Learner Manual www.activeiq.co.uk
Level 3 Diploma in Teaching Yoga (QCF)
Contents Unit 1 Underpinning principles of teaching yoga
Understanding concentration and
Aims and learning learning outcomes........................... outcomes........................... 3
meditation................................................ ................................................ 111
Introduction............................................... .................................................. ... 4
Understanding how to plan a yoga session ... 114
Understanding teaching skills ......................... ......................... 4
Incorporating teaching aids with a yoga
Role of the yoga teacher ............................... ............................... 11
session ................................................ .................................................... .... 120
The benefits of yoga .................................... .................................... 17
Planning a series of progressive yoga
The origins of yoga ...................................... ...................................... 18
sessions ............................................... ................................................... .... 123
Relevance of ancient yoga texts..................... 25
Setting up a private yoga class .................... 125
Understanding the eight limbs of yoga ........... 32 Understanding the four paths paths of yoga ............ 36
References ............................................... ............................................... 128
Key concepts of yoga ................................... ................................... 38
Appendix 1 .............................................. .............................................. 129
Understanding Kriyas .................................. .................................. 43
Appendix 2a ............................................. ............................................. 144
Understanding Mudras ................................ ................................ 45
Appendix 2b ............................................. ............................................. 158
Understand Bandhas ................................... ................................... 47 Unit 4 Health and safety for yoga
References ................................................ .................................................. 49
Aims and learning learning outcomes....................... outcomes....................... 168 Understanding different conditions .............. 169
Unit 2 Anatomy and physiology for yoga
Understanding the importance of screening .. 178
Aims and learning learning outcomes......................... outcomes......................... 50
Understanding the health and safety aspects
The skeletal system ..................................... ..................................... 51
of teaching yoga ........................................ ........................................ 186
The muscular system ................................... ................................... 57 The respiratory system ................................. ................................. 70
References ............................................... ............................................... 195
The circulatory system ................................. ................................. 73
Appendix 1 .............................................. .............................................. 196
The nervous system .................................... .................................... 79 The endocrine system .................................. .................................. 81
Unit 5 Teaching a yoga session
The effect of yoga on the different body
Aims and learning learning outcomes....................... outcomes....................... 197
systems ................................................ ..................................................... ..... 85
Teaching yoga techniques .......................... .......................... 198 Improving performance of participants ......... 199
References ................................................ .................................................. 96
Self-evaluation and reflection ...................... 203
Appendix 1 ............................................... ................................................. 97
Personal Personal yoga practice ........................... ............................... .... 204 Personal Personal development plan ......................... ......................... 205
Unit 3 Planning a series of yoga sessions
Aims and learning learning outcomes......................... outcomes......................... 98
References ............................................... ............................................... 206
Introduction............................................... ................................................. 98
Appendix 1 .............................................. .............................................. 207
Understanding breath awareness awareness .................. 99 Understanding pranayama ......................... ......................... 103 Understanding relaxation techniques techniques ........... 108 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any other means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of the copyright holder. holder. Copyright © 2012 Active IQ Ltd. Manual not for resale Level 3 Diploma in Teaching Yoga - Manual
Unit 1 Underpinning principles of teaching yoga Aim: the aim of this unit is to provide learners with the underpinning knowledge and skills to become a yoga
teacher. This unit contains the information necessary teacher. necessar y to gain an understanding of what yoga is, as well as an opportunity to explore some of the skills and lifestyle changes necessary to become a yoga teacher. Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you will:
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•
understand the teaching skills needed by a yoga teacher
•
understand the role of the yoga teacher
•
understand the benefits of yoga
•
understand the origins of yoga
•
understand the relevance of ancient yoga texts
•
understand the eight limbs of yoga
•
understand the four paths of yoga
•
understand the key concepts of yoga
•
understand the concept of kriyas
•
understand mudra techniques
•
understand bandha techniques
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Introduction In all yoga schools there are different opinions on how to teach and per form elements of yoga, i.e. asana, breathing practices, pranayama, relaxation, concentration and meditation. Depending on the teaching tradition, there may be many differences in opinion on all aspects of yoga. Yoga is far from simply being physical exercise; rather, it is an aid to establishing a new attitude or way of life. However, this way of life is considered by many experts to be an experience that is outside the realm of simple thought, and can only be fully understood through direct practice and experience (Swami Satyananda Saraswati, 1996). The ultimate aim of yoga is to release the mind from the restrictions of the physical body and allow the ‘spirit’ to explore new levels of consciousness. Throughout this manual the aim is to provide the knowledge and skills to facilitate an understanding of yoga, and to ensure the information provided is accessible to new yoga teachers as well as their class participants. Where physical practice is involved, the aim is to ensure the advice is safe and effective. Remember that Yoga is not just the physical practice of asana or postures and this is often confusing to new participants. This manual focuses mainly on the practice practice of asana in yoga but the other aspects are equally as important.
Understanding teaching skills Good teaching skills allow teachers to maximise the safety and effectiveness of a session. This success is achieved through the teacher’s ability to communicate and interact effectively, effectively, and this in turn will depend on developing a series of verbal and non-verbal skills. These may include a large vocabulary of general and yoga-specific instructions/demonstrations instructions/demonstrations and teaching cues, that make use of imager y, tone of voice, hand signals, and facial expressions.
Communication skills Yoga teachers, who masterfully explain concepts through cueing, voice inflection, demonstration, and assisting, have taken the time to practice the ar t of communication. Yoga teaching is more than just imparting knowledge to participants; it is also about effective communication. When effective communication is missing, teachers can misunderstand participants’ needs and expectations; furthermore participants may not feel listened to or feel understood. A skilled yoga teacher must be a good communicator, as not all class participants will learn in the same way. Some will learn by listening to cues, others will gain more from assistance; and some will be able to learn just by watching. Communication is the key to: • • • • • • •
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getting participant co-operation participant understanding building participant self-confidence and self-esteem feeling listened to by your participants par ticipants mutual respect everyone feeling safe to be themselves more fun for everyone in the class
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Reflective listening One of the most important communication skills is reflective listening. Reflective listening involves reflecting (or verbally restating using similar words) the feelings and information from what you heard the other person saying. This can help determine whether a message has been understood. It also conveys the intention that a teacher understands and accepts what has been said. If done well, it helps the person to clarify their own thoughts and feelings. As well as requiring practice in focussing on what the participant is saying, it will also require an element of trust to find good solutions, rather than wanting to convince them of your own. It is a skill which effective facilitators, group leaders, counsellors, consultants, sales people, health professionals, teachers and parents use more than any other skill. Reflective listening may also be referred to as: • • • • •
the empathic ear active listening the understanding response verbal pacing paraphrasing
Because communication is a two-way process, it means that it is as important to be a good message sender as it is to be a good listener. While hearing is an activity that requires little physical effort, to do it properly can be challenging. Listening Li stening properly, however, however, is not easy. easy. To To summarise, use reflective listening to communicate: • • • • • •
desire to understand how the other person is thinking and feeling belief in the person’s ability to understand the situation, identify solutions, select an appropriate choice, and implement it responsibly belief the person is worthwhile respect and/or willingness to accept other people’s feelings desire to help willingness not to judge the person (Communications World, 2011)
Body language One of the aspects of understanding what people are saying comes from body language or non-verbal communication. By developing awareness of the signs and signals of body language, it is easier to understand the needs of class participants, and more effectively communicate with them. There are sometimes subtle (and sometimes not so subtle) movements, gestures, facial expressions and even shifts in our whole bodies that reflect what and how people are thinking and feeling at any given point in time. By becoming more aware of this body language and understanding what it might mean within a context, teachers can learn to read people more easily, and adjust their communication and instructions accordingly. Body language includes body movements and gestures (legs, arms, hands, head and torso), posture, muscle tension, eye contact, skin colouring (flushed red), even people’s breathing rate and perspiration. Additionally, Additionally, the tone of voice, the rate of speech and the pitch of the voice all contribute to the words that are being used. Additionally, Additionally, it is important impor tant to recognise that body language may var y between individuals, and between different cultures and nationalities.
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Theory into practice: Confidence
It is important for yoga teachers to convey signs, signals and patterns that communicate feelings of confidence. Typical Typical things to look for in confident people include: • • • • •
posture – standing tall with shoulders back eye contact – solid with a ‘smiling’ face gestures with hands and arms – purposeful and deliberate speech – slow and clear tone of voice – moderate to low
If a teacher is about to enter into a situation where they are not as confident as they’d like to be, such as teaching a new class or covering an existing class, they can adopt these ‘confidence’ signs and signals to project confidence. All of the above skills cannot be taught and can only come with experience and practice.
The correct use of language Without the correct use of language, a yoga teacher may struggle to make participants understand many of the techniques of yoga. Clear, concise language takes participants in a specific direction with minimal distraction or confusion. Yoga teachers are required to be understood and to inspire the people they work with. It is important impor tant that a yoga teacher’s communication style matches their teaching environment. For For example, not all yoga participants will benefit from chanting mantra, and any yoga teacher should bear this in mind. Most of the Dharma (Indian term used to explain religion or higher truth) talk that occurs in a class can easily be translated into lay terms. Teachers Teachers can instead use phrases like “let go,” “be in the moment” and “clear the mind.” Statements like, “surrender to a higher being,” or “aligning your energy with the vibration of the universe” may be more appropriate for a private yoga studio, than a fitness-based facility. facility. Further challenges arise for yoga teachers because the yoga postures (asana) are often complicated to verbalise, and it is down to the skills of the teacher to ensure the participants can safely enter and leave a posture. The correct use of language can make or break a yoga class; too much technical language, too much jargon and even too much spiritual talk can confuse and deter participants. par ticipants. Each asana will require the teacher to know it in detail, so that it can be taught effectively. To help the communication process, yoga teachers will need to practise the asana many times before teaching them, and to also know the adaptations and modifications needed if a participant has any difficulties. When introducing new asana to participants, it is best to demonstrate first (usually with a silent demonstration) and then to talk through the demonstration while the participants follow. Afterwards, the teacher can walk around and adjust and refine the participants’ asana either verbally or by assisting them into position. A good teacher will always explain what the participant should be feeling in a physical sense and also explain what they should not be feeling (e.g. any pain in the knees, back etc.).
Theory into practice: Non-technical terminology
A good yoga teacher should practice the use of non-technical words rather than technical phrases. For example, it is wise to avoid the use of terms such as flexion and extension; instead, use phrases such as ‘tip forwards from the hip’ or ‘lengthen the spine’. It is also best to avoid use of angles such as ‘180 degrees’.
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Voice intonation The way a teacher says something is just as important than what they say. Voice intonation is the way information is put across, and may include elements such as volume, pitch, and inflection. For example, the level of intonation may need to be moderated if working with a complete beginner or the elderly. This will ensure that the instructor communicates in a way that is appropriate to the individual and their surrounding environment. A yoga teacher needs to adopt a calm manner of teaching and to be able to vary the volume accordingly. accordingly. For example during meditation or breathing practice the teacher may speak quietly, quietly, but when the class need to be wakened from a relaxation, the teacher’s voice needs to be louder so they can hear the difference. A teacher needs to be aware of any participants who have hearing difficulties. If this is the case ensure these participants are positioned near the front of the class.
Filler words and phrases Yoga teachers often fall into the habit of using filler words or phrases, and this is common when teachers are new. Common words or phrases used include: • • • • • • •
“go ahead” “we’re gonna” “now” “try” “uh, um” “nice, good, great, beautiful” “don’t”
Another word many yoga teachers use is “down”: for example, “Shoulders down the back, put the knee down, press down into the earth”. The word “down” often has negative associations, and where possible should be avoided and replaced. The use of the words ‘Downward facing dog’ is fine but ‘Adho mukha svanasana’ is a stronger way to convey the pose. Table 1 shows some alternative phrases (containing the word “down”) that can be used in a yoga class. Usual phrase
Change to.....
Push your hand down into the ear th Pull your shoulders down the back
Stretch your hand into the ear th’ Pull your shoulders away from your ears
Put the knee down Press your foot down into the ear th
Put the knee on the floor Press your foot firmly into the ear th Table 1 Alternative phrases to use in a yoga class
An excellent practice for yoga teachers is to develop a language of yoga, or more appropriately, to use language that enhances the theme that is being created for the class. In this way, filler words can be replaced with a list of alternative words and phrases to express body cues and movements.
Teaching points Teaching points are used to reinforce a visual demonstration. Their application allows teachers to express, correct and fine-tune participants’ technique. To To use teaching points effectively, effectively, the yoga teacher must first be fully versed in the particular yoga technique they are trying to teach. Teaching points should be precise and succinct; however, some creativity and imagination is beneficial. For example, consider the following teaching point: “imagine two lights on your hip bones – ensure these lights are up” (referring to the hip area in bridge pose.).
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This may help participants visualise and focus on the relevant body part by relating it to an object or possibly an activity, often leading to greater understanding. Teaching Teaching points when used appropriately allow for easier instruction; however, if overused, they may lead to confusion. Teaching points should be kept positive at all times to build confidence.
Demonstration A good clear demonstration allows the participant the opportunity to fully observe the technique to be performed. For effectiveness, ensure participants can see the technique. For example, if the posture involves lying down, ensure the participants are sitting up so they can see the demonstration clearly. Encourage participants to ask questions before they per form the movement. A participant’s version of the posture may not look exactly like the teacher’s demonstration depending on their individual physical state. In shoulder stand for example, a teacher would not want the par ticipants to turn their heads and compromise the safety of their necks.
Observation The yoga teacher will also need to consider their position of observation in relation to the participants. They may be able to see most participants from the front of the class in standing postures. In other postures, such as sitting and lying, it is advisable to walk around the class to check participants from all angles. This should be done in a non-intrusive manner, manner, especially if the participants are in vulnerable positions.
Using Sanskrit words in yoga Even though the understanding and and use of Sanskrit words in yoga has fallen fallen off, it remains a powerful force to be rediscovered in yoga. Though participants may not aspire to learn the complete language, teachers should be mindful of its use and its profound importance in yoga. For those who really care to know the depth and profoundness of yoga, study of the ancient scriptures and knowledge of the Sanskrit language is essential, as Sanskrit literature contains a treasure trove of knowledge. Sanskrit is a historical language (parallel with Latin) and is no longer commonly used in India. Some yoga teachers feel that the use of Sanskrit names are elitist and may deter certain participants. The use of Sanskrit terminology suggests there is more to yoga than athletic pursuit and that ancient tradition underpins the practice of yoga. When you use Sanskrit in class, keep in mind that auditory learners will benefit from hearing the words, visual learners will benefit from visualising the spelling (some teachers have a flip chart or white board in their classes), and kinaesthetic learners will benefit from doing the pose. One of the most important reasons to use the Sanskrit terms is to stir up interest and nurture curiosity. The use of Sanskrit terminology suggests there’s more to yoga than athletic pursuit. Each of the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet is thought to have a sound frequency with a specific therapeutic benefit. In Vedic belief, each word is encoded with consciousness. Put simply, the asana name and the effect of the asana are one. By simultaneously saying or hearing the Sanskrit name and performing the pose, participants can feel the unity between sound and body. body. This universal language creates a deeper, more spiritual connection. The symbolic aspect of asana or pranayama is in the name. For example, saying the word ‘bhastrika’ (the Sanskrit name for breath of fire), demonstrates that there is a lot of wind in the sound when spoken - like breath. All Sanskrit spoken in a yoga class needs to be defined. For example, it is traditional to end a class with the greeting of ‘Namaste’. This translates to “I honour the light in all beings”. If a teacher says it in front of new participants, they should always indicate the meaning (Discover yoga, 2011; Yoga Yoga flavoured life, 2011).
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Motivational skills Positive motivational skills help to create enthusiasm and interest for class participants. The trick is not to motivate participants directly, but to provide optimal learning opportunities that are motivating. Yoga teachers need to be highly motivated themselves, before they can motivate others. This means motivation must come from within, something that can be achieved through the teacher portraying confidence, exuding plenty of enthusiasm, and being passionate about what they do.
Key elements of motivation Intrinsic motivation • • • • •
Involves an interest in the learning of yoga itself and also satisfaction being gained from participating in the class Effective teaching must win the hearts and minds of participants if the class experience is to involve intrinsic motivation, curiosity, curiosity, interest and proper engagement Participants can find it motivating when teaching creates opportunities for cooperative work with other participants such as pair work Generally, giving participants a degree of choice can be motivating, for example choosing the level of asana they perform Regular feedback is motivating when it shows participants how their skills are developing
Extrinsic motivation • • • • • •
Praise is a powerful motivator although its effect depends on skilful use Praise should be linked to effort and attainment, conveying sincere pleasure on the teacher’s part, and should be used with credibility Participants Participants need autonomy – i.e. they need a sense of control over what they are doing Participants Participants need a sense of agency – i.e. interacting with others Participants need affiliation – feeling comfortable in the social context of the class and feeling that they belong Participants adopt stances - quietly engaging; harmoniously engaging; energetically engaging; opposing/threatening; alarming/draining; hiding/upset; and exasperating. Teachers Teachers need to recognise individuals’ stances to enable them to improve motivation.
Four skills of successful motivation •
Engagement – teachers showing that they are interested in their participants and that they value them
•
Structure – organising progress through experiences. Strong lesson planning skills are essential so
that the participants know the aims and objectives for each session or series of sessions •
Stimulation – sessions that interest. Each session needs to be interesting and relate to the objectives
of all participants •
Feedback – constructive, supportive information to participants par ticipants on how they are progressing
Allow questions in class Yoga participants may have a number of questions about their yoga practice. The teacher should decide and communicate to students whether questions can be asked during the class or before / after the class. This will depend on the teacher’s preference and style. If teachers cannot provide an immediate answer, they should make the effort to find out and share with the participant par ticipant next time. It may also be something valuable that can be shared with the whole class.
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Getting to know class participants Getting to know the participants is a valuable skill every teacher should take the time to do. What are the interests of the participants? What parts par ts of the lesson plan raise their level of motivation? Do they feel a stir of excitement or anticipation at certain points in your yoga class? When participants feel the benefits of a yoga class, it is usually visually apparent on their faces. If teachers still feel unsure, it is acceptable to ask some tactful questions. A sample question, about one subject, might be: “Do you feel the benefit of practising Revolved Triangle now?” If participants do not give an answer, answer, the teacher can list the skeletal benefits to the hips, spine, shoulders and legs. They may also list the muscles, which are strengthened and stretched, or even mention the particular internal organs which are massaged and cleansed. Allowing participants to participate completely can increase the proficiency level of the entire class.
Addressing different learning styles The visual-auditory-kinaesthetic learning styles (VAK) model provides a very easy and quick way to assess preferred learning styles, and then most importantly, to design learning methods and experiences that match people’s preferences. Visual learning styles involve the use of seen or observed things, including pictures, diagrams,
demonstrations, displays, hand-outs, films, flip-chart, etc. Auditory learning styles involve the transfer of information through listening to the words of self and
others, as well as general sounds and music Kinaesthetic learning involves physical and tactile experiences such as touching, feeling, and holding.
Relationship between the yoga teacher and participant participa nt Traditionally, students of yoga would seek out a particular yogi or teacher. They may have been referred to this specific person by his or her loyal students, or knew of the teacher’s skills by reputation. At such a point, the teacher would make a decision on whether or not to take in i n another student on a trial basis. The trial may have consisted of doing work around the ashram (the retreat where the teacher and their followers live) before being recognised as a formal student. This would have been the way the yoga teacher/student relationship operated for thousands of years. In some areas of the world, it still works in this way, way, and often of ten teachers were honoured and bestowed the highest status. However, However, the traditional model of the teacher/participant relationship, within yoga, has changed immensely. immensely. The traditional model cannot work in modern times, and certainly within Western culture. At the same time, no responsible yoga teacher would want to prevent their class par ticipants from learning about yoga. Yet, the reason the traditional model worked was because students studied within a ‘vacuum’. The guru had all the answers and was respected as an authority. authority. So what is the role of a teacher in the 21st century? The role has not actually changed; changed ; the first step is to establish a relationship with the participant that is based on trust. A large part of what yoga teachers do is to help class participants find a tranquil state s tate of mind and a healthy body. Yoga Yoga teachers should make safety a priority while, at the same time, helping participants progress toward development of awareness and transformation. If a participant par ticipant does not appreciate honesty, honesty, compassion, and the way of moderation, it is likely they will have a difficult time on the Yogic path. The ancient Yogis were extremely wise to have realised this, and this is why yoga students were accepted on a trial basis (Jerard, 2008).
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Role of the yoga teacher Yoga teachers as role models Yoga teachers come from many different walks of life, yet have traditionally been stereotyped as vegetarian, non-drinkers, non-smokers non-smokers and so forth. Judging, stereotyping and believing yoga teachers are all virtuous, is not always an accurate assumption. They have their own obstacles and challenges. One of the main intentions of teaching yoga is to have the awareness of Ahimsa (a non-violence attitude), which eventually eventually leads to finding balance in life resulting in peace and harmony. harmony. The yoga teacher can be a friend, mentor or confidante. More than anything, yoga teachers are thinkers, philosophers; people who live their lives based on logic, wisdom and rationality. rationality. Yoga teachers have been universally regarded as being spiritual and health role models. In general, they play a key role in passing on the qualities of respect, kindness and social tolerance. Yoga teachers should walk the talk and practise what they preach. Society gives a relatively high respect towards yoga teachers, which ultimately gives yoga teachers a certain responsibility to uphold. Fortunately, Fortunately, as most yoga teachers are true to their beliefs and passionate about the practice, this is not hard to do. A yoga teacher can affect the lives of their participants by reminding and teaching them about the profound aspects of yoga and about understanding the nature of the inner self. The yoga teacher helps participants discover things about themselves and teaches self-awareness and self-discovery. Yoga teachers also teach the art of detachment and letting go, which allows freedom from obstacles and predicaments. In yoga practice, the postures that are to be performed may metaphorically represent challenges that participants face in their lives. When a teacher points out how relevant yoga practice is to personal life, a participant may discover that they can improve the quality of their life by including regular yoga practice along with other lifestyle and behavioural changes. As a guide to living life with a positive attitude, yoga teachers have become the ambassadors for optimism and positivity (Samdjaga, 2011).
Lifestyle choices of a yoga teacher Below is a story that illustrates the importance of a yoga teacher’s lifestyle: A young man wanted to know the meaning of life. He searched high and low; he took courses and workshops; but still he could not quite grasp it. One day, he went to hear a Master speak. At the end of the lecture, the young man raised his hand and asked: “Could you please explain the meaning of life?” The audience chuckled at the eternal question and started to get up to leave. The Master replied: “That’s a very good question. I have the answer right here in my bag.” He took out a small mirror, captured a ray of light with it, and directed the light to the young man’s face. “Can you all see how I am catching the light and directing it to his face?” he asked. “Yes.” “The meaning of life,” the Master explained, “is to gather Light and to take it where it’s needed the most. Your purpose is to capture some Light and take it to some dark place in the world.”
Yoga lifestyle can be thought of as having two purposes: “cleaning the mirror” and “spreading the light”. The mirror is the mind and body which have to be clean and pure to catch the light. Yoga lifestyle is therefore about purifying the mind and keeping the body healthy. healthy. Yoga lifestyle also includes certain principles and values, some of which refer to the five rules of social conduct. These principles form the first limb of yoga (the Yamas) according to Patanjali (see later on in this unit for more information on the eight limbs of yoga).
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Yamas consist of: • • • • •
Ahimsa - non-violence Satya - truthfulness Asteya - non-stealing Brahmacharya - faithfulness Aparigraha - non-greed
Seven habits for a healthy lifestyle The following habits must be in balance for optimal physical, mental and spiritual health: Positive mental attitude • • • • •
Stop negative thinking and negative self-talk Practise positive affirmations, e.g. (inhale, and think or softly say) “Every moment as I breathe,” (exhale) “I feel better and better.” better.” Practice Karma yoga (selfless service or helping others). Seek humour and laughter Surround yourself with positive people.
Environment • • •
• •
Spend time out in nature. Be mindful of the media. Choose the types that are positive, and the ones that add a real value to your well-being and health Create a healthy environment through the use of healing colours wherever you spend the most time: bedroom, dining room, office. Light blue, green, and beige are calming. Light yellow, and deep earthy orange are energising. Surround yourself with positive visual images with images of nature (flowers, plants, art and photos) Surround yourself with peace and quiet or healing sounds. Experiment with different scents in the form of a candle or a scent diffuser di ffuser that make you feel good and relaxed
Clear physical clutter. clutter. •
If your physical space is cluttered, your mind will pick up on that.
Stress reduction • • • • • •
Take a mini-break at least once every two months in a place where you can be timeless Spend a few minutes in deep relaxation every day. Deep Relaxation, or yoga Nidra, is one of the most powerful methods of stress relief. Practice yoga outdoors. This restores energy levels Chant or hum “Om”. Let the vibration of the sound of the hum reverberate reverb erate through your whole body. Feel the resonance in the chest and the head. Chanting Om is incredibly effective as a stress relief method Practice slow breathing and keep up a daily meditation practice Connect to animals. Animals are natural healers. Having a pet animal contributes greatly to stress relief.
Sufficient sleep and rest • • • •
Make your bedroom a place of rest. No TV. No Internet. No phone. Calming colours, quiet atmosphere, pleasant scent and soft bedding Early to bed, early to rise. Going to bed around 10pm is most natural for our biology Get yourself physically tired before bedtime Practice abdominal breathing to induce the relaxation response
Exercise • • • •
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Cardiovascular, Cardiovascular, aerobic exercise Muscle-strengthening, weight-bearing exercise Flexibility Balance and coordination
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Healthy diet • • • • • • • •
Eat simple meals Eat as much organic food as possible Eat as much locally-grown food as possible Go easy on proteins and fats Eat foods rich in amino acids Get a daily surplus of antioxidants Eat pro-biotic foods a few times a week Eat a good daily share of raw foods rich in enzymes
Detoxification • • • • • • •
Drink plenty of fluids Go to sleep at 10pm - Between 10pm and 2am is i s the most healing and detoxifying time to sleep. Sweat regularly through exercise or by going to a sauna. Breathe through the nose not through the mouth. Cleanse the nasal passages with a nasal wash or Jala Neti Brush your teeth and cleanse your tongue first thing in the morning Drink wheatgrass juice or another green vegetable juice several times a week.
Differences between yoga teachers and fitness instructors To further understand some of the key skills required by a yoga teacher, it can be useful to take a closer look at the differences between yoga teachers and fitness instructors, as well as understand why it may be preferable to use the term ‘teacher’ in favour of ‘instructor’. The primary difference between a yoga teacher and a fitness instructor is that the yoga teacher will teach yoga participants more than just the physical aspects of yoga. Traditionally, a fitness instructor will tend to emphasise physical benefits of exercise. A yoga teacher will not only address the physical aspects of yoga, but also the emotional and often spiritual aspects with their class participants. Yoga teachers can give their participants tools to enable them to cope with ever yday life, for example, methods of stress relief and ways to alleviate anxiety. In addition, an instructor is often thought of as someone who shows participants how to do something. On the other hand, a teacher is thought of as someone who leads their participants down a ‘path of understanding’, opening new doors along the way (Wiki Answers, 2011). The best teachers should employ employ a combination of mindful instruction and and teaching. The teacher should be able to demonstrate each stage of a posture safely and effectively, effectively, teaching correct alignment but also recognising the limitations of individuals. Does yoga conflict with participants’ religious beliefs?
Some people often regard yoga as a religion, and as such, are often deterred from practising it. Here are some points to consider. consider. • • • •
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Yoga is not Hinduism Yoga is a frequent f requent practice in many Eastern religions and philosophies Many Western religions, including Christianity, also practise some form of meditation The core values of yoga include: honesty, hard work, not harming others, selfless service and devotion to ‘God’
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Professional codes of practice Codes of practice guide professional people in their work and help them regulate their behaviour towards customers. Codes of practice can be summarised by the following key principles: • • • • • • • •
Professional Professional action shall bring no harm to clients Clients have the right to choose their own direction Be faithful to clients, the profession, the employing organisations and ultimately to yourself Be just and fair to all clients, thereby ensuring non-discriminatory professional actions Be of benefit to clients by promoting their welfare Treat all clients with dignity and respect Be fully accountable to clients Maintain clear and unwavering professional boundaries
Professional bodies for yoga Each style of yoga has its own independent organisation, and there are other associations and bodies that can be joined. It is not mandatory to join any associations but the Register of Exercise Professionals (REPs) is recommended for all fitness professionals; however, however, it is also recommended that a yoga teacher updates their knowledge and skills regularly and by joining an association, opportunities for training are wider. Associations also often offer specialised insurance policies for yoga teachers. Below is a selection of yoga associations: • • • • • • • • • • •
Bikram Yoga –www.bikramyoga.com The British Wheel of Yoga - www.bwy.org.uk (recognised by Sport England as the governing body for yoga in Great Britain) The Association for Yoga Studies - www.ays.org.uk www.ays.org.uk (formerly Viniyoga Britain) British Council for Yoga Therapy –www.britishcouncilforyogatherapy.org.uk British Yoga Teachers Association - www.yogauk Friends of Yoga Society (FRYOG) International - www.friendsofyoga.co.uk Independent Yoga Network - www.independentyoganetwork.org Iyengar Yoga Association (UK) - www.iyengaryoga.org.uk Yoga Alliance UK - www.yogaalliance.co.uk Yoga Biomedical Trust - www.yogatherapy.org YogaUK - www.yogauk.com
Register of Exercise Professionals (REPs) REPs is an independent public register for exercise professionals. It is important to establish, publicise and maintain standards of ethical behaviour in instructing practice, and to inform and protect members of the public and customers using the services of exercise professionals. Physical activity and exercise can contribute positively to the development of individuals. It is a vehicle for physical, mental, personal, social and emotional development. Such development is enhanced if the individual is guided by an informed, thinking, aspiring and enlightened exercise professional operating within an accepted ethical framework. The role of an exercise professional is to: • • • •
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identify and meet the needs of individuals improve performance or fitness through programmes of safe, effective and enjoyable exercise create an environment in which individuals are motivated to maintain participation and improve performance or fitness conform to ethical standards in a number of areas – humanity, relationships, co-operation, co-operation, integrity, advertising, confidentiality and personal standards
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This REPs Code of Ethical Practice defines good practice for professionals in the fitness industry by reflecting on the core values of rights, relationships, responsibilities and standards. Exercise professionals on REPs accept their responsibility to people who participate in exercise; to other exercise professionals and colleagues; to their respective fitness associations, professional bodies and institutes; to their employer; and to society. Where required, members must also hold adequate liability insurance. There are four principles to the code: Principle 1 – Rights ‘Exercise professionals professionals will be respectful of their customers and of their rights as individuals’.
Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to maintain a standard of professional conduct appropriate to their dealings with all client groups and to responsibly demonstrate respect for individual difference and diversity, good practice in challenging discrimination and unfairness and discretion in dealing with confidential client disclosure. Principle 2 – Relationships ‘Exercise professionals professionals will nurture healthy relationships with their customers and other health professionals’
Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to develop and maintain a relationship with customers based on openness, honesty, mutual trust and respect and to responsibly demonstrate awareness of the requirement to place the customer’s needs as a priority and promote their welfare and best interests first when planning an appropriate programme. Compliance also requires clarity in all forms of communication with customers, professional colleagues and medical practitioners, ensuring honesty, accuracy and cooperation when seeking agreements and avoiding misrepresentation or any conflict of interest arising between customers’ and own professional obligations. Finally, Finally, compliance requires integrity as an exercise professional and recognition of the position of trust dictated by that role, ensuring avoidance of any inappropriate behaviour in all customer relationships. Principle 3 – Personal responsibilities ‘Exercise professionals professionals will demonstrate and promote a clean and responsible lifestyle and conduct’
Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to conduct proper personal behaviour at all times and to responsibly demonstrate high standards of professional conduct appropriate to their dealings with all their client groups and which reflect the particular image and expectations relevant to the role of the exercise professional working in the fitness industry. Compliance requires an understanding of their legal responsibilities and accountability when dealing with the public and awareness of the need for honesty and accuracy in substantiating their claims of authenticity when promoting their services in the public domain. A responsible attitude to the care and safety of client participants within the training environment and in planned activities is required ensuring that both are appropriate to the needs of the clients. Compliance requires an absolute duty of care to be aware of their working environment and to be able to deal with all reasonably foreseeable accidents and emergencies – and to protect themselves, their colleagues and clients. Principle 4 – Professional standards ‘Exercise professionals professionals will seek to adopt the highest level of professional standards in their work and the development development of their career’ career ’
Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to commit to the attainment of appropriate qualifications and on-going training to responsibly demonstrate engagement in actively seeking to update knowledge and improve their professional skills in order to maintain a quality standard of ser vice, reflecting on their own practice, identifying development needs and undertaking relevant development activities.
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Compliance requires willingness to accept responsibility and be accountable for professional decisions or actions. The fitness professional should welcome evaluation of their work and recognise the need when appropriate to refer to another professional specialist. There is a personal responsibility to maintain effectiveness and only practice those activities for which their training and competence is recognised by the Register (Exercise Register 2011).
Yoga Alliance UK The Yoga Yoga Alliance is a member driven organisation that provides resources, networking, transparency and equal opportunities to anyone who has a passion for, and believes in, the spirit of yoga. The Yoga Alliance’s Alliance’s vision statement is to: • • •
Maintain a register of teachers, trainee teachers, centres of excellence and yoga schools Respond to and support yoga teachers and trainers in the UK who believe in quality teaching, and to give the public unbiased information on what is available Encourage the sharing of experience and knowledge between members. By coming together and sharing that knowledge and experience, and by supporting each other, we can grow and develop as students and teachers more effectively
Code of Practice This Code of Practice is a summation and declaration of acceptable, ethical, and professional behaviour by which all Yoga Alliance UK-registered UK-registered yoga teachers agree to. It contains the following statements. 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
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To provide the public with access to safe and effective yoga teachers To maintain and uphold the traditions of Hatha yoga. To teach yoga from the experience of these traditions and to disseminate these teachings to anyone, from any background, who earnestly desires to follow these traditions Uphold the integrity of my vocation by conducting myself in a professional and conscientious manner manner Acknowledge the limitations of my skills and scope of practice and, where appropriate, refer students to seek alternative instruction, advice, treatment, or direction Create and maintain a safe, clean, and comfortable environment for the practice of yoga Encourage diversity actively by respecting all students regardless of age, physical limitations, race, creed, gender, ethnicity, ethnicity, religion affiliation, or sexual orientation Respect the rights, dignity, and privacy of all students Avoid words and actions that constitute sexual harassment Follow all local government and national laws that per tain to my yoga teaching and business (Yoga Alliance, 2011)
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The benefits of yoga There are many benefits of yoga, both physical and psychological.
Physical benefits of practicing asana and pranayama techniques • • •
• • • • •
• •
•
Increased flexibility Increased mobility of joints, ligaments and tendons Increased strength - many yoga poses require participants participants to support the weight of their own body in new ways, including balancing on one leg (such as in Tree Tree pose) or supporting the weight of their body with their arms (such as in Downward facing dog). Some exercises require moving slowly in and out of poses, which also increases strength. Increased muscle tone Massaging organs Pain prevention - increased flexibility and strength can help prevent the causes of some types of back pain. Enhanced body awareness Better breathing - basic yoga breathing exercises and deeper practices (Pranayama) focus the attention on the breath and teach participants how to better use their lungs, which benefits the entire body. Control of weight - as part of a healthy yoga lifestyle, regular asana practice helps to control weight. Complete detoxification – by gently stretching muscles and joints as well as massaging the various organs, yoga ensures the optimum blood supply to various parts of the body, and helps in the flushing out toxins. Other benefits of yoga are - lower blood pressure and resting heart rate due to the stress control techniques and calming effects offered by yoga; yoga is also beneficial for people who suffer with pain related illness such as arthritis, cancer, auto-immune diseases, multiple sclerosis etc.
Psychological benefits of practicing asana and pranayama techniques • • • • •
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Peace of mind Feeling of well-being Stress reduction Rejuvenation Benefits of meditation
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The origins of yoga Hatha yoga The Sanskrit word ‘hatha’ is thought to be derived from the verbal root ‘hath’ which means ‘to force’ or ‘hold firmly’, and thus Hatha yoga is sometimes called ‘forceful yoga’. It is also thought to be the combination of two words ‘ha’ meaning ‘sun’; and ‘tha’ meaning ‘moon’, and thus Hatha yoga is said to balance the opposing energies present in the body, for example the sun and moon energies and the male and female energies. The first of the Hatha yoga definitions can be traced back to the Hatha yoga Pradipika, which was written around 1300 AD by the yogi, Swatamarama. This form of yoga is a widely practised combination of physical (asana) and deep breathing exercises (pranayama). (pranayama). The Hatha Hatha yoga Pradipika is an esoteric text and only describes a few techniques and not in great detail.The methods described in the Hatha yoga Pradipika have been interpreted over time by many teachers and so the yoga now ‘widely practiced’ is an evolution of what was documented in the Hatha yoga Pradipika. These exercises bring in vitality to the body, rejuvenate our senses, and induce a sense of spirituality within those that practise it. It seeks to establish harmony between the mind and the soul and bring in a sense of spirituality and enlightenment. It seeks to unite the mind (Ida), body (Pingala) and self (Sushumna Nadi). In the Hatha yoga Pradipika, Swatamarama Swatamarama describes physical exercises (asana), mudra, deep breathing exercises (pranayama) (pranayama) and bandha. bandha. The text was not not detailed but it acknowledges the fundamental importance of the teacher who can interpret and guide an individual through the techniques of Hatha yoga.
Understanding the history of yoga The following is a brief introduction of the ideas and influences which have combined together to produce the philosophies and techniques of yoga. The facts and dates are likely, but approximate, and should not be assumed as precise or accurate in an academic sense. Greater precision may be obtained by studying various ancient texts. Yoga originates from the Hindu tradition. The practice as we know it today is the product of a long process of development beginning in the Indus civilisations, from as long ago as 2500 B.C. Between 2000 and 1000 B.C. India was progressively invaded by European people and tribes from Southern Russia, and this began a long period of cultural integration. The ideas and influences that followed are thought to have formed the basis from which yoga evolved. Looking at the history of yoga will help provide an appreciation of its rich tradition. Although yoga is said to be as old as civilisation, there is no physical evidence to support this claim. Earliest archaeological evidence of yoga’s existence could be found in stone seals which depict figures of yoga postures. The stone seals place yoga’s existence around 3000 B.C. Scholars, however, however, have a reason to believe that yoga existed long before this time, and traced its beginnings in Stone Age Shamanism. Both Shamanism and yoga have similar characteristics, particularly in their efforts to improve the human condition at that time. Also, they aim to heal community members, and the practitioners act as religious mediators. Though we know yoga as focusing more on the self, it started out as community-oriented before it turned inward. The lineage of yoga can be divided into four periods: the Vedic Period, Pre-Classical Period, Classical Period, and Post-Classical Period.
Vedic period The Vedas are the sacred sacred scriptures of Brahmanism which is the basis of modern-day modern-day Hinduism. There are four Vedas; Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. During this time, the Vedic people relied on dedicated Vedic Yogis (Rishis) to teach them how to live in divine harmony. Rishis were also gifted with the ability to see the ultimate reality through their intensive spiritual practice. It was also during this time that Yogis living in seclusion (in forests) were recorded.
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Pre-classical yoga The creation of the Upanishads marks the Pre-Classical yoga. The 200 scriptures of the Upanishads describe the inner vision of reality resulting from devotion to Brahman. These explain three subjects: the ultimate reality (Brahman), the transcendental self (atman), and the relationship between the two. The Upanishads further explain the teachings teachings of the Vedas. Yoga shares some characteristics characteristics not only with Hinduism but also with Buddhism. During the sixth century B.C., Buddha started teaching Buddhism, which stresses the importance of meditation and the practice of physical postures. Later, around 500 B.C., the Bhagavad-Gita or Lord’s Song was created and this is currently the oldest known yoga scripture. It is devoted entirely to yoga and it confirms that it has been a practice for some time. However, it doesn’t point to a specific time when yoga could have started. The central point to the Gita is that “to be alive means to be active and in order to avoid difficulties in our lives and in others, our actions have to be benign and have to exceed our egos”. Just as the Upanishads further the Vedas, the Gita builds on the Upanishads. In the Gita, three facets must be brought together in our lifestyle: Bhakti or loving devotion, Jnana which is knowledge or contemplation, and Karma which is about selfless actions. The Gita then tried to unify Bhakti yoga, Jnana yoga, and Karma yoga and it is because of this that it has gained impor tance. The Gita was a conversation between Prince Arjuna and Krishna and it basically stresses the importance of opposing evil.
Classical period The Classical Period is marked by another creation - the Yoga Sutra. The Yoga Sutra’s were accredited to Patanjali but thought to be the work of many writers. It is composed of 195 sutras (from the Sanskrit word which means thread) which emphasises Raja yoga and its underlying principle which is Patanjali’s Eightfold path of yoga (also called Eight Limbs of yoga). These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Yama, which means social restraints or ethical values Niyama, which is personal obser vance of purity, purity, tolerance, and study Asanas, or physical exercises Pranayama, Pranayama, which means breath control or regulation Pratyahara, Pratyahara, or sense withdrawal in preparation for meditation Dharana, which is about concentration Dhyana, which means meditation Samadhi, which means enlightenment
Patanjali believed that each individual is a composite of matter (prakriti) and spirit (purusha). He further believed that the two must be separated in order to cleanse the spirit - a stark contrast to Vedic and PreClassical yoga that signify the union of body and spirit.
Post classical yoga It no longer strives to liberate a person from reality but rather teaches one to accept it and live in the moment. Yoga was introduced in the West during the early 19th century. It was first studied as part of Eastern philosophy and began as a movement for health and vegetarianism around the 1930’s. By the 1960’s, there was an influx of Indian teachers who practised yoga. One of them was Maharishi Mahesh, the Yogi who popularised Transcendental Meditation. Another one is a prominent yoga Guru Swami Sivananda. Sivananda was a doctor in Malaysia and he later opened schools in America and Europe. The most prominent of his works is his modified Five Principles of Yoga Yoga which are: 1. 2.
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Savasana, or proper relaxation Asanas, or proper exercise
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3. 4. 5.
Pranayama, Pranayama, or proper breathing Proper diet Dhyana, or positive thinking and meditation
Sivananda wrote more than 200 books on yoga and philosophy, and had many disciples who furthered yoga. Some of them were Swami Satchitananda who introduced chanting and yoga to Woodstock; Woodstock; Swami Sivananada Radha who explored the connection between psychology and yoga; and Yogi Bhajan who started teaching Kundalini yoga in the 70’s (Bance, 2011). Many of the schools of Hatha yoga popular today in the West can trace their roots to the Indian Sanskrit scholar and teacher Krishnamacharya (1889-1989), several of whose pupils have themselves become prominent teachers. Among the most popular and influential in the West are: B.K.S. Iyengar, Iyengar, who founded Iyengar Yoga; T.K.V. Desikachar (Krishnamacharya’s son), who carries on his father’s tradition, known as Viniyoga; and Sri K. K . Pattabhi Jois, who developed Ashtanga yoga.
Different styles of modern yoga More important than any style of yoga is the dedication of the student and the quality of the teacher. In general, all yoga that involves postures (asana) and breathing (pranayama) is Hatha yoga. It is the duty of a yoga teacher to explain, explain, in simple terms, to their students students what Hatha yoga is. There are many schools of Hatha yoga, and many approaches to teaching. It is not unusual for teachers to study in various schools and to blend techniques to create their own approaches. Differences among the schools are usually about emphasis. For example, one may focus on strict alignment of the body, another on coordination of breath and movement; one may focus on holding each posture for a period of time, another on the flow (vinyasa) from one posture to another. A new yoga teacher may want to try classes in different styles and with different teachers to find those that best match his or her needs. The following forms of yoga will be explored. • • • • • • • • •
Hatha Vinyasa Ashtanga Iyengar Sivananda Integral Viniyoga Kundalini Bikram
Hatha Please see previous explanation for Hatha yoga.
Vinyasa Vinyasa is a general term that is used to describe many different types of classes. Vinyasa means breathsynchronised movement and tends to be a more vigorous style, based on the performance of a series of poses called Sun Salutations, in which movement is matched to the breath. A Vinyasa class will typically start with a number of Sun Salutations to warm up the body for the more intense stretching that’s done at the end of class (see Ashtanga yoga below).
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Ashtanga (Power) yoga Ashtanga yoga literally means “eight-limbed yoga,” as outlined by the sage Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras. According to Patanjali, Patanjali, the path of internal purification for revealing the Universal Self consists of the eight spiritual practices also known as the eight limbs of yoga (see later on in this unit): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Yama (moral codes) Niyama (self-purification and study) Asana (posture) Pranayama Pranayama (breath control) Pratyahara (sense control) Dharana (concentration) Dhyana (meditation) Samadhi (contemplation) (contemplation)
The first four limbs - yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama - are considered external cleansing practices. The next four limbs are internal cleansing practices. The first two steps toward controlling the mind are the perfection of yama and niyama. However, it is considered impossible to practise yama and niyama when the body and mind are weak and haunted by obstacles. A participant must first take up daily asana practice to make the body strong and healthy. healthy. With the body thus stabilised, the mind can be steady and controlled. With mind control, one is able to pursue and grasp these first two limbs. To perform asana correctly in Ashtanga yoga, participants par ticipants must incorporate the use of vinyasa and tristhana. Vinyasa means breathing and movement system. For each movement, there is one breath. For example, in Surya Sur ya Namaskar (Sun Salutation series) there are nine vinyasas. The first vinyasa is inhaling while raising the arms overhead, and putting hands together; the second is exhaling while bending forward, placing hands next to the feet, etc. The purpose of vinyasa is for internal cleansing. Synchronising breathing and movement in the asanas heats the body so that circulation is improved. Improved blood circulation relieves joint pain and helps to remove toxins from the body. The sweat generated from the heat of vinyasa then carries the i mpurities out of the body. Tristhana refers to the union of ‘three places of attention’ or action: posture, breath and focus point. These are very important for yoga practice, and cover three levels of purification: the body, body, nervous system and mind. They are always performed in conjunction with each other. other. Asana
In Ashtanga yoga, asana is grouped into six series: • • •
The Primary Series (Yoga (Yoga Chikitsa) detoxifies and aligns the body The Intermediate Series (Nadi Shodhana) purifies the nervous system by opening and clearing the energy channels The Advanced Series A, B, C, and D (Sthira Bhaga) integrate the strength and grace of the practice, requiring higher levels of flexibility and humility
Each level should be fully developed before proceeding to the next, and the sequential order of asanas is to be meticulously followed. Each posture is a preparation for the next, developing the strength and balance required to move fur ther. ther. Without an earnest effort effor t towards the practice of yama and niyama, however, the practice of asana is of little benefit. Breathing
The breathing technique performed with vinyasa is called ujjayi (victorious breath). Both the inhale and exhale should be steady and even, and the length of the inhale should be the same length as the exhale. Over time, the length and intensity of the inhalation and exhalation should increase, such that the increased stretching of the breath initiates the increased stretching of the body. body. During practice, the eyes are usually focussed on specific points within each asana to ensure the mind is stilled.
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Iyengar yoga: Symmetry and alignment Iyengar yoga emphasises posture and the development of balance and alignment. To support the participants’ explorations of postures, Iyengar yoga makes use of a wide variety of props: belts, blocks, pillows etc. Iyengar is one of the most widely practised yoga techniques in the West. It was developed in India by B.K.S. Iyengar and works well for individuals with varying limitations and capacities for accomplishing postures. Iyengar yoga is noted for great attention to detail and the precise alignment of postures. The Iyengar method is initially learnt through the in-depth study of asanas (posture) and pranayama (breath control). B.K.S. Iyengar delineated over two hundred classical yoga asanas and fourteen different types of Pranayamas Pranayamas (with variations of many of them) from the simple to the incredibly difficult. These have been structured to allow a beginner to progress safely from basic postures to the most advanced, as they gain flexibility, strength and sensitivity in mind and body. Asana
Correct body alignment allows the body to develop harmoniously in an anatomically correct way so that the participant suffers no injury or pain when practising correctly. B.K.S. Iyengar developed the use of props to help the body into the correct positions required. Props are objects like wooden blocks, chairs, blankets and belts that help participants adjust or support themselves in the different postures so that they can work in a range of motion that is safe and effective. Pranayama
Pranayama is started once a firm foundation in asana has been established, as physically, the student requires the alignment and flexibility necessary to sit and breathe correctly while practising. Pranayama gives numerous physical benefits to the circulatory, digestive, nervous, and respiratory systems, activating the internal organs and creating a feeling of energy and calmness. Equally importantly, it also brings the mind and senses under control and makes the individual fit for the experience of meditation.
Sivananda The International Sivananda Yoga Yoga Vedanta Centre is a non-profit organisation founded by Swami VishnuDevananda to spread the teachings of Vedanta worldwide. There are now close to eighty Sivananda locations (ashrams, yoga centres, and affiliated centres) around the world. The organisation has trained more than ten thousand yoga teachers. The Sivananda Yoga Yoga Vedanta Centres are recognised worldwide for teaching yoga authentically, authentically, preserving its purity and tradition, which dates back several thousand years. Swami Vishnu-Devananda headed to the West and began travelling and teaching throughout the United States in 1957. He established the first Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centre in Montreal, Canada, in 1959. Sivananda is one of the world’s largest schools of yoga. It is very supportive to beginners. Developed by Swami Vishnu-Devananda and named after his teacher, Swami Sivananda, Sivananda yoga follows a set structure that includes breathing, classic asanas, relaxation, as well as principles of diet and positive thinking. The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga, Yoga, written by Swami Vishnu-Devananda and first published in 1960, was one of the first, and continues to be one of the best, introductions to yoga available. Teachers should encourage students to embrace a healthy lifestyle that is based upon five principles: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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Proper exercise (Asana, focusing on twelve poses in particular) Proper breathing (Pranayama) Proper relaxation Proper diet Positive thinking and meditation
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Integral yoga: The healing power of relaxation Sri Swami Satchidananda described Integral yoga as: “a flexible combination of specific methods to develop every aspect of the individual: physical, intellectual, and spiritual. It is a scientific system which integrates the various branches of yoga in order to bring about a complete and harmonious development of the individual.” Integral yoga integrates various forms of yoga into a united whole. These forms of yoga include: • • • • • •
Hatha yoga - focuses on the physical aspects through asanas (postures), pranayama (breath control), control), mudras, kriyas, yogic diet, and deep relaxation. Raja yoga - balance and control of the mind through ethical practices, concentration and meditation. Bhakti yoga - the path of devotion, by constant love, thought, and ser vice of the Divine. Karma yoga - the path of action and selfless service. Not being attached to the results of any action. Jnana yoga - the intellectual approach. Through the knowledge of what really exists and what is not changeable, participants can realise oneness with the entire universe. Japa yoga - Japa means repetition of a mantra - a sound structure of one or more syllables which represents a particular aspect of the Divine vibration.
