Working Grammar

Working Grammar An introduction for secondary English teachers

Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and associated companies around the world

Sally Humphrey Kristina Love Louise Droga

Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 20 Thackray Road, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207 PO Box 460, Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207 www.pearson.com.au Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and associated companies around the world Copyright © Pearson Australia, Louise Droga and Sally Humphrey 2011 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) First published 2011 by Pearson Australia 2014 2013 2012 2011 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that that educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact Copyright Agency Limited (www.copyright.com.au). Reproduction and communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example any fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All enquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above. This book is not to be treated as a blackline master; that is, any photocopying beyond fair dealing requires prior written permission. Publisher: Catriona McKenzie Project Editor: Andrea Davison Editor: Ingrid De Baets Designer: Nikola Kyle Copyright & Pictures Editor: Suzy Freeman Cover design: Nikola Kyle Illustrator/s: Bruce Rankin Printed in Malaysia National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Author: Humphrey, Sally. Title: Working grammar : an introduction for secondary English teachers / Sally Humphrey, Kristina Love, Louise Droga. ISBN: 9781442539440 (pbk.) Notes: Includes index. Subjects: English language--Grammar--Study and teaching (Secondary) Other Authors/Contributors: Love, Kristina. Droga, Louise. Dewey Number: 428.2 ISBN 978 1 4425 3944 0 Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd ABN 40 004 245 943 Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Mary Macken-Horarik for her conceptual input in the early stages. The publishers would like to thank Stephen Clark, Daniel Groenewald and Helen Kent for their review of the manuscript and the following for permission to reproduce copyright material. Allen, Christopher: pp. 11, 76. Allen, Emily: p. 67. Balcomb, Jennifer: pp. 34, 50, 105, 108, 109, 114, 129, 134. Balcomb, Rosemary: pp. 36, 39, 43, 79, 137, 150, 152, 153, 156, 157. Bancks, Tristan: ‘Adaan’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, p. 40. Best, Lewis: ‘Call to Action’ from TakingITGlobal, www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.html?ContentID=6168, pp. 45, 96, 116, 117, 120, 138. Brown, Kristine: pp. 12, 13. Cavallari, Saro Lusty: ‘The Tres Malum’, pp. 16, 28, 31, 35, 44, 73, 80, 114, 126. Clark, Margaret: ‘Monkey Man’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, p. 127. Collins, Paul: ‘The Sudden Snow’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, pp. 34, 129. Dubosarsky, Ursula: ‘Like a Long-Legged Fly’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, pp. 22, 25, 129, 132. Fairfax: ‘A Young Refugee’s Plea for a Better Future’ by Nooria Wazefadost, Sydney Morning Herald, 21 June 2004, pp. 74, 90. Gleeson, Libby: ‘Roses’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, p. 127. James, Belinda: ‘Review of The Plague of Quentaris’, p. 32. Metzenthen, David: ‘Snapshot’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, pp. 50, 127. Phelan, James: ‘I am Alone’ from Picture This! 2, Pearson Australia, 2009, p. 118. Thompson, Chris: ‘Review of Swerve’, Viewpoint, issue 16, Summer 2009, pp. 43, 70, 72. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright holders to contact them. Disclaimer/s The selection of internet addresses (URLs) provided for this book was valid at the time of publication and was chosen as being appropriate for use as a secondary education research tool. However, due to the dynamic nature of the internet, some addresses may have changed, may have ceased to exist since publication, or may inadvertently link to sites with content that could be considered offensive or inappropriate. While the authors and publisher regret any inconvenience this may cause readers, no responsibility for any such changes or unforeseeable errors can be accepted by either the authors or the publisher.

Contents Introduction Grammar and its environment in English A brief history of ‘grammar’ teaching Grammar teaching in the early twenty-first century Principles of language underpinning this book Implications of a social view of language for teaching and learning

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar Genres and stages: a focus on narrative Genres and stages: a focus on text response Genres and stages: a focus on exposition The genres of English: a framework Genres and grammatical features

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use The building blocks of the English language Building blocks: words Building blocks: groups and phrases Building blocks: clauses and sentences Connecting clauses to make sentences and paragraphs Types of sentences Implications for English teaching

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings Naming the processes: verbs and verb groups Types of verbs Naming the participants in the process: nouns and noun groups Concrete, specific and everyday nouns Abstract, general and technical nouns Naming the circumstances: adverbial groups Implications for English teaching

Resources for building ideas in English: structures The grammatical structure of verb groups Auxiliaries More about tense Active and passive voice Aspect verbs Phrasal verbs Bringing verb group structures together The grammatical structure of noun groups Components of noun groups The grammatical structure of adverbial groups Adverbs Adverbial phrases Adverbial clauses Implications for English teaching

Resources for expressing and grading attitudes: evaluative language Evaluative vocabulary Grammatical resources and evaluative vocabulary Evaluative vocabulary and meaning Explicit and implicit evaluative vocabulary

v 1 1 3 5 7 8 9 10 12 15 16 18 18 19 20 23 25 26 29 30 30 31 41 41 42 43 47 48 48 49 51 55 57 58 58 60 60 66 66 66 67 68 69 69 70 73 77

Introduction v

Grading: resources for intensifying attitudes and building suspense Grading adverbials Graded core vocabulary Indirect grading resources Combinations of evaluative vocabulary and grading resources Implications for English teaching

Resources for persuading others: rhetorical language Modality: expressing degrees of possibility and obligation Using modality of possibility to temper opinions Additional grammatical resources for expressing modality Using modality of obligation to temper recommendations Citation: reporting and challenging the words and ideas of others Using citation to support or challenge positions Contrast and concession Comment and viewpoint expressions Interaction of rhetorical resources across texts Implications for English teaching

Resources for creating well-organised ‘crafted’ texts Modes of communication: spoken and written language Organising and signalling information Text openers Paragraph openers Sentence openers Implications for English teaching

Resources for building cohesive texts Reference Resources for reference Tracking reference Ellipsis and substitution Lexical cohesion Text connectives Implications for English teaching

Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English Development in the early years of secondary English Development of experiential resources Development of interpersonal resources Development of textual resources Interaction of grammatical resources Development in the senior years of secondary English Development of experiential resources Development of interpersonal resources Development of textual resources Bringing it all together Implications for English teaching

80 80 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 88 90 93 96 97 99 99 100 102 102 105 107 108 113 121 123 123 124 128 131 133 136 140 141 142 142 146 147 148 149 151 154 157 158 159

Answers

161

Appendices

185

References

199

further reading

200

Index

201

Introduction

This book has been designed as a professional resource for English teachers, both practising and pre-service. It can also be used as a set text and framework for course development in secondary English teacher education. Working Grammar provides an introduction to or refresher on grammar, particularly the kind of grammar used to explore and create the texts of secondary English in the twenty-first century, and the kind of grammar that underpins the Australian Curriculum for English. The reference to ‘working’ in the title signals our two-pronged approach to grammar: as a set of resources that work to build meanings, and as a set of understandings that teachers can exploit in working with the spoken and written texts of subject English. The book has three main purposes: to outline a view of grammar as a ‘tool kit’ of resources to provide English teachers with opportunities to practise their understandings of this functionally oriented view of language to model how a purposeful view of language can be used in classrooms.

How to use this book We suggest that you work through the book sequentially, since each chapter builds on insights from previous chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief history of grammar teaching and outlines the principles of language underpinning this book. Chapter 2 illustrates how this model of grammar does its own ‘work’ in three of the text types or genres commonly used in subject English. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the building blocks of language at word, group, sentence and text level. Chapters 4 and 5 focus on those aspects of this functionally oriented grammar concerned with building the ideas of English. These chapters cover the experiential function of language. Chapters 6 and 7 focus on those aspects of the grammar used to build relationships between reader/writer or speaker/listener and between characters within texts. These chapters cover the interpersonal function of language. Chapters 8 and 9 focus on those aspects of grammar concerned with helping students create well-structured texts and to identify how other speakers or writers organise their texts. These chapters cover the textual function of language. Chapter 10 explores how this grammar can be used to track development in students’ texts as they progress through the years of secondary school. Chapters 3–10 contain exercises that can strengthen your understanding of various aspects of the grammar covered. You can complete these on your own, many of them in the book itself, perhaps using an additional exercise book for more reflective responses. In a school context, there is considerable value in working through the exercises with other teachers, either in faculty or year-level groups, while considering the implications for your particular teaching situation. At tertiary level, student teachers can work through the book independently, or lecturers may find it useful as a set text. Answers to the exercises are provided at the back of the book.

vi Working Grammar

While the texts have been selected and exercises designed for teacher professional development purposes, some may, with appropriate modification, be adapted for use with students. You could either adapt the structure of the exercises and use your own relevant texts, or use the texts we have provided for modelling purposes with students in the classroom.

The texts used in this book All of the texts in this book have been either written or read in the secondary English curriculum of the various schools we have worked with. We hope that these authentic texts, and the language work around them, resonate with teachers. We have focused largely on texts which are highly valued by teachers as these illustrate the powerful work of grammatical resources most effectively. Because the system of grammar we are using can also account for student development, we have selected texts used across the years of the secondary English curriculum, and across the range of genres (narratives, expositions and response texts), as sites for building knowledge about language. These texts include student-constructed and published texts, both written and spoken. We are deeply grateful to the students, teachers and published writers of these texts for so generously making them available to us in this book. These texts are model texts in so many ways, and we invite you as teachers to use these for your own purposes.

Other useful features of this book Some of the model texts used throughout the book are included in appendix 1, while others are available at Pearson Places. Key grammatical terms in each chapter are set in bold at first occurrence and linked to an index at the back of the book, so that you can easily find the relevant pages when looking to revise your understanding of a key term. You may find yourself referring back more regularly to chapters 3, 4 and 5 in particular, since these chapters cover much of the grammatical groundwork. References and a list of further reading resources are included at the end of the book. Pearson Places is the online destination that allows you to access current educational content, download lesson material, use rich media and connect with students, educators and professionals around Australia. With over 30 000 resources online and constantly evolving, Pearson Places is the only place you’ll need for your digital solutions. www.pearsonplaces.com.au

Grammar and its environment in English

In this chapter, we provide an overview of the work of grammar in its secondary English context. In so doing, we review past traditions of grammar and explain the principles of language underpinning contemporary views.

A brief history of ‘grammar’ teaching Since the turn of the twenty-first century, English teachers have seen a renewed interest in the role of language in appreciating, creating and critiquing texts. In this recent ‘linguistic turn’, grammar is no longer seen as a set of prescriptive rules but rather as a description of how patterns of language choice construct meanings in different contexts. This contextual view of grammar links English teachers of the twenty-first century with rhetorical traditions dating back to the ancient Greeks and Romans. During the Roman republic and in ancient Athens, oratory was the supreme political skill. The rhetorical structures of public spoken language were highly organised and rigorously analysed for how they could be used to convince, to move, to inform or to entertain communities, whether this be in politics, the temple or the marketplace. In examining how language was organised to achieve these powerful social purposes, the Greeks and Romans actually catalogued many of the rhetorical tools of the trade. For example, they identified the ‘rule of three’ (involving repeated patterns of words, phrases or sentences), much loved by orators such as Cicero and extensively used by politicians since. One memorable example is Caesar’s ‘I came, I saw, I conquered.’ See Higgins (2008) for an overview of other such rhetorical tools.

2 Working Grammar

With the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century, and the further codification into writing of the spoken word, this interest in examining the structures and functions of oral rhetoric was extended to the written mode. Until the nineteenth century in English-speaking cultures (and still in some parts of the United States), rhetorical studies were a central component of the school and university curriculum. Students would study models of exemplary spoken and written texts, learning to emulate and modify these according to their own purposes. In the nineteenth century, with the expansion of mass education, attention focused on the structures of written language rather than on those of the oral mode, resulting in a narrower focus on children’s acquisition of alphabetic and syntactic knowledge— see Christie (1990) for a very interesting account. In breaking written language into its various parts, attention to the overall meaning and organisation of the text was gradually lost. Because they were cheap and easy to reproduce, prescriptive grammar books proliferated by the early twentieth century (Christie 1990). These were based on the sentence structures (or syntax) of written ancient Greek and Latin, languages whose structures differed from English in some fundamental ways. For example, the infinitive form of the verb ‘to go’ is one word in Latin, leading to the rule that infinitives should not be split in English, and thus rendering Captain Kirk’s rhetorically powerful line ‘to boldly go’ ungrammatical! By the mid-twentieth century the separation of grammar and rhetoric was complete. As a result, grammar became a set of drilled rules about sentence structure that did not contribute meaningfully to students’ own writing development. In the 1970s and 1980s, three key movements arose which represented a powerful backlash against this decontextualised and impoverished model of ‘traditional’ school grammar: ‘whole language’ (Goodman 1967), ‘personal growth’ models of English (Dixon 1975) and ‘process writing’ (Graves 1981). These all put student learning processes and growth at the centre of their pedagogy, but offered no model of language to guide the teacher. As a result, many teachers were trained during this era with no explicit knowledge about language (KAL), leaving them without sufficient resources for diagnosing or supporting their students’ language development. This was particularly problematic for teachers working with students from communities with fewer of the ‘valued’ literacy resources to draw on, and those learning English as an additional language. By the 1980s, a group of educational linguists (Christie 1990; Derewianka 1991; Rothery 1994) began to explore what kind of KAL would allow teachers to intervene more supportively in their students’ literacy development. The earlier work of these educational linguists revealed that teachers’ knowledge about language does contribute to students’ literacy development. The model of grammar proposed was largely developed by linguists Michael Halliday (1994) and James Martin (1993). There was a reconnection with rhetoric, in that the model was comprehensive and flexible enough to explore the characteristics of spoken and written texts and how these achieve particular purposes in particular social contexts. This more rhetorically oriented view of grammar has since informed much of current educational practice across Australia. It is a grammar which views language as a set of resources for enabling students to construct and read the varied texts of their contemporary world, while connecting them to the classic texts of the past. It is a grammar which allows students to appreciate and critique the powerful texts of their time, including those which galvanised social change by using rhetorical strategies that reconnected with Roman and Greek traditions of oratory. Two such texts are former Australian prime minister Kevin Rudd’s Apology to Australia’s Indigenous Peoples of 13 February 2008 (commonly referred to as ‘Apology to the Stolen Generations’ or more simply as ‘Apology speech’) and US President Barack Obama’s election night victory speech of 4 November 2008.

Grammar and its environment in English 3

Most recently, there have been renewed calls for the reintroduction of a more sustained approach to the teaching of rhetoric in the English curriculum—see, for example, Green (2009) and Sawyer (2009). It is clear that, as English teachers, we are now poised to incorporate the best of what history has offered us into a system of grammar that is robust and explicit enough to do the work of the contemporary English curriculum. Such a grammar underpins the new Australian Curriculum for English, where students are to understand how Standard Australian English, as dynamic and evolving, works in its spoken and written forms. This grammar provides a systematic knowledge about the patterns of English usage and grammar at the levels of the word, the sentence and the extended text, and about the connections between these levels (see Maryin & Rose 2007). This is a contextual view of grammar, where language functions to enable us to interact with others, to express and develop ideas, and to comprehend and create coherent texts. It is this view of grammar as a set of resources that underpins this book. The grammar introduced in the following chapters makes explicit the grammatical structures and patterns of key text types in secondary English. An explicit focus on the grammar of these text types offers enormous support to students who are confused about the basic structures and language features of English texts. While some students may have been implicitly ‘taught’ versions of these structures and language features in middle-class households, those students who have not had access to this sort of cultural capital do not learn by osmosis the conventions which are valued both in the wider culture and in the examination system. The acquisition of these conventions cannot be left to chance and must be explicitly taught at school, if they are to be learnt at all by certain groups of our students.

Grammar teaching in the early twenty-first century Many English teachers we have spoken to are excited by the new Australian Curriculum and its invitation for them to revitalise their own knowledge about language as they contribute to a study of English as ‘dynamic and evolving’. Their students will have the opportunity to develop an explicit understanding and appreciation of the nature of the English language and how it works to create various kinds of meaning. While supporting them in developing emerging textual practices, this will also reconnect students with older traditions of rhetoric as they learn to use language to inform, persuade, entertain and argue. This rhetorically oriented grammar also provides a means for students to appreciate the capacity of Standard Australian English to evoke feelings, and to organise and convey information and ideas. Teachers are particularly excited by the opportunities to explore what kind of language resources modern orators use to rouse public sentiment. They are looking for a metalanguage that helps them identify the rhetorical tools used, for example, by Kevin Rudd in his Apology to the Stolen Generations. One such tool is grammatical parallelism, most evident in Rudd’s choice of adverbial phrase (underlined) at the beginning of each sentence in the extract below.

For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry. To the mothers and the fathers, the brothers and the sisters, for the breaking up of families and communities, we say sorry. And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted on a proud people and a proud culture, we say sorry.

4 Working Grammar

English teachers also want a grammar that allows them to go beyond identifying discrete structural features to one which allows them to explore how language choices combine in texts such as Rudd’s to work their rhetorical magic. For example, along with the repeated choices of complex adverbial phrases at the beginning of each sentence in the excerpt above, Rudd has used the rule of three and repetition (we say sorry), which amplifies or ‘turns up the volume’ of the apology. The choice of the personal, inclusive pronoun ‘we’ is also effective in sharing the responsibility of the apology with parliament and ‘more broadly’ with the people of Australia. We will explore these powerful rhetorical strategies later in the book. Many English teachers are daunted by the significant challenges involved in learning a more extended system of grammar than they have had access to in the past. For older teachers, the word ‘grammar’ conjures up memories of stultifying lessons in parsing and analysis, red pen on a composition and their own keen awareness of the gap between the ideal and the real in actual communication. For younger teachers, it suggests mysterious, often unfamiliar knowledge about rules of agreement or structure which they reach for in moments of student difficulty with a sentence. Many English teachers have undertaken their own teacher training or high school education in an era when there was a deliberate avoidance of explicit teaching of grammar. Some of these teachers may even recall negative experiences in learning traditional grammars at school, in particular the frustration of learning about parts of speech and sentence-based grammatical rules which didn’t relate to the literary or everyday texts they studied or taught with. As a result, they may have avoided teaching and learning with any form of grammar. Some English teachers may continue to use the simplified forms of these traditional grammars which have featured in various textbooks, finding that they provide some insights into sentence structure, however fragmented and shallow. Yet another group may argue that while grammar has always been part of ‘core business’ in English, it should be taught ‘at the point of need’ rather than systematically built into their curriculum planning.

Exercise 1.1 At this stage, you might like to take a moment to reflect on, or discuss with a colleague, your own experiences of learning and teaching grammar. Which of the groups mentioned earlier would you locate yourself in? Whatever your prior experiences with learning and teaching grammar, we have designed this book so that it can meet a range of various teacher needs. In the remainder of this chapter, we outline the key principles of an expanded system of language, as this reconnects both retrospectively with older traditions of rhetoric and prospectively as it underpins the Australian Curriculum for English. We introduce this grammar as a system of choices which arise out of four key contextual factors: our purpose for using language (the genre or text type) what we are talking/writing about (subject matter or field) with whom we are interacting (audience or tenor) the role played by language (mode and medium). We illustrate how working with this view of grammar can help English teachers support their students not only to understand the structure of English as a language, but to develop their students’ literacy (in terms of comprehending, evaluating and creating written and multimodal texts) and engage in a more informed appreciation

Grammar and its environment in English 5

of literature. We introduce three key text types of English as important contexts for further exploring grammar, outlining the typical structure of some key story genres, argument genres and text response genres. We hope that the texts and exercises we offer for your professional development will provide models that you can adapt for your classroom use.

Principles of language underpinning this book The view of language that underpins this book is concerned with how we use language to make meaning. This is a social view of language, based largely on contributions from systemic functional linguistics (Halliday 1994; Halliday & Hasan 1976; Martin 1993). These principles about language, text and context, as outlined below, allow teachers to fully engage with the language strand of the Australian Curriculum for English.

Language is influenced by the context of use The texts we use and the meanings we make with language are influenced by a number of factors outside language—those associated with the context in which language is being used. Features of the context which may influence and shape our language use include: the cultural context—This refers to the broad cultural practices associated with different countries or ethnic groups but also to the institutionalised practices within groups such as schools, sporting associations or internet chat groups. Western and Asian ways of telling a story, for example, may vary, but so too might stories told in a blog, compared with those told in a public book reading. the sociocultural context—Language also varies according to the different orientations or backgrounds of groups within cultures. Sociologists and linguists have noted, for example, that factors such as socioeconomic status, gender, age and ethnic background have a great influence on language choices. A letter to the editor by a teenage boy in the western suburbs of Melbourne about the need for more skate parks may use very different language choices to a letter on the same topic written by a middle-aged, middle-class woman. the specific context—Aspects of the specific or local context, such as the activity we are engaged in, the nature of the interaction and the channel of communication, also have a great influence on language. A person might review a film using one set of language choices when speaking with a friend, and a very different set of language choices when writing a review for the school magazine.

Language is functional Language enables us to get things done. We use spoken and written texts to achieve different goals or social purposes. For example, we use stories to entertain, arguments to persuade and text responses to analyse a literary artefact. Texts that share the same social purpose and have many of the same features are called text types or genres. This notion of function relates not only to whole texts, but to language itself. The language we use in different text types serves a number of functions simultaneously. Halliday (1994) describes these functions as: the experiential function—the way we use language to represent our experiences of the world

6 Working Grammar

Grammar and its environment in English 7

the interpersonal function—the way we use language to interact with others the textual function—the way we use language to create well-organised and cohesive texts, both written and spoken.

Implications of a social view of language for teaching and learning

The words we choose and the way we organise them within texts reflect these functions and help the text achieve its purpose.

The social view of language described earlier has three important implications for teaching and learning about language in the secondary English curriculum:

Language is a system of register choices

1

The development of students’ spoken and written language does not take place naturally, but is supported by key experts in their educational communities. Teachers who are aware of how language is structured to achieve distinctive purposes can better support students in appreciating and creating the increasingly complex range of texts they encounter in secondary English.

2

Access to a metalanguage—a language for talking about language—allows teachers to be explicit about how language functions when modelling or jointly constructing texts with students. This metalanguage is a particularly important tool kit for describing and critiquing the language resources used by speakers and writers to construct different versions of reality in the texts they produce.

3

The model of language and context applies to multimodal texts as well as those based on words alone. We live in exciting multimodal times, where technology offers us the opportunity to represent meanings not just through spoken and written words, but also through intriguing combinations of words, images, animations, hyperlinks and sound, to name but a few modes. The written or spoken word is central to meaning-making in all the modes studied in English, and this is the system we have focused on in this book. However, the model outlined above provides essential tools which can also be applied to multimodal texts—see, for example, Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006).

The language system is a network of grammatical and lexical (word) choices which can be seen as a tool kit with which we can make particular meanings in particular contexts. We draw on different areas of the language system (or different tools) depending on whether we are representing: the field—what’s going on, who’s involved and the surrounding circumstances. This set of choices is related to the experiential function. the tenor—the roles, relationships and feelings involved in interacting with others. This set of choices is related to the interpersonal function. the mode—the different modes or channels of communication, whether these be written, spoken or multimodal. This set of choices is related to the textual function. These three factors of field, tenor and mode combine to shape the register of a spoken or written text in its specific context. The term ‘register’ has long been used by English teachers to refer to different ways of speaking or writing, determined by such things as class, gender or age. For example, in the film Educating Rita, Rita initially uses only a colloquial and everyday register of English but develops in addition a more specialised and formal register through the interactions, topics and modes of her study at university. Throughout this book, we use the concept of register to refer to the combination of grammatical resources which create the field (the what), the tenor (the who) and the mode (the how) of a text as it achieves its particular purpose (or genre). The relationship between these aspects of context (field, tenor and mode) and the grammatical systems drawn on (the experiential, the interpersonal and the textual) is represented in figure 1.1.

Aspect of context

Language function

Field

Experiential

Tenor

Interpersonal

Mode

Textual Figure 1.1: Relationship between aspects of context and language functions

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar 9

Our view of genre then is as a particular organisational and grammatical structure that achieves distinctive social purposes in various forms of spoken, written and multimodal texts. Genres are shaped by the specific contextual factors of field, tenor and mode, as discussed in chapter 1. The genres that students are required to interpret and produce in subject English provide a useful starting point for looking at patterns of grammar and meaning.

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar

Genres and stages: a focus on narrative Narratives, one of the story genres, explore human experience in order to entertain, move and instruct their readers, listeners or viewers. They create a possible world in which unexpected things happen to individuals and where readers become involved in the conflicts or problems these characters confront and resolve. Narratives can teach through vicarious participation in the experiences of these possible worlds as characters attempt to resolve problems and reach a desired state, whether that be peace, triumph, wisdom or happiness. In order to achieve these purposes, narratives in western Englishspeaking cultures tend to have three essential stages: orientation, where some background to the characters and setting is provided complication, where some problem is identified resolution, where the problem is resolved. Text 2.1 is a short narrative, written by Jack, a Year 8 student, with these three stages labelled.

Text 2.1: Jack’s narrative, ‘Never again’

Having briefly situated a contemporary functional view of grammar within a historical context, we will now illustrate how this model of grammar does its own work in three of the text types commonly used in secondary English. In doing so, we hope to model how English teachers can make grammar ‘work’ to develop their students’ literacy (in terms of comprehending, evaluating and creating written and multimodal texts) and to engage them in a more informed appreciation of literature. We introduce three key genres of English—narrative, text response and exposition—as important contexts for further exploring grammar. For a number of years now, the concept of genre has been an important one for English teachers as they help their students to structure well-formed narratives, text responses and expositions. The word ‘genre’ conjures up slightly different things for different people, ranging from a description of the mode in which a text is designed (e.g. an email, a speech, a newspaper report) to a classification of a particular type of text (e.g. film noir, detective fiction). In this book, the word ‘genre’ is used synonymously with ‘text type’; that is, as a relatively predictable form of spoken, written or multimodal text that has evolved in a particular way to do particular jobs. By the time they reach high school, students are required to identify the features and purposes of a range of different text types and be familiar with the typical stages and language features of text types, such as narrative, expositions, debates and reviews of literary works.

Orientation

Dad, Grandad, my friend Sam and I had planned the trip up North for months and now it was a reality. We’d packed the combivan with everything we were likely to need—surfboards, fishing and camping gear, loads of goodies to eat and, to Mum’s amazement, even sunscreen!

Complication

The trip was uneventful till we hit the border. Sure, the screeching of the fanbelt outperformed Grandpa’s snoring, but that was just background noise to a kid like me who grew up in a household with seven others. After only five hours on the road, Sam, who was an only child, went bright red in the face and started shaking violently. I thought he was pulling my leg until he let out an almighty scream. ‘Mr Kirk, stop, right here!’ That’s when we realised that Sam was a chronic claustrophobic and couldn’t bear high-pitched sounds. His mum hadn’t warned us that travelling in a noisy, cramped, overcrowded and badly tuned Volkswagen was likely to bring on an episode!

Resolution

We arranged for Sam to take the train home—he said he’d prefer that to travelling one more metre in the confined space of the noisy Volksie. As I helped him with his backpack, he whimpered, ‘Sorry I didn’t tell you. I thought I had this licked.’ He ran towards the station in a cloud of red dust, at a speed I didn’t think him capable of. We’re still friends, but we stick to quiet outdoor walks these days!

The components of well-formed narratives do not always occur in the order above, and innovative storytellers often play with the staging of the story and with reader expectations in creative ways. Narratives do not need to start with an orientation, for example. We often read stories which open with the complication in order to engage the reader immediately in the action, as indicated in figure 2.1 on the next page.

10 Working Grammar

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar 11

Complication

Orientation

Resolution Figure 2.1

Longer or more complex narratives will also have these stages repeating, so that we have a series of mini-complications and resolutions which accumulate progressively as shown in figure 2.2.

Orientation

Complication 1

Resolution 1

Complication 2

These stages are illustrated in text 2.2, a review written by Christopher, a Year 8 student. The text has been divided according to its structure, and the stages named according to how they function to achieve the text’s purpose of reviewing.

Text 2.2: Christopher’s review of Theodore Taylor’s The Cay Context

The book The Cay by Theodore Taylor is set in the Caribbean, during World War II. It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice. Phillip, an 11-yearold boy, and Timothy, a wise old negro sailor, find themselves stranded on a sandy coral cay after their freighter was hit by a German torpedo. Phillip has been left blind after he suffered a serious blow to the head. He must learn to put aside his prejudices and trust Timothy. Timothy becomes Phillip’s eyes and teaches him vital survival skills.

Text interpretation: themes

One of the themes that stands out in this story is survival. When faced with a life-or-death situation, survival soon becomes their only concern. After a serious dose of malaria Timothy realises that he has to train Phillip to survive on his own. He knows that their chances of rescue are slim and that he will not always be there for Phillip. Two other themes are fear and courage. These go together because being courageous means overcoming your fear. An example of this is when Phillip climbs the palm tree for the first time or when he first explored the island with his cane. After Timothy dies, Phillip again shows tremendous courage when he begins to put his life back in order and when he goes looking for lobsters in the waterhole.

Text interpretation: stylistic features

The story is written in a narrative style, with Phillip as the narrator. There is a mixture of Phillip retelling the events and direct speech between Timothy and Phillip. For example, ‘I frowned at him. “I don’t think I can help you, Timothy. I can’t see any rocks.”’ The way the writer spells Timothy’s speaking gives you an idea of his accent and how he pronounces words. For example, ‘young bahss’, ‘we ready Phill-eep’, ‘dis be a western starm’. The writer uses detailed descriptions to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind of the scenes as well as the action. For example, ‘There was nothing but blue sea with occasional patches of orange seaweed’ and ‘The rain sounded like bullets hitting on the dried palm frond roof.’ Some of the descriptions are also when Timothy is ‘painting’ pictures for Phillip. ‘Describe the sky to me. He said it was flaming red and that there were thin veils of high clouds.’

Judgement

I found this book an exciting and thrilling novel. The writer made me want to keep reading and reading until I was finished. Many of the scenes kept me in suspense. I could feel the characters’ emotions and as I was reading could clearly see the main themes beginning to emerge.

Resolution 2

Figure 2.2

Some narratives, such as fairy stories, are more fixed and predictable in structure than others because of the relative lack of change in their purposes. Most genres, however, are dynamic and change over time as the purposes they were established to achieve change. They also vary in structure depending on the cultures in which they variously function. Teachers can make explicit the stable and variable structures of a range of narratives across different times and cultures, thus offering valuable scaffolding for students struggling with creating or identifying a range of narrative structures. By modelling the ways that other writers have modified or played with such structures, we can also open up further creative possibilities for our students. In appendix 1, we have provided a model of a more intricate narrative than text 2.1: ‘The Tres Malum’, written by Saro, a Year 7 student (page 185). We use extracts from Saro’s text (as well as from published narratives) throughout this book to make explicit the key structural and grammatical resources which are typical of this genre.

Genres and stages: a focus on text response Another genre often required in secondary English is text response, where students discuss the aesthetic, moral and social value of a range of texts. In responding to literary texts, students identify what defines an author’s individual literary style, or compare texts in terms of aspects such as their subject or theme, characterisation, text structure, plot development, tone, vocabulary, sense of voice or narrative point of view. In this section we examine one type of text response, a review, where a single text is interpreted and analysed as a literary artefact. Here, students are required to select examples, quotations and textual references that support their interpretation of the text. To do this effectively, they need to be supported in the structure of the valued forms of such responses and their key language features. Reviews are staged in ways that allow their purposes of describing and evaluating to be achieved, with the following three stages being common: context, which provides background information such as author, illustrator, artist, type of work and a brief synopsis text interpretation, which analyses elements of the text, such as the main characters and key incidents, stylistic features and staging judgement, which provides an evaluation of the text by expressing an opinion.

As English teachers, we can support our students by providing them with a metalanguage to investigate distinctive aspects of the text they are responding to, whether this be its theme, it style or its use of language. The nature and structure of text responses become more complex in the senior years of English, where students are required to establish a stance on a question or opinion on aspects such as themes, ideas, issues, effectiveness, entertainment value, intellectual value and literary merit. We explore this structural complexity, and the associated increase in grammatical complexity, in chapter 10. Appendix 1 contains further models of text responses written by students across the years of secondary English and we use extracts from these as well as from published text responses throughout this book to illustrate how grammar works.

12 Working Grammar

Genres and stages: a focus on exposition Expositions are one type of persuasive text, where arguments are provided in support of a single position. The distinctive functional staging of expositions in Anglo-Western culture is more or less a linear arrangement of thesis, supporting arguments and reinforcement of thesis. This staging serves the key purpose of expositions as persuasive texts, some of which persuade the reader/listener to think in a certain way by accepting a theory or position (e.g. that needle injection facilities improve the rehabilitation of drug addicts), or to persuade the reader/listener to act in a certain way (e.g. to petition local government to establish an injection facility for drug addicts). Text 2.3 is an exposition on graffiti, written by a Year 9 student, Kim. It has been divided into its different stages, which are named according to how they function to achieve the text’s purpose of persuading people to think in a certain way.

Text 2.3: Kim’s exposition, ‘Some graffiti should be seen as a form of art’ Thesis

Supporting arguments

Reinforcement of thesis

Almost every week there is an article or letter in the newspaper on the subject of graffiti. Usually, the writers are complaining about quick and careless scrawls done on public or private property. This form of graffiti should not be considered art, but other more complex and skilful forms should be. More advanced forms of graffiti brighten up our suburbs. These forms take great artistic skill to design and carry out. If they were recognised as art, young artists would have better opportunities to develop their skills and this would benefit the community. It is important, first of all, to distinguish between the different types of graffiti. First, there is the ‘tag’, which is the stylised writing of the graffiti artist’s name. Then, there is the ‘throw-up’, which is bigger and more time-consuming than the tag, but generally just big bubble letters in two colours. Lastly, there is the ‘piece’ (short for masterpiece), which takes considerable time and effort to execute. Unfortunately, most of what we see on our streets is tags and throw-ups and really just vandalism. Pieces, on the other hand, are usually done by people who see their work as art and themselves as artists. If good graffiti is seen as art and then encouraged, it has the potential to improve the look of our streets. Good graffiti pieces are colourful, vibrant and attractive. In most cases, they are far more attractive than the walls they are painted on, which in the old parts of cities are often ugly, dull and uncared for. There are many examples of spectacular murals in the inner city. In fact, some have even become tourist attractions. Recognising talented graffitists as artists would give them the opportunity to further develop their skills. Since they cover very large areas, real graffiti pieces require high-level artistic skill to design and carry out, and most are planned in detail on paper first. Most of the best examples of graffiti art can be found on walls where the artists have been given permission to do their work by councils or other organisations. This means they have the time to polish their work to a high, artistic standard. If this happened more, the whole community would benefit. To sum up, there is more than one kind of graffiti. The more basic forms are generally not art. However, the more complex examples of graffiti are a form of art requiring considerable artistic skill. If these forms of graffiti were recognised as art, they could make our streets more attractive and, at the same time, give talented young artists an opportunity to develop their skills further and contribute their skills to the community.

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar 13

Writers and speakers often further structure their expositions within each stage in order to make their argumentative logic even clearer. English teachers can explicitly support their students in structuring not just the whole text, but the individual paragraphs of an argument. For example, teachers might advise students to structure their thesis stage in two phases, using a position statement followed by a phase in which they preview the arguments to come. They might likewise advise their students to structure each of their supporting argument paragraphs into two clear phases, one containing a point, identified in a topic sentence, followed by an elaboration through example or illustration. In offering such explicit advice, teachers are providing valuable support for students as they struggle to shape their structure within, as well as between, paragraphs. Kim’s exposition on graffiti is presented again below with the phases within each of the stages labelled. (Note: the table below continues on the next page.)

‘Some graffiti should be seen as a form of art’

Text structure

Almost every week there is an article or letter in the newspaper on the subject of graffiti. Usually, the writers are complaining about quick and careless scrawls done on public or private property. This form of graffiti should not be considered art, but other more complex and skilful forms should be.

Position

More advanced forms of graffiti brighten up our suburbs. These forms take great artistic skill to design and carry out. If they were recognised as art, young artists would have better opportunities to develop their skills and this would benefit the community.

Preview

It is important, first of all, to distinguish between the different types of graffiti.

Point

First, there is the ‘tag’, which is the stylised writing of the graffiti artist’s name. Then, there is the ‘throw-up’, which is bigger and more time-consuming than the tag, but generally just big bubble letters in two colours. Lastly, there is the ‘piece’ (short for masterpiece), which takes considerable time and effort to execute. Unfortunately, most of what we see on our streets is tags and throw-ups and really just vandalism. Pieces, on the other hand, are usually done by people who see their work as art and themselves as artists.

Elaboration

If good graffiti is seen as art and then encouraged, it has the potential to improve the look of our streets.

Point

Good graffiti pieces are colourful, vibrant and attractive. In most cases, they are far more attractive than the walls they are painted on, which in the old parts of cities are often ugly, dull and uncared for. There are many examples of spectacular murals in the inner city. In fact, some have even become tourist attractions.

Elaboration

THESIS

SUPPORTING ARGUMENT 1

SUPPORTING ARGUMENT 2

14 Working Grammar

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar 15

‘Some graffiti should be seen as a form of art’ (cont.)

Text structure

Recognising talented graffitists as artists would give them the opportunity to further develop their skills.

Point

Since they cover very large areas, real graffiti pieces require high-level artistic skill to design and carry out, and most are planned in detail on paper first. Most of the best examples of graffiti art can be found on walls where the artists have been given permission to do their work by councils or other organisations. This means they have the time to polish their work to a high, artistic standard. If this happened more, the whole community would benefit.

Elaboration

To sum up, there is more than one kind of graffiti. The more basic forms are generally not art. However, the more complex examples of graffiti are a form of art requiring considerable artistic skill. If these forms of graffiti were recognised as art, they could make our streets more attractive and, at the same time, give talented young artists an opportunity to develop their skills further and contribute their skills to the community.

SUPPORTING ARGUMENT 3

These speeches, along with many others, are part of an evolving tradition of political rhetoric and are dynamic in the ways they galvanise ‘people power’ behind an ethic of social inclusion, political justice and participatory democracy. The kind of grammatical analysis we offer in this book captures the complex achievement of texts such as these, while allowing teachers and students to appreciate how their speakers’ language choices combine in ways that move listeners so deeply. We invite you as teachers to use these texts and the examples of student and published expositions presented or referred to in appendix 1 for your own purposes.

The genres of English: a framework REINFORCEMENT OF THESIS

Knowing what a typical exposition looks like allows teachers and their students to make comparisons with rhetorically powerful variations as they construct their own and evaluate other expositions. Like most other genres, expositions can be organised in more fluid and less stable structures, according to their purposes. As English teachers, we may have observed the development of hybrid text types (e.g. infomercials, documentaries). The better our tool kit for examining the structures of these emerging genres, the more we are able to help our students identify how these text types achieve their persuasive power. The kinds of expositions required also vary as students progress through the years of secondary English. Sometimes they may be required to construct expositions that use strong appeals to the emotions in order to persuade. At other times they may be required to construct more analytical forms of exposition, drawing more on the processes of ‘logos’ or logic, rather than ‘pathos’ or emotion. Teachers can make explicit the varying structures and language choices of these two forms of persuasion, thus reducing the amount of guesswork students might undertake to identify what’s required of them. Throughout this book, we draw on a range of expositions written by secondary English students and by published adult writers, as these embody a range of structures and language features. We also use extracts from powerful speeches by contemporary politicians, including Kevin Rudd’s Apology to the Stolen Generations, delivered in the Australian Parliament in 2008, and Barack Obama’s victory and inauguration speeches to the American people upon his election as President of the United States. These speeches represent landmark moments in each nation’s development, and provide excellent sites for analysis of the power of language to unify sharply divided social groups through a reasoned and empathic rhetoric. As masterful orators, both speakers drew on rhetorical strategies that reconnected with Roman and Greek traditions of politics as oratory. See Love and Macken-Horarik (2009) for an elaboration of this discussion.

We have now explored the structures of three of the key genres that students both interpret and produce in secondary English—narratives, reviews and expositions. Note, however, that these three genres also belong to larger ‘families’ of genres: Narratives are part of the story family, which includes recounts, biographies and autobiographies. Narratives come in various forms, including novels, short stories, poetry, plays and film. Expositions are part of the argument family, concerned with persuasion in its various forms. In exposition, writers and speakers persuade by putting an argument for or against an issue, appealing variously to emotion or to reason. Other argument genres include debates, which present two sides of an issue, and discussions, which consider a proposition from a number of different perspectives before arriving at a recommendation. Review is part of the text response family, where writers and speakers describe and evaluate various aspects of a literary, media, performance or artistic text. Other text response genres include interpretations, which provide personal opinions and reactions to a text, and expository responses, typically in the form of an essay arguing for or against a thematic issue. The three genre families of subject English, with their various more specialised genres are represented in figure 2.3.

Genre families in English

Story family

Narrative Recount

Biography/ Autobiography

Argument family

Exposition Discussion

Debate

Text response family

Review Interpretation Expository response

Figure 2.3

Teachers and students will draw on various genres from the story, argument and text response families at different year levels and in different contexts of subject English. These genres are thus important sites for exploring grammar, and we use examples from each of these families in subsequent chapters. In the next section, we briefly illustrate how grammar ‘works’ in an extract from a narrative written by a Year 7 student.

16 Working Grammar

Genres and grammatical features The Australian Curriculum for English not only encourages teachers to use structural guidelines to support students in interpreting and creating texts for imaginative, informative, evaluative and persuasive purposes, it also outlines how these text types draw on distinctive patterns of grammatical features. Throughout the following chapters, we look closely at a wide range of these grammatical features and examine the way in which they function to make meaning in narratives, text responses and expositions. A snapshot of this kind of linguistic exploration is given in table 2.1, where we briefly illustrate some of the grammatical features of an extract from a narrative, ‘The Tres Malum’, written by Saro, a Year 7 student. The extract (text 2.4) is one of the complication stages of Saro’s narrative. We will use three different ‘lenses’ to systematically explore how a range of grammatical resources build important experiential, interpersonal and textual meanings in text 2.4. An experiential lens allows us to focus on the grammatical resources which help build the field of the text; an interpersonal lens allows us to focus on the grammatical resources which help build the tenor of the text; and a textual lens allows us to focus on grammatical resources which help build the mode of the text.

Text 2.4: Extract from Saro’s narrative, ‘The Tres Malum’ Nirvin was on his way to the school that he worked at and was beginning to crave coffee so he went to the local café. When he got there he was turned off by the very weird combined smell of coffee beans and cheap deodorant. Today was particularly unwelcoming as every person in the café was huddled together watching a news report on the old television in the corner. Soon Nirvin too found himself drawn to the television set. ‘… although the bodies had no fingerprints on them, a small carved marking was found,’ said the reporter, as Nirvin started to become more interested in the story. Now Nirvin was sweating as he had seen the symbol and the letter and he knew that this was not the doing of a mad mortal but symbolised something much grander and dangerous. It was the return of the Tres Malum. Viewing this short text using the three lenses (the experiential, the interpersonal and the textual) at the same time, we can see how Saro has made language choices from three grammatical systems that together help him to construct this complication stage in his narrative. Not only do Saro’s language choices work together, as we illustrate in table 2.1, but they also accumulate (gather force) across his various orientation, complication and resolution stages, building dramatic tension as his narrative achieves its distinctive purpose of entertaining. He may not have made these choices consciously, but his and his teacher’s knowledge about the potential of these grammatical systems to build particular kinds of meanings will help him considerably in his future writing. In chapters 3–10, we explore each of these grammatical systems in more depth, using texts such as Saro’s alongside other texts.

The key genres of English: a context for exploring grammar 17

Experiential lens: focuses on grammatical resources which build the field of the text

Nirvin, the school, coffee, café, Tres Malum

proper and common nouns name people and things

the very weird combined smell of coffee beans and cheap deodorant, the old television in the corner, a small carved marking

long noun groups provide atmospheric detail

went, got, was huddled, worked, was sweating

action verbs in the past tense represent ‘happenings’

said

saying verb reports speech

to the local café

adverbial phrase describes setting

Interpersonal lens: focuses on grammatical resources which build the tenor of the text

‘… although the bodies had no fingerprints on them, a small carved marking was found,’ said the reporter

dialogue introduces characters’ voices

crave, turned off, knew

sensing verbs represent ‘inner worlds’

weird, cheap, particularly unwelcoming

words that show attitudes

Textual lens: focuses on grammatical resources which build the mode of the text

Nirvin was on his way to the school that he worked at and was beginning to crave coffee so he went to the local café.

compound sentence connects multiple ideas

It was the return of the Tres Malum.

simple sentence gives dramatic effect

Today, Soon, Now

sentence openers signal time

Table 2.1

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 19

Clause

Group

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use As we saw in chapter 2, language is organised to achieve various purposes, and its users draw on experiential, interpersonal and textual choices according to the context and the register required in a particular situation. In this chapter we look more closely at this organisation as it informs teachers’ knowledge of the building blocks of language.

