someone from the temple. This bakeneko was protected from arrows and bullets by a chagama's lid and an iron pot. These, like the legend of Susanoo's extermination of Yamata no Orochi, have a commonality in that the local old families of the area played a role. During the Meiji period (1868-1912), in 1909 (Meiji 42), in Honjo of Tokyo, there were articles written about cats that broke into a dance in tenement houses, published in newspapers such as the Sports Hochi, the Yorozu Chōhō, and the Yamato Shimbun.

Landmarks Myōtaratennyo - Yahiko-jinja, Niigata Prefecture The origin of this landmark is in the Bunka period (1804-1818) essay "Kidan Hokkoku Junjōki" (北 国 奇 談 巡 杖 記), which contains passages about strange events concerning cats. In this book, giving the character "猫" the reading "myō," it was written as "猫 多 羅 天 女.". According to another tale in the setsuwa of the Hokuriku region, the tale of the yasaburo-baba or mountain witch, a cat killed and ate an old woman and then became that old woman in her place, but later had a change of heart and became worshipped as a deity, the Myōtaraten. In Hokkaido and the northern Ōu region among other places, similar tales are passed down throughout the country.

Bakeneko

6

Neko no Odoriba - Izumi-ku, Yokohamai, Kanagawa Prefecture It is said that in a certain soy sauce shop long ago, in Totsuka-juku of the 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō (now Totsuka-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture), it sometimes happened that napkins would disappear in the night one by one. One night, when the proprietor of the soy sauce shop went out on a job, he heard some bustling music from a place where there should have been no people around. When he looked, there were several cats gathered, and there in the center was a strange sight: the shopkeeper's pet cat, wearing a napkin on its head and dancing. So that explained why his napkins had been going missing. The place where this cat is said to have danced is called Odoriba (踊 場, meaning "dancing place"), and it left behind its name afterwards in places like the Odoriba intersection, as well as the Odoriba Station in the Yokohama Municipal Subway. In 1737 (Genbun 2), at the Odoriba intersection, a memorial tower was built in order to pacify the spirit of the cat, and the Odoriba station was decorated all over with the motif of a cat.

A stone monument Odoriba Station, Yokohama Municipal Subway engraving the origin of the station's name

Omatsu Daigongen - Kamo Town, Anan, Tokushima Prefecture This landmark derives from the following legend: In the early part of the Edo period, the village headman of Kamo Village (now Kamo Town) borrowed money from a wealthy man in order to save the village when their crops failed. A monument in the entry passageway 4 of Odoriba Although he repaid the debt, the wealthy man plotted station against him and falsely accused him of not paying. In despair, the village headman died of an illness. The land which had been collateral for the debt was then confiscated by the wealthy man. When the village headman's wife, Omatsu, attempted to complain to the bugyō (magistrate)'s office, the bugyō gave an unfair judgement because the wealthy person bribed him. Then when Omatsu tried to complain directly to the daimyo, she failed again and was executed. The calico cat that Omatsu had raised became a bakeneko, and caused the wealthy person and the bugyō's families to come to ruin. At Omatsu Daigongen lies the grave of Omatsu, where the loyal wife who put her life on the line for justice is deified. The calico cat that destroyed Omatsu's foes is also deified, as the "Neko-tsuka" ("cat mound"), and on the grounds there is a komainu (guardian statue) of a cat which is very unusual.[20] Because the legend says that the cat sought revenge for an unfair judgement, it is supposed to grant favors in matters of competition or chance, and in testing season, many test-takers would pray for success in school here. Neko Daimyōjin Shi - Shiroishi, Kishima District, Saga Prefecture This is a landmark that comes from a strange tale concerning the Nabeshima clan, similar to the "Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance." In this story, the bakeneko took the shape of Nabeshima Katsushige's wife and sought Katsushige's life, but his retainer, Chibu Honuemon, slew it. However, after that the Chibu family was unable to produce a male heir because of the cat's curse. It is said that the bakeneko was deified at the shrine of Shūrinji (now Shiroishi Town) as a daimyōjin. At this shrine, a seven-tailed cat with its fangs bared has been engraved.

Bakeneko

7 Historically, Hide Isemori of the Hide clan who once ruled Shiroishi, despite having befriended the Nabeshima clan, was suspected of being kirishitan (Christian), and was brought to ruin. Since the remnants of the Hide clan resented and fought against the Nabeshima clan at the Shūrinji, the secret maneuvers of one party of the Hide clan were compared to those of a bakeneko, and it is theorized that this became the prototype for the story of the "Nabeshima Bakeneko Disturbance."

Notes [1] 笹 間1994年、125-127頁 。 [2] 古 山 他2005年、156-161頁 。 [3] 悳 他1999年、100頁 。 [4] 鈴 木1982年、446-457頁 。 [5] 松 谷1994年、252-271頁 。 [6] 松 谷1994、171-174頁 。 [7] 松 谷1994、194-207頁 。 [8] 松 谷1994、214-241頁 。 [9] 多 田2000年、170-171頁 。 [10] 村 上 他2008年、82-97頁 。 [11] 原 田 他1986年、670頁 。 [12] 原 田 他1986年、694頁 。 [13] 斉 藤 他2006年、116-117頁 。 [14] 多 田 他2008年、22-24頁 。 [15] 日 野2006年、156-168頁 。 [16] 根 岸1991年、359-360頁 。 [17] 古 山 他2005年、145-146頁 。 [18] 現 代 と 違 い 、 江 戸 当 時 の 飼 い ネ コ は 餌 の 栄 養 面 が あ ま り 考 慮 さ れ て い な か っ た こ と な ど か ら 、10年 以 上 生 き る こ と は 少 な か っ た （ 参 考 ： 『 日 本 未 確 認 生 物 事 典 』 ） 。 [19] 根 岸1991年、35-36頁 。 [20] 村 上2002年、150-161頁 。

References • 多 田 克 己 (2000). "妖 怪 図 巻 の 妖 怪 た ち". In 京 極 夏 彦編. 妖 怪 図 巻. 国 書 刊 行 会. ISBN 978-4-336-04187-6. • 斉 藤 小 川 町 他 (2006). 人 文 社 編 集 部 企 画, ed. 日 本 の 謎 と 不 思 議 大 全 西 日 本 編. も の し り ミ ニ シ リ ー ズ. 人 文 社. ISBN 978-4-7959-1987-7. • 笹 間 良 彦 (1994). 図 説 ・ 日 本 未 確 認 生 物 事 典. 柏 書 房. ISBN 978-4-7601-1299-9. • 鈴 木 棠 三 (1982). 日 本 俗 信 辞 典 動 ・ 植 物 編. 角 川 書 店. ISBN 978-4-04-031100-5. • 多 田 克 己 他 (2008). "妖 か し の 猫 が 眠 る 寺". In 講 談 社 コ ミ ッ ク ク リ エ イ ト 編. DISCOVER妖 怪 日 本 妖 怪 大 百 科. KODANSHA Officisil File Magazine. VOL.07. 講 談 社. ISBN 978-4-06-370037-4. • 悳 俊 彦 ・ 岩 切 友 里 子 ・ 須 永 朝 彦 (1999). 悳 俊 彦 編, ed. 国 芳 妖 怪 百 景. 国 書 刊 行 会. ISBN 978-4-336-04139-5. • 根 岸 鎮 衛 (1991). 長 谷 川 強 校 注, ed. 耳 嚢. 岩 波 文 庫 中. 岩 波 書 店. ISBN 978-4-00-302612-0. • 原 田 種 夫 ・ 服 部 康 子 他 (1986). 乾 克 己 他 編, ed. 日 本 伝 奇 伝 説 大 事 典. 角 川 書 店. ISBN 978-4-04-031300-9. • 日 野 巌 (2006). 動 物 妖 怪 譚. 中 公 文 庫 下. 中 央 公 論 新 社. ISBN 978-4-12-204792-1. • 古 山 桂 子 他 (2005). 播 磨 学 研 究 所 編, ed. 播 磨 の 民 俗 探 訪. 神 戸 新 聞 総 合 出 版 セ ン タ ー. ISBN 978-4-343-00341-6. • 松 谷 み よ 子 (1994). 現 代 民 話 考 10. 立 風 書 房. ISBN 978-4-651-50210-6.

Bakeneko • 村 上 健 司・ 山 田 誠 二 他 (2008). "猫 の 怪". In 郡 司 聡 他 編. 怪. カ ド カ ワ ム ッ ク. vol.0024. 角 川 書 店. ISBN 978-4-04-883992-1.。 • 村 上 健 司 (2002). 妖 怪 ウ ォ ー カ ー. 角 川 書 店. ISBN 978-4-04-883760-6. • Casal, U. A. (1959). "The Goblin Fox and Badger and Other Witch Animals of Japan" (http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac. jp/publications/afs/pdf/a116.pdf). Folklore Studies (Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan University) 18: 1–93. doi: 10.2307/1177429 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1177429). JSTOR  1177429 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 1177429). • Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 3: Kinki-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. p. 108. ISBN 4-86133-006-8. • Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 2: Chūbu-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. pp. 88, 117. ISBN 4-86133-005-X. • Kiej'e, Nikolas. Japanese Grotesqueries. C. E. Tuttle Co., 1973. • Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database (KYDD). Online bibliographical database of supernatural folklore published by the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. • Morgan S.H. (2000). “Bake-neko”

External links • Obakemono Project Article on Bakeneko (http://obakemono.com/obake/bakeneko/) • Bakeneko – The Changing Cat (http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/06/03/bakeneko-the-changing-cat/) at hyakumonogatari.com(English)

8

Biwa

9

Biwa Biwa

A selection of biwa in a Japanese museum Classification

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Necked bowl lutes String instruments

Related instruments •

Angélique (instrument)

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Archlute

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Balalaika

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Barbat (lute)

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Baglamadaki

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Bağlama

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Biwa

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Bouzouki

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Charango

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Chitarra Italiana

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Daguangxian

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Đàn tỳ bà

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Dombra

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Domra

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Dutar

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Electric pipa

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Erhu

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Irish bouzouki

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Liuqin

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Lute

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Mandocello

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Mandola

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Mandolin

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Oud

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Pandura

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Pipa

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Rubab

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Setar

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Sitar

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Surbahar

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Tambouras

Biwa

10 •

Tanbur

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Tanbur (Turkish)

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Tembûr

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Theorbo

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Tiorbino

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Tiqin

•

Topshur

•

Veena

The biwa (琵 琶Help:Installing Japanese character sets) is a Japanese short-necked fretted lute, often used in narrative storytelling. The biwa is the chosen instrument of Benten, goddess of music, eloquence, poetry, and education in Buddhism. It arrived in Japan in two forms. Since that time, the number of biwa types has more than quadrupled. Guilds supporting biwa players, particularly the biwa hoshi, helped proliferate biwa musical development for hundreds of years. Biwa hōshi performances overlapped with performances by other biwa players many years before heikyoko and continued until today. This overlap resulted in a rapid evolution of the biwa and its usage and made it one of the most popular instruments in Japan. Yet, in spite of its popularity, the Onin War and subsequent Warring States Period disrupted biwa tutelage and decreased the number of proficient users. With the abolition of Todo in the Meiji period, biwa players lost their patronage. Furthermore, reforms stemming from the Meiji Restoration led to massive, rapid industrialization and modernization. Japan modeled its development on Europe and the US, praising everything Western and condemning everything native. Traditions identifiably Japanese became associated with terms like backwards or primitive. Such associations even extended into areas like art and music, and the biwa. By the late 1940s, the biwa, a thoroughly Japanese tradition, was nearly completely abandoned for Western instruments; however, thanks to collaborative efforts by Japanese musicians, interest in the biwa is being revived. Japanese and foreign musicians alike have begun embracing traditional Japanese instruments, particularly the biwa, in their compositions. While blind biwa singers no longer dominate the biwa, many performers continue to use the instrument in traditional and modern ways.

History The biwa came to Japan in the 7th century and it was evolved from the instrument pipa,[1] while the pipa itself was derived from similar instruments in Western Asia. This type of biwa is called the gaku-biwa and was used in gagaku ensembles and is the most commonly known type. While the route is unclear, another type of biwa found its way to the Kyushu region, and this thin biwa (called mōsō-biwa or kōjin-biwa) was used in ceremonies and religious rites. Before long, as the Ritsuryō state collapsed, the court music musicians were faced with the reconstruction and sought asylum in Buddhist temples. There they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered the mōsō-biwa. They incorporated the convenient aspects of mōsō-biwa, its small size and portability, into their large and heavy gaku-biwa, and created the heike-biwa, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations of The Tale of the Heike. Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the heike-biwa had emerged as a popular instrument. The heike-biwa could be described as a cross between both the gaku-biwa and mōsō-biwa. It retained the rounded shape of the gaku-biwa and was played with a large plectrum like the mōsō-biwa. The heike biwa was also small, like the mōsō-biwa (actually smaller) and was used for similar purposes.

Biwa While the modern satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa both find their origin with the mōsō-biwa, the Satsuma biwa was used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later in general performances. The Chikuzen biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also for telling entertaining stories and news while accompanying themselves on the biwa, and this form of storytelling was thought to be spread in this way. Not much about the biwa seems to have been written about biwas from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th century. What is known is that three main streams of biwa emerged during that time: zato (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blind biwa players), shifu (samurai style), and chofu (urban style). These styles emphasized 琵 琶 歌 (biwa-uta) — vocalization with biwa accompaniment — and formed the foundation for 江 戸 歌 (edo-uta) styles such as shinnai and kota [Allan Marett 103]. From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of the biwa tradition: satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa [Waterhouse 156]. From roughly the Meiji Era (1868–1912) until the Pacific War, the satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of the Showa Era (1925–1989), the nishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining biwa traditions, only higo-biwa remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons in the post-war era. The higo-biwa is closely related to the heike-biwa and, similarly, relies on an oral-narrative tradition focusing on wars and legends. By the middle of the Meiji period (1868–1912), improvements had been made on the instruments and easily understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of the Taisho period (1912–1926), the Satsuma biwa was modified into the Nishiki biwa which was popular among female players at the time. With this the biwa met a great period of prosperity, and the songs themselves were not just about the Tale of the Heike but songs connected to the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War such as “Takeo Hirose”, “Hitachimaru”, “203 Hill” gained popularity. However, the playing of the biwa nearly became extinct during the Meiji period as Western music and instruments became popular, until players such as Tsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern playing styles and collaborations with Western composers.

Types of biwa There are more than seven types of biwa, chacterized by number of strings, sounds it could produce, type of plectrum, and their use. As the biwa does not play in tempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note.

Classic biwa • Gagaku-biwa (雅 楽 琵 琶) - A large and heavy biwa with four strings and four frets used exclusively for gagaku. It produces distinctive Ichikotsuchō (壱 越 調) and Hyōjō (平 調). Its plectrum is small and thin, often rounded, and made from a hard material such as boxwood or ivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like the heike biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. In gagaku, it is called gaku-biwa (楽 琵 琶). • Gogen-biwa (五 絃 琵 琶) - This T'ang variant of biwa can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was used in the context of gagaku, however was removed with the reforms and standardizations made to the court orchestra during the late 10th Century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th century (William P. Malm). This is instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this instrument, much like the Kugo harp has been revived for historically informed performances and historical reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modern biwa, such as Chikuzen biwa. • Mōsō-biwa (盲 僧 琵 琶) - A biwa with four strings used to play Buddhist mantra and songs. It is similar in shape to the chikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials. The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f♯ and f♯. The six fret type is tuned to B♭, E♭, B♭ and b♭.

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Biwa

12

Middle and Edo biwa • Heike-biwa (平 家 琵 琶) - A biwa with four strings and five frets used to play Heike Monogatari. Its plectrum is slightly larger than that of the gagaku-biwa, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to a chikuzen-biwa in size. It was originally used by traveling biwa minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a. • Satsuma-biwa (薩 摩 琵 琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets popularized during the Edo Period in Satsuma Province (present day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Nisshinsai. Modern biwas used for contemporary compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of the Satsuma biwa are raised 4 centimeters from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the instrument's characteristic sawari, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of 25 centimeters or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play. The satsuma-biwa is traditionally made from Japanese mulberry, although other hard woods such as Japanese zelkova are sometimes used in its construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from at least a 120 year old tree and dried for ten years before construction can begin. The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A, E, A, B, for traditional biwa, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher. The most eminent 20th century satsuma-biwa performer was Tsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the instrument, which she called the tsuruta-biwa. This biwa often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly. Ueda Junko and Tanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta Kinshi's students, continue the tradition of the modern Satsuma biwa. Carlo Forlivesi's compositions Boethius (ボ エ テ ィ ウ ス) and Nuove Musiche per Biwa (琵 琶 の た め の 新 曲) had both been written for performance on the Satsuma model of the biwa designed by Kinshi Tsuruta and Yukio Tanaka. "These works presents a radical departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has sought the renewal of the acoustic and æsthetic profile of the biwa, bringing out the huge potential in the sound material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of two biwas in Nuove Musiche per Biwa), dynamics and colour."[2]

Modern biwa • Chikuzen-biwa (筑 前琵 琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets or five strings and five frets popularized in the Meiji Period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than that of the Satsuma biwa, usually about 13 centimeters in width, although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the player. The plectrum is usually made from rosewood with boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players use biwas that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used by females or children. The body of the instrument is never

Plectra for the Chikuzen (left) and Satsuma biwas

struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four

Biwa

13 string version is B, e, f♯ and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string down three steps down, the fifth string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B♭, F, B♭, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of Chikuzen biwa. Popularly used by female biwa players such as Uehara Mari.