The goal of Integral yoga is to realise the spiritual unity behind all diversity, and to live harmoniously as members of one universal family. This goal is achieved by maintaining: • • • • • • • •
a body of optimum health and strength senses under total control a mind well disciplined, clear, and calm an intellect as sharp as a razor a will as strong and pliable as steel a heart full of unconditional love and compassion an ego as pure as crystal a life filled with peace and joy
Viniyoga: Gentle flow This gentle form of yoga places great emphasis on the breath, and coordinating breath with movement. Viniyoga’s flowing movement or vinyasa is similar to ashtanga’s dynamic series of poses, but is performed at a greatly reduced pace and stress level. The Vinyasa are chosen to suit the participant’s abilities. It teaches the yoga participant how to apply the tools of yoga (asana, chanting, pranayama and meditation) in individual practice. Viniyoga was developed by T.K.V. .K.V. Desikachar, Desikachar, the son of Krishnamacharya (teacher to some of the great yoga instructors including Iyengar and Pattabhi Jois). It places less stress on joints and knees since postures are done with slightly bent knees. Viniyoga is considered excellent for beginners, and is increasingly being used in therapeutic environments.
Kundalini yoga: Awakening energy Once a guarded secret in India, Kundalini yoga came to the West in 1969, when Sikh Yogi Bhajan challenged tradition and began to teach it publicly. Kundalini yoga focuses on the controlled release of kundalini energy, energy, thought to reside at the base of the spine. This style of yoga pays particular attention to breath work, which aims to get energy moving quickly, but it also involves classic poses, coordination of breath and movement, and meditation. Kundalini yoga is based on specially formulated sets of exercises. This allows participants to target specific
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benefits and work on exactly those aspects of that need work at the current time. Any amount of time spent practising - whether three minutes or an hour a day - produces significant benefits and, in turn, motivates participants to dedicate more time to its practice. Practising Kundalini yoga keeps the body in shape and trains the mind to be strong and flexible in the face of stress and change. It increases oxygen capacity, capacity, boosts blood flow, balances the glandular system, strengthens the nervous system, and reduces stress-induced toxins such as adrenaline and cortisol. The effect is a heightened self-awareness and vitality that allows participants to harness mental and emotional energy. energy. Participants feel more in control of themselves, with enhanced peace of mind, concentration, and a deep inner calm and self-confidence.
Bikram yoga: Hot yoga A beginners Bikram yoga class is a twenty-six asana series designed to scientifically warm and stretch muscles, ligaments and tendons, in the order in which they should be stretched. Control of weight, muscle tone, vibrant good health, and a sense of well-being are some of the benefits. Bikram teaches not only the ideal posture, but also details what problems participants will have as they try to do the postures, what clues will help make rapid progress, and where participants might be tempted to ‘cheat’, thus depriving themselves of the benefit of doing the posture properly. Bikram explains how his scientifically designed series of twenty-six postures will enhance mind and body, relax, strengthen, reshape, and heal all of the body in a ninety minute class. Modern Bikram yoga is taught in heated studios and the temperature is often up to 47 degrees. This is said to replicate ideal situations for yoga practice (Angell, 2011).
The Sanskrit language Yoga was written in Sanskrit, an Indian language, and many of the Sanskrit words are still used in yoga teaching today. Sanskrit is the oldest language known to man. It is considered by many to be the very origin of language itself; that from which all languages have arisen or evolved. The Vedas, the universally accepted first scriptures of humanity, were written in the Sanskrit language. There is also a deeply rooted faith among Indians that Sanskrit itself is the language of the Gods, which is why this language was known during the Vedic period (6,000 – 8,000 years ago) as the Divine speech. Literally meaning ‘refined speech’, Sanskrit is still used today and is one of the twenty-two official languages of India.
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Relevance of ancient yoga texts Four classic texts of yoga Hatha Yoga Pradipika The spiritual path of yoga is laid out by the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, which is one of the earliest texts on Hatha yoga written by Swatmarama. The text was written in the 15th century BC. The work is derived from older Sanskrit texts and Swami Svatamarama’s own yogic experiences. Many modern English translations of the text are available. The book consists of four chapters which include information about asanas, pranayama, chakras, kundalini, bandhas, kriyas, nadis and mudras among other topics.
Summary of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika Chapter one describes asanas. The text starts with Swatmarama saluting to his gurus. He indicates that
the knowledge has come from the guru-disciple lineage: Siva taught Matsyendranath, Matsyendranath taught his disciple Gorakshanath and Swatmarama learned Hatha yoga. He explains that the knowledge is not for everyone ever yone - it should be kept secret until the student is ready. The text describes the conditions necessary for the practice of Hatha yoga, being in a peaceful place without distractions or concerns for physical safety. It indicates that the yogi perishes by six causes: over-eating, over exertion due to hard physical labour, labour, too much talk, the obser vance of unsuitable vows, promiscuous company and unsteadiness. He succeeds through cheerfulness, perseverance, courage, true knowledge, firm belief in the words of the guru and by abandoning unsuitable company. company. Swatmarama indicates that asanas are the first stage of Hatha yoga, and goes on to describe the practice of a particular set of postures. He reveals that Siva described eighty-four asanas but that the most important four are Siddhasana, Padmasana, Padmasana, Simhasana and Bhadrasana. •
• • •
Of these the most comfortable and excellent is Siddhasana which purifies the seventy-two thousand nadis (‘astral nerves’). “A Yogi practising contemplation upon his Atman (Self), and observing a moderate diet, if he practises the Siddhasana for twelve years, obtains fulfilment”. Padmasana Padmasana destroys diseases. “The yogi, sitting in the Padmasana posture, by restraining the breath drawn in through the nadis, becomes liberated”. Simhasana facilitates the three bandhas (muscular locks applied during breathing in order to direct the prana). Bhadrasana destroys all ills.
One must lead a chaste life, observe a moderate diet and practise yoga. Moderate diet is defined as taking pleasant and sweet food and leaving one quarter of the stomach free. Sharp, sour, salty or stale food should be avoided. The text also states that siddhis (psychic powers) are not obtained by the idle, or mere theoretical reading, but only by practice. Chapter two describes pranayama. The Pradipika states that when the breath wanders, the mind is
also unsteady, but when the breath is still, so is the mind. It describes left and right nostril breathing, and kumbhaka (retention), puraka (inhalation) and rechaka (exhalation), which helps purify the nadis. Participants Participants should perform perf orm kumbhakas four times a day and increase the number per formed as they get more practised. They must perform pranayama correctly and they will gradually be free of all diseases. If performed incorrectly it brings disease to the practitioner. For people of flabby or phlegmatic constitution it is suggested that they perform the six acts or ‘kriyas’ to purify the body. These are Dhauti, Basti, Neti, Tratak, Nauli and Kapalabhati.
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The Pradipika then goes on to describe Jalandhara bandha (throat lock) and Mula bandha (anus contraction) and the eight different kinds of kumbhakas. At the end of kumbhaka, the yogi should draw off his mind from any objects. “The signs of perfection in Hatha yoga are: the body becomes lean, the speech eloquent, the inner sounds are distinctly heard, the eyes are clear and bright, the body is freed of all diseases and the nadis are purified.” Chapter three focuses on awakening Kundalini (‘Serpent Power’), the energy located in the individual. The
yogi is directed to practise the various mudras (seals), and the ten mudras that destroy old age and death, which are listed. Uddiyana bandha (the drawing up of the intestines) is taught, and then Mula bandha which unites prana and apana, heats the body and awakens the kundalini. These lead into a description of the ‘energy asana’, Vajrasana, which allows one to manipulate the Kundalini. Chapter four is devoted to Raja yoga, the stilling of the mind, where one reaches Samadhi, the state
of eternal bliss. When participants master the restraint of the breath and the prana flows through the Sushumna (the central nadi) absorption of the mind ensues. Nada is where the yogi listens with a concentrated mind to the sounds within. Firstly, sweet tinkling sounds, arising from the Anahata chakra in the middle of the body, are heard (Arambha Avastha), secondly secondly the prana becomes one and enters the middle chakra (Ghata Avashta). The third stage is the hearing of sounds like a drum in i n the space lying between the eyebrows (Parichaya Avastha). Avastha). The fourth stage sets in, where sounds of the flute are heard (Nishpatti) and the mind becomes one (Raja yoga). The final portion of the text reinforces the power and the benefits of the practice and reaching Samadhi. He who reaches Samadhi is said not to be affected by death or karma, is freed from his senses and the world cannot overpower him (Long, 2007).
The Upanishads The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers (upa - near, ni - down, shad -sit). These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge. The major Upanishads were composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse. Later Upanishads continued to be composed right up to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form. Central to the Upanishads is the concept of Brahman - the sacred power which informs reality. reality. Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher. teacher. The Upanishads essentially all ask the same eternal questions: Who am I? Where do we come from? What is God? What is death? There are four main concepts (known as mahàvàkyas or “great utterances”) 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Everything is Brahman – The ultimate reality of the universe is identical with our innermost nature The Self is Brahman – Only the realisation of this will liberate you from suffering and the cycle of birth–life–death Consciousness is Brahman – A person’s thoughts and actions determines his/her destiny (karma) I am Brahman – If you aren’t liberated and achieve the formless existence of atman/Brahman, you will be reborn
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Topics covered These are, especially for the longer Upanishads, the main but not the only topics, since all are interrelated. • • • • • • • • • •
The path of knowledge versus the path of action, the Self (atman) Brahman as the Perceiver, Perceiver, Inspirer of all functions in the Universe How to be free of birth – death – rebirth through intuitive knowledge of the Supreme Self Brahman and how to attain this state Four states of consciousness – meditation on OM The Koshas; interconnectedness of all things Creation; the life – death cycle Atman is Brahman Atman as universal consciousness; Brahman is infinite Two routes to Brahman
Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita is India’s greatest scripture and is over 5,000 years old. When Mahatma Gandhi died, a famous photograph was taken of all his possessions: his simple white cotton piece of clothing, his glasses, his sandals and his well-worn copy of The Bhagavad Gita. It is read daily by millions of people around the world and is in the homes of literally hundreds of millions of people, and is considered by a great many to be the finest source of spiritual teaching in the world. The Gita is an epic mystical poem about life, death, love, and duty, embedded in the middle of the larger poem, the Mahabharatha, a literary masterpiece about the heights and depths of the human soul.
Summary of the Bhagavad Gita The year is 3141 BC, and Arjuna, an esteemed warrior-prince at the height of his powers, is getting ready to go into battle with his cousin to regain a kingdom that is rightfully his. All his life he has been a courageous and successful combatant, but now, now, on the eve of the biggest fight of his life, he begins to lose his resolve. He sees the tragedy of the potential mutual slaughter of two opposing sides of the same family. Arjuna’s chariot driver, and his best friend from boyhood, is Krishna, an Avatar, an incarnation of God. Arjuna asks “what is life all about?” and Krishna gives him the answer, answer, straight from God. First he teaches that only the body is mortal, and that the Atma, or pure consciousness, is unchanging and indestructible. One’s personal duty is to remain faithful to the one’s true Self and to never do anything contrary to this. For a warrior there is no higher duty than to fight for righteousness. He talks of selfless action, karma yoga, where all action is dedicated to God and not for personal reward. One should have no thoughts of gain or loss. He describes a person who achieves this as an Illumined One, who withdraws their senses from the pleasures of the world, and steadies their mind. They are devoid of cravings and desire. ‘Sacrifice’ is necessary, meaning offering, helping and being dedicated to the welfare of all humanity, and is the noblest form of action. Truly Truly wise persons recognise inaction in action, and action in inaction. These persons have equal love for all around them. Krishna indicates that there are many paths to God of which two are the ‘path of knowledge’ and the ‘path of action’. Most people find the action path is better for them. One cannot discard one’s worldly duties, but must do them to the utmost extent of their capacity for excellence. Meditation is then described by Krishna, where the mind is stilled and the ego is mastered. Krishna indicates that spiritual work is never wasted, even if one does not reach Divinity in one’s own lifetime.
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Krishna then talks of learned knowledge versus ‘realised’ wisdom and how Divinity is in everything. He mentions the three ‘gunas’ of sattva, rajas and tamas that are present in all of nature. The four different types of God worshipper are described, but Krishna makes clear that any of the types need to know their own Truth before they can know God. Krishna next indicates that whatever occupies your attention throughout your life will be in your consciousness when you die and is manifested in the next birth. Two paths exist: freedom from deathrebirth and bondage to the death-rebirth cycle. The only way to reach the immortal state is through love and unswerving devotion to the Divine. He reiterates that God is in everything, above and beyond all worldly objects and even above all minor deities. Arjuna asks to see Krishna’s True God form and Krishna shows him in a blaze of light. Arjuna realises God’s limitless and all-pervasive presence. Krishna brings Arjuna back to the forthcoming war and points out that the destruction of enemies is inevitable, and that fighting for righteousness one will always win, even if slain in the process. The two friends talk of worshipping the invisible formless God versus the visible God with form. Krishna indicates that for most people it is easier to relate to the God with form, however for full liberation, enlightened yogis have to understand the formless path, without attachment to body. body. Krishna then moves on to explain the different levels of consciousness, talking of the ‘Field’ (the world of nature or ‘matter’) and ‘the Knower of the Field’ (Spirit). He reminds us that all beings are one and they all come from the same source. He returns again to the ‘gunas’ ‘ gunas’ and types of people: sattvic (calm and harmonised), rajasic (full of restless energy) and tamasic (lethargic and indolent). The particular state of mind uppermost at your time of death is the deciding factor of your next birth, and sattva should be the goal. Wise yogis transcend all three gunas, as they dwell within the Self where the mind is tranquil and the ego disappears. To help understanding, Krishna uses an analogy of most humans being like an upside down tree with its branches firmly rooted in the earthly. Krishna says that to gain ‘the eye of wisdom’ one must surrender the ego and purify the mind. He describes how humans have two kinds of tendencies: divine (fearlessness, purity, steadfastness, charity and control of senses; sacrifice, study of scriptures, austerity, straightforwardness, non-injury, truthfulness, absence of anger, renunciation, equanimity and not slandering; compassion, not coveting, gentleness, modesty, modesty, no fickleness and vigour; forgiveness, fortitude, cleanliness, no hatred and no pride) and degenerate (pride, pompousness, vanity, vanity, anger, anger, harshness and absence of discrimination). The gates to hell are desire, greed and anger. Arjuna asks whether people can pursue the right path without knowledge of the scriptures. Krishna replies that people are the sum total of the beliefs they hold in their hear ts. He points out that the food people eat is important and shapes their mental attitudes. The best kind of sattvic food is pure, mild and nourishing. Breakfast should be light, lunch substantial as required and supper as light as possible so that the organs are rested overnight. Krishna elaborates on the three spiritual practices of sacrifice, austerity (or purification) and charity, charity, which he indicates are the three highest of human activities. He relates these to the different types of action: rajasic, tamasic and sattvic. He re-iterates the importance of doing one’s duties and explains the four segments of society: Seers (providing spiritual and moral leadership), Leaders (to help transform ordinary beings into exemplary beings), Providers (business people) and Servers (workers). None are more superior than the other and spiritual growth is possible for all divisions of society. Your duties should be performed for your natural
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calling (‘dharma’), and you should not tr y to master the work of another. another. Krishna reminds Arjuna that he is a warrior and so he must not shy away from fighting the righteous fight. In summary Krishna tells Arjuna to fix his mind on Divinity and give it his whole heart (Long, 2007).
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali The greatest classical text from the yoga school of Indian philosophy is the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali, written in the second century BC. Sutra means ‘thread’ and these’ threads’ on yoga state essential points or techniques. Originally these teachings were oral and were explained and interpreted by commentaries from a teacher guiding the student. The practice of yoga is an art and science dedicated to creating union between body, mind and spirit. In short it is about making balance to live in peace, good health and harmony with the greater whole. This art of right living was perfected and practised in India thousands of years ago and the foundations of yoga philosophy were written down in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. This sacred text describes the inner workings of the mind and provides an eight-step blueprint for controlling its restlessness to ensure lasting peace. The core of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras is an eight-limbed path that forms the structural framework for yoga practice. Each is part of a holistic focus which eventually brings completeness to the individual. Because everyone is unique a participant can emphasise one branch and then move on to another. another. Organisation of the Yoga Sutras
The sutras are in four parts/chapters par ts/chapters (padas): meditation. This section gives theory of yoga and a description of 1. Samadhi Pada - Contemplation and meditation. the most advanced stages of the practice of contemplation (samedhi). This chapter states that there are five activities of the mind that can cause problems or be beneficial and these are: • • • • •
Comprehension (right knowledge, perception, faithful testimony) Error (misunderstanding, incorrect knowledge) Imagination (forming opinions without facts) Deep sleep (unconscious mental activity) Memory (retains living experience).
This chapter also states that there are nine inner obstacles to mental clarity and these are: • • • • • • • • •
Sickness and illness Mental inertia, stagnation and dullness Doubt Haste, lack of foresight and carelessness Apathy, fatigue and laziness Intemperance and overindulgence Errors in judgement of oneself and false perception Lack of perseverance Inability to stay at a level once reached, regression and lack of progress
The chapter states that the following four obstacles will affect us in some way or another whether they be mental or physical: • • • •
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Distress Negative thinking Physical discomfort or unease Disturbed breathing
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2. Sadhana Pada - Practice (the steps to union).
This chapter contains philosophy in a practical nature. It includes the first five steps of the yoga limbs along with benefits, obstacles and ways to overcome the obstacles. It states that there are five major obstacles or causes of suffering and pain called Kleshas and these are: • • • • •
Avidya – ignorance of our true nature Asmita – consciousness of I, egotism Raga – attachment, extreme dislike, hatred Dvesha – our aversion to things Abhiivesha – clinging to life, fear of death, attachment to the body
3. Vibhuti Padi - Accomplishments (union achieved and its results). This chapter discusses the final three
steps of Raja yoga plus all of the powers and accomplishments which could come to a faithful practitioner. practitioner. It covers the last three limbs of yoga – Dharana, Dhyana and Samedhi. 4. Kaivalya Pada - Absoluteness (illumination and freedom). This chapter discusses yoga from a
philosophical viewpoint. It explains that life should be lived in a selfless way and to be lived in a dedicated way i.e. whatever you do, do it for others.
Relevance of yoga texts within a yoga class The integration of ancient yoga texts within a yoga class, whether verbally communicated, or in written format (e.g. hand-outs) may serve to both educate and further inspire yoga participants at any level. Some ideas for inclusion are presented below:
The Hatha Yoga Pradipika As previously discussed, this text consists of four chapters which include information about asanas, pranayama, chakras, kundalini, kundalini, bandhas, kriyas, nadis and mudras, among among other topics. During classes, the teacher can choose one aspect to introduce or to theme the class with and produce hand-outs for the participants.
The Upanishads These may offer the most benefit by being read out to the participants during relaxation and recovery time, or after the class finishes. A teacher can choose those those that are relevant to the class, class, as well as those that the teacher feels are especially poignant to them.
The Bhagavad Gita Excerpts of this text can be read out to the class during relaxation and recovery.
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali The Yoga Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Patanjali can be simply woven woven into any class. The text can either be read out, out, or the teacher can use their interpretation interpretation of the text and share this with the class. Hand-outs can also be prepared using simple language so that the participants can have an insight into the theory of yoga.
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Ideas for integration • • •
Some of the theory theor y can be used for a discussion after the class, for example the Yamas and Niyamas. Using Dharana as a theme for a class, the teacher could make an object (e.g. a candle flame or a crystal) as the focus of meditation After relaxation the teacher can get into the habit of reading out selected text from any of the ancient texts.
Table 2 provides an example of how information regarding the ‘Eight Limbs of Yoga’ can be integrated into an 8-week lesson plan. Week number
Limb of yoga
Themes
1
Yama
2
Niyama
3
Asana
Restraint – non-violence, not lying, not stealing, not lusting, non-attachment Obser vances – cleanliness, contentment, discipline, surrender to supreme ‘God’ Posture or physical exercises
4 5 6 7
Pranayama Pratyahara Dharana Dhyana
Breath control Sublimation or withdrawal from the senses Attention Concentration
8
Samadhi
Meditation Table 2 Example lesson plan
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Understanding the eight limbs of yoga Eight limbs of yoga The eight limbs of yoga, according to Patanjali Patanjali are summarised as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Yama (Restraint) - nonviolence, not lying, not stealing, not lusting, and nonattachment Niyama (Observances) - cleanliness, contentment, discipline, self-study, and surrender to the Supreme God Asana (Posture or physical exercises) Pranayama Pranayama (Breath control) Pratyahara (Sublimation (Sublimation or withdrawal from the senses) Dharana (Attention) Dhyana (Concentration) Samadhi (Meditation)
The first two limbs that Patanjali describes are the yamas, and the niyamas. Yamas Yamas and niyamas are the suggestions given on how individuals should deal with other people, as well as attitudes towards self. The attitude we have toward things and people outside ourselves is yama, and how we relate to ourselves inwardly is niyama. Both are mostly concerned with how energy is directed in relationship to others and to ourselves. Each of the eight limbs will be explored further below.
1. Yamas (restraint) Ahimsa (compassion for all living things)
Ahimsa is a key principle of yamas. Ahimsa literally means ‘not to injure or show cruelty to any creature or any person in any way whatsoever’. It also pertains to self-responsibility; ahimsa implies that in every situation we should adopt a considerate attitude and do no harm. Ahimsa is i s commonly thought of as the most important yoga principle as it applies to almost everything: • • • • •
How we treat all other beings How we treat our own bodies and minds How we think and what we think about How we talk and what we talk about How we eat and what we eat
Mahatma Gandhi is an example of someone who dedicated his life to Ahimsa; he was a great example of the yoga lifestyle. It is essential that yoga teachers practise Ahimsa in one or more areas of their life. Satya (commitment to truthfulness)
Satya means ‘to speak the truth’, yet it is not always desirable to speak the truth on all occasions, as it could harm someone unnecessarily. Satya should never come into conflict with efforts to behave with ahimsa. This precept is based on the understanding that honest communication and action is the cornerstone of any healthy relationship, community, or government, and that deliberate deception, exaggerations, and mistruths harm others. There is a common Ahimsa/Satya dilemma: Have you ever been in a situation when the truth would be hurtful or harmful to someone? What’s the right thing to do: to say the truth and be hurtful, or lie and save someone the embarrassment?
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Integrating the first two principles of yoga is an art and a life-long yoga lifestyle practice. Asteya (non-stealing)
Steya means ‘to steal’; asteya is the opposite. It also refers to situations where someone entrusts something or confides in an individual. Non-stealing includes not only taking what belongs to another without permission, but also using something for a different purpose to that intended, or beyond the time permitted by its owner. The practice of asteya implies not taking anything that has not been freely given. This also includes fostering a consciousness of how we ask for others’ time. Consider how much you need? We need only as much as is necessary for our survival in terms of basic needs of nourishment and comfort. We need just enough (material possessions) to be able to perform our life’s work. Ask yourself before making a decision to get something: Am I stealing it from anyone, or from nature? Will I be able to use it to improve the lives of others and benefit the planet? Brahmacharya (faithfulness)
This doesn’t only refer to relationships; it encompasses all areas of life - teachers, friends, principles and values, and personal commitments. To practise Brachmacharya, as you take on a task or a new endeavour or take a new step, ask yourself: Am I betraying any of my relationships, principles, promises, or commitments? Aparigraha (neutralising the desire to acquire and hoard wealth)
Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, and not to take advantage of a situation or act greedy. Aparigraha also implies letting go of attachments to material things, and is often referred to as ‘impermanence’ in Buddhist culture. Ask yourself, before acquiring something new: Will this new (...) help me to make other people’s lives better? Is this (...) a real necessity for my yogic living? The secret purpose of the Yamas
Yoga aims to achieve lasting inner peace and happiness. In order to achieve this, one must learn how to control one’s mind perfectly which can be challenging. To enable this, it is important to practise limiting common distractions of the mind such as: • • • • •
violence, and violent thoughts lies and untruths guilt being unfaithful having more things than are required
Practising the Yamas is the core of the yoga lifestyle. Practising the yamas will gradually minimise the distractions and set the mind up for lasting inner i nner peace and happiness.
2. Niyama Niyama means ‘rules’ or ‘laws’; these are the rules prescribed for personal observance. Compared with the yamas, the niyamas are more intimate and personal. They refer to the attitude adopted toward oneself to create a code for living.
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Sauca (purity)
Sauca has both an inner and an outer aspect. Outer purity simply means keeping ourselves clean; inner cleanliness has as much to do with the healthy, healthy, free functioning of our bodily organs as with the clarity of our mind. Practising asanas or pranayama are essential means for attending to this inner sauca. Asanas tone the entire body and remove toxins while pranayama cleanses the lungs, oxygenates the blood and purifies the nerves. But more important than the physical cleansing cleansing of the body is the cleansing of the mind of disturbing emotions like hatred, passion, anger, anger, lust, greed, delusion and pride. Santosa (contentment)
Santosa means feeling content with one’s lifestyle and to be at peace within, even while experiencing life’s difficulties. This concept generally accepts accepts that there is a purpose for everything - yoga calls it karma – and that contentment is cultivated ‘to accept what happens’. Tapas (disciplined use of energy)
Tapas refers to the activity of keeping the body fit, as well as to confront and handle inner urges without outer manifestations. Literally, it means ‘to heat the body and to cleanse it’. Behind the concept of tapas lies the idea that energy can be directed to enthusiastically engage life. Another form of tapas is paying attention to what is eaten. Attention to body posture, attention to eating habits, attention to breathing patterns - these are all tapas. Svadhyaya (self-study)
Svadhyaya means self-inquiry or any activity that cultivates self-reflection. It means to intentionally find self-awareness in all activities and efforts, even to the point of welcoming and accepting limitations. Isvarapranidhana (celebration of the Spiritual)
The practice requires that time is set aside each day to recognise that there is a larger force than oneself that is guiding and directing the course of our lives. 3. Asanas
Asana is the most commonly known aspect of yoga. The practice of moving the body into postures has widespread benefits; of these the most important are improved health, strength, balance and flexibility. Asana means ‘staying’ in Sanskrit. Through practice, asana fosters a quieting quieting of the mind; therefore therefore it becomes both a preparation for meditation and a meditation in itself. Patanjali suggests that the asana and the pranayama practices will bring about the desired state of health, harmonising the flow of energy in the body. 4. Pranayama
Pranayama is the measuring, control, and directing of the breath. Pranayama controls the energy (prana) within the body, in order to restore and maintain health. When the in-flowing breath is joined with the out-flowing breath, perfect relaxation and balance of body activities are realised. Pranayama co-exists with the asana. In the Yoga Sutras, the practice of pranayama and asana are considered to be the highest form of purification and self-discipline for the mind and the body. body. The practices produce the physical sensation of heat, called tapas; this heat is part of the process of purifying the nadis, or subtle nerve channels of the body, body, and allowing the mind to become calmer. calmer. As the participant follows the proper rhythmic patterns of slow deep breathing, the patterns strengthen the respiratory system and soothe the nervous system – laying the foundation for concentration. concentration. 5. Pratyahara
In yoga, the term pratyahara implies withdrawal of the senses from attachment to external objects. When the senses are no longer tied to external sources, the result is pratyahara.
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Pratyahara occurs almost automatically during meditation because the individual is so absorbed in the object of meditation. Because the mind is so focused, the senses follow it; it is not happening the other way around. The senses are considered to be a source of temptation to develop cravings; in pratyahara the opposite occurs. A person who is influenced by outside events and sensations can never achieve the inner peace and tranquillity. This is because he or she will waste much mental and physical energy in trying to suppress unwanted sensations and to heighten other sensations. This will eventually result in a physical or mental imbalance. Patanjali says that the above process is at the root of human unhappiness and uneasiness. In a sense, yoga is nothing more than a process which enables followers to stop and look at the processes of their minds. 6. Dharana
Dharana means ‘immovable concentration concentration of the mind’. The essential idea is to hold the concentration or focus of attention in one direction. It is said that: “When the body has been tempered by asanas, when the mind has been refined by the fire of pranayama and when the senses have been brought under control by pratyahara, the yogi reaches the sixth stage, dharana”.
Here a single point or task is concentrated on and the participant becomes completely engrossed. The mind has to be stilled in order to achieve this state of complete absorption. The objective in dharana is to steady the mind by focusing its attention upon some stable entity. The particular object selected has nothing to do with the general purpose, which is to stop the mind from wandering through memories, dreams, or reflective thought by deliberately holding it single-mindedly upon some apparently static object. 7. Dhyana
Dhyana means worship, and is the epitome of perfect contemplation. It involves concentration upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. Meditation becomes a tool to see things clearly and perceive reality beyond the illusions that cloud our mind. 8. Samadhi
Samadhi means ‘to bring together, together, to merge’. In the state of Samadhi, the body and senses are at rest, as if asleep, yet the faculty of mind and reason are alert, as if awake. Thus, samadhi refers to union or true yoga. The achievement of samadhi is a difficult task. For this reason the Yoga Sutras suggest the practice of asanas and pranayama as preparation for dharana, because these influence mental activities, and create space in the crowded schedule of the mind. Once dharana has occurred, dhyana and samadhi can follow. These eight limbs of yoga indicate a logical pathway that leads to the attainment of physical, emotional, and psycho-spiritual health. Yoga Yoga does not seek to change the individual; rather, it allows the natural state of total health and integration to become a reality (Doran, 2011).
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Understanding the four paths of yoga It can be quite confusing for a new participant to hear about yoga paths, yoga styles, yoga traditions and yoga schools. Put simply, simply, yoga paths are the main roads of yoga and the other terms terms simply mean side roads that branch off from the main road but still help you meet your destination.
Four paths of yoga The four paths of yoga are Karma, Jnana, Bhakti, and Raja. The whole concept and organisation of the four paths can be confusing, particularly if participants have just focused on the physical aspects within a class. Another source of confusion is that participants do not choose a particular par ticular path. More likely, practice expands so that it touches each of the paths.
Explaining the four paths to class participants 1. 2. 3. 4.
Practise asanas in class (Raja yoga) Realisation that you are much more aware of your influence on the world around you (Karma yoga) Begin to experience feeling joy, bliss and oneness, chanting or meditating on a mantra - and bringing this into your life (Bhakti yoga) Noticing that in meditation and moments of stillness you are attempting to discriminate between the obvious distinctions in the physical world and your deep experience of oneness (Jnana yoga)
Karma yoga: the yoga of action Karma yoga is the yoga of action. Here, the participant expresses his or her oneness through everyday action - focusing on honesty, honesty, hard work and selfless service. Karma is the set of obstacles or lessons that confront individuals in life. The values of Karma yoga
Honesty, Honesty, hard work and selfless service ser vice form the core values of Karma yoga. Honesty means not just telling the truth, but digging deep within oneself to know the truth and live it. Meditation helps to achieve this self-knowledge. Hard work can include Hatha yoga to keep the body ready to do its best. It also means doing a job fully, whether shovelling a pile of earth or completing a round of sun salutations. Selfless service entails setting needs aside in making the best choice in any situation.
Karma yoga challenge
Today, as you go through your everyday activities find at least one situation that you might normally walk right by, and lend a hand instead. Breathe. Feel your feet on the ground and look around yourself. It can be as simple as letting a car merge in heavy traffic, or going a few extra steps to get a door for someone. Tomorrow, try for two or three chances. Enjoy it.
Bhakti yoga: the yoga of devotion Bhakti yoga is the yoga of devotion and love. The Bhakti yogi seeks to offer up all of their emotional energy to God (which could mean universal spiritual energy, a chosen deity or any other conception of oneness). Common practices of Bhakti yoga include: reciting and meditating upon mantras, maintaining shrines to a
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preferred deity and writing poetry. These practices can be a natural outgrowth of any yogi’s physical practice. Sometimes in a yoga posture, individuals may feel a strength that goes beyond the effort of your muscles; a feeling that doesn’t seem to have a simple physical explanation. These moments may be thought of simply as ‘being in the zone’, or more profoundly as ‘universal connection’. They are also moments of yoga union. Chanting or following a mantra in meditation can provide a reliable way to tap into this feeling (chanting Aum, for example); the hope being that the yogi will learn to draw upon these energies in ever yday life.
Jnana yoga: the yoga of knowledge Jnana yoga is the yoga of knowledge. Jnana yoga is considered the most difficult path that requires immense faith and trust. path. It is based on the Hindu philosophy of Brahman or non-dualism which is a fundamental belief in the unity of the universe. A similar non-dualistic view of reality is held by many branches of Buddhism, including Zen, Taoism, Taoism, Islamic Sufism, as well as by some branches of Christianity. Christianity. Jnana yoga looks into the truth about who we are and what we are experiencing, i.e. Who am I? The full realisation of this truth brings enlightenment or salvation. Jnana yoga teaches that there are four means to salvation: 1. 2. 3.
4.
Viveka (discrimination) - the ability to differentiate between what is real/eternal (Brahman) and what is unreal/temporary (everything else in the universe). Vairagya (dispassion) (dispassion) - after practice one should be able to ‘detach’ from everything that is ‘temporary’. Shad-sampat (the 6 Virtues) – these include Tranquillity (control of the mind), Dama (control of the senses), Uparati (renunciation of activities that are not duties), Titiksha (endurance), Shraddha (faith), Samadhana (perfect concentration). Mumukshutva (intense longing for liberation from temporal limitations). The ‘liberation’ might be described as ‘wanting to be one with the universe’.
Raja yoga: the royal path Raja yoga is the royal path to yoga. Far more participants start out on this path than any other. Raja yoga uses physical asanas, breathing exercises, and meditation to find the union of yoga. It encompasses most of the types of yoga seen today - Hatha, Ashtanga, Kundalini, Vinyasa, Bikram, as well as many forms of meditation. The term first came about in ancient India, where royalty frequently practised this form. In addition, further meaning is derived from knowledge of chakra points – through yoga practice, internal spiritual energies (e.g. kundalini) rise through the major energy centres along the spine, eventually reaching the crown chakra, located just above the crown of the head.
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Key concepts of yoga This section provides an insight into the most common concepts within yoga including: • • •
Prana – kundalini, nadis, granthis and chakras Kleshas – ignorance, I-am-ness, attachment, repulsion and will to live Mantra – Om/Aum
The information provided in this section needs to be approached with respect respect and wisdom. The energy work is deep and potentially disastrous if not approached with care and knowledge. knowledge. The aspects contained in this section are not mandatory practices for a yoga teacher and should be approached when and if ready to do so.
Prana Prana is the life force or vital energy, and is the centre of all yoga practices. Prana is considered to be a subtle form of energy carried by the air, food, water and sunlight, and animates all forms of matter. Through the practice of asanas and Pranayama, more Prana is taken in and stored in the body bringing great vitality and strength.
Kundalini The Sanskrit word, kundalini, means coiled, like a snake. It is an energy that exists in the body in a dormant, semi-awakened or fully awake state. Sometimes, this energy becomes aroused and activated either by a positive or negative event. Although unrecognised by Western medical science, Kundalini is mentioned extensively in the literature of yoga and Tantra (both Buddhist and Hindu). Kundalini can be awakened or aroused from its dormant state at the base of the spine by intense meditation, or intense breath control practices. Hatha yoga and Tantra yoga, in their traditional forms, are designed to arouse kundalini so that the practitioner can use this energy to increase the potency of his or her meditation. A participant who successfully and safely arouses their kundalini may reap great benefits, such as increased energy and vitality (Dykema, 2011).
Nadis The Nadis are nerve channels or tubes in the astral body through which the Prana flows. Asanas and Pranayama are designed to purify the Nadis for the Prana to flow freely; if the Nadis are blocked, the Prana cannot flow easily, easily, resulting in poor health. According to many ancient yogis, there are about seventy two thousand Nadis, and of these, the most important one for spiritual awakening is Sushumna. On either side of the Sushumna are two other Nadis called the Ida and the Pingala which correspond to the sympathetic ganglia of the Spinal Cord. Kundalini, which is a dormant or static energy, is located at the base of the Sushumna in the Muladhara Chakra. This energy is awakened by the practice of Pranayama and other yoga practices. Ida and pingala wind around the spine like a double-helix crossing at each of the major chakras (energy centres). Ida is regarded as the feminine, inward-focused, intuitive energy; and pingala as the masculine, outward-focused, rational energy. energy. Yoga gently awakens the kundalini allowing it to rise all the way to the crown crown of the head. (Dykema, 2011; Swami Swami J, 2011).
Chakras The word chakra comes from the Sanskrit and means ‘spinning wheel’. There are seven major chakras as well as other minor chakras. These swirling energy centres are located between the base of the spine and the crown of the head. Each of the seven chakras governs a specific bodily function and are related to behaviour and emotions.
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Base chakra (Muladhara)
The first chakra is called the base chakra or the root chakra and is located at the base of the spine. It governs survival, base instincts, the sex drive and physical life.
Sacral/navel chakra (Svadhisthana)
The second chakra is called the sacral chakra or the navel chakra and is located below the navel. It governs the area of the sacrum which is the large bone of the pelvis between the hip bones. it is associated with emotions, sensuality, intimacy, sexuality, creativity and womb energy. Solar plexus chakra (Manipura)
The third chakra is called the solar plexus chakra or the power chakra and is named after the complex network of nerves in the stomach. It is the area governing personal power. Heart chakra (Anahata)
The fourth chakra is called the heart chakra and is located in the centre of the chest near the heart. It is associated with love, compassion and happiness. Thymus/higher heart chakra (Vishuddha)
Throat chakra (Ajna)
The fifth chakra is called the throat chakra and is located above the collar bone. It governs the area of the throat and the ears and is associated with communication. communication.
Third eye chakra (Sahasrara)
The sixth chakra is called the third eye chakra and is located in the forehead above the eyebrows. It governs the area of the pineal gland. The pineal gland is believed to be where ‘second sight’ or psychic sight was located.
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Chakras and Kundalini
As the Kundalini moves upwards during the phase of Kundalini rising, it encounters and fills each of the lower chakras, one after af ter the other. The chakras function within the following three general groups (known as the Gunas or attributes of life): 1. 2. 3.
Tamas - the first two chakras relate to the primal activities that operate according to the physical world, including the drives for self-preservation and procreation, effectively obscuring higher experience. Rajas - the third and fourth chakras, the navel and the heart centres, involve a subtler relationship with the world, working with one’s individuality rather than just engaging the physical world. Sattva - the fifth and si sixth xth chakras, the throat and the eyebrow centres, begin movement away from f rom the outer towards the inner world of purity, intuition, creativity, and wisdom, from which the outer arises.
(Swami J, 2011).
Granthis (the three knots) The Hatha Yoga Pradipika Pradipika states “When the dormant Kundalini gets aroused by the grace of the guru, then all the chakras and the granthis (knots) get pierced”. Granthis are psychic knots in the physical body, distinguishable from chakras in that these knots have to be ‘pierced’ and dissolved to enable the free passage of prana. The granthis are said to be pierced by the Kundalini force and so arousal of Kundalini Kundalini needs to take place before the granthis are dissolved. Along the Sushumna channel there are three knots (granthis) of energy that will be broken or untied along the upward journey of Kundalini rising, allowing the flow to go into and through the various chakras above that point. The granthis individual names are: Brahma Granthi, Rudra Granthi and Visnu Granthi. • •
•
Brahma granthis – located in the pelvic region; blocks the flow from the first chakra, the root chakra (muladhara), upward to the others; related to bondage to desires. Vishnu granthis – located in the head, including the third eye and crown; blocks the flow from the third chakra at the navel (manipura), upward to the fourth chakra (anahata) the heart; related to bondage of actions. Rudra granthis – located in the centre region, extending from navel to heart and throat; blocks the flow beyond the sixth chakra between the eyebrows (ajna), upwards towards sahasrara; related to bondage of thoughts (compared to pure knowing).
It is most common for the awakened Kundalini to rise only to one of the lower chakras, rather than to awaken and arise through all of the chakras, all the way to the crown. Having the Kundalini awaken and even partial Kundalini rising is an encouraging and inspiring experience. It is also an experience to observe with humility, humility, as the ego can claim ownership of the experience and delay fur ther advancement. The many practices with body, body, breath, and mind, each have their effect on these various centres, and pave the way for the Kundalini rising to further upward over time and with practice.
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Kleshas Kleshas are regarded as mental states that cloud the mind and manifest in unwholesome actions; both the ancient yogis and the Buddhists point to the kleshas as the causes of suffering. These states can distor t the mind and perceptions, affecting how individuals think, act and feel. The five main kleshas vary in intensity and not only create suffering, but are said to bind individuals to the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, and thus preventing the achievement of enlightenment. 1.
2.
3.
4. 5.
Avidya (ignorance) is the misconception of true reality, believing that the temporary is eternal, the impure is the pure, and pleasure to be painful. This false representation of reality is the root klesha and produces the four others. Asmita (I-am-ness) is the identification of oneself with the ego. The creation of a self-image is often believed to be the true self; however, this self-image can contain both external (I am poor) and internal (I am a bad person) false projections. As a result, individuals can become trapped within the projections that they have created of their lives. Raga (attachment) is the attraction for things that bring satisfaction to oneself. The desire for pleasurable experiences creates mindless actions and blind sighted vision. When desires are not obtained, suffering ensues; when desires are obtained, feelings of pleasure soon fade, and the search for pleasure begins once more (trapped in an endless cycle). Dvesha (repulsion) is the opposite of raga, and represents an aversion towards things that produce unpleasant experiences. Abhinivesha (will to live) is the deepest and most universal klesha, remaining until death. Although death is inevitable, the fear of death is deeply buried in the unconscious mind.
The first stage of working with the kleshas is to simply acknowledge them. Reflection promotes selfawareness, self-understanding and self-knowledge self-knowledge to uncover and see the kleshas and their roots as well as how they create suffering. Yogic techniques are said to burn away the impurities of the kleshas and purify the mind (Burgin, 2003).
Mantra The word ‘mantra’ has its roots in the Sanskrit language. Mantra contains two words – ‘man’ which means ‘to think (also in manas ‘mind’) and the suffix ‘tra’ which means ‘tool’ - hence a literal translation would be ‘tool of thought’. In yoga, mantra is a religious or mystical syllable or poem, typically from the Sanskrit language. Mantras involve words or vibrations that allow concentration, and are also integrated in many religious rituals to remove obstacles, avoid danger, or accumulate wealth. Mantras are derived from the Vedas of India. It is important to pronounce the mantra properly with an understanding of its meaning. Mantras are often thought of as energy-based sounds; the Indian metaphysical tradition explains that the body is composed of the combination of five elements and the first of them is sound. Studies in sound symbolism suggest that vocal vocal sounds have meaning, meaning, even in the absence of understanding. understanding. A mantra, when repeated constantly during meditation, first loudly and then through silent and mental chanting, can change consciousness.
Significance of Aum (Om) The most basic mantra is Aum, which is known as the ‘pranava mantra’, the source of all mantras. Aum is regarded to be the most fundamental and powerful mantra, representing the first manifestation of Brahman - the supreme reality. Thus, Aum is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. Verses from holy Hindu texts like the Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita are considered powerful enough to be repeated to great effect, and therefore have attained the status of a mantra. As per the Vedic practices, most ancient techniques and classical Hinduism, mantra is symbolised as a requisite for spiritual advancement (I Love India, 2011).
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The syllable Om (Figure 1) is composed of the three sounds ‘a-u-m’ (in Sanskrit, the vowels ‘a’ and ‘u’ combine to become ‘o’), and the symbol’s threefold nature is central to its meaning. It represents several important triads: • • •
The three worlds - earth, atmosphere, and heaven The three major Hindu gods - Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva The three sacred Vedic scriptures – Rig Veda, Yajur, and Sama
Figure 1 The symbol Om
Thus Om mystically embodies the essence of the entire universe. This meaning is further deepened by the Indian philosophical belief that God first created sound and the universe arose from it. As the most sacred sound, Om is the root of the universe and ever ything that exists, and it continues to hold everything together. The syllable is discussed in a number of the Upanishads and it forms the entire subject matter of the Mandukya Upanishad. ‘AUM is a bow, the arrow is the self, and Brahman (Absolute Reality) is said to be the mark’. (Mandukya Upanishad)
‘The essence of all beings is the earth. The essence of the earth is water. The essence of water is the plant. The essence of the plant is man. The essence of man is speech. The essence of speech is the Rigveda. The essence of Rigveda is the Samveda. The essence of Samveda is OM’. (Chandogya Upanishad) (Religion Facts, 2011).
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Understanding Kriyas One of the fundamental theories of Indian medicine suggests the human body is made by three basic constituents called tridoshas, which are Vata (mechanical functional constituent of the body), Pitta (chemical functional constituent of the body) and Kapha (material functional constituent of the body). If there is any imbalance in the constituents in the body, body, this leads to disease. Kriyas are cleansing practices. There are six main kriya as described in the Hatha yoga Pradipika and these are: • • • • • •
Dhauti – washing of the gastrointestinal tract Vasti – cleansing of the colon Neti – nasal cleansing using either water or cloth Tratak – cleansing of the eyes through concentrated internal or external gazing Nuali – intestinal cleansing through muscular churning Kaphalabhati – breathing technique to create ‘skull shining’
The six kriya are also known as Shatkarma.
Benefits of Kriyas • • • •
Effective in yoga therapy Creates harmony in body and mind The different systems of the body are purified so the energy can flow through the body freely Good for general health - it increases capacity to work, think, digest, taste, feel, experience etc.
Kriyas are not necessary for everyone ever yone to practice and should only be applied when there is an imbalance of one of the tridoshas. Of these practices, many are considered extreme and would not be suitable for use during a class. The most useful ones to teach in i n a class are Kaphalabhati and Tratak, Tratak, although Neti may also be used outside of a class. These are discussed below.
Kaphalabhati ‘Kaphala’ means cranium and ‘bhati’ means shining or splendour. Benefits • • • • •
Kaphalabhati relaxes the facial muscles and nerves According to some classical texts of yoga, regular practice of kaphalabhati helps to prevent the aging process Effective in respiratory disorders like asthma, bronchitis Increases the lungs capacity, capacity, makes the lungs strong Spiritually kaphalabhati practice is helpful to awaken ajna chakra
Kaphalabhati is explained in the Hath yoga Pradipika as follows: ‘Perform exhalation and inhalation rapidly like the bellows of a blacksmith. This is called kaphalabhati and it destroys all mucous disorders’. In Khapalabhati the emphasis is on the exhalation and should not be confused with Bhastrika. Note • •
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People People suffering from hypertension and hear t problems should not do Kaphalabhati. To begin with, participants may feel giddiness while practising, therefore practise for two minutes, relax and repeat for two more minutes.
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Tratak ‘Tratak’ ‘Tratak’ means to ‘gaze ‘g aze steadily’. Tratak Tratak is a process of concentrating the mind and curbing its oscillating tendencies. In general Tratak Tratak practice is gazing at the flame of a candle. Benefits • • •
Tratak is good for eye problems Regular practice of Tratak is said to be helpful to overcome depression, insomnia, allergy, anxiety problems Tratak practice awakens the ajna chakra.
The Hatha yoga Pradipika explains the Trataka Trataka and its benefits as follows: ‘Looking intently with an unwavering gaze at a small point until tears are shed down is known as Tratak. Tratak. Trataka eradicates all eye diseases. Fatigue and sloth and closes the doorway creating these problems. It should be carefully carefully kept secret secret like a golden golden casket’. casket’. Note • • •
Trataka can be done at any time; but the most suitable time is early morning af ter practice of asana and pranayama Symbols or objects like crystal balls or the symbol of ‘Om’ can also be used instead of candles At the beginning, start with two or three minutes of practice and after a few days it can be increased to ten minutes.
Jala Neti The process of cleaning the nasal passage by salt water is called Jala neti. The specially designed pot used for this purpose is called a neti pot. Benefits • • • • •
Prevents and eliminates colds Maintains and increases the efficiency of the nasal passages Effective in treating sinusitis Effective in treating migraine, anxiety and tension Makes breathing easier, easier, which leads to improved intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
Limitations •
People People suffering from chronic nose bleeding should not do neti
Note • • •
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Always practise kaphalabhati after neti practice, it will helpful to remove the remaining water content from the nose In traditional yoga techniques, milk and ghee are also used instead of salt water The water used for the practice should be pure and lukewarm
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Understanding Mudras Concept of mudras A mudra is a psycho-spiritual gesture or position, usually of the hands, that locks and guides energy flow and reflexes to the brain. The curling, crossing, stretching and touching of fingers and hands is thought to enhance communication between body, mind and spirit. Together Together with the Bandhas (see next section), mudras redirect the energy (Prana) flow, flow, linking the individual pranic energy with universal force. Each finger represents the energy of a planet, a determinate quality, and emotions. The thumbs represent the ego.
Commonly used mudra Jnana or Gyan Mudra This is known as the mudra of knowledge. The tip of the thumb touches the tip of the index finger, stimulating knowledge and ability ((Figure Figure 2). The index finger is ego and the thumb is higher knowledge. The three other fingers are the Gunas. This mudra imparts receptivity and calm.
Figure 2 Jnana mudra
Prayer or Anjali mudra Palms are pressed together (Figure 3). This mudra neutralises the positive (male) and negative (female) sides of the body. body. This mudra can be done before a class or at the end. By pressing the palms of the hands together firmly, firmly, the two hemispheres of the brain are connected, bringing them into balance. When the sternum is touched with the thumb, it stimulates the nerve called, ‘nerve mind’, which connects with the brain. This mudra promotes listening and physical and mental focus
Figure 3 Anjali mudra
Vajrapradama mudra The fingertips of the hands are crossed (Figure 4). This is the gesture of unshakable confidence.
Figure 4 Vajrapradama mudra
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Prana mudra The thumb, ring, and little finger are touching. Index and middle finger are extended (Figure 5). The Prana mudra can be used whenever you feel drained or need an extra boost of energy. energy. Good to use in the morning to awaken and fully embrace the new day
Figure 5 Prana mudra
Dyana mudra This mudra signifies the gesture of absolute balance (Figure 6). The person meditating is completely unmoved by the surroundings, immersed in infinite space.
Figure 6 Dyana mudra
Namaste The gesture Namaste represents the belief that there is a divine spark within each individual that is located in the hear t chakra. The gesture is an acknowledgment of the soul in one by the soul in another. ‘Nama’ means ‘bow’; ‘as’ means ‘I’; and ‘te’ means ‘you’. Therefore, Namaste literally means ‘I bow to you’.
Figure 7 Namaste
To perform Namaste, the hands are placed together at the heart charka, the eyes closed, and the head bowed (Figure 7). It can also be done by placing the hands together in front of the third eye, bowing the head, and then bringing the hands down to the heart. This is an especially deep form of respect. Although in the West the word ‘Namaste’ is usually spoken in conjunction with the gesture, in India it is understood that the gesture itself signifies Namaste, and therefore, it is unnecessary to say the word while bowing (Palkhivala, 2011).
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Understanding Bandhas Concept of Bandhas Bandhas are interior body locks that close off a particular part of the interior and energy body. There are three main bandha: • • •
Mula Bandha Uddiyana Bandha Jalandhara Bandha
These locks are used in various pranayama pranayama and asana practices to tone, tone, cleanse and energise the interior body and organs and redirects prana. When all three bandhas are activated at the same time, it is called Maha Bandha, the great lock.