Word

text paragraphs sentences clauses word groups and phrases words (vocabulary or lexis) parts of words (morphemes and phonemes) letters (alphabet). The smallest of these components (letters) combine to produce constituents of the next level (parts of words) and so on up the scale. Our focus in this book is on those grammatical structures crucial to an understanding of how language is organised to make meaning in the texts of secondary English. The levels that we are most interested in, and how they are constituted, are illustrated in figure 3.1.

Word

Word

Group

Word

Word

Word

Figure 3.1

Building blocks: words The smallest unit of meaning we focus on in this book is the word. You may already be familiar with some of the traditional grammatical classifications of words such as noun, verb, adverb and adjective. These are often referred to as ‘parts of speech’, although they are in fact a part of both spoken and written language. A brief summary of these word classes is given in table 3.1. Word class

Description

Examples

Noun

A naming word that identifies people, places, things, ideas or qualities

girl, Perth, book, freedom, consideration

Pronoun

A closed-class word (i.e. no new words can be added) that stands for a noun that has been used before

it, that, he/she/they, those, them, this

Verb

A word that indicates what someone or something does, says, thinks, feels, is or has, or what happens to them

eat, make, think, talk, is, has, loves, cause, bring

Adverb

A word that gives extra information about a verb or adjective to indicate such things as when, where, how or in what circumstances

now, occasionally, soon, overhead, downstairs, underwater, slowly, carefully, exquisitely

Adjective

A word that gives extra information about a noun, by telling more about the qualities or kind of person, thing, place or idea

wonderful, enormous, silent, impressive, frightening

Article

A closed-class word placed before a noun to indicate which person or thing you mean

There are only three articles: a, an, the.

Preposition

Another closed-class word placed at the beginning of phrases indicating time, place and manner

on, in, for, from, by, at, onto, above, after, to

Conjunction

A word that links two clauses, groups or words

and, but, or, then, if, also, when, because

The building blocks of the English language We refer to the terminology of familiar grammars as we examine the different levels of the English language. These levels, or systems of building blocks, range from the largest to the smallest, as listed below:

Group

Table 3.1

While it is useful to identify a word in terms of its class, this tells us little about how these individual words combine to make meaning. It is the larger ‘chunks’ of language that form meaningful message structures. Let’s now move up a level to look at the important building blocks of groups and phrases.

20 Working Grammar

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 21

Building blocks: groups and phrases

Type of group

Typical structure

Example

As outlined in chapter 1, traditional grammars tend to focus on classifying individual words. Functional grammars, on the other hand, focus on the work these words do. In the table below, we have labelled each word in the simple sentence ‘Sunlight shone through’ from two different perspectives: a class and a functional perspective.

Adverbial group Provides extra detail about the events, i.e. when, where, how

• Adverb: the main element is an adverb.

• The kids were simply told to line up …

• Adverbial phrase: a preposition combined with a noun group.

• Nanna Fejo and her sister stood in the middle line …

Conjunctions

• A conjunction links clauses within a sentence.

• … they ran for their mothers, screaming, but they could not get away.

Text connectives

• A text connective links sentences or paragraphs.

• A few years later, government policy changed. Now the children would be handed over to the missions to be cared for by the churches.

Word

Sunlight

shone

through

Class

Noun

Verb

Preposition

Function

Naming ‘who’ or ‘what’

Naming the ‘action’

Naming ‘where’

In this example, each function is represented by a single word. However, in most of the texts used in secondary English, these functions are often represented by groups of words. These groups are like expanded words—each contains a core element which can be joined by other words to make a unit or group that ‘sticks together’ in a meaningful way. Note below how each word from the example above has been expanded into a group that still functions in the same way.

Table 3.2

Identifying groups The use of probe questions such as ‘who/what?’, ‘what is happening?’ and ‘where/when/ how?’ is a good way to help distinguish the function of groups.

Word

Sunlight

shone

through

Who/what?

probe for noun groups

Group

A golden ray of sunlight

was shining

through the leaves

What is happening?

probe for verb groups

Function

Naming ‘who’ or ‘what’

Naming the ‘action’

Naming ‘where’

Where/when/how?

probe for adverbial groups

The noun ‘sunlight’ has been expanded to make the noun group ‘a golden ray of sunlight’, which still functions to name the ‘who’ or ‘what’. The verb ‘shone’ has been expanded to make the verb group ‘was shining’, which still functions to name the process or ‘action’ taking place. Because groups expand in this way, they are often used as a basic unit to analyse meanings in texts, even if they consist of single words. For example, we would identify the single word ‘sunlight’ as a group because we recognise that more details could be added to it without it changing its function. Groups are more manageable units than words for analysing how texts make meaning. Descriptions of the different groups and the word classes that typically form them are shown in table 3.2 below. These examples are taken from that part of Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech where he is telling Nanna Nungala Fejo’s story. Type of group

Typical structure

Example

Verb group Used with a noun group to say what something or someone does

• Main element is a verb.

• She loved the dancing.

• May contain helper verbs (to do with tense or opinion) before the main verb.

• Her family had feared that day …

Noun group Names ‘who’ or ‘what’

• Main element is a noun, often used with an article (the, a).

• Now the children would be handed over to the missions …

• Often contains adjectives or ‘describers’ before the main noun.

• … she insisted on dancing with the male tribal elders.

• May include further expansion after the main noun.

• They brought … an Aboriginal stockman on horseback …

• A pronoun can also do the same job as a noun group.

• She stayed at the mission until after the war .

• But which church would care for them?

Students often have problems distinguishing between noun groups and adverbials. One reason is that, as we will explore further in chapter 4, noun groups often occur within adverbial groups. An adverbial group often combines a noun group with a preposition, as can be seen in the following examples.

Adverbial group

Preposition to by until after

Noun group a methodist mission train the war

Note in these examples that the preposition introduces the ‘where/when/how?’ In combination with the noun, it forms what is sometimes referred to as an adverbial (or prepositional) phrase. In some adverbial groups, as in the last example, two prepositions (‘until after’), not one, precede the noun group. (See appendix 2 for a list of common prepositions used to introduce adverbial groups.)

Exercise 3.1 Text 3.1 on the next page has been divided into clauses, with each new clause beginning on a new line. The clauses have also been divided into groups. Label each group following the example (the labels for the conjunctions have been provided), and underline any prepositions in the adverbial groups. The last row will be used for exercise 3.2.

22 Working Grammar

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 23

Text 3.1: adapted extract from Ursula Dubosarsky’s short story ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ Martin lived in this caravan with his grandmother. His grandmother slept in the little bunk bed and Martin slept on the floor in a rolled-up mattress. Sometimes, the lights were switched on in the house, but nobody went in or out. Martin

lived

in this caravan

with his grandmother.

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

His grandmother

and

slept

Martin

in the little bunk bed

slept

on the floor

in a rolled-up mattress.

Conjunction

Sometimes,

but

the lights

nobody

were switched on

went

in the house

in or out.

Conjunction

Martin

lived

in this caravan

with his grandmother.

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

Martin, a desperately lonely young man,

had been living

in this decaying, isolated caravan

with his elderly, bedridden grandmother.

It is important to note that the ordering of groups in a clause is not ‘fixed’ and that there may be several noun groups and adverbials. In fact, some groups may be left out altogether. The clauses below illustrate some of these variations.

They

were stranded

on a small island

in the Caribbean.

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

The poor old dog

had been shivering.

Noun group

Verb group

In the dark of the night,

with a torch in her hand,

Sarah

crept

across the kitchen floor.

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Another technique Voltaire employs within the text

is

his use of irony.

Noun group

Verb group

Noun group

The order of groups often changes depending on the speaker or writer’s purposes. In ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, it is typically only in the resolution stage of the narrative that Dubosarsky draws attention to the physical environment by starting a clause with an adverbial of place. Writers often use techniques such as this to influence the reader’s focus of attention, not just in narratives, but in many other kinds of texts.

Building blocks: clauses and sentences You may have noticed that all the groups in text 3.1 are quite short, and the writer uses a large number of adverbials of place. Writers of narrative often select such structures for dramatic effect at certain stages of their narratives. However, every structural group has the potential to be expanded, within certain limits, in order to achieve different effects.

Exercise 3.2 Go back to exercise 3.1 and in the last row for each clause expand each group as fully as you can, while ensuring they serve the same function. The next table provides an example.

In looking at words and groups, we have been moving from smaller to larger building blocks of meaning. In other words, we have been looking at the constituents of the clause, focusing on the different types of groups that join together to build a clause. Clauses are the basic message unit. They combine in different ways to form sentences. A clause tells us that something is going on; for example, something happening, someone saying something or something relating to something else. Because of this, the central element in a clause is a verb group. We can recognise a clause by the presence or absence of a verb group. As we have just seen, most clauses also contain one or more other groups. These might be noun groups, which cluster around the verb group to tell us who/ what is participating, or adverbial group, which name the surrounding circumstances. Conjunctions and text connectives join clauses into sentences and paragraphs.

24 Working Grammar

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 25

Exercise 3.3

Sometimes, this subject–verb pair is accompanied by another group called an object, which is the person or thing affected by the action or process.

Each of the clauses below has been divided into groups. First, find and label the verb group. Then examine the groups that surround the verb group, and label as either noun group or adverbial. You may like to refer back to table 3.2. Suddenly

James

heard

a commotion

Adverbial group

Noun group

Verb group

Noun group

An anxious young man

stood

The old surfboard under the house

She

was

his favourite one

a magnificent portrait

Dr Jones, the absentminded professor,

couldn’t remember

their names

Subject

Verb group

Object

Some verb groups have two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.

He

gave

the cup

to her

Subject

Verb group

Direct object

Indirect object

until yesterday Because indirect objects are often expressed by prepositional phrases (e.g. ‘to her’), it can be difficult to distinguish them from adverbial phrases. One difference is that an indirect object loses its preposition (but not its function) if it comes before the direct object. For example:

genuinely exhausted,

Another destructive rumour

revealed

in the doorway

closed

Then,

The first page

her laptop

she

started cooking

had been spread

dinner

through her careless talk

Groups as subjects, verbs and objects in clauses Many grammars describe the most basic structure of a clause as consisting of a subject and a verb group. The subject of a clause names the person or thing that is responsible for the process expressed in the verb group. For example:

She

ran

That elderly couple

could natter

The unwell dog

continued to shiver

Subject

Verb group

He

gave

her

the cup

Subject

Verb group

Indirect object

Direct object

Understanding clause structure from this subject–verb–object perspective can be helpful in identifying the difficulties a student may be having with sentence structure.

Connecting clauses to make sentences and paragraphs Each clause in a text contributes to the overall meaning of the text by combining to make sentences and paragraphs. We can illustrate this by pulling apart a paragraph from the orientation to the short story ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’.

Paragraph

She sat next to him in all their English classes. Most of the time they could sit where they liked, but that year they had a teacher who said he wouldn’t remember their names if they kept moving around. On the first day of term, he had them all line up alphabetically at the door. Then they had to enter the room in a file and sit in the rows according to where their surname fell.

The short story as a whole is the ‘text’, and the paragraph is the next building block down. That paragraph is in turn made up of sentences, which are in turn made up of clauses, as illustrated in the table overleaf.

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Paragraph

Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 27

Sentence 1

Clause

She sat next to him in all their English classes.

Sentence 2

Clause

Most of the time they could sit

Clause

where they liked,

Clause

but that year they had a teacher

Clause

who said

Clause

he wouldn’t remember their names

Clause

if they kept moving around.

Sentence 3

Clause

On the first day of term, he had them all line up alphabetically at the door.

Sentence 4

Clause

Then they had to enter the room in a file

Clause

and sit in the rows

Clause

according to where their surname fell.

You may have noted that the first and third sentences consist of only one clause, the fourth sentence of three clauses and the second sentence of six clauses. You could consider using a similar exercise with your students, using a simple text of your own where you have identified different ‘levels’ of building blocks: whole text/paragraphs, sentences and clauses. In moving down to the next structural level, you could ask students to identify the groups within each of the clauses as we did for exercise 3.3.

Types of sentences In this section, we identify different types of clauses and see how they combine to form simple, compound and complex sentences..

Simple sentences A simple sentence is one that contains a single (main) clause only. Clauses that can stand alone in a simple sentence are called independent clauses. Below are some examples of simple sentences taken from that part of Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech where he is telling the story of Nanna Nungala Fejo. The verb group in each simple sentence is underlined.

1 2 3 4 5

She remembers the love and the warmth and the kinship of those days long ago … She loved the dancing. They brought a truck, two white men and an Aboriginal stockman on horseback … She was 16. Nanna Fejo never saw her mum again.

You may have noticed that sentences 1 and 3 have long noun groups as the second ‘participant’ (or object) in the clause. However, because there is only one main verb group, these are still simple sentences.

Compound sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. Each clause is capable of standing on its own and each provides equally important information. The clauses in a compound sentence are often linked by conjunctions called coordinating conjunctions. See appendix 2 for a list of these. Below are examples of compound sentences with the conjunctions underlined.

They ran for their mothers, screaming,but they could not get away. Was he a human,orwas he still an immortal at heart? Sometimes, when two independent clauses that share the same subject are joined into a compound sentence, the subject (and sometimes also the auxiliary or helping verb) is not repeated. For example:

They were herded and [they were] piled onto the back of the truck. Here, two independent clauses are linked by the conjunction ‘and’. The implied subject and helping verb (in brackets) are left out because they are so clearly understood.

Complex sentences In a complex sentence, the main or independent clause combines with one or more dependent clauses (sometimes called subordinate clauses). These cannot stand alone, but instead elaborate on the main clause in some way by indicating time, place, manner, reason or cause. Below are examples of complex sentences taken from Nanna Fejo’s story. The dependent clauses are bolded..

Tears flowing, her mum tried clinging to the sides of the truck as her children were taken away to the Bungalow in Alice … She stayed at the mission until after the war, when she was allowed to leave for a prearranged job as a domestic in Darwin. After she left the mission, her brother let her know that her mum had died years before … Dependent clauses combine with independent clauses in different ways. Conjunctions which link a dependent clause to an independent clause are called subordinating conjunctions. See appendix 2 for alist of these. In the complex sentences below, the conjunctions are underlined.

… her mum tried clinging to the sides of the truck as her children were taken away to the Bungalow in Alice … She stayed at the mission until after the war, when she was allowed to leave for a prearranged job as a domestic in Darwin. Some dependent clauses are not linked by conjunctions but by particular kinds of linking or relative pronounssuch as ‘that’, ‘which’, ‘who’ and ‘whose’. We will look more closely at these in chapter 5.

After she left the mission, her brother let her know that her mum had died years before … A further type of dependent clause is where the verb group in the clause is in the form ‘verb+ing’ (e.g. feeling, finding) or ‘to+verb’ (e.g. to feel, to find). This is illustrated in the complex sentences below.

Tears flowing, her mum tried clinging to the sides of the truck … Quickly, he looked around to findshelter from the storm.

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Sentences, clauses and groups: structuring language for use 29

Distinguishing between dependent clauses and adverbial phrases can often be difficult, given that both provide information about ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ things are happening. Here, it is important to remember the building blocks. Adverbial phrases consist of a preposition plus a noun group; clauses consist of a number of groups clustered around a verb group. Many of the texts of secondary English feature complex sentences with a number of independent and dependent clauses. We can see this in the following examples from Jana’s Year 10 text (‘Can literature change the world’) and Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech.

So, yes, as history and the very definition of the word show us, (dependent clause) one piece of literature can change the world (independent clause) because it communicates ideas (independent clause) and inspires people on a greater scale than anything else in our world. (independent clause) Her family had feared that day and[they]had dug holes in the creek bank where the children could run and hide.

(independent clause) (independent clause) (dependent clause)

Exercise 3.4 The text below is a short, adapted extract from the orientation stage of Saro’s narrative ‘The Tres Malum’, which we were introduced to in chapter 2. Every person in the café was huddled together watching a news report on the old television in the corner. Soon Nirvin too found himself drawn to the television set. ‘Although the bodies had no fingerprints on them, a small carved marking was found,’ said the reporter. Now Nirvin was sweating as he had seen the symbol and the letter and he knew that this was not the doing of a mad mortal but symbolised something much grander and dangerous. It was the return of the Tres Malum. The text has been divided into clauses in the following tables. Label the clauses as independent or dependent. Then label the sentences as either simple, compound or complex. Clause

Every person in the café was huddled together watching a news report on the old television in the corner. Soon Nirvin too found himself drawn to the television set. ‘Although the bodies had no fingerprints on them, a small carved marking was found,’ said the reporter.

Clause type

Sentence type

Clause

Clause type

Sentence type

Now Nirvin was sweating as he had seen the symbol and the letter and he knew that this was not the doing of a mad mortal but symbolised something much grander and dangerous. It was the return of the Tres Malum.

You may have noticed that the 12-year-old writer of ‘The Tres Malum’ can control all three types of sentence, and uses this variety to create dramatic effect in his story. There is no doubt that a knowledge of sentence types and how to use them is highly useful in appreciating and writing the texts of secondary English.

Implications for English teaching In this chapter, we have looked at the building blocks of language, focusing on the structure and types of clauses and the structure and types of groups. We have been concerned not just to name these grammatical constituents, but to illustrate how they function in the texts that students have to read and write in secondary English. Knowing more about the types of groups and sentences will certainly give students a better grammatical knowledge. But just as importantly, it will broaden students’ own linguistic repertoires, so that when they come to read a well-crafted narrative, response or argument, they will appreciate the speaker’s or writer’s linguistic craft. When they come to speak or write their own, they will have a more explicit awareness of the choices available to them. While it is beyond the scope of this book to provide extensive curriculum advice, we do suggest that English teachers could adapt the texts and exercises they’ve undertaken throughout this chapter for use with their students. To give an example from our work with sentence types, teachers could provide their students with short texts like those in the appendix, having already identified verb groups in these. Students could then work in groups to label each sentence as either simple, compound or complex. Students could subsequently use coloured highlighters to identify the pattern of particular sentence types within a particular genre or within certain stages of that genre. Students’ repertoires of sentence types could then be extended as they identify these in a new range of model texts, including their own. In chapter 4, we will further explore the grammatical resources used for building ideas in the texts of English. We will focus more closely on the constituents of clauses—in particular, different types of noun, verb and adverbial groups. We will look at how these grammatical selections are combined at different stages of narratives, expositions and text responses in ways that help these texts achieve the impact they do.

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 31

As well as using action verbs to tell us what his characters do, Saro also uses other types of verbs to tell his readers what his characters think, feel or say, thus building a more complex world than one of simple actions. Text 4.1 is a longer stretch of Saro’s narrative, with all the verb groups underlined.

Text 4.1: extract from the complication stage of Saro's ‘The Tres Malum’

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings

In chapter 3, we identified groups as words that stick together because they make a particular kind of meaning in the clause. We noted that verb groups function to name the processes that are occurring and can be identified through using the probe question ‘what is happening?’; that noun groups name the participants in those processes and can be identified through using the probe question ‘who or what is involved?’; and that adverbial groups name the circumstances surrounding those processes and can be identified through using probe questions such as ‘when’, ‘where’ or ‘how’?’ In this chapter, we explore these meanings further, noting how verb groups, noun groups and adverbial groups help to build ideas in the narrative, exposition and text response genres of secondary English. We will look more closely at the structure of these groups in chapter 5.

As Nirvin was tossing the orb around in his hand and thinking about whether to destroy it, Verniabol interrupted his thoughts: ‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said with comic malice in his voice. ‘Have you gone soft on us?’ asked Termalum. ‘Are you here for other reasons?’ Now he was serious. ‘With all honesty,’ answered Nirvin, ‘I’ve come back to break every bone in your body.’ And with that remark, he shot a blast of magical energy at the pair. ‘How …?’ said a breathless Verniabol. ‘You really shouldn’t leave your mystical orbs lying around,’ said a satisfied Nirvin. With that, Nirvin put his hands to their chests and sucked every drop of magical energy from their bodies. As they dropped to the floor Nirvin sent a surge of extremely powerful energy through them. Nirvin now knew that he was the only one of the Tres Malum left. You may have noticed that Saro’s choice of verbs helps to engage his readers in both the outward action and the inner lives of his characters at this stage of his narrative. Action verbs such as ‘tossing’, ‘destroy’ and ‘dropped’ engage readers in the physical processes of this plot-driven narrative, while sensing verbs such as ‘knew’ give us access to the inner worlds of the protagonists, and saying verbs such as ‘said’ engage us in how these characters communicate with each other. We often hear about a verb as a ‘doing’ word; however, as we have just seen, this description does not cover all verbs. In the next section, we’ll examine the four key types of verbs that help build the inner and outer worlds with which narratives, expositions and text responses are concerned.

Types of verbs The four main types of verbs are action verbs, saying verbs, sensing verbs and relating verbs.

Action or doing verbs

Naming the processes: verbs and verb groups Verb groups name the process around which a clause is centred—essentially, naming what’s going on in a clause. The experiences we read, hear and write about in subject English are highly varied and, consequently, the verb groups selected by writers and speakers express many different kinds of meaning. In his narrative ‘The Tres Malum’, Saro uses one type of verb, action verbs, to move his plot along as he describes what his characters do physically. Two of these action verbs are underlined in the following sentence taken from the complication stage of his narrative.

Nirvin put his hands to their chests and sucked every drop of magical energy from their bodies.

Action verbs express processes of ‘doing’. These processes can range from observable physical ones (run, eat, punch) to less immediately observable actions (stare, interrupt, marry). Action verbs are used across all the texts of English, and do different work in each. We saw how Saro used action verbs such as ‘tossing’, ‘destroy’ and ‘dropped’ to move the plot along in his narrative. Let’s look at how another Year 7 writer, Belinda, uses action verbs for different purposes in her review of Gary Crew’s novel The Plague of Quentaris. Her review (text 4.2) is divided into three paragraphs representing the three stages discussed in chapter 2: the context, where she provides some background; the text interpretation, where she provides a simple summary of the plot; and the judgement, where she provides an explicit evaluation.

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Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 33

Exercise 4.1

Text 4.3: thesis stage of Ibrahim’s argument on plastic bags and the environment

All the verbs in Belinda’s review have been underlined and the action verbs bolded. Identify the paragraph in which the action verbs occur most. Why do you think the use of action verbs is concentrated in this paragraph?

Text 4.2: Belinda’s review of The Plague of Quentaris The Plague of Quentaris is from the Quentaris Chronicles series, written by Gary Crew in 2005. It is about two elderly people who live in the city of Quentaris. While they are working outside the city, they discover two children with a strange marking on each arm. The children don’t speak the language of Quentaris and no one can understand them. The two people take them home. The town guards come to the house where the children are living with the adults, and are shocked when the children suddenly attack them. The commander tells the old people that he has orders from the town leader to remove them. The children are taken away to learn the language that is spoken by the people of Quentaris, with the help of an unusual creature. I like this book because I enjoy fantasy and adventure books. The book was exciting and also a little bit sad. As soon as I started to read it I couldn’t put (it) down because of the suspense. I rate this book 10 out of 10. Action verbs are important in all the genres of English. We have seen how, in narratives, action verbs help to construct the sequence of events that shape the plot, and are crucial in the complication stage, where it is the disruption to an everyday sequence of events that engages the reader. English teachers are all too familiar with student writing which overuses generalised action verbs such as ‘ran’, ‘got’, ‘went’ and ‘put’. It takes effort for students to seek more specific, enriched alternatives that add meaning to the complications, but there are countless ways in which teachers can help build their students’ repertoire of such action verbs. Teachers could get students to produce word lists where the meaning of commonly used action verbs is enhanced in different ways. This is illustrated below, where the meaning of the action verb ‘went’ can be specified with successive variations.

went

walked

strolled

wandered

dawdled

Action verb— general meaning

+ type of movement

+ slow + enjoyment

+ slow + thoughtful

+ + slow + thoughtless

Students could be asked to identify action verbs which specify particular meanings in a model text and to show the effect of this in enhancing meaning. Such exercises not only build students’ grammatical understandings, but extend their own repertoires of narrative resources. We will explore the evaluative meanings which can be created by grading the core meaning of verbs and other grammatical structures further in chapter 6. In text responses, action verbs are typically used to retell selected experiences in the text being reviewed, prior to interpreting and evaluating these. In expositions, action verbs can be used for a wide variety of purposes, including to explain causes and consequences or to tell a story as a form of evidence. Text 4.3 is a short extract from the thesis stage of an exposition written by Ibrahim, a Year 10 ESL student. The action verbs have been underlined.

Australians use a lot of plastic bags because they can get them easily but this harms our environment. Australians consume six billion plastic bags each year, but only one per cent of the population recycle them. Plastic bags decompose in landfill only after 20 years, and often blow away into the sea, where sea animals eat them. In this opening paragraph, Ibrahim uses action verbs to provide background on what is currently happening. With a knowledge of the work that different verbs do, Ibrahim's English teacher has helped him extend his repertoire of such action verbs, supplying him with the more specialised verb ‘consume’ as an alternative to ‘use’, and ‘decompose’ as an alternative to ‘break down’. While thus extending their students’ repertoires of action verbs, teachers can explicitly focus on how these verbs function at different stages within a genre and how they do their distinctive work in various genres: how they build the more complex action of the narrative worlds students read and create, how they construct effective synopses of the texts they are reviewing, and how they describe specialised events that support their argumentative position. We will explore the more complex work of action verbs further in chapter 10.

Saying verbs Saying verbs represent processes of communication in their various forms—processes that report direct or indirect speech. Here are three excerpts from Saro’s narrative ‘The Tres Malum’, with the saying verbs underlined.

‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said with comic malice in his voice. ‘Have you gone soft on us?’ asked Termalum. ‘Are you here for other reasons?’ Now he was serious. ‘With all honesty,’ answered Nirvin … It is important to note the difference between action verbs and saying verbs which report actual speech. For example:

The children don’t speak the language of Quentaris … (action verb) He spoke a few words of thanks to the crowd. (saying verb) Saying verbs are very important in narrative, where the process of reporting direct or indirect speech can simultaneously move the story forward and provide the reader with deeper insight into the characters. Saro tends to use relatively simple and neutral saying verbs in his narrative, verbs such as ‘said’, ‘asked’ and ‘answered’, which indicate the general roles of those interacting. It is not so important at this stage of his story for Saro to provide deeper insight into his characters’ feelings, attitudes, or relationships with each other. As students progress in their narrative writing, English teachers can help them broaden their repertoire of saying verbs to include such insights, perhaps by using models from published narratives. Note, for example, how the saying verbs (underlined) in text 4.4 communicate rich extra meanings, along with the core meaning of ‘saying’.

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Text 4.4: extract from Paul Collins’s short story ‘The Sudden Snow’ ‘Lemme go!’ she screamed. ‘You can’t do this to me!’ The girl threw her head back but Cade easily dodged the head butt. ‘ARGHHH!’ the girl howled. I couldn’t help scrabbling backwards—away from that primordial scream. The girl sounded as though she was being murdered. ‘Cade?’ I squeaked. ‘We’re trying to help!’ he snarled at the thrashing girl. Narrative extracts such as these provide powerful models of how saying verbs are used to simultaneously build further insights into characters’ relationships and express information about the process of saying. Using such models, students can rehearse alternatives to the more generalised saying verbs. Students can build the more complex inner worlds of their characters’ lives alongside the world of action. In this way, writers can represent their characters’ evaluations of events and people. The evaluative meanings created from grading core saying verbs will be further explored in chapter 6. Saying verbs are also important in arguments, where they are used to cite what other people say, in order to support or challenge a position. Text 4.5 is from an argument on the use of mobile phones, written by Jamie, a Year 10 student. Jamie is representing the views of a range of people on this issue, rather than simply presenting arguments to support a single position of his own. Note how Jamie has been able to draw on a broad repertoire of saying verbs (underlined), which signal how various contributors take a stance on the issue.

Text 4.5: extracts from Jamie’s exposition on mobile phones A new study undertaken by Monash University has reported that, soon, kids will be unable to think. Their findings suggest that the next generation of teenagers will be unable to think, spell or concentrate because of the increase in the use of mobile phones, and text messaging … The university has also been lobbying the federal government to implement a law to prevent anyone under the age of 18 having a mobile phone. This, researchers argue, will encourage a more focused learning environment. This information has been met with mixed responses. Some parents and teachers support the call for a ban on mobile phones, while the majority of the teenage population has expressed that they are strongly against it. Each of the saying verbs used by Jamie has been specified in some way: the verb ‘reported’ adds meaning about the mediation involved in the process of saying; ‘suggest’ adds meaning about tentativeness; ‘lobbying’ adds specific meanings about the strength and duration of a particular process of saying; while ‘supports’ adds meanings about the sayer’s position in relation to the issue under discussion. The effective use of a varied repertoire of saying verbs to add more nuanced meanings is often a mark of more mature writing. Teachers can explicitly help students expand their range of saying verbs by examining the ways in which they are used to make specific meanings in a range of narratives, reviews and expositions.

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 35

Sensing verbs Sensing verbs represent processes of feeling (want, hated), thinking (know, imagined) or perceiving (saw, heard). Note the sensing verbs underlined in text 4.6.

Text 4.6: extract from the orientation of Saro’s ‘The Tres Malum’ Although he loved some of the quirky ways of man, there was not one waking hour when he did not think of regaining his powers and becoming an immortal … Nirvin craved a coffee, so he went to the local café. When he got there, he smelled a weird combination of coffee beans and cheap deodorant. Verb groups such as ‘loved’ express his protagonist’s feelings; those such as ‘think’ express his thoughts; while those such as ‘craved’ and ‘smelled’ express his sensory perceptions. Together, these sensing verbs represent the inner world of Saro’s protagonist, Nirvin, so that his readers come to care about him in the orientation and want to engage with his experiences throughout the complication and resolution. Sensing verbs are also important in those stages of expositions where narrative sequences provide insight into the lives of selected people in order to support a particular contention. For example, in recounting the experiences of Nanna Nungala Fejo in his Apology speech (see chapter 1), Kevin Rudd frequently uses feeling, thinking and perceiving verbs that represent Nanna Fejo’s inner world.

She remembers the love and the warmth … (thinking verb) She loved the dancing … (feeling verb) … rather than just sitting and watching the men (perceiving verb) Her family had feared that day … (feeling verb) What they had not expected was that the white welfare men did not come alone … (thinking verb) Kevin Rudd strategically uses different types of sensing verbs at key stages of his speech in order to bring his listeners into alignment with the thoughts, feelings and perceptions of people whose experiences may be very different from their own. Through the use of such sensing verbs, he convinces his listeners that Nanna Fejo's emotional and sensory experiences are the basis for a national apology. In this way, his story about her builds another argument in support of the apology. Knowledge of the various kinds of sensing verbs provides a powerful tool for analysing how texts work stylistically or ideologically. For example, in his election victory speech in Chicago in 2008, Barack Obama, like Kevin Rudd, represents the interior world of one elderly woman of colour, Ann Nixon Cooper. He too uses sensing verbs to build a particular relationship with his audience, as evidenced in the three sentences below (the sensing verbs are underlined).

Text 4.7: extracts from Obama’s 2008 victory speech If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer. … she saw a nation conquer fear itself with a New Deal, new jobs and a new sense of common purpose. … she knows how America can change.

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Using our knowledge of the different types of sensing verbs, we can identify that, throughout his whole speech, Obama tends to use thinking and perceiving verbs, rather than feeling verbs. We can ask what the rhetorical purpose of such a choice might be, as he attempts to align his diverse audiences in a more reasoned appraisal of past accomplishments and present challenges, rather than appeal to their divergent emotions. Sensing verbs have important functions in all the texts of English. In reading and writing expositions, students can more critically identify how writers position their readers as thinkers, feelers or perceivers for their own persuasive purposes. In narratives, sensing verbs are crucial in building the inner worlds of characters, since it is by knowing what they think, feel and perceive that readers build empathy with them. In text responses, sensing verbs are used both to recount the thoughts, feelings and perceptions of the characters in the literary or filmic text under review, and to express the reviewer’s own thoughts, feeling and perceptions of the text as an artefact. The extracts in exercise 4.2 are taken from the judgement stages of three reviews by students: one from Year 7, one from Year 8 and one from Year 10. We have met Belinda and Christopher in earlier chapters. Ming, the Year 10 student, is responding to Ursula Dubosarsky’s short story ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, which we were introduced to in chapter 2.

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 37

Relating verbs Relating verbs link or relate two pieces of information or two entities in terms of what they ‘are’ or ‘have’. The most common relating verbs are ‘being’ or ‘having’ verbs in their various forms, and they function to identify something, to describe the attributes of something or to classify something.

identifies who ‘he’ was

He was the only one of the Tres Malum left. describes the attributes of the wizard

The wizard had limited powers. describes the attributes of Timothy

Timothy is wise and knowledgeable about the oceans.

Exercise 4.2

classifies the kind of novel

Underline the sensing verbs in these three extracts and identify them as thinking, feeling or perceiving verbs. What are the key differences in the types of sensing verbs used by the younger students (Belinda and Christopher) and the Year 10 student (Ming)?

Year 7: Belinda’s review of The Plague of Quentaris I like this book because I enjoy fantasy and adventure books.

Year 8: Christopher’s review of The Cay I could feel the characters’ emotions and, as I was reading, could clearly see the main themes beginning to emerge.

Year 10: Ming’s review of ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ Even though we learn about the characters through their actions, we don’t learn enough about Martin or his grandmother to be able to empathise with Martin. We don’t know enough about Martin and the thoughts he shares with Snow … These could have been used to enlighten the reader about the plot and make Martin enigmatic instead of just underdescribed. You may have noticed that the younger reviewers use a restricted range of feeling verbs to focus their personal response, whereas the Year 10 reviewer uses a diverse range of thinking verbs to appraise aspects of the text’s construction. In chapter 10, we will look more closely at how students’ development in text response relates to their expanding repertoires of verb type.

It is a detective novel. Relating verbs are found in all the texts of English, and are used at key stages in ways that help the texts achieve their purposes. Here, we will focus on how Christopher uses them at two stages of his review of The Cay (see chapter 2)—the context stage and one of the text interpretation stages. Relating verbs are underlined.

Context The book The Cay by Theodore Taylor is set in the Caribbean, during World War II. It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice … Timothy is a caring, understanding, compassionate and patient old man. Phillip is an 11-year-old white boy brought up on a small island in the Caribbean … Text interpretation One of the themes that stands out in this story is survival … Two other themes are fear and courage. These go together because being courageous means overcoming your fear. An example of this is when Phillip climbs the palm tree for the first time or when he first explored the island with his cane. After Timothy dies, Phillip again shows tremendous courage when he begins to put his life back in order and when he goes looking for lobsters in the waterhole.

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Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 39

You may have noted that Christopher uses a relating verb in the context stage to classify the novel as a distinctive literary genre.

Exercise 4.3 Underline all the relating verbs in text 4.8 and indicate whether these identify something, describe the attributes of something or classify something.

classifies the novel

It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice. In the rest of this context stage, he uses relating verbs to classify the protagonists according to their attributes.

Timothy is a caring, understanding, compassionate and patient old man.

Text 4.8: extract from the context stage of Ming’s Review of ‘Long-legged Fly’ ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ is a short story written by Ursula Dubosarsky. The title refers to a quote by William Yeats that starts the story and alerts the reader to important themes in the story. The two main characters are Snow and Martin, two high school students who sit together in English class. The plot is relatively simple … The story is mainly about communicating, through words, actions and silence.

Extending the repertoire of relating verbs classifies protagonist according to his attributes

Phillip is an 11-year-old white boy brought up on a small island in the Caribbean … Using relating verbs to classify and describe texts, characters and settings allows writers to pack in a great deal of information within the noun group. In the text interpretation stage, Christopher similarly uses relating verbs to identify key features (in this case, the novel’s themes).

One of the themes that stand out in this story is survival … identifies the themes of the novel

Two other themes are fear and courage. Christopher then uses a range of types of verbs (underlined) to exemplify the themes he has identified.

relating verbs

action verb exemplifies the theme

An example of this is when Phillip climbs the palm tree for the first time or when he first explored the island with his cane. action verb exemplifies the theme Such patterns of relating verbs followed by a range of action, saying or sensing verbs are typical in well-structured text responses, as writers first identify or classify, then exemplify various aspects of the text under review. Relating verbs also give the text a ‘fact-like’ quality.

The verb group ‘refers to’ is identified as a relating verb in text 4.8. Sometimes other verbs apart from ‘being’ and ‘having’ verbs express the relationship between two things. Some of the more commonly used equivalent verbs which do the identifying, classifying or describing work of relational verbs are underlined below.

This type of performance is called Environmental Street Theatre. These skills will become automatic with practice. The protagonist possesses the unique ability to detach himself from the anxieties of others. The poem consists of three stanzas. His uncontrollable behaviour eventually caused her to completely lose her temper. Some uses of the verb ‘to be’ can also indicate simply that something exists, using the form ‘there is/was’. These verb groups, sometimes referred to as existing verbs, are often found at the beginning of narratives and in other text types, and are often used to introduce examples or arguments or preview a list of points.

Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess. There are many examples of metaphor in this poem. It is also important to recognise that not all verb groups with variations of the verb ‘to be’ or ‘to have’ in them are relating verbs. For example, in the clause ‘As he was tossing it around’, ‘was’ is part of the verb group (underlined), telling us more about the tense of the verb, rather than functioning independently to relate one entity to another. In other words, the meaning is around the action of ‘tossing’, rather than ‘being’. Likewise, in the sentence ‘I have returned’, the verb group (underlined) is still about an action. The ‘have’ is what is called an auxiliary part of the verb group, helping to locate the action process in time. We will explore this auxiliary role further in chapter 5.

Wrapping up verb types In this section we have introduced four key types of verbs and illustrated a little of how they do their work across the texts that students read and create in English. We have also provided exercises that you can use both to expand your own metalanguage and as models for student tasks. Let us now conclude this section on types of verbs with a short review exercise.

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Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 41

Exercise 4.4 The verb groups in text 4.9 have been underlined. In the table, identify each of these as either action, sensing, saying or relating verbs. If they are sensing verbs, indicate whether these are feeling, thinking or perceiving.

Text 4.9: extract from the opening of the short story ‘Adaan’ by Tristan Bancks A message flickered on my phone about six on a Thursday night. It was from Jack, my friend. ‘I just got a letter from Dar,’ the message said. At first I didn’t understand. Dar had been missing for months. (He) vanished from the school grounds during a storm the Tuesday before Easter. Cops were brought in. Dar’s mum had cracked up. Jack and Dar were brothers, my best friends. Jack never once said it, but I knew he blamed me for Dar going missing. ‘I’ve got to go out,’ I said to my ma as I moved quickly down the hall, past the kitchen. I could smell fish fingers burning. Again. I went out the front door, grabbed my bike off the hard, cracked, un-landscaped dirtbowl we called a front yard, and took off. Verb group

Verb type

Verb group

Verb type

Naming the participants in the process: nouns and noun groups The kinds of processes described earlier necessarily involve people or things. These are represented as noun groups. Consider the structure of the simple sentence below.

noun group

verb group

The boy ran. The process is the core of any clause, so in identifying the participants involved in that process, we first find the verb group. Then we ask what word group answers the probe question ‘who or what?’ (see chapter 3), in relation to the process. In the above example, once we have identified ‘ran’ as the verb group, we would ask the probe question ‘who ran?’ to identify ‘the boy’ as the noun group participating most directly in the process. Often there is more than one noun group that relates to the process. In the sentence below, for example, we can use the same probe question ‘who or what?’ to identify two noun groups, ‘the boy’ as the ‘doer’ of the action and ‘the ball’ as the recipient of the action.

flickered

blamed

was

going missing

got

've got to go

said

said

didn’t understand

moved

had been missing

could smell

vanished

burning

were brought in

went

The text below is the orientation stage of Jack’s short story, which we were introduced to in chapter 2. The noun groups functioning as participants are all underlined, with the verb groups in bold.

had cracked up

grabbed

Text 4.10: orientation to Jack’s short story ‘Never Again’

noun group as ‘who’

noun group as ‘what’

The boy threw the ball.

were

called

said

took off

knew

In the remainder of this section, we will look at different types of noun groups as they do different kinds of work in various contexts. We will focus only on noun groups that function as participants in clauses, examining those noun groups which are elements of adverbials in the last section.

Concrete, specific and everyday nouns

Dad, Grandad, my friend Sam and I had planned the trip up North for months and now it was a reality. We’d packed the combivan and had surfboards, fishing and camping gear, loads of goodies to eat and, to Mum’s amazement, even sunscreen! Many of the noun groups in Jack’s orientation are concrete nouns in that they name entities that have a physical presence (combivan). Many also mainly refer to specific people and places (Dad), as Jack introduces his characters and the setting. Some nouns which refer to people or places whose names are capitalised are called proper nouns (Sam, North). Other nouns that are not capitalised are called common nouns (sunscreen). Pronouns (we, it) are also commonly used to take the place of previously mentioned nouns. Such selections of concrete, specific, common and proper nouns and pronouns are typical of narratives.

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Abstract, general and technical nouns

Exercise 4.5

While many of the nouns in Jack’s narrative (text 4.10) are concrete, he also uses a noun group to name an abstract phenomenon (a reality). Abstract nouns like these are often a feature of expositions, especially in those stages where general, rather than specific, participants are named. We can see this use of abstract and general participants in the following extract, taken from a stage in Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech where he is addressing broad social issues, rather than telling a story about particular people. Again, the abstract noun groups acting as participants are underlined and the core verb groups bolded.

Below is an extract from the text interpretation stage of Ming’s review of ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, with the noun groups which act as participants in the clause underlined and the verb groups bolded. Place these noun groups into table 4.1 according to their types. Note that some can fit into more than one category.

Text 4.11: argument stage in Rudd’s Apology speech But should there still be doubts as to why we must now act, let the Parliament reflect … on the following facts: that, between 1910 and 1970, between 10 and 30 per cent of Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their mothers and fathers; that, as a result, up to 50 000 children were forcibly taken from their families; that this was the product of the deliberate, calculated policies of the state as reflected in the explicit powers given to them under statute; that this policy was taken to such extremes by some in administrative authority that the forced extractions of children of so-called ‘mixed lineage’ were seen as part of a broader policy of dealing with ‘the problem of the Aboriginal population’. Here, Rudd selects noun groups that name abstract phenomena (policy, power), rather than concrete things. Often he selects general nouns that refer to groups of people in a broad way (Parliament, Indigenous children), rather than as particular individuals. At times, these general and abstract noun groups also encompass lengthy and highly technical phenomena (the forced extractions of children of so-called ‘mixed lineage’). The generality, abstraction and technicality of Rudd’s choice of noun groups here contrasts markedly with the specific, concrete and everyday types of nouns selected by Jack in his narrative. Table 4.1 summarises the types of noun groups we have discussed so far. We will use this to complete exercise 4.5. Category

Examples

Concrete/ Abstract

Text 4.12: extract from Ming’s review of ‘Like a Long-Legged Fly’ The story is not structured as a typical narrative, where a problem is concretely resolved. This sort of unresolved narrative is becoming increasingly popular as writers and film-makers are embracing a more realistic approach where there is no clear-cut resolution. The knowledge that Martin’s grandmother is dying leaves the reader at first unsatisfied. However, the reader later realises that the resolution is that Martin is no longer alone. He now has Snow. You may have noticed that reviews such as Ming’s use the full range of noun types listed in table 4.1 as they engage with both the specific, concrete world of the text and the general abstract and technical world of the analysis. As they move into the senior years of English, students often, but not always, learn to apply this wide range of noun types to the more complex work required of them (we will explore some of these issues further in chapter 10). Some students will benefit from explicit teaching about the work that various types of nouns can do in their narratives, expositions and text responses. All would benefit from the chance to identify how other writers select noun types to do effective work. For example, teachers could provide students with extracts such as text 4.13 and ask them to identify the noun type.

Text 4.13: extract from Chris Thompson’s review of Swerve One of the real strengths of this book is the relationship between Poppy and ‘Brockie’ … It’s a beautifully drawn and subtle relationship that rises above the damages of the past … Swerve is a clever, moving and thoroughly engrossing story well told. Teachers could further support students to note how experienced writers like Thompson pack a great deal of information into lengthy noun groups. Through such modelling, students’ repertoires for their own writing are broadened, as is their metalanguage.

Naming the circumstances: adverbial groups

Common/ Proper

As we have seen, verb groups function to name the processes that are occurring in the clause and noun groups name the participants in those processes. Adverbial groups (often simply referred to as adverbials) name the circumstances, telling more about when, where and how those processes take place. Adverbial groups play an important role in building the narrative, persuasive and interpretative worlds explored in secondary English, and are particularly crucial in building well-crafted narratives. For example, in the opening lines of ‘The Tres Malum’ (text 4.14), the Year 7 narrative writer, Saro, uses adverbials of time and place (underlined) to orient the reader to this new, strange world he has created.