• Nishiki-biwa (錦 琵 琶) - A modern biwa with five strings and five frets popularized by Suitō Kinjō. Its plectrum is the same as that used for the Satsuma biwa. ts tuning is C, G, c, g, g.

Biwa Style Generally speaking, biwa is considered one of Japan`s principal traditional instruments, and, as such, it has both influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history in Japan. The following section will situate the biwa in the context of traditional Japanese music. • General Background on Music in Japan The general term used for music in Japan is 音 楽 (ongaku). 音 means sound or tone, and 楽 means music or enjoyment. Both characters together technically refer to all forms of music but, more recently, evoke images of modern (post-Pacific War) ensembles and compositions. Traditional music styles have their own designations. • 邦 楽 Hōgaku - Japanese Traditional Music Broken apart, 邦 means (home) country and, 楽 means music. The characters together are thought to be an abbreviation of the term 本 邦 音 楽, which literally means “music of Japan.” The term Hogaku is also derived from 近 世 邦 楽, which translates as “national music of modern times.” It is usually defined as traditional Japanese Music. Japan`s Ministry of Education classifies Hogaku as a category separate from other traditional forms of music, such as Gagaku (court music) or Shōmyō (Buddhist chanting), but most ethnomusicologists view Hogaku, in a broad sense, as the form from which the others were derived [Sosnoski 34]. Outside of ethnomusicology, however, Hogaku usually refers to Japanese music from around the 17th to mid 19th Centuries [Sugiura 1]. In Hogaku, musical instruments usually serve as accompaniments to vocal performances. Song dominates hogaku, and the overwhelming majority of hogaku compositions are vocal. In this context, the biwa was one of the prominent instruments [Dean 156]. • 雅 楽 Gagaku – Japanese Court Music Since雅 means elegance, Gagaku literally means elegant music and generally refers to musical instruments and music theory imported to Japan from China and Korea from 500-600 CE. Gagaku is divided into two main categories: Old Music and New Music. Old Music refers to music and musical compositions from before the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618-906), and New Music refers to music and compositions produced during or after Tang, including music brought from various regions in China and Korea [Randel 339] [The International Shakuhachi Society]. Old and New Music are further divided into 左 楽 (Music of the Left) and 右 楽 (Music of the Right) Categories. 左 楽 is composed of 唐 楽 (music from Tang) and 林 邑 楽 (music from Indo-China). 右 楽 is composed of 高 麗 楽 (music from Korea). Gagaku was usually patronized by the imperial court or the shrines and temples. Gagaku ensembles were composed of string, wind, and percussion instruments, where string and wind instruments were more respected and percussion instruments were considered lesser instruments. Among the string instruments, the biwa seems to have been the most important instrument in gagaku orchestral performances [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 16]. • 声 明 Shōmyō – Buddhist Chanting The two characters: 声 and 明 literally mean “voice” and “clear”. Shōmyō is a translation of the Sanskrit word, sabda-vidya, which means “the (linguistic) study of language”. Shōmyō is a kind of chanting of Buddhist scriptures syllabically or melismatically set to melodic phrasing, usually performed by a male chorus. It is said to have come to

Biwa Japan in the early 9th Century [Randel 270]. While biwa was not used in shōmyō, the style of biwa singing is closely tied to shōmyō, especially mōsō and heike style biwa singing [Matisoff 36]. Both shōmyō and mōsō are rooted in Buddhist rituals and traditions. Before arriving in Japan, shōmyō was used in Indian Buddhist. The mōsō-biwa was also rooted in Indian Buddhism, and the heike-biwa, as a predecessor to the mōsō-biwa, was the principle instrument of the biwa hōshi, who were blind Buddhist priests. • Biwa Aesthetics Generally speaking, biwas have four strings. That being said, modern satsuma and chikuzen biwas might have five strings. The first string is thickest and the fourth string is thinnest (the second string is the thickest on the chikuzen-biwa, and the fourth and fifth strings are the same thickness on five-stringed chikuzen and satsuma-biwas) [Minoru Miki 75]. The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions. In biwa, tuning is not fixed. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones [Dean 157]. When singing in a chorus, biwa singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized, heterophony accompaniment [Dean 149]. In solo performances, a biwa performer sings monophonically, with melismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead biwa singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishing soprano, alto, tenor, or bass roles. This singing style is complemented by the biwa, which biwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance [Morton Feldman 181]. Biwa singing style tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonant ん, and notes containing “g” (e.g., が, ぎ, ぐ, げ, ご, ぎ ゃ, ぎ ゅ, ぎ ょ). Also, biwa performers vary the volume of their voice between barely audible to very loud (rarely deafening). Since biwa performances were generally for small groups, singers did not need to project their voices as do opera singers in the Western tradition Biwa music is based on a pentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that each octave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic. The rhythm in biwa performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on the biwa usually begin slow and thin and progress through gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture of biwa singing is often described as “sparse.” The plectrum also contributes to the texture of biwa music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on a moso-biwa was much larger than that used on a gaku-biwa, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound [Morley 51]. The plectrum is also critical to creating the sawari sound, which is particularly utilized with satsuma-biwas [Rossing 181]. What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum`s twangy hum [Malm 215].

Use in modern music Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and socio-political turmoil redefined biwa patronage and biwa image; for example, the Onin War during the Muromachi period (1338–1573) and the subsequent Warring States period (15th-17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage for heikyoku performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in biwa music decreased. Even the biwa hoshi transitioned to other instruments such as the shamisen (a three stringed lute) [Gish 143]. Interest in the biwa revived during the Edo period (1600–1868) when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and established the Tokugawa Shogunate. Ieyasu favored biwa music and became a major patron. He helped strengthen biwa guilds (called Todo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges (142). Shamisen players and other musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to the biwa, and, as they crossed over, they brought new styles. The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for the biwa in its long history

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Biwa in Japan (143). In 1868, the Tokugawa Shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration. In Meiji, the samurai class was abolished, and the Todo lost their patronage. Biwa players no longer enjoyed special privileges and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of Meiji (1868), it was estimated that there were at least one hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo. Yet, by the 1930s, there were only forty-six traditional court musicians in Tokyo. A quarter of these musicians died in the war. Life in Post-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 18]. While many styles of biwa flourished in the early 1900s (e.g., Kindai-biwa from the 1900s-1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again. Currently, there are no direct means of studying biwa in many biwa traditions [Ferranti, Relations between Music and Text in "Higo Biwa"_ The "Nagashi" Pattern as a Text-MusicSystem 150]. Even higo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. Kindai biwa still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but zato, heike, and moso-biwa styles have all but died out [Tokita 83]. As biwa music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies in music theory and music composition in Japan almost entirely consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer, Toru Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asian biwa. His well-received compositions such as November Steps, which incorporates biwa heikyoku with Western orchestral performance, revitalized interest in the biwa and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres ranging from jpop and enza to shin-hougaku and gendaigaku [Tonai 25]. Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, who is considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the biwa hoshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji, continued the biwa hoshi tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late sixties to the late eighties, composers and historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs. Up to that time, the biwa hoshi tradition of songs was completely an oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of the biwa hoshi tutelage died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings [Sanger].

Recordings • Silenziosa Luna - 沈 黙 の 月 / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008).

References [1] biwa from Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 67310/ biwa) [2] ALM Records ALCD-76

External links • Introduction to the Hei-kyoku (http://homepage3.nifty.com/heikebiwa-arao/ HEIKYOKUGAIRONNENGLISH.htm) • Images of Historical reconstruction performances - Includes one image of a woman playing Gogenbiwa (http:// www.japan-music.com/ivs/artist/tempyogafu/) (dead link) • Picture of Biwa school about 1900 (http://blog.goo.ne.jp/blogem/e/ac80d4429af4a24dbaa7ea6558a9c46b)

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Carpolestes simpsoni

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Carpolestes simpsoni Carpolestes simpsoni Temporal range: Paleocene

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

†Plesiadapiformes

Superfamily: †Carpolestoidea Family:

†Carpolestidae

Genus:

†Carpolestes

Species:

†C. simpsoni Binomial name

†Carpolestes simpsoni Bloch and Gingerich, 1998 Carpolestes simpsoni is an extinct species of Plesiadapiformes, which is one of the earliest primate-like mammals appearing in the fossil record during the late Paleocene. C. simpsoni had grasping digits but no forward-facing eyes. Weighing about 100 grams, C. simpsoni appeared adapted for an arboreal habitat. One large, nail-tipped toe opposed other toes, allowing a firm grip on branches. Like other species of Carpolestes, the dental morphology of C. simpsoni is specially adapted to eating fruit, seeds, and invertebrates.

References External links • Mikko's Phylogeny Archive (http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/Metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/ Synapsida/Eutheria/Plesiadapiformes/plesiadapiformes.htm) • National Geographic source (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/11/ 1121_021121_PrimateOrigins.html)

Castoroides

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Castoroides Giant beavers Temporal range: Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene, 3–0.011Ma

Castoroides ohioensis specimen at Field Museum

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

Rodentia

Family:

Castoridae

Subfamily:

†Castoroidinae

Tribe:

†Castoroidini

Genus:

†Castoroides Foster, 1838 Type species †Castoroides ohioensis Species

†Castoroides leiseyorum †Castoroides ohioensis Synonyms • •

†Castoroides nebrascensis Barbour, 1931 †Burosor efforsorius Starrett, 1956

Castoroides, or giant beaver, is an extinct genus of enormous beavers that lived in North America during the Pleistocene. C. leiseyorum and its northern sister species Castoroides ohioensis, were the largest beavers to ever exist.

Castoroides

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Description The giant beaver looked similar to modern beavers, but as the name implies, was considerably larger; it grew over 8 ft (2.4 m) in length — making it the largest rodent in North America during the last ice age and the largest known beaver. It weighed roughly 60 to 100 kg (130 to 220 lb), the size of a modern black bear. Its hind feet were much larger than in modern beavers, but because soft tissues decay, it is not known whether its tail resembled the tails in modern beavers, and it can only be assumed that its feet were webbed like in modern species. The incisors were 15 cm (5.9 in) long, and had blunt, rounded tips, in contrast to the chisel-like tips found in modern beaver cutting teeth. The molars were well adapted to grinding, and resembled those of capybaras with an S-shaped pattern on the grinding surfaces. Restoration by Charles R. Knight

One of the important anatomical differences between the giant beaver and modern beaver species, besides size, is the structure of their teeth. Modern beavers have chisel-like incisor teeth for gnawing on wood. The teeth of the giant beaver are bigger and broader, and grew to about 15 cm (6 in) long. In addition, the tail of the giant beaver must have been longer but narrower and its hind legs shorter. Castoroides ohioensis reached a length of up to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) and an estimated weight of 60-100 kg (130-220 lbs); past estimates went up to 220 kg (485 lbs). It lived in North America during the Pleistocene epoch and went extinct at the end of the last Ice Age, 12,000 years ago. C. leiseyorum also reached close to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) and an estimated weight of 60 to 100 kg (130 to 220 lb).[1]

Classification There are two known species: • Castoroides leiseyorum (found in Florida only) • Castoroides ohioensis, synonym Castoroides nebrascensis (found throughout continental United States and Canada) These two species of giant beaver (genus Castoroides) are not close relatives to modern beavers (genus Castor). This genus typifies the extinct subfamily Castoroidinae, which forms a North American lineage beginning with the Hemingfordian genus Monosaulax, followed by Eucastor, Dipoides, and Procastoroides, to finally culminate and go extinct with Castoroides.

Castoroides

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Discovery and species The first giant beaver fossils were discovered in 1837 in a peat bog in Ohio, hence its species epithet ohioensis. Nothing is known on whether the giant beaver built lodges like modern beavers. In Ohio, there have been claims of a possible giant beaver lodge four feet high and eight feet in diameter, formed from small saplings. The recent discovery of clear evidence for lodge building in the related genus Dipoides indicates that the giant beaver probably also built lodges. Fossils of the giant beaver are concentrated around the midwestern United States in states near the Great Lakes, particularly Illinois and A cast of C. ohioensis assembled from various Indiana, but specimens are recorded from Alaska and Canada to specimens Florida. Specimens from Florida have been placed in a subspecies, Castoroides ohioensis dilophidus, based on differences in premolar and molar features. Castorides leiseyorum specimens were unearthed in Florida and South Carolina. Mark D. Uhen, Ph.D., George Mason University dated the latter site (Cooper River) at 1.8 million—11,000 years ago. The Florida specimens were dated by John Alroy, Ph.D. using appearance event ordination for an age of 2.1 million years ago (Mya). Castoroides leiseyorum was named by S. Morgan and J. A. White in 1995 for the Leisey family, phosphate quarry-owners who found the first skull. [2][3] Specimens were found in Leisey Shell Pit 1A and 3B, Hillsborough County, Florida, in paleontological sites about 2.1 Mya.[4][5][6] Specimens were also found at the Strawberry Hill site, (Cooper River dredging) Charleston County, South Carolina from about 1.8 Mya to 11,000 years ago.[7]

Extinction Fossils of the older species, C. leiseyorum, from Florida are from 1.4 Mya, while fossils of the younger species, C. ohioensis, from Toronto, Ontario, and the Old Crow Basin, Yukon Territory, are 130,000 years old, but the giant beaver may have died out about 10,000 years ago, along with several other American species, such as mammoths, mastodons, and ice-age horses. Giant beavers were most abundant south of the Great Lakes in present-day Indiana and Illinois. The extinction of the giant beaver may have been caused by ecological restructuring at the end of the Pleistocene. The arrival of humans in the Americas could have been a factor, but there is no evidence that humans hunted the giant beaver. It was one of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna—a wide variety of very large mammals that lived during the Pleistocene.

Mounted skeleton

Castoroides

Folklore Both the native Mi'kmaq people of Canada and the native Pocumtuck people of the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts have related significant myths about giant beavers. The Cree people also have myths about giant beavers.

Notes [1] Canadian Museum of Nature (http:/ / nature. ca/ notebooks/ english/ giantbev. htm), Notebooks: Giant Beaver [2] G. S. Morgan and J. A. White. 1995. Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History 37(13). [3] Paleobiology Database, Collection 20403 (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=basicCollectionSearch& collection_no=20403& is_real_user=1) and 20400 (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=basicCollectionSearch& collection_no=20400& is_real_user=1). Location Leisey's Shell Pits 1A and 3B, Hillsborough County, Florida. Authorized and entered by John Alroy on February 18, 1993 and Mark D. Uhen, Ph.D. [4] R. C. Hulbert, Jr. and G. S. Morgan. 1989. Papers in Florida Paleontology 2. [5] Alroy, J., Conjunction among taxonomic distributions and the Miocene mammalian biochronology of the Great Plains. Paleobiology 18(3):326-343. [6] Alroy, J., Speciation and extinction in the fossil record of North American mammals. Ecological Reviews, 2008. [7] P. W. Parmalee and R. W. Graham. 2002. Additional records of the giant beaver, Castoroides, from the Mid-South: Alabama, Tennessee, and South Carolina. Smithsonian Contribution to Paleobiology 93:65-71

References • Ruez, Dennis R, "Early Irvingtonian (Latest Pliocene) Rodents from Inglis 1C, Citrus County, Florida", 2001 The Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. • Alroy, J., Equilibrial diversity dynamics in North American mammals. pp. 232–287 in M. L. McKinney and J. A. Drake (eds.), Biodiversity dynamics: turnover of populations, taxa, and communities. Columbia University Press, New York.

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Jorōgumo

Jorōgumo Jorōgumo (Japanese Kanji: 絡 新 婦, Hiragana: じ ょ ろ う ぐ も) is a type of Yōkai, a creature, ghost or goblin of Japanese folklore. According to some stories, a Jorōgumo is a spider that can change its appearance into that of a seductive woman. In Japanese Kanji, Jorōgumo is written as "絡 新 婦" (literally meaning "binding bride") or "女 郎 蜘 蛛" (literally meaning "whore spider"). Jorōgumo can also refer to some species of spiders, but in casual use it can refer to the Nephila and Argiope spiders. Japanese-speaking entomologists use the katakana form of Jorōgumo (ジ ョ ロ ウ グ モ) to refer, exclusively, to the spider species Nephila clavata.

Stories The Edo period legend has it that a beautiful woman would entice a man Jorōgumo (by Toriyama Sekien). into a quiet shack and begin to play a Biwa, a type of Japanese lute. While the victim would be distracted by the sound of the instrument, she binds her victim in spider silk threads in order to devour the unsuspecting person as her next meal.

Magical spider According to legend, when a spider turns 400 years old, it gains magical powers. Stories of Jorōgumo can be found in Edo period works, such as "Taihei-Hyakumonogatari" (太 平 百 物 語) and "Tonoigusa" (宿 直 草). In many of these stories, Jorōgumo changes its appearance into a beautiful woman to ask a samurai to marry her, or takes the form of a young woman carrying a baby (which may turn out to be a spider's eggsack).[1] Drawings, such as the one in Toriyama Sekien's book Gazu Hyakki Yakō, depicts Jorōgumo as a half-woman/half-spider surrounded by her spider children.