Mula bandha (root lock) This is the first of three interior body locks used in asana and pranayama practice to control the flow of energy. Technique 1.
2.
3.
To activate mula bandha, exhale and engage the pelvic floor, drawing it upwards towards your navel. If you don’t know how to access the pelvic floor, think of it as the space between the pubic bone and the tailbone. Initially you may need to contract and hold the muscles around the anus and genitals, but really what you want is to isolate and draw up the perineum, which is between the anus and genitals. Do not hold your breath. Engaging mula bandha while doing yoga postures can give the postures an extra lif t. This is especially useful when jumping.
Uddiyana bandha (abdominal lock) This is the second of the three interior body locks and can be practised alone or in conjunction with mula bandha. Uddiyana bandha tones, massages and cleans the abdominal organs. Technique 1. 2. 3. 4.
To engage this bandha, sit in a comfortable cross-legged position. Exhale your breath, then draw the abdomen in and up without taking in any breath). Draw the belly up underneath the rib cage. To release, sof ten the abdomen and inhale.
Jalandhara bandha (throat lock) The third of the interior body locks, Jalandhara bandha can be practised alone or in conjunction with mula bandha and Uddiyana bandha. Technique 1. 2. 3. 4.
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To engage this bandha, sit in a comfortable cross-legged position. Inhale so the lungs are about two-thirds full, and then hold the breath in. Drop the chin down, and then draw the chin back closer to the chest so the back of the neck does not round. Hold as long as is comfortable comfor table and then bring the chin up and release the breath.
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To practise in conjunction with the other two bandhas, first draw the pelvic floor upwards, engaging mula bandha. This leads to the abdomen drawing in and up under the ribcage (Uddiyana bandha). Finally, Finally, the chin drops to the chest and draws back into Jalandhara bandha.
Maha bandha (great lock) The Sanskrit word, ‘Maha’ means great. Therefore, Maha Bandha is called the great lock, as it combines the above three Bandhas in one practice. Technique 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Sit on a folded blanket, in Siddhasana posture. Keep the palms on the knees and slightly press them. Gently close the eyes and relax the whole body, by watching the natural breath for a while. Exhale forcefully, and completely, through the mouth. Retain the breath outside. Perform Jalandhara, Uddiyana, and Mula Bandha – in this order. order. Hold the Bandhas and the breath as long as is comfortable, without straining, then release Mula, Uddiyana, and Jalandhara Bandha – in this order. order. After coming back, inhale slowly. This is one round. Relax and let the breath return to normal before commencing the next round. Complete three to five rounds.
Benefits of Maha bandha
Maha Bandha gives the benefits of all three Bandhas. It affects the hormonal secretions of the pineal gland and regulates the entire endocrine system. It is reported to soothe anger and introverts the mind prior to meditation. When perfected, it can fully awaken Prana in the main Chakras. General precautions with bandha • •
•
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Maha Bandha should not be attempted until the other three Bandhas have been mastered. People suffering from high or low blood pressure, heart conditions, hernia, stomach or intestinal ulcer, ulcer, persons with physical weakness and those recovering from visceral ailments, should generally avoid bandha practice. practice. Mula bandha is alright as as long as the breath is not not held. Women should not practice the full bandhas during menstruation or pregnancy but a modified version of Mula bandha is very useful for preparation preparation for birth. The focus should should be on releasing releasing tension in the pelvic floor and harnessing apana energy. (Yoga Teacher, 2011).
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References About Yoga (2011). Bandhas. Available at www.aboutyoga.com (Accessed: 31/9/11) 2. Angell G (2011). Different styles of yoga. Available at www.gregoryangell.com/other/styles-of-yoga (Assessed: 22/9/11) 3. BBC (2011). Yoga as a religion. Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/r http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/tex eligion/religions/hinduism/texts/ ts/ texts.shtml (Accessed: 22/9/11) 4. Bance S (2011). Classical yoga texts. Available at http://www.yoganetwork.co.uk/about-yoga/ classic-yoga-texts/hatha-yoga-pradipika. classic-yoga-texts/hatha-yoga-pradipika.html html (Assessed: 21/9/11) 5. Burgin T (2003). The cause of suffering - the kleshas. Available at www.yogabasics.com www.yogabasics.com (Accessed: 26/9/11) instructor. Available at http:// 6. Club Industry (2011). The difference between a yoga teacher and an instructor. www.clubindustry.com (Accessed: 21/9/11) 7. Communications World (2011). Communication skills for teachers. Available at http://www. communicationskillsworld.com/comm communicationskillsworld.com/communicationskillsforteachers.html unicationskillsforteachers.html (Accessed: 21/9/11) 8. Discover Yoga (2011). Sanskrit. Available at http://www.discover-yoga-online. http://www.discover-yoga-online.com/sanskrit-words. com/sanskrit-words. html (Accessed: 19/9/11) 9. Doran W (2011). The eight Limbs of yoga’. Available at http://www.expressionsofspirit.com/yoga/ eight-limbs.htm (Accessed: 22/9/11) 10. Dykema R (2011). What is kundalini energy? Available at www.kundaliniproblems.com www.kundaliniproblems.com (Accessed: 25/9/11) 11. Exercise Register (2011). Code of professional conduct. Available at www.exerciseregister.org (Accessed: 25/9/11) 12. I Love India (2011). Mantras. Available at www.iloveindia.com/spirituality/mantras/index.html (Accessed: 25/9/11) 13. Jerard P (2008). The relationship of student and teacher. Available at www.ezinearticles.com (Accessed: 23/9/11) 14. Long N (2007). Classic yoga texts. Available at www.yoganetwork.co.uk/about-yoga/classic-yogatexts (Accessed: 21/9/11) 15. Mind Tools (2011). Body Language. Available at http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/Body_ Language.htm (Accessed: 22/9/11) 16. Myhre M (2011). The language of yoga. Available at http://www.elephantjournal.com/2011/03/ the-language-of-teaching-yoga-michelle-myhr the-language-of-teaching-yoga-michelle-myhree (Accessed: 21/9/11) Palkhivala A (2011). Mudra. Available at http://www.yogajournal.com http://www.yogajournal.com/basics /basics (Accessed: 26/9/11) 17. Palkhivala http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/symbols/aum.htm duism/symbols/aum.htm 18. Religion Facts (2011). Aum. Available at http://www.religionfacts.com/hin (Accessed: 25/9/11) www.yogasanc.com (Accessed: 19. Samdjaga A (2011). The yoga teacher as a role model. Available at www.yogasanc.com 22/9/11) 20. Swami Satyananda Saraswati (1996). Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. Yoga Publications Trust 21. Swami J (2011). Kundalini. Available at http://www.swamij.com/kundalini-awakening.htm (Accessed: 25/9/11) 22. Wiki Answers (2011). What’s the difference between a yoga teacher and a yoga instructor? Available at www.wiki.answers.com www.wiki.answers.com (Accessed: on 21/9/11) 23. Yoga Alliance (2011). Codes of practice. Available at www.yogaalliance.co.uk (Accessed: 25/9/11) http://www.yogaflavoredlife. 24. Yoga Flavoured Life (2011). Sanskrit – The language of yoga. Available at http://www.yogaflavoredlife. com/philosophy/sanskrit-the-language-of-yoga com/philosophy/sanskrit-the-language-of-yoga.html .html (Accessed: 19/9/11) 25. Yoga Teacher Training (2011). Bandhas. Available at http://www.yoga-teacher-training.org/tag/ maha-bandha (Accessed: 31/9/11) 1.
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Unit 2 Anatomy and physiology for yoga Aim: the aim of this unit is to provide learners with a basic knowledge of anatomy and physiology and how
it relates to teaching yoga
Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you will:
50 50
•
understand the structure and function of the skeletal system
•
understand the muscular system
•
understand the structure and function of the respiratory system
•
understand the structure and function of the circulatory system
•
understand the nervous system
•
understand the endocrine system
•
understand the effect yoga has on the different body systems
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The skeletal system The skeletal system consists of bone, cartilage and ligaments.
Bone Bone is calcified connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton. The skeleton consists of approximately 206 bones. Anterior Skeleton (Front)
Posterior Skeleton (Back) cranium
cranium
clavicle
cervical vertebrae
sternum
scapula humerus thoracic vertebrae
humerus rib
ulna
lumbar vertebrae ulna radius pubis carpals metacarpals
radius ilium sacrum coccyx phalanges
ischium femur
femur
patella
fibula
fibula tibia
tibia
metatarsals phalanges
tarsals
Functions Functions of the skeleton Functions of skeleton
Fram ramewor eworkk
To prov provid idee a bon bony fram framew ewo ork for for the the body body and and to give give it shap shapee
Prote rotect ctio ion n
To sup suppo port rt and and prot protec ectt cert certai ain n vit vital al inte intern rnal al orga organs ns (e.g (e.g.. the the skul skulll giv givin ingg pro prote tect ctio ion n to the brain)
Locom ocomot otio ion n
To act act as biom biomec echa hani nica call lev lever erss on on whi which ch musc muscle less can can pull pull to prod produc ucee joi joint nt moti motion on
Soft tissu tissuee attachm attachment ent
To provid providee surfaces surfaces for for the attac attachme hment nt of soft soft tissues tissues e.g. e.g. muscl muscles es and and ligamen ligaments ts
Produ roduct ctio ion n Stor torage age
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Description
Cert Certai ain n bon bones es prod produc ucee red red bloo blood d cel cells ls,, gra granu nula larr whi white te bloo blood d cel cells ls and and pla plate tele lets ts from their red bone marrow To sto storre sev sever era al min miner eral alss su such as cal calciu cium and and phos phosp phor horus, us, to to be be rel relea ease sed d wh when required. Triglycerides Triglycerides are also stored in the adipocytes of yellow bone marrow
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The axial and appendicular skeleton The skeletal system can be broken down into: •
the axial skeleton – spine, ribs and skull
•
the appendicular skeleton – upper and lower limbs, the pelvic and shoulder girdles
The following tables list the bones contained within the two components of the skeletal system. The axial skeleton No. of bones in body
General area
Bones
Skull Spine
Cranial Cer vical ver tebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Sacral vertebrae Coccygeal vertebrae Ribs (costals)
8 7 12 5 5 4 12 Pairs
Sternum
1
Chest
Notes
The head The neck region Chest area Lower back Rump (fused) Used to be the tail (fused) All originate from the thoracic vertebrae and pairs extend round to form the chest wall, first 7 pairs attach on the sternum. Next 3 pairs have common cartilaginous attachment to the sternum. Last 2 pairs are free (floating) Receives the clavicle and upper 10 pairs of ribs
General area
Bones
Shoulders
Scapulae (shoulder blade)
Arms
Hands
Pelvis
Legs
Feet
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The appendicular skeleton No. of bones in body
2
Notes
Held on by muscular attachments to the ribcage at the back and the clavicle at the front
Clavicle (collar bone) Humerus
2
Maintains the scapula at a correct distance from the chest wall
2
Bone of the upper arm
Radius
2
Outer bone of the forearm
Ulna
2
Carpals
16
With the radius forms the elbow joint at the humerus and the wrist at the lower end Form the wrist in two rows of four
Metacarpals
10
First metacarpal is the thumb and the rest are in the palm
Phalanges Ilium Ischium Pubis Femur
28 2 2 2 2
The fingers (3 each) and the thumbs (2 e ach) The sacrum interlocks with the pelvis and the lower limbs articulate with it
Tibia Fibula
2 2
Patella (kneecap)
2
Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges
14 10 28
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The thigh bone is the longest bone in the body and forms the knee joint with the tibia Lower leg – weight-bearing Lies outside the tibia and forms part par t of the ankle joint below (non-weight-bearing) Lies within the tendons of the muscles passing over the knee joint Foot and ankle Similar to metacarpals Toes – as fingers
Bone classification Bones can be classified according to their formation and shape: Classification
Description
Examples
Long Long bones
Long Long bone boness have have a great greater er lengt length h than than width width and cons consist ist of of a shaft shaft with normally two extremities. They contain mostly compact bone in their diaphysis and more cancellous bone in their epiphysis (and principally act as levers).
Humerus, femur, fibula, tibia, ulna, radius, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
Short bones
Short bones are normally about as long as they are wide. They are usually highly cancellous, which gives them strength with reduced weight
Carpals and tarsals
Flat Flat bone boness
Flat Flat bone boness are are thin thin can cance cell llou ouss bon bonee san sandw dwic iche hed d bet betwe ween en two two compact layers. They provide protection and large areas for muscle attachment
Scapula, cranial bones, costals (ribs), sternum and ilium
Irre Irregu gula larr
Irre Irregu gula larr bone boness form form very very com compl plex ex sha shape pess and and ther theref efor ore, e, can canno nott be classified within the previous groups
Vertebrae and calcaneus
Sesamoid (‘seed-like’)
Sesamoid bones develop within particular tendons at a site of considerable friction or tension. They serve to improve leverage and protect the joint from damage
Patella Patella (kneecap)
Structure of a long bone • • • • • • • • •
epiphysis – expanded portion at each end of the bone diaphysis – the shaft of the bone hyaline cartilage – covering the bone ends periosteum – a tough fibrous sheath covering the whole bone compact bone – solid, strong and resistant to bending cancellous bone – giving the bone elastic strength to resist compression forces medullary cavity – the hollow tube down the centre of the compact bone yellow marrow – this functions for the storage of fat red marrow – this functions in the production of various types of blood cells Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal growth plate
Periosteum Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Medullary cavity
Articular (hyaline) cartilage Cancellous (spongy) bone Compact bone
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Bone formation Bone is made up of minerals and is hard. Many believe that bone is not living material, but a bone in a living animal consists of both living tissue and non-living substances. Within the “alive bone” are blood vessels, nerves, collagen, and living cells including: •
osteoblasts (cells that help form bone)
•
osteoclasts (cells that help eat away old bone)
In addition, bone contains cells called osteocytes, which are mature osteoblasts that have ended their bone-forming careers. The non-living, but very important, substances in bone are the minerals and salts. In the foetus, most of the skeleton is made up of car tilage, a tough, flexible connective tissue that has no minerals or salts. As the foetus grows, osteoblasts and osteoclasts slowly replace cartilage cells and ossification begins.
Ossification Ossification is the formation of bone by the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts and the addition of minerals and salts. Calcium compounds must be present for ossification to take place. Osteoblasts do not make these minerals, but must take them from the blood and deposit them in the bone. By the time we are born, many of the bones have been at least partly ossified. In long bones, the growth and elongation (lengthening) continue from birth through adolescence. Elongation is achieved by the activity of two cartilage car tilage plates, called epiphyseal plates, located located between the shaft (the diaphysis) and the heads (epiphyses) of the bones. These plates expand, forming new cells, and increasing the length of the shaft. In I n this manner, manner, the length of the shaft increases at both ends, and the heads of the bone move progressively apart. As growth proceeds, the thickness of the epiphyseal plates gradually decreases and this bone lengthening process ends. In humans, different bones stop lengthening at different ages, but ossification is fully complete between the ages of 18 and 30. During this lengthening period, the stresses of physical activity result in the strengthening of bone tissue. In contrast to the lengthening of bone, the thickness and strength of bone must continually be maintained by the body, that is, old bone must be replaced by new bone all the time. This is accomplished as bone is continually deposited by osteoblasts, while at the same time, it is continually being reabsorbed (broken down and digested by the body) by osteoclasts.
Factors affecting bone formation Bone development is influenced by a number of factors, including: • • • •
nutrition exposure to sunlight hormonal secretions physical exercise
For example, exposure of skin to the ultraviolet portion of sunlight is favourable to bone development, because the skin can produce vitamin D when it is exposed to such radiation. Vitamin D is necessary for the proper absorption of calcium in the small intestine. In the absence of this vitamin, calcium is poorly absorbed, the bone matrix is deficient in calcium, and the bones are likely to be deformed or very weak.
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Posture and the spine The spine is shaped in a single curve during development within the foetus. As the spine matures it develops into four curves; two convex and two concave.
7 Cervical (lordotic curve)
12 Thoracic (kyphotic curve)
5 Lumbar (lordotic curve)
Development of spinal curves
5 Sacral (fused) 4 Coccygeal (fused)
The greatest ranges of movement occur in the cervical and lumbar regions. The degree of thoracic movement is slight when compared to that of the neck and the lower back (Thompson and Floyd, 2001).
Neutral spine A neutral spine is the term used to describe a slight lordosis, or arch, in the lower back. This position, which will vary from one individual to the next, seems to be the ideal position to decrease stress on passive structures of the body, such as the vertebrae and ligaments (McGill, 2002). This is therefore, an ideal postural position to teach those participating par ticipating in physical activity, in order to help reduce the risks of lower back pain. Lifting in this neutral spine, will help spare the stress on passive structures, and teach the abdominal and hip musculature to hold the body in this optimal position.
Common postural abnormalities The diagrams below show some common postural abnormalities. From left to right: normal curvature of the spine, lordosis (excessive lower back curvature), kyphosis (excessive mid-back curvature) and scoliosis (a lateral deviation of the spine). These abnormalities increase stress on the spine and surrounding soft tissue structures, as well as decreasing the efficiency with which the body moves. It is thought that the normal thoracic and lumbar curves, when in a static neutral position, should be approximately 20-45 degrees. Whilst a minor lateral deviation of the spine is considered fairly normal, a curve of more than 10 degrees would be considered a scoliosis.
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Normal
Lordosis
Kyphosis Scoliosis Postural Postural abnormalities
It is not uncommon for posture to alter during pregnancy. The extra weight on the front of the body can cause alterations to the position of the pelvis and lengthen the abdominal muscles. While a number of postural deviations may present themselves, this may cause an increased lordotic curve of the lumbar spine. Following Following birth, it is not uncommon for a scoliosis to develop as a result of the mother carrying the child on their hip (one side) which may cause a lateral deviation to the spine.
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The muscular system Muscles work to create forces across joints and cause movement.
Types of muscle tissue There are three types of specialised muscle tissue: • • •
smooth muscle cardiac muscle (myocardium) skeletal muscle (striated)
Smooth muscle: • • •
has the greatest diversity throughout the body found in the digestive, di gestive, circulatory, circulatory, urinary and reproductive systems described as involuntary as it’s controlled by the autonomic nervous system and is not under conscious control
Cardiac muscle: • • • •
found in the heart involuntary contraction of the heart is controlled by the sinoatrial node (SAN) the set rhythm of the hear t (on average 72bpm at rest) is called autorhythmicity
The function of the cardiac muscle is to pump blood (and oxygen) around the body. body.
Skeletal muscle: • • • • • •
57
attaches across joints via tendons and bone controlled by the somatic nervous system, therefore it’s considered to be voluntary produces locomotion and other body movements stabilises body positions, as in the maintenance of posture stores and transports substances within the body (glycogen) generates heat for warmth
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Anterior muscles of the human body
Posterior muscles of the human body
Upper Trapezius
Upper Trapezius Pectoralis Major Obliques
Deltoids Biceps Brachii
Rectus Abdominis
Lower Trapezius
Triceps Brachii
Latissimus Dorsi
Gluteus Maximus Hip Abductors
Quadriceps
Hip Adductors
Hamstrings
Gastrocnemius Tibialis Anterior Soleus
Muscle properties The four main properties proper ties of muscle tissue (Tortora (Tortora et al, 2003) are: • elasticity • contractility • electrical excitability • extensibility Muscle is described as being elastic, which means that it can stretch and then recoil to its original length. It can be compared with an elastic band in this respect, but like an elastic band, if the muscle is pulled too far it can tear. tear. Muscles can also contract, pulling the muscle ends closer together. together. These muscle ends pull on the tendons and bones to which they are attached, allowing locomotion and other body movements. The contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle are in response to certain stimuli such as neurotransmitters, hormones or even changes in pH (Tortora (Tortora et al, 2003). The ability to apply a large force in a shor t time, or a sustained force over a long duration, is possible because of the muscle’s capacity to vary energy expenditure according to demand. During this production of energy, there is a large amount of heat generated. This must be distributed throughout the body and the excellent supply of blood within skeletal muscles allows this to occur. occur. Muscles are therefore, described as being vascular, indicating a good blood supply. supply. There are over 700 skeletal muscles (Tortora (Tortora et al, 2003) which allow for a multitude of body movements through contraction and relaxation of voluntary, striated muscle fibres. They make up more than 40% of the male body weight, though less in the body of a female.
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The main constituents of skeletal muscle are: • water 70% • protein (e.g. actin and myosin) 23% 7% • minerals (e.g. calcium, potassium, phosphorus) and substrates (e.g. glycogen, glucose and fatty acids) 7%
Skeletal muscle is made up of fibres: • • • • • •
made up of smaller myofibrils within each myofibril are strands of myofilaments (actin and myosin) the orientation of muscle fibres depends on the location and function of the muscle the number of muscle fibres vary dramatically depending upon their function fibres grouped together in bundles are called fasciculi fasciculi are then grouped together to form the muscle
There is connective tissue throughout the various parts of the muscle: • • •
the endomysium surrounds each muscle fibre the perimysium envelops each of the fasciculi the epimysium, or fascia, covers the entire muscle
Connective tissue is continuous throughout the length of the muscle: • • •
layers of connective tissue converge to form tendons tendons are strong, inelastic and strap-like the tendon attaches to the periosteum, the sheath that surrounds the bone
Connective tissue Connective tissue is present in the body to surround, connect and stabilise the various joints. It is not innerv ated by the nervous system and has non-contractile properties. Connective tissue comes in three main categories:
•
cartilage ligaments
•
tendons
•
Cartilage There are three types of cartilage found in the body, body, each fulfilling a separate function: Hyaline (articular) cartilage: • • • • • •
59
the most common type tough, smooth, thin and bluey-white in colour found covering the bone ends to form joints found in synovial and cartilaginous joints becomes slippery when lubricated with synovial fluid will reduce friction allowing optimal joint movement
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Elastic cartilage: • • • • •
similar to hyaline cartilage in its structure more fibres than hyaline most of the fibres are made up of elastin as opposed to collagen it’s the properties of elastin that give it the ability to spring back into shape immediately found in the ear, walls of the Eustachian tube and the epiglottis, all places that require maintenance of a specific shape
Fibrocartilage: • • • •
thicker and stronger than the other two limited distribution within the body forms various shapes according to its role acts like a shock absorber in cartilaginous joints Characteristics of cartilage
Dense Tough Fibrous Withstands compression Can be worn or torn
Ver y durable Does not have a blood supply Has a limited ability to repair itself Is dependent on regular activity for health Characteristics of cartilage
Skeletal muscle anatomy
Bone
Tendon Epimysium
Fasciculi
Myofibril Perimysium
Endomysium
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Muscle fibre
The sliding filament theory myosin
The ability of muscle to contract is one of i ts distinctive properties. This is described in relation to the structure of the myofilaments, actin and myosin, in the sliding filament theory. Huxley originally developed the sliding filament theory in 1954, in order to explain the contraction of skeletal muscle, both physiologically and functionally. In essence, it states that the myofilaments, actin (a thin protein strand) and myosin (a thick protein strand), do not decrease in length themselves, but simply slide over each other, thus shortening or lengthening the entire muscle. This is accomplished with the unique structure of the protein myosin. The myosin myofilaments are shaped like golf clubs and form cross bridges with actin. actin. Each myosin molecule has two projecting heads, and there are numerous myosin molecules lying next to each other. These heads will attach onto binding sites on the actin filaments which surround each myosin filament. Once the myosin has attached to the actin, the contraction phase can now take place. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the high energy molecule stored on the myosin head, provides the impetus for the myosin head to ‘nod’ in what is termed the ‘power stroke’. It is this nodding action which ‘slides’ the thin actin myofilaments over the thick myosin myofilaments. The myosin head then binds with another ATP molecule, causing it to detach from the actin-binding site, the ‘recovery stroke’. It is then able to attach to the next binding site, and perform the same routine.
actin
myosin cross-bridges attach to the actin filaments
actin is pulled together and length is reduced
Sliding filament theory
Muscle fibre type Skeletal muscle fibres are not all identical in structure and function. Two distinct fibre types have been identified and classified by their contractile and metabolic characteristics. The following list highlights the structural and functional features of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres, as well as examples of activities for which they are best suited (list adapted from Tortora and Grabowski, 1996): Fibre type
Structural features
Functional features
Activities
Slow twitch or Type I
Smaller diameter size fibre Large myoglobin content Many mitochondria Many capillaries Red in colour
Increased oxygen delivery Produce less force Long term contractions Resistant to fatigue
Maintaining posture i.e. stabilisation Endurance-based activities
Fast twitch or Type II
Larger diameter fibre size Smaller myoglobin content Fewer mitochondria Fewer capillaries White (pale) in colour
Decreased oxygen delivery Produce more force Short term contractions Less resistant to fatigue
Rapid, intense movements
Muscle fibre type
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Muscle fibre type considerations Most skeletal muscles are a mix of fibre types. The propor tion of slow and fast twitch fibres is determined d etermined by the usual role of the muscle. The muscles of the neck and back have a big role to play in the maintenance of posture and so have a high proportion of slow twitch fibres. In contrast, the muscles of the shoulders and arms are often called upon to generate considerable force and are not continually active in posture; consequently, these muscles have a higher proportion of fast twitch fibres. Leg muscles often have large numbers of both fast and slow twitch muscles, since they must both continually support the body and play a role in locomotion. Training can increase the size and capacity of both types of muscle fibres to perform more efficiently (Seeley et al, 2000). Intense exercise, producing anaerobic metabolism, increases muscular strength and mass and results in an increase in the size of fast twitch over slow twitch fibres. Aerobic exercise increases the vascularity of muscle and has the opposite effect. Everyone’s muscles contain mixtures of fibre types but some have relatively more of one variety. These differences are genetically controlled and will significantly contribute to athletic abilities. For example, the muscles of marathon runners have a higher percentage of slow twitch fibres (about 80%), while those of sprinters contain a higher percentage of fast twitch fibres (about 60%). Interestingly, Interestingly, weightlifters appear to have approximately equal amounts of fast and slow twitch fibres (Marieb, 1995). Neither fast twitch nor slow twitch muscle fibres can be easily converted to muscle fibres of the other type (Seeley et al, 2000). However, However, fast twitch fibres can be further divided into fast twitch oxidative (Type II A) and fast twitch glycolytic (Type II X) fibres. Type II A might be termed intermediate fibres since they take on some of the characteristics of Type I fibres. Endurance-type activities, such as running or swimming, cause a gradual transformation of some fast glycolytic (Type (Type IIX) fibres into fast oxidative (Type (Type IIA) fibres (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 1996) giving enhanced endurance abilities.
Origins and insertions Each muscle has a recognisable end, either on a fixed bone (the origin of a muscle) or on the bone it usually moves during contraction contraction (the muscle insertion). The origin is described as the proximal attachment attachment i.e. the one nearest to the centre midline of the body (usually the anchor). Muscles may have more than one origin e.g. quadriceps (4), triceps (3), biceps (2). The insertion is described as the distal attachment i.e. the one furthest away from the centre midline. Usually muscles have a single inser tion.
Types of muscle action When lifting a weight muscles will be shortening, when lowering the weight muscles will be lengthening. Pause Pause the activity in the middle, and the muscle stays the same length. However, be aware that the muscle is working throughout. In order to help distinguish between the different types of muscular activity a number of terms are used: • isotonic (same tone) - used to describe muscle actions involving i nvolving movement i.e. concentric and eccentric • concentric - muscle generates force and shortens • eccentric - muscle generates force and lengthens generates force and stays the same length • isometric - muscle generates • isokinetic (same speed) - muscle actions involving movement at a constant speed Thus during the lif ting action of a bicep curl, the biceps brachii would be working concentrically. concentrically. If at any point, the weight were held still, then this would represent an isometric action. Finally, Finally, as the weight was lowered (in a controlled manner) the biceps would be lengthening and thus working eccentrically. eccentrically.
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Roles of muscles Ultimately, Ultimately, efficient human movement is dependent on the coordinated activity of whole groups of muscles and will involve varying combinations of different muscle actions. In an attempt to distinguish between the diverse roles of muscle during movement, muscles can be placed into the following categories: • • • •
agonist/prime mover: the muscle(s) that causes a desired action e.g. the biceps brachii during a
bicep curl or the quadriceps during a leg extension antagonist: the opposing muscle(s) to the agonist e.g. the triceps brachii during a bicep curl or the hamstrings during a leg extension synergist: the muscle(s) that assists or modifies the movement of the prime mover e.g. during hip extension the hamstrings act as synergists for the gluteus maximus fixators: the muscle(s) that stabilises the part of the body that remains fixed e.g. shoulder girdle muscles stabilise the scapula to allow efficient movement at the shoulder joint
Muscle tone Muscle tone refers to a state in which a muscle in the body produces a constant tension over a long period of time. Essentially in ‘toned’ muscles many of the motor units are continually contracting out of phase to maintain an overall level of tension. Many of the muscles in our bodies are contracting throughout the day. day. Stabilisers in our back and abdominal regions are contracting to maintain an upright posture and this regular contraction results in their maintaining a strong muscle tone.
Muscles and muscle actions Muscle Deltoids
Position Shoulder
Origin Clavicle and scapula
Insertion Humerus
Biceps brachii
Front of upper arm
Scapula
Radius
Triceps brachii Latissimus dorsi
Back of upper arm Sides of the back
Humerus and scapula
Ulna Hume Humeru russ
Trapezius
Upper back
Rhomboids
Beneath trapezius Chest
Lower thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, ilium Base of skull, cervical and thoracic vertebrae Upper thoracic vertebrae Clavicle and sternum
Primary actions Abduction, flexion and extension of shoulder Flexion of elbow, supination of forearm, flexion of shoulder Extension of elbow, extension of shoulder Addu Adduct ctio ion n and and ext exten ensi sion on of shou should lder er
Clavicle and scapula Scapula
Elevation, retraction and depression of shoulder girdle Retraction of shoulder girdle
Humerus
Horizontal flexion, adduction
Either side of the spine
Sacrum, ilium, ribs, vertebrae
Extension and lateral flexion of spine
Along the centre of the abdomen Sides of the abdomen Sides of the abdomen Abdomen
Pubis
Ribs, vertebrae, occipital bone Sternum
Pectoralis major Erector spinae Rectus abdominis Internal obliques External obliques Transversus abdominis
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Ribs, ilium R ibs Iliac crest and lumbar fascia
Ilium, pubis, ribs, linea alba Ilium, pubis Pubis and linea alba
Flexion of spine, lateral flexion of spine Rotation and lateral flexion of spine Rotation and lateral flexion of spine Support of internal organs, forced expiration
Muscle Diaphragm
Position Beneath rib cage
Intercostals
Between ribs
Hip flexors
Through the pelvis onto front of thigh Bottom
Ilium/lumbar ver tebrae
Insertion Central tendon of diaphragm Superior border of next rib below Femur
Ilium
Femur
Outside of upper thigh
Ilium
Femur
Gluteus maximus Abductors
Origin Sternum, costal cartilages and lumbar vertebrae Ribs and costal cartilages
Tibia/ITB Adductors Quadriceps
Inner thigh Front of thigh
Pubis, ischium Ilium, femur
Femur Tibia
Hamstrings Gastrocnemius
Back of thigh Calf
Ischium, femur Femur
Soleus
Calf, beneath gastrocnemius Front ront of of lowe lowerr limb (shin)
Tibia
Tibia, fibula Calcaneus (heel bone) Calcaneus (heel bone) Metatarsal and tarsal
Tibi Tibial alis is ant anter erio iorr
Tibia
Primar y actions Depresses and aids in expiration Elevates ribs and aids in expiration Flexion of hip
Extension and external rotation of the hip Abduction of hip Abduction and flexion of hip (TFL only) Adduction of hip Extension of knee and flexion of hip (rectus femoris only) Extension of hip and flexion of knee Plantarflexion of ankle, flexion of knee Plantarflexion of ankle Dorsiflexion and inversion of ankle
Note on the pelvic floor muscles The pelvic floor or pelvic diaphragm is composed of a small group of muscles and associated connective tissue which span the area underneath the pelvis. These muscles form a muscular sling-like structure running back from the pubis toward the coccyx, uniting behind the anorectal junction with some fibres inserting into the prostate, urethra and vagina. The pelvic floor muscles are important in providing support for pelvic organs such as the bladder and the intestines, in the maintenance of continence and in facilitating the birthing process. In women these muscles can become damaged during pregnancy and birth. Damage to the pelvic floor can contribute not only to urinary incontinence but can lead to pelvic organ prolapse. Pelvic floor exercises can be given to help improve the tone and function of the pelvic floor muscles.
Joints Joint definition: the junction of two or more bones
Classification There are three types of joint, the degree of movement dictating the classification: • • •
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fibrous - immovable and interlocking bones such as the plates in the skull cartilaginous - slightly movable bones brought together by ligaments e.g. the vertebrae synovial - freely movable, movable, the most common common type, having the following following characteristics: (ar ticular) cartilage • ends of the bone covered with hyaline (articular) • stabilised by ligaments • surrounded by a fibrous capsule • capsule lined by synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid as lubrication
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Synovial joints can be further broken down into six sub-groups:
•
gliding joints pivot joints saddle joints ball and socket joints ellipsoid joints
•
hinge joints
• • • •
Types of synovial joint Joint type
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Diagram
Example picture
Example
Function
Ball and socket
Hip
A ball and socket joint allows for movement in almost any direction (e.g. shoulder and hip joint)
Hinge
Knee
A hinge joint allows flexion and extension of an appendage (e.g. elbow joint)
Pivot
Atlas – axis joint (C1-C2)
Pivot joints allow rotation around an axis. The neck and forearms have pivot joints. In the neck, the atlas (the uppermost cervical vertebra) rotates around the axis (second cervical vertebra). In the forearms, the the radius and ulna twist around each other A saddle joint allows movement back and forth and up and down, but does not allow for rotation like a ball and socket joint (e.g. carpometacarpal joint)
Saddle
Carpometacarpal joint (thumb)
Gliding (plane)
Acromioclavicular joint
Gliding joints allow two bones to slide past each other (e.g. intercarpal, intercarpal, mid-carpal and mid-tarsal joints)
Ellipsoid
Metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles)
Ellipsoid joints are similar to a ball and socket joint. They allow the same type of movement but to a lesser magnitude (e.g. metacarpophalangeal). metacarpophalangeal).
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Ligaments Ligaments have four main functions within the body: • • • •
connect bone-to-bone enhance joint stability guide joint motion prevent excessive motion in the joint Characteristics of ligaments
Tough ough,, whi white te,, non non-e -ela last stic ic fibro fibrous us tiss tissue ue Attach bone-to-bone in all joints to provide stability Withstand tension
Stru Strung ng toge togeth ther er in a cor cord d or or str strap ap-l -lik ikee for forma mati tion on Allow normal movement and prevent unwanted movement Prolonged tension will permanently damage the fibres Characteristics of ligaments
Tendons Tendons are similar to ligaments but play a slightly different role in the body. Tendon functions include: • •
attaching muscle to bone transmitting the force produced by the muscle
General note Blood supply is one of the major factors during the healing process of injury. It can be noted that whilst bone and muscle tissue often unite fairly easily and quickly, quickly, this is not as easily achieved with injury injur y to ligaments and tendons because of their poor blood supply. Healing is even more doubtful for cartilage, which has even less of a nutrient supply. When torn, fibrocartilage may need surgical removal (e.g the menisci in the knee).
Anatomical terminology The anatomical position is the descriptive starting point for many terms, and is when the body is stood upright with the arms by the side and the palms facing forward. Structures throughout the body are often described by their position in relation to the centre midline (an imaginary line running from the head to between the feet) of the body, as follows:
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•
anterior in front of the midline
•
posterior behind the midline
•
lateral away from the midline
•
medial towards the midline
•
superior upper aspect of a structure
•
inferior lower aspect of a structure
•
sub underneath
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Types of joint movement In order to develop a thorough understanding of the effects of exercise it is important to understand the effect that muscles have on the various joints of the body. body. This requires an understanding of joint movement terminology. terminology. Movement must be referred to a joint and related to the anatomical position e.g. elbow flexion, knee extension or hip abduction.
Normal terms (general)
Flexion Extension Rotation Abduction Adduction
Where the angle of the joint decreases or the return from extension The angle of the joint increases or the return from flexion A bone rotating on its own long axis - may be medial (internal) or lateral (external) Away from the midline of the body Towards the midline of the body
Specific terms (regional)
Description
Horizontal flexion Horiz orizo ontal ntal exte extens nsio ion n Lateral flexion Circ Circum umdu duct ctio ion n Elevation Depression Protraction Retraction
Arm towards the midline of the body in the horizontal plane Arm Arm away away from from the the midl midlin inee of the the body body in the hori horizo zont nta al plane lane Bending to the side A circ circul ular ar or cone cone-s -sha hape ped d move moveme ment nt avai availa labl blee at ball ball and and sock socket et join joints ts Upward movement of the shoulder girdle Downward movement of the shoulder girdle Forward movement of the shoulder girdle Backward movement of the shoulder girdle (squeezing the shoulder blades together) Palm of the hand facing downward Palm of the hand facing upward Foot moves toward the shin Foot moves away from the shin (tip-toe action) Sole of the foot faces the midline Sole of the foot faces away from the midline
Pronation Supination Dorsiflexion Plantar flexion Inversion Eversion
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Movement terminology Description
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Types of Joint Movement Shoulder movements
Flexion
Extension
Adduction
Abduction
Medial rotation
Horizo Horizonta ntall extens extension ion
Lateral rotation
Horizo Horizonta ntall flexion flexion
Spinal movements
Flexion
Extension
Lateral flexion
Rotation
Shoulder girdle movements
Elevation
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Depression
Protraction
Retraction
Elbow movements
Flexion
Extension
Pronation
Supination
Hip movements
Extension
Flexion
Lateral rotation
Medial rotation
Knee movements
Flexion
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Abduction
Adduction
Circumduction
Flexion
Ankle movements
Extension
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Eversion
Inve Invers rsio ion n
Dors Dorsifl iflex exio ion n
Plantarflexion
The respiratory system The main functions of the respiratory system are the intake of oxygen (O 2) into the body, and the removal of carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the body.
Anatomy of the respiratory system Air enters the body through the following structures: • nose/mouth • pharynx • larynx • trachea • primary bronchi • bronchioles • alveoli Nose Pharynx
Mouth Larynx
Trachea Bronchus or bronchi (plural) Lung
Passage of air
Anatomy of the lungs Trachea
Bronchus
Bronchioles
Anatomy of the lungs
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Terminology: • • •
•
inspiration/inhalation – drawing air into the lungs expiration/exhalation – expelling air out of the lungs external respiration – exchange of gases between the lungs and blood, O 2 from the lungs into the
blood and CO 2 from the blood into the lungs internal respiration – exchange of gases between the cells and blood, O 2 from the blood into the cells and CO 2 from the cells into blood
Mechanics of breathing During inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm muscle will cause the normal ‘dome-shape’ to flatten, increasing the chest cavity volume. This increase in volume creates a negative pressure, between the air in the lungs and that in the atmosphere. This is very much like a ‘vacuum’ effect, and the negative pressure, literally ‘sucks’ air into the lungs, until the two pressures are balanced. During expiration the diaphragm muscle relaxes, returning upwards to its dome-shape, decreasing the chest cavity volume. This creates a positive pressure, which ‘pushes’ some of the air out of the lungs.
Inhalation
Exhalation Movement of the diaphragm
Costal breathing is a shallow pattern of breathing through the chest and involves the contraction of the external intercostal muscles (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 2003). Diaphragmatic breathing is a deeper method of breathing, through the outward distension of the abdomen and involving the contraction and lowering of the diaphragm (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 2003). Diaphragmatic breathing is promoted to aid relaxation in activities like yoga, and is linked with improved health (Yeufang, 1996). Expansion of the rib cage provides an additional increase in chest cavity size. This should only be required during times of laboured breathing, such as moderate or high intensity aerobic exercise.
The exchange of gases O2 is pulled down the bronchi and bronchioles into the alveoli, by negative pressure, as described above, but also because it flows down a concentration gradient. Diffusion is the movement of a gas, from an area of high concentration, to an area of low concentration. The concentration of O 2 decreases between the mouth and the lungs, thus the gas flows in this direction. CO 2 flows in the opposite direction for the same reason. Once the O 2 gets into the alveoli (the air sacs), it will continue to follow this concentration gradient and will diffuse into the bloodstream. The alveoli have minute capillaries running over and around them. Both the alveolar walls and the capillary walls are so thin that they allow gases to pass through them. O 2 passes into the blood and at the same time, CO 2 passes back into the lungs to be exhaled.
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Capillaries Alveoli Alveoli
The O2 binds to the haemoglobin (Hb - the protein that carries O 2, CO2 and carbon monoxide in the blood) in the red blood cells (RBCs). At the same time CO 2 dissociates from the haemoglobin and diffuses from the blood into the lungs. The red blood cells are then pumped within the blood, via the pulmonary vein, towards the heart. This constant flow of blood past the alveoli allows the high concentration gradient to be maintained.
Composition of air Gas
Inhaled air
Exhaled air
Difference
Nitrogen N2
79%
79%
No change
Oxygen O2 Carbon dioxide CO2 Trace gases
21% < 1% < 0.001%
17% 4% < 0.001%
4% decrease 4% increase No change
Breathing stimulus There are two different mechanisms to trigger the human body to breathe: • •
rising levels of CO 2 in the blood stretch receptors in the respiratory muscles become stretched
Lung volumes and definitions The study of lung function is called spirometry, and there are a number of different measurements, each of which may be affected by age, gender, gender, size and stature: • • •
tidal volume (TV) – the amount of air inhaled/exhaled in one breath minute ventilation (MV) – the amount of air inhaled/exhaled in 1 minute breathing rate (BR) – the number of breaths taken in 1 minute
See the example below: MV (ml/min) = BR (per min)
= 12 = 6000ml/min
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x x or
TV (ml) 500 ml (6 l/min)
The circulatory system The circulatory system is divided into three parts: •
the blood
•
the heart
•
the blood vessels
Blood Blood is the transport medium by which nourishment and oxygen (O 2) are carried to all structures of the body and waste products, and carbon dioxide (CO 2) are removed. Blood is composed of a number of cells suspended in a liquid medium called plasma. Blood consists of the following four components: • • • •
red blood cells white blood cells platelets plasma
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) The body contains approximately 240-270 million red blood cells (RBCs) in ever y drop of blood (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 2000). These cells are produced in the soft red bone marrow. RBCs contain a protein called haemoglobin (Hb), which binds to oxygen, and allows the RBC to carry O 2 in the blood and to a lesser extent CO2. Hb is the pigment that gives RBCs, and therefore blood, its red colour. colour. Blood volume usually consists of about 40% RBCs.
White blood cells (leukocytes) White blood cells (WBCs) are transparent and, unlike RBCs, do not contain Hb. They are fewer in number than RBCs (700 times less) and are also produced in red bone marrow. White blood cells (WBCs) come in many shapes and forms, but are generally the cells of the immune system that fight infection. They destroy bacteria and other harmful living organisms, thus protecting the body by removing diseased or injured tissue.
Platelets (thrombocytes) Unlike RBCs and WBCs, which are whole cells, platelets are actually cell fragments. Platelets will assist in preventing blood loss from a damaged blood vessel by forming a platelet plug (Tortora and Grabowski, 2000). They will also release chemicals which will help to promote blood clotting. This is the initial stage of repair to damaged tissues.
Plasma Plasma is the straw-coloured liquid portion of the blood. It consists predominantly of water (91.5%) and solutes (8.5%) such as proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, hormones, enzymes, vitamins and waste products.
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The heart The heart is in essence a muscular pump, which pushes the oxygen and nutrients around the body to the tissues. It is about the size of a man’s clenched fist and lies behind the sternum, just left of centre. The heart is made up of thick muscular walls (or myocardium), and is divided into separate left and right halves. The right half pumps blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps blood to the rest of the body. Each side of the heart is hollow and is further broken down into two smaller connected chambers. There are four chambers in total, two upper chambers (or atria) and two lower chambers (or ventricles). Atrium (pleural atria) is the Latin for ‘hall’, or ‘entranceway’ and is the chamber which blood flows into first, when entering either side of the Location of the heart heart. The atria receive blood via the veins from different par ts of the body, and pump the blood down into the ventricles. The atria are smaller than the ventricles and do not really have to contract particularly hard. Even if the atria fail to contract properly, properly, most of the blood in the atria will flow into the ventricles passively. The ventricles supply the force to push the blood to its various destinations. In a cardiogram, it would be easily seen that the left ventricle has larger muscular walls than the right ventricle. This is because the lef t side pumps its contents to the furthest parts of the body, whereas the right side only has to pump its contents to the adjacent lungs.
Heart valves There are a number of different valves around the heart, all performing slightly different tasks. There are a set of atrioventricular (AV) valves that separate the atria and ventricles, and prevent the flow of blood back into the atria during ventricular contraction. The semilunar valves prevent the flow of blood back into the right (pulmonary valve) and left ventricles (aortic (aor tic valve) during ventricular relaxation. Ventricular contraction is called systole and ventricular relaxation is called diastole.
Open and closed valves
Heart valves
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Heart circulation The right hand side of the heart is responsible for receiving blood from the upper and lower body via the veins (venous return). The blood enters the right atrium via either the inferior or superior vena cava. The blood is saturated with CO 2, and is referred to as deoxygenated blood. It is ejected to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) via the pulmonary ar tery. Aorta - Oxygen rich blood to the body
Pulmonary Pulmonary Artery -
Oxygen poor blood to the lungs Pulmonary Vein -
Oxygen rich blood from the lungs
Vena Cavae -
Left Atrium
Oxygen poor blood from the body
Left Ventricle Ventricle
Right Atrium Right Ventricle The heart circulation
Deoxygenated blood is dark red in colour, colour, but may appear bluish when viewed vi ewed through blood vessel walls. It is normally coloured in blue when drawn in pictures of the heart. In the pulmonary capillaries, the CO 2 diffuses into the lungs to be expired while O 2 enters the blood. This oxygenated blood (bright red in colour) enters the left atrium of the hear t via the pulmonary vein. The left ventricle then ejects the blood, and O 2, via the aorta, to the tissues of the body (systemic circulation). It is important to note that arteries always carry blood away from the heart and veins always carry blood to the heart.
Heart conduction The heart is stimulated to contract by a complex series of integrated systems. The heart’s pacemaker, the sinoatrial (SA) node, initiates the cardiac muscle contraction. The SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium. The myocardium (heart muscle) is stimulated to contract, about 72 times per minute, by the SA node as part of the autonomic nervous system.
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Blood vessels Blood vessels are the transport system for the blood, from the heart to the rest of the body and back again. Although blood vessels are divided into different categories because of their shape and function, it is important to remember that they are all linked in a continuous loop. One type of blood vessel will gradually be split, or linked, to form another type of blood vessel. There are broadly three types of vessels that differ in construction and size, according to their function and position in the body. These are the arteries, capillaries and veins. There are two additional sub-types called arterioles and venules. These blood vessels are responsible for transporting the blood to and from the heart, and thereby delivering nutrients to and from the tissues.
Arteries Arteries are muscular tubes with thick walls, which can contract (like all muscle) to squeeze blood along the passageways away from the heart. The large artery that leaves the left ventricle of the heart is called the aorta. This divides and subdivides gradually becoming arterioles. The smooth muscle tissue that surrounds the artery arter y and arteriole walls is thicker and more powerful than that surrounding the walls of veins. As blood is ejected powerfully from the heart, the arterial walls are required to stretch passively to receive the blood under high pressure and then immediately contract as in a recoil action to assist in propelling the blood further on down the line to the body. This action is called peristalsis. There are no valves in the arteries other than those at the exit points of the ventricles to prevent backflow. Arteries and arterioles predominantly carry oxygenated blood around the body. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary arteries and arterioles, which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs to be re-oxygenated.
Capillaries The arteries branch off into smaller arterioles and these become smaller and thinner until they are described as capillaries. These capillaries have extremely thin walls (approximately one cell thick) and spread to all parts of the body, even the smallest area of tissue. Since the walls of these blood vessels are so thin, they allow the diffusion of nutrients and gases through their walls and into the tissue cells. Food and oxygen passes through the walls, from the blood, and into individual tissue cells to be used. Likewise the waste products, such as CO 2 and lactic acid, pass back into i nto the blood to be carried away and excreted. Blood flows through the capillary beds slowly to allow for this exchange. There are a g reater number of capillaries than of any other blood vessel type.
Veins Once the capillaries have passed by the tissue, be it muscle or alveoli, they gradually link together to form progressively larger blood vessels called venules. These venules then eventually become larger veins. Veins are thinner walled tubes compared to arteries, with little muscular contractility, which carries blood from the tissues back towards the heart. The smooth muscle in the walls contracts automatically in a peristaltic, or wave-like, action to assist the returning blood flow. flow. Veins and venules venules predominantly carry carry de-oxygenated blood, which is therefore, high in CO2. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary veins and venules, which are carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.
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The flow of blood back to the heart is called venous return. Unlike arteries, veins carry blood under low pressure, which makes its return back up the body to the heart more difficult. All veins therefore, have a series of one-way valves that work against gravity to prevent backflow of the blood as it passes back towards the heart. This will help to prevent reversed blood flow or pooling of blood. Capillary / alveoli interaction
Aorta Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary Pulmonary Circulation
Pulmonary vein Vena cavae
Systemic Circulation
Capillary / tissue interaction
Overview of circulation circulation
Venous return This is the return of blood back to the heart, via the veins. The contributing factors that assist venous return are: •
•
•
•
•
•
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gravity - this will assist in the return of blood from anywhere above the heart, such as the head and shoulders non-return valves in the veins prevent the back flow of blood and are one of the biggest factors assisting venous return the diaphragm is the large dome-shaped muscle of respiration in the chest cavity, which produces a suction effect on the veins below the hear t the right atrium also helps to ‘suck’ the blood back. As the blood within this chamber empties into the ventricle below, the empty chamber creates a small vacuum assisting in drawing in blood from the vena cava smooth muscle contraction (peristalsis) - there is a pumping action of the smooth muscle tissue, this peristaltic action takes place continually skeletal muscle contraction - veins are assisted by the squeezing action of the nearby skeletal muscles
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The blood circulation is a closed system in which the pressure varies constantly. constantly. It rises to a peak, at the height of the contraction of each heartbeat as the heart pumps blood out. It then falls to a lower level, which it reaches just before each heartbeat. hear tbeat. This variance of pressure is necessary for a healthy circulatory system however, “if the pressure is consistently higher than normal at rest, this is high blood pressure, also known as hypertension.” (BUPA, (BUPA, 2002) Venous return is an important mechanism to help the return flow of blood to the heart and to prevent blood pooling. Long periods of inactivity can slow the blood flow from the lower legs, which can result in blood pooling. A blood clot or DVT may then form, blocking the blood vessel. Pressure, Pressure, caused for example by an airline seat pressing on the veins in the back back of the knee, can contribute to reduced reduced blood flow. flow. A pulse lowerer as part of a cool down is thought to reduce blood pooling in the lower extremities at the end of an exercise session.