Particular/ General Everyday/ Technical Table 4.1

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Text 4.14: extract from ‘The Tres Malum’

Notice that some adverbials are expressed as single words—adverbs such as ‘gracefully’ or ‘sometimes’. Some are expressed as adverbial phrases—‘with his mates’ or ‘as a result of government policy’. However, all these adverbial groups function to tell us about the circumstances under which the process is occurring within each clause. Since adverbials add meaning to or ‘hang off’ the core process in a clause, we can incorporate the verb group in the probe questions we use to identify adverbials. For example, take the simple sentence below.

A long time ago when man was still in his primal form, twelve ancient sorcerers created a dimensional barrier between Immundis and Momundis. Nearly a century later, a dark sorcerer by the name of Narahath crossed over into our world by breaking the magical barrier. After this, it appeared that there was no hope for the mortal world. A long time ago Nearly a century later After this

adverbials of time

between Immundis and Momundis into our world

adverbials of place

noun group as participant

Other adverbials besides those of time and place can be used to tell more about the circumstances surrounding the processes in which participants engage. A fuller range of these types of adverbials is exemplified in the underlined phrases in table 4.2, with probe questions to help identify the type. Meaning

Example

Place (where?)

• She walked to the shops. • Martin lived in this caravan.

Time (when?)

• Sometimes, the lights were switched on. • Nearly a century later, things are no different.

Manner (how?)

• They swam gracefully. • Without any fuss, Rebecca completed the job.

Extent (how far, long, often?)

• The jug was filled to its fullest. • Every day, she would practise and practise.

Cause (why?)

• As a result of government policy, the children were removed.

Accompaniment (with whom?)

• He used to cycle regularly with his mates.

Contingency (under what conditions/ despite what?)

• Despite his fears, Jamie plunged into the roaring waters of the gorge.

Role (what as?)

• I speak on behalf of the students of this school.

Angle (according to whom?)

• According to my English teacher, literature is something universal and eternal.

Matter (what about?)

• Let the Parliament reflect for a moment on the following facts:

verb group as process

adverbial group as circumstance

They swam gracefully. We would first identify the verb group ‘swam’ through the probe question ‘what was happening?’ Then we would identify ‘they’ as the noun group functioning as participant in that process through the probe question ‘who were swimming?’ Finally, we would identify the adverbial group ‘gracefully’, which tells us about the circumstances surrounding that process, through the probe question ‘how were they swimming?’

Exercise 4.6 Text 4.15 is the opening of an entry posted by Lewis on the TakingITGlobal blog. The adverbial groups which give information about circumstances in this text have been underlined. Refer to table 4.2, and place each adverbial in the table overleaf according to its circumstantial meaning.

Text 4.15: extract from Lewis’ posting on the TakingITGlobal blog

Table 4.2

Every three seconds, a child dies from hunger. This phrase, popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign along with the Live8 concerts, shows the world what state it is in. Worldwide, 208 million young people live on less than US$1 a day, and a further 515 million live on less than US$2 a day. Eighty-five per cent of young people live in developing countries and most of them live in rural areas, where poverty and diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria cause havoc. Worldwide, many young girls don’t make it past the fifth grade. Instead, they have to fetch water for their family. The water isn’t safe to drink and it is usually many kilometres away from where they live. In some areas of the world many children do not live until their sixth birthday … In 2000, 189 countries, under the United Nations Millennium Declaration, agreed to eradicate extreme poverty by 2015. In addition to this promise the leaders of these countries pledged to increase Official Development Assistance (ODA) to 0.7% of their country’s Gross National Income (GNI). So far, no country has met their commitments. Australia is currently at 0.28% GNI and it doesn’t look like that figure will increase any time soon. So where do young people fit in all of this? Everywhere. Young people are increasingly being recognised as important factors within global development. Since the United Nation’s conception it has been calling for increased youth participation in global decision-making. Unfortunately, many countries have overlooked the call.

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Meaning

Resources for building ideas in English: meanings 47

Examples from text 4.15

Place (where?)

been offered. Less mature writers may benefit from explicit teaching about the role of adverbials in building the context in which their argument is situated. Model texts such as Lewis’s blog entry could provide a valuable basis for students to identify patterns of adverbial choice and how these help to build a writer’s persuasive world. Adverbials also play a crucial role in building the inner and outer worlds of characters in narratives, where different types of adverbials (typically those of place, time and manner) may be used to describe the circumstances surrounding the processes. In text responses, writers are, in addition, also likely to use adverbials of role, angle and matter as they describe and evaluate the text.

Implications for English teaching Time (when?) Manner (how?) Extent (how far, long, often?)

Cause (why?) Accompaniment (with whom?) Contingency (under what conditions/ despite what?) Role (what as?) Angle (according to whom?) Matter (what about?) You may have noticed that Lewis has used a large number of adverbials of extent, as he outlines the magnitude of the problem of poverty. He is also able to draw on a sophisticated range of other adverbials to build a vivid picture of the circumstances under which poor people are living and the circumstances under which global aid has

In this chapter, we have looked at the roles that noun groups, verb groups and adverbial groups play in building the experiences central to the texts of English. An explicit understanding of how these clause constituents function provides students with resources to build the various inner and outer worlds of their own narratives, expositions or text responses. With this metalanguage, students can also read the texts of English with deeper appreciation and critical insight. Throughout this chapter, we have also suggested ways of adapting the texts and exercises for classroom use. It is beyond the scope of this introductory book to provide more extensive curriculum advice. However, to give an example from our work with adverbials, teachers could provide their students with short texts such as those in this book, in which adverbs and adverbial phrases are already identified. Students could list these adverbials under categories as shown in table 4.2, thus designing a resource that they could keep adding to as they encounter more examples. Students’ repertoires could then be extended as they identify adverbs and adverbial phrases in a new range of model texts. In chapter 5, we will look in more detail at the grammatical structure of noun, verb and adverbial groups. This will provide teachers and their students with an even more comprehensive metalanguage for producing, appreciating and critiquing the texts of English.

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The verb groups in these examples expand in many different ways to include a range of additional meanings. This expansion can involve:

Resources for building ideas in English: structures

changing the form of the main verb to adjust the tense—see example 3 where ‘–ed’ has been added to the main verb to make the past tense adding ‘helping verbs’, called auxiliaries, to adjust the tense—this is evident in example 5 where the auxiliary ‘will’ is added to make the future adding auxiliaries to adjust the degree of impact of the verb—this is evident in example 7 where the auxiliary ‘must’ is added to increase the sense of obligation involved in the process adding auxiliaries and changing the form of the main verb to adjust the tense— this is evident in example 4 where the process occurs over a period of time in the past adding an auxiliary and changing the form of the main verb to adjust the degree of impact—this is evident in example 8 where a process that has some degree of uncertainty to it occurs in the past adding a negative particle (not, no) to change the process from a positive to a negative one—this is evident in example 6 where the negative particle ‘not’ is attached to the verb group to change the polarity. Let’s look more closely at the ways in which verb groups can expand to add meaning, starting with the role of auxiliaries.

Auxiliaries Auxiliaries are small ‘helping’ verbs (e.g. do, be, have) that modify the main verb in a range of ways. These include altering the tense, the polarity and modality of the verb. In chapter 4, we explored how noun, verb and adverbial groups function to make meaning in a range of narratives, expositions and text responses. In this chapter, we examine the various structures of each of these groups as they perform their work in varying contexts. First, we look at verb groups and how these can be variously structured under different conditions. Then we look at the structural potential of noun groups and adverbial groups as they represent experience in the various fields of subject English. In so doing, we further build our own grammatical and metalinguistic knowledge.

The grammatical structure of verb groups As we saw in chapter 4, different types of verb groups express different types of processes, either acting, sensing, relating or saying. We also saw how verb groups, like other groups, could expand to encompass a wider range of meanings. To illustrate, the underlined verb groups in sentences 1–8 are all expansions of the verb ‘walk’. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

She walks to the shops. She is walking to the shops. She walked to the shops. She was walking to the shops. She will walk to the shops. She does not walk to the shops. She must walk to the shops. She could have been walking to the shops.

They can modify the main verb to alter the tense of the process. The English language has many ways of locating processes at various stages of the past, present and future. We will look more closely at some of these later in this chapter. Below are two of the ways that auxiliaries are used in the past tense.

auxiliary verb: past tense

main verb: action

Nirvin was draining the magical energy from the orb. auxiliary verb: past tense

main verb: sensing

Her family had feared that day. They can modify the main verb to alter the polarity of the process. This means changing from a positive to a negative form and involves adding both an auxiliary and a negative particle such as ‘not’ or ‘no’.

main verb: action

The white welfare men did not come alone. auxiliary verb: tense

negative polarity

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They can modify the main verb to alter the modality of the process. These kinds of auxiliaries are called modal auxiliaries, and they change their forms to express various degrees of probability or obligation, from very weak to very strong. This is indicated in the following two examples.

auxiliary verbs: weak probability

main verb: relating

Maybe he, um, he might have had a black friend. auxiliary verb: strong obligation

main verb: saying

What I should say today is that ‘all mothers are important’. Modal auxiliaries can also combine with negative particles. For example.

auxiliary verb: strong probability, negative polarity

main verb: action

‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said.

More about tense Tense refers to the way the verb group changes to express various aspects of the time of an event or situation. The infinitive form (to run, to think, to cry) is the basic form of the verb group where the core meaning of the verb is represented without a subject, and without tense, polarity or modality of any sort. The infinitive form is thus ‘to + verb’. We can think of the infinitive form as one that has not yet been brought to life. It is only when we add these other features that the verb form becomes ‘energised’ (I run, you must think, she might cry). At its simplest, English can be seen as having three tenses: past, present and future. The infinitive form of the verb is ‘energised’ in different ways, to construct these various tenses. Infinitive form

Past tense

Present tense

Future tense

to jump

he jumped

he jumps

he will jump

The three basic tenses—present, past and future—can be thought of as ‘families’ of tenses, within which there are other more precise ways of locating events.

The present tense In this family we include the simple present tense, the present continuous and the present perfect.

We will explore the role of modal auxiliaries in creating interpersonal meaning further in Chapters 7 and 10.

Simple present

Present continuous

Present Perfect

she laughs

she is laughing

she has laughed

Exercise 5.1

you think

you are thinking

you have thought

Sam works

Sam is working

Sam has worked

they eat

they are eating

they have eaten

Texts 5.1 and 5.2 are extracts from two different text types of English: the first a narrative, the second a review. Highlight the verb groups in both texts. Circle the main verb in each verb group. Underline any auxiliaries and indicate whether they express tense, polarity or modality. What do you notice about the choice of different verb group structures in each text? Why do you think this is the case?

Text 5.1: extract from David Metzenthen’s short story ‘Snapshot’ I meet a girl. She has hair the colour of straw, great shiny handfuls of it, and even here, in a ski town, she reminds me of the beach. She carries a big black cloth handbag that must have just about everything she owns in it. She laughs a lot and will not stand still.

Text 5.2: extract from a review of a performance, by Jenny (Year 9) The challenge of Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. It must be more intimate, more confronting and the connection between the audience and the performers must be extremely strong and identifiable. During the planning of our group’s piece we had to incorporate this idea as well as use specific theatrical techniques.

The simple present tense indicates that something is generally true in an ongoing way. For example:

She laughs a lot. Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. The use of the present continuous indicates that something is going on now. It is like a ‘temporary present’ and its meaning is that of limited duration. This tense applies to processes which are currently happening.

He is carrying a large, heavy package. Peoples and governments are watching today. In some cases it can also be used to indicate immediate future tense as in:

‘I’m staying in this world,’ said Nirvin. As you can see from the examples, the present continuous always uses the present participle (the form of the verb with the ‘–ing’ suffix), along with an auxiliary verb.

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The present perfect indicates that something which was begun in the past is still continuing or relevant to the present.

Timothy has lived a hard life. These techniques have been used to enhance the story. The present perfect is sometimes called the present in the past.

The past continuous uses the auxiliary form of the verb ‘to be’ in the past tense, along with a present participle to indicate that something was going on over a period of time in the past. It is like a ‘temporary past’, used to refer to continued states or repeated actions or events which occurred in the past. The past continuous is often used in those parts of narratives where a scene is being set, and precedes the use of the simple past to locate a specific event within that past.

I was thinking about the events of the day, when all of a sudden, the bird flew in front of me.

The future tense The future tense family includes the simple future tense, the future continuous and the future perfect, among other tenses. Simple future

Future continuous

Future perfect

she will laugh

she will be laughing

she will have laughed

you will think

you will be thinking

you will have thought

Sam shall work

Sam shall be working

Sam shall have worked

The simple future tense uses the auxiliary verb ‘will’ or ‘shall’ to indicate that something will happen at a particular time in the future.

‘You will return to a normal life,’ said the priest. The future continuous on the other hand combines the two auxiliary verbs ‘will’ and ‘be’ with the present participle to indicate that something will be going on at some time in the future.

They will be enjoying themselves on the pristine beaches of Koh Samui in a few weeks’ time. The future perfect combines the two auxiliary verbs ‘will’ and ‘have’ with the past participle (worked, thought) to indicate that something will have happened (or been completed) by a particular time in the future.

She will have thought long and hard about how to solve that problem.

The past tense Within the past tense family, we likewise have a varied range of tenses that locate events in complex temporal relationships to each other. These include the simple past tense, the past continuous and the past perfect.

The past perfect is used to set up yet another type of relationship between two events in the past, one where a particular action or process is even further back in the past than another. In the following example, the past tense auxiliary ‘had’ combines with the past participle ‘given’ to refer to a process in the past (had given) that took place before another process in the past (disembarked).

The government had given the mothers proper education on basic hygiene before they disembarked.

Exercise 5.2 Identify the tense of each underlined verb group and its forms as simple, continuous or perfect. 1 2 3 4 5

We know that there have been problems with our class. With the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the lower classes no longer told themselves, ‘I am hungry, sick, overworked and poor because I am not as good as my rulers.’ We are, and always will be, the United States of America. She was wondering whether he had remembered their mother’s birthday. Marian was painting all day yesterday and produced a stunning portrait.

The simple, continuous and perfect forms of the past, present and future tense families that we have covered above are the key ones, but English uses other forms of tenses within each of the three main families. Speakers and writers choose these tenses, sometimes in complex ways, depending on whether the process they are representing is completed or continuing, or how it relates to other points in time within the text. For example, in narratives, storytellers regularly move across various time frames and rarely use only the past tense to recount events at one point in time. Teachers can model how storytellers use a range of tenses to situate events within and across the various orientation, complication and resolution stages of a narrative, thus broadening their students’ own repertoires for situating events in various time frames. Exercise 5.3 provides one such way of modelling the use of tense in two different text types.

Simple past

Past continuous

Past perfect

she laughed

she was laughing

she had laughed

Exercise 5.3

you thought

you were thinking

you had thought

Sam worked

Sam was working

Sam had worked

The following two extracts have been broken up into clauses in the tables on the next page. Identify the verb groups in each clause and the tense, including any polarity or modality.

The simple past represents a process that has happened and finished, and is often used in narratives or recounts located in a specific time in the past.

Nirvin arrived at the doorway.

Saro’s story, ‘The Tres Malum’ Nirvin walked up to the orb and picked it up. ‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said.

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Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech … the forced removal of Aboriginal children was happening as late as the early 1970s. The 1970s is not exactly a point in remote antiquity. There are still serving members of this parliament who were first elected to this place in the early 1970s. It is well within the adult memory span of many of us. Saro’s story

Verb group

Tense

Developing control of when and how to use a range of tense forms allows writers of narrative to take their readers into the inner and outer worlds of their characters across sweeps of time. It allows writers of arguments to build past, present and future worlds that defend or challenge certain contentions. It allows writers of text responses to move across various time frames to recount key events from a text, interpret key text features and provide a judgement. With an explicit knowledge of verb group structures and tenses, students can be empowered to construct and appreciate how experience is represented in each of these genres of English.

Nirvin walked up to the orb

Active and passive voice

and picked it up.

Verbs can also be used in an active or passive form, depending on the purposes of the writer or speaker. In the active form, referred to as active voice, the subject is the participant performing the process, as in ‘I read the paper’. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb, as in ‘the paper was read’. Below are more examples of verbs used in their active and passive forms.

‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said.

What functions do Saro’s selections of tenses achieve in this stretch of narrative?

Rudd’s Apology

Verb group

Tense

… the forced removal of Aboriginal children was happening as late as the early 1970s. The 1970s is not exactly a point in remote antiquity. There are still serving members of this parliament who were first elected to this place in the early 1970s. It is well within the adult memory span of many of us.

Active

Passive

We found the rainforest after a long day’s drive.

Rainforests are found along the east coast of Australia.

The timber company logs many of these rainforests.

These areas are logged by clearfelling methods.

The ancients in all their wisdom wrote these things down in their books.

Books were written long ago about these things.

The stockmen found the kids and herded and piled them onto the back of the truck.

The kids were found ... they were herded and piled onto the back of the truck.

In all the sentences in the Active column the subject is the ‘doer’ of the process, while in the Passive column the subject does not perform the action expressed by the verb group. The two sentences in the first row are presented again below to show this.

subject is ‘doer’

verb in the active voice

object is acted upon

We found the rainforest after a long day’s drive. verb in the passive voice

subject does not perform the action

Rainforests are found along the east coast of Australia. In terms of its structure, the passive voice uses the auxiliary verb ‘to be’, accompanied by the past participle (the form ending in ‘–ed’) of the verb, as shown in the next example.

What functions do Kevin Rudd’s selections of tenses achieve in this stretch of exposition? auxiliary verb

past participle

These areas are logged by clearfelling methods.

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As we can see from the previous examples, the participant responsible for the process is often not evident in the passive voice. However, when the participant is included, it is preceded by the preposition ‘by’. For example:

preposition

Passive voice

The country was ruled dictatorially for decades. The World Cup Soccer was successfully hosted in July 2010 in South Africa.

participant responsible for the action

These areas are logged by the timber company. Passive voice is often used when the performer of the process is unknown or when writers/speakers want to make the performer’s role less visible for a range of different reasons. Consider the following two sentences, taken from different stages of Kevin Rudd’s Apology. The main verb groups in each have been underlined.

We apologise for the laws and policies of successive parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss on these our fellow Australians. That is how the complex questions of post-reformation theology were resolved in the Australian outback in the 1930s. The first sentence is composed of two clauses, both in the active voice, where the performers of the process of apologising (we) and inflicting (successive parliaments) are made explicit. The second sentence, on the other hand, is in the passive voice and it is not possible to identify the agent responsible for the process of ‘resolving’. The stage of Rudd’s Apology from which the first sentence was taken was the putting of the motion to apologise, and the whole phase is distinctive for its use of active voice. Here, the government’s agency as a representative of the people is foregrounded. The second sentence was taken from the phase where Rudd was recounting Nanna Fejo’s story. Here there was a risk that, by allocating agency to specific people, he might alienate certain groups and endanger his attempt at reconciliation. The use of active and passive voice can thus be considered an ideological choice. Students’ knowledge of active and passive structures provides them with a powerful tool when undertaking various forms of media analysis. In chapters 6 and 7, we will look more closely at how these and similar language resources position readers and listeners.

The new desalination plant will endanger marine wildlife.

Aspect verbs The main verb in a clause contains the core meaning of the verb group. Some verb groups, however, can contain more than one main verb. In each of the following sentences, there are two main verbs in the one verb group.

main verb

main verb

I started to run. main verb

main verb

She stopped crying. main verb

main verb

They attempted to flee. Verbs like ‘starting’, ‘finishing’ and ‘trying’ are aspect verbs and add significant new meanings to the verb group. Aspect verbs offer a more nuanced sense of the process unfolding and thus work differently to other verb groups which expand simply through the use of auxiliaries.

We have managed to extend her work hours.

Exercise 5.4 In some of the following sentences, the agent of the action is specified through the use of active voice. Translate these sentences into their passive form and remove the agent in the process. In other sentences, the agent has not been specified. Change these sentences into their active form by inserting an agent. The first one has been done for you. Active voice

Passive voice

The drought completely destroyed their wheat crop last year.

Their wheat crop was completely destroyed last year.

Your files should be backed up at least once a week. The ruling government committed an injustice against the Stolen Generations.

Active voice

The verb group in the above sentence combines the process of ‘managing’ with the process of ‘extending’ in a single, continuous process. Sometimes, these aspect verb groups can become quite complex as they incorporate various tenses, modality and polarity.

We would like to have succeeded. The verb group in the above sentence expresses aspect in that it combines the process of ‘liking’ in the present with the process of ‘succeeding’ in the past. However, it also includes the modal auxiliary ‘would’ to suggest a degree of probability about this process. Aspect is a particularly important resource for writers of narratives as they try to capture the complexity of their characters’ experiences. However, it is also important in expositions and text responses where more nuanced aspects of experience are represented. By modelling how various writers use aspect to achieve these various purposes, teachers can help their students extend their own repertoires for representing more subtle experiential meanings.

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Phrasal verbs Another type of complex verb is a phrasal verb. Unlike aspect verbs, phrasal verbs consist of one main verb only, but the process in this verb extends into a preposition. The main verb and the preposition together express one meaning.

She woke up. They ran away. The game was called off. Phrasal verbs are often idiomatic and tend to be used more often in spoken rather than written language where there is often a single verb equivalent (e.g. called off = cancelled). Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish phrasal verbs from adverbials. For example, in the sentence below from ‘The Tres Malum’, do we consider the prepositions ‘up’ and ‘to’ to be part of the verb group in both cases, or to be an adverbial that tells us more about the circumstances under which the action of walking and picking took place?

Nirvin walked up to the orb and picked it up. Here, it is useful to go back to our probe questions (see chapter 4). In asking ‘what is happening?’ we are more likely to answer ‘walked up to’ and ‘picked up’ rather than ‘walked’ or ‘picked’. The probe for adverbials ‘where/when/how?’ doesn’t really give us a sensible answer here. As well as asking probe questions, we can further distinguish a phrasal verb from an adverbial by attempting to replace the two words with one. Since we can meaningfully replace ‘walked up to’ with the single word ‘approached’, we can consider this a phrasal verb rather than classify ‘up to’ as part of an adverbial phrase.

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Text 5.3: extract from ‘Why literature can change the world’, exposition by Jana, Year 11 Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown monarchies, freed countries from colonial bonds and enticed nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Works of literature which have changed the world include La declaration des droits de l’homme, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and more recently Mein Kampf by Hitler.

Text 5.4: extract from Paul Keating’s Redfern speech, delivered on 10 December 1992 I am very pleased to be here today at the launch of Australia’s celebration of the 1993 International Year of the World’s Indigenous People. It will be a year of great significance for Australia. It comes at a time when we have committed ourselves to succeeding in the test which so far we have always failed. Because, in truth, we cannot confidently say that we have succeeded as we would like to have succeeded if we have not managed to extend opportunity and care, dignity and hope to the Indigenous people of Australia—the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people. What do you notice about the verb groups structures chosen by each writer/speaker? Why do you think different structures are used in these two texts? Text 5.3:

Bringing verb group structures together As students move further into secondary English, they encounter texts that use increasingly complex verb group structures to represent the more diversified experiences of narratives, expositions or text responses. Students’ control of these more complex verb group structures, including structures which vary in their use of auxiliaries, tense, aspect and voice, is often an indicator of their development. Yet this emerging control need not be left to chance. Teachers can explicitly help students build their knowledge of the structure of verb groups as these represent experience in different genres and generic stages. This metalinguistic knowledge will help students build more comprehensive repertoires to represent the experiential worlds in their own texts, and to evaluate those represented in the texts of others. The final exercise for this section brings together the work on verb group structures and could also provide a model for teachers to adapt for use with their students.

Exercise 5.5 In the following two extracts, key verb groups have been underlined (though not verb groups that appear as part of long noun groups). In both texts, identify all the components of each verb group, noting: when auxiliaries occur and whether they express tense, polarity or modality the use of active or passive voice the use of aspect and phrasal verbs.

Text 5.4:

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The grammatical structure of noun groups Noun groups (sometimes called nominal groups) name the people, places, things or ideas involved in the clause. The core of the noun group is the ‘main’ noun and information before and after this provides a fuller description of the person, place, thing or idea involved.

adds information before head noun

main noun

adds information after head noun

Swerve is a clever, moving and thoroughly engrossing story well told.

Probe Question

Example

Who or what? (to identify main noun)

statues

Which ones (or whose)?

those statues

How many?

those four statues

What like?

those four beautifully polished statues

What kind?

those four beautifully polished marble statues

More details after the main noun?

those four beautifully polished marble statues in the botanical gardens

Table 5.1

We know that the underlined information belongs together as a group because it answers the probe question ‘what is Swerve?’ and thus functions as a main participant in the clause. However, as we saw in chapter 4, distinguishing noun groups in clauses can be difficult because noun groups are also used within adverbial groups. That is why it is useful to ask the probe question ‘where/how/when?’ to identify adverbials, which function as circumstance, rather than participant, in the clause.

noun group tells ‘who’ or ‘what’

noun group in adverbial

The two runaway boys were sent to an isolated encampment. Noun groups are extremely flexible in their structures and are almost endlessly expandable. A noun group could consist of a single pronoun (he, they), or it could consist of a combination of noun groups that function to name one participant in a clause, as in the following examples.

Governments have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss. (‘what’ did they inflict?) The entire ecosystem of the forest, including the soil, vegetation and wildlife was destroyed. (‘what’ was destroyed?) In these examples, each of the smaller noun groups combines to name the one main participant. Combining noun groups like this allows a lot of information to be packed into the group naming who or what, and thus provides a valuable resource for building experiential worlds efficiently.

Components of noun groups Once we have distinguished noun groups and their function within the clause, probe questions can further help us distinguish the function of various kinds of words that tell us more about the main noun. Consider the following noun group:

those four beautifully polished marble statues in the botanical gardens Table 5.1 presents the probe questions used to identify different kinds of description in this noun group. Note that some groups identified through these probe questions (underlined) themselves contain more than one word.

The words that cluster around the main noun provide a number of different types of information about the statue. Descriptive information appearing before the main noun is ‘pre-modifying’, while that appearing after it is ‘post-modifying’.

Pre-modifying adjectivals Words that provide information about a noun are called adjectivals. Table 5.2 provides a summary of those adjectivals that come before a noun. Probe question

Function

Type of adjectival

Examples

Which ones (or whose)?

To point to or specify the noun being referred to

Determiner

the, a, these, this, his, Sandra’s, some

How many?

To give numerical information about quantity or order

Quantity adjective

seven, first, several, many, all, a lot of

What like?

To describe or compare attributes and qualities of the noun

Describing adjective

green, tallest, wet, terrific, engrossing, pathetic, evil

What kind or type?

To identify the noun as belonging to a particular group or class of thing

Classifier

marble, three-toed, national, biological

Table 5.2

These adjectivals are used in different ways depending on a speaker’s or writer’s purpose. Some noun groups may include one adjectival only, while others may include many. In English, pre-modifying adjectivals occur in a set order, and sometimes several of the one kind can be used in the same noun group. This order is shown in table 5.3. Determiner

Describing adjective

Classifier

Main noun

a

wise, old

negro

sailor

his

racist

these

Quantity adjective

three

this their Table 5.3

many

attitudes

significant

political

decisions

destructive

group

mentality

happy

years

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Exercise 5.6

the hope of a better day a generation past slavery despair in the dust bowl depression across the land

Use probe questions to find and highlight the noun groups in the sentences below. Then place the pre-modifying adjectives in the appropriate column of the table. 1 2 3 4 5 Determiner

His racist attitudes have always got him into trouble. Their past mistreatment has left them scarred. Kate’s two Vietnamese friends met us at the party. The tragic Black Saturday bushfires will never be forgotten. I loved watching that acrobatic modern jazz dance troupe. Quantity adjective

Describing adjective

Classifier

Main noun

Adjectival clauses contain a verb in a clause that functions to modify or elaborate on the meaning of the main noun. These clauses are sometimes referred to as embedded or defining relative clauses, and often begin with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, where, when etc.). Examples of these adjectival clauses occurring as post-modifiers are underlined in the clauses below, again from Obama’s victory speech. The relative pronouns ‘where’, ‘who’ and ‘when’ introduce the modifying adjectival clauses, which elaborate on the main noun that immediately precedes them.

a place where all things are possible a woman who cast her ballot in Atlanta a time when there were no cars on the road or planes in the sky

1 2

Exercise 5.7

3 4 5

Two additional structural features of noun groups are worth noting.

Noun groups in the sentences below have been underlined. Place the pre- and post-modifying structures in the appropriate column of the table. The first one has been done for you. 1 This was to prevent the more powerful world of Immundis leaking into Momundis. 2 Refugee children in the detention centre could often be heard crying. 3 Timothy is a caring, understanding, compassionate old man with a heart of gold. 4 They turned a blind eye to the abominations that were being carried out in their name. 5 The writer uses a narrative style which is typical of this genre.

Two or more adjectives joined by a conjunction may express the quantity, description or classification of the main noun.

four or five reference books (quantity) an elegant, eloquent and wonderful woman in her eighties (description) the large acacia and eucalyptus trees (classification) Intensifying adjectives can further emphasise other adjectives.

Determiner

1 2

the hugely irresponsible activities of the timber industry Here the describing adjective ‘irresponsible’ is strengthened by the use of the intensifier ‘hugely’. Other examples of intensifiers are ‘very’ (the very considerable benefits), ‘really’ (Suzanne’s really exotic outfit) and ‘extremely’ (our extremely polluted world). In chapter 6, we will explore further how these different types of adjectives and intensifiers are used for a range of purposes in different text types.

3

Post-modifiers

4

The information that comes after the main noun can be expressed by a variety of grammatical functions that include adjectival phrases or adjectival clauses. These are sometimes called qualifying or modifying phrases or clauses because they further qualify or modify the meaning of the main noun. Adjectival phrases consist of a preposition plus a noun group. Examples of these occurring as post-modifiers are underlined in the following noun groups, taken from Barack Obama’s victory speech. The prepositions ‘of’, ‘past’, ‘in’ and ‘across’ introduce the post-modifying noun group, which elaborates on the main noun that precedes it.

5

the

Quantity adjective

Describing adjective

more powerful

Classifier

Main noun

Postmodifying phrase

world

of Immundis

Postmodifying clause

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In later chapters, we will examine how writers’ or speakers’ selection of adjectival elements will vary with their purposes. For the moment, let’s note that in a more technical description, for example, a writer will typically use more classifying than describing adjectives before the main noun. In the following examples, these classifying adjectives are underlined.

specialised theatrical techniques an environmental issue In genres, such as exposition and narrative, we might find stretches of text that largely use describing adjectives which carry evaluative meanings or explicitly express personal opinion, as indicated in the underlined examples below.

extremely dark and menacing sorcerers outrageous, self-interested behaviour Effective speakers and writers can also pack a lot of information into pre- and post-modifying clauses for powerful rhetorical purposes. For example, in the extract from the opening of his victory speech, Obama uses a long list of adjectival clauses to post-modify the noun ‘answer’. The verb groups in each of the adjectival clauses are underlined.

… the answer told by lines that stretched around schools and churches in numbers this nation has never seen, by people who waited three hours and four hours, many for the first time in their lives, because they believed that this time must be different, that their voices could be that difference. Obama thus compresses a huge amount of information about the main noun, ‘answer’, in this single noun group, which he uses to capture essential elements of the spirit of the times. Teachers can help students identify the ways in which various types of arguments use different patterns of pre- and post-modification of nouns. Teachers could, for example, develop exercises where their students compare the ways that information is packed into different types of arguments or different stages of the same text. This is particularly useful for students in constructing and unpacking those abstract concepts that describe the complex issues dealt with in senior English. Such tasks provide models for students’ own writing while building their linguistic tool kits and their metalinguistic awareness.

Nominalisation Another important resource for packing information into noun groups is that of nominalisation. Nominalisation works by turning words that are not normally nouns into nouns, often creating abstract or technical concepts. Take the sentence:

In this process of nominalisation, four important things occur: The process of ‘becoming known’ is no longer arguable (i.e. you can’t debate ‘yes, it is’ or ‘no, it isn’t’ anymore) but, as a noun, is now accepted as real. The text becomes compressed. The text is more abstract and technical. Because the process of ‘becoming known’ is represented as a noun, the writer can draw upon the resources of the noun group to pack even more information into the clause. Nominalisation is an important resource for condensing information in this way, and is one of the major differences between spoken and written language. It is also a powerful strategy for positioning audiences to agree with the writer’s or speaker’s opinion because it presents a process or evaluation as already agreed upon or shared. As with passive voice, nominalisation allows for the person or thing responsible for the process to be omitted. It can therefore appear that nobody is responsible (e.g. climate change, energy consumption). We see how important nominalisation is in text 5.5. All the noun groups have been underlined and the nominalisations bolded.

Text 5.5: extract from an exposition about the impact of deforestation, by Kim (Year 9) The most important reason for phasing out logging is its destructive impact on the environment. Logging affects the rainforest ecosystem in a number of ways. First, the loss of rainforest means the loss of large quantities of unique plant and animal species. Despite their diminishing area, the rainforests of eastern Australia still retain the greatest number of flowering plant species in the world ... Extinction of species will result in radically altered ecosystems which are unable to recover easily from environmental stress. Most of the noun groups in text 5.5 contain nominalisations. All these are examples of how a process, represented by a verb, has been transformed into a noun, thus increasing the degree of abstraction and technicality of the text.

Exercise 5.8 Rewrite text 5.5 above without its nominalisations. This will require you to write more and longer sentences, which will include more verbs and fewer abstract and technical nouns. As a result, your text may sound more like speech than writing in some ways. You may have noticed that you made the following changes from nouns to verbs as you ‘unpacked’ the nominalisations in text 5.5:

The answer will become known. It consists of one noun group (the answer) and one verb group (will become known). In compressing this information, a writer may transform the verb group into the single noun ‘knowledge’. We can represent this transformation as:

noun group

verb group

The answer will become known.

noun group

The knowledge

stress (noun) loss (noun) extinction (noun)

stress (verb) lose (verb) become extinct (verb)

However, it is not always the verb group that is transformed into a noun in the process of nominalisation. Sometimes, other grammatical structures such as adjectives become nouns as a text is compressed. For example:

tense (adjective) expensive (adjective) destructive (adjective)

tension (noun) expense (noun) destruction (noun)

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The compression of meaning into noun groups is often a sign of sophisticated writing. Teachers who have this metalinguistic understanding are in a strong position to model with their students how to use these techniques authoritatively in their own writing. Teachers can also help students identify what is achieved by other writers who use such techniques to position their readers.

The grammatical structure of adverbial groups You may remember from chapter 4 that adverbials which build a range of circumstantial information could be identified through probe questions as follows: place (where?), time (when?), manner (how?), extent (how far/long/often?), cause (why?), accompaniment (with whom?), contingency (under what conditions/despite what?), role (what as?), angle (according to whom?) and matter (what about?). We refer to all adverbials which can be identified through such probes as adverbial groups to take into account the potential for them to be expanded. We also refer to them as groups because, along with noun groups and verb group, they are one of the possible building blocks of a clause.

Adverbs As we saw in chapter 4, sometimes the circumstantial meaning is expressed by an adverb. Adverbs usually (though not always) end in ‘–ly’, and usually answer the probe questions ‘how’ or 'when', as illustrated in these sentences.

1 Nirvin immediately started running towards the school. (probe question: when did he run?) 2 Recently, there have been calls for an end to global poverty. (probe question: when have there been calls?) 3 The kids were quickly told to line up in three lines. (probe question: how were they told?) 4 Her children had literally been ripped away from her. (probe question: how were they ripped away?) 5 Consider this information very carefully. (probe question: how to consider?) In terms of their position, adverbs can occur in a number of positions in the clause. Adverbs can also be intensified by other adverbs, as in sentence 5, where the adverb ‘carefully’ is intensified by another adverb ‘very’. We will explore the interpersonal functions of intensifying adverbs further in chapter 7.

Adverbial phrases Adverbial phrases can likewise be identified by probe questions and occur before, during or after the verb group they elaborate on. They consist of a preposition plus a noun group. We can see this in the following sentences, which contain an adverbial phrase (underlined) as well as an adverb (italicised). The preposition in these adverbial phrases is bolded.

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1 Nirvin immediately started running towards the school. (probe question: where?) 2 The kids were quickly told to line up in three lines. (probe question: how?) 3 Her children had literally been ripped away from her. (probe question: where?) 4 Before tomorrow morning, consider this information very carefully. (probe question: when?) More assured writers can often pack a lot of information into their adverbial phrases in ways that suit their purposes. Note, for example, how Chris Thompson compresses evaluative information about the novel in the underlined adverbial phrase in this extract from his review of Swerve.

The many threads of this deceptively complex story come together in a satisfying and even complex way. The underlined adverbial phrase of manner allows Chris to compress two judgements about the writer’s craft in the one phrase. This compression is a feature of more mature reviews, but it can be explicitly taught to support students’ writing.

Adverbial clauses Meanings about time, place, manner, cause and so on can also be expressed by the dependent clause in a complex sentence (see chapter 2), where the entire clause, not a single adverb or adverbial group, expresses the circumstantial meaning.

independent clause

dependent clause (about what?)

We have an orientation where Martin is introduced. dependent clause (according to whom?)

independent clause

As far as his mother is concerned his grandfather is dead.

Exercise 5.9 Underline all the adverbials in text 5.6 and identify them as adverbs, adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses.

Text 5.6: extract from a narrative by Emily, Year 8 The surfer wakes every morning to the rooster’s crow. With her board in the back of an old jeep, she drives to Turtle Point. Perfectly formed sets of waves curl towards the beach, as the first rays of sunlight appear. She glides silently into the waves and begins to paddle strongly. As quick as a flash she’s on her feet, effortlessly riding the wave, with the glassy water folding around her. Again and again, the waves carry her magically, like a genie on a flying carpet. She feels at home in this watery playground, a special sense of belonging.

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Emily’s sophisticated use of adverbials helps to paint a vivid picture for her audience, drawing them more deeply into the surfer’s ‘world’. Explicit teaching about the range of functions and structures of adverbs, adverbial groups and adverbial clauses can significantly help students use these effectively in their own writing.

Implications for English teaching Throughout this chapter, we have seen how an explicit knowledge of the structure and purposes of verb groups, noun groups and adverbials can provide teachers with a powerful metalanguage for helping their students produce, appreciate and critique the texts valued in subject English. We have argued that this repertoire of grammatical resources does not accumulate by osmosis—the more explicit that teachers are in modelling grammatical structures, the more empowered their students will be in building and ‘working’ their own metalinguistic tool kit. We conclude this chapter by illustrating the need for such explicitness with reference to auxiliaries, as we discussed these earlier in this chapter. Auxiliaries present distinctive challenges, especially for ESL learners, who can have considerable difficulty working out the purposes and placement of auxiliaries within verb groups. Two areas present particular challenges. The first is the placement of auxiliaries in verb groups that contain negatives. Consider, for example, what transformations occur as we change the following sentence into its negative form.

I hit the ball. I did not hit the ball. To make the negative form, we need to add the auxiliary in an appropriate form of the verb ‘do’ before we add the negative particle ‘not’. ESL learners typically find this transformation difficult, often simply putting the negative particle ‘not’ before the main verb, rather than adding the auxiliary (‘I not hit the ball’). A second challenge is the placement of auxiliaries in different sentence types. Auxiliaries are fundamental to the structure of the three sentence types of English (sometimes referred to as sentence ‘mood’). These are statement (or declarative), command (or imperative) and question (or interrogative). To change a declarative into an interrogative, we add an auxiliary at a particular place in the verb group, typically before the subject and the verb, as in the following example.

You hit the ball. Did you hit the ball? Explicit teaching about other grammatical structures and functions such as tense, for example, offers further powerful scaffolds for students. Given the complexity of the tense system in English, it is easy for less mature writers to get ‘lost in time’, forgetting which time frame they are in. Identifying and modelling the structures and uses of tenses such as the continuous and perfect forms can extend capable students while supporting struggling students, including those whose first language expresses time in different ways to that of English. We again invite you to adapt the models and exercises we have presented in this chapter for your own teaching about verb groups, noun groups and adverbial groups as experiential resources.

Resources for expressing and grading attitudes: evaluative language In chapters 4 and 5 we were concerned with resources for building worlds across key text types in secondary English. We associated these resources with the experiential function of language. In chapters 6 and 7 we shift our focus to resources associated with the interpersonal function of language. In this chapter we deal particularly with those resources which allow writers and speakers to express and grade feelings and opinions in narrative, text response and exposition genres. The two main sets of language resources we focus on are evaluative vocabulary and grading resources. We will first revisit the building blocks of grammar, which we introduced in chapter 3, looking now at the evaluative work of particular word classes (adjectives, adverbials, verbs and nouns). We will then examine how evaluative meanings may be graded to intensify feelings and opinions. Finally, we look at how writers and speakers express their feelings and opinions in implicit ways, using combinations of evaluative vocabulary and grading resources to build empathy, discernment and suspense across phases of text.

Evaluative vocabulary Evaluative vocabulary refers to a set of resources which express positive and negative feelings, judgements and opinions. Writers and speakers use different types of evaluative vocabulary depending on the purpose of the text, what is being evaluated and how they want their readers and listeners to respond.

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Patterns of evaluative vocabulary across narratives, text responses and expositions may invite audiences to: empathise with characters so that they care what happens to them discern the actions and responses of characters as they face or, indeed, cause problems enter the mood of particular settings and circumstances assess aspects of literary texts express moral or ethical opinions on issues. Although patterns of evaluative vocabulary are usually too diffuse to form a distinctive stage or phase, each of the three genres we are concerned with depends on evaluation to achieve its purpose. As noted in chapter 2, for example, evaluation permeates the narrative stages of orientation, complication and resolution to engage audiences. Before looking at how evaluative vocabulary can be used in different ways to position audiences in narratives, text responses and expositions, let’s build on the grammatical tool kit we established in the previous chapters by considering the range of resources which can be used to evaluate phenomena.

Grammatical resources and evaluative vocabulary Evaluations can be expressed explicitly by a range of grammatical resources which mostly occur at the word level (see chapter 3). The most common word class used to evaluate is the adjective, which, as we saw earlier, gives extra information about a person, place or thing (i.e. a noun). Adjectives have been underlined in the following text.

Text 6.1: extract from Chris Thompson’s review of Swerve From its tantalising flash-forward beginning to its enjoyable dangling end, Swerve is a clever, moving and thoroughly engrossing story well told. After everything else, though, what stays with me is that the act of an old man passing on something he truly loves to his grandson is as moving as the complex journey they share … Adjectives which evaluate nouns explicitly are called attitudinal adjectives. Attitudinal adjectives can function in two ways: as pre-modifiers within noun groups or alone, as full participants in the clause.

Attitudinal adjectives within noun groups In chapter 5 we introduced four types of adjectives which can cluster before nouns to provide different kinds of information. These were determiners, quantifiers, describing adjectives and classifiers. Describing adjectives can be further distinguished as factual adjectives, which describe the physical or ‘objective’ attributes and qualities of a person, place or thing, and attitudinal adjectives, whose meaning is to some extent dependent on opinion or taste. Both types of describing adjectives answer the probe question ‘what like?’; however, when used together as pre-modifiers within noun groups, attitudinal adjectives typically come before factual adjectives and classifiers. For example:

Noun groups across all genres can include a number of attitudinal adjectives, as underlined in the examples below.

a clever, moving and thoroughly engrossing story an elegant, eloquent and wonderful woman in her eighties a stony and stubborn and deafening silence More often, however, writers and speakers use a combination of classifiers, factual and attitudinal adjectives to build evaluations of people, places or things. Chris Thompson’s review of Swerve includes attitudinal and factual adjectives as well as classifiers.

attitudinal adjective

factual adjective

classifier

a terrific little road movie of a book In these kinds of noun groups, explicit attitudinal adjectives often colour the factual and classifying adjectives around them, producing implicit evaluations. In the example, the attitudinal adjective ‘terrific’ colours the nearby factual adjective ‘little’ so that the whole noun group reads as a positive evaluation of the book. However, in the example ‘an ugly little man’, the explicit attitudinal adjective ‘ugly’ invites the reader to read this word as a negative evaluation. We will look more closely at ways writers and speakers evaluate implicitly later in this chapter.

Exercise 6.1 Underline the explicit attitudinal adjectives which function as pre-modifiers within noun groups in the text below.

Text 6.2: extract from Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address delivered on 20 January 2009 On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn-out dogmas that for far too long have strangled our politics. We remain a young nation, but in the words of Scripture, the time has come to set aside childish things. The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation …

Attitudinal adjectives as full participants in the clause Attitudinal adjectives can also be used without a noun to describe the attributes of a person, place or thing. In the following sentence from Obama’s Inaugural Address, for example, the adjectives ‘equal’ and ‘free’ function as full participants in the clause.