Waterfall spiderwebs A Jorōgumo is also known as the mistress of the Jōren Falls (浄 蓮 の 滝) in Izu, Shizuoka. The legend has it that a man was resting at the foot of the waterfall when his feet were bound with a vast number of spider threads. To free himself, he cut the threads and tied them to a stump of a tree, which was pulled from the ground and drawn into the waters. After this incident at the Jōren waterfall, the villagers became afraid and stopped going to the waterfall. However, one day, a woodsman logger from out of town, unaware of the story of the Jōren Jorōgumo, began cutting wood in the area. After he accidentally dropped his axe into the water, he dove into the pool to find it; then a beautiful woman appeared and returned the axe, telling him never to tell anyone about her. While the logger kept the promise, he began to feel anxious about the incident. One day while he was drunk, he told his secret and finally felt at ease. He then fell into a deep sleep never to awaken again.[2] In a variation of the story of the Jōren waterfall, the logger falls in love with the woman Jorōgumo and starts visiting the falls every day to see her. But as time passes, he starts growing weaker and weaker. A monk from a neighboring temple believes the logger has been trapped by the spider, so he and the logger go to the waterfall together, and the monk reads a Buddhist Sūtra there. While the monk reads the sutra, spider threads appear from the pool and attempt to wrap themselves around the logger, but the monk shouts his Buddhist chant and they disappear. Though the logger soon realizes that the woman was a spider, he cannot forget his love for her. He then asks for help from a Tengu,

21

Jorōgumo master of the Yōkai of the mountain, but the Tengu forbids this love. The logger was unwilling to give up his love for the Jorōgumo. While running back to the waterfall he is caught by the silk threads and finally falls into the water, never to surface again.[3]

Protection from drowning There are many stories throughout Japan of a tree stump being pulled into the water in place of the lumberjack from the previous tale. One such example is that of Kashikobuchi (賢 淵), Sendai. Here, just after the stump is pulled into the pool, the lumberjack hears a voice saying, "How clever, how clever" (賢 い 、 賢 い / Kashikoi, Kashikoi). For this event, the area came to be called Kashikobuchi, which literally means "clever abyss".[4] In Kashikobuchi, the Jorōgumo is worshiped as a goddess who protects people from drowning, and a monument and a small Torii still stand at the location.

In popular culture • The Hanns Heinz Ewers short story "The Spider" (1919) centers around a mysterious girl whom the protagonist names Clarimonda. She is an early appearance in Western literature of the concept of a Jorōgumo. • In the short story "Magic Dreams" by Ilona Andrews, the main villain is Jorōgumo. • Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's short story "Tattoo" is about a sadistic tattooist Seikichi who draws a Jorōgumo picture on an innocent maiko's (apprentice geisha) back which somewhat awakens an evil streak in her. • In the Clover Studio/Capcom action-adventure videogame Ōkami, the first boss is a large, female demonic spider known as the Spider Queen (also Geisha Spider or Prostitute Spider) that is based on this character in Japanese mythology.[5] • In Hellboy: Sword of Storms (2006), Hellboy faces a deadly spider-woman who breathes green fire along with other creatures from Japanese folklore. • Juri Han of Super Street Fighter IV may have had her character design based on a Jorōgumo. She is a sensual, venomous, provocative woman whose nickname is Spider and dons a spider design on her back. • A Jorōgumo is featured in the eleventh episode of the first season of Grimm. • The video game Diablo 3 features a seductive demoness named Cydaea, the Maiden of Lust, who is in the form of a humanoid spider. • In the anime/manga xxxHolic, Watanuki´s right eye is stolen by the Jorōgumo and afterwards eaten by her to improve her magical powers. • Jorōgumo [6] were one of the eastern-themed monsters introduced in the Pathfinder RPG's third Bestiary. • In "Digimon Adventure 02" one of the antagonists, Arukenimon (or Arachnemon in the Japanese) is based loosely off of the Jorogumo. She shape-shifts between a normal, human-looking woman and a spider-woman.

References [1] 村 上 健 司 『 妖 怪 事 典 』 毎 日 新 聞 社、2000年 、190-191頁 。 [2] 人 文 社 編 集 部 『 も の し り シ リ ー ズ 諸 国 怪 談 奇 談 集 成 江 戸 諸 国 百 物 語 東 日 本 編 』 人 文 社 、2005年 、59頁 。 [3] 宮 本 幸 枝 『 大 人 が 楽 し む 地 図 帳 津 々 浦 々 「 お 化 け 」 生 息 マ ッ プ - 雪 女 は 東 京 出 身? 九 州 の 河 童 は ち ょ い ワ ル? -』 技 術 評 論 社、2005年 、80頁 。 [4] 賢 淵 (http:/ / tabidoki. jrnets. co. jp/ e07/ spot/ 17326. html) （ JR東 日 本 え き ね っ と (http:/ / tabidoki. jrnets. co. jp/ localline/ riku-to/ ) 内 ） [5] Okami Official Complete Works (book). [6] http:/ / www. d20pfsrd. com/ bestiary/ monster-listings/ monstrous-humanoids/ jorogumo

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Jorōgumo

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Further reading • Jorōgumo ~ 女 郎 蜘 蛛 （ じ ょ ろ う ぐ も ） ~ part of The Obakemono Project: An Online Encyclopedia of Yōkai and Bakemono (http://www.obakemono.com/obake/jorogumo/)

Josephoartigasia monesi Josephoartigasia monesi Temporal range: Pliocene to Early Pleistocene 4–2Ma

Life restoration of J. monesi

Scientific classification Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

Rodentia

Family:

Dinomyidae

Genus:

†Josephoartigasia

Species:

†J. monesi Rinderknecht & Blanco, 2008 Binomial name Josephoartigasia monesi Rinderknecht & Blanco, 2008

Josephoartigasia monesi, an extinct species of South American caviomorph rodent, is the largest rodent known, and lived from approximately 4 million BC to 2 million BC during the Pliocene to early Pleistocene.[1] The species is one of two in the Josephoartigasia genus, the other being J. magna. J. monesi is sometimes called the giant pacarana, after its closest living relative, the pacarana (Dinomys branickii) in the family Dinomyidae. The species may have weighed a ton, considerably larger than its closest living relative, the pacarana.

Josephoartigasia monesi

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Description The skull of the holotype is 53 cm (21 in) long, and the remaining incisor is more than 30 cm (12 in) in length. The total estimated body length is 3 m (10 ft), with a height of 1.5 m (5 ft).

Body mass There is no dispute that J. monesi replaces Phoberomys pattersoni, a related and somewhat older species that lived in Venezuela during the Late Miocene, as the largest rodent. However, size comparisons are difficult because previous estimates of 400 and 700 kg (880 and 1,540 lb) for P. pattersoni were based on forelimb and hindlimb elements, which are not present in the J. monesi specimen.

Reconstruction of J. monesi head

By comparing the skull with various extant species of rodent, the authors of the original paper estimated a mass between 468 and 2,586 kg (1,032 and 5,701 lb), with a median estimate of 1,211 kg (2,670 lb). A later researcher revisited the numbers and came up with a more conservative estimate of 350 to 1,534 kg (772 to 3,382 lb), with a

median of 900 kg (2,000 lb).

Discovery J. monesi is known from an almost complete skull, which was recovered from the San José Formation on the coast of Río de la Plata in Uruguay. Discovered in 1987, but not scientifically described until 2008, the specimen is preserved in Uruguay's National History and Anthropology Museum.

Paleobiology The rodent's fearsome front teeth and large size may have been used to fight over females for breeding rights and may also have helped defend against predators, including carnivorous marsupials, saber-toothed cats, and terror birds. The rodent may have lived in an estuarine environment or a delta system with forest communities, and may have eaten soft vegetation. It has been stated that J. monesi probably fed on aquatic plants and fruits, because its molars are small and not good for grass or other abrasive (vegetation). Larger mammals also have the advantage of access to low-quality food resources, such as wood, that smaller species are unable to digest.

References [1] According to Rinderknecht & Blanco (2008) recent studies indicate that some strata of the San José Formation in which the specimen was found are Pleistocene, instead of Pliocene as was traditionally assumed. In any case, they do give a date range of 4–2 Mya.

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Kitsune Part of the series on

Japanese mythology and folklore

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Kitsune

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Sōjōbō Mythical and sacred locations

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Buddhist temples Folklorists

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Kunio Yanagita Keigo Seki Lafcadio Hearn Shigeru Mizuki Inoue Enryo

v t

e [1]

Kitsune

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Kitsune (狐Help:Installing Japanese character sets, IPA: [kitsɯne] ( )) is the Japanese word for fox. Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore; in English, kitsune refers to them in this context. Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others—as foxes in folklore often do—other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives. Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto kami or spirit, and serve as its messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a kitsune has—they may have as many as nine—the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as to a deity.

Prince Hanzoku terrorized by a nine-tailed fox. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 19th century.

Origins It is widely agreed that many fox myths in Japan can be traced to China, Korea, or India. Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits called huli jing that may have up to nine tails, or Kyūbi no Kitsune in Japanese, or Hồ Ly Tinh in Vietnamese. Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatari, an 11th-century collection of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.[2] There is debate whether the kitsune myths originated entirely from foreign sources or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating as far back as the fifth century BC. Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi Nozaki argues that the Japanese regarded kitsune positively as early as the 4th century A.D.; the only things imported from China or A nine-tailed fox, from the Qing edition of the Korea were the kitsune's negative attributes.[3] He states that, ancient text Shan Hai Jing. according to a 16th-century book of records called the Nihon Ryakki, foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan, and he contends that indigenous legends about the creatures arose as a result.[4] Inari scholar Karen Smyers notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.[5]

Kitsune

28

Etymology The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text Shin'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki. Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki (810–824) and Wamyō Ruijushō (c. 934). These oldest sources are written in Man'yōgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ki1tune. Following several diachronic phonological changes, this becomes kitsune. Japan is home to two red fox subspecies: the Hokkaido fox (Vulpes vulpes schrencki, pictured), and the Japanese red fox (Vulpes vulpes japonica).

Many etymological suggestions have been made, though there is no general agreement: • Myōgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always (tsune) yellow (ki)".

• Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means "came (ki) [ perfective aspect particle tsu] to bedroom (ne)" due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one's wife and bear children. • Arai Hakuseki in Tōga (1717) suggests that ki means "stench", tsu is a possessive particle, and ne is related to inu, the word for "dog". • Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori (1777–1887) suggests that ki means "yellow", tsu is a possessive particle, and ne is related to neko, the word for cat. • Ōtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai (1932–1935) proposes that kitsu is an onomatopoeia for the animal, and that ne is an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine. According to Nozaki, the word kitsune was originally onomatopoetic. Kitsu represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for fox. -Ne signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence of an established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in Japanese folklore. Kitsu is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon. One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune.[6] Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males, this one does not end tragically:[7][8] Ono, an inhabitant of Mino (says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545), spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty. He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her. Simultaneously with the birth of their son, Ono's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors. She begged her husband to kill it, but he refused. At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage, resumed vulpine shape, leaped over a fence and fled. "You may be a fox," Ono called after her, "but you are the mother of my son and I love you. Come back when you please; you will always be welcome." So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms. Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox, she is called Kitsune. In classical Japanese, kitsu-ne means come and sleep, and ki-tsune means always comes.

Kitsune

29

Characteristics Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical powers. They are a type of yōkai, or spiritual entity, and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit. However, this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts, nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes gain supernatural abilities. There are two common classifications of kitsune. The zenko (善 狐Help:Installing Japanese character sets, literally good foxes) are benevolent, celestial foxes associated with the god Inari; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes. On the other hand, the yako (野 狐Help:Installing Japanese character sets, literally field foxes, also called nogitsune) tend to be mischievous or even malicious.[9] Local traditions add further types.[10] For example, a ninko is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them. Another tradition classifies kitsune into one of thirteen types defined by which supernatural abilities the kitsune possesses.

Statue of a kitsune at the Inari shrine adjacent to Tōdai-ji Buddhist temple in Nara

Physically, kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails.[11] Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years. One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories. When a kitsune gains its ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold. These kyūbi no kitsune (九 尾 の 狐Help:Installing Japanese character sets, nine-tailed foxes) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales attribute them infinite wisdom (omniscience).[12]

This obake karuta (monster card) from the early 19th century depicts a kitsune. The associated game involves matching clues from folklore to pictures of specific creatures.

Kitsune

30

Shapeshifting A kitsune may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain age—usually 100 years, although some tales say 50.[] As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over its head.[13] Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women, young girls, or elderly men. These shapes are not limited by the fox's age or gender, and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person.[14] Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.[15] Kitsune-gao or fox-faced refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form.[16] Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.[17]

"Fox women" by Bertha Lum: kitsune as women

In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature.[18] A particularly devout individual may in some cases even be able to see through a fox's disguise merely by perceiving them.[19] Kitsune may also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs, and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee. One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain, he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an elderly fox and running away."[20] Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession, mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning (known as kitsunebi), willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality. Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky.[21][22] Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.[23]

Kitsune

31

Kitsunetsuki Kitsunetsuki (狐 憑 き or 狐 付 き; also written kitsune-tsuki) literally means the state of being possessed by a fox. The victim is always a young woman, whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.[24] In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read.[25] Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will, Kitsunetsuki is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers, or tsukimono-suji.[26] Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan: Inari and its fox spirits help the blacksmith Munechika forge the blade kogitsune-maru (Little Fox) at the end of the 10th century. The legend is the subject of the noh drama Sanjō Kokaji.

Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter. Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets. Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth, and yelp as a fox yelps. And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin, which seems to have a life of its own. Prick it with a needle, and it glides instantly to another place. By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers. Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession. They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu, aburagé, azukimeshi, etc. — and they eat a great deal, alleging that not they, but the possessing foxes, are hungry.[27]

He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, azukimeshi, or other foods favored by foxes: Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its host.[28] In the past, when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available, victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed. In Japan, kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century.[29][30] Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki.[31] The belief has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still occur, such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.[32] In medicine, kitsunetsuki is a culture-bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox.[33] Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet red beans, listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy.[34]

Kitsune

32

Hoshi no tama Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion-shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama (ほ し の た まHelp:Installing Japanese character sets, star balls). Tales describe these as glowing with kitsunebi.[35] Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls.[36] When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail. Jewels are a common symbol of Inari, and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.[37] One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape, its hoshi no tama holds a portion of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long. Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its return.[38] For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's hoshi no tama to secure a favor:

"Kitsunebi on New Year's Night under the Enoki Tree near Ōji" in the One Hundred Famous Views of Edo by Hiroshige. Each fox has a kitsunebi floating close to their face.

"Confound you!" snapped the fox. "Give me back my ball!" The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully, "All right, you've got the ball, but you don't know how to keep it. It won't be any good to you. For me, it's a terrible loss. I tell you, if you don't give it back, I'll be your enemy forever. If you do give it back though, I'll stick to you like a protector god." The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers.[39]

Portrayal Servants of Inari Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice.[40] This association has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.[41] Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari itself may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave offerings. Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called aburage, which is accordingly found in the noodle-based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, Inari-zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu.[42] There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past. Foxes have long been worshipped as kami.[43] Inari appears to a warrior, accompanied by a kitsune. This portrayal of Inari shows the influence of Dakiniten concepts from Buddhism. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.

Inari's kitsune are white, a color of good omen. They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune, those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.

According to beliefs derived from fusui (feng shui), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon, or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.

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Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.[44]

Tricksters Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men; women are possessed instead. For example, kitsune are thought to employ their kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o' the wisp.[45][46] Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions. Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight. A traditional game called kitsune-ken (fox-fist) references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to rock, paper, scissors, but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.[47][48]

The Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto features numerous kitsune statues.

This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox's motives. In one case, the 16th-century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari: To Inari Daimyojin, My lord, I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants, causing her and others a great deal of trouble. I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter, and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way, and let me know the result. If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior, you are to arrest and punish him at once. If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land. Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred, you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida.[49] Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in the man's dreams: "My father lived here before me, sir, and by now I have many children and grandchildren. They get into a lot of mischief, I'm afraid, and I'm always after them to stop, but they never listen. And now, sir, you're understandably fed up with us. I gather that you're going to kill us all. But I just want you to know, sir, how sorry I am that this is our last night of life. Won't you pardon us, one more time? If we ever make trouble again, then of course you must act as you think best. But the young ones, sir — I'm sure they'll understand when I explain to them why you're so upset. We'll do everything we can to protect you from now on, if only you'll forgive us, and we'll be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen!"[50]

Tamamo-no-Mae, a legendary kitsune featured in noh and kyogen plays. Print by Yoshitoshi.

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Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect. As yōkai, however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion.[51] Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of prestige.[52] Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune. One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that the house "has been ours for many years, and . . . we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.[53] Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion.[54][55] True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.

Wives and lovers Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.[56] The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature.[57] Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.

The kitsune Kuzunoha casts a fox's shadow even in human form. Kuzunoha is a popular figure in folklore and the subject of kabuki plays. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.

Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children. The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers.[58]

Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune's wedding, in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures [59] being held during such conditions. The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any [60] uninvited guests, as is depicted in Akira Kurosawa's film Dreams. Stephen Turnbull, in "Nagashino 1575", relates the tale of the Takeda clan's involvement with a fox-woman. The warlord Takeda Shingen, in 1544, defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to suicide after a "humiliating and spurious" peace conference, after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige's beautiful 14-year-old daughter Lady Koi—Shingen's own niece. Shingen, Turnbull writes, "was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox-spirit of the Suwa Shrine, who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge." When their son Takeda Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino, Turnbull writes, "wise old heads nodded, remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother".