Control of circulatory blood flow The blood vessels are able to narrow (vasoconstrict) or widen (vasodilate) because of the smooth muscle found in their walls. As a result, more, or less blood will flow through them. This enables the body to direct the flow of blood to different tissues, depending on what state the body is in and where the oxygen and nutrients are required. This also plays a part in the regulation of blood pressure. If food has just been eaten, then the blood vessels that feed the digestive system are vasodilated and blood flow is increased, whilst blood vessels feeding muscles are vasoconstricted, reducing the blood flow. During exercise the opposite happens and more blood will be routed to the muscles and less will be available to the organs and digestive tracts. Eating a large meal too close to a training session or match, will allow insufficient time for the food to be digested in the stomach, causing cramp and sometimes vomiting.
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The nervous system Role of the nervous system Due to the symbiotic nature of the ner vous and muscular systems, the two combined are often referred to as the neuromuscular neuromuscular system. At its simplest level the nervous system is a communication communication network, which has three basic elements; sensation, analysis and response (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 1996):
•
sensation - a vast array of sensors spread throughout the body which continually gather information about,
both the internal environment (e.g. blood CO 2 levels) and the external environment (e.g. air temperature) •
analysis - sensory input represents massive amounts of information , thus the second role of the
nervous system is to analyse and interpret the information being received and ‘decide’ ‘ decide’ on an appropriate response (many of these ‘decisions’ are automated – there is no voluntary control over them) •
response - the appropriate response must be initiated (e.g. muscular contraction or glandular secretion)
The nervous system consists of two primary divisions: • •
the central nervous system (CNS) the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system This consists of the following: • •
brain spinal cord
The correct application of force in a relatively complex movement depends on a series of co-ordinated co- ordinated neuromuscular patterns. Such movements are regulated by neural control mechanisms linked together by pathways within the central nervous system. The brain is made up of two main hemispheres, the cerebrum and to the rear the cerebellum. The cerebellum is the smaller of the two and acts acts as a memory bank for all learnt skills. It is the cerebellum that is mainly responsible for controlling the group action of muscles, though it communicates and works harmoniously with the cerebrum. The spinal cord is composed of cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral segments, named according to the portion of the vertebral column through which it passes. It is the communication link between the brain and the PNS inferior to the head. It integrates incoming information and produces responses via reflex mechanisms (reflex arc).
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CNS
PNS
Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system system
Peripheral Peripheral nervous ner vous system The PNS consists of all the branches of nerves that lie outside the spinal cord. The peripheral nerves primarily responsible for muscular action are the spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are divided into motor and sensory neurons. Sensory neurons arrive on the posterior side of the spinal cord from a variety of sensory receptors spread throughout throughout the body. body. Sensory receptors in the muscles, tendons and joints relay information concerning muscle dynamics and limb movements to the CNS, giving important feedback on the position of those limbs at any time. The motor neurons exit on the anterior side of the spinal cord. These neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to organs, muscles and glands. These impulses will cause muscles to contract and glands to secrete.
Motor units and muscle fibre recruitment A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates (or supplies). One motor neuron may innervate between 10 and 1000 muscle fibres, depending on its location and function. When an impulse is sent down a neuron, all the muscle fibres within that motor unit will be innervated. The fact that either all the muscle fibres within a motor unit are activated, or none of them are, is referred to as the ‘all or none law’ (Fleck and Kraemer, Kraemer, 1997). If the stimulation of a neuron is at or above a set threshold, then an impulse will be sent down the neuron causing activation of the muscle fibres. The ‘all or none law’ applies to individual motor units, and not the entire muscle. A motor unit is typically typic ally made up of one type of muscle fibre fibr e (Type (Type I, Type Type IIa or Type Type IIx) spread spre ad throughout throughou t the muscle. A whole muscle is constructed from many motor units meaning that in a muscle there will be a mixture of all of these fibre types. It is the relative amounts of each fibre type in a muscle that defines the properties of that muscle. The more motor units that are recruited for a task, the greater the force that will be developed. This is an adaptation to training training over time. A beginner will only be able to recruit a certain number of motor units, in order to protect the muscle from developing too much force and damaging the muscle or the connective tissue. With training they are gradually able to recruit more motor units, and produce more force. Exercise can enhance neuromuscular connections, which in turn will help i mprove motor fitness .
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The endocrine system The endocrine system affects bodily activities by releasing chemical messages, called hormones, into the bloodstream from exocrine exocrine and endocrine glands. glands. The function of hormones hormones is to: • • • •
Control the internal environment by regulating its chemical composition and volume Respond to environmental changes to help the body cope with emergencies - infection, stress etc Help regulate organic metabolism and energy balance Contribute to the management of growth and development
Hormones are chemicals chemicals that cause cause certain changes in particular parts of the body. body. Their effects are slower and more general than nerve action. They can control long-term long-term changes such as rate rate of growth, rate of activity and sexual maturity. maturity. The endocrine or ductless glands secrete secrete their hormones directly into the blood stream. stream. The hormones are circulated all over the body and reach their target organ via the blood stream. When hormones pass through the liver, liver, they are converted by the kidneys. Tests on such hormonal products in urine can be used to detect pregnancy. The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that secrete hormones; they are found throughout the body and include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, thymus, supra-renal or adrenal glands, part of the pancreas and parts of the ovaries and testes. testes. Although these glands are separate, separate, it is certain that they are functionally closely related because the health of the body is dependent upon the correctly balanced output from the various glands that form this system.
The pituitary gland This gland has been described as the leader of the endocrine orchestra. orchestra. It consists of two lobes, anterior and posterior. The anterior lobe secretes many hormones, including the growth-promoting somatotropic hormone which controls the bones and muscles and in this way determines the overall size of the individual. The anterior lobe also produces gonadotropic hormones for both male and female gonad activity. activity. The posterior lobe produces produces two hormones hormones - oxytocin and vasopressin. vasopressin. Oxytocin causes the uterine muscles to contract; it also causes the ducts of the mammary glands to contract and, in this way, helps to express the milk that the gland has secreted into the ducts. Vasopressin Vasopressin is an anti-diuretic hormone that has a direct effect on the kidneys and increases the amount of fluid they absorb so that less urine is excreted. It also contracts blood blood vessels in the heart and lungs and and so raises the blood pressure. pressure.
The thyroid gland The right and left lobes of this gland lie on either side of the trachea united by the isthmus. The secretion of this gland is thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine. tri-iodothyronine. Thyroxine controls controls the general metabolism. metabolism. Under secretion in adults results in a low metabolic rate. Over secretion in adults gives rise to exophthalmic goitre and the metabolic rate is higher than usual. Such persons may eat well but burn up so much fuel that they remain thin. This is usually usually accompanied by a rapid pulse rate. This gland, therefore, therefore, has a profound influence influence on both mental and physical activity.
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The parathyroid glands There are four of these glands, two on either side lying behind the thyroid. Their secretion is parathormone - the function of which is to raise the blood calcium as well as maintain the balance of calcium and phosphorus in both the blood and and bone structures. Under secretion gives rise to a condition condition known as tetany in which the muscles go into spasm, and over secretion causes calcium to be lost to the blood from the bones giving rise to softened bones, raised blood calcium and a marked depression of the nervous system.
The thymus gland This gland lies in the lower part of the neck and attains a maximum length of about 6cm. After puberty, the thymus begins to atrophy so that in the adult only fibrous remnants are found. Its secretion is thought to act as a brake on the development of sex organs so that as the thymus atrophies, the sex organs develop. Recent research research into the activity of this gland gland reveals that it plays an important important part in the body’s immune system by producing T-lymphocy T-lymphocy (the T stands for thymus derived).
The suprarenal or adrenal glands These are two adrenal glands. They lay one over each kidney kidney.. They are divided like like the kidney into into two parts -the cortex and the medulla. The cortex is the outer part of the gland and and produces a number number of hormones called cortico-steroids. Their function is to control sodium and and potassium balance, balance, stimulate the storage of glucose glucose and affect or supplement supplement the production production of sex hormones. The medulla or inner inner layer produces adrenaline, a powerful powerful vasoconstrictor. vasoconstrictor. Adrenaline raises the blood sugar by increasing the output of sugar from the liver. liver. The amount of adrenaline secreted is increased considerably considerably by excitement, fear, fear, or anger, which has caused the adrenals sometimes to be referred to as the glands of fight-or-flight
The gonads or sex glands These glands are naturally naturally different in men and and women because they serve serve different functions. In the female the gonads are the ovaries ovaries and in the male the testes. Female sex hormones hormones are oestrogen and and progesterone. The male sex hormone is testosterone, testosterone, though each sex produces a small small quantity of the opposite hormone. The female hormones are responsible for developing the rounded, feminine figure, breast growth, pubic and axillary hair and all the normal manifestations of femininity and reproduction. Male hormone is responsible for voice changes, increased muscle mass, development of hair on the body and face and the usual development of manliness.
The pancreas The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of clumps of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete insulin. Insulin regulates the sugar level in the the blood and the conversion of sugar sugar into heat and energy. energy. Too little insulin results results in diabetes mellitus. It is known that some half million people in the United Kingdom suffer from it sufficiently badly to need treatment but it has been estimated that there are many more people in whom the disease exists at a sub-treatment level.
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Hormones Hormones are chemicals derived from lipids or proteins. Different hormones hormones have different chemical chemical shapes which determine the effect the hormone hormone will have. Each hormone will have a target target cell or cells that have specific receptors in their membranes which will only be triggered by the ‘right’ hormone (i.e. in the same way that locks can only be opened with the right key).
The pancreas - Insulin, glucagon and the control of blood glucose The principal fuel for vigorous activity is carbohydrate (specifically glucose). glucose). It is also worth noting that glucose is the principal fuel fuel for the brain. Large fluctuations in blood blood glucose levels can be extremely extremely damaging, too little will certainly inhibit per formance but could eventually be fatal, whereas too much can damage the vascular system. Control of blood glucose glucose levels is primarily directed by the pancreas, pancreas, which occupies an area posterior posterior to and just below the stomach. stomach. As a gland it has multiple functions, functions, but the ones of interest here relate to the production of two hormones; insulin and glucagon.
Insulin: after consuming a meal, glucose enters the blood at the small intestine causing a rise in blood
glucose levels. As this blood is circulated through through the pancreas the elevated elevated levels of glucose trigger the the release of insulin. The circulating insulin binds with the receptors of its target cells (in this case skeletal muscle or liver cells) and the cell cell membrane becomes more permeable permeable to glucose. Glucose then diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the cell which results in a drop in blood glucose levels. At this point insulin encourages the synthesis (manufacture) (manufacture) of both protein and fat within the body. body. The extent to which this occurs is determined by the nature of the meal consumed and the existing nutritional status of the individual (McArdle et al. 2001, Tortora Tortora and Grabowski, 1996).
Glucagon: in contrast to insulin, glucagon serves to maintain blood glucose levels by triggering the release
of glycogen from the liver (glycogen is the stored form form of glucose). In the hours following the last meal, meal, a combination of normal metabolic processes and physical activity will begin to lower blood glucose levels (assuming nothing has been eaten eaten in the meantime). The drop in circulating blood blood glucose levels triggers the release of glucagon from the pancreas. In contrast to insulin, glucagon has a much more specific specific affect in stimulating the liver to convert some or all of its glycogen stores back into glucose which is then released in to the bloodstream.
Adrenal glands - Adrenalin (epinephrine) Adrenalin is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which which are situated on top of each kidney. kidney. It is one of a category of hormones known as catecholamines. catecholamines. Essentially, Essentially, these hormones help prepare the body for activity, activity, more specifically they are part of the stress response. In preparation for activity, activity, the hypothalamus (part of the brain) triggers the adrenal glands to secrete more adrenalin. This will have a number of specific physiological effects that will help sustain any physical activity: • • • •
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increases heart rate and stroke volume elevates blood glucose levels redistributes blood to working tissues opens up the airways air ways (Tortora (Tortora and Grabowski, 1996; Wilmore and Costill, 2004)
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The sex glands - Testosterone and oestrogen Testosterone is produced in the testes of the male and in small amounts in the ovaries and adrenals of the female. Males produce up to ten times more testosterone testosterone than females (McArdle et al, 2001) and this is primarily responsible for the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and body hair and greater muscle mass. Oestrogen is produced primarily in the ovaries in the female with small amounts produced in the adrenals in males. Women Women of reproductive age have significantly higher levels of oestrogen than males which gives rise to female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and regulation of of the menstrual cycle. For both males and females females however, however, testosterone pays a fundamental role in the the growth and repair of tissue. Oestrogen has many functions, functions, but in particular has an influence on fat deposition around the hips, buttocks and thighs.
Cortisol In contrast to testosterone, cortisol is typically referred to as a catabolic hormone (associated with tissue breakdown). Under times of stress, such as exercise, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands and serves to maintain energy supply through the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and protein. High levels of cortisol brought about through overtraining, excessive stress, poor sleep and inadequate nutrition can lead to significant breakdown of muscle tissue, along with other potentially harmful side effects (McArdle et al, 2001).
Growth hormone The name of this hormone has particular reference to its primary functions. Growth hormone is released from the pituitary gland in the brain and is regulated by the nearby hypothalamus. Growth hormone is stimulated by several factors including including oestrogen, testosterone, deep sleep sleep and vigorous exercise. Growth hormone is primarily an anabolic hormone that is responsible for most of the growth and development during childhood up until puberty when the primary sex hormones take over that control. Growth hormone also increases the development of bone, muscle tissue and protein synthesis, increases fat burning and strengthens the immune system.
Thyroid hormones The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck just below the thyroid cartilage, sometimes called the Adam’s apple. This gland releases vital hormones that are primarily responsible for human metabolism. The release of thyroid hormones is regulated by the master gland, the pituitary. Thyroid hormones have been shown to be responsible for carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, basal metabolic rate, protein synthesis, sensitivity to adrenalin, adrenalin, heart rate, breathing rate and body temperature. temperature. Low thyroid function has become a well recognised disorder leading to low metabolism, fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold and weight gain.
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The effect of yoga on the different body systems Regular yoga practice benefits every system of the body including the skeletal system, muscular system, respiratory system, circulatory system, nervous system and endocrine system and the digestive system. The following section outlines these benefits.
Yoga and the skeletal system There are numerous benefits of yoga to the physical body and many of these have been discussed in unit 1. When discussing the effects of yoga on the skeletal system it is necessary to consider: • •
short term – while the individual is participating in a yoga session long term – after a sustained period of appropriate yoga training
Short term effects Synovial fluid is the liquid that fills in the gaps gaps in most of the joints of the body. body. Practising yoga helps helps encourage the circulation of synovial fluid to keep joints well lubricated and pain free. Synovial fluid helps the bones in the joints glide over one another another with no friction. In response to increased movement movement synovial joints will will increase increase production of synovial synovial fluid. fluid. This fluid acts acts as a lubricant lubricant to protect the joint joint from excess wear and tear (much like the oil in a car engine).
Long term effects There are a number of important long term effects of yoga on the skeletal system that include the following: •
•
•
•
•
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Stronger ligaments - when yoga is practised regularly all structures of the body are used (muscles, bones, tendons and ligaments) and this will result in stronger, more effective ligaments. Increased bone density - weight-bearing exercise is valuable for the health of bones, by stimulating them to retain calcium and gain mass. mass. Unlike an exercise such as running, running, which only works the lower limbs, the multiple poses and postures of yoga can increase bone density over the entire body. The type of yoga will dictate the benefits on bone density as the yoga practised needs to have a weight-bearing effect, such as Ashtanga, Ashtanga, or sun salutation with jump backs. The yoga needs to be dynamic to have these effects on bone density. Improves joint stability - practising yoga postures regularly can help create and maintain stability in joints. Hips, ankles and knees can benefit from various standing postures, and shoulder stability can be increased through poses such as the Downward dog. Improved posture - the skeletal system works in tandem with the muscular system. Muscles maintain posture and allow the body to move. Yoga helps to maintain muscle strength as well as develop coordination and balance. balance. Balance is essential to help help prevent falls, which are are the primary cause of broken bones in people of all ages (Ehow, 2011). Improvement in lower back pain - many many people suffer with lower back pain. pain. The main attributable factor is considered to be poor posture, for example, working at a computer, computer, driving a car, car, too much sitting etc. Yoga Yoga can prove to be an excellent approach for reducing the effects of back pain if carried out regularly. regularly. The gentle twisting motion of many yoga postures helps restore the natural range of motion of the spine, spine, improving flexibility and reducing any pain. pain. A flexible, elongated spine is associated with good health and vitality and will help par ticipants perform daily tasks with ease.
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Yoga and the muscular system There are a number of changes that occur within the muscular system as a result of yoga:
Short term responses Vasodilation of blood vessels in muscles causes a diversion of blood to the working muscles, and away from the non-essential organs.
Long term responses The properties of a muscle are changed depending on the regularity, regularity, duration and intensity with which a muscle is used. Participating in yoga regularly can increase increase the diameter of muscle (hypertrophy) as well as cause an increase in their capacity to produce energy.
Long term aerobic adaptations Low intensity, intensity, long duration types of yoga can bring about the following changes on Type I fibres: • • •
An increase in the number and size of mitochondria in the muscle fibres An increase in the number of capillaries surrounding these fibres An increase in the number of aerobic enzymes, stored glycogen and triglycerides in the muscle fibres
Long term strength adaptations Short duration, high intensity types of yoga can affect mainly Type II fibres, bringing about the following changes: • •
•
A decrease in nervous inhibition An increase in the diameter of the recruited fibres (hypertrophy) due to an increase in the myofilaments within the fibres An increase in the glycolytic activity of the muscle allowing more work to be performed under anaerobic conditions or high stress conditions
Yoga and strength The physical benefits of yoga are myriad. Yoga keeps the body strong, as it involves all the muscles muscles to hold and balance the yoga yoga postures. The various yoga postures postures strengthen the feet, legs, legs, hands, abdominals, lower back, legs, and shoulders (Yoga Wiz, 2012). It is important to incorporate strength training into yoga sessions or to do separate training for strength to ensure the body has balance. A body that is not strong but overly flexible may be susceptible susceptible to injuries. Strength training is any exercise that uses resistance to strengthen and condition the musculoskeletal system, improving muscle tone tone and endurance. People People of all ages and fitness levels can can benefit from resistance training.
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Many yoga poses require participants to support the weight of their own body in new ways, including balancing on one leg (such as in Tree pose) or supporting the weight of their body with their arms (such as in Downward facing dog). Some exercises require moving slowly in and out of poses, which also increases strength. Below are some reasons to include strength training within yoga sessions: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Weight control - muscle is gained through strength training and this enables the body to burn fat more efficiently. efficiently. This is because muscle tissues require more energy to sustain than fat, fat, so muscle burns more calories. Also, after strength training, the body continues continues to burn calories as it recovers. Strength training can increase the metabolic rate by up to 15 percent, which can be enormously helpful for weight loss and long-term weight control. Regular strength training is just as important as cardio exercise for losing fat and getting fit. Help to prevent heart disease - strength training improves the condition and resilience of the heart muscle, protecting it from stress by keeping it strong. Increased bone strength - after the age of around thir ty, ty, bone mass starts to decrease at a rate of one percent per year (higher for post-menopausal women). Adding strength training to yoga sessions is the best way to increase bone mass density. density. This can help reduce or even manage osteoporosis and arthritis. Regular strength training can increase bone mineral mineral density, density, bone density and reduces the risk for fractures among women aged 50-70. Muscle tone - as a by-product of getting stronger, participants can expect to see increased muscle tone. Yoga Yoga helps shape long, lean muscles. Fewer injuries - well-balanced muscles reduce the risk of injuries that result when a muscle is weaker than its opposing muscle group. group. With a more muscular body, body, stronger bones, tendons and ligaments, the body has a considerably reduced chance of sustaining injury. Greater flexibility - poor balance and flexibility contribute to falls and broken bones as people age. By performing postures that move joints through their full range of motion, participants can significantly improve strength and flexibility. flexibility. Strength training can reduce risk of falling by as much as 40 percent in older people. Improved posture - due to extra musculature, greater bone, tendon and ligament strength and the introduction of proper stretching, posture will be much improved. The stronger the muscles are the straighter participants will stand and sit. On a more basic level, it is important to understand that including strength training into every yoga session will help par ticipants to look better, feel better, better, and function better in life. (Life Mojo, 2012).
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Yoga postures for strength The following yoga postures from Unit 3 (Appendix 1) are excellent for strength or can be adapted for additional strength training. Asana
Alternative name
Variation for strength
1
Surya Surya Nama Namask skar ara a
Sun Sun salu saluta tati tion onss
2
Vrkasana
Tree pose
Conc Concen entr trat atee on jump jumpin ingg back back into into plan plankk and and work workin ingg on lowering the body down slowly utilising triceps strength Strength increased in standing leg
3
Natarajasana
Dancer
As above
4
Garu Garudh dhas asa ana
Eagl Eaglee pose pose
5
Uttanasana
6
Utka tkatas tasana ana
Standing forward bend Fierc iercee pose pose
Squa Squatt ttin ingg dow down on the the sup support portin ingg leg incr increeases ases leg leg strength Hinging upwards with a straight back rather than ‘rag dolling’ up utilise back strength This This postu osture re can can be hel held or lowe lowere red d to inc increa rease thig thigh h strength
7
Virabhadrasana 1
Warrior 1
Strong strength posture for legs and back
8
Virabhadrasana 2
Warrior 2
Strong strength posture for legs
9
Virabhadrasana 3
Warrior 3
Strong strength posture for legs
10
Trik rikonas onasa ana
Trian riangl glee pose pose
Stro Strong ng stre stren ngth gth postu osture re for for legs egs
11
Pariv arivrtt rtta a Triko rikona nasa sana na Rever everse se tria triang ngle le
As abov abovee
12
Pur vottanasana
Strong posture for arm strength
13
Navasana
Adho Mukha Svanasana 15 Dwi Pada Pitham
Inclined pl plane pose Boat
Seated balance for core strength
16
Bhujangasana
Downward dog / Inverted V pose Two foot support suppor t / Bridge Cobra pose
17
Dhanurasana
Bow pose
All over strength
18
Ustrasana
Camel pose
Leg and back strength
14
Strength for arms and legs Back and leg strength Back strength
Benefits of yogic breathing Breathing is a vital part of everyone’s lives. Quite naturally, breathing is an involuntary action. It is an autonomic body function that is done even in sleep, without having any conscious thought about it. Yoga breathing was covered in unit 1 but some of the ways that yoga can benefit the respiratory system are summarised below: • •
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A lower respiratory rate indicates that the lungs are working more efficiently. Yoga decreases the respiratory rate through a combination of controlled breathing exercises and better fitness. Yoga breathing shows participants the correct way to breathe. breathe. Many people became accustomed accustomed to breathing thoracically, thoracically, using only a por tion of their lungs, not realising that this harmful and abnormal way of inhaling could set in motion a series of problems. Through Yoga Yoga breathing, participants can increase the capacity of their their lungs. This brings additional oxygen supply to the blood and makes it function better. better. Yoga Yoga breathing shows participants how to breathe slowly and deeply – the correct way.
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• • • •
• •
Yoga breathing helps gets rid of toxins toxins and wastes from the system. It can stop the participant from contracting sickness and illnesses. Yoga breathing helps digestion. Through proper breathing the metabolism and and therefore health can begin to improve. Yoga breathing improves the participants’ concentration and focus. focus. It combats stress and helps relax the body. body. By controlling the breathing participants can also develop serenity serenity and peace of mind. Yoga breathing bestows bestows better self-control self-control upon the participant. participant. Through enhanced powers of concentration, concentration, the participant is in a position to better handle handle his / her temper and reactions. reactions. The mind is also able to function better helping participants steer clear of disputes and arguments and jumping to wrong conclusions / decisions. This is because of the clarity of mind Yoga breathing bestows. Besides other things, self-control also also has to do with control over the physical body. body. Yoga breathing sets in motion a participant’s spiritual journey through a relaxed body and a tranquil mind (Yoga Wiz 2012). Yoga helps relax the respiratory tract, helping diseases and disorders of the respiratory system. The breathing and meditation routines in yoga have proven very effective in controlling chronic diseases like asthma. Along with treating the respiratory respiratory system, it is also possible to increase the immunity immunity of the body so that allergies and minor infections do not cause harm to the throat.
The full yogic breath is the basic building block of all powerful yoga breathing techniques (Pranayama). The tangible benefits of the full yogic breath include the following: • • • • • • •
Releases acute and chronic muscular tensions tensions around the heart and digestive organs Helps sufferers of respiratory illnesses such as asthma and emphysema to overcome the fear of shortness of breath. It actually increases lung capacity Encourages proper nervous stimulus to the cardiovascular system Dramatically reduces emotional and nervous anxiety Improves detoxification through increased exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen Amplifies the auto immune system by increased distribution of energy to the endocrine system Calms the mind and integrates the mental/physical balance
Yoga and the cardiovascular system Yoga has tremendous health benefits for the cardiovascular system, including the following: •
• • • • • • •
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Complete detoxification – by gently stretching muscles and joints as well as massaging the various organs, yoga ensures the optimum blood supply to various parts of the body. This helps in the flushing out of toxins which leads to benefits such as delayed ageing, energy and a remarkable zest for life The lowering of resting heart rate r ate due to the stress control techniques and calming effects offered by yoga. The gentler forms of yoga lowers blood pressure because the asanas / postures keep blood flowing evenly throughout the body while focus is on the breath Participants suffering from hypertension can benefit tremendously, as hatha yoga can lower the heart rate and blood pressure Many practitioners claim that yoga has also lowered their cholesterol. Power yoga is an excellent form of cardio conditioning, which strengthens core muscles while it keeps blood and oxygen circulating throughout the body (Yoga Wiz 2012) A combination of lower heart rate and improved oxygenation to the body results in higher cardiovascular endurance Yoga improves blood circulation - by transporting nutrients and oxygen throughout the body, yoga practice provides healthier organs, skin, and brain
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Effects of yoga on blood pressure Short term effects
There is a linear increase in systolic blood pressure with increasing increasing levels of exertion (Franklin (Franklin 1998). In contrast, during exertion diastolic blood pressure may decrease slightly, slightly, due to vasodilation, or will remain unchanged (Franklin, (Franklin, 1998), except in hypertensive individuals where it may rise as a result of an impaired vasodilatory response (Gordon, (Gordon, 1997). Postures Postures that are held for long long periods of time will significantly significantly increase both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. When performing such postures, it is important to concentrate on breathing correctly. Long term effects
Yoga postures which use large muscle groups help to reduce blood pressure over time. This can elicit an average decrease of 10 mmHg in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in mild and moderate hypertensive individuals (Durstine and Moore, 2003).
Yoga and the nervous system The nervous system is the network of ner ves that control all the organs and illicit responses from the body. It is the nerves that allow the senses to work and the brain to coordinate the mechanisms of the entire body. body. With so many functions, functions, it is easy for the nerves to get fatigued or diseased and if there is an injury or trauma to the nerves, it can really damage the functioning of the body in many ways. The slightest of nervous system problems may cease the functioning of vital organs. For example, trauma to the spinal cord can cause a person to be paralysed, or lose the ability to walk. Today, oday, owing to changes in lifestyle, nerves have to undergo a lot of pressures and stress just to keep the body functional. There are times though when when the amount of stress becomes becomes so much that the nerves begin to malfunction. malfunction. It is therefore necessary necessary to maintain the health health of the nerves and to ensure that people distress regularly so that the body machinery keeps functioning without a glitch. Some disorders of the nervous system are outlined below: • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Alzheimer’s disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Bell’s Palsy Brain Cancers Brain Tumours Epilepsy Guillain-Barré Syndrome Headache Meningitis Multiple Sclerosis Muscular Dystrophy Parkinson’s disease Stroke
The nervous system is a delicate network of neurons and therefore it is important to keep it protected from jerks or traumas. If people work in the same posture for a long time, the nervous system can can get stressed. The treatment of the nervous system basically focuses on the slowing of the degeneration of the nerves. The nerves, once damaged, cannot be regenerated.
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The effect of yoga on the nervous system In the early stages of a yoga training regimen the majority of physical improvements are likely to be the result of changes in the way the central nervous system controls and and coordinates movement. This appears to be particularly so for strength training training (Earle and Baechle, Baechle, 2004). When a yoga asana is performed performed the senses provide constant feedback regarding limb position, force generation and the performance outcome (i.e. was the movement movement successful?). Unsuccessful or or poor performances can be cross-referenced with other sensory input and a new movement strategy can be tried (Schmidt and Wrisberg, 2000). Regular yoga training and practice cause adaptations in the central nervous system allowing greater control of movements. Thus movements become smoother and more accurate and performance improves.
Yoga for stress Yoga has proved to be effective effective in mitigating the harmful effects effects of stress. Not only does yoga help help in relieving stress, it also helps in keeping the mind calm and sharp, delaying the onset of diseases like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. In fact, yoga is one of the few forms of exercise that has a direct beneficial effect on the autonomic nervous system. Yoga incorporates many different breathing exercises and mediation techniques. The deep breathing practised during yoga helps to calm the nerves. The process of meditation helps to drown out all extraneous extraneous worries and allows a participant to calm and centre thoughts. This goes a long way in providing relief from nervous disorders. Even the yogic postures incorporate incorporate steady and deep breathing and help to reduce reduce anxiety and calm the nerves (Yoga health benefits 2012). Yoga works as an antidote to the body’s stress response. When humans perceive a looming looming danger, danger, whether it’s a blood-thirsty tiger, a deadline, or a traffic jam, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, triggering what is often often called the fight-or-flight fight-or-flight response. The heart rate and blood pressure increase, increase, digestion is reduced, adrenaline production is stimulated, and the pupils dilate, preparing the person to deal with the danger of whatever whatever it was that triggered the stress response. When the perceived danger danger is over the body activates the parasympathetic nervous system. Heat rate and blood pressure decrease, digestive activity returns to normal, endorphins are produced, and the pupils constrict, restoring a resting condition in the body. body. The problem with modern life, however however,, is that often the parasympathetic nervous system gets challenged by chronic stressors, and people are never able to fully relax. Taking time out for yoga practice practice and allowing ‘me’ time is in itself de-stressing. de-stressing. But this isn’t the only reason yoga is good. Yoga activates the parasympathetic parasympathetic nervous system directly, directly, working to counteract the effects of stress. The following practice helps to alleviate the stress response: • •
•
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Focus on deep, slow breathing that fully activates the diaphragm. Include postures that target sections of the spine linked to the parasympathetic nervous system (thoracic and lumbar area). Postures Postures that access the neck or the hips can be very ver y calming (Chai and Yoga, 2011).
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Postures that benefit the nervous system
Inverted postures •
•
•
Viparita Karani (Legs up the wall wall pose) – this is a wonderful relaxing yoga posture. Yoga stresses the importance of balancing active active poses (yang) with passive passive poses (yin). The ‘legs up the wall posture’ is a gentle inversion that helps to relieve the effects of stress by soothing the nervous system, increasing circulation circulation and allowing the mind mind to calm. It is especially great for people who who spend too much time sitting and standing since it relieves swelling and fatigue in the legs and feet by reversing the effects of gravity. Sarvangasana (Shoulder stand with legs up the wall) - use a cushion or bolster under the buttocks for additional additional comfort. The shoulder shoulder stand stimulates and rejuvenates rejuvenates the entire body. body. In this posture, tension in well-known stress stress areas like the neck neck and the lower lower back is relaxed. The muscles of the lower back get stronger, stronger, the chest and shoulders can move more freely and the back gets straighter. Plough posture (Halasana) - the Sanskrit word Hala means plough, as in a traditional plough that is drawn by a horse or oxen. oxen. When performing this posture the body resembles a plough. This pose is often one of the first inversions to be practised after Adho Mukha Svanasana (the downward facing dog pose) and Prasarita Padottanasana Padottanasana (the wide-legged standing forward bend). Inversions bring fresh blood and oxygen to the brain which is revitalising and refreshing.
Stress relieving postures •
•
•
• •
•
•
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Adho Mukha Svanasana (Downward facing dog posture) - this posture is named as such as it resembles the shape of a dog stretching itself out. This pose helps to strengthen, stretch stretch and reduce stiffness in the legs while strengthening and shaping shaping the upper body. body. Holding this pose for a minute or longer will stimulate stimulate and restore energy levels if participants participants are tired. Regular practice practice of this pose rejuvenates the entire body and gently stimulates the ner vous system. Supta Virasana (Reclining hero posture) - the reclining hero pose is a great way to improve and enhance flexibility. flexibility. Vira means hero, hero, warrior or champion; Supta is to lie lie down. This is a deep stretch for the front of the thighs, lower lower legs and feet. It also stretches the abdominal muscles, muscles, the spine and the shoulders. Salabhasana (Locust posture) - the focal points of concentration in this posture is the legs. Lift the legs only as much as you can. can. Feel the pull exerted along the muscles in the back back and in the legs. Be aware of the body movements and and stretching. The muscles will release and and relax after stretching for a specific time period in a tense position. position. Mentally, Mentally, this posture helps to gather attention and and help to develop a peaceful state of mind. Supta Padangusthasana Padangusthasana (Reclining big toe posture). Supta Baddha Konasana (Reclining bound angle posture with or without props) – lying down on back with soles together). Navasana (Boat pose) - this posture stimulates the muscular, digestive, circulatory, nervous and hormonal systems. This asana also tones tones up all the organs and removes removes lethargy and restrains restrains nervous tension and brings up deep relaxation. Balasana (Child’s pose).
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Relaxation postures •
• •
Savasana (Corpse Pose) Pose) - no yoga session is complete without the final pose of Savasana. Savasana. The body needs this time to understand the new information it has received through practising yoga. Padmasana (Lotus pose). Sukhasana (Easy pose).
Breathing practices to reduce stress • • •
Alternate nostril breathing. Kapalbhati (Skull cooling breath). Ujjayi (Ocean Breath) (Yoga (Yoga Wiz 2011, Indian Mirror 2011).
Yoga and the endocrine system Certain health conditions are caused as a result of the inability of glands to secrete or produce hormones. The regular practice of yoga actually helps prevent the incidence of, as well as in dealing with, a number of ailments or health problems resulting from hormonal disharmony or dysfunction. Research has indicated that testosterone and growth hormone levels increase following strength training and moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise. exercise. It is also noted that that a similar pattern pattern seems to emerge for cortisol (McArdle et al, 2001). The presence of cortisol in the bloodstream is often taken to be indicative of overtraining. This is perhaps a little simplistic simplistic as cortisol is a necessary part of maintaining energy levels during normal exercise activity and may even facilitate recovery and repair during the post-exercise period (McArdle et al, 2001). Problems may arise however, however, as a result of extremely intense or prolonged bouts of endurance training, which have been found to lower testosterone levels whilst raising cortisol levels. Under these circumstances, catabolism (breakdown) is likely to outstrip anabolism (build up) and give rise to symptoms of overtraining (Wilmore and Costill, 2004; McArdle et al. 2001). Yoga arbitrates the close, most cherished relationship between the mind and body – emotions like fear or anger, anger, love or hate, all suggest hormonal activity as well as, in many instances, disharmony. disharmony. Needless to say, they all strongly influence health. Hormones are involved in growth and development, tissue function, metabolism (affecting weight regulation and hunger), and in your mood. They play a role in the experiencing of relaxation relaxation or stress, pleasure or frustration, and and fear or joy. joy. Hormonal imbalances imbalances affect mood, and and thus decision-making decision-making processes therefore yoga’s beneficial effect on the endocrine system is of paramount importance. The body ‘chakras’ or energy centres (see unit 1) keep close relation with internal glands that constitute the endocrine system. When the pineal gland and the pituitary gland receive sufficient energy, energy, they will channel impulses from the other endocrine glands in synchronicity to optimise rhythms for good health. The pineal gland corresponds corresponds to the ‘third eye’ and is linked linked to developing wisdom. Yoga meditation techniques powerfully stimulate stimulate this gland. The pituitary gland, at the base of your your brain, relates to inspiration and intuition. The Pituitary Gland is the master gland of the body that regulates the secretion of hormones in all the other glands. glands. It is under the direct control of the brain. brain. Sirshasana (headstand) is the most beneficial posture for this area. The posture increases blood flow to the brain, which is used for controlling the entire body. body. This posture is said to prevent various diseases of the nose, eye and ear. ear. Frequently Frequently practising this posture increases mind concentration concentration and provides sharpness. Pituitary glands and pineal glands are also activated because of this sirsasana, causing an increase in memor y.
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The thyroid gland is responsible for the basic metabolic rate of the body, its growth as well as cell processes. On the other hand, the parathyroid gland controls the production and secretion of phosphate calcium. Both these glands glands are stimulated stimulated by the shoulder Stand. The thyroid gland, found below the larynx, or below the Adam’s apple in men, is responsible for the body’s energy burning rate, and for the body’s sensitivity to other hormones. It produces the thyroid hormones hormones Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine, Triiodothyronine, involved in regulating metabolism. metabolism. It is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. In yoga, it is connected to the chakra chakra Visshudda, which relates relates to communication skills. The thyroid’s thyroid’s functions functions are directly linked to mood. When this gland gland becomes becomes overactive (hyperthyroidism) or underactive (hypothyroidism) undesirable effects are experienced. Excessive thyroid hormonal secretion produces ner vousness, irritability, irritability, excessive hunger, hunger, palpitations, laboured breathing and an abnormally abnormally fast digestion. An underactive thyroid results in apathy and tiredness. tiredness. The Headstand greatly enhances the functioning of the thyroid gland by bringing an increased amount of blood to the throat area, which is helpful in pranayama. The thymus gland located under the breastbone, has a central role in keeping a strong immune system. In Yoga, Yoga, it is connected to the Anahata chakra, relating to the capacity for loving and opening up to others. The adrenal glands, sitting above the kidneys, release hormones in conjunction to stress due to fear or frustration, and and also when hypoglycaemia occurs. occurs. This results in the hyperactive state of of ‘fight or flight’. If this isn’t responded to, to, a state of stress is felt. These glands are connected connected to the Manipura chakra chakra relating to power-seeking, perseverance and will-power. The camel yoga posture (Ustrasana) enhances blood flow through this area. The secretions of the pancreatic and adrenal glands are vital to life. They strongly affect physical, mental and emotional well-being. well-being. The pancreas, for instance, instance, secretes insulin that helps regulate regulate the levels of sugar in the blood. When it dysfunctions the body suffers from from what is called Diabetes and when when it ceases to function altogether altogether insulin injections are needed. However it can be helped, greatly greatly by Mayurasana (peacock pose), which helps massage the spleen and the pancreas. The effects of yoga on glucagon and insulin: Understanding the effects of an activity such as yoga is helpful because it helps to explain the interrelationship interrelationship between insulin and glucagon. glucagon. As activity levels increase, glucose uptake by the body’s body’s cells also increases. This is the result of an increased increased sensitivity of the cells to insulin, thus insulin levels levels will drop during physical activity (Wilmore (Wilmore and Costill, 2004). At the same time glucagon secretion by the pancreas increases, thus helping maintain a steady supply of blood glucose. Sex hormones - The gonads gonads secrete sex hormones and and affect vitality. vitality. They connect with Svadisthana Svadisthana chakra in relation to pleasure, pleasure, creativity and joy of life. Yoga postures and meditation are helpful helpful for changes in hormonal levels levels due to ageing. Women dealing dealing with the peri-menopause or or menopause find relief from stress, and production production of stress hormones is reduced. Inverted postures, as downward facing dog, direct blood towards the pineal, pituitary, pituitary, thyroid and hypothalamus glands. This can help stabilise severe hormonal fluctuations. fluctuations. It is important here to note contraindications contraindications to yoga’s inverted postures for people with high blood pressure, hyperactive thyroid, Graves disease, glaucoma, and detached retina. Regular yoga practice, particularly relaxation postures, helps to maintain a healthy balance in the male and female glands and hormones (Yoga Wiz, 2012). The invaluable benefits to be experienced by engaging in yoga practice are not to be dismissed by anyone who wishes to enhance enhance their well-being. well-being. This holds regardless of any present condition. condition. Participants Participants will undoubtedly enrich their lives through simple yoga techniques, be it to elevate wellness to an even higher level, or to mark the the start of a stage that promotes healing healing and comfort. Whatever the situation, situation, yoga will lead the way to unprecedented well-being (Lucas, 2012).
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The benefits of yoga on the digestive system According to yogic thinking, efficient digestion is one one of the routes to good health. Yoga has an extremely positive effect on the digestive system. The way we sit and stand has a huge impact on our internal organs. Yoga postures help realign the body and improve improve posture. When we slouch, we restrict our organs organs of digestion - blood cannot flow freely around the body, the stomach, pancreas, liver, spleen and intestines all become squashed and therefore we are not able to process food efficiently efficiently.. Waste can can quite literally get left behind inside those organs. The ancient Indian life science science of Ayurverda also pays close close attention to the process of digestion - recommending small, regular meals; plenty of vegetables and lentils; and slow, mindful eating.
Posture Yoga encourages new postural habits, which in turn will allow organs of digestion to function more efficiently. efficiently. When practicing seated postures it is useful to ask participants to focus on the torso and the organs inside. Ask them to imagine what what happens to these organs organs when they slouch. They will usually sit up straighter and grows at least an inch in height. There are many specific yoga postures that will stimulate the digestive system, apanasana (wind release), spinal twists, paschimotanasana (seated forward bend), dhanurasana (the bow), setu bhandhasana (half bridge) chakarasana (the wheel), balasana (child’s pose) and many more. Surya namaskara (sun salutations) will also work wonders for the digestive system. Quite simply any posture that twists, folds or stretches the torso will aid digestion.
Timing meals It is important to remind participants not not to eat a heavy meal meal before a yoga practice. practice. A light snack two hours prior is fine. It is also recommended that both bladder and bowel are emptied before practicing yoga so that the digestive system is relatively empty and energy is not being used to digest food. Practicing Practicing yoga without too much waste in the system will give greater benefits and help cleanse and tone the internal organs. The great thing is that participants do not not need to be an advanced advanced to benefit from the positive positive impact that yoga has on the digestive digestive system. By bringing awareness to alignment alignment and working simply to maintain a straight spine the digestive system can be improved. As well as regular yoga practice, encourage encourage participants to drink plenty of water and ideally follow a healthy vegetarian diet that includes plenty of fresh uncooked fruit and vegetables (Fuller S. 2012).
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References Brian Mac (2012). The Endocrine System Available at www.brianmac.co www.brianmac.co.uk .uk (accessed on 1/2/12) 2. Chai and yoga (2011) Yoga, stress and the nervous system Available at chaiandyoga.com (accessed 30/1/12) 3. Durstine, J.L. and Moore, G.E. (2003) ACSM’s Exercise Management for Persons with Chronic Diseases and Disabilities 2nd Edition Human Kinetics 4. Earle, R.W. and Baechle, T.R. (2004). NSCA’s: Essentials of Personal Training. Human Kinetics 5. EHow (2011). What are the benefits of exercise on the skeletal system Available at eHow.com ? (accessed on 27/1/12) 6. Fleck S.J. and Kraemer W.J. (1997). Designing Resistance Training Programmes 2nd Edition, Human Kinetics 7. Franklin B.A. (1998). Normal cardiorespiratory responses to acute aerobic exercise - In ACSM’s Resource Manual for Guidelines for Testing and Prescription (Roitman J.L. ed) pp. 137-145 3rd Edition Williams and Wilkins Franklin B.A. (2000). ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription 6th Edition Williams 8. Franklin and Wilkins 9. Fuller S. (2012) Pathway to good health - Yoga for digestion Available at www.yoga-abode.com (accessed 19.3.12) 10. Gordon N.F. (1997). Hypertension - In ACSM’s Exercise Management for Persons with Chronic Diseases and Disabilities (J. L. Durstine, Ed.) pp. 59-63 Human Kinetics 11. Indian Mirror (2011). Yoga for the nervous system Available at www.indianmirror.com accessed 31/1/12) 12. Life Mojo (2012). Benefits of strength training Available at lifemojo.com (accessed on 27/1/12) 13. Livestrong (2012). The effects of yoga on the skeletal system Available at www.livestrong.com (article/292190) (accessed 27/1/12) 14. Lucas H. (2012). The endocrine system Available at yogainyourlife.com (accessed on 31/1/12) 15. Marieb, E.N (1995). Human Anatomy and Physiology 6th Edition Benjamin-Cummings publishing company 16. McArdle, W., Katch, F. and Katch, V. (2001). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition & Human Performance (5th Edition) Baltimore, Lipincott, Williams & Wilkins 17. McGill S. (2002). Low Back Disorders Human Kinetics 18. Schmidt R.A. and Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor Learning and Performance 2nd Edition Champaign IL Human Kinetics 19. Seeley R., Stephens, T. and Tate, P. (2000). Anatomy and Physiology 5th Edition, McGraw Hill 20. Thompson C.W. and Floyd R.T. (2001). Manual of structural kinesiology, McGraw-Hill 21. Tortora G.J. and Grabowski S.R. (1996). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 8th Edition New York, Haper-Collins 22. Tortora G.J. and Grabowski S.R. (2003). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, Physiology, 10th Edition John Wiley and Sons 23. Wilmore J.H. and Costill D.L. (2004). Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Champaign, Ill., Human Kinetics 24. Yoga health benefits (2012). Yoga for nervous system problems Available at yoga health benefits. blogspot.com (accessed on 20/1/12) 25. Yoga Wiz (2012). Benefits of yogic breathing Available at yogawiz.com (accessed on 26/1/12) 26. Yoga Wiz (2012). Yoga for the endocrine system Article by Patricia (No 12th 2008) Available at yogawiz.com (accessed on 31/12/12) 27. Yoga Wiz (2012). Yoga poses for the nervous system Available at www.yogawiz.com (accessed on 30/1/12) 1.
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Appendix 1 The table below provides further guidance on the bones, joints and muscles which must be covered within this unit. Bones
Joints
Muscles
Axial Skeleton:
Immovable
Pectoralis Major Deltoids Biceps Rectus Abdominis Obliques Transverse Abdominis Trapezius Rhomboids Triceps Latissimus Dorsi Erector Spinae Hip Flexors Quadriceps Adductors Anterior Tibialis Gluteals Abductors Hamstrings Gastrocnemius Soleus Diaphragm Intercostals
• • • • • • • •
Cranium Cervical Vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae Sacral Vertebrae Sternum Ribs Coccyx
Appendicular Skeleton: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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Scapula Clavicle Humerus Ulna Radius Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Ilium Ischium Pubis Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals
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Slightly Movable Freely movable/Synovial • Gliding • Pivot • Ball and Socket • Hinge
Unit 3 Planning a series of yoga sessions
Aim: the aim of this unit is to provide learners with the underpinning knowledge and practical elements
needed to plan a yoga session and a series of yoga sessions. The unit covers the elements of basic breathing techniques, pranayama, relaxation, concentration concentration and meditation within sessions. It also covers the use of teaching aids to modify modif y and adapt asana, plus information on how to set up a yoga class. Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you will:
9898
•
understand breath awareness
•
understand pranayama
•
understand relaxation techniques
•
understand concentration and meditation
•
understand how to plan a yoga session
•
understand how to incorporate teaching aids within a yoga session
•
be able to plan a series of progressive yoga sessions
•
understand how to set up a private yoga class
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Introduction There are many aspects to consider when planning and setting up yoga sessions. The sessions need to have a purpose and be safe and effective. There are no absolute rules for planning a session, but this unit explores the essential components needed to ensure a balanced and holistic approach to planning. Once these aspects have been practised and taught to participants, sessions can be changed to fit the individuals’ needs. Teachers must ensure that they are very familiar with the practices they teach before attempting to share them with their participants. par ticipants.
Understanding breath awareness The morning wind spreads its fresh smell, We must get up and take that in, That wind that lets us live, Breathe before it’s gone. Rumi
(Appleton, 2004) Breathing is an autonomic body function that requires no voluntary input, and as such, often remains outside of conscious awareness. Control and awareness of the breath is considered an important part of any yoga session; yoga can help to bring the focus back on the breath. Below is a summary summar y of the benefits of yoga breathing: • • • • • • • •
Increases the oxygen going to all cells Helps the body’s natural ability to get rid of toxins and wastes Helps digestion and aids metabolism Improves concentration and focus. Helps participants to better handle stress Helps relax the body Leads to feelings of serenity and peace of mind Helps participants to improve control of diaphragmatic breathing
Breathing habits can often become poor with age, resulting in shallow breathing patterns that do not use the full capacity of the lungs. Observations of babies and small children reveal deep belly (diaphragmatic) breathing patterns, as opposed to the shallow chest (thoracic) patterns commonly seen in adults. Rhythmic, deep and slow breathing stimulates and produces a calm, contented state of mind. Irregular breathing may disrupt key body rhythms leading to physical, emotional and mental blocks. Using yoga, these patterns and awareness of breathing can be rebuilt. Yoga breathing shows the correct way to breathe, and increases the ability to use the full capacity of the lungs. Breathing correctly is not just about getting oxygen into the body; it also influences the flow of Prana (life force) in the energy channels of the body (Swami Satyananda Saraswati, 1996). In yoga, the breath is the energy of life. A proper inhalation brings in oxygen, energy, inspiration and light from the universe. A proper exhalation gets rid of negativity and stress, and allows you to clear out any waste.
Using the breath to enter and leave a posture Benefits of asana cannot be achieved without the use of the breath. Every movement is led by the breath and this is the basis of asana practice. Via the breath, a participant can observe the unfolding of an asana. Rather than struggling with the body in an asana, the asana can be monitored using the number of breaths that is appropriate. It is vitally important impor tant to utilise the breath as participants par ticipants enter and leave a posture, as well as when staying in a posture. The breath is used to focus the mind as the asana is performed. per formed.
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A teacher can ask the participants to imagine the breath as energy and participants can imagine they are sending it to different parts of the body, depending on the posture. As a general rule, as the body closes up an exhalation is performed, and as the body opens up an inhalation is performed. For example, in Uttanasana (standing forward bend), an inhale is performed as the arms are stretched up, the body bends forward on the exhale, and then the body is held in position for a number of breaths. Generally, an exhalation is performed on exertion and an inhalation is performed on relaxation. There are however exceptions to this rule with some asana. Another way to utilise the breath is to hold postures for a cer tain number of breaths. The breath should feel natural as a posture is entered and left. The primary focus should be on the breath; movement of the body is secondary.
The basic breath The basic breath is an important element of yoga practice as it establishes habits that can enable the yoga participant to develop a deeper relationship with the capabilities of the breath. Some basic breathing practices are: • • • • •
simple breath awareness – this can be done seated or in savasana (corpse) nostril breathing – seated or kneeling linking breath to movement - initially can be practised with arm extensions in savasana or seated lengthening the in and out breath – seated or kneeling deepening the breath
Basic breathing does not contain ratios, retention or restrictions. Basic breathing is the foundation of pranayama practice.