… the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free … attitudinal adjective

factual adjective

classifier

beautiful polished marble statues

Typically, adjectives only function outside noun groups when they are used with relating verbs such as ‘is’, ‘are’ or ‘become’. Because these adjectives can also be expanded to form a noun group (equal people, free people), they can be introduced to students as a (potential) noun group.

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Exercise 6.2 In the context stage of his review, Chris Thompson includes a great many attitudinal adjectives which function as full participants to positively evaluate the novel Swerve. Underline these adjectives in the extract below. Gwynne’s writing is strong and vivid, his characterisation sharp and efficient and his dialogue truthful, often witty and always to-the-point. The premise is exciting, emotional, engaging and believable. Its pace is breathtaking, exhilarating, riveting. Using attitudinal adjectives as participants allows Thompson to create a longer list of evaluative vocabulary than would have been possible if he had used them as premodifiers. This listing can often increase (or amplify) the attitudinal impact. We will discuss the ‘amplifying’ effect of listing attitudinal adjectives later in this chapter.

Evaluative vocabulary across grammatical categories In addition to the attitudinal adjectives introduced above, evaluative vocabulary can be expressed across all grammatical categories. Table 6.1 shows the most common structures with examples from the texts we have introduced. Grammatical structures

Examples of evaluative vocabulary

Adjectives

miserable, safe, confident, wary, satisfied, mightiest, evil, normal, unfriendly, eloquent, dark, grimy, broken-down, terrible, stuffy

Verbs

screaming, crying, grown fond, crave, strike terror, cursed, (the sky) darkened

Adverbials

bitterly, safely, calmly, tenaciously, greedily, graphically

Nouns

fear, hope, terror, horror, sadness, honesty, beauty, destruction Table 6.1

Good writers use resources from a range of grammatical categories to accumulate positive and negative evaluations of characters or settings. In recounting Nanna Fejo’s story in his Apology speech, Kevin Rudd initially uses adjectives and verbs to evaluate the feelings of Nanna Fejo’s mother when her children were taken away.

After she left the mission, her brother let her know that her mum had died years before, a broken woman fretting for the children … broken

adjective

fretting

verb

However, at the end of the story, Rudd uses attitudinal nouns to connect her story with the more general evaluations of the Stolen Generations.

The hurt, the humiliation, the degradation and the sheer brutality of the act of physically separating a mother from her children is a deep assault on our senses and on our most elemental humanity hurt, humiliation, degradation, brutality, assault, humanity

attitudinal nouns

As we discussed in chapter 5, expressing qualities as nouns is a form of nominalisation. Nominalisation is a powerful strategy for positioning audiences to agree with the writer’s or speaker’s opinion because it presents the evaluation as already agreed upon or shared. Drawing up tables such as table 6.1 to classify the grammatical resources used at different stages of the text can provide valuable support for students in identifying the patterns of evaluative vocabulary across texts. Such patterns can provide frameworks for students’ own writing, while reinforcing their knowledge of grammar and meaning.

Evaluative vocabulary and meaning Although it is often difficult to draw sharp boundaries around words and expressions which are evaluative, the following meaning categories are very useful for examining how different types of texts use evaluative vocabulary to involve and persuade their audiences in different ways: affect—to express people’s feelings judgement—to praise or criticise people’s behaviour appreciation—to assess objects, settings and appearances. Vocabulary from each of these meaning categories can be positive or negative. In the orientation stage of the narrative ‘The Tres Malum’, Saro uses vocabulary choices from each of these categories to express and grade the feelings of his characters, to judge the behaviour of the sorcerers and to evaluate the setting. These resources set up an evaluative stance towards the characters and places. They invite audiences to feel empathy with the mortals and immortals, to feel awed by the sorcerers and perhaps to start aligning with particular characters in the conflict which is foreshadowed. The evaluative vocabulary choices are underlined in the text below and classified according to their meaning in table 6.2.

Text 6.3: extract from ‘The Tres Malum’ by Saro, Year 7 A long time ago when man was still in his primal form, twelve wise sorcerers created a dimensional barrier between Immundis (the immortal world) and Momundis (the mortal world that we know). This was to prevent the more powerful world of Immundis leaking into Momundis and devouring it. Nearly a century later, an evil sorcerer by the name of Narahath crossed over into our world by breaking the magical barrier. After this it appeared there was no hope for the mortal world, since eventually it would be swallowed up by the much more powerful forces that governed Immundis. In the dark years (1982 in mortal years), three extremely dark and menacing sorcerers of Immundis, Nirvin, Verniabol and Termalum, struck fear into every immortal’s heart. Together they were called the Tres Malum. When their control had grown to its fullest they began to open the link and strike terror into mortals as they did immortals. At this time, however, a decendent of the eighth sorcerer, angered by their ruthless actions, banished the mightiest of the dark trio, Nirvin, to the mortal world, where he was cursed to live and die like a normal man.

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Meaning category

Resources for expressing and grading attitudes: evaluative language 75

Positive

Affect

Negative

Evaluative vocabulary

Meaning category

Positive/Negative

no hope, fear, terror, angered, cursed

horror

affect

negative

Judgement

wise, mightiest

primal, evil, extremely dark, menacing, struck fear, strike terror, ruthless, dark, normal

Appreciation

powerful (world, forces)

devouring, swallowed up, dark (years) Table 6.2

In this extract, the feelings, judgements and assessments are predominantly negative (note the absence of any positive affect items in table 6.2). In this way, Saro’s choices in the orientation stage of his narrative engage his readers by setting up a problematic situation with problematic characters. Note, however, that Saro has suggested some ambivalence in his characterisation of Nirvin, with his choice of a positive judgement value, ‘mightiest’, as well as negative values such as ‘ruthless’ and ‘dark’. Complex evaluations of characters such as this engage the reader actively in making moral discernments in narratives. Students could be encouraged to track negative and positive shifts in evaluative vocabulary across stages and phases of narrative texts to analyse how writers engage readers by establishing and resolving conflict as well as in unfolding change and complexity in characters. The examples of positive and negative shifts in evaluative vocabulary in Saro’s narrative and Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech demonstrate how the strategic use of evaluative vocabulary can be used to entertain audiences by appealing to emotion as well as to engage them in making moral insights about characters and issues. In this way, evaluative vocabulary is an important rhetorical device for positioning and persuading audiences. Text 6.4 below, which is an extract from a speech given by a Year 12 student at a World Refugee Day rally, is a very good example of the rhetorical function of evaluative vocabulary. At the time of writing this text, Nooria had been learning English for only four years.

Exercise 6.3 Read the extract from a speech at a rally to free children and their families from immigration detention centres. This section is a recount and, as is typical of recounts, much of the evaluative vocabulary is concerned with the characters’ emotional reactions towards events. Highlight the evaluative vocabulary and then use the table to categorise the evaluative meanings.

Text 6.4: extract from ‘A young refugee’s plea for a better future’ by Nooria Wazefadost It took us 10 days to get to Australia—10 days of horror, sadness, no food or drink and so many worries about our future. The only music I heard in my childhood in Bamiyan was the screaming with horror and mothers crying for their children’s future, and I heard it again on this boat. We were all vomiting. My poor mother with a newborn baby was sick the whole way. Finally, in September 2000, our boat was guided by the Royal Australian Navy and landed on Australian land safely. I was happy because my miserable life was over, and a new horizon with no more death and killing was welcoming us. But my dream wasn't over, since I found myself in prison. We arrived the day before the Olympic Games started. We were sent to a detention centre in the desert with fences around it.

In completing exercise 6.3, you will have noticed that most of the evaluative expressions focus on feelings and that there are more expressions of negative affect in the first paragraph and more positive ones in the second. The accumulation of negative affect in the first paragraph builds empathy for the plight of asylum seekers. The positive affect in the following paragraph is also important—it contributes to a happy ending, which the audience can share. Strategic choices of affect make recounts such as this very powerful texts for engaging audiences in social issues. In text responses, the meaning categories of evaluative vocabulary which are most valued by teachers are judgement and appreciation. Choices from these categories assist writers to evaluate: the characters’ behaviours and motivations the author’s choices and techniques in crafting the text the aesthetic and social value of the text. The evaluative meaning categories of affect, judgement and appreciation provide an explicit framework for guiding students to craft responses which cover each of these areas. Text 6.5 illustrates the strategic choices of explicit values from each of these areas made by a Year 8 student to interpret and evaluate the literary elements of the novel The Cay. We have already encountered Christopher’s review in earlier chapters, but the full review, which includes examples from the novel to support his evaluations, is provided in appendix 1 on page 194.

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Resources for expressing and grading attitudes: evaluative language 77

Exercise 6.4 Highlight the explicit evaluative vocabulary and underline the targets of the evaluation in the following extracts.

Using this framework, teachers can deconstruct how model reviews make evaluative choices from each of the categories of affect, judgement and appreciation in their various stages. This can vividly demonstrate to those students who remain ‘trapped in the personal’ how they can make the shift into the more highly valued forms of appraising a text.

Text 6.5: extracts from Christopher’s review of The Cay The book The Cay by Theodore Taylor is a thrilling story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice ... Timothy has lived a hard life with both his parents being slaves. He never went to school and had worked on fishing boats since he was ten … He is wise and very knowledgeable … The story is written in a fast-paced narrative style, with Phillip as the narrator … The writer uses detailed descriptions to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind of the scenes as well as the action … I found this book an exciting novel. The writer made me want to keep reading and reading until I was finished. Many of the scenes kept me in suspense. I could feel the characters’ emotions and, as I was reading, could clearly see the main themes beginning to emerge. Complete the table by first listing examples of evaluative vocabulary you have identified in each paragraph. Then identify the targets of evaluation and the meaning category.

Explicit and implicit evaluative vocabulary The expressions of evaluative vocabulary we have looked at so far have all been explicit. This means that attitudes are ‘written into’ the dictionary meaning of words or phrases. Explicit evaluative vocabulary is closely related to the concept of denotation (the actual meaning of a word). However, effective writers and speakers also use a range of strategies for expressing evaluative meanings implicitly; that is, using connotation (the additional idea or emotion that a word suggests). Implicit evaluative meanings are not clearly ‘written into’ particular words; however, writers and speakers often provide signals in the text to evoke an evaluative response from the reader. Some signals of implicit evaluation in Nooria’s speech (text 6.4) are shown in table 6.3. Signal of implicit evaluation

Example (vocabulary that carries implicit evaluation is underlined)

Meaning category

Paragraph

Target of evaluation

Examples of evaluative vocabulary (explicit)

Meaning category

Lexical metaphor

a new horizon with no more death and killing was welcoming us

positive affect (happiness)

1

The Cay (the book, story)

thrilling

appreciation

Behaviours associated with values

our boat was guided by the Royal Australian Navy

positive judgement (caring)

Contrast

But my dream wasn’t over, since I found myself in a prison.

negative affect (unhappiness)

Contextual references

We arrived the day before the Olympic Games started.

positive affect (joy, fun) positive judgement (welcoming all nations)

1 2 3

Table 6.3

4 4

Note that most of the evaluative vocabulary in this review is appreciation. Even though Christopher does share his emotional reaction to the book, this is mostly expressed as qualities of the book rather than as his own feelings (‘thrilling’, ‘exciting’). Other evaluative choices relate to the crafting and value of the novel (appreciation) and to the characters and their development (judgement). Christopher uses these resources to create a more objective evaluative stance. English teachers may be aware that many of their students get trapped in their own immediate emotional reactions as they attempt to write a review, unable to move into the more cognitively demanding forms of appraising the text. The tool kit we have introduced here provides teachers with a means of identifying where in a review their students react emotionally, where they are able to make judgements of characters and their development, and where they are able to evaluate the aesthetic, crafted features of the text.

Implicit evaluation, particularly with contextual references, allows audiences to ‘read in’ evaluation; that is, to interpret the text evaluatively. This brings a degree of subjectivity to the reading. However, good readers use signals such as those shown in table 6.3 to support their interpretation. References to shared cultural values and iconic events are particularly powerful in evoking evaluations as the associated attitudes are typically deeply felt and complex. For an Australian audience, references to the Olympic Games, which were held in Sydney in 2000, are likely to evoke positive feelings and judgements. In a similar way, the reference to ‘a detention centre with fences around it’ is likely to evoke equally strong contrasting feelings and judgements, and assist Nooria to make her argument for compassion for refugees.

Exercise 6.5 Political speeches, such as Kevin Rudd’s Apology to the Stolen Generations, make strategic use of explicit and implicit judgement of human behaviour to justify the apology. Read the following extract, which describes Nanna Fejo’s character.

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Text 6.6: extract from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech Let me begin to answer by telling the parliament just a little of one person’s story— an elegant, eloquent and wonderful woman in her 80s, full of life, full of funny stories, despite what has happened in her life’s journey, a woman who has travelled a long way to be with us today, a member of the Stolen Generation who shared some of her story with me when I called around to see her just a few days ago. Circle the explicit values of judgement and underline the expressions of implicit judgement. Write your answers in the table and identify the signals of implicit evaluation. Explicit

Implicit

Exercise 6.6 Circle the explicit values of judgement and underline the expressions of implicit judgement in the two paragraphs of text 6.7. Complete the table with information about the target, grammatical category and type of evaluative vocabulary. Examples from the first paragraph have been completed to guide you.

Text 6.7: extract from a review by Ming (Year 10) ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ is a short story written by Ursula Dubosarsky. The title refers to a quote by William Yeats that starts the story and alerts the reader to important themes in the story … Despite the rich descriptions and relevance of the themes to young people, however, the story itself seems a bit hollow. Even though we learn about the characters through their actions, we don’t learn enough about Martin or his grandmother to be able to empathise when Martin tells Snow, ‘She’s got cancer. She’s going to die very soon.’

Signals of implicit evaluation

How do these patterns of vocabulary choices for expressing judgement encourage listeners to respond to the story?

Paragraph

Target of evaluation

Examples of evaluative vocabulary (explicit and implicit)

Grammatical category

1

title

alerts the reader (positive appreciation: implicit)

whole sentence

1

themes

important (positive appreciation: explicit)

attitudinal adjective (pre-modifier)

2 2

In this description, a list of positive judgements of Nanna Fejo’s character are introduced explicitly towards the beginning (elegant, eloquent and wonderful). Rudd then uses a number of signals to carry the positive evaluation implicitly through the whole description. Creating a positive picture of Nanna Fejo was an important rhetorical strategy for Rudd because it encouraged the audience to take her version of events seriously. However, if only explicit evaluation had been used, some listeners may have reacted negatively. As with Nooria’s story (text 6.4), Nanna Fejo’s story draws on a combination of implicit and explicit evaluative vocabulary to persuade audiences. Some students are able to draw on intuitive understandings of how language encodes feelings, judgements and aesthetic appreciation. Yet, as many English teachers know, other learners have considerable difficulty in this area. Knowing about the meaning categories of evaluative resources can be very empowering for students in constructing more effective texts of their own. Knowing also that affect, judgement and appreciation can be expressed implicitly as well as explicitly, and the ways in which such implicit evaluations can be made, is further empowering. Now let’s look at how implicit and explicit evaluative vocabulary is used to assess aspects of a literary text in a well-developed student response.

2 2

In this response, Ming has made choices of explicit appreciation to assess the crafting and value of the novel (‘important’) as well as implicit choices which combine assessments with information about the literary techniques used (‘The title refers to a quote by William Yeats ... and alerts the reader to important themes in the story’). Implicit vocabulary often appears more objective because it relies on some technical knowledge as well as the reader’s interpretation, rather than simply making the writer’s evaluation obvious. As students progress through the years of secondary English and learn to use more of the technical terminology for evaluating literary texts, the more sophisticated reviews are often those that use more implicit forms of evaluation. For students who have difficulty in reading or writing such implicit evaluations, a table such as the one in exercise 6.6 can provide a useful framework.

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Resources for expressing and grading attitudes: evaluative language 81

Grading: resources for intensifying attitudes and building suspense In addition to evaluative vocabulary, writers and speakers make use of a range of grammatical resources to adjust the level of intensity of feelings, judgements and opinions. This is referred to as grading. In narratives, grading functions to build suspense and, in all texts, to increase the evaluative force. Grading is often used to signal an indirect or implicit attitude. There are a number of resources for grading meanings, including grading adverbials, graded core vocabulary and indirect graders such as metaphor, listing and punctuation.

Grading adverbials The most direct way of grading meanings is through the use of ‘intensifying’ adverbials, such as ‘very’, ‘quite’ and ‘really’, which grade evaluative adjectives. For example:

intense rather excited excited very excited terribly excited more intense Other adverbials and adverbial phrases grade the meanings of verbs and whole clauses. Saro uses a number of these adverbials to build suspense in this action segment of his narrative.

Text 6.8: extract from the narrative ‘Tres Malum’ by Saro Nirvin immediately started running towards the school. He had gathered from the letter that the next victim would be an educator, and that it would be only hours or possibly minutes until they attacked his school. While all this was racing through his mind Nirvin suddenly realised the full extent of what he was doing. Why was he risking his life and going against his old friends just to save a group of mortals? He stopped running and sat down with a jolt. Note that these adverbials do not necessarily intensify explicit evaluative meanings but they may evoke an evaluative meaning. For example, the choice of ‘immediately’ in the first sentence suggests not only speed but also fear or impatience (negative affect).

Graded core vocabulary Another strategy for adjusting the ‘volume’ is through building grading into the core meanings of words. For example, Saro chose the amplified word ‘racing’ rather than ‘going’ in the clause ‘While all this was racing through his mind’. This choice intensifies the process of thinking. Table 6.4 shows how other ‘core’ vocabulary items from his story could be graded up and down.

Graded meaning (turning the volume down)

Core meaning

Graded meaning (turning the volume up)

lope, amble, jog, trot

run

sprint, dash, hurtle, charge

whisper, mutter, mumble

say

scream, yell, snarl

scary

frightening, terrifying, horrifying

Table 6.4

Well-crafted stories adjust the ‘volume’ repeatedly so that the audience goes on a roller-coaster ride of emotions as conflicts are created and resolved across phases. In the chase scene of the story ‘The Sudden Snow’, the author, Paul Collins, uses multiple choices of graded vocabulary to create suspense. For example:

The girl veered off from the jetty, dodged Cade, and somehow sprinted across the foreshore. The ground jarred … ‘The boat ramp!’ I screamed. We smacked into the ground hard. Students can be encouraged to identify graded core vocabulary in the stories they read and to discuss how it is used to build and control suspense. English teachers can help students to build graded vocabulary banks around core meanings, thus providing a valuable resource as students learn to adjust the volume of events and descriptions in their own stories.

Exercise 6.7 Use adverbials and graded core vocabulary to enrich the meanings and create greater suspense in the adventure story (text 6.9). At this stage, focus only on adjusting the volume of the action, sensing and saying verbs, which are underlined.

Text 6.9: adventure story One night two boys took their father’s car and drove it through the streets of the town. After ten minutes, they saw a police car in the distance. ‘Oh dear,’ said Ethan. ‘What will we do?’ ‘Turn here,’ John answered. Ethan turned. Then they saw that the road was a dead end. ‘Stop,’ said John. ‘I can’t find the break pedal,’ answered Ethan. Then John leaned over and pulled up the handbrake. The car stopped. ‘Phew. That was close,’ said John. ‘Thank goodness,’ said Ethan. ‘I think I’ll wait till I’m 16 to drive this again’.

Indirect grading resources In addition to adverbials and graded ‘core’ vocabulary, there are a number of indirect grading resources used in stories to intensify meanings in order to make events

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seem more dramatic. In table 6.5 we show some of the indirect graders which Ursula Dubosarsky uses in one part of her story ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ to engage the readers. In this part of the story, Martin’s grandmother is recounting her experiences in World War II. Indirect graders, along with adverbial graders and graded core vocabulary, help the writer to recreate the drama of wartime London for the reader. Indirect graders

Examples from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’

Adjectival graders

… [a response] that gave Snow a brief glimmer …

Metaphor/simile

I was always scared. Like a kitten.

Repetition of words

You’d hear them, buzzing, buzzing, buzzing …

Listing or accumulation of similar attitudes

… Martin sighed, a long, deep, exhausted sigh. Oh, it was worse than bad. I had the claustrophobia too. Wasn’t I miserable …

Three-part lists/ parallelism

… the war. Nothing nice to eat, nothing to wear. Nothing to do.

Exclamations or swearing

And hiding down in those bomb shelters. Bloody awful …

In other stories, punctuation such as exclamation marks (!!!) and formatting features such as capitals (HELP!!!) can also be used to turn up the volume and build suspense. As with the adverbial graders discussed earlier, these indirect graders can evoke, as well as intensify, evaluative meanings.

Exercise 6.8 Highlight words and expressions which intensify the evaluations made by Kevin Rudd in this extract from his Apology speech. Use the table below (continued on the next page) to record these examples of implicit and explicit grading resources.

Some of these stories are graphically told in Bringing them home, the report commissioned in 1995 by Prime Minister Keating and received in 1997 by Prime Minister Howard. There is something terribly primal about these firsthand accounts. The pain is searing; it screams from the pages. The hurt, the humiliation, the degradation and the sheer brutality of the act of physically separating a mother from her children is a deep assault on our senses and on our most elemental humanity. These stories cry out to be heard; they cry out for an apology.

Examples

Listing Repetition Lexical metaphor

Table 6.5

Text 6.10: extract from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech

Grading resource

In this extract, Kevin Rudd uses a range of grading resources to intensify evaluations and draw attention to the feelings of Aboriginal children and their families. Intensifying the emotions of the Aboriginal parents and children invites the audience to empathise with them and the audience is therefore positioned to agree that an apology is necessary. In this way, grading resources function rhetorically to support an argument. The combination of grading and evaluative vocabulary with other rhetorical resources for persuading audiences will be discussed in chapter 7.

Combinations of evaluative vocabulary and grading resources While each of the resources we have introduced in this section has its own evaluative meaning, effective storytellers use combinations of evaluative vocabulary and grading to build empathy, discernment and suspense across phases of text. In text 6.10, for example, Rudd grades choices from all three categories to emphasise the negative effects of the policy of removing children from their parents. This works rhetorically to prepare the audience for the apology. For example:

The pain is searing; it screams from the pages. (graded negative affect) … the sheer brutality of the act … (graded negative judgement) There is something terribly primal about these firsthand accounts. (graded negative appreciation) Figures 6.1 and 6.2 summarise the resources we have introduced for involving audiences in stories. More information about these resources and how they are used in media and political contexts can be found in Martin and White (2005).

Affect – evaluations of people’s feelings Attitude

Judgement – evaluations of people’s behaviour and character Appreciation – evaluations of objects, settings and appearances

Grading resource

Graded core vocabulary

Examples Figure 6.1: Three choices of attitude

Grading adverbials Adverbials Adjectival graders

Grading resources

Graded core meanings Indirect graders (e.g. listing, repetition, lexical metaphor)

Figure 6.2: Three resources for grading

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As students progress through the years of secondary English, it is expected that they will be able to draw on more nuanced selections of vocabulary that express their evaluations, whether this be about their own or their characters’ feelings, their judgements of each other or their assessment of things or phenomena in their worlds.

Exercise 6.9 As a final exercise for this chapter, revisit text 6.9 from exercise 6.7 with the view to creating a more evocative and engaging text. Use combinations of implicit and explicit evaluative vocabulary and both direct and indirect grading resources so that the audience is more effectively invited to: empathise with characters so that they care what happens to them discern the actions and responses of characters as they face or, indeed, cause problems enter the mood of particular settings and circumstances.

Implications for English teaching In this chapter, we have explored how evaluative vocabulary can be applied in order to achieve the distinctive purposes of narratives, text responses and expositions. We have suggested the value of providing students with frameworks that categorise such evaluation resources into: those that focus on feelings (affect) of characters, narrators and/or readers those that focus on judgement of characters, narrators and/or readers those that focus on appreciation of aspects of the text as a literary artefact. We have outlined the importance of drawing on combinations of such evaluative resources for different purposes, the importance of grading them (either by amplifying or diminishing them) and the importance of degrees of explicitness in expressing various evaluations. This framework can help students identify how writers combine their selections of evaluation resources across key stages of their narratives, text responses and expositions, and to what effect. It also provides considerable support for the development of students’ own writing, as teachers use it to diagnose which resources students have difficulty with and how they can support students to broaden their evaluative repertoires. In chapter 7, we will further explore interpersonal resources, focusing on the rhetorical devices used to persuade and position audiences to accept opinions in expositions.

Resources for persuading others: rhetorical language

As students move through secondary school, a great many of the texts they encounter have a persuasive purpose. This is particularly the case with the expositions and text responses produced for assessment purposes. For the most part, writers and speakers of these texts must not only demonstrate their knowledge of issues and texts, but persuade their audiences that their position on issues or their interpretation of texts is valid. While persuasion cannot be successful in secondary English without authoritative and reliable evidence, it is also very important to present that evidence, and the positions and arguments which build on it, in ways which ensure it is ‘heard’, accepted and believed. Effective, persuasive writers and speakers negotiate with real and imagined audiences, anticipating a range of possible responses and engaging in different ways with what those responses may be. This persuasive work of both spoken and written texts has been described in terms of the effect it has in creating a dialogue with the audience. Persuasion depends for its effectiveness on a set of language resources known as rhetorical devices. Rhetorical devices interact with other interpersonal resources such as the evaluative vocabulary and grading systems explored in chapter 6 to influence the opinions of readers, listeners and viewers and, ultimately, to align audiences with the position of the speaker or writer.

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Exercise 7.1 Texts 7.1 and 7.2 are extracts from two expositions written in response to the statement ‘Television is detrimental to children. Discuss.’ These extracts are the concluding reinforcement-of-thesis stages. Which of the two texts is more effective in drawing together the arguments persuasively? Discuss the resources used to make this text more persuasive.

Text 7.1 In conclusion, this essay has argued that television offers educational and entertainment benefits. However, in terms of the social and cognitive development of the child, the effects of television are negative. Therefore television is detrimental to children.

Text 7.2 It is clear from the above arguments that while television in moderation has some educational and entertainment value, its benefits are far outweighed by its negative effects. The extensive research evidence provided above demonstrates conclusively that excessive television watching is detrimental not only to the social but also to the cognitive development of children. Rather than extending availability of television to children, therefore, it is crucial that its excessive use be limited. You may have noted that both texts are similar in terms of their experiential meanings (the arguments they are referring to). You may also have noted that the writer of text 7.2 uses more of the grading resources we introduced in chapter 6 to give emphasis to her arguments in this final stage (e.g. far outweighed, extensive). Also important, however, are the contrasts made between the arguments (e.g. while, rather than), the references to authoritative external evidence (e.g. the extensive research evidence … demonstrates) and the presentation of information as opinions rather than non-negotiable ‘facts’ (e.g. it is clear, it is crucial that). These are some of the rhetorical devices we will introduce in this chapter. Building knowledge of rhetorical devices and how they work to persuade different audiences is clearly important in supporting students to build powerful arguments and interpretations in the texts they produce. It is also important for students to critically evaluate how others might be trying to influence their own responses. Rhetorical devices which will be introduced in this chapter include modality, citation, concession and comment and viewpoint expressions. We will focus here on how these resources do their persuasive work in expositions and text responses.

Resources for persuading others: rhetorical language 87

For example, the first of the three sentences below expresses an opinion which is nonnegotiable or polarised, whereas the other two sentences express opinions which are, to different extents, tempered or modulated, allowing varying degrees of room for the listener to agree or disagree.

1 Mobile phones are harmful to health. 2 Mobile phones may be harmful to health. 3 It is clear that mobile phones are not good for you. In persuasive texts such as expositions and some text responses, writers and speakers can alter or modulate meanings of possibility to temper their opinions about how likely something is. They can also temper meanings of obligation or ‘mustness’ so that their recommendations do not appear too strong. Modality, like evaluative vocabulary, is gradable and includes all the degrees of possibility and obligation between the two non-negotiable poles.

Using modality of possibility to temper opinions Modality of possibility expresses degrees between the poles of ‘it is so’ and ‘it isn’t so’. Modality is used to negotiate positions about the way things are, showing the writer’s or speaker’s awareness that even the strongest evidence may be open to question. The most straightforward grammatical resources for expressing degrees of possibility are auxiliary verbs called modal verbs, which we introduced briefly in chapter 5. Modal verbs which express lower and higher degrees of possibility are shown on the following cline.

Low possibility might

may

Medium possibility could

can

would

High possibility will

should

must

Exercise 7.2 Underline the modal verbs in the following extract from Jana’s exposition on literature’s capacity to change the world, which we introduced in chapter 5. Indicate on the cline above how strong or weak the opinion is. Discuss the effect of these choices.

Text 7.3: extract from Jana’s exposition

Modality: expressing degrees of possibility and obligation Just as interested parties in political and legal contexts need to negotiate their positions in order to get the judgements they want, so too do writers and speakers who want their audiences to agree with their positions and interpretations. An important strategy for negotiating positions is modality. Modality refers to a broad range of grammatical resources used to temper or modulate positions so that the audience is given some ‘room to move’. Modality contrasts with resources of polarity, which express nonnegotiable positions; that is, positions that are already agreed upon (e.g. is/isn’t, yes/no).

Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry, make us laugh, it can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we might have of the world around us ... but can it change the world? Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Effective writers and speakers of expositions and text responses in secondary English tend to use lower values of modality to express opinions in the opening stages of their text, before the evidence has been introduced. Without modal verbs such as ‘can’ and ‘might’, readers who do not experience the responses to literature that Jana lists (e.g. cry, laugh) may feel alienated by the opinions and choose not to ‘go along’ with her developing argument.

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Exercise 7.3

Additional grammatical resources for expressing modality In addition to modal verbs, possibility can also be expressed through other grammatical structures, including modal adverbials, modal adjectivals, modal nouns and modal clauses and phrases, as well as some kinds of rhetorical questions. Table 7.1 shows examples of the range of structures for expressing low, medium and strong values of possibility. Grammatical resource

High modality

Medium modality

Low modality

Modal verbs (auxiliaries)

must, should

will, would, can

may, could, might

Modal adverbials

certainly, definitely, absolutely, surely, in fact

probably, usually, generally, likely

possibly, perhaps, maybe, sometimes

Modal adjectivals

certain, definite, absolute

probable, usual

possible

Modal nouns

certainty

probability

possibility

Modal clauses and phrases

I contend (that) .… It is obvious/clear (that) … Everyone knows (that) … I’m sure you will agree (that) …

I think/believe (that) … In my opinion, … It is/isn’t likely (that) … If … then …

I guess (that) … It seems (that) … This suggests (that) …

Rhetorical (expository) questions

Does it have to be this way?

Will science provide an answer to global warming?

Can literature save the world? Table 7.1

Modal nouns and modal clauses and phrases are more indirect ways of expressing modality and are therefore often used to make texts seem more objective and difficult to argue against. By high school it is expected that students are able to express opinions in more indirect ways; however, it is important that they are provided with a range of choices for doing so. Indirect modality will be discussed in more detail in chapter 10. Some kinds of rhetorical questions, which are questions to which an immediate answer is not expected, also function in a similar way to modal expressions of possibility. There are two kinds of rhetorical questions. The type we are concerned with here is often called an expository question. It functions to raise issues and give time for the audience to reflect on their position. In this way, expository questions can open up space for alternative positions. For example:

Text 7.4 is a type of argument in which two sides of an issue are explored—a text type we referred to in chapter 2 as a discussion. The text uses a range of resources of modality to temper the opinions and anticipate the responses of the audience. Underline all examples of modality in the text. Use the table below to classify these examples, noting the grammatical resource and the degree of modality.

Text 7.4: a discussion by Sarah (Year 11) on the issue of mobile phones Are mobile phones a problem? Mobile telephony is without doubt one of the most explosive developments to have taken place in the telecommunications industry. Mobile phones definitely offer enormous advantages but it seems that there are also costs. The potential impact of mobile phones on the human brain has received little attention until now, and it is probably still too soon to say what the effects are. However, there are certainly concerns about the frequent use of mobile phones on human health. It is possible that excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) could cause undesirable effects such as memory loss, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, and even brain tumours. It may also be that mobile phone use could affect the nerve cells responsible for short-term memory. This suggests that excessive use of mobile phones causes headaches and fatigue. On the other hand, cellular telephony has definitely brought great and new freedoms for youngsters—and increased security and peace of mind for their parents. It is now possible for young people equipped with mobile phones to stay in touch with their parents and for parents to stay in touch with their children. This can help reduce or eliminate the need for meaningless restrictions on young people. Costs might not even be a major issue, since these can be controlled through the use of prepaid cards. With a little effort on everyone’s part, I believe the benefits of mobile phones can serve to enhance our experience of life, offering us more freedom and ultimately creating a more connected society. High modality

Modal verbs (auxiliaries)

Modal adverbials

Modal adjectivals

Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? Expository questions are different from the kind of rhetorical questions where the writer assumes that the audience already agrees; that is, only one answer is acceptable and so the question answers itself (e.g. Should we bomb innocent children?) This second kind of rhetorical question is similar in its rhetorical effect to the comment and viewpoint expressions we will examine later in this chapter. Strategically placed rhetorical questions of both kinds can be a very effective way to engage the audience in a dialogue, even in written texts and speeches where a direct response is not expected. Overuse of rhetorical questions, however, can intrude upon the development of an argument and make texts seem less objective.

Modal nouns

Modal clauses and phrases Expository questions

Medium modality

Low modality

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Resources for persuading others: rhetorical language 91

In addition to modal verbs, there are a number of less direct grammatical resources used to express modality of obligation. These are shown in table 7.2.

Are the values mostly high, medium or low?

How does modality help the text to be persuasive?

The accumulation of modality found in text 7.4 is typical of texts which address contentious issues. You may have also noticed the use of graded evaluative vocabulary (e.g. excessive exposure, meaningless restrictions) which combines with modality in this text to increase the intensity of the debate.

Grammatical resource

High modality

Medium modality

Low modality

Modal verbs (auxiliaries)

must, ought to, need, has to, had to, required to

should, supposed to

can, may, could, might, allowed to, let (us)

Modal adjectivals

necessary, obligatory

Modal nouns

necessity, requirement, obligation, responsibility

Modal clauses and phrases

It is necessary/time to … It is required/expected/ important that … It is your responsibility to … I demand that …

I would advise you to … I suggest that you … I urge you to …

I’d like you to … Can I ask you to …? Are you able to …? It might be an idea to … One thing you might try is …

Using modality of obligation to temper recommendations While modality of possibility is concerned with tempering opinions about the way things are, modality of obligation is concerned with negotiating how things should be— expressing degrees between the poles of ‘Do it!’ and ‘Don’t do it!’ Writers and speakers use modality of obligation to persuade audiences to do something. It is commonly found in the kinds of expositions produced to bring about change. As with modality of possibility, there are more and less direct ways of expressing degrees of obligation. Modal verbs are the most straightforward resource.

Exercise 7.4 The following extract is the concluding recommendation stage of an exposition on the issue of whether Australia should accept more refugees. In this stage, modal verbs of obligation have been underlined. Put a cross on the cline below to indicate how strong or weak you think the recommendation of the writer is. Discuss the effect of these choices at this stage of the text.

Text 7.5 Therefore, Australia must accept more refugees into the country. Refugees have had to leave their countries because of war, famine or persecution and need to have homes. Countries such as Australia should do everything possible to make sure they are looked after.

Less strong recommendation

Medium recommendation

Strong recommendation

Modal verbs can be useful resources to express obligation when the relationship between the writer or speaker and the audience is relatively straightforward. However, in many cases, asking someone to do something is not straightforward, and it is important to ensure that the audience does not feel commanded.

Table 7.2

Note that a number of expressions of modality can be used for both possibility and obligation. For example:

It must be dinner time. I’m starving. (possibility) I must be fed now, otherwise I’ll starve. (obligation) Nooria, the young refugee activist, makes great use of modality in her plea to the Australian Government. In her speech, she uses a modal clause of medium obligation to persuade her audiences to free refugee children and their families from detention centres.

I urge the Australian Government and all the concerned, amazing and caring people of Australia to free the children from the detention centres, to give each refugee a permanent visa and let them be clear about their future. Nooria’s relative lack of power as a young student without political or institutional control makes it important for her to use this more indirect expression. Note also how her plea is made more rhetorically powerful by the use of highly graded positive judgements of those she is lobbying (i.e. all the concerned, amazing and caring people of Australia). Kevin Rudd, in his Apology speech, also uses modality of obligation to recommend the action of apologising. For example:

Mr Speaker, there comes a time in the history of nations when their peoples must become fully reconciled to their past if they are to go forward with confidence to embrace their future. In this extract, Rudd uses a relatively direct and strong value of obligation (must), not only because he feels strongly about the need for action, but also because he is in a relatively powerful position to make such a recommendation. However, even this strong value is not as categorical as using commands such as ‘Become reconciled!’ Even this strong modal choice offers some space for those in the audience who may not be convinced of the government’s position.

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Exercise 7.5 Text 7.6 is another extract from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech to the Stolen Generations. It occurs immediately before the direct apology is given. Highlight expressions of modality of obligation. Underline expressions of high modality, then answer the questions which follow.

Text 7.6: extract from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech There is a pretty basic Aussie belief that says it is time to put right this most outrageous of wrongs. It is for these reasons, quite apart from concerns of fundamental human decency, that the governments and parliaments of this nation must make this apology—because, put simply, the laws that our parliaments enacted made the Stolen Generations possible. We, the parliaments of the nation, are ultimately responsible, not those who gave effect to our laws. The problem lay with the laws themselves. As has been said of settler societies elsewhere, we are the bearers of many blessings from our ancestors, and therefore we must also be the bearer of their burdens as well. Therefore, for our nation, the course of action is clear, and therefore, for our people, the course of action is clear: that is, to deal now with what has become one of the darkest chapters in Australia’s history ... It is time to reconcile. It is time to recognise the injustices of the past. It is time to say sorry. It is time to move forward together.

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Citation: reporting and challenging the words and ideas of others A further resource for referring to others’ viewpoints in persuasive texts is citation. Citation occurs when a writer or speaker (author) refers to the words or views of a source. Citations include what is said, thought and believed as well as what is found; that is, through studies or experiments. The most common way of citing sources is to use a reporting verb in a quote or paraphrase. For example:

Quote: Some have asked, ‘Why apologise?’ source

reporting verb

what is said

Paraphrase: The title refers to a quote by William Yeats. As with modality, there is a range of grammatical resources for citing sources. Table 7.3 shows the most common structures for expressing what people say, think, feel and find.

Are the values of modality of obligation mostly high, medium or low?

Where do most of the high values of modality accumulate in the text?

Grammatical resource

Say

Think or feel

Find

Reporting verbs

Saying verbs: state, say, report, tell, announce, write, stress, argue, respond, claim, suggest

Thinking/feeling verbs: think, feel, believe, reckon, assume

Action verbs: find, demonstrate, discover (that), show

Reporting nouns

statement, saying, report, claim, announcement, argument, response, commitment, call

thought, feeling, belief, assumption, opinion, view

findings, results, study

Reporting phrases

According to …, In the words of …, As Palmer explains …, … (Jones 2000, p. 34)

In Jones’ view

What effect does modality have on the recommendations which are made?

Table 7.3

In order to interpret the persuasive meaning of rhetorical devices such as modality, students need to have a good understanding of the context in which it is used. For example, Kevin Rudd uses a great deal of modality of obligation because, at that time in history, he could not assume that everybody in the audience agreed that it was necessary. He therefore has to make a case for why it should happen.

Mature writers and speakers use a range of grammatical resources for citing sources. The most common resource is reporting verbs (e.g. say, argue); however, reporting nouns are also very important for summarising what is said, believed or found so that it can be referred to in different ways. Reporting nouns such as ‘argument’ and ‘statement’ are types of nominalisation, which, as discussed in chapter 5, are valuable grammatical resources used by mature writers to pack in more information. Reporting phrases function to draw attention to the source and are often used at the beginning of sentences.

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For example, in the following quote from the Apology speech, the reporting noun ‘commitment’ summarises what Kevin Rudd said last year. However, within that utterance is another citation (‘sorry’), which is introduced by the reporting verb group ‘would say’.

Last year I made a commitment to the Australian people that if we formed the next government of the Commonwealth we would in parliament say sorry to the Stolen Generations. Explicit teaching of reporting and quoting resources can help students to unravel the complex layering of reporting, which is typical of texts developed from interviews or other forms of research. These kinds of texts are particularly prominent in the media. Being able to track the opinions and evaluations in such media reports to their sources by using reporting resources can reveal a great deal about the objectivity of these texts. Resources such as those outlined in this section are thus particularly important for critical literacy.

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Reporting resource

Grammatical resource

Source

has reported

saying verb

Monash University study

findings

reporting noun

Monash University

suggest

saying verb

Monash University findings

said has called for argue argument support

Exercise 7.6

the call

Text 7.7, a media discussion, uses a range of grammatical resources to introduce different viewpoints from different sources about the issue of mobile phone use. These resources are underlined.

expressed disagreement

Text 7.7: adapted from ‘Saving kids from the unthinkable’, by Jamie (Year 10) A new study undertaken by Monash University has reported that, soon, kids will be unable to think. Their findings suggest that the next generation of teenagers will be unable to think, spell or concentrate because of the increase in the use of mobile phones, and text messaging. ‘We are not just pulling these figures out of nowhere,’ a representative from the university said. ‘Over time, text messaging and the many forms of passive entertainment have decreased the ability of teenagers to form extensive or coherent sentences.’ The university has called for a ban on mobile phones for under 18s. This, researchers argue, will encourage a more focused learning environment. This argument has been met with mixed responses. Some parents and teachers support the call for a ban on mobile phones; however, teenagers have expressed strong disagreement. Kelly Brackenberry, student representative from Burmont High School, has responded to the call for a ban with a clear statement: ‘On behalf of the students of this school, I’d like to say that we are strongly opposed to the idea of such a law. In fact, there is an argument that the abbreviations used in text messaging allow for much quicker communication and allow kids to be creative with language. Without further evidence this study cannot be taken seriously.’ Kids at war with adults is nothing new but this battle is expected to last for a while. Use the table to classify these resources and identify the source of the viewpoints where you can. Then answer the questions which follow.

has responded the call statement like to say argument study

Citations from which source are given most space in this discussion?

What do you think the writer’s view is?

You may have noted in text 7.7 that some sources are difficult to retrieve from the text when the reporting resource is expressed as a nominalisation. For example, in the clause ‘there is an argument’ the source is not revealed and the reader is unable to check the validity of the information. Teachers could explicitly help students to identify nominalisations in media discussions and to explore the way such nominalisations can obscure the source of a particular assertion. In doing so, teachers are helping students develop their critical literacy alongside their grammatical knowledge.

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Using citation to support or challenge positions Like debaters and barristers, effective expository writers and orators use citation to strengthen their arguments, both by providing supporting evidence (e.g. allowing witnesses to speak) and by challenging or rebutting alternative positions (e.g. crossexamining witnesses). One way to indicate support for a source is to refer to that source in a way which gives it more status. High-status sources include individuals with titles (e.g. Professor Sands) and generalised groups which are associated with objective research (e.g. researchers, research). Low-status sources include individuals and generalised groups who are not named with a specialised title or profession (e.g. some people). Status can also be adjusted through the use of evaluative vocabulary (e.g. a leading child psychiatrist, recent research, an inexperienced doctor). By introducing sources with high-status names, writers signal to their audiences that they endorse these views and thus make them difficult to argue against. However, the authority of the source often depends upon the context. For example, in introducing Nanna Fejo’s story, Rudd describes her as a member of the Stolen Generation, and thus gives her status as an ‘insider’.

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In the table, list examples of citation. Identify the grammatical resource used for each citation and the status of the source. Citation

Grammatical resource

Status of source

This phrase [every three seconds], popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign

reporting verb (action)

high status (high-profile organisation for target audience)

Let me begin to answer by telling the parliament just a little of one person’s story— an elegant, eloquent and wonderful woman in her 80s, … a member of the Stolen Generation who shared some of her story with me when I called around to see her just a few days ago … Note here too that Rudd also increases Nanna Fejo’s status through evaluative vocabulary which positions the audience to judge her character and appearance positively. The combination of citation and evaluative vocabulary thus helps to build credibility in an exposition. In classical rhetoric, this is termed ethos.

Exercise 7.7 Read the following extract from a blog entry on a youth-oriented social justice website,TakingITGlobal. In this text, the author argues that young people need to be involved in decisions about fighting global poverty.

Text 7.8: extracts from Lewis’ blog entry Every three seconds, a child dies from hunger. This phrase, popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign along with the Live8 concerts, shows the world what state it is in … In some areas of the world many children do not live until their sixth birthday … However, it is a proven fact that if mothers of these children were provided with proper education on basic hygiene and sanitation, the child would have lived beyond the age of five … So where do young people fit in all of this? Everywhere. Young people are increasingly being recognised as important factors within global development. Since the United Nations’ conception it has been calling for increased youth participation in global decision-making … It cannot stop there. There is a global call for an end to poverty. Billions of people are calling for our governments to stand up and face poverty. Colin Powell said that the war on terror will not succeed unless the war on poverty is fought and won … Will you be brave enough to stand up and take a stance?