Kitsune

In popular culture Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them,[61][62] as do contemporary works such as anime, manga and video games. Western authors of fiction have begun to make use of the kitsune legends.[63] Although these portrayals vary considerably, kitsune are generally depicted in accordance with folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful beings.

Notes [1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Japanese_mythology_and_folklore& action=edit [2] Goff, Janet. "Foxes in Japanese culture: beautiful or beastly?" Japan Quarterly 44:2 (April–June 1997). [3] Nozaki, Kiyoshi. Kitsune — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor. Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press, 1961. 5 [4] Nozaki. Kitsune. 3 [5] , pp.127–128 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA127#v=onepage& q& f=false) [6] , p.89 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f46OerF-91EC& hl=en& pg=PA89#v=onepage& q& f=false) [7] Goff. "Foxes". Japan Quarterly 44:2 [8] , p.72 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA72#v=onepage& q& f=false) [9] Yōkai no hon written by Prof. Abe Masaji & Prof. Ishikawa Junichiro [10] Hearn, Lafcadio. Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. Project Gutenberg e-text edition (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 8130), 2005. 154 [11] , p.129 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA129#v=onepage& q& f=false) [12] Hearn. Glimpses. 159 [13] Nozaki. Kitsune. 25–26 [14] Hall. Half Human. 145 [15] Tyler xlix. [16] Nozaki. Kitsune. 95, 206 [17] Hearn.Glimpses. 155 [18] Ashkenazy, Michael. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. 148 [19] Heine, Steven. Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. 153 [20] Hall. Half Human. 144 [21] Hearn. Glimpses. 156–157 [22] Nozaki. Kitsune. 36–37 [23] Nozaki. Kitsune. 26, 221 [24] Nozaki. Kitsune. 59 [25] Nozaki. Kitsune. 216 [26] https:/ / eee. uci. edu/ clients/ sbklein/ GHOSTS/ articles/ CatalpaBow-WitchAnimals. pdf [27] Hearn. Glimpses. 158 [28] , p.90 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA90#v=onepage& q& f=false) [29] Nozaki. Kitsune. 211 [30] Hearn. Glimpses. 165 [31] Nozaki. Kitsune. 214–215 [32] Miyake-Downey, Jean. "Ten Thousand Things." Kyoto Journal 63 (http:/ / www. kyotojournal. org/ 10,000things/ 039. html). Retrieved on December 13, 2006. [33] Haviland, William A. Cultural Anthropology, 10th ed. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2002. 144–145 [34] Yonebayashi, T. "Kitsunetsuki (Possession by Foxes)". Transcultural Psychiatry 1:2 (1964). 95–97 [35] Nozaki. Kitsune. 183 [36] Nozaki. Kitsune. 169–170 [37] , pp.112–114 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA112#v=onepage& q& f=false) [38] Hall. Half Human. 149 [39] Tyler 299–300. [40] , p.76 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA76#v=onepage& q& f=false) [41] Hearn. Glimpses. 153 [42] , p.96 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA96#v=onepage& q& f=false) [43] , p.77, 81 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA77#v=onepage& q& f=false) [44] , pp.82–85 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA82#v=onepage& q& f=false) [45] Addiss, Stephen. Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. 137 [46] Hall. Half Human. 142 [47] Nozaki. Kitsune. 230 [48] , p.98 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA98#v=onepage& q& f=false)

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Kitsune [49] Hall. Half Human. 137; the Yoshida priest in question was Yoshida Kanemi (1535–1610), then head priest at the Yoshida Shrine in Kyoto. [50] Tyler 114–5. [51] Hearn. Glimpses. 159–161 [52] Hall. Half Human. 148 [53] Tyler 122–4. [54] Nozaki. Kitsune. 195 [55] , pp.103–105 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC& hl=en& pg=PA103#v=onepage& q& f=false) [56] , p.90 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f46OerF-91EC& hl=en& pg=PA90#v=onepage& q& f=false) [57] Hearn. Glimpses. 157 [58] Ashkenazy. Handbook. 150 [59] Addiss. Ghosts & Demons. 132 [60] Vaux, Bert. "Sunshower summary" (http:/ / www. linguistlist. org/ issues/ 9/ 9-1795. html). LINGUIST List 9.1795 (Dec. 1998). A compilation of terms for sun showers from various cultures and languages. Retrieved on December 13, 2006. [61] Hearn. Glimpses. 162–163 [62] Nozaki. Kitsune. 109–124 [63] e.g., Kij Johnson's The Fox Woman (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z0S6-KNcd6wC& dq=kij+ johnson+ fox+ woman& printsec=frontcover& source=bn& hl=en& ei=Iz0JTKXECoG8lQfz_aDcDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q& f=false) and Mercedes Lackey's Spirits White as Lightning (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ispqCirVSvQC& pg=PT91& dq=kitsune+ mercedes+ lackey& cd=1#v=onepage& q& f=false)

References • Addiss, Stephen. Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. (pp. 132–137) ISBN 0-8076-1126-3 • Ashkenazy, Michael. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. ISBN 1-57607-467-6 • Bathgate, Michael. The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. New York: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-96821-6 • Hearn, Lafcadio. Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. Project Gutenberg e-text edition (http://www.gutenberg.org/ etext/8130), 2005. Retrieved on November 20, 2006. • Hamel, Frank (2003). Human Animals (http://books.google.com/books?id=f46OerF-91EC&hl=en& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766167003. • Heine, Steven. Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2150-5 • Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". Asian Folklore Studies 33:1 (1974) • Nozaki, Kiyoshi. Kitsuné — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor (http://www.delathehooda.com/ kitsune/kitsunepdf.zip). Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press. 1961. • Schumacher, Mark (September 1995). "Oinari" (http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/oinari.shtml). A to Z Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhist & Shinto Deities. Retrieved 2006-12-14. • Smyers, Karen Ann (1999). The fox and the jewel: shared and private meanings in contemporary Japanese inari worship (http://books.google.com/books?id=uaC-7pnqdtEC&hl=en&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q& f=false). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824821025. • Turnbull, Stephen. (2000). Nagashino 1575. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-250-4. • Tyler, Royall. (1987). Japanese Tales. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-75656-8

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External links • • • • • • • •

The Kitsune Page (http://www.coyotes.org/kitsune/kitsune.html) Foxtrot's Guide to Kitsune Lore (http://www.cyberus.ca/~foxtrot/kitsune/index.htm) Kitsune.org folklore (http://www.kitsune.org/) Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox – Fox spirits in Asia, and Asian fox spirits in the West (http://academia. issendai.com/fox-index.shtml) An extensive bibliography of fox-spirit books. Portal of Transformation: Kitsune in Folklore and Mythology (http://www.jh-author.com/kitsune.htm) IDEAS Undergraduate On-Line Journal (http://ideas.union.edu/articles.php?action=read&id=25) Gods of Japan page on the fox spirit (http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/oinari.shtml) Kitsune: Coyote of the Orient (http://ranea.org/watts/writing/kitsune.html)

Nekomata Nekomata (猫 又, 猫 股) are a yōkai of cats told about in folklore as well as classical kaidan, essays, etc. There are two very different types, the beast that lives in the mountains, and the ones raised domestically that grow old and transform.[1]

"Nekomata (猫 ま たHelp:Installing Japanese character sets)" from the Hyakkai Zukan by Sawaki Suushi

Nekomata

Nekomata in mountains In China, they are told in stories even older than in Japan from the Sui Dynasty like in 猫 鬼 or 金 花 猫 that told of mysterious cats, but in Japan, in the Meigetsuki by Fujiwara no Teika in the early Kamakura period, in the beginning of Tenpuku (1233), August 2, in Nanto (now Nara Prefecture), there is a statement that a nekomata (猫 胯) ate and killed several people in one night. This is the first appearance of the nekomata in literature, and the nekomata was talked about as a beast in the mountains. However, in the "Meigetsuki," concerning their appearance, it was written, "they have eyes like a cat, and have a large body like a dog," there are many who raise the question of whether or not it really is a monster of a cat,[2] and since there are statements that people suffer an illness called the "nekomata disease (猫 跨 "Nekomata to Ifu Koto (ね こ ま た と い ふ 事Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from 病Help:Installing Japanese character sets)," there is the interpretation the "Tonoigusa" by Ansei Agita. A scene of a [3] that it is actually a beast that has caught the rabies. Also, in the essay hunter shooting at a nekomata (down left) Tsurezuregusa from the late Kamakura period (around 1331), it was shapeshifted into his own mother. written, "in the mountain recesses, there are those called nekomata, and people say that they eat humans... (奥 山 に 、 猫 ま た と い ふ も の あ り て 、 人 を 食 ふ な る と 人 の 言 ひ け る に……Help:Installing Japanese character sets)."[4] Even the kaidan collections, the "Tonoigusa (宿 直 草Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" and the "Sorori Monogatari (曾 呂 利 物 語Help:Installing Japanese character sets)," nekomata conceal themselves in the mountain recesses, and there are stories where deep in the mountains they would appear shapeshifted into humans, and in folk religion there are many stories of nekomata in mountainous regions. The nekomata of the mountains have a tendency to be larger in later literature, and in the "Shin Chomonjū (新 著 聞 集Help:Installing Japanese character sets)," nekomata captured in the mountains of the Kii Province are as large as a wild boar, and in "Wakun no Shiori (倭 訓 栞Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from 1775 (Anei 4), from the statement that their roaring voice echos throughout the mountain, they can be seen to be as big as a lion or a leopard. In "Gūisō (寓 意 草Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" from 1809 (Bunka 6), a nekomata that held a dog in its mouth had a span of 9 shaku and 5 sn (about 2.8 meters). In the Etchū Province (now Toyama Prefecture), in Aizu, at the Nekomatayama said to be where nekomata would eat and kill humans (now Fukushima Prefecture), nekomata that shapeshift into humans and fool people, like Mount Nekomadake, sometimes have their legends be named after the name of the mountain. Concerning Nekomatayama, it can be seen that not following folklore at all, there actually are large cats living in the mountain that attack humans.

Nekomata that domestic cats turn into At the same time, in the Kokon Chomonjū from the Kamakura period, in the story called Kankyō Hōin (観 教 法 印Help:Installing Japanese character sets), an old cat raised in a precipitous mountain villa held in its mouth a secret treasure, a protective sword, and ran away, and people chased after it, but it disguised its appearance right then, and it left behind that the pet cat became a monster, but in the aforementioned "Tsurezuregusa," this is also a nekomata, and it talks about how other than the nekomata that conceal themselves in the mountains, there are also the pet cats that grow old, transform, and eat and abduct people. In the Edo period and afterwards, it has become generally thought that cats raised domestically would turn into nekomata as they grow old, and the aforementioned nekomata of the mountains have come to be interpreted as cats that have run away and came to live in the mountains. Because of that, a folk belief emerged in each area of Japan

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Nekomata that cats are not to be raised for many months and years. In the "Ansai Zuihitsu (安 斎 随 筆Help:Installing Japanese character sets)" by the court ceremonial Sadatake Ise, the statement "a cat that is several years of age will come to have two tails, and become the yōkai called nekomata" can be seen. Also, the mid-Edo period scholar Arai Hakuseki stated, "old cats become 'nekomata' and bewilder people," and indicating it was common sense at that time to think that cats become nekomata, and even the Kawaraban of the Edo period reported on this strange phenomenon. In the book Yamato Kaiiki (大 和 怪 異 記, engl. "Mysterious stories from Japan"), written by an unknown author in 1708, a story speaks about a haunted house of a rich samurai. The inhabitants of this house witness several poltergeist-activities and the samurai invites countless shamans, priests and evokers in attempt to make the happenings come to an end. But none of them is able to find the source of the terror. One day one of the most loyal servants observes his master's very old cat carrying a shikigami with the imprinted name of the samurai in its mouth. Immediately the servant fires a sacred arrow, hitting the cat in its head. When the cat is lying dead on the floor, all inhabitants can see that the cat has two tails and therefore had become a nekomata. With the death of the demon-cat the poltergeist-activities end. Similar eerie stories about encounters with nekomata appear in books such as Taihei Hyakumonogatari (太 平 百 物 語, engl. "Collection of 100 fairy tales"), written by Yusuke (祐 佐, or Yūsa) in 1723 and in the book Rōō Chabanashi (老 媼 茶 話, "Tea-time gossip of old ladies"), written by Misaka Daiyata (三 坂 大 彌) in 1742. It is generally said that the "mata" (又) of "nekomata" comes from how they have two tails, but from the view of folkloristics, this is seen as questionable, and since they transform as they grow older, the theory that it is the "mata" meaning "repetition," or as previously stated, since they were once thought to be a beast in the mountains, there is the theory that it comes from "mata" (爰) meaning monkeys, with the meaning that they are like monkeys that can freely come and go between trees in the mountains at will. There is also the theory that it comes from the way in which cats that grow old shed the skin off their backs and hang downwards, making it seem like they have two tails. Cats are often associated with death in Japan, and this particular spirit is often blamed. Far darker and malevolent than most bakeneko, the nekomata is said to have powers of necromancy, and upon raising the dead, will control them with ritualistic dances - gesturing with paw and tail. These yōkai are associated with strange fires and other unexplainable occurrences. The older, and the more badly treated a cat has been before its transformation, the more power the nekomata is said to have. To gain revenge against those who have wronged it, the spirit may haunt humans with visitations from their dead relatives. Like bakeneko, some tales state how these demons have taken on human appearance - but have usually appeared as older women, behaving badly in public and bringing gloom and malevolence wherever they travelled. Sometimes the tails of kittens were cut off as a precaution as it was thought that if their tails could not fork, they could not become nekomata From this discernment and strange characteristics, nekomata have been considered devilish ones from time immemorial. Due to fears and folk beliefs such as the dead resurrecting at a funeral, or that seven generations would be cursed as a result of killing a cat, it is thought that the legend of the nekomata was born. Also, in folk beliefs cats and the dead are related. As carnivores, cats have a sharp sense of detecting the smell of rotting, and so it was believed that they had a trait of approaching corpses; with this folk belief sometimes the kasha, a yōkai that steals the corpses of the dead, are seen to be the same as the nekomata. Also in Japan there are cat yōkai called the bakeneko, but since nekomata are certainly the yōkai of transformed cats, sometimes nekomata are confused with bakeneko. Furtheremore, in Canada, there have been photographs taken of cats with 2 tails.

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Nekomata

Yōkai depictions In the Edo period, many in style of illustrated reference books, yōkai emaki, have been made, and nekomata are frequently the subject of these yōkai depictions. In the Hyakkai Zukan published in 1737 (Gembun 2), there was a depiction of a nekomata taking on the appearance of a human female playing a shamisen, but since shamisen in the Edo period were frequently made by using the skins of cats, the nekomata played the shamisen and sang a sad song about its own species, and has been interpreted as a kind of irony etc.[5] Concerning the fact that they wear geisha clothing, there is the viewpoint they are related due to the fact that geisha were once called "cats (neko)" (refer to first image). Also, in the "Gazu Hyakki Yagyō" published in 1776 (An'ei 5) (refer to image on right), with a depiction of a cat on the left with its head coming out of a shōji, a cat on the right with a handkerchief on its head and its forepaw on the veranda, and a cat in the middle also wearing a Nekomata (猫 ま たHelp:Installing Japanese handkerchief and standing on two legs, and thus as a cat that has not character sets) from the Gazu Hyakki Yagyō by had enough experience and thus as difficulty standing on two legs, a Sekien Toriyama cat that has grown older and has become able to stand on two legs, it can be seen to be depicting the process by which a normal cat grows older and tramsforms into a nekomata. Also, in the Bigelow collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (the ukiyo-e collection), in the "Hyakki Yagyō Emaki," since pretty much the same composition of nekomata has been depicted, some have pointed out a relation between them.

Senri In China there is a cat yōkai called "senri (仙 狸)" (where 狸 means "leopard cat"). This is where leopard cats that grow old gain a divine spiritual power, and they would shapeshift into a beautiful man or woman and suck the spirit out of humans. There is the theory that the legends of nekomata of Japan come from tales of the senri.

Nekomata in modern subculture Nekomata are popular motifs in manga and anime today. A well known fictitious nekomata of modern times is "Kirara" from the novel and anime series InuYasha, written by Takahashi Rumiko. Kirara appears there as a cuddly little kitten with two tails when calm, but she rapidly transforms into a giant, flying saber-toothed tiger, when provoked or whenever her friend 'Sango' asks the cat to do so to help in times of need. A nekomata is also seen in Ao No Exorcist with the character Kuro aka 'Blackie'. It is known for being a docile, sad cat who is waiting for his master to return. However, hearing the guards talk about his master's death, he becomes furious, unable to believe their words. He turns into his demon form, causing chaos until his master's son, Rin, settles him down.