The complete yoga breath (three part breath) This contains three phases: • • •
diaphragmatic phase (abdominal breathing) intercostal phase (rib cage breathing) clavicle phase (upper chest / collarbone breathing)
These phases need to be experienced independently and then combined together to form the complete yoga breath. It is crucial that the breath isn’t separated into parts and that the breath is smooth.
Technique
In Savasana, be aware of the abdomen rising. Place hands over the abdomen for emphasis. One hand can be placed on the chest and one on the abdomen to regulate control. • • •
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Place hands on lower ribs to experience the breath in this area. Place hands on upper chest to experience the breath in this area. Practise the above in a seated position as well
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Breathing practice examples There are many practices that can be carried out; here are some examples:
Counted breath Begin to count the breaths from number 27 backwards to zero. Mentally repeat, “I am b reathing in 27, I am breathing out 27, I am breathing in 26, I am breathing out 26” and so on, back to zero. If the mind wanders and the next number is forgotten, bring it back to the counting and start star t again at 27. If the mind can be kept on the breath, the body will relax.
The easy breath (Sukha purvaka) This breath is designed to quickly calm the mind and aid stress. It is useful prior to meditation or before sleep. Sit in a comfortable position with hands in the lap. The breath should be observed entering and leaving the body. The right nostril is closed off with the right thumb. Inhale slowly and deeply through the left nostril. Repeat twelve times and the swap to the other side. Mental clarity will be improved after this practice.
Abdominal breathing This practice is done lying down. This is similar to the basic breath and can be used when teaching yoga breathing with new participants. Lying in Savasana, place linked hands on the abdomen just below the belly button. Take a slow, deep breath filling the lower part of the abdomen. Upon inhalation, feel the abdomen rising and pushing the hands apart. On exhalation feel the abdomen falling away from the hands. This can be continued for 2-3 minutes.
Standing breath This practice is a simple way to start the participant thinking about the link between the breath and movement. With hands on the hips and a straight spine, a deep breath is i s taken through the nose. As the breath comes in, the participant leans backwards for the length of the breath. As the breath is released stand straight again. This position is held for two breaths and then repeated up to five times.
Push the mountain This practice links further movement with a breath cycle. The participant begins in a standing position with hands loosely by the sides. Eyes should be closed, if possible. A deep breath is taken through the nose and held in the abdomen for ten counts. This is then released through the nose. Another breath is taken in slowly and the participant steps forward with the left leg. While still inhaling, the hands are raised, palms to the sides of the chest. The breath is held for a count of ten. On the exhale the palms are pushed forwards powerfully to shoulder height, while visualising a mountain in front that has to be pushed away. away. This position is held for ten counts. Another breath is taken in and the participant steps the right foot in front of the left and brings palms back to chest position. This is held for ten counts, followed by an exhale, and pushing the mountain. Finally hold for 10 counts. This can be performed up to ten times.
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Introducing breathing practices to participants The yoga teacher should start with the most basic breathing techniques to enable the class participants to become aware of their own breathing patterns. The following questions should be considered when exploring breathing: • •
•
Are participants inhaling through their nose or mouth? If the breath is inhaled through the mouth, it is not getting filtered by the nose hairs; therefore pollutants can enter the lungs. Does the chest and stomach expand or contract during inhalation? If the stomach and chest contract the breath is considered unnatural, hindering the flow of prana into the body. This kind of breathing is quite common and should be addressed sensitively. Does the in-breath travel deep into the abdomen or does it stop at the chest? If the breath is only shallow and stops at the chest, the prana cannot enter and invigorate the whole body, causing low energy and listlessness
It is vital from the first session of yoga, that participants understand the importance of the breath within their yoga practice. Once the class understands how their everyday breath should be, they can observe it several times a day to take check. This observance of breath can help with stress in everyday life. The next step is to engage the participants in breathing correctly and deeply using the three part breath practice. Any of the other basic breathing techniques can be introduced along with the awareness of the breath within each posture. Time should be spent encouraging the participants to get to know the breath and the benefits that can be found with breathing correctly. It is prudent to plan the basic breathing techniques that are to be covered in each session.
Example breathing plan • • •
Session one – introduction to the breath and the three part breath Session two – linking breath to movement Session three – lengthening the in and out breath – adding the extension of the out-breath
From a teacher’s perspective, to be able to enhance the breathing of a class participant par ticipant is something that can make a significant and immediate difference to a par ticipant’s health and wellbeing.
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Understanding pranayama The Hatha Yoga Pradipika states: ‘All the Gods including Lord Brahma became devoted to the practice of Pranayama because they were afraid of death. We, the mortals should follow the same path and control the breath’ (Swami Muktibodhana, 1993)
Pranayama Pranayama is the fourth limb of the eight limbs of yoga, described in the Yoga sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali Patanjali defies pranayama as the gap between inhalation and exhalation. Pranayama has been carried out for thousands of years and its practices have been preser ved and passed to others. Pranayama is defined as ‘breath control’. The word pranayama is comprised of two words: ‘prana’ and ‘ayama’. Prana means ‘life force’ or ‘vital force’. ‘Yama’ means control but ‘ayama’ means extension or expansion. Pranayama is different to normal breathing practices as it utilises the breath to influence the flow of prana in the nadis (energy channels) of the pranayama kosha (energy body). The true definition therefore of pranayama is extension or expansion of the dimension of prana. It is ultimately related to the biochemical and psycho-spiritual functions of activity, mood and thought, the way individuals think, feel and act. Pranayama also enables individuals to attain harmony and balance of prana, and ultimately, stillness of mind; it is a unique, deep and influential practice. Many warnings are given by commentators on yoga against engaging in practices without guidance and preparation. Reckless Reckless practice may lead to damage of the prana flow and therefore the state of mind. There should be a good foundation in yoga asana practice and basic breath before pranayama is introduced. However the basic exploratory techniques in this manual can be taught at any time. General benefits of pranayama include the following: • • • • • • • • • • •
Establishes regular, regular, healthy breathing patterns Regulates pranic flow leading to vitality, happiness and stillness of mind Encourages a light and easy mood Combats fatigue Reduces stress and anxiety Stimulates oxygenation of blood Enhances the health of the lungs Promotes intestinal circulation Helps asthma Helps to manage hypertension Eliminates impurities from the body
Aspects of pranayama There are four aspects of pranayama: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Pooraka – inhalation Rechaka – exhalation Antar kumbhaka – internal breath retention Bahir kumbhaka – external breath retention
The different practices of pranayama will include aspects of all of the above. The most important part is the retention of breath. The practice of the inhalation and exhalation will need to be carried out first in basic breathing practice, and then in different pranayama practices; once the individual is competent, breath retention can be carried out.
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Breath retention (Kumbhaka) Breath retention can be practised in many ways; it can be practised alone or within a structured pranayama. Retention allows a longer period for assimilation of prana, just j ust as it allows more time for the exchange of gases in the cells, i.e. oxygen and carbon dioxide. Patanjali also states that retention of the breath after expiration removes the obstacles to yoga and stops fluctuations of the mind (Swami Muktibodhananda, 1993). Any pranayama with breath retention should be practised in cycles. Retention of more than six or seven seconds requires the application of bandhas, particularly Jalandhara bandha. Table Table 1 shows an example of a practice using kumbhaka. Each should be repeated four times. Inhale – number of counts
Hold breath – number of counts
Exhale – number of counts
Hold – number of counts
6 6 6 6
0 0 0 3
6 12 12 12
0 0 3 3
6 6 6
0 0 0
12 12 6
3 3 0 Table 1 Khumbaka practice
Pranayama is not a first practice in yoga because there are certain skills that need to be acquired first. These include: • • • • • • • •
the capacity to relax the body the capacity to relax the mind the capacity to sit still some degree of suppleness and body control an awareness of breath an ability to control the length and pace of the breath an ability to expand the chest an ability to exercise control over the abdominal muscles
Development in pranayama is an individual undertaking, and the choice of technique will depend on the participants. The following is a simple guideline as to what order pranayama practices can be introduced: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Basic breathing Deergham swasam - three part breath Nadi shodhana – alternate nostril breathing Kaphalabhati – skull shining breath (this is technically termed a kriya) Bhastrika - bellows breath Bhramari - humming breath
While other progressions are possible, the above would offer development in pranayama practice.
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Advice and precautions precaut ions • • • • • • • • • •
Wait Wait for at least four hours af ter meals before practice Practise pranayama after asana, and before meditation Throughout the practice the body should be relaxed and the spine, head and neck should be erect and centred There should be no strain. The breath should not be held longer than comfortable Practise in a clean, well-ventilated environment A comfortable seated or kneeling position should be used for practice The use of hand mudras will help to keep the attention and maintain a circuit of prana Make the practice regular and progressive A yoga teacher should be aware of the benefits of pranayama practice but should not prescribe pranayama to cure agitations in participants. The advantages will come gradually to all those that practice Retention of the breath should not be practised if the participant has high blood pressure, blocked nostrils, a cold, or heart problems.
Techniques Deergham swasam – deep breathing
This is the same as the three part breath mentioned in the basic breathing section. This is a controlled combination of abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing, chest or thoracic breathing and clavicle breathing. Nadi shodhana – alternate nostril breathing
This practice alternatively passes the breath through one nostril and then the other. The right nostril is the fiery or heating nostril and the left nostril is the cooling nostril. Breathing through the right nostril creates more heat in the system and breathing through the left helps to cool you. People People do not breath through their nostrils equally all the time, One or the other will be favoured. The left nostril is the path of the Nadi called Ida and the right is Pingala. Pingala. The nose is directly linked to the brain and the nervous system. The Indian yogis believe that many diseases diseases can be linked linked to disturbed nasal breathing. Breathing in only through the left nostril, will access the right ‘feeling’ hemisphere of the brain, brain, and breathing in, only through the right nostril, will access the left ‘thinking’ hemisphere of the brain. Alternating the breath between nostrils will activate and balance both areas of the brain. vi tal energy in the body, calms the nervous system, induces Benefits: unblocks and balances the flow of vital tranquillity, tranquillity, clarity of thought and concentration, concentration, lowers stress and anxiety levels epilepsy, headaches, congestion or tiredness (with inability to concentrate) Precautions: epilepsy, Technique: •
•
• • • •
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Sit in a suitable upright seated posture and breathe normally. Hold the fingers of the right hand in front of the face in Nasikara mudra and rest the middle and index fingers on the forehead – so that the thumb is above the right nostril and the ring finger is above the left nostril. Use the thumb and the ring finger to alternately close each of the nostrils by gently pressing the side of each nostril so as to stop the flow of breath through that nostril. Ensure the elbow is tucked in to avoid an aching arm during practice, or support it with the opposite hand. Moola bandha can be practised with Nadi shodhana. The left hand can be placed in Jnana mudra or another mudra. Inhale through the left nostril and then close the left nostril Exhale out of the right nostril Inhale into the right nostril and then close the right nostril
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• • • • •
Exhale out of the left nostril – this is one round Practise with an equal length of inhalation and exhalation. For example, a count of two or count of four. four. There should be no strain and the breaths should be smooth Practise five rounds The first in breath is always through the lef t nostril and the last out breath is also always out through the left nostril Kumbhaka and extension of the exhalation can also be introduced once comfortable comfor table
Kaphalabhati – skull shining breath Technically a cleansing practice (kriya) as it cleanses the nasal passages. It is an invigorating practice that activates the prana (this is why it sits well as a pranayama practice) . Benefits: exhilaration producing vitality and stillness, stimulates metabolism, increases oxygenation, good
for asthma and mild bronchitis and mucous disorders Precautions: dizziness, vertigo, high blood pressure, pregnancy, pregnancy, weak pelvic floor after pregnancy Technique: this technique requires practice and is not the easiest for a beginner to pick up. Other practices
should be mastered first. •
• • •
Sit in a suitable upright seated posture. Bring the attention to the abdominal area. Place hands on the upper stomach. Feel the stomach expand and contract (like laughing out loud, when contracted). Turn this into a ‘ha’ out breath on the next contraction and then change the breath to a nostril out breath (like blowing a feather away from under the nose). It is a very strong tight contraction. The body stays upright and does not move. Breathe in and the stomach expands. Relax into normal breathing after the practice. The speed of the practice should be slow at first, and then can speed up once the technique is mastered, so that it becomes ‘snappy’. Initially practise a round of ten, and then progress to three rounds of ten.
Bhastrika – bellows breath This pranayama technique is said to fan the internal fire by heating the physical and subtle bodies. Benefits: creates a refreshing, exhilarated and expanded sensation; induces peace and tranquillity of
mind; removes phlegm; aids digestion; good for asthma pregnancy, weak pelvic floor after pregnancy Precautions: dizziness, ver tigo, high blood pressure, pregnancy, Technique: • • • •
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Sit in a suitable upright seated posture. Hold the spine upright and close the eyes. Focus on the abdomen. Rhythmically contract and expand the abdomen to produce even breathing. The abdomen contracts on the in breath and and expands on the out breath. This is relaxed and light. Do between ten to thirty cycles. On completion, draw in and hold breath (kumbhaka) applying Moola and Jalandhara bandha as you are able. This is one round. The inhalation and exhalation are the same length.
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Bhramari – bee or humming breath Bhramari is the name of the humming sound made by the black bee. This is a subtle and tranquilising pranayama with a meditative purpose. Benefits: good for removing anger and anxiety; encourages one pointedness of mind. Precautions: ear infections, heart problems. Introverted or depressed people should not substitute a
mantra for the humming sound Technique: • • • • • •
Sit in a suitable upright seated position Seal the ears with thumbs (or index/middle fingers) and place the fingers on top of the head Breath in, exhale making a humming sound or OM sound (the sound can also be replaced with a suitable mantra sound). The lips should remain closed with the teeth slightly apar t. Be aware of the reverberation and sound in the centre of the head Practice five to ten rounds for a beginner or general class For personal practice, explore longer periods
There are many other practices to explore such as Sitali and Sitkari (cooling breaths) and Ujjai breathing; these can be explored during personal practice. Pranayama is a beautiful and profound practice which is often overlooked in yoga classes. It is effective in stilling the mind, and in preparing for meditation. Pranayama Pranayama should be practised regularly as a central component to any yoga practice.
Introducing pranayama practices to participants Once participants have got used to basic breathing practices, some pranayama can be introduced. After about six weeks practice of basic techniques, including extending the out breath, some simple pranayama can be introduced. Following this, kumbhaka (retention) practices can be introduced, and this could be practised for several weeks using different ratios. Working from the point that the out breath had been extended to, retention can be added. As an example, this could be in the ratio of 6:3:8:0, working towards 6:3:12:0. After a few weeks the retention can be introduced after the exhale. The key is to encourage pranayama as a personal journey, and to support practice at home. Once the participants are comfortable with retention, other practices can be introduced. When introducing nadi shodhana, for example, time can be spent getting used to breathing in through one nostril whilst closing off the other. other. The practice can be built up in stages as follows:
Nadi shodhana progression
1. Close off the right nostril and breathe in and out of the left nostril 10 times. 2. Repeat on the right side. 3. Using counts of 4 continue with nadi shodhana for 10 rounds. 4. The next stage can be changing the ratios and this can be continues for a number of weeks before introducing other techniques.
The key to successful pranayama practice is not to hurr y. A good yoga teacher may only have a repertoire of basic breathing practices (and one or two pranayama practices), and this is sufficient for most class participants. The teacher can explore other pranayama practices as part of their own yoga discovery.
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Understanding relaxation techniques By letting go it all gets done
(Tao Te Ching) The art of relaxation is central to yoga. The postures in yoga create energy and the relaxation seals this energy (Appleton, 2004). Relaxation is a method of reducing anxiety and tension to bring about mental and physical ease. This can only happen if the breath is slowed down and the body is softened; in addition, the mind needs to be quietened and calmed. Stress is a major concern for many in the modern world and yoga can bring a welcome relief to this problem. In a stressed person this will not happen automatically but with practice it will become easier for them to ‘let go’. Often par ticipants are unable to relax on their own and so attending a yoga class can be beneficial. The relaxation phase will usually take place at the end of the class due to the body’s natural need to relax after exertion or stimulation. An initial relaxation can be offered at the start of the class to shut off the external world and to set the scene for the class. Relaxation can also be offered in between postures especially if they have been challenging. The relaxation part of a class is the ideal time to allow silence and time for participants to explore their inner environment. The teacher can facilitate the process of relaxation by allowing the space and silence. The yoga teacher should act as a guide during a relaxation practice. The teacher gives direction and has a responsibility towards the wellbeing of the participants as follows: To ensure the practice is pre planned and prepared 2. To ensure the practice is explained clearly to the par ticipants 3. To ensure the physical environment is appropriate. The room and the participants need to be warm (warm clothes, socks, blankets). Lighting should be turned down or off. Use music if appropriate 4. To adjust the voice to a softer and quieter tone 5. If using imagery ensure that the class are comfortable with the subject matter 6. Be observant and alert to individual responses – it is common for participants to get upset in this section of the class 7. Be alert for participants that fall asleep 8. Lead the participants out of relaxation sensitively and definitely, definitely, giving clear instructions on recovery 9. Be prepared to adapt the session 10. Ensure everyone is fine to leave the class – especially if they are driving home 1.
Positions Positions for relaxation Ideally the participants should be in savasana with straight legs, or knees bent up and falling towards each other. other. Alternatively, Alternatively, participants can lie on their backs with legs up a wall, lie on their sides or fronts or sit against a wall or in a chair. chair. Some participants may prefer to sit or kneel. The body needs to be relaxed to create an environment for the mind to relax - so participants need to find a position that is best for them.
Techniques for relaxation The following are some suggested techniques for relaxation practice:
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Autogenic relaxation This involves tightening and loosening, and is usually performed in savasana but can be done seated on a chair. chair. Eyes should be closed, and there is an emphasis on releasing tension. Technique 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Tighten and release the feet and toes Tighten and release the legs and thighs Tighten and release the buttocks Tighten and release the abdomen Tighten and release the hands Tighten and release the shoulders and back Tighten and release the face Tighten and release the whole body
Full relaxation This can be short or long, shallow or deep, depending on the approach. Usually performed in savasana but can be done seated on a chair. chair. Eyes should be closed. Technique 1. 2. 3.
Bring attention to the toes and relax this area; let go of tension so that the area is soft and empty Work through the body and change the types of words used for letting go of tension, e.g. softening, releasing, loosening, freeing etc. After the whole body has been relaxed, a period of silence should be facilitated (so the teacher is not talking).
Yoga nidra – yoga sleep This technique works through each side of the body separately and can be as detailed as required. Yoga nidra induces a deep state of relaxation and can promote inner peace. It should take about twenty minutes to practice. Technique 1.
2.
3.
While lying in savasana (corpse pose), become aware of the right thumb, second finger, finger, third finger, fourth finger, little finger, finger, palm of the hand, back of the hand, wrist, lower arm, elbow, upper arm, armpit, shoulder, shoulder blade, right side, right side of waist, right buttock, right hip, right thigh, right knee, calf, shin, ankle, ankle, heel, sole of foot, top of foot, big toe, second toe, third toe, four th toe, little toe - and relax them one by one. Repeat this process on the left side of the body and all parts of the head and trunk. The head can be broken down as follows: top of head, forehead, right eyebrow, left eyebrow, between the eyebrows, right eyelid, left eyelid, right eye, left eye, nose, right nostril , left nostril, tip of the nose, right ear, left ear, right cheek, left cheek, upper lip, lower lip, chin, throat. Adaptations and extensions of the sequence are possible. Make sure each par t of the body is relaxed and feel each par t merging into the floor. floor.
The main elements of yoga nidra include: • • •
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body relaxation awareness and rotation of consciousness – the consciousness is rotated through different parts of the body to reduce the mind’s attention to external stimuli Pratyhara – withdrawal of senses. The mind is considered to be naturally rebellious, and generally does the opposite of what is required. In yoga nidra, there is deliberate attention on external things, and as a result, the mind loses interest, naturally withdraws and goes within.
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• • •
Breath awareness – there is no attempt to force or change the breath Awareness of feeling or emotion - often deep rooted feeling and emotions are brought to the surface and released in yoga nidra. Affirmation – having released any negative feelings or emotions it is important to implant positive affirmation. During deep relaxation the unconscious mind is often impressionable to positive suggestions. Participants should be encouraged to use positive affirmations during this time.
Guided imagery The yoga teacher can take the participants on a guided journey. journey. Examples of guided imagery may include walking through a forest full of flowers, a sunny day on a picnic, or by the seaside. Be careful to ensure that imagery does not play on any fears, such as fear of water, darkness etc. If a participant was afraid of water, water, it would not be pleasant to be taken on an underwater journey in a tropical paradise exploring the reefs. Another example would be asking the participants to remember their childhood or their past; for some, this may not have been a happy time, and if using this style of relaxation, the teacher should should ensure the journey is one that all par ticipants will be comfortable with. There are many other types of relaxation that can be utilised, and a teacher should have a selection that can be used on a regular basis with the class participants.
Recovery After the relaxation, it is vital to have a way to bring the participants back in to a seated, and then, standing position. The following expressions may serve as a guide: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
Focus back on my voice Focus on where you are, the time of day, the temperature of the room, the weather outside, the noises around you Deepen the breath and return it to a normal breathing rate Make small movements to fingers and toes Stretch through the body as required Roll onto your side into recovery position and hold until ready to sit up Sit up and close eyes. Rub the hands vigorously together and once warm place palms over the eyes. Keeping the hands over the eyes, open the eyes and slowly let the light appear between the fingers. Release hands and fully open eyes. Place hands in Namaste
It is important not to underestimate the power of relaxation. A teacher should encourage participants to stay for this aspect of the class. Often participants par ticipants may leave early, early, but it is essential that they stay for the relaxation and the final parts of the class, as they will be able to observe and reflect on what the class has delivered. Relaxation can can last from five to fifteen minutes (or longer) and and this time should be spent just breathing and relaxing. Often after this section of the class, participants do not want to leave as they are in a really good state of mind and want to retain the feeling.
Introducing relaxation practices to participants Relaxation should be introduced from the first session, and should always form part of the class plan. Initially, Initially, a simple short practice can be introduced, and this can be lengthened over a period of time. The type of relaxation method will be at the discretion of the teacher, teacher, and feedback should be sought from the group as to which practice they prefer. Keeping relaxation simple is usually the best approach.
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Understanding concentration and meditation True meditation is a state of deep peace, where the mind is absolutely calm and silent, yet completely alert – a state of being also known as ‘thoughtless awareness’. Throughout history, history, mystics, saints and prophets have spoken of this experience. They removed themselves from society, sought ways to cleanse themselves of human troubles and devoted themselves to spiritual ascent. Their aim was to achieve ‘self-realisation’ ‘self-realisation’ – a state of being where the human spirit becomes one with the Divine, where fear and anger are replaced with joy, contentment, inner balance and peace. The Bhagavad Gita compares the mind to a flame. It states that the nature of the mind is restless, constantly wandering, trying to fulfil its desires. It flickers wildly like a flame in a storm. Through meditation the mind can become steady, steady, like a flame can become upright and still (Easwarren, 2003). The term meditation often conjures up a lot of different perceptions within a group of participants. Initially it is vital to keep meditation and concentration techniques and explanations simple. Traditionally, the asana are done only to prepare the body and mind to sit for long periods of time to meditate. Meditation (dhyana) cannot happen without concentration (dharana). The key to meditation is giving the mind a single point of focus to still the mind. To enable quietening and stillness of the mind, it is necessary to withdraw the senses and detach the mind from its constant ‘chatter’ (pratyahara). Meditation works with attention to harmonise and still the mind. It is not possible to ‘empty the mind’ completely; however, however, the mind can be given a focus. Concentration is vital to many tasks that are performed daily, and so enhancing this ability can serve to enrich the experience of everyday life. Meditation culminates in the state of Samadhi (absorption). To achieve the flow of pratyahara, dharana and dhyana, the following conditions must be considered: •
•
Seated posture needs to be comfortable (meditation can be performed anywhere and the body does not necessarily need to be still, e.g. walking meditation). For the purpose of teaching a class session and especially for beginners, the seated position has been used. Easy pose (Sukhasana) is the simplest and most comfortable position for beginners. Once participants are comfortable with this, other positions can be practised such as half lotus. The environment needs to be appropriate
The separate aspects of yoga that are being practised already (postures, control of the breath, pranayama and relaxation) will enable the participant to be prepared for the meditation practice. Teachers should be aware that meditation can lead to personal transformation, and if teachers are giving instruction on meditation they should be able to support participants during the journey of personal growth. It is a big responsibility and not not be taken lightly by the teacher. teacher.
Benefits of meditation There are a number of physiological, psychological and spiritual benefits of meditation including the following (Frederic, 2011): Physiological benefits • • • •
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Lowers oxygen consumption Decreases respiratory rate Increases blood flow and slows the heart rate Increases exercise tolerance
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• • •
Leads to a deeper level of physical relaxation Enhances the immune system Enhances energy, strength and vigour
Psychological benefits • • • • • •
Builds self-confidence Increases serotonin level, influences mood and behaviour Helps control own thoughts Helps with focus and concentration Increases emotional stability Increases perceptual ability and motor performance per formance
Spiritual benefits • • • • • • •
Helps keep things in perspective Provides peace of mind, happiness Increased self-actualisation Brings body, body, mind, spirit in harmony Deeper level of spiritual relaxation Greater inner-directedness inner-directedness Helps living in the present moment
Techniques There are a number of meditation and concentration techniques to choose from but a mindful teacher will utilise methods that they have practised themselves, and know well. This will ensure that the teacher can teach the meditation well, and the benefits can be described. Ideally the participant should be able to practise the meditation themselves at home. The techniques can be split into the following categories: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Breathing practices Sight practices – looking at an object (candle, crystal, mandala etc) Internal practices – visualisation Sound practices – using mantra or concentrating on a sound
Precautions
Meditation is safe for most people. However, there are some reports that discourage its use for participants with psychotic disorders, major depression or severe personality disorders. It is also difficult for people who dislike giving up control, such as those with obsessive obs essive compulsive disorders (Encyclopaedia of Mind Mi nd Disorders, 2007).
Breathing practice (meditation on breath) Initially, this may be sufficient to give meditative benefits. Adding silent counting to the breath aids the concentration aspect of this type of simple meditation.
Sight practice (concentration on an object) This practice is a preparation preparation for meditation meditation and classed as a Kriya. The participants focus on an object such as a lit candle flame (trataka), a stone, a crystal or other object. The object is placed in front of the participant who is seated in a comfortable kneeling or cross-legged position (with blocks and cushions if needed). The focus is directly on the object. Exploration of the object should be encouraged, looking at colours, shapes and outlines. After a short while, participants should close their eyes and try to imagine the object reforming in their minds. This type of meditation can be repeated two or three times initially. initially.
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Internal practice (visualisation) The following is an example of a visualisation practice: “Visualise a golden thread in the space between the eyes. See its shape, texture and length and see the thread clearly. On inhalation, imagine the thread drawn i nto the nostrils, as it begins to spread its golden colour throughout the body, body, mind and soul, filling it with bright light and warming the entire being. On exhalation, visualise the release of the thread through the nostrils, swirling like a corkscrew far away into the distance until it disappears on the horizon.”
Each in and out breath follows the same visual imagery. This can be continued for the length of the meditation session with the teacher reminding the participants what should be seen to ensure minds do not start wandering.
Sound practice (mantra) A simple repetition of the word OM (aum) is often sufficient for new participants. The following outlines how the chant can be progressed using the sounds of the letters A, U and M: • • •
A – inhale deeply and make the sound A as in ‘aaahhh’ on the exhale. The vibration should be felt in the abdomen. This can be repeated two or three times before moving on to the next letter U – as before, inhale deeply and make the sound U as in ’ooouuu’ on the exhale. The sound should be felt in the upper chest. Repeat two or three times. M – inhale deeply and make the sound M as in ‘mmmmm’ on the exhale. This should be felt in a powerful way in the throat. Repeat two or three times.
After several deep breaths, inhale and allow the three letters to become joined to form the syllable OM. This can be repeated twelve or more times with the eyes closed, and the length of the in and out breath chosen by each participant, rather than the group sticking together. Encourage the participants to make their own sound and to feel free to experiment. After the practice, the par ticipants can reflect on how the mind and body are feeling and be aware of any changes (Appleton, 2004). 2004). Mantras can be whispered or just repeated silently. silently.
Introducing meditation practices to participants Meditation is always performed after af ter asana work towards the end of the class. It is vital that the participants par ticipants are comfortable with breathing practices before attempting meditation. Prior Prior to the meditation, it is useful to perform some basic breath work. During this time, participants should notice their own breath and to not adjust it in any way. They should then proceed to lengthen the in and out breath. A good time to introduce meditation is about six to eight weeks into a progressive regular yoga class. This will ensure that the participants are used to the basic breath and relaxation techniques, and have also been introduced to pranayama. The greatest challenge for beginners to meditation will be to prevent the mind wandering; this is often of ten more difficult than the posture work. It is essential that participants realise that the effects of meditation practice may take time to appear. Participants should be encouraged to be patient, and to form realistic expectations. Simple techniques should be practised regularly and while the changes may be subtle, they will often manifest in a variety of ways during daily life, such as feelings of deep peace, spaciousness and relaxation. These effects may become apparent at different times, and will be different for each individual.
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Understanding how to plan a yoga session The components of a yoga session There are differing opinions regarding how a yoga session should be constructed and what it should contain. However, session content will be influenced by tradition, style of approach and what is being achieved. It also depends on the abilities and backgrounds of the participants in the sessions. Generally, Generally, a yoga session should include the following components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Initial relaxation Mobilisation – loosen and prepare Asana with counter poses Basic breathing practice Pranayama – optional Meditation – optional Final relaxation
Initial relaxation The purpose of an initial relaxation is to set the mood for the class. It is used to welcome the participants, get them down on to the floor and into the first posture which is usually savasana or a seated or kneeling posture. This part of the class is used to bring the participants’ awareness to their body and mind, and enable them to shut out the outside word for the duration of the class. Once the par ticipants are settled, a basic breathing practice can be introduced to calm and settle the body and mind.
Mobilisation After a period of initial relaxation the body needs to be gently prepared for the session to follow. Some general mobilisation should be carried out to mobilise, warm and prepare all joints for the planned asana. There are no absolute rules as to what mobilisation exercises should be used and this decision is at the discretion of the yoga teacher. An example of a simple mobilisation routine is outlined below: From savasana, savasana, bring knees in to chest and perform Apanasana. 2. Perform arm reaches over the head using the breath 3. Extend the legs up into the air using the breath 4. Perform leg extensions and arm reaches together 5. Bend knees into chest and let them fall over to one side, turning the head to the other (arms can be outstretched shoulder height) – repeat other side 6. Perform leg stretches with a strap (supta padang ustasana) 7. Move into an all fours position and perform per form cat stretches 8. Alternate arm and leg lifts from all fours position 9. Child pose into Adho mukha svanasana 10. Up into standing 1.
There may be additional mobilisation exercises that can be performed before each asana to prepare the body. body. This will depend on the asana and how strenuous it is.
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Yoga asana (postures) Asana is the third limb of the eight limbs of yoga described in the Yoga sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali. Asana involves the learning and practice of postures for physical and mental development. The definition of asana is ‘posture’. The word is derived from the Sanskrit word which means ‘to sit’. The Yoga sutras describe asana as having two important qualities: sthira which means steadiness and alertness, and sukha which means the ability to remain comfortable in a posture. Both qualities should be present when practising in any posture. The principle of yoga is only achieved when a particular asana has been practised for a long time. The main purpose of asana is to prepare the body to sit still for long periods of time in meditation. Benefits of asana include: • • • • • • • • • •
increased flexibility increased strength improved posture relief from stiff, aching joints ease in performing daily tasks improved concentration reduced stress and anxiety feelings of being balanced increased ability to relax and meditate more effective digestion
Note: all of the asana for this qualification can be found in Appendix 1.
Counter poses Yoga teaches that every action has two effects, one positive and one negative. Yoga uses a variety of postures to balance the possible negative effects of certain strenuous asana. These neutralising postures are called counter poses or pratikriyasana (Desikachar, 1999). The purpose of the counter poses is to return the body back to a neutral place in order to restore balance. For any one asana there may be a variety of counter poses that can be used, depending on where tension may be felt. Listening to the body is important when planning counter poses as this process can inform exactly where/when a counter pose is needed. This will ensure no tension is taken into the next posture. Generally if a posture requires the body to move in one direction, the counter pose will need to be in the opposite direction. For example, a back bend will require a for ward bend as a counter pose. It may be that the posture was strenuous and requires a counter pose as well as a period of relaxation to recover. Uttanasana, child’s pose and Apanasana are good examples of general counter poses that can be used for many asana. The number of postures available for a yoga teacher to share with their yoga participants par ticipants is vast, and it is beyond the scope of this manual to cover any more than those required for this qualification. In the yogic scriptures it is said that there were originally 8,400,000 asana, representing the 8,400,000 incarnations that each individual must pass before attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Saraswati, 1996). The Hatha Yoga Pradipika Pradipika lists only 16 postures and most of these are seated. An experienced yoga teacher should have a tool box of a minimal number of postures that they understand and can teach well. It is more useful to teach a minimum number of postures well, than to teach a large repertoire reper toire badly. badly. Yoga is not about constant variety; repetition of a set number of postures regularly will benefit the participants greatly, greatly, and new postures do not have to be introduced at ever y session. This is often of ten a learning point for new yoga teachers; many postures will engage different parts of the body and one of the aims of a yoga class is to ensure that it is balanced.
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When planning classes ensure that the plan includes postures that move the body in all directions (in practice, some participants may not be able to do all of the planned postures due to physical limitations). Ensure that all movements are synchronised synchronised with the breath. New teachers may need to add the breathing patterns for each asana to their plans Note: the yoga postures illustrated in Appendix 1 are the minimum postures required to understand and perform in order to achieve competence within this unit, and unit 5.
Types of asana The asana in yoga fall into the following general groups: • • •
Standing Seated Lying
Most of the following can be performed per formed in the above positions: • • • • • •
Balancing Lateral flexion Forward bends Extension - backward bends Inversions Twists and rotations
Vinyasa Creating an order of postures is called Vinyasa, and this is the flow of postures from one to the next. A sequence cannot be given definitively, and there are many ways to plan a session. It depends on the abilities of the teacher and the the needs of the participants. A simple guide is to design a format which which applies the range of possible asana movement. For example: • • • • • • • •
Standing – Tadasana Forward bend - uttanasana Lateral flexion – trikonasana Balancing - vrkasana Inversion – adho mukha svanasana Flexion – janu sirsasana Extension – bhujangasana Twist/rotation – ardha matsyendrasana
In between the asana, any preparation postures and counter poses will also need to be considered, along with modifications, adaptations and relaxation where needed.
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Stages of asana When practising asana the following format should be followed: Static asana 1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Preparation Preparation – this involves physical manoeuvre, breathing focus and psychological awareness Breath control – focus and attention on the breath Entry – the breath, mind and body take the participant into the asana with coordinated grace and elegance. Holding – the participant needs to experience the asana with strength, grace and control with even and conscious breathing throughout. The yoga teacher can choose a number of breaths to stay in a posture, but the participant needs to be encouraged to hold for only as long as is comfortable for them Exit – the breath, body and mind take the participant out of the posture Recovery – use of the breath, stillness and counter pose stimulates balance and poise
Dynamic asana (flowing from one posture to another without holding) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Preparation Preparation – as above Breath control - as above Entry with the breath – a smooth and combined process with the body and breath in synchronisation Exit with the breath – no holding – the body responds to the breath Repeat points 3 and 4 Recovery – as above
Quality in asana Proper asana practice initially focuses on body awareness, body control and the establishment of alignment. Through practice, participants will break down resistance and develop further physical knowledge and skill. Participants are looking to achieve steadiness (sthira) and comfort (sukham). This can also be phrased as ‘kind effort’. Asana is indivisible from the breath, and therefore all practice must be pursued with breath awareness and breathing ease. Quality is as much a question of attitude and approach, as it is physical physi cal technique. Discipline and focus needs to be present but the mind needs to be centred and calm (mental ease). The attention needs to avoid pride and ego drive gain, while maintaining effort effor t and control. While being focused and committed, the participant par ticipant needs to avoid becoming over serious and over concentrated. Yoga teachers and participants should look for development and progress, but only in the presence of Shanti (quiet, peaceful, effervescent joy).
Safety in asana Safe teaching is built on knowledge, skills, respect, sensitivity, sensitivity, integrity, and ego free motives. Yoga teachers need to develop knowledge of the demands of the Asanas and skill in their formation via: • •
continuous development and exposure to on-going study dedicated and exploratory personal practice
Each participant will experience the asana differently. The yoga teacher needs to expect these individual differences, and expect to individualise practice for them. Teachers need to be aware of any prohibitions and precautions, and adhere to these. Postures will often require modification, and limitations will need to be accepted. The yoga teacher needs to promote non-competitiveness and sensitive practice with patient development. It is important for the yoga teacher to teach the ability to breathe into a posture, in order to relax and soften.
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A yoga teacher should be respectful and approachable at all times; to break through some of the body’s restrictions will take confidence and persistence from the participants.
Basic breathing and pranayama practice Breathing practices can be performed at the start of the class (before or af ter initial relaxation) or after the asana part of the class before relaxation and meditation.
Meditation and relaxation Meditation and relaxation is always carried out at the end of the class.
Other aspects of a yoga session The yoga environment The environment in which a yoga session takes place is vital to the success of the entire experience for the participants. participants . Yogi Yogi practitioners deem their yoga environment as sacred; therefore, a certain amount of consideration should be taken into account when it comes to deciding on the ideal environment for a yoga session. Yoga always begins with relaxation and awareness of the breath before moving onto the actual performance of yoga postures. This will enable the participants to reach the required mind-set to engage in the yoga practice, and help them to gain a deeper level of meditation experience. The chosen area must facilitate this spiritual and meditative experience. The factors that should be considered in a yoga environment include the following: • • • •
It must provide the least possible distraction It must facilitate meditation It must be physically convenient and comfortable It must not set any form of physical limitation to the performance of yoga postures
Types of flooring A substantial amount of yoga postures are done lying or sitting on the floor, which is why the type of flooring is a vital aspect to consider. •
•
Wooden Wooden or laminate floor - most sessions will be performed on a wooden style floor, floor, either a purpose build studio floor, floor, or maybe a village hall. Exper ts believe that the practice of yoga on a wooden floor is fine provided that there is enough cushioning using a yoga mat to support suppor t weight and absorb the impact of the body against the floor. The floor needs to be clean and free from grease, water or any substances that may cause participants to slip Carpet - carpeted flooring is a more ideal type of flooring for yoga but many studios will not have a carpeted studio
Outdoor space or garden Some teachers may get the opportunity oppor tunity to teach sessions outside. Yoga performed on a grass area can be both revitalising and therapeutic. Yoga Yoga retreats usually have the yoga sessions outside, with scenic vi ews of nature that provide an ideal environment for soothing the mind for meditation. meditation. Check that any Insurance policies cover practice of yoga sessions outdoors.
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Temperature The temperature needs to be reasonably warm for yoga participants. Ideally the temperature of a studio should be turned up in ample time prior to the start of a yoga session. This is often not possible in busy health and fitness clubs therefore encourage participants to bring extra clothing, and ensure they have socks and blankets for relaxation and meditation practices at the end.
Lighting Where possible avoid any artificial lighting. Keep lighting as low as possible and ask the par ticipants their thoughts on the lighting of the environment. It is easier in the summer months to do without artificial lighting but not so easy in winter. The lights for an aerobics class will not be suitable for yoga. The lighting needs to create a calming atmosphere.
Noise levels Yoga sessions should be practised in a quiet environment and, where possible, distractions should be minimised. Generally, Generally, a yoga teacher will not use music, but if there is a continual external noise, music can help to eliminate this. If music is used, the volume should be kept low.
Aims and objectives for session planning and teaching Each session or series of sessions should have a purpose, meaning and a rationale, and should fit in with a pre-prepared strategy. strategy. This strategy is set via the session aims and objectives. The statement of aims and objectives will help teachers design the session – to include content, methods, and required resources, as well as provide a basis for session evaluation. When planning a series of sessions, the key question to ask is: “How will the aim and objective for the individual sessions help achieve the overall aim and objectives of the series of sessions?” Planning a session should always consider the participants health, age and goals. Aims should be clear and specific; objectives should be observable and measurable to show that the aim is being achieved. Aims
These are brief statements setting out the overall intention of the individual session or series of sessions. The aims are the initial building blocks (the purpose) from which the objectives and lesson plans then follow. Objectives
These are intended learning outcomes that hold specific statements. These statements describe the specific mechanisms for how something is to be attained. It is intended the participant will have learnt or will be able to do something as a result of achieving a learning outcome. Objectives should be phrased in terms of what participants will know and can do, rather than what teachers intend. The following are useful terms to use: “understand”, “become aware of”, of ”, “appreciate”, “and comprehend”. Example of session aims and objectives
My aim in teaching this session is to create mental peace and physical well-being in my participants. Objectives - by the end of the series of sessions the participants will be able to: 1. move the body gracefully into a range of postures 2. demonstrate even and deep breathing 3. lie still for ten minutes in quiet relaxation
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Incorporating teaching aids with a yoga session Modifications and adaptations Modification and adaptation are ways of making an asana more accessible for participants. A modification is a small alteration or adjustment; an adaptation is something that is changed so an asana becomes more suitable to a participant. Alternative postures can be offered for those that cannot be achieved. Teaching aids can be used to modify modif y and adapt a posture to help par ticipants feel comfortable and engaged. All participants should be asked to communicate any problems they are having with any of the taught asanas. If there is an area causing a problem for a participant when performing per forming an asana, the teacher will need to think of a way to firstly make the asana more comfortable for the participant; secondly, they will need to think of how to develop the area further, either through strength or flexibility practice. The most important modification is for the participant to ‘regress’ to an easier or more comfortable version of the posture, i.e. stopping at a point where they will feel ‘kind effort’. Yoga should never be a ‘ one-approach-suits-all’ one-approach-suits-all’ way of working. It is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that asanas are taught with the needs of the individual. If alternative poses, or ways of doing poses, are not presented, there is a real risk of deterring beginners, who may become frustrated or discouraged by their seeming inability to ‘per fect’ the asanas. Even worse, inappropriate, or unmodified poses, can of ten lead to strain or injury over time - especially in the forward bends. For example, Paschimottanasana (seated forward bend) is often approached with a ‘grasping’ mentality. Most participants do not have highly flexible hamstrings, and when not discouraged from doing so, will reach to grab the feet, regardless of whether or not this compromises the essence of the asana. Ask participants to sit on at least one block and use a block placed under the knees, to ease the pressure on the hamstrings and lower back. With this simple modification, the posture is instantly transformed, becoming far more comfortable and accessible. It is beyond the scope of this text to give guidance for all modifications and adaptations for all asana. However, However, the following guidance can be applied to the general asana groups of standing, seated and lying. The best way to learn what works with participants par ticipants is through direct teaching experience. Yoga workshops can also provide extensive knowledge and an insight into different modifications and adaptations. A good teacher will always have some teaching aids at hand to assist them with the modification process. The following aids can be utilised to support suppor t participants and make them more comfortable: comfor table: • • • • • • •
Foam blocks Bricks Straps Blankets Bolsters Chairs Walls
Modifications to standing postures Standing postures require good general posture and strong knees and ankles. When teaching any balancing postures, chairs and walls can be used to support a par ticipant and align their body. body. A wall is also useful to encourage good posture in asanas such as Tadasana Tadasana (mountain pose) and Vrkasana (tree pose). Postures such as Trikonasana (triangle) and Virabhadrasana (warrior) also work well against a wall.
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Modifications to seated postures There are many seated postures that range from simple sitting to those that involve forward bending and rotation. All seated postures require a great deal of hip flexibility and require a reasonable amount of looseness in the quadriceps, and knee and ankle joints. Participants with hip and knee issues will always require some sort of modification or adaptation to seated postures. For participants with limited flexibility it can help to sit on a folded blanket or block. This gives slightly better flexion of the knee and reduces tension in the hamstrings. The natural lowering of the knees to below hip level encourages a better attitude in the pelvis/lumbar area. Postures that involve kneeling or full flexion of the knee joint, such as Vajrasana (hero pose), may need modifying by placing a blanket or block behind the knee joint to decrease the severity of the angle behind the knee. For postures that involve straight legs, the knees can be bent slightly and straps can be introduced to preserve the straightness of the back in postures such as Janu Sirsasana (forward bend with one foot against the thigh) and the previous example, Paschimottanasana Paschimottanasana (seated forward bend). Participants performing Seated twists can use a blanket or block to place under one buttock to allow the spine to remain upright.
Modifications to lying postures In prone lying back bends that involve the hands, such as Bhujangasana (cobra), and Salabhasana (locust), participants with wrist problems should be advised only to hold the postures for a short period of time. This will also apply to Adhomukha Svanasana (downward dog) which can also be adapted by the participant performing on fists or forearms. In postures where the hands need to hold on to the feet, such as Dhanurasana (bow), a strap can be used to reduce the distance the participant needs to stretch. Most postures are entered using a stage by stage approach. It is vital that the participant stops at a stage where they feel comfortable. Shoulder stand is an excellent example of this approach: beginners need only place their legs up the wall, and then this will progress to hips raised and then eventually a free standing shoulder stand. Even then, there are adaptations for the hands and leg positions.
Using teaching aids to support participants Yoga teaching aids such as straps and blocks should be used mindfully and with purpose. Typically Typically these aids help participants stretch deeper into a pose to make it more accessible, or support them in a pose so it produces a more relaxing experience. According to B.K.S. Iyengar, teaching aids can help participants reach perfection in each pose. Teachers Teachers should be open to using straps and blocks in creative ways to help participants practise yoga. The following information provides general guidelines on using straps and blocks in seated and standing postures.
Using straps in seated postures The central spot of the strap should be wrapped around the bottom of one foot, or both feet, for seated poses such as seated forward bend or boat posture. By holding the ends of the strap and pulling gently, the stretch is deepened and the postures are more accessible. Ensure that participants avoid locking the knees, in poses where one or both legs are straight. For any bound postures, one end of the strap should be held in each hand so the fingers do not have to clasp together. For example, in bound side angle with the right knee bent, the right hand reaches under the right thigh with one end of the strap in the right hand. The left arm reaches behind the back, grabbing the other end, and then the chest and shoulder is pulled back to align with the lower body.
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Using straps in standing postures Standing balance postures can be made easier with a strap. For extended hand-to-big-toe posture, the centre of the strap is wrapped around the bottom of one foot. The ends of the strap are held and the leg is raised up. Participants can be challenged by having them wind the strap around their hands until they can eventually do the pose without it.
Using blocks for standing postures A block can be used as a floor raise for standing poses such as side angle, triangle, revolved triangle or balanced half-moon. Instead of trying to bring the hand all the way to the floor, the block helps the floor come nearer. Two blocks should be used in warrior three pose, if participants don’t want to float arms above the floor - a block is placed under each hand. Whilst participants isolate muscles and keep knees parallel in chair posture, supine twist, or bridge, a block can be placed between the thighs and squeezed to engage the inner thigh muscles. The contraction is maintained while the posture is held. Blocks can be used to raise the hips up during floor poses. Participants can sit on a block during easy seated posture and meditation. Also, the block can be placed under the hips during ‘child’ or hero pose. This modification is helpful for tight hip, back and leg muscles (Cummins, 2011).
Teaching aids versus minimalist approach It is interesting to note that the original yogis didn’t practise with foam blocks, straps, or mats. But as yoga evolved, many practitioners discovered that certain aids could help deepen their explorations. Among modern yogis, attitudes toward props range from the Zen-like minimalism of those who shun all but a yoga mat, to the abundance of those who travel with an extra suitcase filled with yoga accessories. Regardless of personal views of teaching aids, a few guidelines can help make informed decisions about their use: Be clear about their purpose
Mindlessly using a block and straps to support suppor t participants will do little to deepen the teaching practice. Teachers Teachers should ask themselves what purpose the extra support is serving and let that answer guide its subsequent use. Are the blocks allowing participants to move into a posture because they aren’t yet supple enough to manage on their own? If so, the teacher should consider ways to lessen their reliance on that aid over time. Be your own teacher
Use body’s signals to devise new and effective ways of using props to enhance practice. For example, if a certain part of the body requires extra support in a resting pose, the teacher can wedge a towel or shirt beneath that area and observe what happens. Or if a participant is challenged with a new pose, the teacher should ascertain whether any props might help. Explore new territory
If a rolled-up blanket is supporting a participant’s par ticipant’s back during a restorative pose, explore how varying the size and position of it alters the experience. Or if straps are being used to help participants understand a particular action or direction in a posture, the teacher may choose to repeat that same pose without props from time to time to explore the differences. di fferences. Be creative
A teaching aid can be considered to be any aid that helps access a posture more fully. Therefore walls, tables, balls, books, wooden bricks, cushions, bolsters, socks, neckties, and even the guiding hands of another participant can all be used to deepen exploration. Practice non-attachment
Ideally, yoga leads participants toward towar d greater flexibility flexibili ty and adaptability. Teachers Teachers should not become becom e too attached to using teaching aids to the extent that participants can’t practice without them. If aids are used regularly, participants should be challenged periodically to practise without their use. On the other hand, yoga minimalists can incorporate a few aids into their classes occasionally, simply to explore how they might be helpful.
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Planning a series of progressive yoga sessions There are many ways to create a yoga class teaching plan, however, however, all sessions should have a balanced mix of familiar asanas and new work, to make each session productive and invigorating. Some teachers like to build sessions around particular themes, such as hip opening asanas or Ayurvedic principles. Each session or week will have detailed sequences and some structures may have set components each time. For many teachers, having a plan to follow may allow more time for one-onone guidance and additional education between postures; invariably, any plan will allow participants to evaluate their personal progress. While planning is encouraged for new yoga teachers, experienced teachers may prefer to rely on the dynamics and mood of the class at that moment, as well as using other intuitive means by which to direct the session. There are a number of ways to develop a yoga class teaching plan. However, However, many of the components are similar. similar. A common structure will include the following: 1.
2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
An opening and initial relaxation that focuses on getting the class through the door and on to their mat. The class should be encouraged to focus on the practice ahead, and the use of a visualisation or breathing exercise may be useful in this respect. A warm-up series, which often sets the intention of asana practice by awakening the parts of the body involved in the core sequence. This may include an initial mobilisation. Core sequence, during which time participants will move through a series of standing and sitting postures that reflect the session objectives. Attention should also be paid to the energy of the members along with counter poses. Breathing practices, including Pranayama Meditation Relaxation, Relaxation, often using savasana, or corpse pose; some guided meditation may also be useful.
The length of each component will depend on the session time. Typically, in an hour-long class, the following timings can be adopted: • • • •
Opening – 5 minutes Warm-up – 10 minutes Core programme – 40 minutes Closing – 5 minutes
If the class is 90 minutes, teachers may wish to maintain the core programme between 40-50 minutes (depending on the intensity), but then factor in extra time in the open and close for deeper breathing exercises.