Lewis uses a range of grammatical resources to quote and paraphrase external sources to support his opinions and recommendations. Authority is provided primarily through high-status sources. However, evaluative vocabulary and grading are also important in positioning the audience to take some views more seriously than others. For example, the reporting verb ‘shows’ and the reporting clause ‘it is a proven fact that’ imply a positive evaluation and therefore endorse citations. Reporting resources such as ‘claim’ and ‘assume’ typically imply negative evaluation and invite the audience to distance themselves from the views expressed. Making explicit the range of resources for colouring the citations which are brought into the text can be a great support for students in creating authoritative arguments of any sort and in developing a critical perspective on texts.

Contrast and concession In the previous section, we saw that arguments within expositions may be strengthened by rebutting positions which have been introduced into the text. An important resource for rebutting positions is to contrast them with positions which are supported. For example, in the extract from the Apology speech below, Rudd uses contrast strategically to replace the argument proposed by ‘some’ with information he introduces as ‘the fact’.

Then we come to the argument of intergenerational responsibility, also used by some to argue against giving an apology today. But let us remember the fact that the forced removal of Aboriginal children was happening as late as the early 1970s.

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A related rhetorical device is to concede part of the alternative argument before challenging it. Concession is a very effective strategy because it positions the writer or speaker as open-minded and willing to negotiate. In the earlier extract from the exposition about television (text 7.2), for example, the writer strategically uses concession to replace the argument that television has some value, with the argument that its benefits are outweighed by its negative effects.

It is clear from the above arguments that while television in moderation has some educational and entertainment value, its benefits are far outweighed by its negative effects.

Resource

Examples

Examples within text

Concessive conjunctions

but, yet, however, although, while, even though, whereas

The death penalty does deter the murderer. But the cost of that deterrence is too great. Although the death penalty does deter the murderer, the cost is too great.

despite, instead of, in spite of

Another important set of rhetorical resources are comment and viewpoint expressions. These are typically adverbials which insert the writer’s or speaker’s attitude about issues into the text and thus position audiences to share that attitude. For example:

Of course there is no question that Shakespeare’s language is beautiful. Some adverbials add comment to a whole clause or a phase of a text, while others are used to draw attention to particular pieces of information. The following table provides examples of frequently used comment and viewpoint adverbials.

Table 7.4 shows the most common grammatical resources for contrast and concession.

Prepositional phrases

Comment and viewpoint expressions

Despite the results, the cost is too great. Table 7.4

Resource

Examples

Examples within text

Adverbials commenting on whole clause

incredibly, amazingly admittedly, of course, predictably, undeniably, really

Amazingly some people still argue for the death penalty. Admittedly Shakespeare produced some great plays, but his language is hard for us to understand.

Adverbials commenting on particular information

already, finally, still, only, just, even

He has finally admitted that the costs are too high. Many people have already been put to death unjustly.

Table 7.5

However, as with the resources of modality and citation introduced earlier, other grammatical structures can be used to comment in this way, including whole clauses. For example:

It never ceases to amaze me that some people do not appreciate Shakespeare.

Exercise 7.8 Combine the following sentences so they are in a relationship of contrast or concession. Use an appropriate grammatical resource from table 7.4. Viewpoint

Opposing viewpoint

Shakespeare was a great poet.

Shakespeare can be difficult to understand.

Young people are important factors within global development.

Young people’s views are often overlooked by decisionmakers.

Text messaging allows for rapid communication.

Researchers argue that text messaging can have negative consequences for teenagers.

Explicit teaching of resources of contrast and concession encourages students to express their arguments and thesis statements in ways which appear balanced and thoughtful. Practice in constructing concessive sentences is particularly valuable for ESL students who often struggle with the complex sentence structures required. The rhetorical function of concession can be made more concrete for students by using a couple of puppets. One puppet could ‘give voice’ to one point of view (e.g. ‘Television in moderation has some educational and entertainment value.’) before the second puppet appears on the scene to push aside the first and give voice to the alternative view (e.g. ‘The benefits of television are far outweighed by its negative effects.’).

These comment and viewpoint expressions can be used to add emphasis to the writer’s or speaker’s opinions by presenting an alternative opinion as not realistic. In this way, the reader or listener is prevented from paying too much attention to the alternative opinion. As is illustrated in the table above, some comment and viewpoint adverbials, such as ‘admittedly’, function like concessive conjunctions to indicate that the writer or speaker is willing to give some ground to alternative viewpoints before countering with their own view. While comment and viewpoint adverbials are very common in the persuasive texts of politicians and media commentators, student writers need to be careful when using them. These expressions assume to some extent that the audience already shares the position which is proposed, and students often lack a powerful enough status to make these assumptions about their audience.

Interaction of rhetorical resources across texts So far in this chapter we have introduced rhetorical devices individually in order to examine the particular grammatical structures and functions. However, effective persuasive texts present their positions and build arguments by selecting a range of these devices as well as the evaluative vocabulary and grading resources discussed in chapter 6.

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Exercise 7.9 Text 7.9 is the introduction to Jana’s Year 11 exposition, ‘Can one piece of literature change the world?’ The introduction to her essay moves through a series of steps to introduce the position or thesis. Identify some of the rhetorical devices she uses as well as examples of evaluative vocabulary and grading resources. Discuss how, together, they function to persuade the audience.

Text 7.9 Can one piece of literature change the world? First of all, let us define literature. The word ‘literature’ is often narrowed down to fictional works of authors such as Jane Austen and Victor Hugo. However, I prefer the definition of the Macquarie Dictionary: ‘Writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features.’ Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry; it can make us laugh. It can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we might have of the world around us. It lets us learn and understand the actions and values of our ancestors and share our own ideas with the generations to come. But can it change the world? Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown monarchies, freed countries from colonial bonds and enticed nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Such works include La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme (Declaration of the Rights of Man) from the French Revolution, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and, more recently, Mein Kampf by Hitler.

Implications for English teaching As we indicated at the beginning of this chapter, effective persuasive texts present their positions and build arguments by skilfully selecting from a range of rhetorical devices, while simultaneously drawing on repertoires of evaluative vocabulary and grading resources. Students moving further into secondary English are expected to read and write texts whose persuasive purposes are increasingly more complex and subtle. Expositions and text responses which are more highly valued in assessment tasks are those where students demonstrate explicit knowledge about rhetorical devices such as modality, citation, concession, and comment and viewpoint expressions, and how these create a ‘dialogue’ with their audience, influence their audience’s opinions and align their audiences with their position. English teachers already work with some of these rhetorical resources in more or less systematic ways as they support their students to construct and evaluate various persuasive texts. What we have offered in this chapter is a systematic framework for exploring the grammatical basis of these existing strategies. By drawing on this framework, and adapting some of the tasks in this chapter for student use, English teachers can make even more explicit the less visible but nonetheless powerful ways in which rhetoric can be used. Teachers can explicitly model, for example, how: effective student writers like Jana tend to use lower values of modality to express opinions in the opening stages of their expositions, before the evidence has been introduced, thus ensuring that some of her readers will not feel alienated

Resources for persuading others: rhetorical language 101

blog writers like Lewis strategically place expository questions to engage his readers in a dialogue, while not intruding upon the development of his argument by overusing them writers like Jamie use a range of grammatical resources to quote and paraphrase external sources. In particular, teachers could draw attention to his use of one type of reporting verb to imply a positive evaluation and therefore endorse citations (e.g. said) and others to imply negative evaluation and invite the audience to distance themselves from the views expressed (e.g. claim) speechmakers like Kevin Rudd use concessive and contrastive conjunctions, and comment and viewpoint adverbials (e.g. admittedly) to indicate that the writer or speaker is willing to give some ground to alternative viewpoints before countering with their own view, to present alternate opinion as unrealistic, or to prevent their audience from considering alternative opinions in a range of other ways readers of media reports can identify the way that rhetorical resources such as nominalisation can be used to obscure the source of a particular assertion, or how reporting resources are used to attribute opinions and evaluations to particular sources. By drawing on their own knowledge of a working grammar, by modelling how that grammar works for rhetorical purposes and by providing students with tasks similar to those above in high-challenge, high-support situations, teachers can support students to develop their own knowledge of how grammar can work for them. Just as importantly, the pedagogical strategies modelled throughout this chapter will support the development of critical literacy in powerful ways as students identify how other speakers and writers have drawn on various rhetorical resources to position their audiences.

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The following extracts come from two text responses produced by Year 10 students, one oral and one written. The language used in the two texts demonstrates some of the differences in these modes.

Exercise 8.1

Resources for creating well-organised ‘crafted’ texts

Read the extracts and discuss any differences in the way the students’ ideas are shaped into spoken or written text.

Text 8.1: classroom discussion responding to short story ‘The Test’ by Angelica Gibbs Teacher: Why do you think this man, this inspector, this tester was like he was? Melanie: I think maybe he could have, um, he might have had a black friend when he was younger, and so he’s got something against them now and he’s trying to, like … Maybe he might sort of … thinks, well, maybe because I’ve got picked on, he doesn’t want to make another friendship with a black friend. Teacher: Ah, so you think he might have been a victim himself? Melanie: Yeah, I guess … Jing: Isn’t it a bit like that film we saw last term? You know, the one where the guy who was abused when he was a slave ends up treating the slaves badly when he gets to be a supervisor. Teacher: Yes, so perhaps we are talking about power here … and why people might be motivated to abuse power … Do you want something Mr Long?

Text 8.2: extract from essay responding to short story ‘The Test’ by Angelica Gibbs

In previous chapters we have explored grammatical resources for building the narrative, expository and text response worlds explored in secondary English and for engaging audiences in those worlds. The focus in the next two chapters is on grammatical resources for organising these experiential and interpersonal meanings into well-crafted, cohesive texts. Grammatical resources which are used to organise and predict meanings at clause, phase and whole-text level are known as textual resources. Managing textual resources is vital for students in developing the complex literacy and multi-literacy practices required in secondary English.

Modes of communication: spoken and written language The way we weave meanings into texts is influenced by the purpose of the text and also by the mode or channel of communication. Features of the mode which have a particular effect on the organisation of texts include whether the text is spoken or written, whether it is constructed as dialogue or monologue, and whether language ‘stands alone’ or is accompanied by meaning-making actions or images.

The three characters in the story symbolise characteristics of three different groups in American society. The driving inspector represents the prejudice and ignorance of people who feel superior to blacks. The inspector has power over the black character, Marion, and abuses this power with overt racism. Although his motives for treating her badly are not explained in the text, it may be that he himself has been a victim at some stage in his life. The second character, Marion, represents the powerless, the victims of racism. People in this group are unable to achieve their potential because of the imbalance and abuse of power. Marion’s education and other symbols of belonging to mainstream American culture gave her no protection against this abuse. The third character, Mrs Erikson, represents apathy—those in society who are aware of prejudice and yet allow it to happen. Mrs Erikson will not get involved even though she could make a difference. The most obvious difference between the two texts is that in text 8.1, more than one person is responsible for shaping the ideas. The text is interactive and dialogic and there is a great deal of spontaneity in the way ideas are explored. Notice too that the text does not always ‘stay on track’, with interruptions coming from inside and outside the immediate conversation. Text 8.2, on the other hand, is monologic with one person responsible for achieving its goal and ensuring that it does stay on track. The text reflects on ideas which have already been explored. Table 8.1 summarises the key differences in the way language is used in the two texts.

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Resources for creating well-organised ‘crafted’ texts 105

Organising and signalling information

Text 8.1 (spoken, interactive, exploratory)

Text 8.2 (written, monologic, reflective)

Hesitations and unfinished sentences ‘Thinking time’ fillers (‘um’, ‘like’, ‘well’) Interruptions (Jing cuts across Melanie) References to things and actions outside the text, in the context shared by speakers (e.g. actions or words of Mr Long, name of film) Simple noun groups, naming concrete things and people Repetition Repairs (‘he could have, um, he might have …’) Clauses joined in compound and complex sentences

No hesitations or fillers Text sequenced systematically as subtopics of a main topic (e.g. characters and their symbolic characteristics) All meanings retrievable inside the text (e.g. people in this group: i.e. powerless) Main idea previewed at the beginning of the text Complex noun groups, condensing noun behaviours and qualities as abstract, generalised things (e.g. the prejudice and ignorance of people who feel superior to blacks) Table 8.1

While these texts illustrate some basic differences in written monologic and spoken dialogic texts, it is difficult to make a sharp distinction between these modes. For example, speeches are typically prepared as highly crafted, written documents before being delivered orally; written texts such as SMS messages and postcards share many characteristics of spoken conversation; and web-based texts typically integrate spoken, written verbal and visual text. For this reason we distinguish language as ‘spokenlike’ and ‘written-like’, and consider different modes of language use on a continuum. Some modes typically encountered by students in secondary school are shown on a continuum from more spoken-like to more written-like in figure 8.1.

casual conversation with friends

Casual interactive (spoken-like)

web-based social networking sites

classroom talk

blogs and journals

prepared speeches

essays

Formal non-interactive (written-like) Figure 8.1: A mode continuum

Language use towards the spoken-like end of the mode continuum is important for students in exploring ideas and developing relationships. As we saw in text 8.1, such spoken language can be used in whole-class or small group discussions as students explore, clarify and elaborate new concepts in the early stages of the investigation of a text. However, it is very important that students are able to move to the ‘written’ end of the continuum to communicate their ideas in the reflective and analytical style expected in assessed tasks. In the following sections of this chapter, we will focus on resources to signal the organisation of information at whole-text, paragraph and sentence level, and to manage the flow of information across more written-like phases of narrative, text response and expository texts. In chapter 9 we will continue to explore textual meanings, focusing on the role of cohesive devices in stitching meanings together into cohesive units.

Unlike casual conversation and classroom discussion, more formal monologic texts are typically planned around points or topics, which have been worked out before writing begins. In longer written texts, each of these topics is developed as a paragraph, with clear signals or previews provided to make clear to the audience where the text is headed and how the information is organised. Text 8.3 is an extended extract from a Year 9 student’s text response to a theatre event. The full text is provided on page 195. This text is organised around a main topic of theatrical techniques with subtopics of the particular theatrical techniques used. Each of these subtopics is related back to the theatre event. This kind of organisation allows the student to analyse the theatre event rather than just describe it.

Exercise 8.2 Read text 8.3 and highlight the main topic as well as the subtopics which are developed in each paragraph.

Text 8.3: extract from ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ by Jenny (Year 9) A sound understanding of the different theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre and the ability to put these techniques into practice are vital to fulfil the performance makers’ goals and engage the imagination of the audience … The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept … The most basic technique we used in our group’s piece at NHSPA Environmental Day was exaggeration … Exaggeration was most obvious in the way the props were made. Every prop was made to be larger than life, and having the appliances strapped onto headpieces meant that the props were easier to manipulate and gave the props a sense of character. As well as the props being exaggerated, the whole performance was exaggerated to keep the audience interested and to give a clear/entertaining performance … The theatrical technique of exaggerating every element of the performance engaged the audience because it made the performance clear and the larger-than-life atmosphere of the performance was very entertaining. Another very important theatrical technique that we used to engage the imagination of the audience and to initially grab the audience’s attention was that of music. Using an electrical guitar to amplify some of the images in the performance engaged the audience because it forced them to be completely focused on the performance … For any piece of Environmental, Street or Event theatre to be successful, extensive planning of every detail is absolutely essential. In our group we started off by developing a story around an environmental theme … Rehearsal of the actual performance was also important … Symbolism is a theatrical technique that was an integral part of our performance in all stages of devising the piece … Symbolism was used in our production to make the piece more relatable to the intended audience and to make the message being conveyed more theatrical …

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Another theatrical technique we used in our performance to engage the audience was unison. By creating a ‘chorus’ concept it gave the audience more layers, and we used the choreographed dance to symbolise the idea of ‘working appliances’ … The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day fulfilled the performance makers’ goals of projecting a clear message/idea, engaging the audience’s imagination and therefore connecting and in turn entertaining the audience. These goals could not have been achieved without effectively using various theatrical techniques in specific and original ways.

al

The way the information is organised in Jenny’s text response can be visually represented as a tree diagram with the trunk (the main topic of theatrical techniques) providing a frame for the branches (subtopics such as exaggeration, music, planning). In some cases these branches are divided into smaller branches (e.g. exaggeration is broken into props and performance). The visual representation of the organisation within this text response is shown in figure 8.2.

R eh

Electric

s o Perf

g nin

r

n ma

c

rs

S t o r y d e ve l o p m e n

t

olism Symb

Exaggeration

es

Prop

gu

it a r

Pla n

Mu sic

ea

THEATRICAL TECHNIQUES OF STREET THEATRE EVENT

Unison

Figure 8.2: Organisation of information in Jenny’s text response

Using visual representations such as trees is a very effective means of supporting students to gather and group their ideas in meaningful ways, and to show the hierarchies of topics in more complex responses and expositions.

Exercise 8.3 Read the complete version of Jana’s exposition, ‘Can literature change the world' on page 189, and draw a tree diagram to represent the organisation into topics and subtopics. Once ideas have been organised in this analytical way, effective writers can preview the organisation of information in order to guide audiences through the layers of text. The grammatical resources used to do this are called text, paragraph and sentence openers. Openers function at all levels to organise information in expositions and text responses in secondary English and are also an effective way to build expectations in narratives.

Text openers Text openers (sometimes called text previews) are resources for alerting readers and listeners to the way the information will unfold across the whole text. In written-like text responses and expositions, text openers provide a ‘preview’ for the way information is organised. Experienced readers use text openers to skim the text for what it will be about. Text openers can provide a general preview as is shown in the context stage of Jenny’s text response (see text 8.3). Here Jenny indicates to the reader that the information in her text interpretation stage is organised around ‘a variety of techniques’ and also signals in a general way the effects of the techniques which will be elaborated on. For example:

The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept. Text openers can also include more specific categories of information to provide an ‘outline view’ of the topics. For example, in the thesis stage of her exposition (see text 8.4), Jana extends her thesis statement to include a text opener, listing the four works of literature she will use to argue her case.

Text 8.4: extract from ‘Can literature save the world?’, by Jana (Year 11) Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown monarchies, freed countries from colonial bonds and enticed nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Works of literature which have changed the world include La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme (Declaration of the Rights of Man) from the French Revolution, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and, more recently, Mein Kampf by Hitler. This text opener sets up an expectation for the reader, not only of the four texts which will be included as evidence to support Jana’s thesis, but also the sequence in which the evidence will unfold. Written expositions and text responses which include text openers are highly valued in secondary English as they demonstrate the planning and analysis which has preceded the writing. Text openers are not typically used in narrative texts because information is not organised analytically in these texts. However, spoken recounts and anecdotes are often previewed with openers such as ‘Did you hear about Carol’s accident?’ or ‘Have I got news for you!’, which engage audiences by creating expectations of what will follow.

Grammatical elements of text openers: abstract nouns and complex noun groups As the above texts illustrate, openers typically include abstract nouns (e.g. techniques, message/concept, works of literature). These nouns, discussed in chapter 4, name ‘packages’ of information. In secondary English, abstract nouns are typically ideas, arguments, concepts and aspects of language and literature presented in a condensed, generalised way. As with other nouns, it is possible to add information to abstract nouns to form complex noun groups which describe and classify the category (e.g. a clear

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message, a variety of techniques). Using complex noun groups allows writers to pack a great deal of information into simple clause structures and thus maintain the focus of the information. For example:

The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept. Abstract nouns and complex noun groups are a feature of written-like language. Good writers use these language resources in openers to condense information and then ‘unpack’ the abstractions to explain and elaborate their points in subsequent parts of the text.

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Paragraph openers Paragraph openers work to preview the way information is organised in particular paragraphs or phases and to link the focus of specific sections of texts to the broader focus of the whole text. Paragraph openers are commonly known as topic sentences because they identify the main topic to be developed in the paragraph. However, well-crafted paragraph openers also provide a link to the thesis or broad topic and to information presented in previous paragraphs. The following extract from the arguments stage of Jana’s exposition has been annotated to show the significant signalling and linking work of the paragraph opener.

Text 8.8: extract from ‘Can literature save the world?’, by Jana (Year 11)

Exercise 8.4 Read the following text openers from student expositions and text responses. Highlight the complex noun groups and circle the abstract nouns.

Text 8.5 A new study undertaken by Monash University has reported that, soon, kids will be unable to think. Their findings suggest that the next generation of teenagers will be unable to think, spell or concentrate because of the increase in the use of mobile phones and text messaging.

link to topic paragraph

link to previous paragraph

link to thesis

Mein Kampf (or ‘My Struggle’ in English) by Hitler also changed the world, though not in the same way as the texts discussed earlier. This book permitted the Nazis to flourish in Germany in the 1930s and allowed one of the world’s greatest horrors to occur: the Holocaust. The book preyed upon the poverty of the German people and gave them a scapegoat for all their troubles. This allowed them to, if they did not actively participate, turn a blind eye to the abominations that were being carried out in their name.

Text 8.6 There is an increasing amount of debate as to whether rainforests in Queensland and Tasmania should be given over to the forest industry for logging and woodchipping. Both conservationists and representatives of the timber industry have put forward valid arguments to support their case.

Text 8.7 In the famous Odessa Steps sequence from the film Battleship of Potemkin, the director, Eisenstein, uses montage and shot composition to create a desired dramatic effect. This sequence has a number of different shot types and editing techniques used to draw different emotions from the audience. You may have noticed that a number of the abstract nouns in these text openers refer to features of language (e.g. findings, debate, arguments). These abstract nouns are called semiotic nouns because they refer to the packages of meanings—from large packages (e.g. text, debate) to smaller packages (e.g. point, quote). Semiotic nouns can also include features of visual and digital texts (e.g. hyperlink, image). Semiotic nouns are particularly important for learning in secondary English, where talking about meanings is core business. When included in the text opener of text responses and expositions, they alert the audience of the writer’s intention to reflect on meanings in text. Another important function of abstract nouns is to pick up an idea which was introduced earlier in summarised form so that it can be expanded on in some way. For example, in text 8.5, ‘Their findings’ is a summary of the information in the previous sentence. In this way, abstract nouns such as ‘findings’ help to create a zigzag pattern of organising information, which is discussed later in this chapter.

As with text openers, paragraph openers do not include details of the specific topic but introduce a package of information through abstract nouns in complex noun groups. These grammatical structures allow paragraph openers to work in much the same way as headings (e.g. exaggeration, symbolism, unison) to guide the reader through the text. More concrete language is typically used in the body of the paragraph where details are unpacked. In the following paragraph from Jenny’s text response, for example, the paragraph opener refers to the topic in a very general way (‘extensive planning of every detail’), while the second and fourth sentences introduce the more specific types of planning (i.e. ‘developing a story’, ‘rehearsal’).

Text 8.9: extract from ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ by Jenny (Year 9) For any piece of Environmental, Street or Event theatre to be successful, extensive planning of every detail is absolutely essential. In our group we started off by developing a story around an environmental theme. For this type of theatre to work, the narrative couldn’t be too complicated and the progression of the story relied completely on the images we were creating. Rehearsal of the actual performance was also important. This type of theatre is unpredictable and unreliable, and with so many variables in the one performance every element of the performance must be rehearsed. The planning, making and devising of the performance is important for the audience because unless every image/performer is working comfortably and in harmony, the piece will fall apart and won’t have the desired effect on the audience.

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Paragraph

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Exercise 8.5

Structuring paragraph openers

Read Jenny’s text response (text 8.3 on pages 105–6) and highlight the paragraph openers within the text interpretation stage. Write these openers in the table below. Highlight complex noun groups and underline the abstract nouns. The paragraph opener for the fifth paragraph has been done for you.

Paragraph openers are typically structured as simple sentences because their function is to identify and classify topics rather than to elaborate with details. However, as discussed earlier, the use of complex noun groups to pack in information and make links to other parts of the text often makes the sentence appear complex. The following opener from Christopher’s review of The Cay, which was introduced in chapter 2, begins with a complex noun group (underlined), which identifies the subtopic of the paragraph in literary terms (themes) and links it to the main topic of the review (the story).

Paragraph opener

2

One of the themes that stand out in this story is survival. In language closer to the written end of the mode continuum, complex noun groups functioning as paragraph openers give prominence to meanings so that they are easily found by the reader. This is made possible by using relating verbs to link the focus of the text to the focus of the paragraph. As discussed in chapter 4, relating verbs often function like ‘equals signs’ to identify or classify the particular topic (e.g. as a technique) rather than to elaborate on it. Jenny uses various forms of the relating verb ‘be’ (is, are, was) to link information within her paragraph openers. Other relating verbs which are useful for previewing in paragraph openers include ‘is/is about’, ‘has’, ‘include’, ‘consist of’, ‘concern’, ‘relate to’, ‘symbolise’, ‘represent’ and ‘involve’. For example:

3

4

Works of literature which have changed the world include La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme … One argument put forward by the timber industry concerns the usefulness of timber. 5

For any piece of Environmental, Street or Event theatre to be successful, extensive planning of every detail is absolutely essential.

Relating verbs also allow for the structure of openers to be varied. The following examples show two different variations Jenny has used to structure her paragraph openers. In the first example, she has begun with the specific topic of the paragraph and linked it to the broader topic.

6

relating verb Symbolism is a theatrical technique that was an integral part of our performance. In the second example, Jenny begins with the topic of the whole text and then uses a relating verb to identify the paragraph topic.

7

relating verb The most basic technique we used in our group’s piece … was exaggeration. How do the paragraph openers reflect the organisation of information?

Another way to vary the structure of openers is to use a dependent clause to link to a previous paragraph before previewing the specific topic in the main clause.

links to previous paragraph You may have noted that, while paragraph 4 includes two subtopics, the subtopics related to exaggeration in theatre are given one paragraph each. This shows the flexibility available to writers in organising information into paragraphs according to the elaboration required of each subtopic and also the importance of paragraph openers to make the organisational choices clear to the reader.

dependent clause

As well as the props being exaggerated, the whole performance was exaggerated to keep the audience interested and to give a clear/entertaining performance. Written texts which are most highly valued by teachers manage to avoid appearing overly formulaic by varying the structure of their openers.

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Exercise 8.6 The following paragraphs in text 8.10 are taken from an exposition arguing against rainforest logging. The student has used a repetitive structure for all paragraph openers and has not linked information to other parts of the text. Rewrite the paragraph openers in the space provided with different structures to add variation to the focus. Use abstract nouns and complex noun groups to condense information and make links to the text opener and previous paragraph openers.

Text 8.10: exposition arguing against rainforest logging There is an increasing amount of debate as to whether rainforests in Queensland and Tasmania should be given over to the forest industry for logging and woodchipping. There are a number of valid arguments to support this case. Timber is useful. Timber provides us with the raw materials for a great range of wood products. Wood is used for housing, furniture and heating as well as for paper products. If the rate of logging was reduced, Australia would have to import expensive international timbers and building prices would increase. Timber is good for the economy. Forest industries claim that they employ 300 000 people and have contributed about $328 million a year to the economy. Without these industries many people would lose their jobs and the economy of the country would suffer greatly. Timber is renewable. Every tree which is taken from the forest can be replaced by another through replanting. Other materials, like clay, plastics, concrete and steel are said to contribute to the greenhouse effect. It is clear from the above arguments that logging is useful and valuable and must be continued. Renewable forests will be more beneficial to the environment and the economy than other products. 1

2

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Note in this example that the paragraph opener moves the action of the narrative forward, but that the subsequent sentences disrupt the simple linear time sequence to elaborate on the event. These types of openers can be seen as sketches or outlines which set up expectations or possibilities for the details to come. Making explicit this role of paragraph openers can support students in developing their own writing from simple recounts which unfold in a straightforward linear way (e.g. and then …, and then …, and then …) to complex narratives which develop events and descriptions as phases of text. In another paragraph from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, the opener makes links to a significant event in the previous paragraph (i.e. Martin breaking into tears) by pointing forward to its consequences (going home with him). The remainder of the paragraph, however, fills in the details, slowing down the action to explain how the decision was made.

That’s how she ended up going home with him that afternoon. He had wiped the tears from his eyes with the sleeve of his jacket, and asked her to. ‘Will you come to my place?’ he’d said. That’s all, quite simple. And of course she’d said yes … However, typically, information within narratives is organised in a more fluid way in order to carry readers along to share the imaginative worlds and reflections of the characters. In the following paragraph from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, the paragraph opener (‘Martin didn’t have glass eyes’) predicts a reflective sequence of sentences about ‘seeing’, linking back to Vivi’s observation (‘Maybe he’s got glass eyes’). However, Snow’s reflections lead her away from ‘seeing’ to ‘liking’ and then to wondering about Martin’s whereabouts.

‘Maybe he’s got glass eyes,’ said Vivi. Martin didn’t have glass eyes. He stared at nothing, but somehow Snow felt he wasn’t seeing nothing. But what was he seeing? Not her, that’s for sure. But Snow liked him; she couldn’t help it. It’s odd, she thought, how some people are likable for no particular reason you could name. Still, he didn’t seem to have friends, neither boys nor girls. She never saw him with anyone in the playground or the corridors of school. English was the only class they shared. She didn’t know where he went at lunchtime. The fluid organisation of information in narratives helps the author to create a realistic inner world for the characters where one thought leads to another. Examining how topic sentences operate as a jumping-off point for reflections and descriptions can support students to create balance in portraying the inner and outer worlds of characters.

3

Paragraph openers in narrative texts Although information in narratives usually does not unfold in the same analytical way as text responses or expositions, paragraph openers are often used to signal the way information will be developed in particular phases. As with other text types, paragraph openers in narratives typically provide more general information to describe a character or an event, while the sentences which follow function to ‘fill in’ the details. Here is an example of a paragraph from Ursula Dubosarsky’s short story ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’, with the opener underlined.

They reached his house. There was no fence or gate, but a small path leading to the front door, which was half open. But he did not take her there. Instead he led her down the side and out into the backyard, a stretch of dying lawn with a few rocks scattered about.

Sentence openers Sentence openers can be described as the ‘starting point’ for the messages of sentences. They are also called grammatical themes. Unlike narrative and expository themes, which refer to the overall point or message of the text, grammatical themes provide a focus or jumping-off point for the message of the sentence. Writers and speakers vary the way they open sentences in order to foreground meanings of significance, make links with information previously introduced and shape the development of information across phases of text. Like text and paragraph openers, sentence openers provide signposts for readers in skimming texts and alert listeners to prominent meanings. Sentence openers can be easily identified because they include all the information before the first main verb. As with clauses and sentences identified in chapter 3, sentence openers may be simple or complex.

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Simple sentence openers Simple sentence openers typically include only the first noun group or subject of the sentence. This is the information which orients the reader to the topic of the sentence. The remainder of the sentence adds information about the topic and is called ‘new’ information. Although simple sentence openers include only one grammatical group, the potential of noun groups to expand means that they can be made up of single words such as pronouns or of quite long noun groups which include adjectival clauses (see chapter 5). Here are some examples of simple sentence openers from Barack Obama’s inaugural speech.

Forty-four Americans

have now taken the presidential oath.

Sentence opener (simple)

New information

Those of us who manage the public’s dollars

will be held to account.

Sentence opener (simple)

New information

This

is the price and the promise of citizenship.

Sentence opener (simple)

New information

Exercise 8.7 The following extracts are from two of the texts we have used in this book. Text 8.11 is from the resolution stage of Saro’s narrative (Year 7) and text 8.12 is from Jenny’s text response (Year 9). Underline the simple sentence openers in each text.Then note down the different meanings which are made prominent by the different choices of openers.

Text 8.11: Saro’s narrative ‘I have come to tell you something that may change your life. You can come back to Immundis if you wish. You have made amends for your evil doings by destroying the Tres Malum.’ ‘What would happen to me?’ asked Nirvin. ‘You will return to a normal life,’ said the priest. ‘I wouldn’t be stripped of my powers?’ asked Nirvin, surprised. Text 8.12: Jenny’s text response A sound understanding of the different theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre and the ability to put these techniques into practice are vital to fulfil the performance makers’ goals and engage the imagination of the audience. These theatrical techniques are used in specific ways across Environmental, Street and Event theatre at all levels of performance, with the availability of resources and the target audience all playing a crucial part in the creation of the performance and the performance itself. The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept.

As these examples show, dialogue sequences in stories often focus on people and, because characters generally become well known to the reader, it is often sufficient to use pronouns as openers. In more written-like expositions and text responses, however, sentence openers often need to carry forward information from other parts of the text to remind the reader of the topics and their relationships before providing new information about them.

Complex sentence openers Complex sentence openers (or grammatical themes) can be distinguished from simple openers because they include more than one grammatical group. Typically, complex sentence openers are formed by including an adverbial or dependent clause (see chapters 3 and 5) before the first noun group and thus giving prominence to the message. This functions to draw the attention of the audience to circumstances such as time, place or manner. Here are some examples from narrative, exposition and text response texts we have examined.

A long time ago, when man was still in his primal form,

twelve ancient sorcerers

created a dimensional barrier between Immundis and Momundis.

Adverbial (time) + dependent clause (time)

Subject

Main verb + sentence remainder

Sentence opener (complex)

New information

From its tantalising flash-forward beginning to its tantalising dangling end

Swerve

is a clever, moving and thoroughly engrossing story, well told.

Dependent clause (location in place)

Subject

Main verb + sentence remainder

Sentence opener

New information

In reaffirming the greatness of our nation,

we

understand that greatness is never a given.

Dependent clause (manner)

Subject

Main verb + sentence remainder

Sentence opener

New information

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Exercise 8.8 Kevin Rudd’s Apology to the Stolen Generations also makes use of complex sentence openers in his sentences. Underline these in the following extract and discuss their rhetorical effect.

Text 8.13: extract from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry. To the mothers and the fathers, the brothers and the sisters, for the breaking up of families and communities, we say sorry. And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted on a proud people and a proud culture, we say sorry. We, the Parliament of Australia, respectfully request that this apology be received in the spirit in which it is offered as part of the healing of the nation. For the future we take heart; resolving that this new page in the history of our great continent can now be written. Because adverbial groups and dependent clauses typically come at the end of clauses, after the verb, placing them at the beginning of sentences is a deliberate choice by writers and speakers, and is thus referred to as an atypical or marked grammatical theme. When used strategically, as in the Apology, marked grammatical themes are a powerful way of adding emphasis and focus.

Patterns of sentence openers across texts The kind of information found in sentence opener position often depends on the function of particular stages or phases of text. In this section, we examine three patterns which are commonly used to signal the development of organisation in narratives, text responses and expositions.

Chronological pattern We have seen in the extract from the Apology (text 8.13) that an adverbial or dependent clause can be placed in sentence opener position to become a marked grammatical theme. Combined with the first noun group this forms a complex sentence opener, which is underlined in the following example.

For the future we take heart; resolving that this new page in the history of our great continent can now be written. In chronologically organised stages of texts such as narratives and recounts, marked grammatical themes play an important role in alerting the audience to the chronological organisation of the text and therefore making it very easy to follow the development of the text. Several marked themes of time are included as sentence openers in the following extract from Lewis’ blog, which reviews a youth rally against poverty. In this extract, sentence openers are underlined and marked themes which foreground time are in bold font.

Text 8.14: extract from Lewis’ blog on TakingITGlobal The night concluded with a challenge to us all: to accept that poverty is the problem that our generation has to address. In the 60s there was the civil rights movement. In the 80s there were the peace demonstrations all around the world opposing the

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Vietnam war. This decade, we mustn’t ignore the opportunity to be known as the generation that eradicated extreme poverty. It is within our grasp. We only need to reach out and grab it. In text 8.14, Lewis uses marked themes of time strategically to lead his audience through significant past events to the present. In an earlier phase of his blog review, Lewis also ‘marks’ the significance of location by including adverbials of place in sentence openers.

In Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, Canberra and Brisbane, young people all took a stand against poverty, took a stand to have their voice heard, and took a stand to see the MDGs put into action. In Sydney, approximately 150 young people gathered in Darling Harbour to hear eight young school students talk about the eight Millennium Development Goals and why they are so important.

Exercise 8.9 Underline the simple and complex sentence openers in the following phases of text and comment on the focus of information provided by the patterns.

Text 8.15: opening phase of Barack Obama’s inaugural speech Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real … On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord. On this day, we come to proclaim an end to the petty grievances and false promises, the recriminations and worn-out dogmas that for far too long have strangled our politics.

Text 8.16: opening phase of TakingITGlobal blog Every three seconds, a child dies from hunger. This phrase, popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign along with the Live8 concerts, shows the world what state it is in. Worldwide, 208 million young people live on less than US$1 a day, and a further 515 million live on less that US$2 a day. Eighty-five per cent of young people live in developing countries and most of them live in rural areas where poverty and diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria cause havoc. Worldwide, many young girls don’t make it past the fifth grade … Note how the patterns of sentence opener choices contribute to an overall sense of what each text is ‘about’ in terms of the way the events unfold in time and place. Understanding the effect of different sentence openers and the choices available to writers and speakers can help students adapt their organisation to better achieve their particular purpose.

Linear pattern Linear patterns typically keep the same topic in sentence opener position throughout a sequence of clauses. Information is built up in the ‘new’ position of each clause. This pattern is known as a linear pattern of sentence opener development and is typical of descriptive phases of text. On the next page is an example of a descriptive phase with a linear pattern of sentence openers in an essay by Maddie, a Year 9 student. The sentences which follow from the paragraph opener are divided into their ‘opener’ and ‘new information’ elements in table 8.2.

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Text 8.17: extract from an essay on improvisation, by Maddie (Year 9)

Text 8.19: extract from an essay on improvisation, by Maddie (Year 9)

Another tool that improvisers must use is endowment. Endowment is investing our belief into the idea. An example of endowment is giving another person high or low status. This technique is very important when collaborating in improvisation. It requires actors to think about the other person and their environment, as everything in the scene must be endowed with meaning. Endowment is a crucial tool in improvisation, allowing actors to give and yield in many different ways using different skills of improvisation.

A very useful tool of developing a role and character in improvisation is giving a character status. Status in improvisation is the way the actor wants his/her character to be perceived by the audience. To develop a character, an actor must know what specific characteristics a low- or high-status person may have and present them realistically within the scene. Creating a clear sense of status in improvisation is very important to identify the relationship between certain characters; that is, master–servant, parent–child. Sentence openers

New information

Sentence opener

New information

is investing our belief into the idea.

A very useful tool of developing a role and character in improvisation

is giving a character status.

Endowment An example of endowment

is giving another person high or low status.

Status in improvisation

This technique

is very important when collaborating in improvisation.

is the way the actor wants his/her character to be perceived by the audience.

It

requires actors to think about the other person and their environment, as everything in the scene must be endowed with meaning.

To develop a character, an actor

must know what specific characteristics a low- or high-status person may have and present them realistically within the scene.

Endowment

is a crucial tool in improvisation, allowing actors to give and yield in many different ways using different skills of improvisation.

Creating a clear sense of status in improvisation

is very important to identify the relationship between certain characters; that is, master–servant, parent–child.

Table 8.2

The repetition of information relating to the subtopic of the paragraph is very important for helping this descriptive phase ‘stick together’ as a unit of meaning rather than a random set of sentences. While students need to be discouraged from overuse of repetition, well-crafted descriptive phases of texts such as Maddie’s frequently use repetition at least once before the topic is referred to through other resources such as pronouns.

Exercise 8.10 Underline the sentence openers in the following phase of a narrative and comment on the focus of information provided by the pattern.

Table 8.3

A useful image for exploring the type of cohesion created in these explanatory sequences is that of a dominoes game. Each domino piece connects to the last because it repeats the information and then moves on to provide a next step in the sequence. In writing, however, it is important to remember that explanatory sequences may be interrupted when the writer needs to stop and define or describe a concept (using a linear pattern), before moving the explanatory sequence further. Making explicit the various methods of development used in descriptive and explanatory phases of various texts provides students with a valuable tool for comprehension and also for organising information clearly in their own writing. Students can be encouraged to identify sentence openers in their written drafts and reflect on whether their choices make their meanings readily available to their intended audiences.

Text 8.18: phase of short story ‘I Am Alone’ by James Phelan I hear voices outside the car. I’m still, hardly breathing. I listen to my heart, its rapid beat familiar to me now, and I can’t convince it to settle. I close my eyes and when I open them snow is falling hard. More time passes before I rub my index finger on my side window to make a little circle of clear glass to see through. I can’t see anyone. I give it five minutes before I get out of the car and run north up Fifth Avenue.

Zigzag pattern Phases which function to explain or argue a case typically use a different pattern of sentence opener to create cohesion. This is called a zigzag pattern. In this sequence, an element that is first introduced in the ‘new’ position of a sentence becomes the sentence opener of the next sentence and so on. This pattern is illustrated in another phase of Maddie’s improvisation essay (text 8.19), which explains why status is a useful tool in improvisation. The pattern is illustrated in table 8.3.

Other elements as sentence openers Other structures which are typically included in sentence opener position include comment and viewpoint expressions and conjunctions. The following sentence is taken from the end of Nanna Fejo’s story in Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech.

And

remarkably, extraordinarily,

she

Conjunction

Comment adverbials

Subject

Sentence opener (complex)

had forgiven him.

New information

In this extract, the inclusion of comment adverbials (see chapter 7) in sentence opener position draws attention to Nanna Fejo’s magnanimity in forgiving those responsible for taking her away from her family. This foregrounding thus contributes

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to justifying the need for an apology to Indigenous people. The use of the conjunction ‘and’ as a sentence opener also contributes to the rhetorical purpose of the text as it adds emphasis to the act. Similarly, in her conclusion to the exposition, ‘Can literature change the world?’, Jana has included a number of elements to construct a complex sentence opener. These elements foreground the considerable rhetorical work which has been done in the earlier stages of her text.

So,

yes,

as history and the very definition of the word show us,

one piece of literature

Conjunction

Comment adverbial

Adverbial group (cause)

Subject

Sentence opener (complex)

can change the world.

New information

As these examples show, comment adverbials and conjunctions, such as ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘so’, are often used effectively by mature writers and speakers to emphasise points, particularly after a strong argument has been built. However, care must be taken when using them in more written-like academic essays if the writer does not have the authority to intrude their opinion so prominently. In order to support students in using sentence openers effectively, it is important to make explicit their varying effect in more written- and spoken-like texts.

Exercise 8.11 The following extract is from 16-year-old Lewis’ blog. It records the experiences of a group of young people who participated in a MakePovertyHistory event. We have included only the context and judgement stages of the review in full and have left the middle text interpretation stage, which retells the events of the road trip, in note form. Rework the notes into a coherent text interpretation stage, foregrounding the chronological unfolding of events. Include paragraph openers to cluster events into three time phases and use marked sentence openers which foreground time. You may also choose to build more meaning into these sentence openers with conjunctions and comment adverbials where appropriate to give prominence to Lewis’ reactions.

Text 8.20: extract from Lewis’ blog on TakingITGlobal Context stage Between 29 November and 1 December, 200 young people from across Australia converged on Canberra to take the message of the MakePovertyHistory campaign to the ‘powerbrokers’ of our country. Representing the Oaktree Foundation, World Vision’s Vision Generation, UNYA and other organisations, these young people attended over 15 meetings with senators and over 30 meetings with MPs from across the country, including a meeting with Treasurer Peter Costello. Why do this? We believe that the framework for development contained within the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is one in which the Australian Government should fully commit to, along with all targets contained within the MDGs. We also believe that the MDGs contain a framework in which development at a global scale can be effectively measured, with the ultimate goal of the eradication of extreme poverty.

Description stage (for development) Day 1 – Tuesday, 29 November Arrival at the Australian National University (ANU). NSW delegation arrived first. Qld delegation not far behind after 20-hour bus trip. First round of meetings with various MPs. Many groups had successful meetings, while others faced interesting but difficult meetings. A learning experience. Dinner consisting of over 100 boxes of Pizza Hut pizza. Delegates gathered for a workshop on how to meet effectively with our politicians, as well as strategies to tackle difficult questions. Day 2 – Wednesday, 30 November 8 am: Wake up, sleep-deprived yet enthusiastic faces greeted breakfast. First buses were ready to leave for Parliament House. 9 am: Meetings, with workshops for those who did not have a particular scheduled meeting. Meetings until a little after 5 pm. Meeting with Kevin Rudd back at ANU in the middle of the day. After 5, a MakePovertyHistory march down to Lake Burley Griffin from the War Memorial. 8-minute vigil at Commonwealth Place, reflecting on the eight MDGs. Day 3 – Thursday, 1 December Meetings with Peter Costello and other prominent politicians. Goodbyes. Judgement stage What we achieved So, did we achieve anything? Each meeting brought successes in different areas, and all sides of the political spectrum gave support for our campaign. We know that we have made some great breakthroughs, but we also know that it is only the beginning. The challenge for us now is to take the MakePovertyHistory message, and a call to action, back to our local communities. We must gather local support within our electorates, and maybe then our representatives will make the commitment to MakePovertyHistory.