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Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

多 田 (2000)、170-171頁 。 笹 間 (1994)、127-128頁 。 石 川 (1986)、696頁 。 平 岩 (1992)、36-66頁 。 古 山 他 (2005)、155頁 。

References • 石 川 純 一 郎 他 (1986). 乾 克 己 他 編, ed. 日 本 伝 奇 伝 説 大 事 典. 角 川 書 店. ISBN 978-4-04-031300-9. • 笹 間 良 彦 (1994). 図 説 ・ 日 本 未 確 認 生 物 事 典. 柏 書 房. ISBN 978-4-7601-1299-9. • 多 田 克 己 (2000). 京 極 夏 彦・ 多 田 克 己 編, ed. 妖 怪 図 巻. 国 書 刊 行 会. ISBN 978-4-336-04187-6. • 平 岩 米 吉 (1992). "猫 股 伝 説 の 変 遷". 猫 の 歴 史 と 奇 話. 築 地 書 館. ISBN 978-4-806-72339-4. • 古 山 桂 子 他 (2005). 播 磨 学 研 究 所 編, ed. 播 磨 の 民 俗 探 訪. 神 戸 新 聞 総 合 出 版 セ ン タ ー. ISBN 978-4-343-00341-6. • Patrick Drazen: A Gathering of Spirits: Japan's Ghost Story Tradition: from Folklore and Kabuki to Anime and Manga. iUniverse, New York 2011, ISBN 1-4620-2942-6, page 114. • Elli Kohen: World history and myths of cats. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston 2003, ISBN 0-7734-6778-5, page 48–51. • Carl Van Vechten: The Tiger In The House. Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish 2004 (Reprint), ISBN 1-4179-6744-7, page 96.

External links • web-informations about Nekomata at obakemono.com (http://www.obakemono.com/obake/nekomata/) (English) • Nekomata – The Split-Tailed Cat (http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/21/nekomata-the-split-tailed-cat/) at hyakumonogatari.com(English)

41

Oni

42

Oni Part of the series on

Japanese mythology and folklore

Mythic texts and folktales •

Kojiki

•

Nihon Shoki

•

Fudoki

•

Kujiki

•

Kogo Shūi

•

Nihon Ryōiki

•

Otogizōshi

•

Oiwa

•

Okiku

•

Urashima Tarō

•

Konjaku Monogatari Divinities

•

Izanami

•

Izanagi

•

Amaterasu

•

Susanoo

•

Ame-no-Uzume

•

Inari

•

Kami

•

Seven Lucky Gods

•

List of divinities

Legendary creatures and spirits •

Oni

•

Kappa

•

Tengu

•

Kitsune

•

Yōkai

•

Dragon

•

Yūrei

•

List of creatures Legendary figures

•

Abe no Seimei

•

Benkei

•

Issun-bōshi

•

Kintarō

•

Momotarō

•

Tamamo-no-Mae

Oni

43 •

Sōjōbō Mythical and sacred locations

•

Mt. Hiei

•

Mt. Fuji

•

Izumo

•

Ryūgū-jō

•

Takamagahara

•

Yomi

•

Jigoku Sacred objects

• • •

Amenonuhoko Kusanagi Tonbogiri

•

Three Sacred Treasures Shintō and Buddhism

•

Bon Festival

•

Setsubun

•

Ema

•

Torii

•

Shinto shrines

•

Buddhist temples Folklorists

• • • • • • • •

Kunio Yanagita Keigo Seki Lafcadio Hearn Shigeru Mizuki Inoue Enryo

v t

e [1]

Oni

44 Oni (鬼Help:Installing Japanese character sets) are a kind of yōkai from Japanese folklore, variously translated as demons, devils, ogres or trolls. They are popular characters in Japanese art, literature and theatre. Depictions of oni vary widely but usually portray them as hideous, gigantic ogre-like creatures with sharp claws, wild hair, and two long horns growing from their heads. They are humanoid for the most part, but occasionally, they are shown with unnatural features such as odd numbers of eyes or extra fingers and toes. Their skin may be any number of colors, but red and blue are particularly common. They are often depicted wearing tiger-skin loincloths and carrying iron clubs, called kanabō (金 棒Help:Installing Japanese character sets). This image leads to the expression "oni with an iron club" (鬼 に 金 棒 oni-ni-kanabōHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), that is, to be invincible or undefeatable. It can also be used in the sense of "strong beyond strong", or having one's natural quality enhanced or supplemented by the use of some tool.

Origins The word "oni" is sometimes speculated to be derived from on, the on'yomi reading of a character (隠) meaning to hide or conceal, as oni were originally invisible spirits or gods which caused disasters, disease, and other unpleasant things. These nebulous beings could also take on a variety of forms to deceive (and often devour) humans. Thus the Chinese character 鬼 (Mandarin Pinyin: guǐ; Jyutping: gwai2) meaning "ghost" came to be used for these formless creatures.

Oni in pilgrim's clothing. Tokugawa period. Hanging scroll, ink and color on paper. 59.2 cm x 22.1 cm

The invisible oni eventually became anthropomorphized and took on its modern, ogre-like form, partly via syncretism with creatures imported by Buddhism, such as the Indian rakshasa and yaksha, the hungry ghosts called gaki, and the devilish underlings of Enma-Ō who punish sinners in Jigoku (Hell).They share many similarities with the Arabian Jinn.

Oni

45

Demon Gate Another source for the oni's image is a concept from China and Onmyōdō. The northeast direction was once termed the kimon (鬼 門, "demon gate"), and was considered an unlucky direction through which evil spirits passed. Based on the assignment of the twelve zodiac animals to the cardinal directions, the kimon was also known as the ushitora (丑 寅), or "Ox Tiger" direction, and the oni's bovine horns and cat-like fangs, claws, and tiger-skin loincloth developed as a visual depiction of this term. Temples are often built facing that direction, and Japanese buildings sometimes have L-shaped indentions at the northeast to ward oni away. Enryakuji, on Mount Hiei northeast of the center of Kyoto, and Kaneiji, in that direction from Edo Castle, are examples. The Japanese capital itself moved northeast from Nagaoka to Kyoto in the 8th century.Wikipedia:Please clarify

Traditional culture

Oni depicted in Konjaku Gazu Zoku Hyakki by Toriyama Sekien

Some villages hold yearly ceremonies to drive away oni, particularly at the beginning of Spring. During the Setsubun festival, people throw soybeans outside their homes and shout "Oni wa soto! Fuku wa uchi!" ("鬼 は 外 ！ 福 は 内 ！"Help:Installing Japanese character sets, " Oni go out! Blessings come in!"). Monkey statues are also thought to guard against oni, since the Japanese word for monkey, saru, is a homophone for the word for "leaving". Folklore has it that holly can be used to guard against Oni. In Japanese versions of the game tag, the player who is "it" is instead called the "oni". In more recent times, oni have lost some of their original wickedness[citation needed] and sometimes take on a more protective function. Men in oni costumes often lead Japanese parades to ward off any bad luck, for example. Japanese buildings sometimes include oni-faced roof tiles called onigawara (鬼 瓦Help:Installing Japanese character sets), which are thought to ward away bad luck, much like gargoyles in Western tradition. Oni are prominently featured in the Japanese children's story Momotaro (Peach Boy), and the book The Funny Little Woman.

A statue of a red oni wielding a kanabō.

Many Japanese idioms and proverbs also make reference to oni. For example, the expression oya ni ninu ko wa oni no ko (親 に 似 ぬ 子 は 鬼 の 子Help:Installing Japanese character sets) means literally "a child that does not resemble its parents is the child of an oni," but it is used idiomatically to refer to the fact that all children naturally take after their parents, and in the odd case that a child appears not to do so, it might be because the child's true biological parents are not the ones who are raising the child. Depending on the context in which it is used, it can have connotations of "children who do not act like their parents are not true human beings," and may be used by a parent to chastise a misbehaving child. Variants of this expression include oya ni ninu ko wa onigo (親 に 似 ぬ 子 は 鬼 子Help:Installing Japanese character sets) and oya ni ninu ko wa onikko (親 に 似 ぬ 子 は 鬼 っ 子Help:Installing Japanese character sets). It is also well known in Japan a game named kakure oni (隠 れ

Oni

46 鬼Help:Installing Japanese character sets), or more commonly kakurenbo, that means chase the demon and it is the same as the hide-and-seek game that children in western countries play.

Popular Culture • In Rumiko Takahashi's Urusei Yatsura, the female lead, Lum Invader, is an oni alien depicted wearing a tiger-skin bikini; as a matter of fact, the entire alien race to which she belongs is fashioned after the classical concept of oni. • Chie Shinohara's manga Ao no Fuuin uses oni as a main theme when the female protagonist is a descendant of a beautiful oni queen who wants to resurrect her kind. • Takahashi's Ranma 1/2 features a story in which one of the characters, Kasumi Tendo, is possessed by an oni, causing her to behave in uncharacteristically "evil" (yet humorous) ways. • The Touhou Project series of shoot-'em-up games has a character named Suika Ibuki, an oni with a massive gourd on her back capable of producing an endless amount of sake; legend has it that no one has seen her sober in her 700 year life. A later game in the series marked the appearance of Yuugi Hoshiguma, Suika's oni associate from a group of four incredibly powerful oni that they both belong to, called the "Four Devas of the Mountains." Yuugi, despite being as great a drinker as Suika while being just as cheerful, is even less of a lightweight than Suika, being able to enter into a fight without seeming intoxicated or even spilling any of the sake in her sake dish. • The Bleach character Love Aikawa has an Oni-themed mask. Also, his Zanpakuto's released form is a large spiked kanabō. • In the Japanese release of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask, the Fierce Deity incarnation of Link is referred to as Oni Link. • In the Mortal Kombat universe, the denizens of the Netherrealm (the series' equivalent of hell) are called Oni (though they represent a drastic deviation from the Japanese concept, being primitive ape-like demons), and the oni character Drahmin's right arm is replaced by a metal club. Another Oni fighter of the series is Moloch. • In Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, an Oni called King Yemma runs the Check-In Station in Other World, where he decides which souls go to Heaven and which to Hell. The Check-In Station and Hell are also staffed by many other oni, many of which hold iron clubs. • In the Digimon series, there is a level Champion digimon called Ogremon, which is a classical interpretation of the Japanese Oni. Hyogamon and Fugamon (two variations of Ogremon, representing ice and wind respectively) are also Oni. • The Onis are featured in Season 4 of Jackie Chan Adventures. Tarakudo (voiced by Miguel Ferrer) is the King of the Onis. • In Hellboy: Sword of Storms, Hellboy fought a giant Oni. Before the final blow can be struck with the Sword of Storms, the Oni fades away so that Hellboy can break the Sword of Storms on the statue releasing the brothers Thunder and Lightning. • Kamen Rider Hibiki, a Japanese tokusatsu series, uses Oni (which is what the Kamen Riders here are referred as) as a main theme of the series. It tells the story about ancient battle between the Oni and the Makamou. In another popular tokusatsu, the Ultra series, it is not uncommon for Oni to appear and do battle with an Ultraman. • Hyakujuu Sentai Gaoranger, Ogre Tribe Org is the main antagonist to fight the Gaorangers and Power Animals. • In The Venture Brothers season two episode "I Know Why the Caged Bird Kills", Dr. Venture is haunted by a floating Oni which has followed him from Japan. Venture and Doctor Byron Orpheus, a necromancer, attempt to banish the spirit using "tempest tongs" but the effort fails. Venture then attempts to trap the oni in the trunk of his car, at which point the demon possesses the automobile. The Oni attempts to lead Venture to Myra Brandish, Venture's former bodyguard and love who has kidnapped his sons. At the conclusion of the episode, the Oni

Oni

47 leaves with Dr. Henry Killinger, for whom the spirit has been working throughout the episode. • In the video game Muramasa: The Demon Blade, Oni are one of the various enemies the main characters battle. • Meisuke "Nube" Nueno of the manga/anime Jigoku Sensei Nube has an Oni residing in his left hand, which he uses to exorcise and defeat demons. • In Pokemon, Electabuzz, Sawk, and Throh have characteristics of Onis. • In Rumiko Takahashi's manga InuYasha, Oni are common Yokai in the series. • The Smile PreCure! character Red-oni is a villain based on the onis that appear in mythology. • In Wizard101, the Onis are depicted as Indian Elephant-headed humanoids. • In Sonic Lost World, the Deadly Six can be reference to Oni. • In the video game "Little King's Story", the "Onii" is based on the Japanese Oni. • In the Indie RPG-horror computer game "Ao Oni", the antagonist of the game is a blue Oni. • In Teen Wolf Season 3, the Oni are depicted as shadow warriors. • In the video game "Hungry Oni", the player-controlled protagonist is a mischievous red Oni. • In the video game "Shounen Kininden Tsumuji", in the final area of the game there are 3 different colored Oni.

References Notes

Bibliography • Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 3: Kinki-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. p. 29. ASIN  4861330068 (http://www. amazon.com/dp/4861330068). • Shiryōshitsu Oni Kan (http://www.waw.ne.jp/youkai/9802/trad.DBindex.html)

External links • Article on Oni at The Obakemono Project (http://www.obakemono.com/obake/oni)

Tengu

48

Tengu Part of the series on

Japanese mythology and folklore

Mythic texts and folktales •

Kojiki

•

Nihon Shoki

•

Fudoki

•

Kujiki

•

Kogo Shūi

•

Nihon Ryōiki

•

Otogizōshi

•

Oiwa

•

Okiku

•

Urashima Tarō

•

Konjaku Monogatari Divinities

•

Izanami

•

Izanagi

•

Amaterasu

•

Susanoo

•

Ame-no-Uzume

•

Inari

•

Kami

•

Seven Lucky Gods

•

List of divinities

Legendary creatures and spirits •

Oni

•

Kappa

•

Tengu

•

Kitsune

•

Yōkai

•

Dragon

•

Yūrei

•

List of creatures Legendary figures

•

Abe no Seimei

•

Benkei

•

Issun-bōshi

•

Kintarō

•

Momotarō

•

Tamamo-no-Mae

Tengu

49 Sōjōbō

•

Mythical and sacred locations •

Mt. Hiei

•

Mt. Fuji

•

Izumo

•

Ryūgū-jō

•

Takamagahara

•

Yomi

•

Jigoku Sacred objects

• • •

Amenonuhoko Kusanagi Tonbogiri

•

Three Sacred Treasures Shintō and Buddhism

•

Bon Festival

•

Setsubun

•

Ema

•

Torii

•

Shinto shrines

•

Buddhist temples Folklorists

• • • • •

Kunio Yanagita Keigo Seki Lafcadio Hearn Shigeru Mizuki Inoue Enryo

v t

• • •

Tengu (天 狗Help:Installing Japanese character sets, "heavenly dog") are a type of legendary creature found in Japanese folk religion and are also considered a type of Shinto god (kami) or yōkai (supernatural beings). Although they take their name from a dog-like Chinese demon (Tiangou), the tengu were originally thought to take the forms of birds of prey, and they are traditionally depicted with both human and avian characteristics. The earliest tengu were pictured with beaks, but this feature has often been humanized as an unnaturally long nose, which today is widely considered the tengu's defining characteristic in the popular imagination. Buddhism long held that the tengu were disruptive demons and harbingers of

e [1]

Tengu and a Buddhist monk, by Kawanabe Kyōsai. The tengu wears the cap and pom-pommed sash of a follower of Shugendō.

war.

Their

image

gradually

Tengu

50

softened, however, into one of protective, if still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. Tengu are associated with the ascetic practice known as Shugendō, and they are usually depicted in the distinctive garb of its followers, the yamabushi.

Mask of Tengu

Image The tengu in art appears in a large number of shapes, but it usually falls somewhere between a large, monstrous bird and a wholly anthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, head or beak. The tengu's long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill.[1] The tengu's long noses ally them with the Shinto deity Sarutahiko, who is described in the Japanese historical text, the Nihon Shoki, with a similar proboscis measuring seven hand-spans in length.[2] In village festivals the two figures are often portrayed with identical red, phallic-nosed mask designs.[3] Some of the earliest representations of tengu appear in Japanese picture scrolls, such as the Tenguzōshi Emaki (天 狗 草 子 絵 巻Help:Installing Japanese character sets), painted c. 1296, which parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them the hawk-like beaks of tengu demons.[4] Tengu are often pictured as taking the shape of Kobayakawa Takakage debating with the tengu some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be of Mount Hiko, by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi. The tengu's nose protrudes just enough to differentiate associated in particular with the yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who him from an ordinary yamabushi. practice Shugendō.[5] The association soon found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's distinctive costume, which includes a small black cap (頭 襟 tokinHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) and a pom-pommed sash (結 袈 裟 yuigesaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).[6] Due to their priestly aesthetic, they are often shown wielding the Shakujo, a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks. Tengu are commonly depicted holding magical ha-uchiwa (羽 団 扇 "feather fan"Help:Installing Japanese character sets), fans made of feathers. In folk tales, these fans sometimes have the ability to grow or shrink a person's nose, but usually they are attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated with tengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothed geta sandal often called tengu-geta.[7]

Tengu

51

Origins The term tengu and the characters used to write it are borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore called tiāngoǔ. Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and brings war wherever it falls. One account from the Shù Yì Jì (述 異 記, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a dog-like tiāngoǔ with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usually tiāngoǔ bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.[8] The 23rd chapter of the Nihon Shoki, written in 720, is generally held to contain the first recorded mention of tengu in Japan. In this account a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a "heavenly dog", and much like the tiāngoǔ of China, the star precedes a military uprising. Although the Chinese characters for tengu are used in the text, accompanying phonetic furigana characters give the reading Tengu as a kite-like monster, from Toriyama as amatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M.W. de Visser speculated that the Sekien's Gazu Hyakki Yakō early Japanese tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: the tiāngoǔ and the fox spirits called huli jing.[9] How the tengu was transformed from a dog-meteor into a bird-man is not clear. Some Japanese scholars have supported the theory that the tengu's image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like the tengu, the garuda are often portrayed in a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name tengu seems to be written in place of that of the garuda in a Japanese sutra called the Emmyō Jizō-kyō (延 命 地 蔵 経), but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after the tengu's image was established. At least one early story in the Konjaku Monogatari describes a tengu carrying off a dragon, which is reminiscent of the garuda's feud with the nāga serpents. In other respects, however, the tengu's original behavior differs markedly from that of the garuda, which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser has speculated that the tengu may be descended from an ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both the garuda and the tiāngoǔ when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this idea.[10] A later version of the Kujiki, an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaning tengu deity (天 狗 神). The book describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called the Tengu Meigikō (天 狗 名 義 考Help:Installing Japanese character sets) suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of the tengu, but the date and authenticity of the Kujiki, and of that edition in particular, remain disputed.[11]

Tengu

52

Evil spirits and angry ghosts The Konjaku Monogatari, a collection of stories published in the late Heian Period, contains some of the earliest tales of tengu, already characterized as they would be for centuries to come. These tengu are the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a kite.[12] Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued of tengu attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the "tengu-realm" (天 狗 道, tengudō). They began to possess people, especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths (kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned their attention to the royal family. The Kojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and the Ōkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by a tengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.[13]

Iga no Tsubone confronts the tormented spirit of Sasaki no Kiyotaka, by Yoshitoshi. Sasaki's ghost appears with the wings and claws of a tengu.