Yoga session ideas Around the time of day
In the morning, classes can be developed around energy-boosting poses, such as the sun salutation sequence and the warrior series. In the evening, relaxing and restorative sessions may be beneficial that include postures which release tension, such as pigeon pose, forward bends, and spinal twists. Focusing on a particular body part
Popular Popular segments might include a hip-opening series, building back strength, and opening the chest. Involving a theme
Sessions can be created around different themes including balancing postures, expanding or improving a chakra, new postures, or different breathing techniques.
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Expanding personal options
For a beginners’ class, participants should be supported when moving on to the next level by demonstrating the intermediate stages of each common posture. This will help them practise collectively and maintain a sense of comfort while still advancing their individual practice. Also, it is important to directly ask participants what they’re interested in learning. Such feedback can inspire teachers to review their teachings and explore something different (Kelly, (Kelly, 2011). Using sequences
A sequence cannot be given definitively, and will depend on the teacher’s abilities and the needs of the participants. A guide is to design a format that applies a range of possible asana movements. For example: • • • • • • •
Upright standing – Tadasana Inversion – Sarvangasana Flexion – Janu Sirsasana Lateral flexion – Trikonasana Extension – Bhujangasana Rotation – Maricyasana Prone – Savasana
Once the postures have been decided, they can be placed in an order of flow. flow. The movements should flow (Vinyasa) so that standing postures are grouped together, together, seated postures are grouped together and lying postures are grouped together. This avoids the participant having to sit down and stand up in-between postures. Within the Vinyasa the teacher will need to include preparation postures, modification, counter pose and recovery postures. It is preferable to establish a personal repertoire of techniques and then draw from these without the need to continuously change the classes and include something new. Participants Participants generally enjoy classes that are repetitive and include postures which they can practise and progress.
Class planning A good class plan will be incorporated into a long term class plan of usually ten or twelve weeks (or longer). Again, this will depend on the participants and what the goals of the class are. Classes can be themed, for example core strength, leg strength, yoga for stress, yoga for runners etc. A plan should include the following aspects: • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Aims and objectives Brief overview Asana with illustrations Benefits of the asana Modifications/adaptations/alternatives Prohibition and precaution Breathing practice/pranayama techniques Meditation techniques Relaxation techniques Teaching points Resources/teaching Resources/teaching aids Health and safety aspects Hand-outs/evaluation and review
Note: Appendix 2 contains examples of individual lesson plans for two yoga sessions (week two and week nine of a ten week series), and a plan for a series of yoga sessions (a ten week plan).
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Setting up a private yoga class Teaching yoga can be extremely gratifying. In addition to helping people build strength, gain flexibility, flexibility, stay healthy and experience an inner peace, yoga teachers can also benefit from paid work within a low-stress environment. As well as yoga classes, there is potential to progress into yoga therapy, meditation classes, pre- and post-natal yoga, children’s yoga, corporate yoga, and fitness. Regardless of the pathway that a yoga teacher may take, there are two important factors to consider when setting up a private yoga class – venue and marketing.
Venue There are two main ways to start teaching classes. The first is to rent space in a studio or local hall, or to become employed by a fitness centre. Since yoga studios vary by size, location, type, staff, and classes offered, start-up costs vary widely as well. When looking for a suitable space or venue to teach yoga, it’s important to keep the customers in mind - what is most convenient for them? Ideally, being close to other businesses that are already attracting that type of customer would be beneficial – therefore it’s important to notice competitor locations and also parking for customers. When choosing a location, it’s also useful to allow scope for retail income i ncome opportunities. Participants will look to teachers for expert advice on yoga mats, bags, blocks, clothing, etc. Such items can be made available on-site or at point of sale, and company logos can even be printed on them to promote the business. As an alternative to looking for a venue or hiring a space, teachers may want to consider being employed by one of the following: • • • • •
Yoga Studios Leisure centres Health Clubs Corporate businesses Educational institutions (universities, colleges, and adult education)
When approaching the above to seek work yoga teachers should consider the following: • • • • • •
Prepare an effective CV and cover letter Find out where job openings for yoga teachers are adver tised and how to find unadvertised unadver tised jobs Dress appropriately, and prepare and plan for any expected questions in an interview for a yoga teaching job Decide on the best way to demonstrate your skills to employers Break into yoga teacher jobs through substitute teaching (cover other people’s classes) Find out what the typical pay rates are
The Business Centre (2011) also recommends the following when setting up a business: • • • •
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Who is your target market? Create a business plan Consider any legal matters and insurance Choose a location: o pros and cons of teaching from home o inexpensive options for renting space for a few yoga classes per week o leasing a full-time space o designing your space
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•
• • •
Start-up costs for: o a home studio o part-time studio rental o full-time rental of a studio Setting your prices for classes, drop-ins, monthly fees, term fees, course fees and private sessions Inexpensive ways to market your classes to attract students How to ensure you get paid
Marketing Marketing is a key part of a successful yoga class. Teachers Teachers will need to decide which customers to target, as well as determining how they will reach and win new customers. At the same time, it’s important to keep existing customers happy, through regular service reviews and improvements. These processes are part of the marketing plan, which sets out clear objectives and explains how they will be achieved..
Marketing objectives Marketing objectives should be based on understanding strengths and weaknesses in the environment that the business is operating. Objectives should always be SMART: SMART: • • • • •
Specific - for example, setting an objective of getting ten par ticipants to the first class Measurable - whatever whatever the objective is, it’s important to know when it has been reached Achievable – resources must be in place to achieve the objective. Realistic – targets should be set that are achievable and not over-ambitious Time-bound – deadlines should be set for achieving the objective. For example, aiming to get ten regular participants within the next 12 months.
The marketing mix The marketing mix offers a simple approach to directing marketing efforts for any business, and is often referred to as the ‘4 Ps’. • • • •
Product Price Place Promotion
To meet customers’ needs, a yoga teacher must develop services to satisfy them, charge the right price, offer them in the right place, and make the existence of the services known through promotion (Table (Table 2). PRODUCT
PRICE
PLACE
PROMOTION
Ser vices
Class price
Location
Publicity
Optional ser vices Exper tise Specialism
Discounts Credit terms Cancellation policy
Frequency of ser vice
Sales promotion Personal selling
Table 2 The marketing mix
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SWOT analysis A yoga teacher needs to be able to assess their market competition. A common tool used for this is a SWOT analysis. This tool gives a summary of the strengths and weaknesses of the business, together with the opportunities and threats it may face. S – Strengths W – – Weaknesses O – Opportunities T – Threats
An example SWOT SWOT analysis for a home-based home-based yoga teacher is shown shown in Table Table 3. S- strengths
W- weaknesses
O- opportunities
T- threats
Private training facility Flexible working pattern No commission or rent to pay Range of equipment available No cover for illness Clients not available on tap No holiday pay Other professional links Sports teams Mothers/fathers at school gate Local businesses Illness Other Yoga teachers Health clubs Table 3 Example SWOT analysis
Marketing styles and formats There are many different ways that Yoga teachers can market their services. These may include: • • • • • • • • • • •
posters and banners flyers, leaflets and postcards business cards direct mail adverts (paper and local magazines) editorials work site promotion supermarket and shopping centre promotion stands at relevant events and shows web site word of mouth
The yoga teacher’s task is to take these styles and mix them effectively to produce useful leads. In order to do this, the teacher will need to have a strong message running through all of these mediums. This message should reflect the product, teaching style and personality – this is known as branding. Effective leaflets and adverts
1. Use an attention grabbing headline that contains a reason to look 2. Explain how the features of the product produce the benefits to increase the reader’s interest (for example “yoga techniques will help to reduce stress”) 3. Increase the customers’ desire for the product by showing actual results and listing testimonials 4. Explain in detail exactly the action that the reader has to take in order to attend classes (e.g. call or come to first class)
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References 1.
Appleton, K (2004). Yoga in Practice. Macmillan Press
2.
Business Centre (2011). How to start a yoga business. Available at: http://www.homebusinesscenter http://www.homebusinesscenter.. com/how_to_start/yoga_business.htmll (Accessed on 14/11/11). com/how_to_start/yoga_business.htm
3.
Cummins, C (2011). Using blocks and straps for yoga. Available at http://www.livestrong.com/ article/337540-instructions-on-using-blocks-strapsarticle/337540-instructions-onusing-blocks-straps-for-yoga. for-yoga. (Accessed 14/11/11).
4.
Desikachar, TKV (1999). The Heart of Yoga. Inner Traditions International, Vermot.
5.
Easwaran, E (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Nilgiri Press, California.
6.
Encyclopaedia of Mind Disorders (2007). Definition of meditation. Available at www.minddisor www.minddisor.com .com (Assessed on 6/1/2011).
7.
Frederic, P (2008). 100 Benefits of Meditation. Available at http://www.ineedmotivation.com/ blog/2008/05/100-benefits-of-meditation/ blog/2008/05/100-benefits-of-meditation/ (Accessed 8/11/11).
8.
Kelly, T (2011). Planning a yoga class. Available at http://yoga.lovetoknow.com/Yoga_Class_Teaching_ Plan (Accessed 29/11/11)
9.
Swami Satyananda Saraswati (1996). Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. Yoga Publications Trust, India.
10. Swami
Muktibodhananda (1993). Hatha Yoga Pradipika: Light on Hatha Yoga. Yoga Publications
Trust, India 11. Thorne,
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D (1996). Safety in asana: Class hand-out. British Wheel of Yoga Teacher Training
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Appendix 1 The yoga postures illustrated within this appendix are the minimum postures required to study, study, understand and perform, in order to achieve competence in this qualification. qualification. The number of postures available for a yoga teacher to share share with their yoga participants is vast vast and considered beyond beyond the scope of this text. text. A good teacher will have a tool box of a minimal number of postures that they understand and can teach well. Many postures will engage different parts of the body, and one of the aims of a yoga class is to ensure that it contains a balance of different movements that work each area of the body, allowing for movement in all directions. A class plan should include postures that cover the positions from the list below. below. • • • • • • • • •
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Standing Seated Lying Balancing Lateral flexion Forward bends Backward bends Inversions Twisting
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Yoga Asana
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Asana
Alternative name
Body position
1
Savasana
Corpse pose
Supine lying
2 3 4 5
Balasana Sur ya Namaskara Tadasana Vrkasana
Childs pose Sun salutations Mountain pose Tree pose
Kneeling Varied Standing Standing balance
6 7 8 9
Natarajasana Garudhasana Uttanasana Utkatasana
Dancer Eagle pose Standing forward bend Fierce pose
Standing balance Standing balance Standing Standing
10 11 12 13
Virabhadrasana 1 Virabhadrasana 2 Virabhadrasana 3 Trikonasana
Warrior 1 Warrior 2 Warrior 3 Triangle pose
Standing Standing Standing Standing
14 15 16 17
Parivr tta Trikonasana Sukhasana Vajrasana Padmasana
Reverse triangle Easy pose Thunderbolt pose Full lotus
Standing Seated Seated Seated
18 19 20 21
Dandasana Paschimottanasana Pur vottanasana Gomukhasana
Staff pose Seated forward bend Inclined plane pose Cow’s head pose
Seated Seated Seated Seated
22 23 24
Ardha Matsyendrasana Seated spinal twist Seated Navasana Boat Seated balance Adho Mukha Svanasana Downward dog / Inv Inverte rted V pose Inversion
25 26 27 28
Bidalasana Dwi Pada Pitham Bhujangasana Dhanurasana
Cat pose Two foot suppor t / Bridge Cobra pose Bow pose
Back bend Back bend Back bend Back bend
29 30 31
Matsyasana Ustrasana Apanasana
Fish pose Camel pose Wind relieving pose – spine neutralising pose
Back bend Back bend Counter pose for backward bends, warm up pose
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1. Savasana – Corpse pose Body position/posture type - Supine lying Technique - Lie flat on back with arms by sides but not touching the body. Palms facing upwards and fingers curl up slightly. Feet are slightly apart. The head and spine should be in a straight line with the chin tucked down slightly. slightly. Close the eyes. eyes. Benefits - Relaxes the whole body; can be used to start or finish a yoga session or to recover in between asana; a good asana for yoga nidra practice Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - None Adaptations - A pillow may be placed under the head for comfort. For anyone with a bad back who finds lying with straight legs uncomfortable, uncomfor table, the knees can be bent up and touching each other with soles flat on the floor. This will relieve the pressure on the lower back.
2. Balasana - Childs pose Body position/posture type - Kneeling Technique - Begin by sitting sitting on the heels. Slowly take forehead to the floor. floor. Arms can be beside beside the body with palms up or in any comfortable position with elbows and shoulders relaxed. Close the eyes. Benefits - Can be done at any time during practice to recuperate and relax Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - None Adaptations - A pillow can be placed under the head
3. Surya Namaskara - Sun salutations There are versions of Surya Namaskara in most types of yoga. Some styles rely heavily on the sequences as the basic platform for practice. A basic Surya Namaskara sequence includes eight separate postures linked by the breath. Some of the poses are repeated during the sequence. The eight basic postures are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
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Tadasana (Mountain Pose) Urdhva Hastasana (Upward Salute) Uttanasana (Standing Forward Bend) Lunge Plank Pose Chaturanga Dandasana (Four-Limbed Staff Pose) Pose) Urdhva Mukha Svanasana (Upward-Facing (Upward-Facing Dog Pose) Adho Mukha Svanasana (Downward-Facing (Downward-Facing Dog Pose)
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4. Tadasana - Mountain pose Body position/posture type - Standing Technique - Stand with feet together or a comfortable distance apart. Weight should be evenly evenly distributed. Arms should hang loosely by the sides with hands hands relaxed. Chin should be slightly down. Chest should be lifted and spine pulled up tall. Imagine a thread pulling the crown of the head upwards. Thighs should be tightened gently so the knee caps lift, but don’t lock them. Tail bone should tuck under. Benefits - Develops physical and mental balance; encourages good standing posture. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - None Adaptations – Vary the distance feet are placed apart
5. Vrkasana - Tree pose
Body position/posture type - Standing balance Technique - The posture is about feeling as if you are a tree establishing roots in the ear th. Find a point to focus on. Shift all weight onto the left lef t leg and lift lif t the heel of the right foot. Ensure you are balanced before proceeding. Ensure the left leg is active. Bend the right leg and place the right heel on the side of the left calf or on inner thigh with toes pointing downwards. The hands can be used to assist but traditionally the foot is placed without assistance from the hands. Once balance is secure place the hands in front of the heart in prayer position, with palms together. Arms can be overhead to advance the asana. Stay in the position for a few seconds and repeat on the other side. Benefits - Tones and strengthens leg and buttock muscles; gives a sense of balance and poise; excellent for concentration; equilibrium between the sides of the body is enhanced. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - none Adaptations – Place the raised leg lower on either the inside of the calf or against the ankle bone if balancing is difficult. If balance is really difficult use the wall as a support. For a more advanced asana, the right leg can be placed in half lotus position.
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6. Natarajasana – Dancer Body position/posture type - Standing balance Technique - Stand in Tadasana. Bring the right foot up behind right buttock and hold with the right hand. Gently lean forward and maintain balance. Encourage distance between the thigh and the calf. Try Try not to lean too far forwards and keep chest lifted. Benefits - Good for balance and concentration; strengthens legs and buttocks. Prohibition/precaution - none
Adaptations – Use a strap around the foot to hold on to; use the wall for balance or a chair in front.
7. Garudhasana - Eagle pose
Body position/posture type - Standing balance Technique - Find a spot to focus on. Move weight on to the left lef t leg and bend left knee. Bend right leg over the left thigh above the knee. Move the right foot behind the lef t calf and hook toes around the inner side. Bend the elbows and raise arms to chest level. Rest the left elbow inside the right inner arm above the elbow. elbow. Move the right arm to the right and the left arm to the left, lef t, and entwine the hands. Pull up through the fingers and aim to have palms together. Try Try not to lean too far forward. Sink the legs lower and the arms higher to advance the asana. Release back into Tadasana Tadasana and repeat on the other side Benefits - Balance, concentration and co-ordination is improved; increased strength for ankles and legs; improves circulation in legs; removes stiffness in the shoulders Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – be careful with any knee issues Adaptations – do the leg posture or arm posture individually rather than together
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8. Uttanasana - Standing forward bend Body position/posture type Standing Technique - Start in Tadasana, feet can be together or hip width apart. Inhale and reach arms out to the sides and then above the head. Stretch up tall and then extend forward by bending at the hips, keeping a straight back (as in picture above). Keep bending from the hips and soften the back into a forward bend. Relax the head and arms into the required position. Remain in this pose for some time and concentrate on the breath and lengthening through the spine. Hands can be placed in many varied positions – palms on legs, palms flat on floor, floor, palms up-turned under the feet, backs of hands on the floor. The hands can hold alternate elbows or the body can just hang (if hands do not reach the floor) Benefits – The basis for all standing postures; intense stretch for the hamstrings and spine; improves digestion and circulation; improves balance and flexibility. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – none. Adaptations – Soften the knees if it is too intense on the hamstrings; vary the hand positions; focus on lengthening the back.
9. Utkatasana - Fierce pose/chair Body position/posture type - Standing Technique – stand in Tadasana, breathe in and lift arms (palms inwards), exhale bending the knees and sit back as though sitting into a chair, lean forwards. Breathe in, bringing the shoulders back and up and look up. Tuck the tailbone in to soften the lower back. Breathe out and return to start position. Benefits – Invigorating posture; excellent for developing strength in the back and legs; establishes confidence in body posture; strengthens upper and lower spine; good for weak backs, upper backache and round shoulders. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution –Be careful with back or neck pain. Adaptations - Soften and adapt for those with limited flexibility and strength. Arms can stay at shoulder height or hands placed on lower back. Use a block under the heels if the squat is difficult. For those with knee issues adopt a wider stance. You can actually sit down into a chair – good for older par ticipants.
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10. Virabhadrasana 1 - Warrior 1 Body position/posture type - Standing Technique – Spread the feet wide; turn the right foot out, left foot at an angle. Breathe in and lift the chest, and bring arms to shoulder level. Exhale, and rotate the chest around to the right. Breathing in, lift the arms up. Exhaling, bend the right knee so the lower leg is upright. Maintain stable posture and even breathing. Benefits – Helps deep breathing; relieves stiff shoulders and back; strengthens the legs, spine, arms and shoulders; stretches quads and hip flexors; removes lethargy Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – knee problems; lower back pain Adaptations – modify for beginners
11. Virabhadrasana 2 - Warrior 2 Body position/posture type - Standing Technique – Spread the feet wide, turn out the right foot, left foot at an angle, and lift the chest. Breathing in, lift the arms to shoulder height. Exhale and bend the rig right ht leg and drop the base of the body down. Turn Turn the head to look along the right arm. Stable posture, even breath throughout. Benefits – As for Virabhadrasana 1. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – knee problems. Adaptations – As for Virabhadrasana 1.
12. Virabhadrasana 3 - Warrior 3 Body position/posture type - Standing Technique echniq ue - From Tadasana Tadasana lean le an the upper body forward fo rward while wh ile raising one leg back and up. Beginners should take the hands out sideways instead of straight in front as shown, especially if balancing is difficult. Align the hips horizontally. The raised leg has to be rotated inward to achieve a horizontal alignment. Benefits – Increased leg strength; the hamstrings are stretched in the supporting leg and strengthened in the raised leg; the gluteal muscles are stretched on one leg and strengthened on the other; shoulders are stretched and the arms are strengthened. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Knee problems, inability to balance Adaptations – Use a chair for balance
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13. Trikonasana - Triangle pose Body position/posture type - Standing Technique – Spread the feet wide. Right foot turns out, left foot angled in. Lift the chest. Breathing in, raise the arms to shoulder height. Exhaling, lead with the right hand and bend to the right. Place the right hand low on the right leg or foot. Left arm reaches up. Turn the head to look up at left hand. Stable breathing and stillness during d uring the posture. Imagine the body is in-between two sheets of glass Benefits – Strengthens legs, shoulders, torso and pelvic floor; relieves back and neck ache; improved flexibility in hips and waist Prohibition/precaution – Knee and neck problems, lower back problems Adaptations – Adapt the hand positions; place a block on the floor
14. Parivrtta Trikonasana - Reverse triangle Body position/posture type - Standing Technique - From Warrior II, straighten the right leg and square the hips to the front. Bring the left hand to the outside of the right foot and twist to the right. Bring the right arm up to the ceiling and then gaze up to the right fingertips. Keep the hips level and parallel to the floor. Repeat on the left side. Benefits - Strengthens the legs, hamstrings, hips; opens the chest and shoulders; cleanses the internal organs. Prohibition/precaution - Knee and neck problems, lower back problems Adaptations - Bring the left hand on to a block or inside the right foot, instead of outside.
15. Sukhasana - Easy pose Body position/posture type – Seated Technique - Sit with the legs straight in i n front of the body. body. Bend the right leg and place the foot under the left thigh. Bend the left leg and place foot under the right thigh. Place the hands on the knees in chin or Jnana mudra. Arms should be relaxed and not straight. Keep head, neck and back upright but without strain. Benefits - Sukhasana is an easy position for meditation and can be achieved by most people. It facilitates mental and physical balance without causing strain. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - Participants with problem knees will need to use a less flexed knee position Adaptations - Ideally the knees should be close to the ground. If needed blocks may be placed underneath the knees. Alternatively a strap can be used around the lower back and knees.
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16. Vajrasana - Thunderbolt pose Body position/posture type – Seated Technique – From kneeling bring the big toes together and separate the heels. Lower the buttocks onto the inside surface of the feet with the heels touching the sides of the hips. Place the hands on the knees, palms down. The back and head should be straight but not tense. Benefits - An important meditation posture; calms the mind Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - Knee problems due to the flexion in the knee joint Adaptations - If there is pain in the thighs the knees can be separated slightly; a block (or as many as is needed) can be placed lengthwise between the thighs to sit on; alternatively a folded blanket or cushion could be used.
17. Padmasana - Full lotus Body position/posture type – Seated Technique - Sit with legs straight in front of body. Bend one leg and place foot on top of opposite thigh. The sole should face upward and the heel should be close to the pubic bone. Bend the other leg and place the foot on top of the opposite thigh. Both knees should ideally touch the ground. The head and spine should be straight and the shoulders relaxed. Place hands on the knees in chin or Jnana mudra with arms relaxed. Benefits - The asana steadies the body; this posture also applies pressure to the lower spine which has a relaxing effect on the nervous system. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - This asana should only be practised when flexibility of the knee has been developed. Participants Participants with knee problems should not practise this asana Adaptations - Half lotus or any cross-legged position
18. Dandasana - Staff pose Body position/posture type – Seated Technique – Sit on the floor with legs outstretched and spine straight. Have the knees, ankles and feet together. Place the palms on the floor, floor, alongside the hips, fingers facing forwards. Extend the back of the legs out through the heels bringing the toes up and keeping the feet parallel. Gently press the thighs, knees and calves towards the floor. Pressing the hands into the floor, and starting at the sacrum, lift the back and sides. Lift the abdomen and the rib cage. Rotate the upper arms outward, bringing the shoulders back and down. Breathe evenly and fully. fully. Benefits – This posture forms the basis of all sitting postures and spinal twists; excellent for posture and back ache. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Back problems Adaptations – If the lower back rounds, sit on a pillow, blanket or block; for tight hamstrings, place a cushion under the knees or bend them.
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19. Paschimottanasana - Seated forward bend
Body position/posture type - Seated Technique – Sit in Dandasana. Place the hands on top of the thighs. Inhale and on the exhalation, slide the hands down the leg and bring the chest and stomach down into a full forward for ward bend. Benefits – Good for digestion; increases vitality; eases spinal compression; stretches the spine and hamstrings. Prohibition/precaution – Take care with back problems. Adaptations – Bend the knees slightly or place pillow under the knees; sit on a pillow or block.
20. Purvottanasana - Inclined plane pose Body position/posture type - Seated Technique - From Dandasana with the arms behind hips, and fingers pointed either towards or away from your body, lean back into the palms. Inhale and press down into the palms to lift the hips up toward the ceiling. As the hips lift, engage the legs by pulling up the knee caps and squeezing the thighs. Press the soles of the feet flat down into the floor and gently squeeze the buttocks. Draw the shoulder blades together to lift up through the sternum. Align the body from the toes to the shoulders in one straight line. There is an option to drop the head back. Breathe and hold for 2-6 breaths. To To release: slowly exhale the hips back to the floor. floor. Benefits - Tones Tones and strengthens the whole body (especially core body strength) and opens the chest Prohibition/precaution – Do not perform with recent or chronic injury to the legs, hips, neck, arms or shoulders. Adaptations - Start on the edge of a secure chair using the chair to support the arms as you lift into the pose; perform with one leg bent.
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21. Gomukhasana - Cow’s head pose Body position/posture type - Seated Technique – Sit in Dandasana. Bend the left leg and place the heel beside the right buttock. Bend the right leg over the top of the left so the right heel is beside the left buttock. Place the left lef t arm behind the back and the right arm over the right shoulder. Joint the fingers or hands and breathe evenly. Benefits – Aids backache and stiff neck and shoulders; stimulates the kidneys; mobilises the shoulders; stretches hips and outer thighs; strengthens upper back. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Caution with stiff hips, knee injuries and shoulder problems. Adaptations - Use a strap between the two hands if they don’t meet. Sit on a block.
22. Ardha Matsyendrasana - Seated spinal twist
Body position/posture type - Seated Technique – Sit in Dandasana. Bend the right leg, knee on floor, floor, sole of foot on left inner thigh. Bend lef t leg, lift foot and take up and over the bent right knee. Place left hand on the floor behind using the pressure of the arm to lift lif t the chest and torso up. Take Take the right arm in front of the lef t bent knee, and drop the hand down to the right knee. Using appropriate leverage, twist the chest around to the left. Benefits – Spine flexibility and mobility; stretches outer thighs and hips. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Acute knee problems or abdominal problems. Adaptations – Use alternative hand positions; place block under one buttock to ensure alignment. Sit on a block
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23. Navasana – Boat Body position/posture type - Seated balance
Technique – Sit in Dandasana. Press hands on the floor a little behind the hips, fingers pointing toward the feet; strengthen the arms. Lift through the top of the sternum and lean back slightly, keeping the back straight. Sit on the two sitting bones and tailbone. Exhale and bend the knees and lift feet off the floor. If possible, slowly straighten the knees, raising the tips of the toes slightly above the level of the eyes. Stretch the arms alongside the legs, parallel to each other and the floor. Spread the shoulder blades across the back and reach strongly out through the fingers. Try to keep the lower belly relatively flat. Press the heads of the thigh bones toward the floor to help anchor the pose and lift the top sternum. Breathe easily. Tip the chin slightly toward the sternum so the base of the skull lifts lightly away from the back of the neck. At first, stay in the pose for 10-20 seconds. Gradually increase the time to 1 minute. Release the legs with an exhalation and sit upright on an inhalation. Benefits - Strengthens the abdomen, hip flexors, and spine; helps relieve stress; improves digestion Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - Low blood pressure; neck problems. Adaptations – Keep knees bent, lifting the shins parallel to the floor. Keep the hands on the floor beside the hips or hold on to the backs of the thighs. Often it’s difficult to straighten the raised legs, so bend the knees and loop a strap around the soles of the feet, gripping it firmly. Inhale, lean the torso back, then exhale and lift and straighten the legs, adjusting the strap to keep it taut. Push the feet firmly against the strap. For neck issues, sit with the back near a wall to perform this pose; as the torso is tilted back, rest the back of the head on the wall.
24. Adho Mukha Svanasana - Downward dog/Inverted V pose Body position/posture type - Inversion Technique – Stretch arms out in front as in Child’s pose. Come on to all fours and tuck in the toes. Breathe in, exhale, and straighten the legs while the hands remain in contact with the floor. Lift the buttocks and hips and straighten the spine, bringing the chest forward. Stretch into the pose and breathe evenly. Benefits – Exhilarates and revitalises; removes fatigue; aids stiff shoulders; strengthens the arms and legs; improves flexibility of the spine and hamstrings. Prohibition/precaution – Low blood pressure, high blood pressure; stiff st iff legs, shoulders and arms; back problems. prob lems. Adaptations – Soften elbows and knees
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25. Bidalasana - Cat pose
Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – Start on all fours, with feet hip distance apart and hands under the shoulders. Spread the fingers with middle finger pointing forwards. Keep the back in a horizontal position with the head and neck aligned. Eyes look to the ground between the hands. Inhale, hollow the back so that the navel lowers towards the ground and the chest expands. Exhale and round the spine. Repeat hollowing and rounding four to eight times. Benefits - Flexes the spine and stretches the middle to upper back and shoulders; good for people who sit in front of a computer for a long time; reduces tension from neck and shoulders and alleviates backache. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – High blood pressure; heart problems. Adaptations – Kneel on a folded blanket or mat.
26. Dwi Pada Pitham - Two foot support/Bridge Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – Lie in Savasana. Bend the knees and place the soles of the feet on the floor, floor, heels placed close to the buttocks, arms by the sides. Exhale, then inhale and push on the hands and feet, raise the hips and pelvis up. Create an even backbend. Aim to lift up on to the shoulders. Benefits – Good for backache and rounded shoulders; stretches the quadriceps and abdominals; enhances breathing. Prohibition/precaution – Stiffness in the back, hips and shoulders; back and neck pain; high blood pressure. Adaptations – Use the hands under the back to lif t the body.
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27. Bhujangasana - Cobra pose Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – Lie on front. Palms close to the body in line with the tops of the shoulders. Stretch out the toes. Inhale and lift up the upper body. Lengthen the neck and reduce the space between the shoulder blades. Relax legs and buttocks. Exhale and return head to mat. Benefits – Stimulates the nervous system; aids back flexibility and strength; stretches the thorax; relief for abdominal problems. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Back and neck problems; pregnancy. Adaptations – Move the hands forwards to reduce the range of movement of the spine.
28. Dhanurasana - Bow pose Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – Lie face down. Bend the knees, bringing the heels towards the buttocks. Reach back with the hands and grab hold of the feet. Inhale and pull on the feet to raise the knees and chest off the floor. Either, hold the posture briefly with breath held in, or breathe normally in the pose and hold for longer. Ensure the weight is not on the pelvis, it should be on the abdomen. Benefits – Strengthens and flexes the spine, shoulders, quadriceps, glutes, front of hips and pectorals. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Acute back, neck problems. Adaptations – Use a strap around ankles if the hands cannot grip the feet (although this uses the arm strength); lift the chest only or lift the thighs only. only.
29. Matsyasana - Fish pose Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – Lie in Savasana. Select leg position (Vajrasana, Padmasana or Dandasana). Place the hands beneath the back. Lean backwards. Arch the back, tip the head back, placing the back of the head on the floor. Benefits – Good for chest problems (asthma, bronchitis); good for rounded shoulders and sunken chest; strengthens the upper back. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Neck and lower back problems. Adaptations – Different leg positions; arms can stay on thighs or on the floor alongside body
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30. Ustrasana - Camel pose Body position/posture type - Back bend Technique – From a kneeling position, lean backwards and stretch the arms backwards towards the feet, keeping the arms straight. Inhale and exhale, letting the hips come forward and the shoulders drop back. Drop the head back and open the throat. To exit, sit backwards onto the heels by bending the arms. Benefits – Good for rounded backs and shoulders; opens the chest; stretches the front of the thighs and hips; mobilises the upper back. Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution – Neck and back pain. Adaptations – Place the hands onto the top of the buttocks; place the hands onto the back of the thighs; place the hands onto a block placed on top of the calves; avoid dropping the head back.
31. Apanasana - Wind relieving pose/neutralising pose Body position/posture type - Spine neutralising pose; counter pose for backward bends; warm up pose Technique - Lie on the floor on the back. Bring knees to chest and clasp them with hands Benefits - Releases tension in the lower back; may provide relief for sciatic nerve pain; stimulates peristalsis which helps to relieve constipation; helps back spasms; often recommended for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Prohibition/precaution Prohibition/precaution - None Adaptations – Can be performed one leg at a time for balance.
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e r c i n a t a h c s a r e e i s d U W s s e e m s d o h r d p r t i w f e s s e o a o e t w b e h e l d t w p n s s h u i t r s e a d p m e l s d o w r r h t r o n t a e t f o w e d h a a e u t s g s o l o i p l d t e a a r a s t d o e i r l d r , s t d c e a m t r r e r n e n s n a d e a h o e h t n e r b e s l e b e h s o h n h a t a s t a i t t e w e t d n e r e a e h s h n e s f o k n k i s n u i o n e k a a a , a t r t e h d s e e t e 2 v u a d i s o h t t m t d s o d h t d r n n x a t e n n a n g a t a g n i p a n m o n a s m e i p u h h o i d l a a e c w p p i d a n y l c e s a p N e e l s s h a h t o h e e i e n e o e e t n o d t n S I n K h h H T K e R t d R n • • g • i n i • • a • t s • i s •
s t n i o p g n i h c a e T
e p o l t t u r c n t r a i i d t c r s n e n s r e e i a e d o w j t y n o y a n s o a k l d k a g w e e r , a c d e e e p g i l h e n a n t s e h h l o i t k o t h b o t e t t c b s g i n e e d i h h a s e u h t s d o h v e g e h t l o n i a o m a p c b r n k t e n e r e o ) d s o a s s r e n t e h o a h a k l y s r d a t y m e y c i c h r e a d r a s g t d r p r a v a e w t d e n t o b t n a l f o p b u i o w t e f h h t w o o t s i a j t f l l s g f c g l e i h n l u e o s m m a y i u y l r p t r a p e o i g n l , i h o e r t a a w r a e 4 n h 4 d p h w e l o 4 t t e o t n o l e n o e f f e x n h l r i i s k r x a x l o s l f , l h a t s e t t t , , , t t t , , , d a s s n e e e p e c a e a l a e n l i l e n a h d l l d r a e e e u h i a e a s a l a i e r g o o a a a i c p p t p t h h h h a t t u c d h h h f d p r e n o e w i e x e n i x n n x i n s s e r R i e n R I v E R I o E a I E o R I h n L h • o • • • p • h • • p • • t • ( • t a •
e c i t c a r p / a n a s a f o s t fi e n e B
, p i h s e t h n t i o h j g e l u k o r n h t a g d n n i a m e r a e n W k
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r o o fl e h t n o s k c o l b e s U
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l t l g g s s , a e n i n e a e i n r w k g i k m t r e , l d g s t n n r c e o i o e a l o a h t o a a s a l t t n n s n b i t r w e n r i e t e d s s a l s e o g o d o d h i s b n l r e f k r h d n r s t l n i a t f a d n i a s c a d a n t e t e r s k s r a e t n t a o n f l n e a w l n s s h n a a a r u i f n i g n o e i l o t o l n h n b n p e a i o e s o t s a r w i i h t o i , t i k v d o y t , e f u t s n e e n e l i e a e e u a i t t e n d n l n e p d r l p y h c a a n i h h n t a n l o s r a m a o s h t o e t h e r f i a h u h e fi t t g c r n a i o t s k a h k o p r e i f h r h u x e e m d a e t k t h n w s c l a n f s e K v t g n c m e o e r t S o d l i f o a h r i E i e a I u t o b u p n I • r a a p w • h t l s h t i • f u • v o G i d p C t P M A A • t s s y r n o s l i i t n t v s i l e a m h a k a d e l l e h e e g t g h o n l l p f a l c l o s o a g p i s e o g h d d b n , g a d l e h n g t n t l s i a n g t u i t e a a h n n n n k l t o a o i i a n e p d g h r t o i e t d e n r n g h o f a n p a e n h d a h e e t f s e k h a i g e e i h e u h t n l ( d t t i s f s r r h r t 2 i r i t a e b t s t e u l i t a n s s e e o t u i u r e n r r l r d h h l s h o e d e o a e e e t t t g k e o u e r h f i r n n a u v d e c s e k i r h p o c e a w n o t t e m u s u m e e u f g t t h e o l e e h o m r t s r h s k u h , d o o t w a n o b e n e a t h i t c o h i t a c y m e t o k n h k a w t r l o e n i h n t d h a c d o o w e i t t o b h s t t a i d l t e g n o t i a s e s w e r r e r e w n s h e m e u n e r t a e g e b t e t r b a h f s t h o a o s d t d n t u u t a t n i w s a u e t a h e n d h a l e t k p n n o i t t t e e i o l t c h t d f f f e h t r e e y i i i n o l e g o a t c s o l l l a b h h n a a , n n e , i h p e t , p i o e e , t l g t f e d k h s s i e n g a 3 h e e e t e l s i t r d a h l l t l l d d n d e t a a e e p r p g d r i h e a a e n a h c n n ) r n p r e e a a t h a g h r k g a h h h a h i e k f n x h a i e e l e e t p c i t a u x w w t n n c m a a S f I w E r I K S R L I E P T K I T B R r p a o t e o • • • • • • s b • o • u • n • f • s • i • • • • • t T s r r e e r d e p l e e n p p u i s d c i p o i u h g t s u l e e , s ( c c s a n n e r k i d e l d p c g n e d h / a d n a t fi b d a a g k n n i r n r n k a u c o T a e a o c e a w s r e r r e t a r g b a s s u s , o n w o f n t r e f i e a o s s t p e r h l r s a p s o o h s w i c e o f r a t l o l p t ) o l a o fi d n b d n e d y k e g o a i v o u d c n n k v e n t i a o g e s d o o a e r n I D a E b G b T b C R B
146
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e l g n a i r T a ) n d a n s e a b n e o d k i i r ( s T s n i m 0 4
d r a w e r s o o f p l r l e o t n d u a o g C R
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147
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d g n y i l n e p g b p n k a r u c e l v e a f o v o b o d n d b o a i o n i v a s e a n h t s e e e l l u t x n A p e k
s t n i o p g n i h c a e T
t a e e o h l d r g t t e n v p n a e o o a i d r e m d e r n a s a d n t e t n k a h t a f h t g o i o g t f e t e n r l t l , u t e g t n o h n m l o o e g o s i d a e w n i f r o g m r i k w t r e d l h o a t a h t g o t d y t l u i e s t r e e t o c d f h h o s o e e t i e t r p g n b r e h e e e r e h t e b d h i g o t t h l h t c f a c t h n , e u , r e t k h fi e e e d o h e l a l t e l a f o c d e a l b n n l e r t e h r r a h d l e f u h p x t i u u k n o E s d i S T L I C T S a • n • • • • h s • b a • m •
s h t a e r b 3 r o f y a t S •
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, s d a u q ( s g e l e h t ) s s n p i e h h t , g s n e e r t u t S l g
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t n e t n o C / t n e n o p m o C
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g n i h t a e r b p e e d s d i A
d n a s m r a s n e s r h e t g d l n u e o r h t S s
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e v o b a s a s t fi e n e B
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, s e d l t n e k s n h i o s i n d i g t u n i a d n o e s e i a r e o t h i fi e h b i c p s s n t d e t s t i n s s k o e n e n f o e o a c n n p e i l a c t i v t h t m e o i n e a r a c t t a r o h l c i c t e e a a t o b f o e a a fi t f f r n i i r n v b h e d p m d o e e a t o n c r o d o l b h n a o f r i o n A f M A A D a T c t e t i e s o s h d t p e p t n f a s o o a h e e h m e l t a h o s f t e r e o N e u t s n h i i s t h g a i r a o t r n g h e p n o t , a n r g h i f s e e d t r l l g a o e n b n e i d o i g a t r e r n a b o g t n t t h i s o t s d , p o , e s i n e i g s e d a h t e t n e e n e h c i h n n a n h s t n h g r k i a e t o t n o h l r i n a e e a v o p n t o n e o p r h b u o s o t t e g r g n r s a d e b d n e e n u i o n h n n p t t i e c h h a e r e t v c e o t a S B o B W g E F R g e o o e • • t • • • • • f l T
148
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s t a M e v o b a r o e h s t k s f c e o o v l i y t t b e n a a n n r o k n e t a e t s l i l S b U a
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s e l k n a s n e h t g n e r t S
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a n a s a e k r e r V T
a e n s a o s a p h y k u s a S E
d l o c f i t e k n a l b a e s U t e n i t h h f t g g s e o n i r l d i r n e t e h e h a t h n t t p a e h h h t t g s i d i u w w w e n o v f e r f r n h h o e o t t i s d y d t i b l s o e p n o s a p e l o e e b e y c d s l e d s d b l o i d i m a u n t t i b l o r r a e o h e t s f v y s h l l o t n w e m h o g t l w t c t a n h o s e i e t a r v i g d a e i l b a r s e n p a l i e e b h i l p a e r l t t m n s e r e i h h d e u I o R h S h T n T h t • t • a • t • n • o n o i e t d c i o n a t t t i a c d d a r e d n p e e n i g m b s m i i o l s l h t i e e t r w r i d h o t e y s r p e i m t t i f e p l r l a h l s a t a l u s a d f c e c s r e e e l e r y o v s l r a f b k t o t u e r s c n s i s b i p i e d u h m t T q i a M i I r o a h k u S ( h t a e r b ) y a s k a e a r e v h T u p
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, s e l c s u t n h g m i o i j g h t l e e e r n e s e k n n n i t o s n p e s , h u s t e g l e s l c c n n s e s e u r u p t O m s m
, s u c o f , n e o s i i t o a p r t d n n e c a n e o c c n s l a d i a A b
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l a w a t s n i a g a t i S
e s o p d e g g e e l r u s t s s o o p r c d l e e p t a m e i S S • •
n o i t a r t n e c n o c s d i A
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/ t s s s e r k w i s k c t o n a o l a l a i l h M B P b C y / d a d g e d r g o w n n i n b i o h e l a o h l y x e i e a p h p f s t t h i l e t e r u r r g e r t o e r i s s o c t a n s s k d e e o n o n e c n v l h e i o a n t i o v o c t u l n s f i a t a t t t b k i e d a s c a a e k s fi t n a n l k d i n n r e n n o n e e i d p e e a a d c t t s l o d l a l e i n i w o i B w k S d M A A U b B f k s c t r ? a a b t s p h a h d s h g n y i e c e n i o h e t n a h b t d s r o s w s d d e e b k , n t n r d l c e s l r e a a t o c o m d o a u o e t h s o a t n d p o t p a c e g h u a a y b h e a e b a h s f w e s e f l y d r l g h e t e e h e h e h e h e h e h e t o b d i v n h h h b a t t t t t t t t n s e g e e i o h h a l s e e e e e e e t s h e e s s s s s s s s s o l y t l t n k e a a a a a a a a e d r d c c r w c e e e e e e e e o a i n l l l l l l l l m a o e t b e p a o e e e e e e e e b t d o b r r r r r r r r r h e f s t h n e h y d d h i t d d d d d d d d d c d l e n n n n n n n n h n e e t h g a k i t i u s a a a a a a a a i s o n a n o c w s n r o p a o l h n n n n n n n u c s W a t a n o t s s g e t e t e t e t e t e t e t e h w s t n g ? s s s u i o n p h h h h h h h h i n h e c l e g h m i g i g i g i g i g i g i g i g r h y o c o y m i c e A y L a u L C E F F E E T T T T T T T T e o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t T e c i t c a r p / a n a s a f o s t fi e n e B
149
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e s a o p n a e s s a p r v o a S C
s g n i m i T
s n i m 0 9
y l e e r f w o fl o t y g r e n e s w o l A
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n i d e t a e r c y g r e n e s e a n h t a s s a l a e e S h t n o i t a x a d l e n R a c g i n g i n n i n e n e g e o t h t o g s u i o A T l
n o i s n e t d n a y t e i x n a s e c u d e R
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s s e r t s s e s a E
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e n i N : r e b m u n k e e W s : : e v n i a t l c p j e n b o o i s s d e n a s l s a m n i i F A
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’ n o i t a r e b i L ‘ e m e h t e h t h t i w s s a l c l e v e l s r e v o r p m i e t u n i m 0 9 A
n o i t a x a l e r d n a e c i t c a r p g n i h t a e r b c i s a b a d a e l o t d n a h t a e r b e h t f o e s u e h t g n i s i s a h p m e s t n e m e v o m r e d l u o h s g n i v l o v n i s e r u t s o p f o n o i t c e l e s a h c a e t o t : s m i A
s d i s a e g c n r i u h o c s a e e R T
s p a r / t s t s s s e , r k k w s c o n i t a o l a l i a h M B P l b C
h t a e r b d n a e r u t s o p e s h n s s t o n e i t o v k i a t t i n i c a a l t fi i p n r o d a t t e o d l y t M A A i l i b a e h t e v a h d s l n e a v t e r l o t f e a s i m m o o e n c h t d f w o n l a f o , e e d r s n s u t a t e a n a i r n h o e t o p i d p w d g e m e n x s i i e l t p l a t h n c e t e p r a c a e e m T r e d e r n v b o o n a c s , m a l m s n c r e a o e e ’ c l n i t c n i d l , i l i o t d i d u c d n e o t a a o r c n h r p a c / s e n a y b l g i r d l a a ‘ n u o i o n b j f v a l o , i n g s o n a t v e d i e f n m i t s n i o e n e g s s c e t r h e e fi r t e r m u e n r p e t n e i o h s e f t u : o g B q n t p w i u g e l n o o i r , e m h f d k e r o c e e o t o s i o t s f r n r s r h fl e n s i a a e a c t e l c l p t , n e c c r o h e s f f o s g t i C e b l o t s h s / o a e i t t l n n c u t o b s i e d e n t a i k n v e h c c – a e a e t u e e h t n o f b g l d n p o l l l c o i i i y g e m r m e t o w w w t m n n h e i n C I t f s s s t t t s o a n e r n n n i : e a a a v s r d p p p n e c n i i i s s e s v a c c c i n i i i l t i t t t g h a k c r r r t n c m e a a a l j e i a b r m b P P P e h 0 e i O • • • H V C T 1
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t e k n a l b / r k w c o i a l o l i h B P C y d d r o b n e a o h e t h p e t u s g e r s o c e t e v n e l o a a n t t s f k e s d k n l d e e n o n a c e i d e l n B f i B w k s t r ? a t p h a h c e n i e h b w s , e t r r o c a o h p t a p a y a s e e y d r l h e t o t b v h b a e n g e i h h o l s h s t y t t n d k e d c w c o r a n i m a o t b p a o b t d r e h o n e h f d h c d d y i h t e g e t i a k s n h n a c w n r o o W a u l a t o t c s w s g s s i ? s u o n n g m e c i r h y o h c l o e y L L A C E F u F o • • • • • • t • w o e l h i p t r r e o d n k c u o t l e b k a n d a e s l b a e U / h
d n i m e h t s n e t e i u Q
s e l e u c g i s t a u f m s s e c e x u l a d e e R R
e s a o p n a e s s a p v o a r S C
y l e e r f w o fl o t y g r e n e s w o l A
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s t e s k s k n c t o l a a l M B B
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a s f g f i e n t l s e t , n s s s f r o n e o s o i t i v f r s o i a e – t t c t y d a a i f l fi i p n r d u s d a e o m t o h o d l r M A A M s a
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) y l n o s m r a ( e s a o n p a s d a a h e k h u s m o w o G C
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s s d g e r l a w n r e f o t h t g s i e s a r h t t s c h a s , g r e d e r n u l i e r b f o a k b h c l 3 x , r a o s e l t o o p , i f t e o l h n e a r , d u n s r t r h f t n o n u s t i a o u o s , f r s p e s l s k e d e n n 2 a t o e c i o x t a t n t i n n n k o i u a l a t e b m e p k a r e t c a h f e e i e n p t u S T K L R I R • • • • • • • s e h c t e r t s d n a s n e h s t g g e n l e r e t h S t
n i a r t r s o f d i e o r v a a p e d r n p a k o t c l y a t e b h s g o e i t p h s t o d t o e h t n g g e s g g e m u o l e r l e s h v t s o s s o n r o r e c m r c h e e t t l ’ g d n g l n u n o i e D o L S h • s • •
s s p t a r a t M S t f i o s n d o d n a r - h n s i e e g p h n t a r n fi t s e / s t a e d w e e n s t a e e U b h m t h g i r e h t d n s i a s k a c g a n b o r l e s e e h s t d d i a l d n s d u r a o n o h s r i e h h r s h e h t o t o b t h a r e g s e i e r h m r g b r t a e n e n 3 l o t h f t r e e l r o b a t f h a t e t e r v e d c o l o i n f a o e l m o m p P r J H o R • a • • c •
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s m r a ( e s a o n p a s d a a h e k h u s ) y m o w o l G C n o
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h g u o h , d t d e r c a s a t n r w t a r l a n a o h p g w i a b f r o k g c p d h e t n o p y d r ) u l i i y u n s o e ( t o l w b t e d p h w o u u g o o l d i p t g i l b o i d h s p f g s n h i g e o e i n s d a n l t h y e l e n h i l t u l o w h a e e k s c r e h d g p n d r k d i u n w , i a c s h e c e a n d d t e d l , a e n r d a u s t e d n b h a o h e t n t p r d a t f e u s a t d w e t h r e r o n n f t r u n e e e i s o d o o l f i f p o a r n d a t s l s t s h a u g s e s o u s d e n b c w c i a e g e e l o m n e i u t a k e l t o n h r h o o a v c r a F a T K C T S A H P A h • • t b • h • • • • • • •
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t n e m e v o m d n a h t a e r b s k n i L
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s d p n t a u r h a d t r s n r e a e o w t y s o a l d k e r , a d p i e c n a s o o h b t i e t n i e d h s v t s i n o o d o p b a t m e r a a s s r t e e h a s k d r y m i e c r e r a r h a s v a e c o b p o w t t f o s o s i g l l e n t s m y m i y l y r r l a p d a e o a l w e 4 w o 4 t t o l e f f l b i i k f l e r x x s s l , t , e , o , e , t , d e e a l a e n l t l e l n a l l e a p a i a n a a i e h o h o e a h p h t t o h h h i i r e e r x x x f n n n s s I e E R I o E I E o R v n • • p • • o • • • p • i
s d i s a e g c r n u i o h c s a e e R T
r i t a a h M C s f r r o e e o s d g b o u n i n n e e fl t m a l h h e fi t u e e t t u r t r h h m c e p e t t u o d fi o t s v f p c g n s e i a a n o p r a o t o d u p h t g h ’ t h s n s s r y s i r t h n s s o t r e o t r o m o h i o n e d , e i r o t a t i g v o f s c r w i i a n g s a t r t e n r c a a m m s p l e a l a i h n r fi t l s i a n t i u a h e p r a a a t d e h d a t e p g p g e b c d n o d l o t n h o t o fi a i I t t f I a d b M A A f s e d n d d e f d h r e h n t , o n a t b s a t d u g d w r , n a t p o n k i n m o e r i o f a e t r r c o e t v t e r a a i l p h o b t b , e b l , p w n s e p o g t m h h f d e a b , h e o t t l l t r u i g v e s d n l e w h t e n w e d a n l n i t r t h e i a n y h t o f r l d a g h e w e i e s t t t h l w t r i s n e h i t h d a c r f l p r h e w g e e t i n e u e c e h u k h l r h a d t e n o t g d c l i i s n e n e e h h a s a g h d h s r u i h e t b t p b t n t n d o g i t t r o , e e f f f n t m n o h s r a o o s fi g w o h b t i t s g o e , n d a p m w d l d i r f a m t t t o l l o n u o e s n n n e h h h r a a a i e f b h s a a a h g g g l d p t t p i i s r n e e e s d r e t r f n n h n h a a , i i o l a g e e e e e l o d p i m h s o h b h t t h p u h n r a p h h a h t t t t t r u k t c t a T h o e e e e t i g a e g t h g t t t s g n i m e c r n i f f f d i s g i n s s r m l n i h a i o i p e e e i h o g g f r f l l l t o a u r a a e r t c r n e n i t o R e f e B e R i i e e e a F r C R r r t h e o h e h • b f t • h t b fi • h t s • h t l t • h t • T