Implications for English teaching One of the biggest challenges English teachers face is helping students organise their ideas in the reflective and analytical style expected in assessed tasks. Students often underestimate what is involved in making the shift from using the organisational structures of speech to those of the ‘written’ mode as they struggle to make their various texts coherent to various audiences. English teachers already use resources such as topic and subtopic organisation of text structure and ‘topic sentences’. In this chapter, we have offered a more systematic tool kit which teachers can use to help students with the planning and analysis needed for coherent writing in secondary English. By drawing on this tool kit, and adapting some of the tasks in this chapter for student use, English teachers can make even more explicit the structures that assist students to organise their texts at whole-text, paragraph and sentence levels.

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Teachers can explicitly model, for example, how effective writers and speakers (such as all those cited in this chapter): have arranged their texts into topics and subtopics, which clearly organise information into coherent chunks in ways that are considerate of their readers’ and listeners’ needs use text openers in expositions to preview the arguments to come, thus providing their readers with a ‘cognitive map’ of the text use abstract nouns, and in particular semiotic abstract nouns (e.g. findings, debate, arguments, phrase), in their text openers to alert the audience to the core business of reflecting on meanings in text responses use paragraph openers to help readers follow the development of expositions and text responses. These sentences typically pack general information into complex abstract noun groups, while more concrete language is typically used to unpack more specific details in the body of the paragraph use simple sentence openers which carry forward information from other parts of the text to remind the reader of the topics and their relationships before providing new information about them use complex sentence openers or marked grammatical themes in the form of adverbial groups or dependent clauses at the beginning, rather than end, of sentences as a deliberate means of adding emphasis and focus organise their sentence openers across a text (or stages or phases within the text) in ways which achieve the text’s function, by using chronological, linear or zigzag patterns. Explicit awareness of how these organisational resources can work to make a text’s structure coherent provides students with a valuable tool kit for organising information clearly in their own writing. Students can be encouraged to identify each of these features in their written drafts and reflect on whether their choices make their meanings readily available to their intended audiences. They can also be shown explicitly how to use this tool kit to identify the organisational structures used by other speakers and writers and to evaluate their effectiveness. We invite you to adapt the pedagogical strategies modelled throughout this chapter in age-appropriate ways in order to support your own students’ development of coherent, well-organised texts.

Resources for building cohesive texts

In chapter 8 we identified some differences in spoken-like and written-like language and explored the role of text, paragraph and sentence openers in signalling the way language is organised into a number of meaningful units. In this chapter we examine the role of a number of other resources which help written and spoken texts to ‘stick together’. These are known as cohesive devices—resources which connect ideas within and between sentences. As with the various types of openers examined in chapter 8, cohesion is particularly important for students learning to craft the written-like texts valued in secondary school. Written texts are typically more distant from the context in which they were created, and writers cannot rely on readers already sharing knowledge of the ideas in the text. Cohesive devices discussed in this chapter include reference, ellipsis and substitution, lexical cohesion and text connectives. We introduce each of these in turn and then look at how they interact with other textual resources to create cohesive text.

Reference Reference refers to grammatical resources which introduce and keep track of the people and things being talked about in the text. As the following extract from Christopher’s review of The Cay illustrates, people and things are typically introduced through noun groups but then are referred back to through pronouns (he, she, it, they, them).

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Presenting reference The book, The Cay, by Theodore Taylor is set in the Caribbean during World War II. It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice. This kind of reference is typical of more written-like language, where the identities of things and people can be retrieved from within the text—either from previously mentioned information or from information further on in the text. However, because of the differences in context, reference is very different in spoken-like language. In the following short extract from a spoken conversation, for example, the identity of the thing being talked about is not able to be retrieved from within the text.

Presenting reference is used when the writer or speaker does not assume that the reader knows what is being talked about. The most common way of presenting people and things is through the indefinite articles ‘a’ or ‘an’, which function as determiners of nouns. For example:

It is a story about survival … Plural countable things are indicated by the plural form of the noun and they may be presented without a determiner or with a plural determiner. For example:

This looks really good. Will you let me have it when you’ve finished? Here, the reference words ‘this’ and ‘it’ direct the listener to something outside the text, in the physical context the speaker and listener share. Although the item is not named explicitly, it is likely the speaker used a gesture or directed her gaze to help the listener identify the item. We, who are reading the text from a distance, may guess what is being talked about but the text does not tell us. Students who are not experienced with using language in written-like, contextindependent ways often make assumptions about how much information their readers already share. Explicit teaching of how reference is used to help readers identify and keep track of information in narratives, text responses and expositions can greatly assist students to create well-crafted, cohesive texts.

plural form of noun without determiner

Phillip learns things about life. plural determiners

plural form of noun

Two other themes are fear and courage. Mass nouns, which cannot be counted, have no plural form and may be presented without a determiner or with a plural mass determiner such as ‘some’. For example:

Resources for reference no plural form of noun

There are a number of resources for introducing and tracking people or things in texts. The main ones are presented in table 9.1.

no plural form of noun

no plural form of noun

no plural form of noun

Phillip learns about forgiveness, compassion, will and determination. Indefinite articles: a, an Definite article: the Other determiners: one, someone, some, any, none, every, all, two, three (etc.)

Determiners

Personal pronouns

plural mass determiner

I, me, my, mine you, your, yours he, him, his she, her, hers it, its we, us, our, ours they, them, their, theirs

no plural form of noun

plural mass determiner

no plural form of noun

There was some exaggeration of the props but little focus in the performance. Some nouns, however, are introduced into the text with the definite article ‘the’. This kind of presenting reference occurs in writing only with particular nouns. These are:

Demonstratives

Pronouns: this, these, that, those Adverbs: here, now, there, then

Comparatives

same/different, other, another, (somebody) else, bigger/biggest (etc.), more/less, much Table 9.1

These resources can be used in two ways: to present or introduce people and things into the text (presenting reference), and to track them once they are in the text (tracking reference). We will look in the next section at how these two types of reference are used in narrative, text response and exposition texts.

a unique noun or a noun which is well known in a particular context (e.g. the sun, the Second World War, the exams) a general class of noun (e.g. the computer is a modern invention) a noun which is modified (e.g. by an adjectival clause) to make its identity evident (e.g. the different theatrical techniques used in street theatre).

Exercise 9.1 Each sentence on the next page introduces one or two new nouns into the text. Examples of presenting reference are underlined. Identify the types of reference resources used. The first one has been done as an example.

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1

On the first day of term, he had them all line up alphabetically at the door.

Exercise 9.2

determiner, definite article pointing to noun specified in noun group (i.e. day)

Read the opening sentences of the short stories below. Circle any characters or things which are introduced into the text for the first time. Use the table to classify the types of presenting reference used and discuss how the presence or absence of this kind of reference orients the reader to the people and things. Presenting reference in text 9.2 has already been written in the table as examples.

2

Two days later Snow saw him in the street behind the school.

3

‘We have to get the train,’ said Martin.

4

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Text 9.2: extract from ‘Snapshot’ by David Metzenthen There were white houses with red roofs. There was a girl from Santa Barbara, California, whose boyfriend had drowned under a river of ice. There were paddocks covered with snow. There was a letter on a coffin. There was a girl with straw-coloured hair. There were roads. There was luck of all sorts. There was me.

The story is not structured as a typical narrative.

Text 9.3: extract from ‘Roses’ by Libby Gleeson 5

Every three seconds, a child dies of poverty.

6

The world before the French Revolution was founded upon the idea that ...

My mother picked him up on a plane trip from Perth. He was young, maybe twenty, not that much older than me really, but he’d been to places and he knew things. ‘Travelling solo,’ he said when she sat down beside him. She didn’t know if he meant it as a question about her or a statement of himself, so she simply nodded and took out the book she wanted to finish.

Text 9.4: extract from ‘Monkey Man’ by Margaret Clark It’s the beginning of the new school year. We have the usual teacher features: Cranky Frankie for Maths, Malcolm the Mad Professor for Science, Dub-Dub Dubinski for Art, Milly da Willy for Soc., same old, same old. Except for a new teacher feature. English. Mr Monk. He’s short and stocky with watery, red-rimmed eyes, thick nostrils and hairy hands. Immediately Squid christens him Monkey Man. (Squid has a way with words.)

Presenting reference in narratives Writers of narrative texts introduce their characters and settings in a variety of ways to engage their audiences. The young writer of ‘The Tres Malum’, Saro, has used a number of different kinds of determiners to present the participants in the orientation stage of his story. These are underlined in the following extract.

Text 9.1: extract from ‘The Tres Malum’ by Saro, Year 7 In the dark years (1992 in mortal years) three extremely dark and menacing sorcerers of Immundis, Nirvin, Verniabol and Termalum struck fear into every immortal’s heart. Together they were called the Tres Malum. When their power had grown to its fullest they began to open the link and terrorise the other world as they did with theirs. At this time a previously unknown descendent of the eighth sorcerer banished the first and most powerful of the dark trio, Nirvin, to the mortal world where he was cursed to live and die like a normal man … The examples of presenting reference used to identify the characters and settings show Saro’s awareness of the complex plot he is setting up in his narrative, and he makes sure that the reader knows who the characters are before unfolding the main events. However, there is a great deal of flexibility in the way characters and settings are introduced in narratives. Some writers use presenting reference a lot, while others do not use it at all. This flexibility is evident in the texts chosen for the following exercise. These texts are extracts from the orientation stages of three short stories.

Text

Text 9.2

Indefinite article (or other determiner)

No article (plural/mass)

a girl, a letter, a girl, a river of ice, a coffin

houses, roofs, paddocks, hair, roads, luck

all sorts Text 9.3

Text 9.4

Definite article Unique thing/ known in context

General class

Identity evident within noun group

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The variety of ways used by these authors to introduce their characters and settings in texts shows the choices available to writers of narratives for engaging audiences. Some writers use presenting reference quite formally, making explicit the assumption that the reader has no prior knowledge of the characters (e.g. David Metzenthen in the orientation of ‘Snapshot’). Others do not use presenting reference, drawing instead on a narrative stance which assumes the reader already knows the characters and thus propelling the audience into more intimate relationships with some or all of the characters and settings (e.g. Libby Gleeson in the opening of ‘Roses’). It is vital that students are explicitly introduced to the resources available for presenting participants in their orientations and are provided with opportunities to discuss the effect on establishing relationships with audiences. A practical way of supporting students to use different resources for presenting is to work with them to rewrite orientations such as texts 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4 to create a different relationship with the audience.

Presenting reference in text responses and expositions Unlike many narratives, there is far more pressure on writers of text responses and expositions to specify which people and things are being introduced. In these texts, presenting reference is often used to introduce complex noun groups which name and define what is being talked about. In the following examples, reference determiners ‘a’ and ‘the’ point forwards to defining information in the underlined complex noun groups.

A new study undertaken by Monash University has reported that, soon, kids will be unable to think. The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept. The young writers of these text extracts have developed very good control of the valued ways of using presenting reference in text responses and expositions. They are aware of the need to contextualise the texts or events they are talking about in written text responses and do not assume that this information is known to the reader. Inexperienced writers of these text types need to be shown not only the resources of presenting reference but also the effect it has in clarifying for readers what is being talked about.

Tracking reference Once people and things have been introduced into the text through presenting reference, writers use a variety of strategies to keep track of them. Tracking resources also vary according to the purpose of the text.

Tracking participants in narratives In narratives, the most common way to keep track of people is by using personal pronouns, which point back to the characters that have been introduced. In the following text extract, for example, the pronouns ‘she’ and ‘her’ refer back to the female character Snow, while the pronouns ‘he’ and ‘him’ refer back to Martin. The reference word ‘they’ is used to refer to both characters.

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Text 9.5: extract from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ by Ursula Dubosarsky

Martin didn’t have glass eyes. He stared at nothing, but somehow Snow felt he wasn’t seeing nothing. But what was he seeing? Not her, that’s for sure. But Snow liked him; she couldn’t help it. It’s odd, she thought, how some people are likable for no particular reason you could name. Still, he didn’t seem to have friends, neither boys nor girls. She never saw him with anyone in the playground or the corridors of school. English was the only class they shared. She didn’t know where he went at lunchtime. Ursula Dubosarsky has used many pronouns to track the characters in this extract because there are only two characters to keep track of, and the different genders of the characters make it easy to distinguish one from the other through pronouns. However, later in the story, when Martin’s grandmother is introduced, the author uses more explicit ways of referencing to keep track of the characters. As is illustrated in the following extract, tracking reference includes naming the characters more often and adding specifying information to the pronoun (e.g. the lady herself).

Text 9.6: extract from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ by Ursula Dubosarsky The old woman was Martin’s grandmother. Snow discovered this not from Martin, who made no introductions, but from the lady herself, who proved remarkably talkative. She made Snow pull a stool over next to the bed as well, and they sat and talked while Martin made something to eat … He stood slightly bent under the ceiling at the little caravan stove and fried some pieces of meat … Tracking reference can also be used to refer back to whole clauses and even paragraphs. In the following extract from Paul Collins’ short story ‘The Sudden Snow’, for example, the reference pronoun ‘it’, which begins the second sentence, refers back to the whole question preceding it as well as forwards to the noun ‘a question’.

How can one person see a reality that most others can’t? It’s way too deep a question for me, but Inga knew all along.

Exercise 9.3 Read text 9.7 and underline the tracking resources (i.e. personal and demonstrative pronouns) which are used. Highlight the grammatical elements (e.g. nouns or clauses) they refer to and link them with an arrow to show the direction of the reference.

Text 9.7: extract from ‘The Sudden Snow’ by Paul Collins How can one person see a reality that most others can’t? It’s way too deep a question for me, but Inga knew all along. We always knew something was wrong, of course. The constant tremors and sightings of people who weren’t actually there—who vanished like ghosts. It happened with buildings, too. Skyscrapers prodding the sky—with no damage whatsoever. Then they too just disappeared. It made lots of people go crazy. That’s why our group sticks together. We’re reasonably sane. Heaps of people have been snatched from the ‘other place’. But like people who see aliens and UFOs, they were always considered slightly deranged. If there’s no solid proof of something then it doesn’t exist, right? But Inga was right and we were wrong.

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You may have noted in text 9.7 that Paul Collins does not identify the characters who are being tracked through the pronoun ‘we’. It becomes clear later in the extract that this tracking reference does not include Inga. Reference is thus one way of establishing Inga’s ‘outsider’ status, and links to an important theme of the story.

Tracking participants in text responses and expositions In text response and exposition texts, pronouns are also used to track people, things and events. However, as with presenting reference, good writers also use full noun groups to refer to the participants so that the reader does not have to work hard to track them.

Exercise 9.4 Highlight the noun groups which include the word ‘literature’ in the thesis stage of Jana’s exposition (text 9.8), which was introduced in chapter 7. Underline the pronouns used to track this concept. How does the use of tracking reference contribute to the rhetorical effect of the text?

Text 9.8: extract from ‘Can literature change the world?’ by Jana, Year 10 Can one piece of literature change the world? First of all, let us define literature. The word ‘literature’ is often narrowed down to the works of authors such as Jane Austen and Victor Hugo, but I prefer the definition of the Macquarie Dictionary: ‘Writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features.’ Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry; it can make us laugh. It can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we had of the world around us. It lets us learn and understand the actions and values of our ancestors and share our own ideas with the generations to come, but can it change the world? While Jana has used repeated pronoun references to literature (‘it’) to effectively build up to her thesis, excessive use of pronouns can be problematic, particularly in text response and exposition genres. Not only can overuse of pronouns lead to confusion as to which participants are being referred to, but because pronouns cannot be modified in the same way nouns can, such overuse can lead to a lack of development in ideas. Students need to be encouraged to expand their repertoire of reference resources to include strategies such as (re)naming through noun groups as well as resources of lexical cohesion, which are discussed later in the chapter.

Exercise 9.5 Identify the main reference resource used to track the concept of ‘different theatrical techniques’ in text 9.9, the context stage of Jenny’s text response. How does the reference used here reflect the written mode of the text?

Text 9.9: adapted extract from ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ by Jenny, Year 9 A sound understanding of the different theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre and the ability to put these techniques into practice are vital to fulfil the performance makers’ goals and engage the imagination of the audience. These theatrical techniques are used in specific ways at all levels of performance. Event theatre performances such as ours and performances on a much larger scale, such as

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those of UK-based organisation Welfare State International, all use these techniques to achieve the aim of bringing the audience and actors to share the experience. In this extract, Jenny renames most of the concepts she has introduced through noun groups. In the third sentence, however, she uses a personal pronoun to refer to the performance she is reviewing (‘Event theatre performances such as ours’). In this sentence, ‘ours’ assumes that the reader knows the performance being referred to. While this may be true, this student could be assisted in creating a more cohesive written–like style by providing more information about the performance in the text (e.g. ‘Event theatre performances such as the one given by Year 9 students at Newtown High School’). This would allow the text to be understood by readers who did not already share knowledge of the performance. Reference is primarily used in written-like texts to point to ideas which have previously been introduced. It is also possible to refer to ideas which have not yet been introduced. An example of reference pointing forwards is provided in the following sentence from Lewis’ blog, which was discussed in chapters 7 and 8. Here, the pronoun ‘it’ points forwards to the bolded information.

However, it is a proven fact that if mothers of these children were provided with proper education on basic hygiene and sanitation, the child would have lived beyond the age of five. This kind of reference is called anticipating ‘it’, because it alerts the reader that important information is going to be provided. In the following text, the demonstrative pronoun ‘this’ is used repeatedly to point forwards to the main point of the passage.

Text 9.10: extract from Barack Obama’s inaugural address This is the price and the promise of citizenship. This is the source of our confidence: the knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny. This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed, why men and women and children of every race and every faith can join in celebration across this magnificent mall. And why a man whose father less than 60 years ago might not have been served at a local restaurant can now stand before you to take a most sacred oath. In this extract, the repeated use of the demonstrative pronoun ‘this’ alerts the audience to the important information which follows. This repetition of sentence opener provides focus and intensifies the overall rhetorical effect. Developing understandings of the grammatical structures used for both presenting and tracking reference, and examining the ways reference can be used to point backwards and forwards to key points in texts, can be of great assistance to students in making sense of and creating cohesion in written and spoken texts.

Ellipsis and substitution Like reference, ellipsis and substitution allow us to track people and things without unnecessary repetition. Ellipsis occurs when an element of a clause (e.g. a word or a group) is left out, in such a way that the reader or listener can replace it from meanings in the surrounding text. In the sentence below, for example, ellipsis occurs where the verb ‘see’ is left out but the reader can retrieve it from an earlier part of the sentence.

How can one person see a reality that most others can’t [see]?

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Substitution occurs when an element is replaced with a shorter word such as ‘one’ or ‘some’. For example:

Event theatre performances such as the one [event theatre performance] given by Year 9 students … While ellipsis and substitution are used in written language, they are most prevalent in spoken dialogue. The following extract from a television news broadcast includes several instances of both ellipsis (in brackets) and substitution (in bold).

Text 9.11 Newsreader: Our correspondent, Ron Biddle, is at the scene of the volcano. Ron, what can you see from where you are now? Ron Biddle:

Well, [I can see] lots of ash and the occasional eruption from the volcano.

Lexical cohesion In addition to reference and ellipsis and substitution, cohesion can also be achieved through different kinds of word associations between the vocabulary or lexical items in a text. This is called lexical cohesion and is achieved through arranging words in different kinds of taxonomic relationships according to their meanings. The most important taxonomic relationships are repetition, synonymy, antonymy, and relationships of class to member and whole to part. Word assocations such as repetition, synonymy and antonymy are not difficult concepts for students. However, the concept of relating words as members of classes or parts of a whole may not be familiar. Both of these relationships can be made clear by constructing tree diagrams around meanings. For example, the word ‘theatre’ can be seen as a general class of thing which includes types of theatre, such as musical, comedy and drama.

Newsreader: Has there been one recently? Ron Biddle:

The last [eruption] was about an hour ago. But they’re expecting more [eruptions] as the night goes on.

musical (Types of) theatre

Newsreader: Has there been much talk of evacuation? Ron Biddle:

Yes, there was some earlier today, but they haven’t made any decisions yet.

Newsreader: Well, let us know when they do [decide]. Ellipsis and substitution are common in spoken mode because much of what is being said can be taken for granted and need not be repeated at every turn. In written mode, however, they need to be used sparingly as it can be very tiresome for the reader having to constantly retrieve missing information.

Exercise 9.6

comedy drama …

Figure 9.1: Class-to-member relationship

However, ‘theatre’ may also be thought of as a whole thing, either a physical entity entering into relationship with concrete parts such as a stage, seats, wings, or as an abstract concept with aspects such as direction, production, set design and costume.

stage (Types of) theatre: concrete

seats wings …

Identify examples of ellipsis in the following extract. Discuss how the use of ellipsis helps to create the character of Martin’s grandmother. Figure 9.2: Whole-to-part relationship (concrete)

Text 9.12: extract from ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ by Ursula Dubosarsky Martin’s grandmother had an English accent, like someone on an English television program. ‘I’m a Londoner, of course,’ she said. ‘Always a Londoner, that’s me.’ She’d left London years and years ago, after the end of World War Two. ‘I was about your age,’ she said to Snow. ‘Hopped on a boat. All by myself. Couldn’t get out of there quick enough.’ Ellipsis and substitution are very important resources for developing a sense of character in dialogue. These resources can be used to reveal social and cultural aspects of a character, and are often used to suggest that a character is reflecting or thinking aloud.

direction (Types of) theatre: abstract

set design production costume …

Figure 9.3: Whole-to-part relationship (abstract)

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These ways of creating lexical cohesion are particularly important for stitching meanings together in written-like text responses and expositions. The different forms of lexical cohesion used by Jenny in the following extract from her review are identified in table 9.2.

Exercise 9.7

Text 9.13: adapted extract from ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ by Jenny, Year 9

Text 9.14: extract from Barack Obama’s inaugural address

The challenge of Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. It must be more intimate, more confronting, and the connection between the audience and the performers must be extremely strong and identifiable. During the planning, rehearsing, making and performing of our group’s piece, we had to incorporate this idea as well as use specific theatrical techniques. This particular performance had to be based on an environmental issue that was also relevant to the audience. Therefore, certain theatrical techniques were vital to fulfil our goal of engaging the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message or concept to our specified audience. The most basic technique we used was that of exaggeration. Every single element of our performance had to be exaggerated. This meant that we had to use more intricate techniques to achieve this level of exaggeration while still being understandable. The idea of exaggerating everything was one that remained extremely important throughout the whole process of the production. Every prop, including a TV, a microwave, a hairdryer, plugs and a powerboard, was made to be larger than life, and having the appliances strapped onto headpieces meant that the props were easier to manipulate and gave them a sense of character. Type of lexical cohesion

Examples from text 9.13

Repetition (words that are repeated across a text)

exaggeration techniques

Synonymy (words that are similar in meaning)

vital/important message/concept exaggerated/larger than life piece/performance

Antonymy (words that have opposite or contrastive meanings)

Environmental, Street and Event theatre/traditional theatre basic/intricate audience/performers

Class-to-member relationship

prop: TV, microwave, hairdryer, plugs, powerboard theatrical techniques: exaggeration (+ music etc.)

Whole-to-part relationship

Expositions such as political speeches typically include a great deal of lexical cohesion to make their arguments hang together. Read text 9.14 and highlight any examples of lexical cohesion.

As for our common defence, we reject as false the choice between our safety and our ideals. Our founding fathers faced with perils that we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expedience’s sake. And so, to all other peoples and governments who are watching today, from the grandest capitals to the small village where my father was born: know that America is a friend of each nation and every man, woman and child who seeks a future of peace and dignity, and we are ready to lead once more. Recall that earlier generations faced down fascism and communism not just with missiles and tanks, but with the sturdy alliances and enduring convictions. They understood that our power alone cannot protect us, nor does it entitle us to do as we please. Instead, they knew that our power grows through its prudent use. Our security emanates from the justness of our cause; the force of our example; the tempering qualities of humility and restraint. We are the keepers of this legacy, guided by these principles once more, we can meet those new threats that demand even greater effort, even greater cooperation and understanding between nations. We’ll begin to responsibly leave Iraq to its people and forge a hard-earned peace in Afghanistan. With old friends and former foes, we’ll work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat and roll back the specter of a warming planet. Use the table to record the lexical sets and comment on the rhetorical effect of lexical cohesion in the text. Type of lexical cohesion

Repetition

Synonymy

Antonymy

(Production of) our group’s piece: planning, rehearsing, making and performing Table 9.2

Class-to-member relationship The lexical items in a text form sets of words that are associated in different ways. Given that the purpose of text 9.13 is to describe the theatrical techniques used in a performance, it is not surprising that many words are associated by class-to-member and whole-to-part relationships. The comparison of the two types of performances also uses antonymy, while repetition helps to keep the focus on the particular technique described in each paragraph.

Whole-to-part relationship

Examples from text 9.14

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Resources for building cohesive texts 137

Building word sets to create lexical cohesion is not only important for increasing the rhetorical effect of texts, but can be a valuable way of expanding vocabulary, especially for ESL students. Supporting students to build different kinds of word sets, and particularly classto-member and whole-to-part relationships, is an effective way of developing skills of analysis. This will help students to break down larger topics into relevant subtopics to organise well-crafted text responses and expositions.

Text connectives Another set of resources for holding a text together are text connectives. Text connectives make the development or sequence of ideas explicit for the reader, by providing signals about the logical relationships that exist between the sentences and paragraphs in a text. For example, in the following extract from an exposition written by an elderly adult to his local council, the writer has linked background events in a contrastive relationship, using the connective ‘however’.

Recently I made application to have a tree removed on my property. However, the application was refused for various reasons, which I know are quite valid. Text connectives link parts of a text in many different ways. Derewianka (1998) lists six important functions of text connectives. These are exemplified in table 9.3. Clarifying

in other words for example for instance to be more precise

Showing cause/result

in particular in fact that is to illustrate

Indicating time

then next afterwards at the same time in the end finally

as a result for that reason due to accordingly because of this

soon after a while later previously until then

first(ly)/first of all to start with/to begin second, third, fourth ... at this point briefly

to summarise/sum up finally/a final point in conclusion given the above points

Condition/concession

above all as well moreover similarly/equally in the same way

in that case on the other hand otherwise on the contrary however anyhow/anyway nevertheless

Text 9.15: extract from ‘Utopias should be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs’, an exposition by Rosie, Year 11 Stage/phase

‘Utopias should not be taken seriously’

Arguments Text 1

Voltaire’s Candide has no pretensions about being a serious text. He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this ...

Text 2 Reinforcement of thesis

On the other hand, Thomas More’s Utopia is often misconceived as exactly that—a manifesto of its author’s beliefs ... Therefore, as the textual and contextual evidence shows, utopian texts should not be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but instead as a satirical comment on society.

Text connectives can also be found within paragraphs to show the developing relationship between ideas. In the following paragraph from her exposition, Rosie employs text connectives to clarify (‘in particular’) and contrast (‘however’) ideas about one of the techniques used in Candide.

Text 9.16: extract from Rosie’s exposition on ‘utopias’

Sequencing ideas

Adding information

in addition also furthermore and besides along with

so then therefore as a consequence/ consequently

Text connectives work closely with paragraph openers to signal the development of ideas across phases and stages of text. They are, therefore, usually found at or near the beginning of paragraphs. In text 9.15, the connective ‘on the other hand’ links the two phases which form the arguments stage in a relationship of contrast. The connective ‘therefore’ links this stage with the concluding reinforcement-of-thesis stage.

even so despite this at least besides though yet despite this

Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony. Certain phrases in particular, such as ‘they entered a very plain house, for the door was nothing but silver, and the ceiling was only of beaten gold’, show this irony clearly. However, the entire plot line could be seen as ironic. The exaggeration of the characters’ trials, together with its heroes’ incredibly naïve attitudes, creates both irony and ridicule. The text, taken on its own, could only pass as a very badly written novel and never as a serious manifesto of its author’s beliefs. In linking sequences of text, text connectives serve a very similar function to the conjunctions which join clauses together (see chapter 3). The main difference is that text connectives are concerned with the way stretches of text are organised across sentences, phases and stages of text, rather than with events within sentences. The following examples show the difference between the relationships formed by conjunctions and text connectives. In text 9.17, text connectives ‘first’, ‘second’ and ‘finally’ organise the reasons which have been included within this text. For this reason, text connectives are often called ‘internal conjunctions’.

Text 9.17: adapted extracts from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech

Table 9.3

There are three reasons why the Australian Government needs to apologise to the Stolen Generation. First, universal human decency demands that the nation now step forward to right a historical wrong … Second, the forced removal of Aboriginal children was happening well within the memory of many sitting members of parliament … Finally, it is that reconciliation is in fact an expression of a core value of our nation—and that value is a fair go for all.

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In text 9.18, however, the underlined conjunctions organise events in real time, external to the text. These conjunctions are thus also known as ‘external conjunctions’.

Text 9.18: adapted extracts from Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech Nanna Nungala Fejo remembers her earliest childhood days living with her family and her community in a bush camp just outside Tennant Creek ... But then, sometime around 1932, when she was about four, she remembers the coming of the welfare men ... After government policy changed, the children would be handed over to the missions to be cared for by the churches ... She and her sister were sent to a Methodist mission on Goulburn Island and then to Croker Island. Meanwhile, her brother was sent to a Catholic mission ... Finally, Nanna Fejo was united with her brother although her mum had died years before. As is illustrated in these texts, some conjunctions can act as text connectives (e.g. finally) and can be used to connect ideas between, as well as within, sentences (e.g. but then, meanwhile, finally). For this reason it is often difficult to distinguish conjunctions from text connectives, especially within narrative and spoken-like texts. Note, for example, in the extract from the Apology which follows Nanna Fejo’s story, Kevin Rudd uses the conjunction ‘and’ to introduce a new idea into his text rather than to tell us what happened next in real time.

The stockman had found her again decades later, this time himself to say, ‘Sorry’. And remarkably, extraordinarily, she had forgiven him. While it is not always necessary to make a clear distinction between the grammatical resources of text connectives and conjunctions, it is very important to make explicit the text connectives which are valued in more written-like expositions and text responses. A general rule of thumb is that conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘then’, ‘but’ and ‘so’ are used to link events within sentences in written expositions and text responses, and should not be used at the beginnings of sentences. However, in speeches and narratives, strategic use of these conjunctions in sentence opener position can give emphasis to events and ideas.

Exercise 9.8 Lewis has used a variety of text connectives in one post of his TakingITGlobal blog (text 9.19), which evaluates progress towards eradicating poverty. This text has been divided into five phases. Circle the text connectives and identify the relationships which are made between the phases of text. You may want to refer to table 9.3.

Text 9.19: extract from a TakingITGlobal blog posting by Lewis In 2005, we’ve all witnessed the rise of the worldwide MakePovertyHistory movement, the global call to action against poverty and the G9 Summit, along with the UN Millennium +5 Summit. Along with all of this, we have seen the rise of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) into the international agenda. But now, after that fateful UN Summit, are the MDGs dead? There is one more meeting this year critical to the MDGs, and that is the WTO Summit in December.

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At this meeting, leaders have to put it on their agenda to make the rules governing international trade fairer for all. Will this happen? Only time will tell. And the world will continue moving along, the way it does currently, after the clocks strikes midnight on 31 December, heralding in a new year. But the international community must ask the question, will the MDGs have a relevant place in society next year?

The prominence of text connectives expressing relationships of addition and concession used in text 9.19 helps Lewis to tie his ideas together into a reflective evaluation of the year’s events. While the more spoken-like text connectives (e.g. but, and, along with all of this) used by Lewis are appropriate in the relatively less-distanced mode of a blog, more written-like connectives would be expected in an academic essay.

Exercise 9.9 Rewrite the sentences in text 9.19 which begin with ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘along with all of this’. Use some of the more written-like choices from table 9.3.

While the text connectives discussed above play an important role in making relationships explicit, overuse of these resources can make the connections or ‘seams’ in the text too obvious. In most of the texts we have chosen as models for secondary school English, writers and speakers also indicate their logical relationships inside the clause, within noun groups. For example, in the original version of Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech, the third reason for making the apology is introduced not by a text connective, but by the adjective ‘further’, which modifies the abstract noun ‘reason’.

There is a further reason for an apology as well: it is that reconciliation is in fact an expression of a core value of our nation. Expressing logical relationships with noun groups is another kind of grammatical metaphor, which we introduced in chapter 4. This kind of grammatical metaphor is called ‘logical metaphor’. In chapter 10 we will discuss the important role logical metaphor plays in the development of literacy throughout the secondary school years.

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Implications for English teaching The resources that we have focused on in chapters 8 and 9 are textual resources, which work to stitch together the various pieces of a text into a cohesive whole. In these last two chapters, we have provided a systematic overview of how these textual resources work grammatically, offering a tool kit for teachers as they help students create and appreciate how well-crafted texts, either written or spoken, hang together. Many English teachers already use some of the cohesive devices outlined in these chapters, explicitly teaching the use of reference and lexical cohesion, for example. However, the complexity of organisational structures increases dramatically in the texts students are expected to read and write as they progress through the years of secondary English. Students who are not experienced with identifying the increasingly more sophisticated ways in which the parts of well-crafted texts are stitched together will greatly benefit from explicit teaching of the textual resources we have introduced in chapters 8 and 9. This teaching will be even more effective when it is based on systematic principles, such as that various forms of presenting and tracking reference can vary according to audience and purpose. We saw this when we explored how Lewis, in his written blog, and Barack Obama, in his inaugural address, used ‘forward-pointing’ reference (i.e. the anticipating ‘it’ or ‘this’) to signal to their various audiences that important information was about to be provided. We also saw how Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech used text connectives subtly, but powerfully, to draw the logical relationships between his various contentions. Students benefit from knowing that various forms of text connectives indicate more or less explicitly the logical relationships between clauses, sentences and paragraphs, depending on the text’s audiences and purposes. With this knowledge, students can deliberately choose to make explicit the logical connections (e.g. first, second etc.) between various stages of their texts or find more implicit ways to make the connections or ‘seams’ less obvious. Chapters 3 to 9 have explored how varying sets of grammatical resources work to make a text’s structure coherent (textual resources), while building a particular experiential world (experiential resources) and a particular relationship with its audience (interpersonal resources). With this comprehensive and systematic tool kit of grammatical resources, students can more effectively build the narrative, persuasive and response worlds of secondary English, negotiate appropriate relationships with their imagined audiences, and organise the parts of each of their texts into a coherent, well-crafted whole. Students can also be shown explicitly how to use this tool kit to identify the experiential, interpersonal and organisational structures used by other speakers and writers, and to evaluate their effectiveness. We again invite you to adapt the pedagogical strategies modelled throughout these chapters as you support your own students’ development and appreciation of such texts. In conclusion, it is important to stress that, as outlined in chapter 2, these grammatical resources work simultaneously to build a text’s meaning. So far, we have examined these in isolation from each other. In the final chapter, we will look at how students at various stages of development draw on these systems simultaneously in their writing of response texts.

Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English Throughout this book, we have considered how English teachers and their students can benefit from a view of grammar as a set of resources that help people express and exchange knowledge, attitudes, feelings and opinions in well-crafted texts. We are confident that the knowledge of language built by working through these chapters has deepened your understanding of how the subject of English achieves its powerful and multifaceted purposes. Because of our focus on examining grammatical resources within the context of texts used in the secondary English curriculum, we are also confident that the tool kit we have presented will allow teachers to better support their students in building a rich yet flexible repertoire for creating, appreciating and critiquing texts. In this last chapter, we explore further how knowledge of grammatical resources might help teachers track their students’ development during the secondary years of schooling. Focusing on student development will enable teachers to: review key grammatical concepts and the three areas of meaning or metafunctions—the experiential, interpersonal and textual functions of language explore how resources from each of the metafunctions interact to achieve particular purposes and to respond to changes in context examine how texts produced by students at higher levels draw on a greater repertoire of language choices and demand more linguistic tools than those at earlier levels. In the first part of the chapter, we will focus on the patterns of linguistic resources in student texts at different developmental levels of subject English. We will initially explore key areas of development in the early secondary years and then the more complex grammatical resources needed in the senior years.

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Development in the early years of secondary English To begin our exploration of the development of grammatical resources, we have chosen to revisit two of the texts written by students in the early years of secondary school. These are two reviews, which, as discussed in chapter 2, belong to the text response family. The first is a review of The Plague of Quentaris, written by Belinda in Year 7 (text 10.1), and the second is a review of The Cay written by Christopher in Year 8 (text 10.2). Before we examine the grammatical features of the texts, take time to read the full versions of the two reviews in appendix 1 (page 194). Take note of grammatical features which are similar and different. Both texts are text responses which are written to describe, interpret and evaluate various aspects of a literary text. This shared purpose and their shared context within school English is evident in the texts’ similarity in structure and selection of grammatical resources. However, it is also clear that the review of The Cay has been written by a more experienced and mature writer. In the next section we will examine some of the key grammatical shifts which provide evidence of this maturity. We will begin with experiential meanings.

Development of experiential resources Because Belinda's and Christopher’s texts are text responses, they draw on experiential resources to build two sorts of worlds—the world of the text being reviewed, and the more technical and abstract world of literary appreciation. This becomes evident when we focus on the types of noun groups, verb groups and adverbials which are selected by these young writers. You may find it useful to refer to chapters 4 and 5 to review your understandings as you work through the following exercises. To discuss how these resources are used by writers to develop more complex worlds as they move through the early years of secondary English, we focus on just the first few sentences from each stage of Belinda’s and Christopher’s reviews. These extracts, along with the staging, are shown in table 10.1. Stage

Text 10.1: extracts from review of The Plague of Quentaris, by Belinda (Year 7)

Text 10.2: extracts from review of The Cay, by Christopher (Year 8)

Context

The Plague of Quentaris is from the Quentaris Chronicles series. The book is about the city of Quentaris and its inhabitants. It is about two elderly people who live in the city of Quentaris.

The book The Cay by Theodore Taylor is set in the Caribbean, during World War II. It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice. Phillip, an 11-year-old boy, and Timothy, a wise old negro sailor, find themselves stranded on a sandy coral cay after their freighter was hit by a German torpedo.

Text interpretation

While they are out doing their work, they come across two children with a strange marking on each arm. The children don’t speak the language of Quentaris and no one can understand them. The two people take them home.

One of the themes that stand out in this story is survival. When faced with a life-ordeath situation, survival soon becomes their only concern. After a serious dose of malaria, Timothy realises that he has to train Phillip to survive on his own.

Stage

Text 10.1: (continued)

Text 10.2: (continued)

Judgement

I like this book because I enjoy fantasy and adventure books. The book was exciting and also a little bit sad. As soon as I started to read it I couldn’t put it down because of the suspense. I rate this book 10 out of 10.

I found this book an exciting and thrilling novel. The writer made me want to keep reading and reading until I was finished. Many of the scenes kept me in suspense. I could feel the characters’ emotions and, as I was reading, could clearly see the main themes beginning to emerge.

Using a table such as this with students is a good way to begin comparing the grammatical features of texts. It can also be used to draw attention to broad patterns of grammatical choices accumulating around different parts of a text. For example, students could use three differently coloured highlighters to identify the verb groups, noun groups and adverbials in each text and discuss the patterns which emerge.

Verb groups Verb groups are a logical place to begin exploring the development of experiential meanings as these are the core of the clause. Because texts 10.1 and 10.2, as reviews, are similar in purpose, we find that they both draw on similar patterns of process types as they move through their stages (see chapters 4 and 5). Both texts begin the context stage with relating verbs (e.g. is, are) to classify the text and to describe the people and setting. Both use action verbs (e.g. doing, come across, hit) to retell important events, and both also use sensing verbs (e.g. like, enjoy, feel, see) to evaluate the texts in the judgement stage. However, there are three important differences in the patterns of verb groups, which indicate that text 10.2 has a more developed field. First, in his text interpretation stage, Christopher consistently uses relating verbs to identify the major literary features of the text at the beginning of each paragraph (e.g. One of the themes ... is survival). Action verbs are typically used later in the paragraphs to exemplify these features. In contrast, text 10.1 does not use relating verbs at all in the text interpretation stage, focusing on retelling the ‘happenings’ of the story rather than relating them to literary features. Belinda’s text interpretation thus remains largely in the world of the text being reviewed, while Christopher’s moves into the more technical and abstract world of literary appreciation. Second, while both writers use the simple present tense effectively to retell events in the text, Christopher shows that he has developed a wider repertoire of resources for expressing more complex tenses in the past. This is particularly obvious in the context stage, where he is able to effectively summarise important background events to explain his characters’ situation. An extended extract from the context stage of text 10.2 has been annotated below to show these choices of tense.

past perfect, passive voice

simple past

present tense

Phillip, an 11-year-old boy, and Timothy, a wise old negro sailor, find themselves stranded on a sandy coral cay after their freighter was hit by a German torpedo. Phillip has been left blind after he suffered a serious blow to the head. He must learn to put aside his prejudices and trust Timothy.

future tense

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Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English 145

Here, Christopher can move comfortably between the present tense, to describe narrative events that unfold in a literary artefact (i.e. a text that can be read at any point in time); the simple and perfect past, to recount events which have occurred at various stages of the past within that narrative; and the future tense, modalised to indicate a moral judgement of characters within that narrative but also within the world of literary appreciation. Finally, a number of the verb groups in text 10.2 have more enriched meanings than those in text 10.1, either in the core meaning of the verb (e.g. stranded, realise, emerge) or through additional information provided through auxiliary verbs, complex verbs and adverbs (e.g. could clearly see, beginning to emerge). These features are typical of a move towards more specialised uses of language to represent experience. A number of the verb groups in text 10.1, however, are phrasal verbs, which rely on a preposition rather than on the verb itself to make its full meaning (e.g. come across = encounter). Through explicit modelling of verb groups deployed by mature writers of text responses, both writers, but particularly Belinda, could be supported in expanding their resources beyond the use of relatively ‘empty’ phrasal verbs.

Exercise 10.1 Rewrite the following clauses from texts 10.1 and 10.2, replacing the underlined verb groups with enriched or specialised choices. You may need to make other changes to the clause as well. A suggested rewrite of the first clause has been provided. While they are out doing their work 1

The book is about (the city of Quentaris)

2

I couldn’t put it down

3

One of the themes that stand out

4

(These themes) go together

Extracts from text 10.1 1 … I enjoy fantasy and adventure books 2 … they come across two children with a strange marking on each arm 3 The children are taken away to learn the language that is spoken by the people of Quentaris.

Extracts from text 10.2 4 It is a story about survival and friendship 5 Phillip, an 11-year-old boy, and Timothy, a wise old negro sailor, find themselves stranded … 6 One of the themes that stand out in this story is survival.

Exercise 10.2 Use the table to identify the structure of the noun groups above. To review the structure of noun groups you may need to refer to table 5.2 and table 5.3 in chapter 5. Text no.

Determiner

Quantity adjective

Describing adjective

Classifier

Main noun

Adjectival clause or phrase

1

While working, … 2

3

4

Noun groups Noun groups play a very important role in constructing different worlds in text response genres. Both Christopher and Belinda include noun groups which refer to the text as a literary artefact, particularly in the context and judgement stages (e.g. book, fantasy and adventure books, a story). However, Christopher uses specialised terms in text 10.2 to distinguish the field of literary appreciation (e.g. novel, character). He also elaborates on this field, using specialised abstract noun groups to refer to particular parts of the story and to its literary features (e.g. themes, scenes, message). While both texts use everyday concrete noun groups to describe the events in the story, text 10.2 also draws on abstract noun groups in all stages (e.g. survival, friendship, racial prejudice, a life-ordeath situation) to give these events significance. The complexity of noun groups is another important aspect of development in the texts. Both texts draw on pre-modifiers and post-modifiers to expand the main noun with describing and classifying information. Some examples of complex noun groups are underlined in the following clauses.

5

6

It is interesting that in the area of noun group structure both reviews produced by these young writers in the junior years of secondary school are similar in development. It is likely that the explicit teaching of noun group structure in the primary curriculum has prepared these students well for describing and classifying people and things at secondary level.

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Adverbials Adverbials in both texts are used to situate the reviewed books in a variety of ways in the context stage. Text 10.1 uses adverbials of place to situate the story within a larger series of books (e.g. from the Quentaris Chronicles series) and to situate events within the world of the text (e.g. in the city of Quentaris). Text 10.2 locates the events using both place and time adverbials (e.g. during World War II). The adverbial choices in text 10.2 not only help to achieve the function of the context stage but are also evidence that Christopher realises he cannot assume that the details of setting are already known to the reader. Also significant in the context stage of text 10.2 is the choice of an adverbial of manner (e.g. with a powerful message about racial prejudice) to provide additional information about the world of literary appreciation. It is significant that a number of adverbials in Christopher’s text include complex noun groups which allow a great deal of information to be packed into clauses. In chapter 8, we referred to this as one of the qualities of the written mode. Compressing information within complex noun groups and adverbials allows sentences to be simpler in structure and therefore more ‘written-like’. In this way, experiential and textual resources interact to produce texts that are valued in secondary English.