One notorious tengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. The Hōgen Monogatari tells the story of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hōgen Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province on Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsome tengu with long nails and eyes like a kite's.[14] In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of the tengu's victims, however, would come back in a state of near death or madness, sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung. The tengu of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result the creatures have become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expression tengu ni naru, literally, "becoming a tengu", is still used to describe a conceited person.[15]

Great and small demons In the Genpei Jōsuiki, written in the late Kamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed account of tengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto the tengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell, yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of tengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride. The god introduces the notion that not all tengu are equal; knowledgeable men become daitengu (大 天 狗, great tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), but ignorant ones become kotengu (小 天 狗, small tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).[16] The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these daitengu as Sōjōbō of Kurama, Tarōbō of Atago, and Jirōbō of Hira.[17] The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famous tengu.

Tengu

53

A section of the Tengu Meigikō, later quoted by Inoue Enryō, lists the daitengu in this order: • Sōjōbō (僧 正 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Kurama • Tarōbō (太 郎 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Atago • Jirōbō (二 郎 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of the Hira Mountains • Sanjakubō (三 尺 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Akiba • Ryūhōbō (笠 鋒 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Kōmyō • Buzenbō (豊 前 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Hiko • Hōkibō (伯 耆 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Daisen (mountain) • Myōgibō (妙 義 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Ueno (Ueno Park)

Crow Tengu, late Edo period (28x25x58cm)

• Sankibō (三 鬼 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Itsukushima • Zenkibō (前 鬼 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Ōmine • Kōtenbō (高 天 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Katsuragi • Tsukuba-hōin (筑 波 法 印Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Hitachi Province • Daranibō (陀 羅 尼 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Fuji • Naigubu (内 供 奉Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Takao • Sagamibō (相 模 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Shiramine • Saburō (三 郎Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Mount Iizuna • Ajari (阿 闍 梨Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Higo Province[18]

Akiba Sanjakubō Daigongen near the portal of the Hase-Temple (Hasedera), Nara Prefecture

Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also called hanatakatengu (鼻 高 天 狗, tall-nosed tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets). Kotengu may conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes called Karasu-Tengu (烏 天 狗, crow tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), or koppa- or konoha-tengu (木 葉 天 狗, 木 の 葉 天 狗foliage tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets).[19] Inoue Enryō described two kinds of tengu in his Tenguron: the great daitengu, and the small, bird-like konoha-tengu who live in Cryptomeria trees. The konoha-tengu are noted in a book from 1746 called the Shokoku Rijin Dan (諸 国 里 人 談Help:Installing Japanese character sets), as bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in the Ōi River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.[20]

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54

Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or yamabushi image are sometimes called tengu. For example, tengu in the guise of wood-spirits may be called guhin (occasionally written kuhin) (狗 賓 dog guestsHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), but this word can also refer to tengu with canine mouths or other features. The people of Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a creature called shibaten or shibatengu (シ バ テ ン, 芝 天 狗, lawn tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), but this is a small childlike being who loves sumō wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds of kappa.[21] Another water-dwelling tengu is the kawatengu (川 天 狗, river tenguHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) of the Greater Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to fishermen.[22]

Protective spirits and deities The Shasekishū, a book of Buddhist parables from the Kamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and bad tengu. The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism - although the flaw of pride or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain the same basically good, dharma-abiding persons they were in life.[23] The tengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century. Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century Kaidan Toshiotoko (怪 談 登 志 男Help:Installing Japanese character sets), a tengu took the form of a yamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of a Zen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. The tengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. The tengu requested a piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery with miraculous aid.[24] A tengu mikoshi (portable shrine) in the city of Beppu, Ōita Prefecture, on Kyūshū.

Tengu

55 In the 18th and 19th centuries, tengu came to be feared as the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange stories Sanshu Kidan (三 州 奇 談Help:Installing Japanese character sets), a tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley where the guhin live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In the Sōzan Chomon Kishū (想 山 著 聞 奇 集Help:Installing Japanese character sets), written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the wood-cutters of Mino Province, who used a sort of rice cake called kuhin-mochi to placate the tengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish called okoze was offered to the tengu by woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work.[25] The people of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that the tengu loathe mackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the mischievous spirits.[26] A Yamabushi Tengu (山 伏 天 狗Help:Installing Japanese character sets)

Tengu are worshipped as beneficial kami (gods or revered spirits) in various Japanese religious cults. For example, the tengu Saburō of Izuna is worshipped on that mountain and various others as Izuna Gongen (飯 綱 権 現, incarnation of IzunaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets), one of the primary deities in the Izuna Shugen cult, which also has ties to fox sorcery and the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers of tengu on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as Sanjakubō (三 尺 坊Help:Installing Japanese character sets) or Akiba Gongen (秋 葉 権 現Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Akiba and Dōryō Gongen (道 了 権 現Help:Installing Japanese character sets) of Saijō-ji Temple in Odawara.[27]

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In popular folk tales Tengu appear frequently in the orally-transmitted tales collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portray tengu as ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some common folk tales in which tengu appear include: • "The Tengu's Magic Cloak" (天 狗 の 隠 れ み の Tengu no KakureminoHelp:Installing Japanese character sets): A boy looks through an ordinary piece of bamboo and pretends he can see distant places. A tengu, overwhelmed by curiosity, offers to trade it for a magic straw cloak that renders the wearer invisible. Having duped the tengu, the boy continues his mischief while wearing the cloak. Another version of this story tells of an ugly old man who tricks a tengu into giving him his magical cloak and causes mayhem for his fellow villagers. The story ends with the tengu regaining the coat through a game of riddle exchange and punishes the man by turning him into a wolf.[28] • "The Old Man's Lump Removed" (瘤 取 り 爺 さ ん Kobu-tori JiisanHelp:Installing Japanese character sets): An old man has a lump or tumor on his face. In the mountains he encounters a band of tengu making merry and joins their dancing. He pleases them so much that they want him to join them the next night, and offer a gift for him. In addition, they take the lump off his face, thinking that he will want it back and therefore have to join them the next night. An unpleasant neighbor, who also has a lump, hears of the old man's good fortune and attempts to repeat it, and steal the gift. The tengu, however, simply give him the first lump in addition to his own, because they are disgusted by his bad dancing, and because he tried to steal the gift.[29]

The folk hero Kintarō upsets a nest of small tengu.

• "The Tengu's Fan" (天 狗 の 羽 団 扇 Tengu no HauchiwaHelp:Installing Japanese character sets) A scoundrel obtains a tengu's magic fan, which can shrink or grow noses. He secretly uses this item to grotesquely extend the nose of a rich man's daughter, and then shrinks it again in exchange for her hand in marriage. Later he accidentally fans himself while he dozes, and his nose grows so long it reaches heaven, resulting in painful misfortune for him.[30] • "The Tengu's Gourd" (天 狗 の 瓢 箪 "Tengu no Hyōtan"Help:Installing Japanese character sets): A gambler meets a tengu, who asks him what he is most frightened of. The gambler lies, claiming that he is terrified of gold or mochi. The tengu answers truthfully that he is frightened of a kind of plant or some other mundane item. The tengu, thinking he is playing a cruel trick, then causes money or rice cakes to rain down on the gambler. The gambler is of course delighted and proceeds to scare the tengu away with the thing he fears most. The gambler then obtains the tengu's magic gourd (or another treasured item) that was left behind.[31] • "The Tengu, and the Woodcutter": A tengu bothers a woodcutter, showing off his supernatural abilities by guessing everything the man is thinking. The woodcutter swings his axe, and a splinter of wood hits the tengu on the nose. The tengu flees in terror, exclaiming that humans are dangerous creatures who can do things without thinking about them.[32]

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Tengu Around The World The Kaua’i Museum in Hawaii (http:/ / www. kauaimuseum. org/ ) has an example of a tengu mask on display. The legend for the mask states, “Unpainted, carved mask of a tengu, demon, in a contemporary style…The natural wood grain decorates this contemporary carving of a tengu mask. It is based on a long tradition of mask carvings used in festivals throughout Japan.” The edge of the mask is stamped “1985” and it appears to be a traveler’s souvenir. There are metal loops on the back sides of the mask with a heavy cord attached. The Kaua’i Museum’s tengu mask is adult sized and could be worn using the cord that is attached. It is curved to fit one’s face, with holes for eyes, nostrils, and mouth. The mask is carved from blonde colored wood, likely a soft-wood for ease of carving, and evidently fashioned from a single block of wood with no evidence of gluing or splicing. It is made from a piece of wood cut from the side of a tree where there was a limb growing out of the trunk. The vertical grain of the wood is evident, along with typical natural discolorations in the wood. Since the mask is unpainted, the smooth sanded texture of the wood can be seen. The direction of the grain of the wood is vertical in line with the face. The wood of the nose is grained as you would expect a branch extending from the trunk of the tree to be, along its rather long shaft. The top of the mask has individual sections above the eyes that stand out from the head as heavy protruding eyebrows. The eyebrow area is in sections and appears as a type of unibrow across the full face. There is a small circle in the middle of each eyebrow section immediately over the eyes with vertical lines extending toward the top of the mask. The sockets for the eyes are deep set, almond shaped, with round holes in the center through which the wearer can see. The nose is the most outstanding and significant feature of the mask, extending six to eight inches and slightly curving up toward the bulbous end. The nostril holes immediately below the shaft are significant, with grooves above them extending several inches along the nose and grooves below each nostril leading to a rather long but thin upper lip that is curled in a pie crust-like wavy pattern, almost appearing as the hint of a smile. The prominent cheekbones are almost unnoticed in the shadow of the nose but help exaggerate the depth of the eye sockets. The ears are flat to the head, and rather long. The teeth Tengu Mask, Kauai Museum are large, strong, and square, except for the incisors above and below, which are interlocking fangs. Below the nose, the mouth is strong, the chin short but firm, and indicates a leader’s jaw set with strong determination. The mouth is filled with strong, square teeth, and includes upper and lower incisor fangs. If decorated traditionally, the mask would be painted a shade of red in keeping with the examples of other tengu masks. The use of hair varies among examples and can range from carved and painted hair, to hair that is fastened to and extending from the top of the mask, to no hair at all, leaving only the wearer’s hair to contribute to the persona. Facial hair can be none or any combination of carved and painted or fastened moustache and beard. The mask from the museum shows no head or facial hair.

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Martial arts During the 14th century, the tengu began to trouble the world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous ancestors the tiāngoǔ, the tengu became creatures associated with war.[33] Legends eventually ascribed to them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat. This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend surrounding the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was assassinated by the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and become a monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered the mountain's tengu, Sōjōbō. This spirit taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might bring vengeance on the Taira.[34]

Crow-Tengu (karasu-tengu) supervising a competition with small bows. Printed in Yōkyu hidensho (Secret Tradition of the Small Bow), 1687

Ushiwaka-maru training with the tengu of Mount Kurama, by Kunitsuna Utagawa. This subject is very common in ukiyo-e. Originally the actions of this tengu were portrayed as another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions of the story, the Noh play Kurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the sight of a strange yamabushi. Sōjōbō thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.[35]

Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In the Sōzan Chomon Kishū, a boy is carried off by a tengu and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from Inaba Province, related

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59 by Inoue Enryō, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by a tengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai appears to whom the tengu has appeared in a dream, and the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.[36] Some rumors surrounding the ninja indicate that they were also instructed by the tengu.

Modern fiction Profoundly entrenched in the Japanese imagination for centuries, tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in Japan and increasingly in other countries. They often appear among the many characters and creatures featured in Japanese cinema, animation, comics, and video games.

Japan's regent Hōjō Tokimune, who showed down the Mongols, fights off tengu

One of the most famous modern fictional Tengu is the Tengu named Haruka, from the Japanese animation/manga comic Tactics. Haruka takes the form of a tall young man with crow-like wings and an unusually large nose for a manga. Within the storyline for Garoyles-Bad Guys, the only published comic book spinoff of the Disney Gargoyles TV series so far, the gargoyles of Japan — as with the Ishimura Clan, a larger clan than Goliath's Manhattan Clan — are universally called "tengu" in Japan. In the 2009 movie RoboGeisha the higher-ranking Geisha soldiers are called "Tengun" and wear red long-nosed masks modeled after the human form of the tengu. "Tengu Milk" is one of their attacks. In the 2009 video game Mini Ninjas Tengu appear as friendly Non-player characters. In Ninja Sentai Kakuranger, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers season 3, and Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, the Tengu appears as a monster of the day/week (Kakuranger and Alien Rangers "adapted into Professor Longnose"), a queen Tengu monster which was a cut monster from the movie but appears in its Game Boy adaption as a boss, and as minions in the movie, season 3 of MMPR & the 10 episode Alien Ranger arc. In the movie, they are called the "Tengu Warriors". The suits for the Tengu Warriors are reused in the show and called the "Tenga Warriors". A Tengu-like monster known as Hit Tengu appears as a monster of the day in an episode of Tensou Sentai Goseiger (known as No-Joke in its American adaptation Power Rangers Megaforce). In the series Urusei Yatsura, one of Lum's many rivals for Ataru's affection was the princess of Tengu, Kurama. In the Pokémon series, there is an evolutionary family based on the Tengu: Seedot, Nuzleaf and Shiftry; they are known for cruel pranks and long noses. Digimon has its own version of Karasu-tengu, which is the Karatenmon. In the anime Shinzo, the Bird Enterran named Lord Caris has a Tengu-like appearance. In the manga/anime One Piece, Usopp has a Tengu-like appearance. He is known for his trickery and using plants as weapons.

Tengu Graham Masterton's horror novel Tengu tells of a conspiracy by a secret Japanese society to avenge the American bombing of Hiroshima by producing invincible warriors possessed by the Tengu. It includes details of some of the mythology and rituals surrounding the Tengu. This novel in turn inspired the Necromantia song 'Circle of Burned Doves'. Many video games reference Tengu in some way. It has been a creature long-found in NetHack and Angband (which is primarily based on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, but has borrowed creatures from many different genres). In the game it is an evil demon capable of teleporting itself next to your character or teleporting your character next to it. It is also found as a playable bird-like race in Dungeon Crawl Stone Soup. In Super Mario Bros. 2, there is an enemy named Tweeter based on a Tengu. An enemy based after the Tengu can be found in the 2006 game Okami. However this version is actually a bird or similar creature, which sports the Tengu-based mask. The games Mega Man 8 and Mega Man and Bass also feature the boss character Tengu Man as one of Dr. Wily's creations. He is a very cocky and overconfident Robot Master, wielding the Tornado Hold (Mega Man 8) and the Tengu Blade (Mega Man and Bass). His appearance is based on the traditional red-faced mask with a long nose. Dan Hibiki's father, Gou Hibiki in the Street Fighter series is red faced and has a long nose. Also, in the SNES game EarthBound, there is an enemy called Tangoo, named Sir Tengu in Japan. Gekikro is the monsters which based on Tengu from the Spectrobes series. In Eve Online, the Tengu is the name of the Caldari strategic cruiser, and in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, in the Plant chapter of Arsenal Gear, you fight soldiers called "Tengus". In the dōjin soft game series Touhou Project, Inubashiri Momiji, Himekaidou Hatate, and Shameimaru Aya are stated to be tengu, although with their cute appearances and lack of typical Tengu features (such as long noses), they are primarily based on mythical tengu in behavior and function. Notably, while Hatate and Aya are crow based Tengu, Momiji is a "wolf" tengu, possibly referencing the canine (Tiangou) name source. In SNK vs. Capcom: SVC Chaos, the boss character "Serious Mr. Karate" wears a Tengu mask. This is a reference to the final boss in the original Art of Fighting, Mr. Karate (real name Takuma Sakazaki), who wore the Tengu mask. In Red Alert 3 and Red Alert 3 Uprising, there is a unit called Mecha Tengu, an anti-infantry mech the can transform into an interceptor aircraft. In Dead or Alive 2 the final boss is a Tengu. The Tengu is an unlockable character in Dead or Alive 4. In the Japanese version of the video game, Zombie Nation, the player character is a giant levitating Tengu mask. A Tengu also appeared on the TV series Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja in the episode "Evil Spirit Week". Madara Uchiha's complete Susanno, from Naruto Shippuden, resembles a tengu In the Manga Black Bird by Sakurakouji Kanoko, the main character lover is the clan leader of Tengu In the Manga Rosario+Vampire, the character Haiji Miyamoto's true form is that of a Crow-Tengu. In the anime, Nurarihyon No Mago, the character Karasu-Tengu and his children are loyal members of the Nura Clan. They would fly and alert the leaders of any danger. Karasu-Tengu and his children are crow tengus, as thus their name, Karasu. It is also known that Karasu-Tengu is an advisor and friend to the leader of the Nura clan, Nurarihyon. In the game Ragnarok, a monster called Tengu.[37] Paizo's role-playing game, Pathfinder,[38] and Wizards of the Coast's RPG, Dungeons and Dragons 3.5 edition,[39] have a race, Tengu.