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r e e e r d l h t a u i s o f n h s o i s i p t i g t n a h s i o g s n p d o n e n l m r a r o a h t a h r h p e c g h e o e i e t o K h o t
e c n a t s e h t y r a V e s e e a l g t o k l d b n n d i i e a p g e o h m l u r n t g t p e t u k l v n a e o o a d e o r o l i m e h d n s r t , e a e d n a r d t t a e a h t n v e h a k f o t g h o o i f g r o r e t e e t l t l s v n g r , u t e t n o o o h t o o e o s i l m g e s d a n i f r m g k h m i t r w t r e l a h o a h t a l n g n o t e i e r t t e h d w c h e r t u f t h o t o e t e s g n e t d r i e h e d i t e r t h s e b y o d f h n t t c i l h a a d c a , o e r s u , r l e d e k p o h e e e b a h i l l d c t a d t a e a n n r l n e e r t r e h a r h u h f h h p r x i u u g I t n n g e g o E f C T S T L I h n n e • • • • s • o • • fi • l fi d n s d r a e n s s g a d n g r l n e i s e t o l u h o m t e c m h o r u a h s d t d e r a f b d f s s b i a s a t n n s k p s e e r e s r e o h h e h c e t t t e g d s x e a g h e d v l c s b n t n fl e e s e u e e l o i r t r i r h d p n e d i t t o S S h T A S s R n a
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s k c o l B d n e i h e r o b m d e e v s i u g o e t b s n k e a c c t o c t n k e u d c o b l fi b e n A h t o c
e h , e d t e d h n l p t h n a a u s n e r g o h a n u t t r n s h i P I a t t g f i e i s p . h . l , j a u t t r a t t r e e d u s t e l a t s s f a t a o n , t i t a e h i s x t g l p h t E e p a g u o f l e a c . o o e l k n k l y fi f , s i s e c t e o m a h t d g l r s l e o fi g i s b i p t a a i e e n e r t r t a t h h f e e I t t l s s f
e , h y r t e a s o s o t s p l e e t c l e a a o n r b f i a f p l s a s e h e e v i s n l k a s i e c h g h t i n T . d g r n n o i e r o B b fl
e e h e h y h t t t , l d s g t a s y f s i e e n l w h d m i r c r r o g l n d ) n t a i a n s e h n a a t l t e w e a e d a h h h o f t p n g t b o d i w e r a s r a l , g t k h a ( r s s e s c n i i w g l s r e e a d r e h b h b l o s s f a c a a e t d , g w t t e r e l k s k n r n h s a e i c e t t c e l w a r d a d f s e e b o b , o b n o n t r d s h k k e n m a o e a e g s s o e t e r r w o h e t n d 3 o f o x t w l e l e t h k n t n a t , e e f , t e e e h s h h e d i t l l h i k t i l h t a t h s a , h a w c t t r g g h e o i e e h i n x n s e t r t i s I n a e B i S t E i o r u W w l h t p a o r • s a • s c • • b • l d n a e c n a l a b a n s i d l i m u a B t s e r a e p k e r a p r h s d – n o o a fl e s e s o g h t a p l e n r n a e e o t s t a n h t i v u s t o u o a C o t N s n i m 5 6
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s e t u l g d n a k c a b , s d a u q s e h c t e r t S
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k c a b , s d a u q s s e e t u h c l g t e d r t S n a
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s d i s a e g c r n u i o h c s a e e R T
s t e s k r k i n c t a l o l a a h M C B B
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s s k p c a o r l t S B
p s n s s u o n e s i t i v e o i a t e n c t a a k fi t n i r d p e d a t o d l n e M A A B
g n o r t s o o t f i t f o s s e e n k p e e K
s t fi e n e B
n o i s s e s f o t n e t n o C
n a l p k b e e 2 w x 0 i 1 d e n l e p p m p a A S
158
g n i m l a c l , u f t s e R
e s o p e s p r o C – a n a s a v a S
s m r a w , t n e m e v o m o t h t a s e r t n i b j g o n g i e k n l i d l n s a e c s u m d r o a r t p n I u
s t f i l m r a d n a g e l h t i w a n a s a v a S
s e v i t c e j b O d n a s m i A
a g o y o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u d o r : s t n I m o i A T
k e e W
1
s g n i r t s m a h s e h c t e r t S
k c a b p u s m r a W
g n i r t s m a h a n a s a s t s p a r u t g s n t a h i w d w o a C h p c – t a t e r t a u t S s C
c i s a b o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u d o r a t n n i s o a T a
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s n o i t i s o p d n a h t n e r e f f i d e v i G
g n o r t s s e o e o t n k f i r f e t o d n s u s s e e d n a k p p e s e e U K
c i s a b e h t o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u d o r h t n t a i e r o T b
s g n i r t s m a h d n a k c a b s n e h t g n e L
s p i h o t n o s d n a h r e w o L
e s i o p , e c n a l a b , e r u t s o p d o o G
d r a w n w o D – a n a s a n a v s a h k u m o h d g o A d
t n e m e v o m f o g n i k n i l e h t e c h u t a d e o r r t b n i d o n T a
n o i t a x a l e r n i s t n a p i c i t r a p d a e l o T
s g n i r t s m a h d n a k c a b s n e h t g n e L
e s o p n i a t n u o M – a n a s a d a T
s g e l h c a e r o t p a r t s e s U
s n o i t i s o p d n a h e v i t a n r e t l a e s U
y t i l i b i x e fl k c a b d n a h t g n e r t s g e L d n e b d r a w r o f g n i d n a t s – a n a s a n a t t U
2 r o i r r a W – 2 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
l l a w a t s n i a g a r o k c o l b a n o t i S
e v i t a r o t s e r d n a g n i m l a C
y t i l i b i x e fl k c a B
e s o p e l g n a i r T – a n a s a n o k i r T
e h t m r o f r e p o t e l b a e b l i a w n s a : t s n s a e v a i p d t i e c i c t c e t j r l b a e s O P e
e e s s o p o p a w r b o o C B – – a a n n a s a s a a g a r n a u j n u h a h B D a w o l l o f o t e l b a e c i e t b c l r i a w p s h t t a n e a r p b i c i c i t r a s a P b
a n i e t a p i c i t r a p n l o i i s w s s e s t n n a o p i t i a c i x t r l a a P e r
e s o p e g d i r B – m a h t i P a d a P i w D
e c i t c a r p h t a e r b c i s a B – e r u t s o p d e t a e S
y r e v o c e R / n o i t a x a l e R
s e g c n r i u h o c s t s s a i d a e e R T a M
s t e s s k s r k p i n c a a o a r t l l h S B B C
l l a w a s n s s t s o n e i n i t i v o a i a t t g c t a a a fi n i p r h d a e c t a o d l e M A A T
s t fi e n e B
n o i s s e s f o t n e t n o C
159
w o n d n a e r e h e h t h t i w t c e n n o C
e s o p d e t a e s y s a E – a n a s a h k u S
s t i s k c a , l o t s l s b l e n n l i e e o a s d s h u n d a w p g r a n a , a i e h r a h d i t h a m e s n s n r v t h n e i u c e t s f o o i a e s k e n a r r a k g e d c n c , a p o t n o n r n l s e n , a a h b i l n e t t m s / o r s a k e a i o y p t k i f w e c e e t v s o l s c i a r e r e a e o l a U b b G p b w P V K
e h t e v o i t s a k n c r o l e t b l a s , , n e o c i t n i a s t s o p r e d r d i n a o o W h fl
e r u t s o p s d t o n i o o g j , n e i s a i o p m , p e c u n a m r l a a B W
s g e l f o k c a b , e n i s s p e s t n h h g i g u r o b r d n s i h t m e s s t o m r m l o a a m r W C P
s t n e e m s e s o e p v o l c n i i m r c a t p n m i r u a h o h t h t M i i – w w a a a n n n a a a s s s a a a d d d a a a T T T
d n e b d r a w r o f g n i d n a t s – a n a s a n a t t U
s e v i t c e j b O d n a s m i A
t g h n a i e r d b n a e t s h t f o g n i n s o i i s t c a e h l e s p e a m s h e c r a u : t e t m i o s o A T p
k e e W
2
e c i t c a r p g n i h t a e r b c i s a b a d a e l o T
n o i t a x a l e r a d a e l o T
m r o d f n r a e p e o s t a e e h l b t i a w e s b e l l i r u w t s s o : s t p n e a v p g t i n r t o c i c i f d i e t j r n m a o b a t O p s c
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h t g n e r t s g e l d n a k c a b r e w o l d n a r e p p U
e s o p e c r e fi / r i a h C – a n a s a t a k t U k n i l o t y t i l i b a e h h t t a e e r v b a e h l t i h o w t s e t r n u a t p s i c o i p t r e a h P t
s e x a l e r s , p e i h h c a n i k c y a t i l i b b s i x e v e e fl i , l e r k , n u s r g t e l s e s h n c e t h e t r g t s n e d r t n S a
e s o p e l g n a i r T – a n a s a n o k i r T
s n e d n h a t g k c n a e r b t s f f , i t s s g g n i e l s h e t v s e a e l i e h r e c r b t , e p r s t e s r e e d d d l s n d a u o i s h s a n , s e d h n r e t d g a l n s u e o r m h t S r a s
2 r o i r r a W – 2 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
l e v e e c l t n t s a l e o o a h b c f r r o o t a f f s s r d i n a o t n n i h t a c h p e a p o m e e c e v l a s e e i U K G p , n o i , t y a t r i l t i n b i e x c e fl n o c h g s i d h t i , a , h s t t g n i n o e j r t s e e e n l k k n a s n e , h e e c t c g n n n a a l e r l a t a B s b
1 r o i r r a W – 1 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
l a s w k c a o l s b t n , i s a t g e a k n t i a s l , b s / k e c o e n l b k r n e o d t i n S u
g n i m l a c , e v i t a r o t s e R
e s o p e e r t – a n a s a k r V
g n i x a l e R – h t h t e c a a e i t r e r c b b a t r t p u o u o g d n n f i h a o t n a o n i e s r i e n B h e t t r x o f g n e a i e n n e h t a h g s a t g i n h n k d e l u S - d a
n o i t a x a l e r r o f a n a s a v a S
s e g c n r i u h o c s t s s a i d a e e R T a M
s s k p c a o r l t S B
p s n s s u o n e s i t i v e o i e a t t n c t a a k fi i p n r d d a e t n o d l e M A A B
g n o r t s o o t f i t f o s s e e n k p e e K
s t fi e n e B
160
g n i m l a c l , u f t s e R
s t n i o j g e l d n a s m r a p u s m r a W
s t f i l m r a d n a g e l h t i w a n a s a v a S
n o i s s e s f o t n e t n o C
e s o p e s p r o C – a n a s a v a S
s e v i t c e j b O d n a s m i A
w e n e m o s o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u d o r a : s t n n i m o a i s A T a
k e e W
3
s e e n k r e d n u s d a p e s U
s n o i t i s o p d n a h t n e r e f f i d e v i G
g n o r t s o o t f i t f o s s e e n k p e e K
k c a b p u s m r a W
s g n i t s m a h d n a k c a b s n e h t g n e L
g n i r t s m a h a n a s a s t s p a r u t g s n t a h i w d w o a C h p c – t a t t e u r a S t s C
g o d d r a w n w o D – a n a s a n a v s a h k u m o h d A
s g n i r t s m a h s e h c t e r t S
l a n i m o d b a o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u g d n o r i h t t n a i e r o b T
n o i t a x a l e r n i s t n a p i c i t r a p d a e l o T
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e h t m r o f r e p o t e l b a e b l i a w n s a : t s n s a e v a d i p t e c i c t i c e t j e r b a l s O P e
s p i h o t n o s d n a h r e w o L
e s i o p , e c n a l a b , e r u t s o p d o o G
e s o p n i a t n u o M – a n a s a d a T
s g n i r t s m a h d n a k c a b s n e h t g n e L
d n e b d r a w r o f g n i d n a t S – a n a s a n a t t U
a w o l o f o t e e l c i b a t c a e r b p l i g n w i s h t t a n e a r p b i c i i c t r a s a P b
d n a h e v i t a n r e s n t l o a i t i e s s U o p
2 r o i r r a W – 2 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
a n i e t a p i c i t r a p n l o i i s w s s e s t n n a o i p t i c i a x t r a a l P e r
s d n e h n a t g k c n a e r b t s f f , i t s s g g n i e s l h e t v s e a e i e l h r c e r b t , p e r s t e s r e e d d d l s n a u o d i h s s a n , e d s r h n e t a d g n s l u e o r m t r h S a s
1 r o i r r a W – 1 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
3 r o i r r a W – 3 a n a s a r d a h b a r i V
N O I T A U L A V E
s e x a l e r s , p e i h h c a n i k c y t a i l i b b s i x e v e e fl i l , e r k n , u s r g e t l s e s h n c e t h e t r t g s n e d r t S n a
e l g n a i r T a n a s a n o k i r T
e l g n a i r T g n i v l o v e R a n a s a n o k i r T i t t i r v a P
s g e l h c a e r o t p a r t s e s U
d n a h e v i t a n r e s n t l o a i t i e s s U o p
y t i l i b i x e fl k c a B
s e s s h d t e i h a c e c , t r t y e s t d r , o s b s r , f e g o d n l t u i n t o h o r h f s a e r s b e d e s s h e c d d t i n t u a l e u r , g t r a s o e d , d r r e n a n a a l n k e a e p n c i a o h c b m t a s , o s e k c d g h a b e C b a l
e e s s o p o p a r w o b o B C – – a a n n a s a s a a a g r n a j u u n a h h B D
e s o p e g d i r B – m a h t i P a d a P i w D
e v i t a r o t s e r d n a g n i m l a c , g n i x a l e R h t a e r b t r a p e e r h t l a n i m o d b A r o f a n a s a v a S
y r e v o c e r / n o i t a x a l e R
s e g c r n u i o h s c s t s a i d a e e R T a M
s p a r t S
s n s s o n e i t i v o i a t c t a a fi t n i p r d a e t o d l M A A
e r a s t f i l g e l f i e g d i r g b n o n t r i s y a o t o S t
s t fi e n e B
e c n a l a b r o f n w o d s l e e h p e e K
t s l i h w t d a u e a h t d r e l e v o h s p a r r m t s a g a i n e s s i U a r
e n i p s , s t n i o j r e d l u o h s f o y t i l i b o M l a f s e e n k , r e v o d n a p u s m r a t n e b s e s d e i e s n o K t
s e v i t c e j b O d n a s m i A
h t i w – e s o p e g e d s i r o p B – e s p m r o a C h t – i P a a s e n d s a a i s P a r i a v w g a e S D l w o w n e a k n s a e y e y m h n t i o s s V o e o t t n o s s t f t n n o a a s p p i i n c c o i i i t t t r a r i a a p r p a v e e c d c u u n d d a o o r a t r : s t n n n w i i m o a o i s o l F A T a T
k e e W
4
n o i s s e s f o t n e t n o C
161
g n i x a l e R
t s e h c s n e p o , y t i l i b o m k c a B
s s t n e i s o k k h n c o l a s l u B B C
y t i l i b o m e n i p S
g n i m l a c , s g n i r t s m a h d n a k c a b s n e h t g n e L
w o C / t a C
g o d d r a w n w o D – a n a s a n a v s S w o b a l h k e u n o M – o e h d s A o p
y s a e e h t o t s t n a p i c i t r a p e c u d o r h t n t a i e r o T b
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n o i t a x a l e r n i s t n a p i c i t r a p d a e l o T
l a s w p a i h t s n n o i a s e d g a c n n a a h t m r s o y p f r e e r e a K P V
s p i h n o s d n a h p e e K
e r u t s o p , e s i o p , e c n a l a B
: s e v i t c e j b O
s d n e h n a t g k c n w a e o t r b l F s f i , f - s t s g a g n s i s e l a h e t y v n s e a e i i e l h r V c e b r f t o e , p r s t t e r p s e e e d d d l c n u s n a o d o i c s h s a n , s e d s e r c h n e u t a d g d n s l u o e r o r m t t r h n S a s I
y t i l i b i x e fl r e d l u o h s , g n i r t s m a H
e s i a r , s e o t n o e s p o a r p t s n h i a t t i n w u o d M a e – h r a e n v a o s s a d m a T r a
n a d o l n d w a a h n a t h e s v t n i i s t a e a r g n , a r s e t n s m l o / r a i k o t i f e c s v o r i o l e G p b P
d n e b d r a w r o f g n i d d n n a i t S h e – b s a d n n a a s h a n a p s t t l a U c
e h t m r o f r e p o t e l b a e b l i a w n s a s t a n a p d i e c t i c t e r a l P e s
a w o l l o f o t e e l c i b a t c a e r b p l i g n w i s h t t a n e a r p b i c i c i t r a s a P b
g n – i 1 d a e l d n – a 2 3 r o a n i a r r a s a r W d a – h 2 b a a i r 1 n d V a n s o a t a r n i 3 d r a t h o h g i r b i r a a r t r a i V s W
a n i e t a p i c i t r a p n l o i i s w s s e s t n n a o p i t i a c i x t r l a a P e r
l e v e e l c t n t a s l e o o a h b c f r r t o o a f f s s r i d n a o t n n i h t a c h p e a p o m e e c e v l a s e e i U K G p
s e x a l e r s , p e i h h c a n i k c y t a i l i b b s i x e v e e fl i l , e r k n , u s r g e t l s e s h n c e t h e t r t g s n e d r t S n a
e s o p e l g n a i r T – a n a s a n o k i r T
s d s n a h g k i h c h r o t o f l f b o s a s k n e c o i v s a e t u l b a p o k , – c e e s h c l e a t r e e h t b h s r s e o e r v w d i n o G l a c a
, n o i , t y a t i r l t i b n i e x e c n fl o c h g s i d h t i , a , h s t g t n i n o e r j t s e e e n l k k n a s n , h e e e t c g c n n a n a l e r l a t a B s b
e s o p e e r T – a n a s a k r V
e s o p l e m a C a n a s a r t s U
l a w e h t t s n i a g a m r o f r e P
a t s n i a g a , n o i h s u c a n o l t l a i S w
y t i l i b i x e fl k c a B a h k u S ( h t a e r b y s a e e h T r o f a n ) a a s k a a h k v r u u S p
y r e v o c e R / n o i t a x a l e R
s e g c n r i u h o c s t s s a i d a e e R T a M
s n s s o n e i t i v o i a t c t a a fi t n i p r d a e t o d l M A A
s s k p c a o r l t S B r o o fl e h t o t s d n a h e d k a a t e t h ’ r n o e D v o
s t fi e n e B
g n i x a l e R
p i h , y t i l i b o m r e d l u o h s , y t i l i b i x e fl h g y i h i t t l i r b i e n x e n fl I
e s o p e s p r o c – a n a s a v a S
s p g u u h s e e m r k a n , t e r e a h n t r e e g t l o a t , s e p l a o r s t s h t h i t i w w a r n e a v s o a v d a n S a
n o i s s e s f o t n e t n o C
s e v i t c e j b O d n a s m i A k e e W
163
o t a n a s a w e n f o n o i t c e l e s t s a n a e p c i u c i d t r o r a : s t p n i m o e i t A T h
d k c n a o h l b / a m r s a e u e , v s i t n a o i n t r i e t s l A o p
t s e h c s n e p o , y t i l i b o m k c a B
e s o p e g d i r B – m a h t i P a d a P i w D
y t i l i b i x e fl k c a B
w o C / t a C
e h t r o f e c i t c a r p a m a y a n a s r P t a n a p d i c a i e t l r o a T p
e c n a l a b s r u o f l l A
e h t o t n o i t a t i d e m e s c t n u a d p o r i t c i n t i r o a T p
6
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k c o l b a e s U
l a s w p a i h t s n n o i a s e d g a c n n a a h t m r s o y p f r e e r e a K P V
y t i l i b i x e fl r e d l u o h s , g n i r t s m a H
e r e u c t s n a o l a p , b e , i s y t o i l p i b , a e t s c n e a l r o a C B
e s o p n i a t n u o M – a n a s a d a T
e c i t c a r p n o i t a x a l e r a d a e l o T
s t i s k c , l o s l b e e s h e u r , e i d r a s n e u h c e k n a k c o t o n l b i n e a k e w e t s c a e U b b
d n e b d r a w r o f g n i d n a t S – a n a s a n a t t U
: s e v i t c e j b O
s s e n f f i t s d n a n o i s n e t s e c u d e R
d e g ) g i t e t l i r e d v a i w P ( s – t s a i n w a t s h a t i n a w t t o – d a d n e P b a t i d r r a a s w a r r o P f
e h t m r o f r e p o t e l b a e b l i a w n s a t s a n a d p i e c t i c t e r a l P e s
s d n e n h a t g k c n w a e o t r b l F s f i , f - s t s g a g n i s s e l a h e t y v n s e a e i i e l h r V c e b r f t o e , p r s t t e r p s e e e d d d l c n u s n a o d o i c s h s a n , s e d s e r c h n e u t a d g d n s l u o e r o r m t t r h n S a s I
g n – i 1 d a e l d n – a 2 3 r o a n i a r r a s a r W d a – h 2 b a a i r 1 n d V a n s o a t a r n i 3 d r a t h o h g i r b i r a a r t r a i V s W
a w o l l o f o t e l b a e c e i t b l a i c w r s p t a n m a p a i a c y i t n r a a r P P
k c o l b a n o t i S
h t i w e s o p e c r e i F / r i a h C – a n a i s t a t t t i r a k t v a U P
a w o l l o f o t e l b a e e i c b t l i c r w a s p t n n o i a t p i a t c i i t d r a e P m
h t g n e r t s g e l d n a k c a b r e w o l d n a r e p p U t s n i a g a d n a t s r e d l u o h S – a n a s a l g l n a a w v r e a h S t
a n i e t a p i c i t r a p n o l i i w s s s e s t n n a o p i t i a c i x t r l a a P e r
N O I T A U L A V E
, s d n a l g m d e i t o s r y y s h t s r u u o o r y v e r o n f e s h t e g s a e s h s t a o m o s e , r t y u i l s i s b e r a P t s
e s o p f f a t s – a n a s a d n a D
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, n o l i y a t d n a o x i a b l m f e o r o d s b e s a a t s o e r a n l e m o l r h a t g p , i n y n t e r e h t g s i x t n n , e a e r r s t u s t m a l d n a n a n c i , y s t c l i e l i i b c b o s i r e u x e A m fl
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N O I T A U L A V E
Unit 4 Health and safety for yoga Aim: the aim of this unit is to provide learners with the knowledge of important health and safety
aspects of teaching a yoga class. This unit covers the common conditions that participants may suffer from in a yoga class, and how to manage and adapt classes for these conditions. This unit also covers general health and safety practice to ensure that classes are safe for par ticipants. Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you will:
168 168
•
understand different conditions that participants may have when they attend yoga sessions
•
understand the importance of screening participants
•
understand the health and safety aspects of teaching a yoga class
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Understanding different conditions Yoga is viewed by many as a gentle form of exercise and therefore often attracts participants who have not excised for a while or have never exercised before. Some participants may have had injuries, operations or be recovering from illnesses. Yoga is increasingly often recommended by medical professionals professionals for people with various conditions. One of the most important aspects of being a yoga teacher is the safety of the participants. Care should always be taken to ensure the postures that are taught are suitable for individuals within the class. It is vital for the teacher to be aware that everybody is different, and each person has their own history and genetic makeup which predisposes them to certain cer tain restrictions within postures. Consideration must also be given to participants who will attend the class with specific ailments and conditions. To enable the teacher to have confidence to safely teach these individuals, it is essential that they are aware of the conditions and the problems that participants may present with. This information is usually obtained by giving the participants pre-class questionnaires or asking them to complete questions via email or online. It is also important to be mindful of any prohibitions and precautions for postures that are directly affected by the ailment or condition. As well as specific health and safety aspects that relate to each individual and their condition, a yoga teacher will also need to consider the safety of the teaching environment and the emergency procedures should an accident or incident occur.
Prohibition and precaution Prohibition is defined as ‘the act of forbidding, preventing or stopping’. For the purpose of teaching yoga, prohibition is a definitive ‘do not do’ - the same as a contraindication in fitness classes. Certain conditions will mean that a participant is prohibited from performing it. Precaution is defined as ‘prudent forethought against danger’, ‘a provision made for emergency’, or ‘exercising care’. Participants who have certain conditions may be allowed to participate in a yoga class with suitable adaptations and modifications.
Common conditions and their implications There are many conditions that a yoga teacher may encounter; the ones that will be addressed in this section include stress, high/low blood pressure, musculoskeletal problems (such as back, shoulder, knee and wrist problems), and pregnancy.
Stress Stress is a common condition that manifests as a response to a physical threat or psychological distress that generates a host of chemical and hormonal reactions in the body. body. The body prepares to fight or flee, pumping more blood to the heart and muscles and shutting down all non-essential functions. As a temporary state, this reaction serves the body well to defend itself; however, when the stress reaction is heightened, the normal physical functions that have been either exaggerated or shut down can become dysfunctional. Many people have noted the benefits of exercise in diminishing the stress response. Yoga has been recommended and studied in its relationship to stress and several researchers claim highly beneficial results from yoga practice in alleviating stress and its effects. The practices recommended range from intense to moderate to relaxed asana sequences, in addition to pranayama and meditation. In all these approaches to dealing with stress, one common element stands out: the process is as important as the activity undertaken. Yoga can help to foster self-awareness, making it a promising approach for dealing with stress.
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A review of the current thinking on stress reveals that the process is both biochemical and psychological. psychological. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for reacting to emergencies, employing the fight and flight reflexes. Originating in the brain, sympathetic projections exit the spine and branch out to almost every organ, every blood vessel, and every sweat gland in the body. The sympathetic nervous system becomes dominant during an emergency, as well as the perception of an emergency. The nerve endings release adrenaline and noradrenaline - chemicals which signal organs into action within seconds. The parasympathetic nervous system, which has a calming and restorative effect on the body, is inhibited by the sympathetic nervous system during a stressful emergency. emergency. There are other chemical changes in the body that facilitate the stress response and are crucial in an emergency. emergency. The pituitary gland and brain secrete substances that dampen pain; these are known as endorphins and encephalins. The pancreas is stimulated to produce glucagon which helps to raise levels of blood glucose. The pituitary gland also secretes prolactin, which suppresses reproduction; other reproductive hormones oestrogen, progesterone, and testosterone are inhibited during times of stress. Growth-related hormones and insulin are both inhibited as the body mobilises its resources for immediate survival. When an emergency is over, continued arousal may become pathological; it is not just the threat of physical danger that must recede for the response to end. The brain must think and understand that it is over, over, or the cycle can continue, becoming a hindrance to health. It is not that stress itself makes us sick; however, however, its continuation can create a basis for a number of related conditions. Stress also causes an increase in cardiovascular output in order to deliver oxygen and energy to exercising muscles: blood moves faster and with more force. A vascular response of constriction of the major ar teries can cause a rise in blood pressure, and consequently, consequently, blood is delivered with greater speed to the muscles, decreasing blood flow to unessential parts of the body (digestive tract, kidneys and skin). Vasopressin reabsorbs water into the circulatory system to keep the blood volume up, so that it can deliver glucose and oxygen to muscles. However, a continued stress response keeps the cardiovascular system in this heightened state. It is interesting to note that because the stress response is a condition of the body and the mind, its effects are both physical and psychological. It is possible that some of the most beneficial aspects of yoga practice are the sense that things are improving, that one has some control over what is happening - two factors that help mediate stress. There is the support and encouragement of the teacher and the social interaction of the class, both of which provide a buffer from isolation, another well-known side effect of stress-related conditions.
Stress and yoga practice Many studies have demonstrated the stress-reducing effects of exercise, but the self-obser vation necessary to recognise and stop the deleterious effects of the stress response before it spirals out of control, is the key. key. Physical symptoms of the stress response include: rapid heartbeat, fast shallow breathing, gastrointestinal discomfort, and sleep disturbances. The decision to stop and address the problem, as well as to admit that stress is an issue and is no longer acceptable or productive can be challenging. A daily yoga practice provides the time and space to experience the sensations of the body, and to interpret them mindfully (Serber, 2011).
Anxiety Anxiety is a common condition associated with stress. Awareness should be given to ensure the participant does not participate in deep breathing or retention work, especially if their anxiety is linked to panic attacks.
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Stress: modifications to yoga practice
For stress-related issues, the following modifications should be carried out: • • •
Shorten relaxation sessions and avoid imagery and affirmations. The participant can keep eyes open if needed, as closing the eyes may be stressful Participants may benefit from quietening postures such as forward bending postures and avoiding too many back bends
High blood pressure (Hypertension) Blood pressure represents the force (pressure) exerted by blood against the arterial walls during a cardiac cycle (heart beat). During the cycle, heart muscle contraction is known as systole, and heart muscle relaxation is known as diastole. Systolic blood pressure, the higher of the two pressure measurements, occurs as the heart muscles contract, pumping blood into the aorta. Heart muscles then relax allowing the heart to refill with blood and the lowest pressure reached represents the diastolic blood pressure. Normal systolic blood pressure in adults varies between 110 and 140 mmHg in generally healthy individuals, and diastolic pressure varies between 60 and 90 mmHg. When blood pressure rises to 140/90 or above, this is classified as hypertension – see Table Table 1. Systolic (mm Hg)
Diastolic (mm Hg)
Classification
110
Moderate hypertension (stage 2) Severe hyper tension (stage 3) Table 1 Classification of blood pressure
Hypertension is also related to other diseases including stroke, heart attack, and coronary artery disease. The two types of high blood pressure are: •
•
Primary hypertension – also known as essential hyper tension, and commonly caused by stress and injury. It has no specific symptomology. symptomology. Other causes include emotional disturbances, heredity, heredity, race, climatic condition, obesity, obesity, smoking and alcohol intake. Secondary hypertension – this condition may lead to kidney infection, malfunctioning of the endocrine glands and arterial problems, such as ar teriosclerosis.
If not detected at an early stage, high blood pressure may lead to arterial cardiac and renal damage. Nevertheless, hypertension can be suspected if people experience headaches, giddiness, hazy vision, ringing in the ears, and disturbed kidney functioning. Participants should check with their doctor to ensure it is safe to practice yoga with their specific blood pressure problems. Standard medical advice for people whose blood pressure is controlled on medication is to engage in exercise and other healthy activities that a person with normal blood pressure would do. For participants with high blood pressure the main area that a yoga teacher needs to consider is the avoidance of postures that will increase blood pressure further.
Inverted postures In an inverted posture, gravity causes pressure to increase inside the blood vessels of the head and neck.
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The extent of the increase will depend on two factors: how far above the head the heart is, and how far above the heart the legs and trunk are. Therefore, a mildly inverted posture such as Downward Facing Dog, which lifts the heart hear t only a little above the head and does not elevate the legs, only increases pressure in the head a little. Supported Bridge Pose, which involves lying on bolsters, legs horizontal, and feet at hip level, increases pressure in the head to a greater extent because the legs and trunk are slightly above the heart, and the heart is slightly above the head. Shoulder Stand increases pressure in the head to yet a greater level, because the legs and trunk are raised to their maximum ver tical position above the heart, and the heart is raised somewhat higher above the head than in the bridge position. Headstands increases blood pressure in the head the most, because the legs and trunk are maximally elevated and the head is as far below the heart as it can get. To safely practice inversions, they should be introduced gradually over several months, starting with mild or partial inversions first, then gradually attempting steeper inversions. In order to manage hypertension, lifestyle management that includes the adoption of a ‘yoga lifestyle’ can be beneficial (Ayammie, 2011). Yoga techniques can help to treat and prevent high blood pressure, through a combination of postural work, meditation, breathing, relaxation and nutrition. Hypertension: modifications to yoga practice
For hypertensive participants, the following modifications should be considered: • • • • • • • •
Do not take the head lower than the heart, and be wary of raising the hands above the head. Avoid extreme inverted postures, and encourage semi-inversions instead Participants Participants should not hold their breath, and should avoid excessive exertion Care should also be taken when holding postures for a length of time Any posture that constricts the neck is prohibited, and options should be given (e.g. Bridge) Be wary with bandhas, especially Jalandhara and Uddiyana bandha Do not hold the breath excessively in breathing practices (kumbhaka) The following postures should be practised softly with no strain: Downward facing dog, Standing forward bend and Locust
Key research
Conquering stress significantly reduces the risk of disease to the cardiovascular system. Research has suggested that yoga is beneficial for the cells in the inner lining of the arteries (endothelium). The lining is usually flexible in apparently healthy individuals, but among those with cardiovascular disease or those at higher risk, it becomes more rigid and susceptible to damage. A study that followed the effects of yoga on 33 people (Meikle, 2004), showed significant reductions in blood pressure, body mass and pulse rate following yoga practice (six weeks of three ninety minute yoga and meditation sessions per week). In addition, arterial monitoring showed significant improvements in endothelial function.
Low blood pressure Participants Participants with low blood pressure should avoid breath holding in postures and breathing practice. Care should be taken when moving from inverted postures and seated postures into standing. If a participant becomes dizzy they should stay in a lying or seated position until they feel comfor table to proceed. Participants should roll on to their right side following savasana to allow the blood pressure to normalise after relaxation.
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Musculoskeletal problems
Back pain Back pain is one of the most common musculoskeletal disorders, and yoga can offer a simple, effective and sometimes permanent resolution for this condition. Arthritis, slipped disc and sciatica are also common
Normal
Lordosis
Kyphosis
Scoliosis
Figure 1 - Postural abnormalities
causes of back pain that may benefit from yoga (Karmananda, 1983). It is worthy to note that some authors will have definite prohibition for some postures for back pain, whereby others encourage the same postures to help strengthen the back. Precaution is needed by the yoga teacher to ensure the postures taught do not lead to exacerbation of a back condition. If in any doubt, a par ticipant should always contact a specialist for advice. In addition, a number of common postural abnormalities may also contribute to back pain (Figure 1). These include excessive lordosis (lower back curvature) and kyphosis (excessive mid-back curvature), as well as scoliosis (lateral deviation of the spine). These abnormalities can increase stress on the spine and surrounding soft tissue structures , as well as decreasing the efficiency with which the body moves. It is thought that the normal thoracic and lumbar curves, when in a static neutral position, should be approximately 20-45 degrees. Whilst a minor lateral deviation of the spine is considered fairly normal, a curve of more than 10 degrees would be considered a scoliosis. Yoga can help alleviate and prevent various forms of back pain: by encouraging greater awareness of correct posture, and by helping to release excess tension. The causes of back pain can be varied, and include: • • • • • •
stress related poor posture or incorrect movement of the body obesity and poor diet lack of exercise accident or trauma to the area conditions, such as arthritis
There are specific postures that may help to alleviate certain types of back pain; the following routine highlights some of these postures: • • • • • •
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Lying on the back, bring knees to chest one at a time (bend up the other knee with foot flat on the floor) As above but straighten the leg Pelvic Pelvic tilts – with both knees bent up and feet flat on the floor Bridge – two foot support Locust – alternate arm and leg raises Hug knees to chest
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• • •
Lying on the back, bend the knees up and have the arms out at shoulder height, drop both knees over to one side and repeat other side Childs pose Recovery – lie on the back with the legs on a chair or legs up a wall
Lower back problems The lumbo-pelvic-hip region is a common site of pain and dysfunction, often taking the greatest strain in lifting and bending during everyday movements. Participants should avoid over-bending and twisting postures, instead working with postures that ease spinal loads. It is vital that the spine is kept flexible and mobilised, as well as encouraging participants to work on their abdominal muscles. When lying down is required, such as in relaxation, ensure that alternatives are given where required, e.g. bending the knees up, or sitting in a chair or against a wall. In seated positions it is good to ask par ticipants to sit on blocks.
Upper back problems The thoracic/cervical area is most commonly affected by stress and trauma. Participants need to avoid inverted postures such as headstands, as well as avoiding taking the head back in postures such as Camel and Fish. Care should be taken with Bridge postures (reduce lift, use piles of cushions under the neck if necessary) and Shoulder stands (practise the alternatives). In Savasana, a pillow can be used to support the head. An example routine that can benefit those with thoracic/neck problems may include: • • •
Exhaling, drop the head forward, inhaling, lift up Exhaling, turn chin to right shoulder, shoulder, inhaling, return to centre (repeat left) Exhaling, tilt the right ear to the shoulder, shoulder, inhaling, return (repeat lef t)
Shoulder and wrist pain This is usually due to muscular imbalances or weakness, and can be aided by yoga which can balance the muscles and increase strength in the weakened areas. For shoulder and wrist problems each posture should be adapted individually for the participant.
Knee problems The knee is particularly par ticularly vulnerable to forces in the frontal and transverse planes, thereby increasing risk of injury if participants do not position the hip correctly, particularly when the knee is bent. Participants Participants will need alternatives for kneeling postures if they have painful knees (e.g. kneel on a folded mat or blanket instead), or alternative postures such as seated. For postures involving flexion of the knees, a block may be used to sit on (or a number of blocks) and a rolled up towel behind the knees. Protecting the patella (knee cap) and meniscus (cartilage between the femur and tibia that cushions the force of weight from the body) is important. This may be achieved by lifting the toes on all standing leg stretches such as Forward bends, Triangle, Triangle, and Twisted Twisted triangle; when the front leg is bent in poses such as Warrior 1 and 2, the front toes should only be lifted. This action activates the lower leg muscles, which serves to protect the knee from hyperextending. The knee should always track over the ankle, and never past the toes. If participants have a sensitive patella, a blanket can be placed under the knee cap when kneeling in poses like Camel. If there is pain during knee flexion, a rolled up towel can be placed behind the knee, to create space in the joint (Chambers-Goldberg, 2011). Yoga offers an approach that emphasises flexibility and deep breathing, both of which can aid relaxation, improve lymph drainage (the removal of cellular waste from the bloodstream) and improve strength. As a result, it can be beneficial for most types of musculoskeletal problems (Internet Health Librar y, 2011).
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Clinical perspective
Yoga offers well known health benefits on a number of different d ifferent levels, however this ancient art ar t is described in traditional texts as offering offeri ng specific benefits for many types of arthritis. Two studies at the BKS Iyengar Yoga Studio of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, showed yoga to be of great benefit in treating cases of osteoarthritis of the hands and carpal tunnel syndrome. In both these complaints, the researchers discovered that there was a significant improvement in the pain experienced by those patients who practised yoga, compared to patients who were not participating in yoga.
Pregnancy A yoga teacher should generally recommend that a pregnant participant attends a class specifically for pregnancy as the benefits of yoga tailored for pregnancy can be tremendous Pregnancy is a time when many ordinary body weaknesses can be exaggerated, and the expectant mother may suffer from common ailments such as back ache, blood pressure changes, digestive problems, sickness and vascular problems. During this period, yoga can be a valuable form of exercise and relaxation.
Backache Many women may go through pregnancy with no experience of backache, while others may find it a real problem. The body’s centre of gravity changes throughout pregnancy, altering balance and often leading to postural problems. This in turn can cause periods of muscular pain. The lumbar and sacral areas are particularly vulnerable as the spine adopts a ‘leaning back’ posture often associated with heavy pregnancy. The larger the load, the more likely this is to happen. The gentle stretching postures of yoga coupled with breathing techniques can help to alleviate pressure and restore correct postural balance, creating feelings of ‘lightness’ and relieving discomfort. All postures should be adapted and modified as the pregnancy progresses.
Blood pressure changes Many women are worried by raised blood pressure during pregnancy. Although hypertension does require medical treatment, elevated blood pressure associated with stress can be alleviated by yoga practice.The relaxation aspect of yoga is particularly beneficial.
Digestive problems Many women suffer from heartburn and indigestion during pregnancy. pregnancy. This is caused by the effects of relaxin and the size of the uterus pushing upwards on the diaphragm and the stomach. Problems can also be caused by unusual cravings and not eating in a regular way due to sickness. Constipation is also often an issue, especially if the pregnant woman does not keep active. The breathing techniques of yoga that complement the postures and relaxation techniques can aid the circulatory and respiratory systems, and in turn this aids digestion and elimination.
Sickness Sickness can occur all the way through pregnancy, and at any time of the day or night. Hormonal and physical changes can cause sickness and is often ver y distressing.
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Precautions •
Avoid retention of the breath and breathing practices such as Kapalabhati and Ujjayi
•
Often clients will approach yoga for the first time during pregnancy, pregnancy, and this should be preceded by a GP consultation. If the participant is a regular yoga par ticipant, she can continue with yoga as long as she feels comfortable. The following guidelines are generic and each pregnant participant will need to be treated individually to ensure the postures are suitably adapted º
One to three months months – yoga practice practice can can continue continue as usual, usual, with with particular particular attent attention ion and and awareness of the changes in balance. Teachers should work with the participant to see which postures produce feelings of well-being and which cause tiredness. The participant should not overstretch or try to increase flexibility; this is because the hormone, relaxin increases ligamentous laxity during pregnancy, pregnancy, and over stretching can cause damage to the ligaments during this time. The participant should also avoid postures that contain strong twists, as well as avoid retention of breath
º
Three to six months months – during during this this time of noticeab noticeable le change, change, any balanc balancing ing posture posturess can be be done against the wall or using a chair. Strong twists and overstretching should also be avoided (as above), as should face down postures. The use of teaching aids should be considered such as blocks, pillows, blankets etc. Seated and standing forward bends should be performed with the legs at a wider stance. Strong Pranayama should be avoided, and suitable relaxation practices can be lengthened; positions for relaxation, recovery and meditation can all be modified to suit the participant
º
Six to nine months months – seated seated posture postures, s, as well well as those that encou encourage rage good good genera generall posture posture should be a strong focus during this time, particularly postures that maintain strength in the pelvic floor and aid hip flexibility
º
Post-na Post-natal tal period period – gentle gentle supine supine twists, twists, pelvic pelvic tilts tilts and bridges bridges are are advised advised at this this time. time. Individua Individuals ls should always consult with their GP to ensure they can begin practice again. Full postures and strong Pranayama should be avoided. The ligaments will still be soft, and the pelvis and lower back will take some time to regain normal function (The British Wheel of Yoga, 2004)
Contraindications in yoga practice Although yoga has numerous health benefits, strict precautions must be taken with certain medical conditions; in some cases, yoga should not be practised at all. If a participant has any changes to their health, or observes any changes in their body, the yoga teacher must encourage them to talk this through in case the yoga practice has to be discontinued. If the yoga teacher is in any doubt or uncertainty regarding any aspect of the participant’s health, they should refer back to their doctor. doctor. There is some controversy in what conditions are definite contraindications, but the following list outlines a selection of these. The yoga teacher should ensure that a screening process (see next section) is in place before any participant can start classes, and if a teacher is unsure about any aspect of the client’s health, they should ask the participant to consult their doctor. doctor. The following list contains conditions that may be worked with, but with caution:
Heart disease People suffering from atherosclerosis and angina are advised against the practice of any yoga positions which may lead to excess mental and physical exhaustion.
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Severe joint problems Those suffering from arthritis or gout should not practise any such asanas which aggravate their condition; Surya Namaskar is one such asana. As a result of knee problems, an individual may not be able to sit cross-legged, therefore alternative asanas that can be performed in a chair should be offered.
Anaemia The side effects of anaemia can often produce symptoms of dizziness and weakness, therefore Yoga should be avoided until the participant par ticipant has been treated.
General contraindications • • • •
Regular nose bleeds Infectious disease Psychiatric disorders (e.g. schizophrenia) HIV/AIDS - the immune system of the person may be ver y weak; however meditation and relaxation exercises may produce some benefits. Any exercise which causes physical and mental fatigue should be avoided (Green Herbal Remedies, 2011; Jerard, 2009).
There are a number of other conditions that may be discovered during the initial screening process; these conditions can be addressed through exercise only if the yoga teacher holds further fur ther specific qualifications to manage these conditions even after medical clearance is provided. Such conditions include: • • • • • • • • •
Cardiovascular disease Stroke Cancer (this will depend on type of cancer and treatment plan) Type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus Parkinson’s Parkinson’s or Alzheimer ’s Multiple sclerosis Diagnosed depression Dementia Glaucoma
If the yoga teacher does not feel confident or comfortable teaching a par ticipant with a specific condition, it is important that they refer the participant to a suitably qualified healthcare professional. Where appropriate, teachers should inform clients that they do not have the specialised qualification and training in the adaptation of yoga for special populations. Where teachers find themselves frequently working with special population participants they should endeavour to obtain the relevant qualifications; failure to do so could render them in breach of their duty of care. Teachers should ensure that their employer’s insurance policy covers their instruction, of special population clients if relevant.
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Understanding the importance of screening Screening Screening is essential for participants that will be taking part in any physical activity. activity. Although yoga does not have to incorporate any physical exertion, this unit presumes that physical yoga is to be taught to par ticipants. Screening is important as it sets out to identify the presence of disease or health conditions that would affect an individual’s yoga practice. Adequate screening will give the yoga teacher the information they need to be able to plan and teach safe effective sessions for their participants. Some simple questionnaires to assess current health status can be used. These can be sent out via email to prospective participants prior to their first class. Often Of ten the participant will complete this at their first class, so it is essential that any problems that may affect practice can be discussed with the teacher beforehand. Based on the results of the screening, a professional judgement can then be made as to whether the participant can join the yoga session, or be referred to a more suitably qualified healthcare professional.
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) The first step to screening usually begins with some sort of Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q). (PAR-Q). This is used to determine a par ticipant’s readiness to begin a programme of physical activity. The PAR-Q has two purposes: 1. Build self-awareness 2. Help to inform the teacher of participant needs and concerns Fitness professionals working in a gym or studio may not have the opportunity to administer the written PAR-Q PAR-Q with each participant individually before the start of a session. However, However, the form may have been administered by other members of staff (e.g. customer ser vice team). A verbal PAR-Q PAR-Q should be used every time a class starts even if written PARQs have been carried out. This will ensure that any changes to health are picked up on (e.g. “does anyone have any illnesses or injuries that I need to know about?”). Each facility will have its own method of health screening, and it is essential that all teachers are aware of these procedures.
Other considerations It is important that teachers have details of a participant’s emergency contact numbers (e.g. next of kin) and GP’s contact details. In the event of an accident or emergency these details are vital. This can be incorporated on a PAR-Q PAR-Q form. It is essential that the teacher knows where these details are stored. See Appendix 1 for a sample PAR-Q form
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Health Commitment Statement (HCS) The Health Commitment Statement sets the standards that health and fitness centres and users can reasonably expect in regards to the health of the user. The HCS is considered the evolution of the PAR-Q, PAR-Q, which has existed for the past 15 years. The HCS reflects government policy and legal trends, which aim to shift responsibility for personal health from the operator to the user. The HCS has been developed by Fitness Industry operators, medico-legal professionals and health providers to support the evolving requirements of users and operators.
Purpose •
To develop the current PAR-Q to simplify access to activity facilities for users
•
To assist the health, medical and fitness industries to work in harmony while supporting suppor ting initiatives to encourage the nation to become more active
•
To bring health and fitness clubs in line with virtually all other sports and active leisure facilities in relation to health matters
•
To demonstrate respect for members by placing responsibility where it belongs - with the individual member
•
To be consistent with current government policies in encouraging ever y individual to take responsibility for his or her own health
•
To be in keeping with current trends in legislation and case law
•
To be consistent with a more modern approach to individual responsibility in medicine and the law
•
To provide the opportunity for a uniform approach across the health and fitness industry, producing greater clarity and reducing costs
•
To remove stress and anxiety from staff in relation to health of members
The HCS has been designed with all operators in mind, allowing flexibility with its usage, and can be purchased from a web download centre. This allows the operator to use it to suit individual operating models. On purchase, the HCS will be branded to suit the operator. The HCS may be accessed by individual sites or by an operator’s operator ’s head office in order to provide greater operating control.
Implementation
The HCS should be drawn to the attention of users. It is not necessary by law that the user indicates receipt of the HCS. However, should an operator in the future wish to be able to prove that a user has seen the HCS; the operator may want the user to indicate receipt of the HCS. This may be achieved in various ways, according to the most suitable practice of individual operators: 1. Online – users that are are purchasing online contracts could read read an online copy copy and tick a box to indicate they have read the HCS. 2. HCS copy visibly placed placed on reception with a term term added to the user agreement agreement that makes reference reference to the visible HCS. The user signs the agreement thereby confirming they have read the HCS. 3. HCS copy visibly placed at reception reception with a term included in a signing-in signing-in book or guest book that makes reference to the visible HCS. 4. HCS copy printed off and signed individually individually by the user and recorded in the members’ members’ notes in a private and confidential location.
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Lifestyle analysis Lifestyle analysis asks further questions around the par ticipant’s personal lifestyle and health history. history. This information is valuable if a teacher wants to work closely with a participant to enable them to achieve their goals for attending yoga classes. Lifestyle questionnaires are subject to a participant’s interpretation and willingness to share private information about their lifestyle; it may be that their concerns or embarrassment about how they live will restrict the accuracy and honesty with which i nformation is shared. The yoga teacher should decide what areas they would like to be covered in the lifestyle analysis but it is important that they understand their participants and their reasons for attending the yoga class. Again this can be sent out prior to the first class along with any screening documents. Examples of the type of information that can be obtained in a lifestyle questionnaire include: •
Medical history
•
Current physical activity levels
•
Exercise history
•
Posture Posture and alignment
•
Functional Functional ability
•
Occupational factors – this gives clues to any postural problems e.g. hunched over a computer all day
•
Diet
•
Smoking and alcohol use – may highlight coping mechanisms
•
Stress levels
•
Sleeping patterns - sleep deprivation has been linked to premature aging, digestive disturbances, psychological problems, behavioural disturbances and a myriad of chronic diseases
•
Goals
•
Motivation levels
•
Barriers to participation
Important information for a yoga participant Once screening and lifestyle analysis questionnaires have been completed, the teacher will also need to provide information about their first class. This can be in the form of a hand-out including frequently asked questions, and can be sent via post or email format. This information may include the following.
Information on yoga For example: The most common translation of the Sanskrit word yoga is ‘union’. Yoga is a practice and a philosophy that originated in India 5000 years ago. Hatha yoga has been described as the science of living. It combines physical movement and postures, basic and skilled breathing techniques, structured mental concentration and relaxation exercises. Yoga can be a class once a week, or a lifestyle. Whatever you choose yoga to be in your life, it will help to keep you healthy and happier and it’ll help cultivate knowledge of self.