Development of interpersonal resources In this section we will explore the development of the interpersonal resources discussed in chapters 6 and 7, with a focus on evaluative vocabulary. A significant development in the use of evaluative vocabulary is evident in more mature writing at junior secondary level. Both Belinda and Christopher show an awareness in their reviews that more personal evaluations are typically restricted to the judgement stage (e.g. I like this book; The writer made me want to keep reading). However, Christopher also draws on more objective evaluative vocabulary to assess aspects of the book throughout the context and text interpretation stages. These are typically choices of graded attitudinal adjectives targeted at literary aspects (appreciation) and characters (judgement). For example:

Timothy is a caring, understanding, compassionate and patient old man. (attitudinal adjectives expressing values of explicit positive judgement) One of themes that stand out … (adjectival clause expressing values of explicit positive appreciation)

Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English 147

2

The writer uses detailed descriptions to create a vivid picture

3

In their quest for survival Phillip learns about forgiveness, compassion, will and determination.

4

The main themes

The use of this more objective evaluative vocabulary across all stages of the text reveals Christopher’s positive response in a cumulative way so that the reader is well prepared for the more explicit evaluative statements in the judgement stage.

Development of textual resources Perhaps the most significant developmental feature which distinguishes Christopher’s review as a more effective and well-crafted written text is the way information is organised and signalled within cohesive paragraphs. In chapter 8 we introduced a range of textual resources for achieving a more analytical organisation and for guiding readers through the text. The first thing to notice about Belinda’s review is that it consists of only one paragraph. This not only makes it difficult to distinguish between the context and text interpretation stages of the review, but also indicates that Belinda has not grouped the points in her interpretation according to particular literary features. In fact, as we noted earlier, the text interpretation stage is in fact a retelling of the events in the novel and is organised chronologically rather than analytically. Christopher, however, has developed a relatively deep taxonomy for integrating the field of the text with the field of literary appreciation.

Exercise 10.4 Look again at the full version of Christopher’s review of The Cay on page 194. Label the empty branches of the tree with the names of the subtopics introduced in the text interpretation stage.

Unlike the emotional values of affect chosen in the judgement stage, values of appreciation express meanings of worth, effectiveness and significance, and values of judgement evaluate the moral qualities of the characters.

Exercise 10.3

1

A powerful message

appreciation, attitudinal adjective (pre-modifier in noun group)

Sty

le

The following extracts from Christopher’s review contain explicit values of judgement and appreciation. Highlight the evaluative word or phrase and name the attitudinal meaning and the grammatical structure which is used. You may need to refer back to chapters 6 and 7 to complete this exercise. The first one has been done for you.

es em h T LITERARY FEATURES

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The analytical framework developed in Christopher’s review is well signposted through the effective use of paragraph openers. The text interpretation stage is divided into five paragraphs, each of which contains a relatively simple opener to introduce the specific features and to relate these features to the broader topics of either ‘themes’ or ‘style’. Sentence openers guide the reader by using text connectives (e.g. For example, ...) and noun groups (e.g. An example of this ...) to signal a shift from the field of the literary appreciation to the field of the text. As we discussed in chapter 8, openers provide valuable signposts to readers and alert them to prominent meanings. Teachers can encourage students to use such resources by explaining how helpful they are to tired markers!

Interaction of grammatical resources You have now been able to identify key patterns of grammatical choices which contribute to two reviews by Belinda in Year 7 and Christopher in Year 8. As we have noted above, Christopher’s repertoire of grammatical resources from each of the three metafunctions is considerably larger, and having control over those resources allows him to construct a more sophisticated text response.

Exercise 10.5 Use the table below to summarise the development we have discussed so far. Grammatical resources

Experiential (Verb groups)

(Noun groups)

(Adverbials)

Interpersonal

Textual

Belinda’s review

Christopher’s review

As the patterns of language show, both Belinda and Christopher are developing understandings of the types of response texts which allow them to meet the learning demands of junior secondary English. Building knowledge of the grammatical resources discussed earlier will inevitably speed up the developmental prospects of students such as Belinda. In the next section we are going to broaden our gaze to look at the expanding repertoire of resources which characterise the writing demands of senior secondary English. While interpreting and evaluating literary texts remains ‘core business’ throughout these years, the text we will examine illustrates the shift in the field of enquiry in the senior years and the consequent strengthening of the relationship between exposition and text response genres.

Development in the senior years of secondary English In this section we compare the grammatical resources used in Christopher’s highly valued literary review at Year 8 level, with those used by a Year 11 student, Rosie, in the more complex interpretation of literature we introduced in chapter 9. Key extracts from each of the stages and phases of Rosie’s response are shown as text 10.3 on the next page. An extended version of the text is also provided on page 190. Rosie’s text was written in response to the question: ‘ “Utopias should be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs.” Compare Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia.’ Although this question does demand that students provide an interpretation of texts, it differs from the text response genres produced in the junior years because this interpretation is used to persuade the reader of the writer’s position or thesis in response to the question. The text is structured as an exposition, moving through a thesis, argument and reinforcement-of-thesis stage. It differs also, however, from the expositions which are typical of junior secondary level, because it includes an extended rebuttal argument stage. Literary expositions such as Rosie’s are quite common in the senior years and represent a critical orientation to literary appreciation. In terms of text purpose, we can see the three texts we have introduced so far in this chapter as related on a cline from more descriptive to analytical and critical.

Description/personal response to world of text (personal response)

Analysis of literary elements of text (interpretation)

Critical analysis of texts to support thesis (literary exposition)

Belinda’s text

Christopher’s text

Rosie’s text

The shift in purpose and more complex staging required in texts in the senior years is accompanied by, and indeed realised through, a further shift towards more abstract, technical and evaluative language use. In the next section we will continue to explore the development of grammatical resources expected in the senior years of English in terms of their experiential, interpersonal and textual functions, using Rosie’s text to illustrate.

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Stage

Text 10.3: extract from an exposition by Rosie, Year 11

Thesis

Utopias shouldn’t be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but rather as satires of their historical contexts. In this speech, I will examine the textual and contextual evidence in Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia to show that these utopian texts are not actual proposals for ideal societies.

Arguments

Voltaire’s Candide has no pretensions about being a serious text. He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this. His heroes are optimistic to the point that they believe ‘everything is for the best in the best of worlds’. This is the recurring attitude of both Candide and Pangloss, even as they are repeatedly tortured, abused, ‘executed’ or generally disappointed with life. Voltaire juxtaposes his overly optimistic characters with his overly pessimistic plot to create ridicule. Voltaire also provides general, exaggerated descriptions of life in the utopian society El Dorado, where everyone is happy … Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony …

Rebuttal argument 1: Candide

Rebuttal argument 2: Utopia

On the other hand, Thomas More’s Utopia is often misconceived as exactly that—a manifesto of More’s beliefs. This is partly due to the author’s use of verisimilitude. More prolongs the suspension of disbelief in Book One by its conversational structure, the inclusion of a persona of himself and the discussion of then current topics and issues … However, even with textual clues such as these, the contextual evidence further proves that Utopia is not a manifesto … Another contradiction revealed through the context of Utopia concerns human ability to create a perfect society …

Alternative position

So, if these utopian texts are not manifestos of their authors’ beliefs, why are they still so valued? It could be that they were written as satires.

Defence argument 1: Candide

Voltaire wrote Candide around 1757 to 1758. It was a reaction to Leibnitzian optimism, the philosophy that ‘all is for the best in the best of worlds’ … So, when Voltaire satirises Leibnitzian optimists, he is also satirising those who believe that utopias can be created by humanity. Not only does Voltaire use his ridiculous plot and characters to achieve this, he also contrasts his own beliefs … with Candide’s. This makes Candide seem foolish as he keeps babbling on about Pangloss … while the Newtonians give reasoned examples. Voltaire is thus implying that Newtonianism is reasonable and Leibnitzianism, and therefore utopianism, is foolish.

Defence argument 2: Utopia

More’s Utopia is not as obviously satirical as Candide. This is because it seems that More set out with the intention of describing an idealistic society based entirely on reason. However, it seems also that he found that reason left little margin for human error, and so Utopia gradually descended into satire as he wrote it. More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration. Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe, thus commenting on Europe’s faults instead of trying to find an ideal way of solving them. For example, …

Reinforcement of thesis

Therefore, as the textual and contextual evidence shows, utopian texts should not be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but instead as a satirical comment on society. The two authors had different contexts, different audiences and used different literary techniques, but their intention was the same. Voltaire once said, ‘Perfection is the enemy of good.’ Pursuing an unattainable, perfect society distracts people from just creating a good society. Both his and More’s texts do not strive for this utopian dream. Rather, they use satire to comment on the issues of their contexts, trying to make their own, real societies good.

Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English 151

Development of experiential resources We saw earlier that writers of successful text responses in junior secondary English make use of a range of verb types and are beginning to use relating verbs with specialised abstract noun groups to build the world of literary appreciation. These patterns are also evident in Rosie’s text; however, at senior level, verb groups, noun groups and adverbials become increasingly specialised and abstract as students’ focus shifts even more towards the world of literary appreciation.

Verb groups As with successful texts in junior secondary English, Rosie’s text makes use of a range of process types to build the world of literary appreciation. These include an expanded range of relating verbs (e.g. concerns, relates to, includes) in addition to the verbs ‘be’ and ‘have’. For example:

Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony. Another contradiction revealed through the context of Utopia concerns human ability to create a perfect society. Action and saying verbs also play an important role in Rosie’s text. However, rather than expressing the concrete ‘goings-on’ within the text and the ‘thoughts and talk’ between characters in the text, the actions and sayings typically refer to the authors’ crafting of their text. For example:

action verb with author as ‘doer’

Voltaire uses exaggeration as a technique for expressing this. saying verb with author as ‘sayer’

Why is it then that he (More) proposes some of Luther’s ideas? These choices shows Rosie’s awareness that the meanings in the texts come about because of deliberate choices which authors of literary texts make. Rosie also uses another small group of abstract action and saying verbs to link her evidence to her points. These abstract verbs, which include ‘show’, ‘demonstrate’, ‘prove’, ‘create’, ‘make’ and ‘illustrate’, can be classed as showing and creating verbs. Examples of their use are underlined in the following extracts from her text.

Certain phrases in particular, such as ‘they entered a very plain house, for the door was nothing but silver, and the ceiling was only of beaten gold’, show this irony clearly. The exaggeration of the characters’ trials, together with its heroes’ incredibly naïve attitudes, creates both irony and ridicule. Showing and creating verb groups are very important for building arguments because they help to answer the ‘so what?’ question often asked by markers in the margins of student essays.

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Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English 153

Exercise 10.6 Using two differently coloured highlighters, identify the abstract action and saying verb groups in text 10.3 which (1) refer to the authors’ crafting of their text and (2) link evidence to a point. Discuss where these two kinds of abstract verbs accumulate in the text and what effect they have. Senior English students whose literary expositions are more highly valued typically use abstract action and saying verbs in this way to identify how their interpretative/ analytical point is made evident in key literary features. With this kind of metalanguistic knowledge, teachers can support struggling writers to improve the sophistication of both their writing and their understanding of the processes of arguing effectively about literary texts.

Noun groups The move towards more abstract language to interpret and critique literary texts is also evident in the choices of noun groups in the texts of senior secondary students. Like Christopher, Rosie uses a number of abstract nouns which name concepts in the world of literary interpretation. Abstract nouns are underlined in the following paragraph from Rosie’s text.

These elements encourage the reader to take it seriously. More does include some textual contradictions, which could raise questions in the reader’s mind. For example, his character Raphael speaks well of policies and ideals of socialist and communist movements, such as social equality and lack of private property. However, More also introduces underlying issues of these movements, such as lack of individual freedom of movement and thought. You may have noticed that a number of these abstract nouns are also nominalisations. As we saw in chapter 5, nominalisation occurs when grammatical structures such as verbs and adjectives are expressed as nouns. For example: contradict equal

contradiction (verb to noun) equality (adjective to noun)

As we discussed in chapters 5 and 8, nominalisation and abstract nouns are important as both experiential and textual resources. From an experiential perspective, they assist writers in creating specialised worlds. From a textual perspective, they help to achieve the more compressed textual meanings valued in the senior years.

Exercise 10.7 In the following sentence from Rosie’s text, three nominalisations are underlined. Rewrite the sentence, expressing these nominalisations in their original form as adjectives or verbs. You will need to make a number of other changes to achieve this. What effect does this have on the development of the argument? However, More also introduces underlying issues of these movements, such as lack of individual freedom of movement and thought.

Notice that in order to unpack the nominalisations it was necessary to make the sentence far more complex and potentially confusing. This complexity slows down the development of the argument considerably. Nominalisation allows Rosie to compress information so that she can make her points efficiently. As we discussed in chapter 5, one reason mature writers use nominalisation is that noun groups can be expanded far more easily than verb groups. Like Christopher in his review of The Cay, Rosie expands her noun groups with both pre-modifiers and postmodifiers. However, adjectives within Rosie’s noun groups often function to classify nouns rather than to describe them. Classifying adjectives are bolded in the following noun groups.

However, even with textual clues such as these, the contextual evidence further proves that Utopia is not a manifesto. Expanded noun groups with classifying adjectives are particularly evident in the opening thesis stage of Rosie’s text, reflecting its function of setting up technical concepts to be subsequently explored.

Exercise 10.8 Underline the extended noun groups in the following paragraph from the thesis stage of Rosie’s literary exposition. Highlight the classifying adjectives. Utopias shouldn’t be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but rather as satires of their historical contexts. In this speech, I will examine the textual and contextual evidence in Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia to show that these utopian texts are not actual proposals for ideal societies. As the examples in this text show, classifiers can be used as pre-modifiers as well as within post-modifiers and adverbials. The result is a very dense, information-packed text, of the sort that is highly valued in the senior examination system. By explicitly modelling how successful writers like Rosie can pack information concisely into extended noun groups, teachers can empower those students who struggle to compress their thoughts.

Adverbials Unlike Belinda and Christopher, Rosie uses few adverbials of place in her literary exposition. The most important types of adverbial in her text are those which specify the role of particular literary features and those which compare and explain features. For example:

adverbial of role (what as?)

He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this. adverbial of manner (how?)

More prolongs the suspension of disbelief in Book One by its conversational structure … These more abstract types of adverbials are further evidence of the focus in senior response texts on building the world of literary appreciation.

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Developing language, literature and literacy across secondary English 155

Exercise 10.9 Use the probe questions introduced in chapter 4 to identify the types of adverbials in the following clauses from Rosie’s text. 1

More’s Utopia is not as obviously satirical as Candide.

2

More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire ...

3

This is partly due to the author’s use of verisimilitude.

Senior English students would benefit enormously if teachers could explicitly model how abstract adverbials, nominalisations, extended noun groups, and abstract action and saying verbs function to build reasoning, arguing and comparing into literary expositions.

appreciation values are used to assess the literary aspects of Voltaire’s Candide (pessimistic, optimistic). However, a positive judgement of Voltaire’s capacity is also implied through the choice of a technical verb (i.e. juxtapose) and the overall cause and effect structure of the sentence. These act as textual clues for implied evaluation.

Voltaire juxtaposes his overly optimistic characters with his overly pessimistic plot to create ridicule.

Exercise 10.10 Identify the implied values of judgement in the following three sentences from Rosie’s text. Identify the textual clues which justify an evaluative reading of the extracts. You may need to refer to the explanation of implied attitude in chapter 6. 1

[Voltaire] uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this.

2

More shows that he understands the impossibility of creating a true ‘Eutopia’ …

3

More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration. Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe …

Development of interpersonal resources Development of interpersonal resources in the texts of senior secondary students is evident in the types of evaluative vocabulary used and in the way these choices combine with grading and rhetorical devices discussed in chapters 6 and 7.

Evaluative vocabulary Earlier we examined the development of evaluative language across our junior secondary texts, noting that although the predominant type of attitude in the judgement stage was emotional values of affect, Christopher’s text also showed evidence of moving towards the more valued opinion assessments. This move is even more pronounced in Rosie’s text, with resources of appreciation, assessing the worth, effectiveness and crafting of the book dominating. Rosie’s whole thesis stage in fact focuses on assessing the two texts in relation to a particular social value (i.e. seriousness). Selections of appreciation therefore accumulate across her text both as adjectives and adverbials. For example:

These elements encourage the reader to take it seriously. (adverbial) So, ... why are they still so valued? (adjective) Not only does Voltaire use his ridiculous plot and characters … (adjective) Questions at senior level typically steer students towards more objective assessments such as these; however, even when questions seem to invite a personal response (e.g. To what extent has your understanding been expanded by the study of the journey?), it is important that students be advised to evaluate the text and author in preference to their own feelings. In addition to the explicit evaluative adjectives and adverbials noted above, Rosie’s text employs implicit evaluative resources, particularly to assess the authors’ skill and success in crafting their text. For example, in the following sentence, explicit

As we discussed in chapter 6, implicit choices of attitude, especially when supported by textual clues such as contrast and endorsement, are more subtle and objective than explicit choices. However, implicit attitude is often difficult for students to identify and use, particularly students for whom English is not a first language. Teachers with a knowledge of how attitude is encoded both implicitly and explicitly are better able to draw their students’ attention to these patterns in a range of texts and advise on how to read and produce similar patterns appropriately.

Grading and rhetorical devices While explicit and implicit evaluative vocabulary is very important for achieving the purposes of interpreting and assessing literary texts, developing arguments to achieve the persuasive purposes also depends on interactions of attitude with grading resources along with the rhetorical devices discussed in chapter 7. Particularly important in Rosie’s text are interactions of modality and grading to temper the writer’s opinions, as well as choices of contrast and concession to compare texts and alternative viewpoints.

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Modality and grading

Exercise 10.12

Modality and grading are very important resources for allowing students to develop a critical argument while showing respect for alternative viewpoints. In the following extract from Rosie’s text, the underlined examples of these resources are used, first, to temper a rebuttal of a prevailing interpretation and, then, to propose an explanation for that interpretation.

In the following extract from the defending argument stage of her text, Rosie has used interactions of modality and grading with contrast and concession to build her argument that the two texts achieve their satirical purposes in different ways. Use highlighters to identify the resources used and then comment on the interactions.

grading less intense

high modality

grading intense

On the other hand, Thomas More’s Utopia is often misconceived as exactly that—a manifesto of More’s beliefs. This is partly due to the author’s use of verisimilitude. As is typical of more analytical expositions, modal resources primarily express probability and frequency rather than obligation.

Exercise 10.11 Highlight examples of modality and grading in the following extract from the defending argument stage of Rosie’s text. You may need to refer to the resources outlined in chapter 7 (table 7.1). So, why would More propose an unachievable and, one could say, almost dystopian society as ideal? One answer is that he didn’t mean for his Utopia to be held as a standard for society. It is impossible, with all the contradictions between text and context, to define what More actually believes. Therefore, Utopia cannot be a manifesto of More’s true beliefs.

Contrast and concession Resources of contrast and concession also contribute to the development of Rosie’s thesis that the two texts should not be taken seriously. Contrast is used to steer the argument by comparing perceptions of the texts and thus gives Rosie an opportunity to rebut. For example:

Voltaire’s Candide has no pretensions about being a serious text … On the other hand, Thomas More’s Utopia is often misconceived as exactly that … Rosie uses concession effectively to concede part of an argument before challenging it. This conceding–challenging move is shown in the following excerpt from the rebuttal argument 2 phase.

Concede

More does include some textual contradictions, which could raise questions in the reader’s mind. For example, his character Raphael speaks well of policies and ideals of socialist and communist movements, such as social equality and lack of private property.

Rebut

However, More also introduces underlying issues of these movements, such as lack of individual freedom of movement and thought. This use of concession positions the writer as open-minded (i.e. that there may be reasons for readers interpreting the text as a serious manifesto), but then she strategically turns the argument to the position she is defending (i.e. that it cannot be taken seriously).

More’s Utopia is not as obviously satirical as Candide. This is because it seems that More set out with the intention of describing an idealistic society based entirely on reason. However, it seems also that he found that reason left little margin for human error, and so Utopia gradually descended into satire as he wrote it. More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration. Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe, thus commenting on Europe’s faults instead of trying to find an ideal way of solving them.

Development of textual resources The textual resources Rosie employs in her literary exposition are very similar to those used by Christopher in his review. Like Christopher, Rosie organises the information analytically, with a deeply layered taxonomy. Paragraph openers signal this layering with some referring directly to her argument (i.e. that these utopian texts are not proposals for ideal societies) and others referring to the literary devices used by the authors.

Exercise 10.13 Underline the paragraph openers in the rebuttal argument 1 phase of text 10.3 (page 150). Identify which paragraph openers are related to Rosie’s thesis and which are related to the literary devices used by the authors (Voltaire and More). In Rosie’s exposition, the paragraph openers which refer to the techniques are at a lower or more detailed level than those which refer to the thesis. This is because the overall purpose of the text is to support a thesis. Students could be assisted to represent the multilayered information required in expositions at senior level by creating tree diagrams, as illustrated in chapter 8 (page 106), with thicker branches representing the arguments and sub-branches representing aspects of the text which are brought in as evidence. While these textual resources help Rosie’s text to achieve its organised ‘writtenlike’ quality, the resources of nominalisation and abstract noun groups, which we discussed in terms of their experiential meanings, also play a significant role in crafting the text effectively. These resources allow Rosie to pack in a great deal of information so that she can demonstrate her understandings without having to spell them out. For example, in the sentence below, the complex noun groups (underlined) act as summaries rather than detailed explanations and leave room in the sentence for the point to be made.

The exaggeration of the characters’ trials together with its heroes’ incredibly naïve attitudes creates both irony and ridicule. As more information is compressed into extended noun groups such as these, there is a greater frequency of simple sentences.

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Bringing it all together In this chapter we have demonstrated some important aspects of language development in texts produced by students across the years of secondary English. We have highlighted some of the key grammatical features associated with the move from the more everyday, personal and concrete language, which may be a starting point for students in junior secondary English, to the more specialised, impersonal, objective, analytical and abstract language of the senior years. Table 10.1 summarises some of the key grammatical features associated with the move towards the more abstract and sophisticated language demands of the senior English curriculum. Knowledge of these features will assist teachers in planning for language development at each stage of learning, helping students build a rich yet flexible repertoire for creating, appreciating and critiquing texts. Grammatical features

Belinda’s text (Year 7)

Christopher’s text (Year 8)

Rosie’s text (Year 11)

Experiential (Verb groups)

• Verbs express relatively neutral meanings • Restricted use of relating verbs (‘is’ and ‘has’) • Constrained use of simple tenses

• Meaning of verbs is enriched in different ways • More varied means of identifying, describing or classifying the relationship between ideas • More varied use of all tenses in their simple, perfect and continuous forms

• Expanded choice of relating verbs • Abstract action and saying verbs to refer to authors’ crafting of their text and to link evidence to a point

(Noun groups)

• Relatively short noun groups, but with both preand post-modifiers • Mostly concrete and everyday nouns which refer to the narrative world

• Longer noun groups to pack in more information • Concrete nouns to build the narrative world, and abstract nouns to build the world of interpretation

• Abstract nouns and nominalisation to create specialised worlds and build arguments • Expanding noun groups with classifying adjectives

(Adverbials)

• Adverbial groups are largely of time and place

• A wider range of adverbial groups, including that of extent and manner

• Adverbials of role, manner (comparison) and cause to build world of literary interpretation

Interpersonal

• Subjective evaluative vocabulary • Evaluations limited to adjectives and sensing verbs

• More objective evaluative vocabulary to assess aspects of book • Evaluation accumulates across stages

• Objective evaluative vocabulary assesses worth, effectiveness and crafting of text • Range of grammatical resources used to evaluate • Explicit and implicit evaluative resources • Combination of evaluative vocabulary with modality, grading and rhetorical devices to show awareness of and critically evaluate alternate views

Grammatical features

Belinda’s text (Year 7)

Christopher’s text (Year 8)

Rosie’s text (Year 11)

Textual

• Information organised as descriptive retelling • Infrequent use of paragraphing or openers to signal organisation • Simple and compound sentences

• Information organised analytically into relevant points • Effective signposting through paragraph openers • A range of sentence types used, including complex sentences

• Development of deeply layered taxonomy for organising information analytically • Effective signposting with text, paragraph and sentence openers • Nominalisation used to pack in information to allow for efficient development of arguments • Range of sentence types; nominalisation results in greater proportion of simple sentences

Table 10.1

Implications for English teaching Throughout this final chapter, we have seen that the structures and purposes of response texts students encounter as they move into the senior years of English increase in complexity as more analytical, or critical, and less descriptive perspectives are required. We have also seen how maturity as a writer can be evident in terms of students’ control of experiential, interpersonal and textual resources. From an experiential perspective, for example, we have noted that verb groups, noun groups and adverbials become increasingly specialised and abstract in those examples of student responses which are more highly valued; that knowledge of nominalisation assists writers to both recreate and critique the more compressed and specialised worlds required in responses; and that abstract adverbials, extended noun groups and abstract action and saying verbs can achieve the more sophisticated interpretations and evaluations required. From an interpersonal perspective, we have seen, for example, that students who can draw on resources such as modality, contrast and concession are better able to negotiate deliberate relationships with their listeners or readers; and that those who have a knowledge of how attitude is encoded, both implicitly and explicitly, are better able to read and create more analytical texts whose evaluations are more nuanced. From a textual perspective, we have seen, for example, that students with a knowledge of how text, paragraph and sentence openers operate can strategically organise their own writing for particular purposes and audiences, and detect and evaluate these structural strategies in the speeches and writing of others. These are just a small sample of the ways in which grammar can work to help students move confidently into the senior years of English. However, it is important to note that the development in students’ language repertoires which we have noted throughout this chapter does not take place naturally. Rather, it occurs through ongoing interactions with language-aware teachers. With the tool kit of resources provided throughout this book, English teachers can not only identify the expanding repertoire of resources which characterise the development of student writing across the years of secondary English, but can also use these resources to systematically design programs that bring about this development. Towards this end, we have consciously designed

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strategies which support your learning as adults in ways that could be readily adapted for use with teenage learners. Some of these strategies include: providing samples of authentic texts (or getting students to provide these themselves), with labels on which learners can identify stages and/or phases placing carefully selected texts or text extracts on a continuum, in terms of field (i.e. more colloquial, more technical), tenor (more casual/intimate or more formal/distant) or mode (i.e. more spoken-like, more written-like). This placement could be done in a more tactile way for younger students using differently coloured highlighters to identify target grammatical items. This can be done to help students rehearse emerging metalinguistic knowledge (e.g. highlighting particular types of verb groups, noun groups and adverbials or different types of evaluative vocabulary in a text). Alternatively, these various colours can draw attention to broad patterns of grammatical choice which accumulate around different stages of a particular text type rewriting clauses from sample texts by replacing key grammatical items to illustrate particular experiential, interpersonal or textual effects (e.g. replacing neutral verb, adverbial and noun groups with more specialised choices to build a richer narrative world) drawing tree diagrams that identify the topic and subtopic organisation (i.e. the taxonomy) of a particular text, as a way for students to rehearse their knowledge of text, paragraph and sentence openers. This list of strategies is by no means exhaustive, but hopefully gives you, as English teachers, some motivation to return to those exercises throughout the book that have worked for you, and to adapt these for your students.

Conclusion In chapter 1 we outlined how the rhetorically oriented view of grammar that underpins the Australian Curriculum for English is one which allows students to create, appreciate and critique the relevant texts of their time. We have hopefully illustrated how this view of language as a set of resources enables students to construct and read the varied texts of their contemporary world, while connecting them to the classic texts of the past. We have illustrated how student writing such as Nooria’s (‘A Refugee’s Cry’) and Lewis’s (TakingITGlobal blog) draw on selections of grammatical resources that attempt in their own way to galvanise social change, and that these resources link to the rhetorical strategies used by powerful contemporary rhetoricians, as well as those in Roman and Greek traditions of oratory. The grammatical tool kit explored and developed throughout this book allows English teachers to reunite grammar and rhetoric, bringing these two important aspects of English work together in dynamic and evolving ways. It is a tool kit that provides teachers with a systematic knowledge about the patterns of English usage and grammar at the levels of the word, the sentence and the extended text, and about the connections between these levels. And, most importantly, it is a tool kit that can be put to important work as we support our students to create and appreciate texts that truly engage with readers and listeners, that build and develop valued ideas, and that are structured coherently in crafted and considered ways. This grammar is equal to the challenges of subject English in the twenty-first century.

Answers Exercises 3.1 and 3.2 Note: the third row in each table presents only one of many possible ways in which the groups can be expanded. Martin

lived

in this caravan

with his grandmother.

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

Martin, a very troubled young man,

had been living

in this cold, damp and decrepit caravan

with nobody else but his grandmother for company.

His grandmother

slept

in the little bunk bed

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

His weary and aged grandmother

had been sleeping

in a tiny, cramped bunk bed behind the stove

and

Martin

slept

on the floor

in a rolled-up mattress.

Conjunction

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Adverbial group

was sleeping

on the cold, hard floor

in a thin, dusty, rolled-up mattress.

Sometimes

the lights

were switched on

in the house

Adverbial group

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

On the odd occasion,

the sparse, harsh lights

had been switched on

inside the gloomy house

but

nobody

went

in or out.

Conjunction

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

no brave soul

dared enter

into or out of that place.

Exercise 3.3 An anxious young man

stood

in the doorway

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

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Answers 163

The old surfboard under the house

was

his favourite one

until yesterday

Exercise 4.1

Noun group

Verb group

Noun group

Adverbial group

Action verbs are mostly located in the text interpretation stage, where they are used to retell selective events in the story as the basis for the subsequent judgement.

She

closed

her laptop

Noun group

Verb group

Noun group

Exercise 4.2 Belinda’s:

Then,

genuinely exhausted,

she

started cooking

dinner

Adverbial group*

Adverbial group

Noun group

Verb group

Noun group

I like (feeling) this book because I enjoy (feeling) fantasy and adventure books.

Christopher’s: I could feel (feeling) the character’s emotions and, as I was reading, could clearly see (perceiving) the main themes beginning to emerge.

Another destructive rumour

had been spread

through her careless talk

Noun group

Verb group

Adverbial group

Ming’s: Even though we learn (thinking) about the characters through their actions, we don’t learn (thinking) enough about Martin or his grandmother to be able to empathise (feeling) with Martin. We don’t know (thinking) enough about Martin and the thoughts he shares with Snow … These could have been used to enlighten (thinking) the reader about the plot and make Martin enigmatic instead of just underdescribed.

* Note that ‘then’, which is often used as a text connective to join sentences, is here answering the probe question ‘When did she start cooking dinner?’

Exercise 3.4 Clause

Clause type

Sentence type

Every person in the café was huddled together

independent

complex

watching a news report on the old television in the corner.

dependent

Exercise 4.3 Relating verbs are underlined.

Text 4.9

Soon Nirvin too found himself drawn to the television set.

independent

simple

‘Although the bodies had no fingerprints on them,

dependent

complex

a small carved marking was found,’

independent

said the reporter.

dependent

Now Nirvin was sweating

independent

as he had seen the symbol and the letter

dependent

and he knew

‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ is (identifies) a short story written by Ursula Dubosarsky. The title refers to (identifies) a quote by William Yeats that starts the story and alerts the reader to important themes in the story. The two main characters are (identifies) Snow and Martin, two high school students who sit together in English class. The plot is (describes) relatively simple: … The story is (describes) mainly about communicating, through words, actions and silence.

Exercise 4.4 complex

Verb group

Verb type

Verb group

Verb type

flickered

action

blamed

sensing: feeling

independent

was

relating

going missing

action

that this was not the doing of a mad mortal

dependent

got

action

‘ve got to go

action

but symbolised something much grander and dangerous.

independent

said

saying

said

saying

It was the return of the Tres Malum.

independent

didn’t understand

sensing: thinking

moved

action

simple

164 Working Grammar

Answers 165

Extent (how far, long, often?)

Every three seconds, Worldwide, Worldwide, past the fifth grade, usually, until their sixth birthday, by 2015, to 0.7% of their country’s Gross National Income (GNI), at 0.28% GNI, Since the United Nation’s conception

action

Cause (why?)

for their family

went

action

In addition to this promise

sensing: feeling

grabbed

action

Contingency (under what conditions/ despite what?)

were

relating

called

relating

Role (what as?)

as important factors

said

saying

took off

action

knew

sensing: thinking

Verb group

Verb type

Verb group

Verb type

had been missing

action

could smell

sensing: perceiving

vanished

action

burning

were brought in

action

had cracked up

Note: there are no adverbials of accompaniment, angle or matter.

Exercise 5.1 Note: verb groups in bold, main verbs circled, auxiliaries underlined.

Exercise 4.5 Category

Examples

Concrete/ Abstract

a problem The story, knowledge, approach, the resolution

Common/ Proper

He Martin, Snow

Particular/ General

Martin’s grandmother, the resolution, the knowledge that … writers and film-makers, the reader

Everyday/ Technical

the reader This sort of unresolved narrative, a more realistic approach, no clear-cut resolution

Exercise 4.6 Meaning

Examples from text 4.15

Place (where?)

in developing countries, in rural areas, In some areas of the world, Everywhere, within global development

Time (when?)

In 2000, So far, currently, any time soon

Manner (how?)

from hunger, increasingly

Text 5.1 I meet a girl. She has hair the colour of straw, great shiny handfuls of it, and even here, in a ski town, she reminds me of the beach. She carries a big black cloth handbag that must have just about everything she owns in it. She laughs a lot and will not stand still. Text 5.1 uses mostly simple verbs in the simple present tense, with little modality (must have, will not stand) or polarity (will not stand). This captures a simple picture of a person as she is at one, present moment of time.

Text 5.2 The challenge of Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. It must be more intimate, more confronting and the connection between the audience and the performers must be extremely strong and identifiable. During the planning of our group’s piece we had to incorporate this idea as well as use specific theatrical techniques. Text 5.2 uses more modality (must, had to) to capture the importance of particular features of this type of theatre and the demands on the student group. Simple present tense is also used (is, use).

Exercise 5.2 1 2 3 4 5

know (simple present); have been (present perfect) told (simple past); am (simple present); am (simple present) are (simple present); will be (future continuous) was wondering (past continuous); had remembered (past perfect) was painting (past continuous); produced (simple past)

166 Working Grammar

Answers 167

Exercise 5.3 Saro’s story

Verb group

Tense

Nirvin walked up to the orb

walked up

simple past

and picked it up.

picked up

simple past

‘You can’t destroy it

can’t destroy

simple present (strong negative modality)

if that’s

’s (is)

simple present

what you’re thinking’

are thinking

present continuous

he said.

said

simple past

The ruling government committed an injustice against the Stolen Generations.

An injustice was committed against the Stolen Generations.

Dictators ruled the country for decades.

The country was ruled dictatorially for decades.

South Africa successfully hosted the World Cup Soccer in July 2010.

The World Cup Soccer was successfully hosted in July 2010 in South Africa.

The new desalination plant will endanger marine wildlife.

Marine wildlife will be endangered.

Exercise 5.5 Text 5.3

Saro uses the simple past to recount events (walked up, picked up) from an omniscient narrator’s perspective. He uses the simple present (can’t destroy) and the present continuous (you’re thinking) as he reports the direct speech of his characters at one point of imagined present time within that world. Rudd’s Apology

Verb group

Tense

... the forced removal of Aboriginal children was happening as late as the early 1970s.

was happening

past continuous

The 1970s is not exactly a point in remote antiquity.

is not

simple present

There are still serving members of this parliament

are still serving

present continuous

who were first elected to this place in the early 1970s.

were first elected

past perfect

It is well within the adult memory span of many of us.

is

simple present

Kevin Rudd moves between the past continuous (was happening), to represent the duration of the process of removing Aboriginal children in the past, and the simple present (are) and simple past tenses (were elected) to make an argument about present responsibilities for these past events.

Exercise 5.4 Suggested answers Active voice

Passive voice

The drought completely destroyed their wheat crop last year.

Their wheat crop was completely destroyed last year.

You should back up your files at least once a week.

Your files should be backed up at least once a week.

Can (modal auxiliary adjusts for degree of possibility) simple words written down change (main verb) the way the world works and thinks? History shows (verb in simple present tense suggesting an ongoing, universal truth) us that the answer is (verb in simple present tense suggesting an ongoing, universal truth) yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown (verb in present perfect tense locating these events in past time, but acknowledging that they continue in present time) monarchies, freed (verb in present perfect tense, with ‘have’ ellipsed but understood) countries from colonial bonds and enticed (verb in present perfect tense, with ‘have’ omitted but understood) nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Works of literature which have changed the world include (verb in simple present, again suggesting an ongoing, universal truth) … At this stage of her exposition, Jana uses verb groups that move between the simple present and the present perfect as she supports her present assertions about a universal issue with evidence which extends from the past to the present. Her verb groups are relatively simple, with no aspect used to adjust the otherwise straightforward processes. She likewise uses little modality or polarity, reserving the modal auxiliary ‘can’ to ask the question which she is going to answer clearly in the affirmative.

Text 5.4 I am (verb in simple present) very pleased to be here today at the launch of Australia’s celebration of the 1993 International Year of the World’s Indigenous People. It will be (verb in future present) a year of great significance for Australia. It comes (verb in simple present) at a time when we have committed ourselves to succeeding (aspect verb in present perfect) in the test which so far we have always failed (verb in present perfect). Because, in truth, we cannot confidently say (verb in simple present, modalised and polarised to indicate strong negative certainty) that we have succeeded (verb in present perfect) as we would like to have succeeded (verb in present perfect, with aspect indicated by ‘like’, and modalised by ‘would’ to suggest probability) if we have not managed to extend (verb in present perfect, with aspect indicated by ‘managed’, and ‘not’ indicating negative polarity) opportunity and care … At this stage of his speech, Keating uses verb groups that move between the simple present and present perfect as he reflects that past injustices are not necessarily over. He also uses aspect in ways that suggest ongoing processes requiring commitment (‘have committed ourselves to succeeding’), desire (‘would like to have succeeded’) and capability (‘have not managed to extend’). Some of these

168 Working Grammar

Answers 169

complex verb groups further contain modality (would) and polarity (have not) to express the difficulty of the endeavour. As an accomplished public speaker, Keating can draw on complex verb group structures that move across varying time frames, and complex aspectual and modal processes.

Exercise 5.6 Determiner

Quantity adjective

Describing adjective

Classifier

Main noun

1

His

racist

attitudes

2

Their

past

mistreatment

3

Kate’s

4

The

5

that

two

Vietnamese

friends

tragic

Black Saturday

bushfires

acrobatic

modern jazz dance

troupe

Exercise 5.7 Determiner

1

the

Quantity

Describer

more powerful

2

3

4

5

Classifier

refugee

a

caring, understanding, compassionate old

Postmodifying phrase

world

of Immundis

children

man

the

a

Main noun

abominations

narrative

style

Postmodifying clause

Exercise 5.8 One possible version (note, there are many possible variants on this): Large woodchip companies are logging many forests and this is destroying the environment. It is important that we phase this out. When we cut down trees, we affect the rainforest ecosystem. When companies cut down rainforests many unique plant and animal species are lost. There is a smaller and smaller area of rainforest in eastern Australia. In these rainforests are a lot of plants that produce flowers. There are more of these species of plants in these forests than anywhere else in the world. These species will die out and this will change the ecosystems in a radical way because the plants are under stress and they will not be able to recover easily from this.

Exercise 5.9 Text 5.6 The surfer wakes every morning (adverbial phrase) to the rooster’s crow (adverbial phrase). With her board in the back of an old jeep (adverbial phrase), she drives to Turtle Point (adverbial phrase). Perfectly formed sets of waves curl towards the beach (adverbial phrase), as the first rays of sunlight appear (adverbial clause). She glides silently (adverb) into the waves (adverbial phrase) and begins to paddle strongly (adverb). As quick as a flash (adverbial phrase) she’s on her feet, effortlessly (adverb) riding the wave, with the glassy water folding around her (adverbial clause). Again and again (adverbial phrase), the waves carry her magically (adverb), like a genie on a flying carpet (adverbial phrase). She feels at home in this watery playground (adverbial phrase), a special sense of belonging.

Exercise 6.1 petty, false, worn-out, childish, enduring, better, precious, noble

in the detention centre

Exercise 6.2 strong, vivid, sharp, efficient, truthful, witty, to-the-point, exciting, emotional, engaging, believable, breathtaking, exhilarating, riveting

with a heart of gold

Exercise 6.3 that were being carried out in their name which is typical of this genre

Evaluative vocabulary

Meaning category

Positive/ Negative

Evaluative vocabulary

Meaning category

Positive/ Negative

horror

affect

negative

poor

affect

negative

sadness

affect

negative

safely

affect

positive

worries

affect

negative

happy

affect

positive

screaming

affect

negative

miserable

affect

negative

crying

affect

negative

170 Working Grammar

Answers 171

Exercise 6.4

1

themes

important (positive appreciation: explicit)

attitudinal adjective (pre-modifier)

Paragraph

Target of evaluation

Examples of Evaluative vocabulary (explicit)

Meaning category

2

descriptions

rich (positive appreciation: explicit)

attitudinal adjective (pre-modifier)

1

The Cay (the book, story)

thrilling

appreciation

2

themes

noun (nominalisation)

1

message

powerful

appreciation

relevance (positive appreciation: explicit)

2

story

hollow (negative appreciation: explicit)

2

Timothy

wise, knowledgeable

judgement

attitudinal adjective (as participant)

3

style

fast-paced, detailed, vivid

appreciation

2

characterisation

complex clause

4

book (novel)

exciting

appreciation

we don’t learn enough … to be able to empathise … (negative appreciation: implicit—contrast)

4

book (many of the scenes)

in suspense

affect

Exercise 6.7 Exercise 6.5 Explicit

Implicit (judgements of Nanna Fejo’s capacity, tenacity and specialness)

Signals of implicit evaluation*

elegant

full of life

lexical metaphor

eloquent

in her 80s

contextual clues (old = wise, innocent)

wonderful

full of funny stories, despite what has happened in her life’s journey

behaviours associated with values + contrast (despite)

a woman who has travelled a long way to be with us today a member of the Stolen Generation

Sample answers: took – ‘borrowed’; drove – drove rapidly; saw – caught a glimpse of; said – gasped; answered – answered frantically; turned – turned sharply; saw – saw with horror; said – yelled; answered – retorted; pulled up – wrenched; stopped – stopped with a lurch; said – with a huge sigh of relief; said – said shakily

Exercise 6.8 Grading resource

Examples

Graded core vocabulary

terribly, searing, screams, assault, cry out

Grading adverbials

terribly, physically

behaviours associated with values

Adjectival graders

firsthand, sheer, deep, most, elemental

contextual clues (= innocent in context of Apology)

Listing

The hurt, the humiliation, the degradation and the sheer brutality ...

Repetition

cry out … cry out …

Lexical metaphor

… it screams from the pages. These stories cry out to be heard …

Describing Nanna Fejo in such positive terms gives credibility to her story.This rhetorical strategy, called ‘ethos’ by Aristotle, is a very powerful way of for engaging and persuading audiences.

* In addition to the signals of implicit evaluation noted above, the explicit values in the nearby text also serve to positively ‘colour’ the descriptions.

Exercise 6.9

Exercise 6.6 Paragraph

Target of evaluation

Examples of evaluative vocabulary (explicit and implicit)

Grammatical category

1

title

alerts the reader (positive appreciation: implicit)

whole sentence

Sample answer: Late one night two adventurous but not so very smart young boys stole their father’s brand-new Mercedes Benz and drove it rather erratically through the streets of the town. After ten rather nervous minutes, they suddenly glimpsed a police car in the distance. ‘OMG!!!’ gasped Ethan, ‘What on earth will we do?’ ‘Turn here for goodness’ sake!’ John screamed. …

172 Working Grammar

Answers 173

Exercise 7.1

Exercise 7.5

Text 7.2 is more persuasive because it gives more weight to one position rather than just summarising the arguments. It draws on a range of resources: tempering opinions (modality), providing authority (citation), rebutting positions (contrast) and directly intruding the writer’s or speaker’s voice (comment and viewpoint adverbials). (Examples of these resources are provided after the exercise.)

Expressions of high modality of obligation in text 7.6: modal verb ‘must’ (used twice) modal clauses ‘It is time to’ (repeated five times) and ‘The course of action is clear’ (used twice).

Exercise 7.2 Text 7.3 Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry, make us laugh, it can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we might have of the world around us … but can it change the world? Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. The modal verbs ‘can’ and ‘might’ are of a relatively low value, which means that the writer’s opinion about the possible effects of literature are, at this stage of the text, presented as open to negotiation.