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Notes [1] de Visser, pp. 61. The kite referred to here is tobi or tonbi (鳶), the Japanese black-eared kite (Milvus migrans lineatus). [2] Encyclopedia of Shinto:Sarutahiko (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry. php?entryID=137) [3] Moriarty p. 109. See also: Japanese language blog post on tengu and Sarutahiko (http:/ / blog. hix05. com/ blog/ 2006/ 11/ post_35. html). [4] Fister p. 105. See images from this scroll here (http:/ / www. nezu-muse. or. jp/ syuuzou/ kaiga/ 10363. 1. html) and here (http:/ / www. nezu-muse. or. jp/ syuuzou/ kaiga/ 10363. 2. html). [5] de Visser, pp. 55-57. [6] Fister, p. 103. For images of the yamabushi's costume look here (http:/ / www. d6. dion. ne. jp/ ~zenkou/ yamabusi/ yamabusi. htm). [7] Mizuki 2001, p. 122. [8] de Visser, pp. 27-30. [9] de Visser, pp. 34-35. [10] de Visser, pp. 87-90. [11] de Visser, pp. 43-44; Mizuki, Mujara 4, p.7. [12] de Visser, pp. 38-43. [13] de Visser, pp. 45-47. This tengu-ghost eventually appeared and admitted to riding on the emperor's back with his wings clasped over the man's eyes. [14] de Visser, pp. 48-49. [15] Mizuki 2001. [16] de Visser, pp. 51-53. [17] de Visser, pp. 71. [18] de Visser, p. 82; most kanji and some name corrections retrieved from here (http:/ / www1. bbweb-arena. com/ baron/ tengu. html). [19] Mizuki 2001 [20] de Visser, p. 84; Mizuki 2003, p. 70. The term konoha-tengu is often mentioned in English texts as a synonym for daitengu, but this appears to be a widely-repeated mistake which is not corroborated by Japanese-language sources. [21] Mizuki, Mujara 4, p. 94 [22] Mizuki, Mujara 1, p. 38; [[Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ cgi-bin/ YoukaiDB/ kwaiiList. cgi?Name=$B%+ %o%F%s%0(B& Pref=& Area=Á´¹ñ)]: Kawatengu] [23] [24] [25] [26]

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Elephant catching a flying tengu

de Visser, pp. 58-60. de Visser, pp. 72-76. de Visser, pp. 76-79. The okoze fish is known to science as Anema inerme, the mottled stargazer. Folklore texts cited in the Kaii*Yōkai Denshō Database:

•

Ueda Eikichi, 1937: (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0510001. shtml), (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0510002. shtml) • Ogura Manabu, 1972: (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 2470027. shtml), (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 2470011. shtml) • Chūō Daigaku Minzoku Kenkyūkai (Chuo University Folklore Research Society), 1986: (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 1070360. shtml) [27] de Visser (Fox and Badger) p. 107–109. See also: Encyclopedia of Shinto: Izuna Gongen (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry. php?entryID=193) and Encyclopedia of Shinto: Akiha Shinkō (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry. php?entryID=762), and Saijoji, a.k.a. Doryo-son (http:/ / www. asahi-net. or. jp/ ~qm9t-kndu/ saijoji. htm). [28] Seki p. 170. Online version here (http:/ / web-japan. org/ kidsweb/ folk/ tengu/ tengu. html). [29] Seki p. 128-129. Online version here (http:/ / homepage2. nifty. com/ p-sona/ english/ kagawa-E. html). Oni often take the place of the tengu in this story. [30] Seki p. 171. A version of this story has been popularized in English as "The Badger and the Magic Fan".( ISBN 0-399-21945-5 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Special:Booksources& isbn=0399219455)) [31] Seki p. 172. Online version here (http:/ / www. geocities. co. jp/ HeartLand-Gaien/ 7211/ kudos8/ tengu. html). [32] Seki p. 54. This story often involves other mountain spirits, such as the yama-uba. A version specifically involving a tengu is recorded in Japanese here (http:/ / www. nichibun. ac. jp/ YoukaiCard/ 0950002. shtml). [33] de Visser, pp. 67. [34] de Visser, pp. 47-48.

Tengu [35] Outlined in Japanese here (http:/ / www. noh-kyogen. com/ story/ ka/ kuramatengu. html). For another example see the picture scroll Tengu no Dairi here (http:/ / dbs. humi. keio. ac. jp/ naraehon/ ehon/ index2-e. asp?ID=KL044& FRAME=False), in which the tengu of Mount Kurama is working with a Buddha (who was once Yoshitsune's father) to overthrow the Taira clan. This indicates that the tengu is now involved in a righteous cause rather than an act of wickedness. [36] de Visser, p. 79. [37] http:/ / ratemyserver. net/ index. php?page=mob_db& mob_id=1405 [38] http:/ / paizo. com/ pathfinderRPG/ prd/ advancedRaceGuide/ featuredRaces/ tengus. html#_tengu [39] http:/ / www. dandwiki. com/ wiki/ Tengu_(3. 5e_Race)

References Primary sources • de Visser, M. W. (1908). "The Tengu". Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan (Z. P. Maruya & Co.) 34 (2): 25–99. • Fister, Pat (1985). "Tengu, the Mountain Goblin". In Stephen Addiss. Japanese Ghosts and Demons. New York: George Braziller, Inc. pp. 103–112. ISBN 0-8076-1126-3. • Mizuki, Shigeru (2001). Mizuki Shigeru No Nihon Yōkai Meguri. Japan: JTB. pp. 122–123. ISBN 4-533-03956-1. • Seki, Keigo (1966). "Types of Japanese Folktales". Asian Folklore Studies (Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan University.) 25: 1–220. doi: 10.2307/1177478 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1177478). JSTOR  1177478 (http:// www.jstor.org/stable/1177478).

Supplementary sources • de Visser, M. W. (1908). "The Fox and the Badger in Japanese Folklore". Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan (Z. P. Maruya & Co.) 36 (3): 107–116. • Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 1: Kantō, Hokkaidō, Okinawa-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN 4-86133-004-1. • Mizuki, Shigeru (2003). Mujara 2: Chūbu-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN 4-86133-005-X. • Mizuki, Shigeru (2004). Mujara 4: Chūgoku/Shikoku-hen. Japan: Soft Garage. ISBN 4-86133-016-5. • Moriarty, Elizabeth (1972). "The Communitarian Aspect of Shinto Matsuri". Asian Folklore Studies (Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan University) 31 (2): 91–140. doi: 10.2307/1177490 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 1177490). JSTOR  1177490 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1177490). • Knutsen, Roald (2011). Tengu - The shamanic and esoteric origins of japanese martial arts. Kent: Global Oriental. ISBN 978-1-906876-22-7.

External links • The Tengu (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC32862935&id=zj6GffKNYHkC&pg=RA27-PA15& vq=tengu&dq=tengu&as_brr=1) by M. W. de Visser, courtesy of Google Books (http://books.google.com). • Tengu: the Slayer of Vanity (http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/tengu.shtml) • Metropolis - Big in Japan: Tengu (http://metropolis.co.jp/biginjapan/364/biginjapaninc.htm) • The Tengu Race in the online role-playing game Guild Wars (http://wiki.guildwars.com/wiki/Tengu) • Tengu statues (http://tonymcnicol.com/2008/11/06/takao-tokyos-mystical-mountain/) • Mount Takao, a Tengu's living place in Tokyo (http://cooljapanonline.com/tokyo_stories/06-takao/)

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Yōkai Part of the series on

Japanese mythology and folklore

Mythic texts and folktales •

Kojiki

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Nihon Shoki

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Fudoki

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Kujiki

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Kogo Shūi

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Nihon Ryōiki

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Otogizōshi

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Oiwa

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Okiku

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Urashima Tarō

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Konjaku Monogatari Divinities

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Izanami

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Izanagi

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Amaterasu

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Susanoo

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Ame-no-Uzume

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Inari

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Kami

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Seven Lucky Gods

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List of divinities

Legendary creatures and spirits •

Oni

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Kappa

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Tengu

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Kitsune

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Yōkai

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Dragon

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Yūrei

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List of creatures Legendary figures

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Abe no Seimei

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Benkei

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Issun-bōshi

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Kintarō

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Momotarō

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Tamamo-no-Mae

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Sōjōbō Mythical and sacred locations

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Mt. Hiei

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Mt. Fuji

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Izumo

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Ryūgū-jō

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Takamagahara

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Yomi

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Jigoku Sacred objects

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Amenonuhoko Kusanagi Tonbogiri

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Three Sacred Treasures Shintō and Buddhism

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Bon Festival

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Setsubun

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Ema

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Torii

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Shinto shrines

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Buddhist temples Folklorists

• • • • • • • •

Kunio Yanagita Keigo Seki Lafcadio Hearn Shigeru Mizuki Inoue Enryo

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e [1]

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Yōkai (妖 怪Help:Installing Japanese character sets, ghost, phantom, strange apparition) are a class of supernatural monsters in Japanese folklore. The word yōkai is made up of the kanji for "bewitching; attractive; calamity" and "apparition; mystery; suspicious".[1] They can also be called ayakashi (妖Help:Installing Japanese character sets), mononoke (物 の 怪Help:Installing Japanese character sets), or mamono (魔 物Help:Installing Japanese character sets). Yōkai range eclectically from the malevolent to the mischievous, or occasionally bring good fortune to those who encounter them. Often they possess animal features (such as the Kappa, which is similar to a turtle, or the Tengu which has wings), other times they can appear mostly human, some look like inanimate objects and others have no discernible shape. Yōkai usually have a spiritual supernatural power, with shapeshifting being one of the most common. Yōkai that have the ability to shapeshift are called obake. Japanese folklorists and historians use yōkai as "supernatural or unaccountable phenomena to their informants". In the Edo period, many artists, such as Toriyama Sekien, created yōkai inspired by folklore or their own ideas, and in the present, several yōkai created by them (e.g. Kameosa and Amikiri, see below) are wrongly considered as being of legendary origin.

Types There are a wide variety of yōkai in Japanese folklore. In general, yōkai is a Ukiyo-e print of yōkai, by Aotoshi Matsui broad term, and can be used to encompass virtually all monsters and supernatural beings, even including creatures from European folklore on occasion (e.g., the English bugbear is often included in Japanese folklore to the point that some mistakenly believe it originates from said folklore).

Animals Many indigenous Japanese animals are thought to have magical qualities. Most of these are henge (変 化Help:Installing Japanese character sets), which are shapeshifters (o-bake, bake-mono[2]) that often appear in human form, mostly women. Some of the better known animal yōkai include the following: • Tanuki (raccoon dogs) • Kitsune (foxes) • Hebi (snakes) • Mujina (badgers) • Bakeneko (cats) • Tsuchigumo and jorōgumo (spiders) • Inugami (dogs)

Ukiyo-e print of yōkai, by Kawanabe Kyōsai

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Oni One of the most well-known aspects of Japanese folklore is the oni, which is a sort of mountain-dwelling ogre, usually depicted with red, blue, brown or black skin, two horns on its head, a wide mouth filled with fangs, and wearing nothing but a tigerskin loincloth. It often carries an iron kanabo or a giant sword. Oni are mostly depicted as evil, but can occasionally be the embodiment of an ambivalent natural force. They are, like many obake, associated with the direction northeast.

Tengu A goblin from Japanese mythology that has several supernatural powers and skills in martial arts, the tengu were originally extremely dangerous demons and enemies of Buddhism, but over centuries, their behavior changed from spirits of the damned to active defenders of Dharma.

Tsukumogami Tsukumogami are an entire class of yōkai and obake, comprising ordinary household items that have come to life on the one-hundredth anniversary of their birthday. This virtually unlimited classification includes: • Bakezōri (straw sandals) • • • • • •

Biwa-bokuboku (a lute) Burabura (a paper lantern) Karakasa (old umbrellas) Kameosa (old sake jars) Morinji-no-kama (tea kettles) Mokumokuren (paper screens with eyes)

Human transformations There are a large number of yōkai who were originally ordinary human beings, transformed into something horrific and grotesque usually during an extremely emotional state. Women suffering from intense jealousy, for example, were thought to transform into the female oni represented by hannya masks. Other examples of human transformations or humanoid yōkai are: • Rokuro-kubi (humans able to elongate their necks during the night) • Ohaguro-bettari (a figure, usually female, that turns to reveal a face with only a blackened mouth) • Futakuchi-onna (a woman with a voracious extra mouth on the back of her head) • Dorotabō (the risen corpse of a farmer, who haunts his abused land)

Other Ukiyo-e print of yōkai, by Kawanabe Kyōsai

Some yōkai are extremely specific in their habits, for instance: • Azuki Arai (a yōkai who is always found washing azuki beans).

• Akaname (only found in dirty bathrooms and spends its time licking the filth left by the untidy owners). • Ashiarai Yashiki (A gargantuan foot that appears in rooms and demands the terrified home owner wash it) • Tofu Kozo (a small monk who carries a plate with a block of tofu).

Yōkai

History Ancient and middle ages • First century: there is a book from what is now China titled 循 史 伝 with the statement "the spectre (yokai) was in the imperial court for a long time. The king asked Tui for the reason. He answered that there was great anxiety and he gave a recommendation to empty the imperial room" (久 之 宮 中 数 有 妖 恠 （ 妖 怪 ） 王 以 問 遂 遂 以 為 有 大 憂 宮 室 将 空), thus using "妖 恠" to mean "phenomenon that surpasses human knowledge." • Houki 8 (772): in the Shoku Nihongi, there is the statement "shinto purification is performed because yokai appear very often in the imperial court, (大 祓 、 宮中にしきりに、妖怪あ る た め な り)," using the word "yokai" to mean not anything in particular, but strange phenomena in general. • Middle of the Heian era "Hyakki Yagyo Emaki" Artist unknown, Muromachi Period (794-1185/1192): In The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, there is the statement "there are tenacious mononoke (い と 執 念 き 御 も の の け に 侍 る め り)" as well as a statement by Murasaki Shikibu that "the mononoke have become quite dreadful (御 も の の け の い み じ う こ は き な り け り)," which are the first appearances of the word "mononoke." • Koubu 3 (1370): In the Taiheiki, in the fifth volume, there is the statement, "Sagami no Nyudo was not at all frightened by yokai."

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Edo period Tenmei 8 (1788): Publication of the Bakemono chakutocho by Masayoshi Kitao. This was a kibyoshi diagram book of yokai, but it was prefaced with the statement "it can be said that the so-called yokai in our society is a representation of our feelings that arise from fear" (世 に い ふ よ う く わ い は お くびょうよりおこるわが心をむかふへ あ ら わ し て み る と い え ど も…), and already in this era, while yokai were being researched, it indicated that there were people who questioned whether yokai really existed or not. It was in this era that the technology of the printing press and publication was first started to be widely used, that a publishing culture developed, and was frequently a subject of kibyoshi[3] and other publications. As a result, kashi-hon shops that handled such books spread and became widely used, making the general public's impression of each yokai fixed, spreading throughout all of Japan. For example, before the Edo period, there were plenty of interpretations about what the yokai that were classified as "Various Yokai Flying out of Wicker Clothes Hamper" "kappa," but because of books and publishing, the notion of from the "Omoi Tsuzura" (お も ゐ つ づ ら), "kappa" became anchored to what is now the modern notion of Yoshitoshi kappa. Also, including other kinds of publications, other than yokai born from folk legend, there were also many newly created yokai that were created through puns or word plays, and the Gazu Hyakki Hagyo by Sekien Toriyama is one example of that. Also, when the Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period, it is thought that one reason for the appearance of new yokai was that since there was demand for the story-tellers to tell about yokai that were not yet known to society, there were cases where individuals simply made up new yokai, and it is known that the kasa-obake and the tōfu-kozō are examples of these. They are also frequently depicted in ukiyo-e, and there are artists that have drawn famous yokai like Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi, Kawanabe Kyōsai, and Katsushiga Hokusai, and there are also Hyakki Yagyō books made by artists of the Kanō school. In this period, toys and games like karuta, sugoroku, pogs frequently used yokai as characters. Thus, with the development of a publishing culture, yokai depictions that were treasured in temples and shrines were able to become something more familiar to people, and it is thought that this is the reason that even though yokai were originally things to be feared, they have then became characters that people feel close to.