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Information on the type of yoga taught in class For example: I teach Hatha yoga and I vary my classes each week. I focus on alignment al ignment and breathing, in order to help release tension in the mind and body, and to help participants develop greater body intelligence. I put emphasis on the connection between body and breath, rather than advanced postures.
Benefits of yoga For example: Yoga offers ways to keep the mind and body healthy and happy. It helps to •
support the body’s body’s systems (endocrine, (endocrine, immune, immune, respiratory, respiratory, circulatory etc)
•
promote strength and flexibility flexibility
•
improve posture
•
relieve mental and physical tension
Information on what happens during the class For example: Classes follow a set structure and are of ten themed. They start with a relaxation and breathing exercise to calm the mind and body. They move onto preparation movements to awaken the joints and muscles ready to work in the postures (asanas). The main part of the class is asana work and classes end with a longer relaxation
Class capacity, start time and duration For example: Class numbers vary from 6 to a maximum of 12 people, and begin at 1pm every Thursday. Classes last 1 hour and 15 minutes. Please make sure you are on your mat and ready to start at the time advertised for the beginning of the class.
Prior fitness and health For example: Yoga is for everyone, no matter what age, fitness level or flexibility. Before you attend the class you will need to complete and return the health screening and lifestyle questionnaires. It is important to listen to your body body.. You You are your best best teacher. teacher. If you you are unsure about about anything during a class, ask for assistance. assistance. Or if anything causes you pain or distress, let me know as I can modify the posture for you or give you an alternative. If you have any concerns, please let me know at the beginning of the class.
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Appropriate clothing For example: Yoga is practised in bare feet, so you can connect more effectively with the earth. Wear clothes that allow you to move freely and are comfortable. It is wise to wear layers, this way you can control your temperature. temperature. Bring some socks and a long sleeved top for the final relaxation, as body temperature will drop. A blanket or rug to put over you during relaxation is also a good idea. Please take care not to wear strong perfumes, as yoga classes do heat up the body and the effect of perfumes can be overpowering in this environment. Do not wear excess jewellery especially anything that jangles such as bangles or earrings that may make a distracting noise or get caught in clothing when doing the postures.
Pre class preparation For example: It is advisable not to eat a full meal less than three hours before a class, as it impacts on your digestion, making it uncomfortable for you during the class. If you get hungry or know that you feel weak if you don’t eat, you can eat a small, light snack up to 30 minutes before the class, e.g. a piece of fruit, yoghurt or a handful of nuts. It is also advisable not to drink during a class, as this stimulates the digestive system. system. It is also recommended that students students drink lots of water after and in the run up to a class.
Focus Try to avoid any unnecessary talking during your practice. This will help you and other students to keep focused and promote a yogic environment
Equipment Yoga is practised on mats and these are provided for you
Lateness Please arrive with enough time to be settled on your mat for the start of the class. This will help you feel like you have committed to your practice, and that you won’t disrupt others. If you do find yourself coming to class late, please enter the room quietly and find a space. If I feel you have missed too much preparation for it to be safe for you to practise, it won’t be possible for you to take part in the class.
Safety I will advise about safe ways to practise postures. It is up to you to listen to your body and practise with care and mindfulness. Everyone’s body is different. By tuning into your body you can tailor your practice to suit your body type within the constraints of the instruction. If you experience any pain whilst practising, release out of the posture and let me know. If you experience pain after practising remember to tell me before your next class. Real pain is an indication that you are doing something wrong or that the posture needs to be modified in some way to gain the greatest benefit, and to prevent injury.
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Ability Remember that your body is different from everyone else’s. Every day your body will have a different endurance level and your yoga practice will help to increase your awareness of this. Never be afraid or embarrassed to come out of a posture before others, or before being told to do so by the teacher, if you are feeling discomfort or tiredness (Downward dog yoga, 2011)
Occasions when you shouldn’t practise yoga There are varying opinions as to when people should or shouldn’t practise yoga. The most important thing is to seek information and listen to your own body. body.
Menstruation Most yoga teachers recommend women should not practise inversions (shoulder stand, headstand etc) when they are menstruating. This is because inversions work against the natural energy flow during this time by taking the head below the heart. Many postures are especially beneficial during this time.
Colds Generally it is fine to practise when you have a cold; it can be very beneficial. However, please consider other students, as it may not be appropriate for you to come to class.
Pregnancy There is varying opinion on this, and it will depend on the individual. It is possible to modify postures so that pregnant women can still enjoy yoga practice.
Injury or post operation Please ensure that you fill out a health questionnaire and return it to the yoga teacher before attending a class. Following Following injury or recent surgery, it is recommended that medical advice is sought from a GP before attending a class. It is possible to modify almost all postures to accommodate injuries.
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Legal and ethical implications of collecting information Client confidentiality In 1998 the Data Protection Act (DPA) was introduced to give and protect the rights of individuals who have personal information held about them, and places obligations on those individuals with legitimate reasons for recording, processing and using personal information. This means yoga teachers will need to justify the purpose for which personal information is to be processed, and and the benefits that will be gained by the participant. Since yoga teachers will need to collect personal information, they have a ‘legal and ethical duty’ to document, organise and store personal information obtained from participants and should be in line with good information handling practice. To To comply with the DPA, the yoga teacher must obey two obligations when holding personal information. Firstly, teachers need to follow the eight principles of good practice. These state that data must be: 1. Fairly and lawfully processed 2. Processed for limited purposes 3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive 4. Accurate and up-to-date 5. Not kept longer than necessary 6. Processed in accordance accordance with with the individual’s rights 7. Secure 8. Not transferred to countries outside the european economic economic area, unless the country country has adequate protection for the individual For personal information to be fairly processed, at least one of the following conditions must be met: 1. The individual has consented consented to the processing processing 2. Processing is necessary for the performance of a contract contract with the individual 3. Processing is required under a legal obligation obligation (other than one one imposed by the contract) contract) 4. Processing is necessary to protect the vital interests of the individual 5. Processing is necessary to carry out public functions functions e.g. administration administration of justice 6. Processing is necessary necessary in order to pursue the legitimate interests of the data controller controller or third parties (unless it could unjustifiably prejudice the interests of the individual) The participant has several rights stated by the DPA over all personal information held by the yoga teacher, teacher, these include: 1. The right to access access – participants have full access access to personal personal information held about them, them, whether it is recorded electronically or manually 2. The right to prevent processing – the participant can ask the data controller not to process personal information held if they feel it causes distress or harm to them or others 3. The right to prevent prevent processing for direct marketing – the participant can ask the data controller controller not to use personal information for direct marketing purposes
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4. The right to compensation – the participant will be able to claim compensation compensation for damage and distress caused by the misuse of personal information held about them 5. The right to rectification, rectification, blocking, erasure and and destruction – participants can apply apply to the courts to rectify, block or destroy information held by the data controller if they feel the data controller has misused or based their opinions on inaccurate information 6. The right to ask the Information Commissioner’s Office (body to promote and enforce the DPA) DPA) to assess whether the Act has been contravened – participants can ask the commissioner to make an assessment if they feel that their personal information has not been processed in accordance with DPA DPA In addition to the above, consideration should be given to the following. •
Writing is legible
•
Writing is in black permanent ink
•
Information is in a clear and logical format
•
All entries are dated and signed
•
Any corrections must be initialled and dated
•
Correction fluid must not be used
•
Any advice given to the par ticipant is recorded within 24 hours
•
All subjective and objective information is recorded
•
The teacher’s full signature must appear on each page
•
Records are stored securely in a lockable fire proof cabinet at all times
•
Records are confidential and not accessible to third parties
•
Records are retained for a minimum of eight years
•
Records are only released with the client’s written permission
The second obligation states that data controllers must inform the Information Commissioner about themselves, the kind of information they intend to hold and the purpose for which that information is to be processed. A form can be completed online at www.dpr.gov.uk. The notification form should then be printed off and sent by post with a fee of £35 to: Notification Department, Information Commissioner’s Office, P.O.Box 66, Wilmslow, Cheshire, SK9 5AX.
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Understanding the health and safety aspects of teaching yoga Safety issues With any exercise there can be risks. Yoga allows participants to become aware of their bodies (and minds), and so factors such as poor posture, poor muscle tone and emotional tension can be addressed through continued practice. By law all employers have a duty to make their employees aware of the health and safety regulations pertaining to their place of employment. The prime responsibility is with the owner/proprietor of the premises, but safety is everyone’s responsibility. responsibility. Any accidents that occur whilst teaching a class must be reported according to the organisation’s emergency reporting procedures. In addition, freelance instructors or contracted members of staff should check the procedures relating to health and safety responsibilities. These may include the following. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Ensuring the environment is safe Carrying out a risk assessment of any new venues Ensuring the floor is suitable and non-slip Ensuring mats are clean and in good condition Checking that equipment is in good condition and suitable for purpose Ensuring broken or damaged equipment, fixtures or fittings are reported Ensuring car parking facilities are adequate Ensuring fire exits and assembly points are clear and par ticipants are aware of these Ensuring participants are aware of evacuation procedures Be aware of the location of the nearest phone Being aware of the location of the first aid box Ensuring the first aid box is up-to-date Being aware of the reporting procedures for accidents or incidents Being aware of the qualified first aider on the promises (if this is not yourself) Being aware of any participants’ medical needs Ensuring participants are advised on suitable dress
If your yoga classes are being run from home, there are still laws regarding health and safety of participants. These pertain to the use of the building and possibly parking. Insurance should cover working practices from home. The amount of health and safety monitoring required from a yoga teacher will depend on the location of the class, e.g. one-to-one private setting vs. leisure centre/health club. The latter is likely to be covered by in-house health and safety policies Wherever the class is taught, the yoga teacher has a duty of care and responsibility to their participants. A yoga teacher must: • • • • • • • •
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Ensure the teaching environment is safe Prevent risks to health Ensure that equipment is safe to use Make sure that all equipment is handled, stored and used safely Provide adequate first aid resources Be clear of the facilities evacuation/emergency plans Record any incidents or accidents Make sure that ventilation, temperature, lighting, and toilets, washing and rest facilities all meet health, safety and welfare requirements
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Risk assessment A hazard is anything with the potential to cause harm. The risk is the likelihood that someone could be harmed by that hazard together with an indication of how serious the harm could be. The law doesn’t require employers to eliminate all risk, but they are required to protect people as far as is ‘reasonably practicable’. The first stage of a risk assessment is to look for hazards. A hazard can be something easily seen, such as a trailing cable, a worn carpet or exposed wiring. Or it can be something less obvious - a slippery surface, sur face, for example. It can also be something general, such as poor lighting, or it can be something specific to the teaching environment e.g. excess noise from other users. A hazard can also be something directly affecting participants, such as exposure to fumes - or something affecting the environment in general, such as boxes piled up in a walkway and excess waste in the teaching area. There are different types of hazards. • • •
teaching room hazards, such as the room layout activity hazards, such as using equipment in the class environmental hazards, such as the fumes created when using cleaning chemicals
When looking for hazards it can be helpful to: • • • •
walk around the teaching room talk to other users who may be more aware of the hazards look at any available safety data sheets and manufacturers’ instructions to identif y potential problem areas examine accident and health records to identify existing problem areas
Making the yoga teaching space safe There are a number of steps that must be taken to ensure the yoga teaching space is a safe place to exercise. This may include checking there are no over t hazards or obstacles that could threaten the safety of your participants, as well as ensuring all walkways are clear of any objects that might cause a slip, trip or fall. Rugs and mats should also be secure, so they don’t slip beneath a participant’s feet. P lants or other objects placed on the floor should be clear of the teaching area. If the yoga teaching space is in a place where the weather could have an effect on the safety of participants, (e.g. outdoors), then this will need to be included in the initial safety check as well. Participants should be able to get to the yoga class safely and there should be no branches or rocks on the walkway into the venue, and any snow or ice needs to be cleared before participants arrive. Another place where safety can be a factor is in the products used in the teaching space. Some teachers may use scented candles and incense sticks to create a relaxed atmosphere; in such cases, the teacher will need to find out about any allergies or sensitivities that par ticipants might have, that may trigger a reaction. Scented candles are also a fire hazard. Even with all of these precautions taken, yoga teachers still carry a risk by operating a business, and that risk should be insured. By purchasing yoga insurance, teachers can create a safety net for any accidents or damages that might occur, occur, despite every effort to create the safest environment possible. For example, a participant could slip, trip or fall on the way to the class; this could happen even if there are no obstacles in the way, way, and the participant could decide to sue for damage and/or personal injury. injury. In such cases, the general liability portion of the insurance policy would provide the protection required in order to face this claim. Other aspects of a solid yoga instructor insurance policy should include malpractice liability insurance and product liability insurance.
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These two portions of the yoga insurance policy will provide protection in the rare case a participant claims damage or injury due to a lack of skill or competence of a yoga teacher, or due to a product used during the teaching session (National Association of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2010).
Common hazards in a teaching environment
Slip, trip and fall hazards The main causes of slips, trips and falls are: • • • • • •
spillages - clean up all spillages immediately. immediately. Use another area until the spillage or wetness is gone trailing cables - try to place equipment to avoid cables crossing walkways and use cable guards to cover cables where required, e.g. cables on a music system rugs and mats - where they cannot be eliminated, make sure rugs or mats are securely fixed and that edges do not present a trip hazard slippery floor surfaces sur faces - assess the cause of the slipperiness and treat accordingly, accordingly, for example treat chemically and use appropriate cleaning materials and methods changes in floor level - improve visibility through additional lighting poor lighting - improve lighting levels and placement of lighting to provide a more even lighting level over all floor areas
Lifting and carrying hazards These include injuries resulting from lifting and carrying. Ensure participants lift any equipment in an appropriate manner, manner, especially if using chairs for props.
Fire Fire is a major hazard and may be caused in a variety of ways that include waste paper, faulty wiring or other electrical faults, equipment overheating and candles. Good management of fire safety is essential to ensure that fires are unlikely to occur; and if they do occur, they are likely to be controlled or contained quickly, effectively and safely. If a fire does occur and grow, everyone must be able to move quickly and safely to a designated safety point. Fire risk assessments will help to ensure that fire safety procedures, fire prevention measures, measures , and fire precautions are all in place, and the risk assessment should identify any issues that need attention. This will include: • • • •
alarms signage evacuation procedures (Emergency Action Plans) staff training
Hazardous substances and chemicals There are a number of chemicals which may cause harm, e.g. liquid soap in the washroom, or candles that may cause skin irritation. Ensure that these risks are minimised for the safety of participants.
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Risk assessment A risk assessment is simply a careful examination of what could cause harm to people, so that the yoga teacher can weigh up whether enough precautions have been taken, or if more could be done to prevent harm. Participants have a right to be protected from harm caused by a failure to take reasonably controlled measures. There are five key principles to risk assessment: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Identify the hazards Decide who might be harmed and how Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions Record the findings and implement them Review the assessment and update if necessary
The following information and guidance is provided by the Health and Safety Executive and describes each of the 5 steps:
Step 1 Identify the hazards • •
Walk Walk around and look at what could reasonably be expected to cause harm Ensure all users are asked what they think. They may have noticed things that are not immediately obvious to others
Step 2 Decide who might be harmed and how •
•
For each hazard be clear about who might be harmed; this will help identify the best way of managing the risk. That doesn’t mean listing everyone by name, but rather identifying groups of people (the participants or the teacher) In each case, identify how they might be harmed, i.e. what type of injury or ill health might occur
Step 3 Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions • • • •
see if there’s more that should be done to bring the environment up to standard having spotted the hazards, decide what to do about them can the hazard be removed altogether? if not, how can the risks be controlled so that harm is unlikely?
When controlling risks, apply the principles below, if possible in the following order: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Try a less risky option Prevent access to the hazard Reduce exposure to the hazard Provide welfare facilities (e.g. first aid and washing facilities)
Step 4 Record findings and implement them •
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When writing down your results, keep it simple, for example ‘ Tripping over rubbish: bins provided, weekly checks’
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Step 5 Review your risk assessment and update if necessary •
•
•
Few environments stay the same. Sooner or later new equipment, substances and procedures are brought in that could lead to new hazards. Therefore, review on an on-going basis. Periodically conduct a formal review to make sure the environment is still improving, or at least not reverting back to unsafe practices Look at the risk assessment again. Have there been any changes? Are there improvements that still need to be made? Have any par ticipants spotted a problem? Have there been any accidents or near misses? Make sure the risk assessments are up-to-date During the year, if there is a significant change, don’t wait. Check your risk assessments and, where necessary, amend them
Reporting Hazards It is important that you report any potential health and safety hazards to the manager of the venue. These reports are one of the most effective ways to identify hazards. When hazards are reported (before they result in an injury or illness), managers can take preventive actions to make sure injuries or illness do not result. Each organisation will have a specific procedure for reporting hazards.
Dealing with emergencies Emergency procedures in a teaching environment A teaching environment can potentially be a dangerous one, and a teacher may be faced with an emergency situation. This may be in relation to those par ticipating in the class, for example, through poor technique or from heart attacks and strokes. Alternatively emergencies may arise on a larger scale, such as fires or chemical spillages/leaks. Each environment will possess a set of emergency operating procedures which the teacher will need to become familiar with. The following information provides insight into typical procedures that take place in the event of an emergency, emergency, and areas of concern within the teaching environment in relation to such events.
Accidents and sudden sudden illnesses The effects of an accident or a sudden illness may cause the body’s body ’s function and structure to change. The teacher’s role in an emergency is to remain calm, recognise signs and symptoms, call emergency services, total patient care, self-care and deal with the aftermath. The acronym CALM can be used: • • • •
C - Calm yourself A - Assess situation L - Locate assistance if available M - Make area safe
Note the following as part of an emergency plan: location, telephone number, number, district, guiding landmarks, description of accident, other services required (i.e. police, fire brigade), number of casualties and their sex and age, description of injuries, and seriousness of injur y or condition
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The Emergency Services should be called when: • • • • • • •
casualty is unconscious suspected head, neck or spine injury suspected fractures or severe dislocations severe external bleeding suspected internal injuries serious medical problems such as heart attacks, asthma and diabetic emergencies you feel unable to handle the situation yourself, or the casualty’s condition is worsening
First aid box Minimum contents of a first aid box - recommended where there are no special risks: • • • • • • •
guidance leaflet 20 individually wrapped sterile adhesive dressings of various sizes 2 sterile eye pads 4 individually wrapped triangular bandages 6 safety pins 6 medium sized and 2 large individually wrapped, sterile wound dressings 1 pair of disposable gloves
Emergency situations The following provides examples of the type of procedures a teacher may follow when confronted with an emergency situation. It is important, however, however, that the teacher follows the emergency operating procedures as laid down by their employer. employer. Following procedures calmly and correctly is important to ensure the safety of everyone within the facility. Remaining calm is important to avoid inflicting panic on others, and to prevent further harm. It is crucial that the procedures set by the organisation are followed, as an employee can be held liable for harm caused by the work environment if certain actions are not taken. They also provide focus and clarity for the teacher during the emergency and will have been put together by a qualified professional, thus providing the ideal course of action to follow during an emergency situation.
Fires 1. 2. 3. 4.
If you discover a fire, operate the nearest fire alarm or, or, if no alarm is provided, shout “FIRE”. If you hear a fire alarm, leave the building by the nearest available escape route and go to your assembly area. Lifts must not be used in the event of fire. In the event of a fire requiring the attendance of the fire brigade or ambulance service, follow the guidelines provided in Table 2. Care of casualties - if you are not qualified in first aid yourself, send for the nearest available First Aider, Aider, who will take charge of the situation. If no qualified First Aiders are available, ensure that an ambulance is called.
Contacting emergency services Location Incident Other services required Number of casualties Extent of injuries Location
Telephone number, district, guiding landmarks Description of accident Police, Police, fire service ser vice Number, sex, age Description and seriousness of injur y, or condition Repeat location description Table 2 Contacting emergency services
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A fire fighting strategy should consider: • • • •
appointment of fire wardens, with subsequent training location plans of fire hoses, extinguishers and water sources access for emergency services provision of firewater lagoons
Area evacuations Evacuation of areas in the event of fires, toxic gas emissions or security threats, for example, should be addressed in an emergency evacuation procedure. This should specify designated safe areas and assembly points. The procedure should also identify responsible personnel whose duties during area evacuation include: • • •
responsibility for a specific area ensuring roll calls are undertaken to identify missing persons communication of missing persons to central emergency services
Role of the emergency services Emergency services are organisations which ensure public safety by addressing different emergencies. Some agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies whilst others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their normal responsibilities. There are three services ser vices which are almost universally acknowledged as being fundamental to the provision of emergency care to the population, and are often government run. They would generally be summoned on a dedicated emergency telephone number, number, reserved for critical emergency calls. They are: • • •
Police Police – providing community safety and acting to reduce crime against persons and property Fire and Rescue Service – reduce the risk of fire and other emergencies in all communities through a combination of prevention and protection, working in partnership with other service providers Emergency Medical Service – providing ambulances and staff to deal with medical emergencies
Health and safety legislation The following information is relevant to yoga teachers who teach in a gym or health club environment.
Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974 The ‘Health and Safety at Work Act 1974’ is the basis of British health and safety law, and sets out the duties that employers and employees have to themselves and members of the public. Employers must make every attempt to ensure maximum health and safety requirements, as far as is ‘reasonably practicable’. In other words, employers need not avoid or reduce a risk/s if the risk is grossly disproportionate to the measures taken to avoid or reduce it. Other relevant legislation that teachers need to be aware of includes the following:
First aid • Covers the requirements for first aid • Number of first aiders • Who are the first aiders? • First aid kit requirement • Where the nearest telephone is • Reporting accidents and information to be given
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Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) Requires employers to report injuries (and some diseases), and allows enforcing authorities to investigate serious accidents
Manual handling • • • •
Defined as ‘when a person uses their body to lift, carry carr y, push or pull a load’ If hazardous lifting cannot be eliminated then mechanical means need to be used The environment in which manual handling takes place needs to be considered The capability of the individual involved in manual handling needs to be taken into account
Emergency action plans (EAPs) EAPs are a company’s procedures in the event of accident or incident, e.g. bomb threat, evacuation, gas leak, fire, or life or death situations. EAPs are generally specific to an environment; for example, the requirement for a studio-related incident will be different to a gym-based incident. Staff training must be given to all employees, and this is often followed with a test to demonstrate competence. EAPs cover the following requirements: • • •
What to do in the event of… What to do during… What to do after…
Responsibilities of the yoga teacher There are a number of additional responsibilities for the yoga teacher in relation to health and safety. safety. These include the following:
Qualifications Yoga teachers must have valid and current qualifications for the tasks they are performing, including a first aid qualification; if not, they pose a risk to themselves and others.
Public liability insurance Yoga teachers must be covered by employer’s liability insurance if working in the place of employment, or personal public liability insurance in all other environments.
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) Written screening must be completed by all clients before participating in physical activity. The client should fill out a Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (see example in Appendix 1) confirming that they are fit to take part in a class. If they answer “YES” to any of the questions they must get their doctor ’s consent before participating in any physical activity. activity.
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Licensing requirements for using music in a yoga class It is illegal to copy pre-recorded music for use in a yoga class. Companies that produce specialised yoga music have purchased the right to do so. They pay large annual fees to provide this service to teachers. Once a company has produced a CD or music download, it is then licensed to that company. It is illegal for anyone to copy this product. The fines for copyright infringement are very high and it is illegal to play copyrighted music in public places. This includes any recordings of songs which are performed by the original artist. A license to do so must be purchased prior to the use of such music. In general, this is the responsibility of the instructor. The companies that produce yoga music CDs may provide such a license to teachers purchasing their products. In other situations, health and fitness centres may purchase the license. The teacher should purchase their own license prior to using such music products, or ensure they are covered by the license held by the facility where they are employed.
Professional registration for yoga teachers Yoga has a variety of professional bodies and codes of conduct as previously mentioned. It is not mandatory to be a member of any associations, but it is always useful for the teacher to have the support of a network of like-minded individuals. Each style of yoga has its own independent organisation, and there are other associations and bodies that can be joined. It is strongly recommended that yoga teachers become registered with REPs, and teachers are encouraged to update their knowledge and skills regularly; by joining an association, opportunities for training are wider. Associations may also offer specialised insurance policies for yoga teachers. Below is a selection of yoga associations: • • • • • • • • • • • •
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Bikram yoga – www.bikramyoga.com The British Wheel of Yoga - www.bwy.org.uk (recognised by Sport England as the governing body for yoga in Great Britain) The Association for Yoga Studies – www.ays.org.uk www.ays.org.uk (formerly Viniyoga Britain) British Council for Yoga Therapy – www.britishcouncilforyogatherapy.org.uk British Yoga Teachers Association – www.yogauk Friends of Yoga Society (FRYOG) International – www.friendsofyoga.co.uk Independent Yoga Network – www.independentyoganetwork.org Iyengar Yoga Association (UK) – www.iyengaryoga.org.uk Yoga Alliance UK – www.yogaalliance.co.uk Yoga Biomedical Trust – www.yogatherapy.org YogaUK – www.yogauk.com Register of Exercise professionals (REPs) – REP’s is an independent public register – www. exerciseregister.org
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References Ayammie (2011). Yoga Yoga and high blood pressure. Available at www.abcofyoga.com/yoga-an www.abcofyoga.com/yoga-and-health/ d-health/ yoga-for-hypertension (accessed 7/12/11) 2. British Wheel of Yoga (2004). Yoga and Pregnancy Leaflet 3. Chambers-Goldberg, T (2011). Tips for protecting knees Available at www.yogatuneup.com (accessed 13/12/11) 4. Downward Dog yoga (2011). Information needed before attending a yoga class Available at www. www. downwarddogyoga.co (Accessed 14/12/11) 5. Green Herbal Remedy (2011) Contraindications in yoga. Available at www.greenherbalremedies. com (Accessed 13/12/11) 6. Internet Health Library (2011). Musculoskeletal problems and yoga. Available at Internethealthlibrary. Internethealthlibrary. com/Health-problems/Musculoskeleta com/Health-problems/MusculoskeletalPa lPain in (Accessed 7/12/11) 7. Jerard, P (2009). Contraindications in Yoga. Available at www.ezinearticles.com (Accessed 13/12/11) 8. Karmananda (Swami) (1983). Management of common diseases. Yoga Publications Trust 9. Meikle, J (2004). Yoga benefits body, soul and blood vessels. The Guardian 10. National Association of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2011). Making the yoga space safe. Available at www.nacams.org www.nacams.org (Accessed 14/12/11) 11. Serber, E (2011). Yoga and stress. Available at www.willharris.com/yoga and stress (Accessed 7/12/11) 1.
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Appendix 1 Physical Activity Ac tivity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) (PAR-Q) If you are between the ages of 15 and 69, the PAR-Q will tell you if you should check with your doctor before you significantly change your physical activity patterns. If you are over 69 years of age and are not used to being very ver y active, check with your doctor. doctor. Common sense is your best guide when answering these questions. Please read carefully and answer each one honestly: check YES or NO. YES 1.
NO
Has your doctor ever said you have a heart condition and that you should only do physical activity recommended by a doctor?
2.
Do you feel pain in your chest when you do physical activity?
3.
In the past month, have you had a chest pain when you were not doing physical activity?
4.
Do you lose balance because of dizziness or do you ever lose consciousness?
5.
Do you have a bone or joint problem (for example, back, knee, or hip) that could be made made worse by a change in your your physical activity? activity?
6.
Is your doctor currently prescribing medication for your blood pressure or heart condition?
7.
Do you know of any other reason why you should not do physical activity?
If yes, please comment: ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… YES to one or more questions: You should consult with your doctor to clarify that it is safe for you to
become physically active at this current time and in your current state of health. NO to all questions: You You can be reasonably sure that it is safe for you y ou to participate in physical activity activ ity,, gradually
building up from your current ability level. A full fitness appraisal can help to determine your fitness level. I have read, understood and accurately completed this questionnaire. I confirm that I am voluntarily engaging in an acceptable level of exercise, and my par ticipation involves a risk of injury. Participant name: ………………………………………… Participant Participant signature: ……………………………………. …………………………………….
Date: ………………………………………… …………………………………………
Teacher name: ……………………………………. Teacher signature: signatur e: ………………………………..
Date: …………………………………………
Having answered YES to one of the above, I have sought medical advice and my GP has agreed that I may exercise. Signature: Signatur e: ………………………………………… ………………………………………….. ..
Date: …………………………………………
Note: This physical activity clearance is valid for a maximum of 12 months from the date it is completed
and becomes invalid if your condition changes so that you would answer YES to any of the 7 questions
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Unit 5 Teaching a yoga session Aim: the aim of this unit is to provide learners with the skills needed to be able to teach a safe and effective
yoga session. The unit includes teaching skills related to asana, breath awareness and pranayama, mudra, bandha, relaxation, concentration and meditation. This unit also includes self-evaluation and personal development skills for the yoga teacher teacher.. Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you will:
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•
be able to teach breath awareness techniques to participants
•
be able to teach mudra techniques to participants par ticipants
•
be able to teach bandha techniques to participants
•
be able to teach relaxation techniques to participants
•
be able to teach pranayama techniques to participants
•
be able to teach concentration and meditation techniques to participants
•
be able to self-evaluate and reflect on the teaching of a yoga session
•
be able to undertake personal yoga practice
•
be able to plan a personal development programme
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Teaching yoga techniques Previous units have covered the underpinning theory and application relating to a number of techniques used within a yoga session. These include the following. • • • • •
Breath awareness and pranayama Asana Bandha Mudra Relaxation and meditation
This unit will consolidate the knowledge gained from the practical workshops that accompany this qualification, by providing clear information on how to apply this knowledge into practice. In addition, Appendix 1 contains a checklist that can be used to prepare for teaching classes for the first time, and to plan for assessment.
Considerations for starting and ending yoga sessions
Prior to starting a yoga session, the teacher should also consider the following format to ensure that the class begins in a safe and appropriate manner: • • • • • • • • •
Participants Participants are welcomed Participants are verbally screened to check for injuries and medical conditions that may affect their performance The aims and objectives of the session are explained Clothing is appropriate to the session Relevant health and safety issues are addressed, e.g. emergency exits, location of water fountain Participants are advised to work at their own level, using suitable adaptations/modifications where necessary New techniques or teaching points are explained and/or demonstrated, e.g. new breath awareness techniques or mudra A suitable atmosphere is created, e.g. music, lighting When ending a yoga session, teachers should aim to prepare participants emotionally and physically to finish the session safely, and should include praise of effort and achievements during the session. In the event that participants have any questions, the teacher will also need to ensure they are available after the class.
As courtesy to the teacher and participants in the next class (if relevant), the area should be cleared as quickly as possible, and is the responsibility of the teacher. This may involve: • • •
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checking all equipment is in good working order, and reporting any breakages or faults returning all equipment to its storage area safely checking the area for any dangers/hazards for the next session, and putting measures in place to avoid these (e.g. reporting any important information)
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Improving performance of participants Teaching position It is essential that the teacher maintains observation of the entire group at all times throughout the session to ensure that errors in technique are identified and corrected or modified/adapted. Of ten in a yoga class it is the restrictions of the participant’s par ticipant’s body that will stop them achieving certain asana. Participants should not be forced into positions and individual differences should be recognised by the yoga teacher. teacher. When planning the layout for the class and where to place the mats, consideration must be given as to where the teacher will be best positioned in order to effectively observe the group, and for the class participants to see the teacher. teacher. In so doing, teachers should also be aware that participants will be viewing a mirror image and therefore they should adapt their language/demonstrations language/demonstrations appropriately. appropriately. The class can be planned with the mats vertical or horizontal, and teachers should ensure that participants have their mats aligned with the rest of the group. All too often, new yoga teachers stay at the front of the class for the whole session, making it difficult to recognise poor technique promptly. promptly. To To avoid this, teachers should move around the class regularly, carefully observing the entire group whilst motivating and interacting with the participants. Yoga can be very hands on and the teacher should be prepared to touch the participants to gently encourage them into positions that would be more beneficial to them and their bodies. Yoga teachers should always ask permission before touching a participant as some people just do not like to be touched and this could put them off coming to a yoga class.
Communication and motivation During a yoga class the teacher will be expected to inform participants of specific techniques, relevant teaching points, any corrections in technique, and suitable adaptations (where necessary). This requires the combination of many communication and motivational skills, using both verbal and non-verbal approaches.
Verbal communication More than simply calling out instructions, this can involve the following considerations: • • • • • • • •
Varying intonation, to mark out key words and to maintain participant interest and motivation Speaking slowly and confidently Giving clear, clear, concise teaching points, using simple words and sentences Using visualisation and metaphorical language Stressing positive technique and avoiding use of negative teaching points (i.e. saying what to do, not what not to do) Speaking to everyone in the class, not just the front row Relaxing and staying calm Remaining observant
Non-verbal communication There are a number of ways to employ effective non-verbal communication, including: • • •
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demonstrating correct technique using facial expressions and eye contact using manual assistance to correct technique (with permission)
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Communication and asana practice The following general suggestions may aid the introduction of yoga postures to par ticipants: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Before starting to instruct a posture, ask everyone ever yone to be quiet and still for a few breaths. Make a few comments about the intention of the posture or tell a story connected to the posture using references from the ancient yoga texts. Set the tone by giving direction for the breath. This may include cues such as, “Listen to your breath as if you are listening to the sound coming from a sea shell,” or “Listen quietly to your breath as you breathe in and out through your heart.” Ensure that the breath is linked with the pose. For example, for Mountain pose (Tadasana), “Take a big breath in, and at the same time lift your heart and let your arms reach up to the sky and touch the clouds” or, “Think of yoga as a dance of movements that are connected to the rhythm of the breath. Typically, ypically, on inhalation, the body is moved in order to be open to receive oxygen; on exhalation, the body is moved to release toxins and carbon dioxide”. Bring awareness to the energy or the intention of the pose. For example, for Tree Tree pose (Vrkasana), “The supporting or balancing leg is like a strong tree trunk, with the foot growing strong roots deep in the ground below”. Back bends provide provide another example. example. “When the spine bends backward, the area around the heart opens up. Keep the area around the heart open and find the middle ground and the balance between effort and challenge mixed with comfort and ease”. Before starting a posture or a movement, it is important for participants to feel grounded and centred, to have a foundation. To To reinforce this, a teacher may say, say, “In yoga, the body needs to be strongly grounded at all times. The feet are the foundation when standing and the sit bones are the foundation when sitting. Similar to building a house, where the foundation foundation allows for floors floors to be built on top of it, a strong foundation allows the rest of the body to be correctly and safely aligned”.
Motivating participants It is essential that teachers can motivate their participants and inspire them to change their lifestyle with yoga in a way and at a level they wouldn’t normally consider. consider. Achieving this type of motivation may involve a number of factors: Be prepared
When a teacher is thoroughly prepared, they do not have to concentrate on their technique or their cues, allowing full focus on the participants; interacting with them can be a powerful motivator. Being prepared will also give the teacher confidence to motivate. Be yourself
As a new teacher, teacher, it is beneficial to have a role model, such as another another respected teacher. teacher. At the same time, it is important to remain congruent, as participants will relate better to a ‘real’ person, rather than someone who’s pretending to be something they are not. Encourage your participants
Participation in all aspects of the yoga class should be encouraged. If participants are finding aspects of the session challenging, teachers should acknowledge this first, either non-verbally with an understanding smile, or verbally, with a few well-chosen words. The teacher can then make a decision on whether to correct or modify the technique at that moment, or to speak with the participant after the class, offering some supportive words and guidance. Enjoy yourself
One of the most motivating factors in any class is when the teacher is seen to be enjoying themselves. If the teacher is enjoying their class, this energy can carry across to the par ticipants.
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Take notice of your participants
Noticing and feeding back on participant progress can be a strong motivator when delivered both individually, individually, and to the entire group – and may contribute to long term adherence to yoga.
Positive reinforcement and feedback Teaching correct alignment Teaching correct alignment is central to setting the tone and foundation for each yoga pose. Alignment refers to the configuration of the body that allows for optimal mechanics and posture. Even in final relaxation posture, correct alignment still applies, and the body should feel lengthened and open. A useful illustration of the concept of feeling grounded, centred, and in alignment is Mountain pose, from which all standing poses begin. Participants should be instructed to imagine a mountain, with the base strongly rooted into the ground while the peaks aspire into the clouds and the sky. The following steps describe alignment using Mountain pose as the reference. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Spread the toes wide, making floor contact with all four parts of the foot: the ball of the foot, little toe side, and inner and outer heel. The feet are hip-width apart, with the feet firmly placed into the floor. floor. Briefly lift the toes to allow for the the body weight to be shifted back. Then release the the toes, and be mindful not to grip with the toes. Actively engage the muscles of the legs, with the knees slightly bent. “Actively” engaging muscles means contracting and making the muscles firm in the area. Engage the abdomen, or core, of the body as if putting on a belt, keeping the area from the hips to the shoulders (core) strong and stable but not rigid. The tailbone will naturally tuck down and under to point to the floor, which helps stabilise the back muscles. Stand tall, finding length through the spine with the crown of the head reaching toward the sky. Honour the natural curves of the spine, and keep the head as a natural extension of the spine, not hyper-extended or arched arched back. Imagine a string attached to the crown of the head head pulling upwards to the sky. From the belly belly button down, there is a strong strong foundation. With the feet rooted into the ground, ground, the legs are strong as if the muscles are squeezing the bones, and the kneecaps are slightly lifted, with the muscles of the quadriceps (front of the upper legs) engaged. From the belly belly button up, the upper body is open and lifted out of the waist but not rigid. Place the head at the top of the the spine, the chin level with the ground. Keep the chest open open and lift the heart space, the collarbones collarbones wide. Roll the shoulder shoulder blades back and down as if they are reaching reaching to the back pockets. Do not let the shoulders hunch, but instead instead create space between the ears and shoulders.
Holding of postures The holding of a yoga posture refers to how long the posture is held or maintained in order for the benefits of the posture, such as muscle endurance, strength, strength, or flexibility, flexibility, to be realised. To improve these areas, the principle of overload must be applied. To gain strength, endurance, or flexibility, the body must be challenged in order for growth to occur, but not to a point where there is discomfort or pain. Overload can be facilitated by asking participants to stay with the posture so they feel challenged, but not overdoing it and becoming frustrated. The teacher needs to continually point out that yoga should feel good yet invigorating. The teacher’s language must include ‘permission language’ to facilitate this process. This means giving participants the responsibility of being the best judge of what their bodies need, and when to come out of a posture. A useful teaching instruction to encourage this permission is to state (during a posture), “You can hold this pose for one or two breaths and then come in and out of the pose when you need to.”
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Yoga poses should have a natural ebb and flow to them, implying a moderate level of steady and comfortable effort, and not a goal to push to exhaustion. It is important to pace the more active poses with restful poses. Paying Paying close attention to par ticipants breathing and energy levels can provide useful cues to what is the right mix for them (Tummers, 2011).
Correcting participants In order to correct form and technique effectively, the yoga teacher will need to constantly observe par ticipants, watching for those who are having difficulty understanding the correct alignment of the asana, or specific yoga technique. If errors are identified the best way to address this is to give a positive statement to the participant first before correcting any any poor technique. This ensures that the teaching is positively delivered and encouraging, and any remarks don’t de-motivate the individual and the group. A good teacher should always inform participants what they should be doing rather than what they should not; this brings attention to the correct form and technique rather than focusing on the wrong way of performing. When a teacher notices a participant who is performing a technique incorrectly, the following steps can be taken to correct them: 1. 2.
3.
4.
Make a general statement to the entire class about the correct performance of the technique. In many cases, participants will adjust the technique problem accordingly. If a general statement fails, try to make eye contact with the participant and make the general correction again. again. Be sure to smile and encourage the participant. Alternatively, Alternatively, move closer to the participant and re-demonstrate the technique. If the participant continues with bad form or technique, the teacher will need to assess the risk of injury to the participant if they maintain their current execution. If there is minimal risk of injury, make the general correction whenever performing the technique. Try Try not to single out the participant par ticipant and make a mental note to speak to them af ter class. If a teacher feels the participant par ticipant is likely to injure themselves, they will need to approach them.
Explain that they are at risk of injury if they carry on with their current technique. Reinforce the correct technique again and allow them to copy copy. Be encouraging and positive, offer alternatives alternatives if needed. Try to avoid bringing the groups attention to one par ticipant, as this will cause embarrassment.
Positive feedback Feedback is essential for both the teacher to give, and the par ticipant to receive. When delivered positively and with sincerity, sincerity, it can encourage people by letting them know they are per performing forming well. The following may offer some guidance when delivering positive feedback: • • • • • • • •
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Give general positive statements throughout the class, e.g. “good”, “great”, “terrific”, “fabulous” Use non-verbal positives, e.g. nodding, open body expressions, smiling, hand gestures Give positive feedback with specific information, e.g. “good straight back” Consider that too much corrective feedback can create an error-centred climate Consider that specific correction can be effective, e.g. “knees over toes”, “contract your abdominals more” Give four positive feedback statements to every one correction Personalise Personalise positive feedback where possible by using names Maintaining eye contact with a smile is one of the most simple and effective forms of positive feedback. Be careful of non-verbal cues which create negative tones, e.g. frowns, rigid posture, facial expression
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Self-evaluation and reflection On completion of the class, the teacher should feedback to participants on their efforts. They should also ask for any feedback on the class, as this can be invaluable in improving future teaching skills. To To ensure classes are effective and meet the needs of all participants, the review of the session should involve all members of the class. Types Types of questions that could be asked include: • • • •
What did the participants think of the teacher’s ‘teaching style’? Did the participants enjoy the session? What have the participants achieved during the session? What would they suggest to improve the session?
Any information gathered should then be used to determine if the session has met expectations and, if not, what can be done to rectify this in the future. It can also be used to plan the progression or modifications of future classes. To further improve teaching abilities, it is important for the teacher to evaluate and reflect on their own performance by asking themselves the following questions: • • • • • •
Did the session meet the aims set out in the session plan? Did the session meet the needs of the participants? Were all the health and safety aspects addressed during the session? Were all resources used adequately (e.g. mats, blocks, straps)? Were the asana adapted appropriately for the relevant par ticipants? Were professional codes of practice adhered to?
This ‘personal reflection’ would include noting any improvements which could be made to the original class plan. This will help the teacher to explore ways to progress planning and delivery skills. When evaluating own performance, a teacher should not be too hard on themselves; selecting just one or two areas that can be worked on over the following few weeks will serve as a useful starting point. Feedback from peers is another useful and constructive means of progressing teaching skills. An experienced teacher can often offer suggestions to further improve teaching skills and to increase a new teacher’s confidence by identifying strengths in current teaching practice. All aspects of the evaluation should be recorded in order to assist the continued professional development of teaching techniques. Following the review, it may be necessary to update existing plans utilising any feedback and suggestions made, to ensure continued participant satisfaction and retention.
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Personal yoga practice It is vital for any yoga teacher to have their own practice, ideally daily. This will ensure that teachers are in tune with their own bodies and that any asana that they teach is well practised. Daily practice will also enhance a teacher’s own health and wellbeing, as well as influence their teaching greatly. It is difficult for a teacher to share the benefits of yoga with their classes unless they can experience them first hand themselves. It is essential that yoga teachers have their own teacher too. Teachers should regularly attend classes themselves to enable them to improve their own technique. Workshops and continual professional development is also essential to enable progression both personally and professionally and to bring new ideas to the participants. par ticipants. Yoga Yoga isn’t something that can be learned from one course or from a few years of attending a class; yoga is something that is an individual journey and one where a teacher and participant will be continuously learning each time they step on the mat. As a new teacher it is recommended to keep a diar y of yoga practice, especially when trying new techniques. Thoughts, feelings and experiences should be recorded, plus timings of any sessions. A daily practice need not be long - it can be as little as 10 minutes of meditation, or a full hour and a half asana practice with pranayama and relaxation. Across a week, a teacher should practise a selection of asana, breathing practices, mudra, and bandha techniques. It is common for yoga practitioners to experience other aspects of their lives changing once they embark on yoga practice. All of these aspects can also be recorded in a yoga practice diary.
Evaluation and reflection of personal practice Every month or at planned regular intervals, the yoga teacher can look through their personal practice diaries and reflect on what they have learned. It is especially useful to note any difficulties that have been experienced as these can be shared with the class (where relevant), especially if participants are experiencing similar issues. This may be related to asana, breathing practices, meditation, or concentration issues. Everything that is experienced is valuable for the teacher and may be something that can can be shared to benefit and enrich the yoga class par ticipants.
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Personal development plan Once a teacher has gathered feedback from their participants and reflected on their own teaching skills, they will need to develop a personal development plan which outlines their personal learning objectives. Personal Personal development plans can address the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
What do you want to get from your teaching? What are your strengths? What areas would you like to improve? What is preventing you from developing as you would like? Which interests or talents would you like to develop? How do you like to learn? What skills or experience would give you more confidence? What are your short, medium and long term goals
Identifying learning requirements If a yoga teacher is employed, a personal development plan can also identify the learning requirements within the organisation and set out the ways in which the requirements can be met; this may include the resources needed, the timescale and how the learning will be evaluated (Skills - Third Sector, 2011). Below is a simple example that will help formulate ideas for a personal development plan. Designing a personal development plan Your needs
How can you meet those needs?
How will you know when you have met those needs?
What are the challenges in my teaching that I need to improve? Where do I want to be in 2 years? Where do I want to be in 5 or 10 years? How does that fit in with my career path or what my organisation wants? What adjustments will I need to make to achieve what I want? What adjustments will other people need to make for me to achieve what I want? What else should I consider? What additional resources will you require and from where do you hope to obtain them? (Will you have to pay any course fees? Will you be able to organise time for learning in working hours?) How will you evaluate your Personal Personal Development Plan? How will you know when you have achieved your objectives? (How will you measure success?)
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Evaluation of learning Once a teacher has recognised what learning needs to take place and has undertaken the necessary learning, it is essential to evaluate the learning against the original goals. The following guide may help to assist the evaluation: Courses
Your objectives, what was learnt, ho how you will us use the information
Mentoring Coaching Coaching Coaching – Informal Informal Reading
Dates, ou outcomes, ke key le learning fo for yo you, ho how yo you wi will us use th the le learning Dates, outcomes, key learning for you, how you will use the learning Outcomes Outcomes of informa informall coaching coaching with peers and other other colleagues colleagues What was learnt, how you will use the information
Research Training Expe Experi rien ence cess
Your objectives, what was learnt, how you will use the information The co course ob objectives, wh what yo you learnt, what yo you wi will do differently next titime. Real eal exp exper erie ien nces ces fro from m wh which ich you you gain gained ed sign signifi ifica cant nt insi insigh ghtt, Mis Misttake akes – you yours or others. Record what happened, happened, what you learnt, learnt, how you will have applied this
Reflection on learning It is important to reflect on learning in order to: • • • •
accept responsibility for personal growth help see a clear link between the effort put into the development activity and the benefits that can be achieved from it help see more value in each learning experience to learn ‘how to learn’ and add new skills over time
How to reflect on learning Reflecting on learning enables a teacher to link professional development to practical outcomes, and widens the definition of what counts as useful activity. In simple terms, a teacher should always keep asking ‘what did I get out of this?’ A reflective learner thinks about how new knowledge and skills can be used in future activities – so learning is always linked to action, and theory to practice. It’s also useful to reflect on personal preferences in how to learn. This may be through private study, networking with peers, formal courses, mentoring, or a combination of techniques.
References 1. 2.
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Skills-Third Sector (2011). Training needs analysis. analysis . Available at www.skills-thirdsector.org.uk www.skills-third sector.org.uk (Accessed: 31/8/11) Tummers, N (2011). Teaching Teaching yoga poses. Available at www.humankinetics.com www.humankinetics.com (Accessed: 25/1/12)
Copyright © 2012 Active IQ Ltd. Manual not for resale Level 3 Diploma in Teaching Yoga (QCF) - Manual
Appendix 1 Teaching checklist Arrive in time to prepare for the planned session. session. Get mats and resources ready (blocks, straps, blankets etc) plus any administration documents such as PARQs, questionnaires, hand-outs, register etc. 2. Welcome the participants as they enter the class and create a suitable atmosphere to begin the class – encourage participants on to their mats and to become peaceful and calm. Ideally in savasana or comfortable seated posture with eyes closed. Try and discourage too much chatter at the start of the class. 3. Ensure appropriate clothing is worn by both teacher and participants, i.e. bare feet, non-restrictive clothing and minimal jewellery. jewellery. 4. Carry out verbal screening before or at the start of the class giving appropriate advice to the participants based on the information given. 5. Advise on appropriate health and safety procedures specific to the session, e.g. emergency procedures or highlight any hazards. 6. Explain the aims and objectives of the session. counter poses. Ensure that a thorough plan is in place for each 7. Select safe and effective asana and counter session and the plan includes a balance of postures i.e. standing, seated, lying, balances etc. 8. Give clear/accurate explanations to the participants to ensure they can perform the asana safely and effectively. 9. Project volume and pitch of voice effectively (without the aid of artificial amplification) to suit each section of the class. During relaxation the voice should should be quieter and should become louder louder in recovery section to awake the participants par ticipants from any meditative state. 10. Demonstrate correct technique of asana and counter poses. 11. Incorporate the breath with each asana and use the in breath and out breath in the correct manner 12. Incorporate the theory of yoga throughout the class where relevant to explain the yoga postures and their benefits bringing in ancient yoga texts where relevant. 13. Incorporate the Sanskrit names for asana and explain their English translations. teaching positions to observe class participants and respond to their needs. Move 14. Adopt appropriate teaching around the class when needed and ensure you can be seen at all times. 15. Adapt verbal and non-verbal communication communication methods. Try to avoid constant talking and leave some silence whilst teaching so that the participants can enjoy being in the postures and concentrate on their breath. Ensure the class class participants understand understand what is required. required. 16. Use appropriate motivational styles that are consistent with accepted good practice 17. Analyse participants’ performance, per formance, providing positive reinforcement throughout 18. Use appropriate methods to correct and reinforce technique (e.g. tactile cueing, changing teaching positions, asking questions, mirroring). timely, clear and motivational 19. Provide feedback and instructing points which are timely, 20. Identify asana that need to be adapted. 21. Adapt asana with suitable progressions and regressions according to participants’ needs and use teaching aids where necessary. necessary. Ensure blocks, straps, cushions, cushions, blankets etc are always always available to support the participants. 22. Provide alternatives to the planned asana if participants cannot take part. 23. End the session with appropriate relaxation, relaxation, breathing, concentration / meditation practices and final recovery activities. Ensure these are planned out before hand hand and part of a long term plan for the participants. Ensure the practices are appropriate for the the participant’s level and ability. ability. 24. Review the outcomes of working with participants including their feedback on the planned session 25. Identify how well the session met the session’s aims and objectives 26. Identify how effective and motivational the relationship with the par ticipants was 27. Identify how well the teaching styles matched the participant’s needs 28. Develop an action plan to improve future sessions 1.
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