Yōkai

Meiji and afterwards With the Meiji Restoration, Western ideas and translated western publications began to make an impact, and western tales were particularly sought after. Things like binbogami, yakubyogami, and shinigami were talked about, and shinigami were even depicted in classical rakugo, and even though the shinigami were misunderstood as a kind of Japanese yokai or kami, they actually became well-known among the populace through a rakugo called "Shinigami" in San'yūtei Enchō, which was made with reference to the Grimm fairy tale "Godfather Death" and the Italian opera "Crispino." In this way, mysterious phenomena became known among the Japanese populace, and while being misunderstood as Japanese yokai, or modern "western yokai," has had a considerable history in Japan. At the same time, classical Japanese culture was looked down upon, and there are examples of songs, dances, and books of legends being burned. [4] "Shinigami" 。 Scientific thinking was considered superior, while yokai and other superstitions tended to be denounced, but from the end of the Edo period until the Showa and Heisei periods, the publications by folkloricists of the time and the respect placed upon folklore played an undeniable role in preventing the disappearance of Japanese folk culture.

Modern times From modern times until the present, since yokai are introduced in various kinds of media, they have become well-known among the old, young, men and women. The kamishibai from before the war, and the manga industry, as well as the kashi-hon shops that continued to exist until around Showa 40 (the 1970s), as well as television contributed to the public knowledge and familiarity with yokai. Nowadays, yokai plays a role in attracting tourism revitalizing local regions, like the places depicted in the Tono Monogatari like Tono, Iwate, Iwate Prefecture and the Tottori Prefecture, which is Shigeru Mizuki's place of birth. In Kyoto, there is a store called Yokaido, which is a renovated machiya (traditional Kyoto-style house), and the owner gives a guided yokai tour of Kyoto. In this way, Yokai are told about in legends in various forms, but traditional oral story telling by the elders and the older people is rare, and regionally unique situations and background in oral story telling are not easily conveyed. For example, the classical yokai represented by tsukumogami can only be felt as something realistic by living close to nature, such as with tanuki (Japanese racoon dogs), foxes and weasels. Furthermore, in the suburbs, and other regions, even when living in a primary-sector environment, there are tools that are no longer seen, such as the inkstone, the kama (a large cooking pot), or the tsurube (a bucket used for getting water from a well), and there exist yokai that are reminiscent of old lifestyles such as the azukiarai and the dorotabo. As a result, even for those born in the first decade of the Showa period (1925-1935), except for some who were evacuated to the countryside, they would feel that those things that become yokai are "not familiar" are "not very undersandable." For example, in classical rakugo, even though people understand the words and what they refer to, they are not able to imagine it as something that could be realistic. Thus, the modernization of society has had a negative effect on the place of yokai in classical Japanese culture. On the other hand, the yokai introduced through mass media are not limited to only those that come from classical sources like folklore, and just like in the Edo period, new fictional yokai continuee to be invented, such as scary school stories and other urban legends like kuchisake-onna and Hanako-san, giving birth to new yokai. From 1975 onwards, starting with the popularity of kuchisake-onna, these urban legends began to be referred to in mass media as "modern yokai." This terminology was also used in recent publications dealing with urban legends, and the

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Yōkai researcher on yokai, Bintarō Yamaguchi, used this especially frequently. During the 1970s, many books were published that introduced yokai through encyclopaedias, illustrated reference books, and dictionaries as a part of children's horror books, but along with the yokai that come from classics like folklore, kaidan, and essays, it has been pointed out by modern research that there are some mixed in that do not come from classics, but were newly created. Some well-known examples of these are the gashadokuro and the jubokko. For example, Arifumi Sato is known to be a creator of modern yokai, and Shigeru Mizuki, a manga artist for yokai, in writings concerning research about yokai, pointed out that newly created yokai do exist, and Mizuki himself, through GeGeGe no Kitaro, created about 30 new yokai. There has been much criticism that this mixing of classical yokai with newly created yokai is making light of tradition and legends. However, since there have already been those from the Edo period like Sekien Toriyama who created many new yokai, there is also the opinion that it is unreasonable to criticize modern creations without doing the same for classical creations too. Furthermore, there is a favorable view that says that introducing various yokai characters through these books nurtured creativity and emotional development of young readers of the time.

In media Various kinds of yōkai are encountered in folklore and folklore-inspired art and literature.

Famous Works and Authors Lafcadio Hearn's collection of Japanese ghost stories entitled Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things includes stories of yūrei and yōkai such as Yuki-onna, and is one of the first Western publications of its kind. In Japan, yōkai are particularly prevalent in manga, anime and Japanese horror. Shigeru Mizuki, the manga creator of such series as GeGeGe no Kitaro and Kappa no Sanpei, keeps yōkai in the popular imagination. Drawn and Quarterly has published some of his works dealing with yokai such as Kitaro and NonNonBa in English. The same goes for Shiibashi Hiroshi, the manga creator of Nurarihyon no Mago and Nurarihyon no Mago: Sennen Makyou. Yōkai have continued to be a common theme in modern works of fiction. They served as the stars in the 1960s Yokai Monsters film series, which was loosely remade in 2005 as Takashi Miike's The Great Yokai War. They often play major roles in Japanese fiction.

Synonyms to yōkai Instead of yōkai, sometimes the word mononoke (written 物 の 怪) is used. It carries the meanings of "monster", "ghost" or "spirit", and the literal meaning is "the spirit of a thing" or "strange thing".[5] This word is used to blame any unexplainable event on, and both inanimate objects and spirits of humans and other creatures can be called mononoke. Several anime have dealt with mononoke, perhaps most famously Princess Mononoke (where the spelling of the word is simplified as も の の け).

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References [1] Youkai Kanji (http:/ / jisho. org/ kanji/ details/ 妖怪) and Youkai Definition (http:/ / jisho. org/ words?jap=youkai& eng=& dict=edict) via Denshi Jisho at jisho.org Retrieved 22 July 2013. [2] Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, ISBN 4-7674-2015-6 [3] 草 双 紙と い わ れ る絵 本で 、 ジ ャ ン ル ご と に よ り 表 紙 が 色 分 け さ れ て い た 。 黄 表 紙 は 大 人 向けのもので、その他に赤や青がある。 [4] Le Petit Journal：コ レ ラの 蔓 延 を 死 神 に 例 え た 挿 絵 [5] Toyama, Ryoko: "FAQ – What does 'Mononoke Hime' mean?." (http:/ / www. nausicaa. net/ miyazaki/ mh/ faq. html#translation) Nausicaa.net. Retrieved 2012-08-16.

Further reading • • • • • •

Ballaster, R. (2005). Fables Of The East, Oxford University Press. Hearn, L. (2005). Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, Tuttle Publishing. Phillip, N. (2000). Annotated Myths & Legends, Covent Garden Books. Tyler, R. (2002). Japanese Tales (Pantheon Fairy Tale & Folklore Library), Random House. Yoda, H. and Alt, M. (2012). Yokai Attack!, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-4-8053-1219-3. Meyer, M. (2012). The Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ISBN 978-0-9852-1840-9.

• (German) Fujimoto, Nicole. " Yôkai und das Spiel mit Fiktion in der edozeitlichen Bildheftliteratur (http://www. uni-hamburg.de/oag/noag/noag2008_5.pdf)" ( Archive (http://www.webcitation.org/6Kwch5p2s)). Nachrichten der Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens (NOAG), University of Hamburg. Volume 78, Issues 183–184 (2008). p. 93-104.

External links • • • •

Youkai and Kaidan (http://www.k-i-a.or.jp/kokusai/jigyou/english-lesson/ts-report/r-report.pdf) (PDF file) The Obakemono Project (http://www.obakemono.com/) Tales of Ghostly Japan (http://www.seekjapan.jp/article-2/766/Tales+of+Ghostly+Japan) Hyakumonogatari.com (http://hyakumonogatari.com/category/yokai-stories/) Translated yokai stories from Hyakumonogatari.com • The Ooishi Hyoroku Monogatari Picture Scroll (http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/e-rekihaku/106/index.html) • Database of images of Strange Phenomena and Yokai (Monstrous Beings) (http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/ graphicversion/dbase/yokaigazou_e.html) • Yokai.com (http://yokai.com) an illustrated database of yōkai and ghosts

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 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=594967781  Contributors: Amcaja, Apostrophe, Chochin-obake, ChrisGualtieri, Commander Keane, Crazy Fox, Dragonball1986, Ebahe4, EoGuy, Esther Siaw, Exairetos, FreelanceWizard, Gaarmyvet, GeeJo, Geg, GikuHonishimo, Grenavitar, Gtrmp, Jafnick, Kotengu, Luis Dantas, McMullen, MightyAtom, Mihoshi, Mitsukai, Mkill, Mogism, Mps, Mushroom, NeoChaosX, Nephiliskos, New questions, Nnh, OGoncho, OMenda, Osarusan, Radiant!, RandomCritic, ReyBrujo, Rjwilmsi, Roland Deschain12, Sango123, Satanael, Senator2029, Shinkansen Fan, SkarmoryThePG, Teknomage, TenPoundHammer, The Rogue Penguin, Titaniachkt, Zhen Lin, 77 anonymous edits Oni  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=599853208  Contributors: Adrigon, Amcaja, Andryono, Andycjp, Arundhati bakshi, Audiosmurf, B&W Anime Fan, BD2412, Bender235, Bendono, Benlisquare, Beyond My Ken, Bokan, Bonus Onus, CardinalFangZERO, Chikumaya, Chrbubb, Ciphers, Circu196, Clíodhna-2, Cnilep, Cuchullain, 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Article Sources and Contributors Yōkai  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=597486400  Contributors: 1945soyuz, Aeridore, Alexlange, Alsandro, Amcaja, AnY FOUR!, Andycjp, AnmaFinotera, Apostrophe, Arctic Kangaroo, Astrubi, Beland, Billinghurst, Boffob, Boneyard90, Brain, Butsuri, Buzda, Canterbury Tail, Cattus, CayenneGaramonde, Chineks, Ciphers, Cnilep, Cold Season, Colonies Chris, Coneill74, Coralmizu, Critical.solvent, Curb Chain, Darkmorpher, DaveJS, DocWatson42, Dorudgar, Drbreznjev, Dream of Nyx, Dshallard, Duende-Poetry, Dulcem, East718, Eequor, Elkester, Emerl13, Emperor, Emperorbma, Encephalon, Enigma189, Ethereal Cheese, Exairetos, Excavator, Finite, Fram, Freederick, Fyrius, GSYH, Gaius Cornelius, GalanM, Ganryuu, Gene Nygaard, GirasoleDE, Good Olfactory, Grzegorz Wysocki, HelenKMarks, Hijiri88, HorseloverFat, Ian.thomson, Ireid23, Ixfd64, J'onn J'onzz, JHunterJ, Jack Carrington, Jecowa, JeffyJeffyMan2004, JoeSmack, Jonesey95, JoshG, Joyous!, Julia W, K.C. Tang, KANM, Kagome 85, Kelakagandy, Khazar2, Kintetsubuffalo, KnightRider, KnowledgeSeekerRen, Kotengu, Kowloonese, Ksyrie, Kureakurea, Kuzaar, Literati666, LordAmeth, LordDumpling, Mackeriv, Magnatron1995, Maniago, Manifestation, Martarius, Michael Hardy, Microtonal, Midnightblueowl, MightyAtom, MikeDockery, Mimihitam, Mitsukai, Mogism, Moocowsrule, Mps, MrBill3, Naniwako, NeoChaosX, Nihonjoe, Nik42, Nono64, OGoncho, Olessi, Onorem, Osarusan, Paracel63, Pearle, Peccafly, PhilKnight, Piecemealcranky, Pikawil, Psiphim6, Puddingpie, R'n'B, Revth, Rich Farmbrough, Ricvelozo, Rtkat3, Ryulong, Satanael, Sct72, Seb35, Seibun, Sesshomaru, Shikino, Shimeru, Shinkansen Fan, Shinseimori, Skysmith, Spellmaster, TOkKa, Tagishsimon, Taichi, The Inexistent, The Scarlet Letter, Time for action, TomorrowTime, Toroia, Toytoy, Traianus, Turlington, Tyciol, Unknown Dragon, Urutapu, WhisperToMe, Wik, WikiMan225, Xanzzibar, Yas, Zahakiel, Zahid Abdassabur, 何 邦 维, 277 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors file:Archeria_BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeria_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Nobu Tamura (http://spinops.blogspot.com) Image:Archeria2DB.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Archeria2DB.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov File:Buson Bakeneko.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buson_Bakeneko.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Yosa Buson (与 謝 蕪 村, Japanese, *1716, †1784)) File:Kuniyoshi Ume no haru gojusantsugi.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Ume_no_haru_gojusantsugi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Utagawa Kuniyoshi (歌 川 国 芳, Japanese, *1798, †1861) File:Sozan Bakeneko.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sozan_Bakeneko.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Miyoshi Shōzan (三 好 想 山, Japansese, †1850) File:odoribaeki.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Odoribaeki.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: ja:user:ウ ェ ル ワ ィ File:Yokohama subway-Odoriba-monument.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokohama_subway-Odoriba-monument.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: に ゆ う て いNiyute File:Gifujyou5848.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gifujyou5848.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Aotake, Ceridwen, Hiart, Jnn File:Biwa plectra.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Biwa_plectra.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Obakedake. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blacksmith_Munechika,_helped_by_a_fox_spirit,_forging_the_blade_Ko-Gitsune_Maru,_by_Ogata_Gekkō.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rama   Ogata Gekkō (1859-1920) File:Hiroshige-100-views-of-edo-fox-fires.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hiroshige-100-views-of-edo-fox-fires.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bamse, Dan8700, Gwern, Hsarrazin, Racconish, Shakko, Tak1701d, Tenmei, Tokorokoko, 2 anonymous edits File:A man confronted with an apparition of the Fox goddess.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_man_confronted_with_an_apparition_of_the_Fox_goddess.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666, 庚 寅 五 月 File:Fushimi Inari mini torii.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fushimi_Inari_mini_torii.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Dodo, Melanom, Mkill, Nilfanion, ト ト ト File:Tamamo-no-mae-woodblock.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamamo-no-mae-woodblock.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Taichi, 1 anonymous edits File:Kuniyoshi Kuzunoha.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Kuzunoha.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Catfisheye, Jnn, OceanSound, WTCA, 1 anonymous edits File:Suuhi Nekomata.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suuhi_Nekomata.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sawaki Suushi (佐 脇 嵩 之, Japanase, *1707, †1772) File:Tonoigusa Nekomata.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tonoigusa_Nekomata.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ogita Ansei (荻 田 安 静, Japanese) File:SekienNekomata.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienNekomata.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kintetsubuffalo, Kotengu, Osarusan, Ras67, Senator2029, Tobosha, Túrelio File:Oni in pilgrim's clothing.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oni_in_pilgrim's_clothing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Binabik155, Catfisheye, OceanSound, Wst, 1 anonymous edits File:SekienOni.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienOni.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Toriyama Sekien (鳥 山 石 燕, Japanese, *1712, †1788) File:Oni.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oni.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Worldantiques, 1 anonymous edits Image:KyosaiTenguBonze.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KyosaiTenguBonze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kareha, Kintetsubuffalo, Kotengu Image:天 狗 の 面 鉄 輪 温 泉PB060289.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:天 狗 の 面 鉄 輪 温 泉PB060289.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Snake Head 1995 Image:Yoshitoshi Kobayakawa Takakage.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_Kobayakawa_Takakage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Jnn, Lx 121 Image:SekienTengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SekienTengu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ashiaraiyashiki, Bensin, Kotengu, Osarusan, Ras67, Túrelio, 2 anonymous edits Image:Yoshitoshi Mount Yoshino Midnight Moon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_Mount_Yoshino_Midnight_Moon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, BrokenSphere, Catfisheye, Longhairadmirer, 1 anonymous edits Image:Karasu-Tengu-Statue.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karasu-Tengu-Statue.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: WolfgangMichel

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Sanjakubo-Hasedera-Japan.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanjakubo-Hasedera-Japan.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: WolfgangMichel Image:Tengu shrine in Beppu.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu_shrine_in_Beppu.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Amcaja Image:Tengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Hamasaki gion higashi, Patstuart, Sakuradojo, Xesco Image:KunimaruKintaroTengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KunimaruKintaroTengu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Utagawa Kunimaru (歌 川 国 丸) File:Tengu Hawaii July 2012.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengu_Hawaii_July_2012.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Gregorypgay Image:Yokyuhidensho-1687.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokyuhidensho-1687.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: WolfgangMichel Image:KunitsunaTengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KunitsunaTengu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hamasaki gion higashi, Kotengu, Lx 121 Image:YoshitoshiTakatokiTengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YoshitoshiTakatokiTengu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kotengu Image:Elephant catching a flying tengu.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elephant_catching_a_flying_tengu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, JMCC1, Petrusbarbygere, Shakko File:yokai3.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yokai3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Infrogmation, Nikkimaria File:Kyosai, Yokai image.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyosai,_Yokai_image.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Kareha File:Kyosai, Yokai image 2.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyosai,_Yokai_image_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Kareha File:Hyakki-Yagyo-Emaki Tsukumogami 1.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hyakki-Yagyo-Emaki_Tsukumogami_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Magicgarden, 2 anonymous edits File:Yoshitoshi The Heavy Basket.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitoshi_The_Heavy_Basket.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Jnn File:Cholera.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cholera.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, DL5MDA, Folcrum, Kramer Associates, Monaneko, Pmx, Shyam, Wolfmann, 4 anonymous edits

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License

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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