Exercise 7.3 High modality

Modal verbs (auxiliaries) Modal adverbials

definitely, certainly, definitely, ultimately

Modal adjectivals Modal nouns

Low modality of probability: ‘possible’. Answers to questions: Values of obligation are all high. These values accumulate at the end of the text. High values of modality of obligation are possible because a great deal of persuasive work has been done throughout the arguments of the exposition. Notice here also the combination of modality, evaluative vocabulary and grading resources such as repetition. The recommendation becomes a crescendo of the text.

Exercise 7.6 Reporting resource

Grammatical resource

Source

has reported

saying verb

Monash University study

Medium modality

Low modality

findings

reporting noun

Their (Monash University)

could, could, can, can, can

may, might

suggest

saying verb

Their (Monash University) findings

said

reporting (saying) verb

A representative from (Monash) University

has called for

reporting (saying) verb

The (Monash) University

argue

reporting (saying) verb

researchers

argument

reporting noun

(Monash University researchers?)

the call

reporting noun

(Monash University researchers?)

support

action verb

Some parents and teachers

expressed disagreement

reporting (saying) verb

The majority of teenage population

has responded

reporting (saying) verb

Kelly Brackenberry

the call

reporting noun

(Monash University researchers?)

statement

reporting noun

Kelly Brackenberry

like to say

reporting (saying) verb

I (Kelly)

argument

reporting noun

(Kelly?)

study

reporting noun

Monash University study

probably potential

possible, possible

the need

Modal clauses and phrases

without doubt

Expository questions

I believe

it seems that This suggests that

Are mobile phones a problem?

Mostly medium. This writer uses a range of grammatical structures and degrees of modality of probability. This range is typical of argument texts which evaluate two sides of an issue. The range of modal resources is persuasive because it shows that the writer is open to arguments on both sides. However, as we will see later in this chapter, other rhetorical resources, such as contrast, help the writer to position the audience to agree with the final judgement.

Exercise 7.4 The obligation is towards the ‘strong’ end of the cline, particularly in the first sentence. Strong values of modality are typically found at the end of expositions, after the persuasive evidence has been introduced.

174 Working Grammar

Answers 175

Although most citations in the text come from Monash University researchers, it is the teenage voice which is given the last word in this discussion. As is typical of media discussions, the writer’s opinion is not made explicit through a position stage. Nevertheless, the apparent objectivity of media reporting can be compromised by the way citations are introduced.

Exercise 7.7 Citation

Grammatical resource

Status of source

This phrase [every three seconds], popularised reporting verb (action) High status (high-profile organisation for target audience) by the MakePovertyHistory campaign [This phrase ... by the MakePovertyHistory campaign …] shows the world

reporting verb (action) High status (as above)

it is a proven fact that

reporting clause

it [the United Nations] has been calling for

reporting (saying) verb High status (high-profile organisation)

There is a global call for an end to poverty.

reporting noun

Billions of people are calling for

reporting (saying) verb High status (high number)

Colin Powell said that

reporting (saying) verb High status (high-profile individual)

No source provided

High status (global)

which expression and form in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest are characteristic or essential.’ Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry; it can make us laugh. It can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we might have of the world around us. It lets us learn and understand the actions and values of our ancestors and share our own ideas with the generations to come. But can it change the world? Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown monarchies, freed countries from colonial bonds and enticed nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Such works include La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme (Declaration of the Rights of Man) from the French Revolution, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and, more recently, Mein Kampf by Hitler. Evaluative vocabulary: explicit appreciation (grading underlined)—Great (works), permanent, universal, essential, simple implicit appreciation (grading underlined)—narrowed down; it can make us cry; (works that) hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people. Jana draws on a range of rhetorical devices to introduce other voices, opinions and possibilities into the text both to give authority to her position and to rebut or challenge alternative positions. Initially, modality and expository questions are used to ‘open up space’ for alternative positions, and resources of contrast and high-status citations (‘History shows us’, the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and Hitler’s Mein Kampf) are used to ‘close down space’ and direct the audience towards the position of the writer. Throughout the text, explicit and implicit evaluative vocabulary is used to positively appraise the effects of literature (‘it can make us cry’, ‘Great works’), and grading, particularly through repetition and three-part lists (‘the ideas, valuse and hopes’), is used to build the positive evaluation towards the thesis statement.

Exercise 7.8

Exercise 8.1

Sample sentences: Although Shakespeare was a great poet, his language can be difficult to understand. Young people are important factors within global development; however, their views are often overlooked by decision-makers. Despite the argument that text messaging can have negative consequences for teenagers, it does allow for rapid communication.

Table 8.1 on page 104 presents a summary of the key differences between the two texts.

Exercise 7.9 Annotations: contrast and concession = bold modality and expository questions = italics (note: does not include foreign language titles in last sentence) citation = underline.

Text 7.9 Can one piece of literature change the world? First of all, let us define literature. The word ‘literature’ is often narrowed down to fictional works of authors such as Jane Austen and Victor Hugo. However, I prefer the definition of the Macquarie Dictionary: ‘Writings in

Exercise 8.2 Main topic in paragraphs 1 and 8: theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre. Topics (subtopics) of paragraphs 2–6: (2–3) exaggeration (props, performances), (4) music (electric guitar), (5) planning (story development, rehearsal), (6) symbolism, (7) unison.

Exercise 8.3 Tree diagram to be structured as follows: trunk = works of literature branches = Declaration of the Rights of Man, American Declaration of Independence, American Constitution, Mein Kampf Note that in each argument paragraph of this exposition, Jana makes links between each of the texts and the changes they brought about. These changes (inspiring revolution, allowing the Holocaust) also play a part in organising the information within the text, although these ‘effects’ do not determine the paragraphing of the text.

176 Working Grammar

Exercise 8.4

Answers 177

Exercise 8.7

Text 8.5 Complex noun groups: A new study undertaken by Monash University, the next generation of teenagers, the increase in the use of mobile phones and text messaging Abstract nouns: study, findings, generation, the increase, use, text messaging

Sentence openers in text 8.11: I, You, You, What, You, I Sentence openers in text 8.12: A sound understanding of the different theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre and the ability to put these techniques into practice; These theatrical techniques; The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day

Text 8.6 Complex noun groups: an increasing amount of debate, Both conservationists and representatives of the timber industry, valid arguments Abstract nouns: debate, industry, logging, woodchipping, arguments, case

In text 8.11, the references to particular people signal that the focus is on the characters. This extract is from the middle of the narrative and we already know who the characters are so pronouns can be used. Text 8.12 is from the beginning of a text response and the sentence openers need to give a great deal of information to set the performance in context as well as introduce the topic of ‘theatrical techniques’ so that the reader knows what is being talked about.

Text 8.7 Complex noun groups: the famous Odessa Steps sequence from the film Battleship of Potemkin, montage and shot composition, a desired dramatic effect, a number of different shot types and editing techniques Abstract nouns: sequence, montage, composition, effect, types, techniques, emotions

Exercise 8.8

Exercise 8.5 Complex noun groups are bolded and abstract nouns underlined. Paragraph

Paragraph opener

2

The most basic technique we used in our group’s piece at NHSPA Environmental Day was exaggeration … Exaggeration was most obvious in the way the props were made.

3

As well as the props being exaggerated, the whole performance was exaggerated to keep the audience interested and to give a clear/entertaining performance.

4

Another very important theatrical technique that we used to engage the imagination of the audience and to initially grab the audience’s attention was that of music.

5

For any piece of Environmental, Street or Event theatre to be successful, extensive planning of every detail is absolutely essential.

6

Symbolism is a theatrical technique that was an integral part of our performance in all stages of devising the piece.

7

Another theatrical technique we used in our performance to engage the audience was unison.

The topics of the text are all included in the paragraph previews, thus foregrounding the organisation. The topic of exaggeration is developed more than other topics and is thus divided into two paragraphs (2 and 3). The paragraph opener of paragraph 2 includes two sentences, one previewing the main topic and the next previewing the subtopic (props). The following paragraph is developed around the second subtopic (performance).

Exercise 8.6 Sample paragraph openers: 1 The first argument to support the case concerns the usefulness of timber. 2 A further argument relates to the economic benefits of timber. 3 A final argument is that timber is a renewable resource.

Text 8.13 For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry. To the mothers and the fathers, the brothers and the sisters, for the breaking up of families and communities, we say sorry. And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted on a proud people and a proud culture, we say sorry. We, the Parliament of Australia, respectfully request that this apology be received in the spirit in which it is offered as part of the healing of the nation. For the future we take heart; resolving that this new page in the history of our great continent can now be written. In text 8.13, almost every sentence has a complex sentence opener. In each sentence, the inclusive personal pronoun ‘we’ draws attention to the participation of the audience in the Apology. In all but one sentence, ‘we’ is preceded by adverbial groups which focus on the reason for the apology (‘for the pain, suffering and hurt’), the people to whom it is given (‘to the mothers and the fathers’) and the time (‘for the future’). The foregrounding of the reasons is particularly important for persuading the audience.

Exercise 8.9 Sentence openers in text 8.15: Today I; On this day, we; On this day, we Sentence openers in text 8.16: Every three seconds, a child; This phrase, popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign along with the Live8 concerts; Worldwide, 208 million young people; Eighty-five per cent of young people; Worldwide, many young girls In text 8.15, the complex sentence openers give prominence to time, thus helping to create a sense of auspiciousness of the occasion. In text 8.16, the sentence openers help maintain a focus on place, thus keeping the focus on the global problem.

Exercise 8.10 Sentence openers in text 8.18: I, I, I, I, More time, I, I In this text, the focus on the participant ‘I’ helps to keep the focus on the protagonist and his internal world.

178 Working Grammar

Answers 179

Exercise 8.11 Sample only: The roadtrip began on Tuesday 29 November when all delegates arrived at the Australian National University (ANU). The NSW delegation arrived first with the Qld delegation not far behind after a 20-hour bus trip. Later that day we had our first round of meetings with various MPs. Many groups had successful meetings, while others faced interesting but difficult meetings. This was a learning experience. On our return we had dinner consisting of over 100 boxes of Pizza Hut pizza. After dinner, delegates gathered for a workshop on how to meet effectively with our politicians, as well as strategies to tackle difficult questions.

Exercise 9.1 2 3 4 5 6

plural determiner, numerative, pointing to plural noun ‘days’ determiner, definite article referring to a general class of noun (‘train’) determiner, indefinite article referring to the noun ‘narrative’. every three: determiners, quantity, pointing to plural noun ‘seconds’ a: determiner, indefinite article referring to single noun ‘child’ both determiners, definite articles referring to unique nouns (‘the world’,‘the French Revolution’)

Exercise 9.2 Text

Text 9.2

Indefinite article (or other determiner)

a girl, a river of ice, a letter, a coffin, a girl

No article (plural/mass)

General class

Identity evident within noun group

houses, roofs, paddocks, hair, roads, luck

all sorts Text 9.3

a plane trip, a question, a statement

Text 9.4

a new teacher feature

the book she wanted to finish eyes, nostrils, hands, words

Exercise 9.3 Text 9.7 How can one person see a reality that most others can’t? It’s way too deep a question for me, but Inga knew all along. We always knew something was wrong, of course. The constant tremors and sightings of people who weren’t actually there— who vanished like ghosts. It happened with buildings, too. Skyscrapers prodding the sky—with no damage whatsoever. Then they too just disappeared. It made lots of people go crazy. That’s why our group sticks together. We’re reasonably sane. Heaps of people have been snatched from the ‘other place’. But like people who see aliens and UFOs, they are always considered slightly deranged. If there’s no solid proof of something then it doesn’t exist, right? But Inga was right and we were wrong. In this text, ‘it’ and ‘that’ always refer back to whole events rather than simple noun groups. The relative pronoun ‘who’ also refers to people who have been introduced; however, the main function of this type of pronoun is to link clauses, rather than track people and things through the text.

Exercise 9.4

Definite article Unique thing/ known in context

Text 9.4: In Margaret Clark’s ‘Monkey Man’, a sense of familiarity with the setting and characters is established through definite articles, establishing intimacy as with text 9.3. However, the new character is presented through the indefinite article, which distances this character from the reader.

the Mad Professor

the beginning of the new school year, the usual teacher features

Text 9.2: David Metzenthen, in his short story ‘Snapshot’, uses presenting reference, particularly the indefinite article, in a very deliberate way, setting the scene of the story with many new details before introducing the main character with a personal pronoun (‘me’) as if that character is already known to the reader. Text 9.3: No presenting reference used for characters in this orientation to ‘Roses’. Libby Gleeson presents these characters as if we have already established a relationship with them and are already in their world.

Text 9.9 Can one piece of literature change the world? First of all, let us define literature. The word ‘literature’ is often narrowed down to the works of authors such as Jane Austen and Victor Hugo, but I prefer the definition of the Macquarie Dictionary: ‘Writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features.’ Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry; it can make us laugh. It can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we had of the world around us. It lets us learn and understand the actions and values of our ancestors and share our own ideas with the generations to come, but can it change the world? After presenting the concept of literature a number of times through noun groups, Jana uses repeated pronoun references (i.e. ‘it’). This repetition intensifies the positive aspects of literature.

Exercise 9.5 Jenny uses the demonstrative pronoun ‘these’ in a noun group (‘these techniques’) three times to track the concept of the different theatrical techniques. This kind of reference is typical of the written mode because the text needs to do all the work of keeping track of a number of abstract phenomena presented in the context stage.

180 Working Grammar

Answers 181

Exercise 9.6

Exercise 9.9

Examples of ellipsis in text 9.12:

Examples only: Along with all of this – In addition, … But now – Now, however, … And – Meanwhile, …

‘[I’ve] Always [been] a Londoner, that’s me.’ ‘[I] Hopped on a boat. All by myself. [I] Couldn’t get out of there quick enough.’ Ellipsis shows the working-class social background of the character, suggesting that she has had to work hard in her life. This helps to build sympathy for the character, who has looked after Martin.

Exercise 9.7 Type of lexical cohesion

Examples from text 9.14

Repetition

ideals, charter, power, peace

Synonymy

ideals/charter/principles/legacy power/security perils/threats peace/dignity

Antonymy

Exercise 10.1 Suggested answers: 1 The book concerns/explores … 2 The book was riveting, compelling, engrossing 3 One of the themes that are significant 4 (These themes) interact

Exercise 10.2 Text no.

2

people: nation, man, woman, child use of power: justness of cause, force of example, tempering qualities of humility and restraint qualities: effort, cooperation, understanding

Whole-to-part relationship

Not surprisingly, Obama makes great use of synonymy and class–member relations to build up a rich picture of the qualities of his administration and the wider American people (e.g. effort, cooperation, understanding). He uses antonymy to distance the ideals of his administration from others (e.g. fascism and communism, missiles and tanks) but also to be inclusive of disparate groups (e.g. old friends and former foes; the grandest capitals and the small village).

Describing adjective

Classifier

Main noun

fantasy and adventure

books

two

Adjectival clause or phrase

children

with a strange marking on each arm

3

the

language

that is spoken by the people of Quentaris

4

a

story

about survival and friendship

5

a

6

One of the

wise old

negro

sailor themes

that stand out in this story

Exercise 10.3 2

Exercise 9.8 Text connectives and relationships between phases: Along with all of this (adding information) But (condition/concession) And (indicating time; i.e. meanwhile) But (condition/concession).

Quantity adjective

1

safety/ideals grandest capitals/smallest village fascism/communism missiles and tanks/sturdy alliances and enduring convictions old friends/former foes peoples/governments

Class-to-member relationship

Determiner

The writer uses detailed descriptions to create a vivid picture

appreciation of crafting of novel, attitudinal adjectives (pre-modifiers in noun group) 3

In their quest for survival Phillip learns about forgiveness, compassion, will and determination.

judgements of characters, nouns (nominalised qualities) 4

The main themes

appreciation, attitudinal adjective (pre-modifier in noun group)

182 Working Grammar

Answers 183

Exercise 10.4

Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe, thus commenting on Europe’s faults … So, when Voltaire satirises Leibnitzian optimists … Not only does Voltaire use his ridiculous plot and characters … he also contrasts his own beliefs … … they use satire to comment on the issues of their contexts …

Words missing from tree diagram: Survival, Fear and courage, Sacrifice (= Themes); Narrative, Description (= Style).

Exercise 10.5 2 Grammatical resources

Belinda’s review

Christopher’s review

Experiential (Verb groups)

• Verbs express relatively neutral meanings • Restricted use of relating verbs (‘is’ and ‘has’) • Constrained use of simple tenses

• Meaning of verbs is enriched in different ways • More varied means of identifying, describing or classifying the relationship between ideas • More varied use of all tenses in their simple, perfect and continuous forms

(Noun groups)

• Relatively short noun groups, but with both pre- and post-modifiers • Mostly concrete and everyday nouns which refer to the narrative world

• Longer noun groups to pack in more information • Concrete nouns to build the narrative world, and abstract nouns to build the world of interpretation

(Adverbials)

• Adverbial groups are largely of time and place

• A wider range of adverbial groups, including those of extent and manner

Interpersonal

• Subjective evaluative vocabulary • Evaluations limited to adjectives and sensing verbs

• More objective evaluative vocabulary to assess aspects of book • Evaluation accumulates across stages

• Information organised as descriptive retelling • Infrequent use of paragraphing or openers to signal organisation • Simple and compound sentences

• Information organised analytically into relevant points • Effective signposting through paragraph openers • A range of sentence types used, including complex sentences

Textual

Exercise 10.6 1

Abstract verb groups which refer to the authors’ crafting of their text: He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this. Voltaire juxtaposes his overly optimistic characters with his overly pessimistic plot to create ridicule. Voltaire also provides general, exaggerated descriptions of life in the utopian society … Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony. More prolongs the suspension of disbelief in Book One … Voltaire is thus implying that Newtonianism is reasonable … More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration.

Abstract verb groups which link evidence to a point: I will examine the … evidence … to show that these utopian texts are not actual proposals … the contextual evidence further proves that Utopia is not a manifesto. Another contradiction revealed through the context of Utopia concerns … This makes Candide seem foolish. Therefore, as the textual and contextual evidence shows, utopian texts should not be taken as serious.

Abstract verbs referring to the authors’ crafting of their text accumulate within the arguments stages of the text, while ‘showing and creating’ processes are used in the thesis and reinforcement stages to express the writers’ positions, or in the paragraph openers of argument phases. This shows Rosie’s awareness that points need to be made in prominent positions in the text.

Exercise 10.7 Possible response: However, More also introduces underlying issues of these movements. In particular, he comments that people are not free in the way that they move around or in the way that they think. Unpacking the nominalisations slows the development of the argument. Returning to the verb form (i.e. move, think) requires additional clauses and so more grammatical complexity. Nominalising these processes allows writers to make their points within the same clause.

Exercise 10.8 Utopias shouldn’t be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but rather as satires of their historical contexts. In this speech, I will examine the textual and contextual evidence in Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia to show that these utopian texts are not actual proposals for ideal societies.

Exercise 10.9 1 2 3

adverbial of manner: comparison (what like?) adverbial of manner: comparison (what like?/in what way?) adverbial of cause (why?)

Exercise 10.10 1 2

Positive judgement is implied through classifying exaggeration as a ‘technique’ and the deliberate action in the choice of verb ‘uses’. Positive judgement is implied through the endorsing verb ‘shows’ and the association with the culturally valued process of ‘understanding’ in our culture.

184 Working Grammar

3

The use of ‘rather’ triggers the evaluation of More’s writing; however, it is important the reader understands that the contrast is with Voltaire’s way of achieving satire in order to interpret the evaluation as positive.

Exercise 10.11 Examples of modality: expository question—So, why would More propose an unachievable and, one could say, almost dystopian society as ideal? modal verb of possibility (medium)—cannot modal clauses—one could say (including modal verb of possibility); One answer is Examples of grading: with all the contradictions; what More actually believes; More’s true beliefs

Exercise 10.12 Note: modality = bold; grading = shaded; contrast = underlined. More’s Utopia is not as obviously satirical as Candide. This is because it seems that More set out with the intention of describing an idealistic society based entirely on reason. However, it seems also that he found that reason left little margin for human error, and so Utopia gradually descended into satire as he wrote it. More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration. Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe, thus commenting on Europe’s faults instead of trying to find an ideal way of solving them. The initial comparison with Candide (‘not as obviously satirical’) implies a negative evaluation as satirical writing is highly valued in our culture. However, the use of grading (‘obviously’) opens space for this view to be rebutted. Rosie then uses resources of contrast and concession to position the audience towards a positive evaluation of More’s crafting. The modal clause (‘it seems’) allows her to speculate without risking committing too much to her interpretation.

Exercise 10.13 Paragraph opener related to thesis: Voltaire’s Candide has no pretensions about being a serious text. Paragraph openers related to techniques: He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this. Voltaire also gives general, exaggerated descriptions of life in the utopian society El Dorado, where everyone is happy. Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony.

Appendix 1

Texts are arranged according to genre and, within that, year level.

Narrative Saro, Year 7: ‘The Tres Malum’ A long time ago when man was still in his primal form, twelve ancient (wise) sorcerers created a dimensional barrier between Immundis (the immortal world) and Momundis (the mortal world that we know). This was to prevent the more powerful world of Immundis leaking into Momundis and devouring it. Nearly a century later, a dark sorcerer by the name of Narahath crossed over into our world by breaking the magical barrier. After this, it appeared that there was no hope for the mortal world, since eventually it would be swallowed up by the much more powerful forces that governed Immundis. In the dark years (1982 in mortal years), three extremely dark and menacing sorcerers of Immundis, Nirvin, Verniabol and Termalum, struck fear into every immortal’s heart. Together they were called the Tres Malum. When their power had grown to its fullest, they began to open the link and (strike terror into mortals as they did immortals) terrorise the other world as they did with theirs. At this time, a previously unknown descendent of the eighth sorcerer (angered by their ruthless actions), banished the first and most powerful of the dark trio, Nirvin, to the mortal world, where he was cursed to live and die like a normal man. In the time that Nirvin had been human, he had made a few friends and worked at a school teaching philosophy (he was good at this because he had read the books of the great immortal philosophers). Although he had grown fond of some of the quirky ways of man, there was not one waking hour when he did not think of regaining his powers and becoming an immortal. Nirvin was on his way to the school that he worked at and was beginning to crave coffee so he went to the local café. When he got there he was turned off by the very weird combined smell of coffee beans and cheap deodorant. Today was particularly unwelcoming as every person in the café was huddled together watching a news report on the old television in the corner. Soon Nirvin too found himself drawn to the television set. ‘... although the bodies had no fingerprints on them, a small, carved marking was found,’ said the reporter, as Nirvin started to become more interested in the story. Now Nirvin was sweating as he had seen the symbol and the letter and he knew that this was not the doing of a mad mortal but symbolised something much grander and dangerous. It was the return of the Tres Malum. Nirvin immediately started running towards the school. He had gathered from the letter that the next victim would be an educator, and that it would be only hours or possibly minutes until they attacked his school. While all this was racing through his mind Nirvin suddenly realised the full extent of what he was doing. Why was he risking his life and going against his old friends just to save a group of mortals? He stopped running and sat down with a jolt. ‘Maybe I am becoming truly human,’ thought Nirvin. ‘No, that can’t be! I am part of the Tres Malum and I should be helping them, not stopping them!’ While he was struggling with his confusion he suddenly noticed the suffocating smell of smoke wafting through the air and turned to see the school on fire. As Nirvin

186 Appendices

watched, he felt paralysed by his conflicting emotions. All he could do was sit down and weep. When he got home, Nirvin lay down on his bed and tried to get to sleep, struggling to come to terms with which side he was on. Was he a human or was he still an immortal at heart? Many questions plagued him that night until there was a tap at the window. … [A short stretch of the story has been left out.] Nirvin walked up to the orb and picked it up. As he was tossing it around in his hand and thinking about whether to destroy it, Verniabol interrupted his thoughts: ‘You can’t destroy it if that’s what you’re thinking,’ he said with comic malice in his voice. ‘Come on,’ Termalum said, appearing out of nowhere. ‘He would never do that. He would never destroy the one chance he has to get his powers back.’ ‘You destroyed the school,’ said Nirvin bitterly. ‘I know, wasn’t it beautiful?’ said Verniabol. ‘Have you gone soft on us?’ asked Termalum. ‘Are you here for other reasons?’ Now he was serious. ‘With all honesty,’ answered Nirvin, ‘I’ve come back to break every bone in your body.’ And with that remark, he shot a blast of magical energy at the pair. ‘How …?’ said a breathless Verniabol. ‘You really shouldn’t leave your mystical orbs lying around,’ said a satisfied Nirvin. With that, Nirvin put his hands to their chests and sucked every drop of magical energy from their bodies. As they dropped to the floor Nirvin sent a surge of extremely powerful energy through them. Nirvin now knew that he was the only one of the Tres Malum left. … [A short stretch of the story has been left out.] ‘Well,’ continued the priest, ‘I have come to tell you something that may change your life. You can come back to Immundis if you wish. You have made amends for your evil doings by destroying the Tres Malum.’ ‘What would happen to me?’ asked Nirvin. ‘You will return to a normal life,’ said the priest. ‘I wouldn’t be stripped of my powers?’ asked Nirvin, surprised. ‘Nirvin. What you don’t understand is that the reason you could destroy the orb and the reason you would keep your powers is because you are the last descendant of the twelfth sorcerer,’ explained the priest. Nirvin could not believe it. He was the last descendant of the most powerful force against dark magic. ‘So are you coming Nirvin?’ asked the priest. ‘No,’ said Nirvin. ‘Excuse me?’ the priest said, completely surprised. ‘No,’ said Nirvin, ‘I’m staying in this world, in my home.’ And with those words Nirvin walked out of the warehouse and into the street to live his mortal life as long as he could.

Appendices 187

Exposition Rafik, Year 7: Letter to the Principal To the Staff and Principal of Hilldale High School, We, the class of 7T, feel that our time at the school is being affected by constant scoldings and threats of things we as a whole class feel we did not commit. Almost every day we are told of our ‘reputation’ and how our places at Hilldale are at risk if we continue to behave so improperly. We know that there have been problems within our class, but we also know that not all of the class caused these problems. In a recent case of the bullying of a student, we were told that the whole class’s behaviour was appalling. However, we know that it is not so. Many of the students were not aware of the full extent of the bullying and, even if they were, they and the ones who were aware did not have the ability or the full opportunity to stop it effectively. The fact that we are students means that we do not know how to stop such behaviour and people do not listen to us as much as they would to a teacher. Another issue is the dealing with some people’s behaviour in class. We are treated as a whole class and very rarely as individuals. This means that if only a few people are disruptive, the whole class is disruptive. This is not fair. Although this is not the case all the time, it happens enough for it to be a problem. We are constantly getting detentions, threats and lectures for only a few people’s actions. Although we do not know if it’s only our class that gets this treatment, we are told that all classes in our year are better behaved and more tolerant than us. We hope that you understand and appreciate our complaint and try to solve these issues. Class 7T

Kim, Year 9: Graffiti should be seen as a form of art. Do you agree or disagree? Almost every week there is an article or letter in the newspaper on the subject of graffiti. Usually, the writers are complaining about quick and careless scrawls done on public or private property. This form of graffiti should not be considered art, but other more complex and skilful forms should be. More advanced forms of graffiti brighten up our suburbs. These forms take great artistic skill to design and carry out. If they were recognised as art, young artists would have better opportunities to develop their skills and this would benefit the community. It is important, first of all, to distinguish between the different types of graffiti. First, there is the ‘tag’, which is the stylised writing of the graffiti artist’s name. Then, there is the ‘throw-up’, which is bigger and more time-consuming than the tag, but generally just big bubble letters in two colours. Lastly, there is the ‘piece’ (short for masterpiece), which takes considerable time and effort to execute. (Tucker, online, p. 3) Unfortunately, most of what we see on our streets is tags and throw-ups and really just vandalism. They are generally done quickly and carelessly by people who do not think of themselves as artists. Pieces, on the other hand, are usually done by people who do see their work as art and themselves as artists. If good graffiti is seen as art and then encouraged, it has the potential to improve the look of our streets and transport systems. Good graffiti pieces are colourful, vibrant

188 Appendices

and attractive. In most cases, they are far more attractive than the walls they are painted on, which in the old parts of cities are often ugly, dull and uncared for. There are many examples of spectacular murals in the inner city. In fact, some have even become tourist attractions. There are also excellent examples of graffiti on passenger or freight trains. However, because graffiti is usually seen as vandalism, no matter what the works look like, they are usually painted over in dull colours (Tucker, online, p. 5) Real graffiti pieces require high-level artistic skill to design and carry out. Pieces are usually designed to cover very large areas such as walls, and so have to be planned in detail on paper first. The designs are usually intricate and involve many colours. They are usually done with spray cans and large textas, but some artists use paint rollers as well. Many pieces are just as good as what you can see in art galleries, but because they are on the street and mostly done by young people, they are not considered as art. Recognising talented graffitists as artists would give them the opportunity to further develop their skills. Graffiti artists need spaces where they can develop their spray can skills without breaking the law. In some parts of the city, there are legal walls and spaces, but in others there are very few or none at all. Most of the best examples of graffiti art can be found on walls where the artists have been given permission to do their work by councils or other organisations. This means they have the time to polish their work to a high, artistic standard. If this happened more, the whole community would benefit. To sum up, there is more than one kind of graffiti. The more basic forms are generally not art. However, the more complex examples of graffiti are a form of art requiring considerable artistic skill. If these forms of graffiti were recognised as art, they could make our streets more attractive and, at the same time, give talented young artists an opportunity to develop their skills further and contribute their skills to the community.

Jamie, Year 10: ‘Saving kids from the unthinkable’ A new study undertaken by Monash University has reported that, soon, kids will be unable to think. Their findings suggest that the next generation of teenagers will be unable to think, spell or concentrate because of the increase in the use of mobile phones and text messaging. ‘We are not just pulling these figures out of nowhere,’ a representative from the university said. ‘This has been brewing ever since text messaging became “cool” with teenagers. Over time, text messaging and the many forms of passive entertainment have decreased the ability of teenagers to form extensive or coherent sentences.’ The university has also been lobbying the federal government to implement a law to prevent anyone under the age of 18 having a mobile phone. This, researchers argue, will encourage a more focused learning environment. This information has been met with mixed responses. Some parents and teachers support the call for a ban on mobile phones, while the majority of the teenage population has expressed that they are strongly against it. Student representative from Burmont High School Kelly Brackenberry has replied to the call for a ban with a clear statement, ‘On behalf of the students of this school, I’d like to say that we are strongly opposed to the idea of such a law. Without further evidence this study can not be taken seriously.’ High school English teacher Janet Lazary has said that she also disagrees with the university’s certainty that cognitive and communication skills are decreasing and that text messaging is the cause. ‘I do not believe mobile phones are necessarily a problem;

Appendices 189

there is an argument that the abbreviations used in text messaging allow for much quicker communication and allows kids to be creative with language.’ Another teacher, who has asked to remain anonymous, commented, ‘Something needs to be done. The results are clear, and what the kids think about this doesn’t matter. This is for their own good.’ Kids at war with adults is nothing new but this battle is expected to last for a while.

Jana, Year 10: ‘Can literature change the world?’ Can one piece of literature change the world? First of all, let us define literature. The word ‘literature’ is often narrowed down to the works of authors such as Jane Austen and Victor Hugo, but I prefer the definition of the Macquarie Dictionary: ‘Writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features.’ Literature has many forms and can do many things. It can make us cry; it can make us laugh. It can let us escape to a fantasy or awaken us from the illusions we had of the world around us. It lets us learn and understand the actions and values of our ancestors and share our own ideas with the generations to come, but can it change the world? Can simple words written down change the way the world works and thinks? History shows us that the answer is yes. Great works that hold the ideas, values and hopes of thousands or even millions of people have overthrown monarchies, freed countries from colonial bonds and enticed nations to a particular way of seeing the world. Such works include La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme (Declaration of the Rights of Man) from the French Revolution, the American Declaration of Independence, the American Constitution and, more recently, Mein Kampf by Hitler. The world before the French Revolution was founded upon the idea that there was a class of people who, by their birth, were superior to the rest of the population and therefore were the only ones fit to rule. With the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the French people (and later the peoples of other countries) were inspired to overthrow this class and suddenly the rules and dogmas of human society since before the ancient Egyptians became worthless. The lower classes no longer told themselves, ‘I am hungry, sick, overworked and poor because I am not as good as my rulers.’ Although there were still monarchies who survived the following outbreak of revolts and revolutions that swept Europe, it was only because they surrendered some of their power. The American Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution had much the same tone and short-term effects as the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The American people overthrew the British and they and the millions of immigrants were inspired with the idea that it is a person’s talents and strengths that should define their life and not their heritage. On top of this, however, the United States of America was born from these two texts, the same USA that today rules the world, not with Caesar’s legions or Britain’s navy, but by the ideas communicated in literature. Mein Kampf (or ‘My Struggle’ in English) by Hitler also changed the world, though not in the same way as the other examples. This book permitted the Nazis to flourish in Germany in the 1930s and allowed one of the world’s greatest horrors to occur: the Holocaust. Most of the German population was turned against the Jews, indoctrinated with Hitler’s beliefs. The book preyed upon the poverty of the German people and gave them a scapegoat for all their troubles. This allowed them to, if they did not actively participate, turn a blind eye to the abominations that were being carried out in their name.

190 Appendices

Many people would say that it is the people or the ideas that change the world but how can the world be changed if those people do not communicate those ideas? And isn’t that exactly what literature is? Going back to the Macquarie definition of literature, in particular the phrase ‘in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest’. In other words, the kind of ideas that change the world. So, yes, as history and the very definition of the word show us, one piece of literature can change the world because it communicates ideas and inspires people on a greater scale than anything else in our world.

Rosie, Year 11: ‘Utopias should be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs.’ Compare Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia Utopias shouldn’t be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but rather as satires of their historical contexts. In this speech, I will examine the textual and contextual evidence in Voltaire’s Candide and Thomas More’s Utopia to show that these utopian texts are not actual proposals for ideal societies. Voltaire’s Candide has no pretensions about being a serious text. He uses exaggeration as a technique of expressing this. His heroes are optimistic to the point that they believe ‘everything is for the best in the best of worlds’. This is the recurring attitude of both Candide and Pangloss, even as they are repeatedly tortured, abused, ‘executed’ or generally disappointed with life. Voltaire juxtaposes his overly optimistic characters with his overly pessimistic plot to create ridicule. Voltaire also provides general, exaggerated descriptions of life in the utopian society El Dorado, where everyone is happy. Voltaire increases the ridicule by not explaining this happiness. We are told there is no crime in El Dorado and, again, Voltaire doesn’t explain why. This makes the country seem too incredible to be real. Another technique Voltaire employs within the text is his use of irony. Certain phrases in particular, such as ‘they entered a very plain house, for the door was nothing but silver, and the ceiling was only of beaten gold’, show this irony clearly. However, the entire plot line could be seen as ironic. The exaggeration of the characters’ trials, together with its heroes’ incredibly naïve attitudes, creates both irony and ridicule. The text, taken on its own, could only pass as a very badly written novel and never as a serious manifesto of its author’s beliefs. On the other hand, Thomas More’s Utopia is often misconceived as exactly that—a manifesto of More’s beliefs. This is partly due to the author’s use of verisimilitude. More prolongs the suspension of disbelief in Book One by its conversational structure, the inclusion of a persona of himself and the discussion of then current topics and issues. In Book Two, Utopia is described in detail with objective language and structured as a recount rather than narrative. These elements encourage the reader to take it seriously. More does include some textual contradictions, which could raise questions in the reader’s mind. For example, his character Raphael speaks well of policies and ideals of socialist and communist movements, such as social equality and lack of private property. However, More also introduces underlying issues of these movements, such as lack of individual freedom of movement and thought. However, even with textual clues such as these, the contextual evidence further proves that Utopia is not a manifesto. Utopia was written in 1516 in a Catholic England

Appendices 191

fighting off Lutheran ideals. It is sometimes described as a Catholic tract, and More was a devout and verbal Catholic. As such, he was greatly opposed to the ideas and teachings of Martin Luther. Why is it then that he proposes some of Luther’s ideas, such as clerical marriage and divorce by consent? Why is it that he describes a society of religious tolerance when he actively condemns ‘heretics’? Why is it that he proposes his enemy’s ideas in his ideal world? Perhaps neither these ideals nor the text were meant to be taken seriously, and More was criticising rather than proposing them. Another contradiction revealed through the context of Utopia concerns human ability to create a perfect society. More was a part of the Humanist movement, which believed that humanity is good, therefore, that it is possible to create a perfect society on earth. However, the utopian society he describes is neither perfect nor achievable; it doesn’t allow for human difference, greed or, it could be argued, pure human nature. More shows that he understands the impossibility of creating a true ‘Eutopia’, meaning ‘good place’, by naming his book Utopia, meaning ‘no place’. So, why would More propose an unachievable and, one could say, almost dystopian society as ideal? One answer is that he didn’t mean for his Utopia to be held as a standard for society. It is impossible, with all the contradictions between text and context, to define what More actually believes. Therefore, Utopia cannot be a manifesto of More’s true beliefs. So, if these utopian texts are not manifestos of their authors’ beliefs, why are they still so valued? It could be that they were written as satires. Voltaire wrote Candide around 1757 to 1758. It was a reaction to Leibnitzian optimism, the philosophy that ‘all is for the best in the best of worlds’, which was quite popular in the eighteenth century. People who believe in this philosophy, such as Candide and Pangloss, believe they are living in a utopia. So, when Voltaire satirises Leibnitzian optimists, he is also satirising those who believe that utopias can be created by humanity. Not only does Voltaire use his ridiculous plot and characters to achieve this, he also contrasts his own beliefs (Voltaire believed in Isaac Newton’s teachings) with Candide’s. This makes Candide seem foolish as he keeps babbling on about Pangloss, who by now has already lost all credibility in the reader’s eyes, while the Newtonians give reasoned examples. Voltaire is thus implying that Newtonianism is reasonable and Leibnitzianism, and therefore utopianism, is foolish. More’s Utopia is not as obviously satirical as Candide. This is because it seems that More set out with the intention of describing an idealistic society based entirely on reason. However, it seems also that he found that reason left little margin for human error, and so Utopia gradually descended into satire as he wrote it. More doesn’t achieve satire in the same way as Voltaire, through exaggeration. Rather, he contrasts Utopia’s values to those of Europe, thus commenting on Europe’s faults instead of trying to find an ideal way of solving them. For example, the fact that Utopians don’t value gold or silver is more a satirical comment about European greed and materialism than a proposition that society should start making chamber-pots and handcuffs of valuable metals. Therefore, as the textual and contextual evidence shows, utopian texts should not be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs but instead as a satirical comment on society. The two authors had different contexts, different audiences and used different literary techniques, but their intention was the same. Voltaire once said, ‘Perfection is the enemy of good.’ Pursuing an unattainable, perfect society distracts people from just creating a good society. Both his and More’s texts do not strive for this utopian dream. Rather, they use satire to comment on the issues of their contexts, trying to make their own, real societies good.

192 Appendices

Nooria, Year 12: ‘A young refugee’s plea for a better future’ (Exposition in the form of media commentary) I am an 18-year-old female refugee from Bamiyan, Afghanistan. I am in Year 12 at Holroyd High School and I am studying for my HSC. I came to Australia in September 2000. We left Afghanistan because of civil war, persecution, ethnic cleansing of my people, the Hazara, the dangerous environment and the unfair treatment of girls and women. We children had no educational opportunities at all. We knew our escape route would involve a lot of danger. We knew we might die of starvation and thirst, or be killed by pirates or storms at sea. We knew our mother might die, because she was pregnant. However, we decided to go because we were desperate. Escaping was the only thing we could do to ensure our futures. We were hopeful that we would find safety. There were six of us: me, then aged 14, my little sisters, 13 and 3, my little brother, 9, my father and mother. A smuggler hid us in the back of a truck for our escape from Afghanistan to Pakistan. Then we were smuggled to Indonesia where we had to stay in hiding. My mother had to go to hospital to give birth. The rest of us were locked in a terrible flat 24 hours a day, until it was our turn to get on the boat. So we got into a little, leaky fishing boat, more than 100 of us. I was one of 30 children and babies on board. It took us 10 days to get to Australia—10 days of horror, sadness, no food or drink and so many worries about our future. The only music I heard in my childhood in Bamiyan was the screaming with horror and mothers crying for their children’s future and I heard it again on this boat. We were all vomiting. My poor mother with a newborn baby was sick the whole way. Finally, in September 2000, our boat was guided by the Royal Australian Navy and landed on Australian land safely. I was happy because my miserable life was over, and a new horizon with no more death and killing was welcoming us. But my dream wasn’t over, since I found myself in a prison. We arrived the day before the Olympic Games started. We were sent to a detention centre in the desert with fences around it. It was scary and we never felt safe because we were in a compound with single men who had been there a long time and had gone crazy. Refugee children in the detention centre could often be heard crying well past midnight, breaking the quiet of the night. Instead of toys, children’s games, birthday parties, going to school, healthy food and notso-healthy ice-cream and sweets, the children in refugee camps have to grapple with boredom, fever, bronchitis, pneumonia and intestinal diseases. They wander about the camp, eating and drinking whatever is available. We were in that detention centre for two months, and then we got refugee status and were freed. The Department of Immigration sent us to Launceston in Tasmania. I liked it there. Everyone was so lovely to us. But my dad said we had to move to Sydney where there was more work. So now we are in Sydney. We have been waiting nearly four years for Australia to say yes to us. On Thursday, it happened. We proved that we are still refugees who would be persecuted if we were sent back to Afghanistan. We are now permanent residents, and we can’t wait to get our Australian citizenship. … [Remainder of text omitted.]

A full version of this text is available at Pearson Places.

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Lewis, blog writer: TakingITGlobal website Every three seconds, a child dies from hunger. This phrase, popularised by the MakePovertyHistory campaign along with the Live8 concerts, shows the world what state it is in. Worldwide, 208 million young people live on less than US$1 a day, and a further 515 million live on less that US$2 a day. Eighty-five per cent of young people live in developing countries and most of them live in rural areas where poverty and diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria cause havoc. Worldwide, many young girls don’t make it past the fifth grade. Instead, they have to fetch water for their family. The water isn’t safe to drink and it is usually many kilometers away from where they live. In some areas of the world many children do not live until their sixth birthday. Child mortality is at an all-time high and continues to increase. However, it is a proven fact that if mothers of these children were provided with proper education on basic hygiene and sanitation, the child would have lived beyond the age of five. What does this all mean? It means that the world needs to wake up and pay attention to the worldwide plight of poverty. We cannot rely on politicians to change the problem. Only a collective action from all people will move towards the eradication of poverty. In 2000, 189 countries, under the United Nations Millennium Declaration, agreed to eradicate extreme poverty by 2015. In addition to this promise the leaders of these countries pledged to increase Official Development Assistance (ODA) to 0.7% of their country’s Gross National Income (GNI). So far, no country has met their commitments. Australia is currently at 0.28% GNI and it doesn’t look like that figure will increase anytime soon. So where do young people fit in all of this? Everywhere. Young people are increasingly being recognised as important factors within global development. Since the United Nations’ conception it has been calling for increased youth participation in global decision-making. Unfortunately, many countries have overlooked the call. Only a small number of countries send youth delegates to the United Nation’s General Assembly and at many international events young people are often brushed aside. Times are changing. At the World Summit of Sustainable Development in 2002 the WSSD Youth Caucus was the largest that had ever attended a global summit. Young people were allowed to speak at the plenary sessions; it was a victory for youth participation. It cannot stop there. There is a global call for an end to poverty. Billions of people are calling for our governments to stand up and face poverty. Colin Powell said that the war on terror will not succeed unless the war on poverty is fought and won. Every day, thousands die needlessly. Will you be brave enough to stand up and take a stance? We are the generation that can finally eradicate poverty. We have a responsibility to step up to the plate and tackle the issue head on. We can’t escape it. Will you step up and be the change?

Former Australian prime minister Kevin Rudd’s Apology to Australia’s Indigenous Peoples A full version of this text is available at Pearson Places.

194 Appendices

Barack Obama’s election night victory speech A full version of this text is available at Pearson Places.

Barack Obama’s inaugural address A full version of this text is available at Pearson Places.

Text responses Belinda, Year 7: review of The Plague of Quentaris The Plague of Quentaris is from the Quentaris Chronicles series. The book is about the city of Quentaris and its inhabitants. It is about two elderly people who live in the city of Quentaris. While they are out doing their work, they come across two children with a strange marking on each arm. The children don’t speak the language of Quentaris and no one can understand them. The two people take them home. The town guards come to the house where the children are living with the adults, and are shocked when the children suddenly attack them. The commander tells the old people that he has orders from the town leader to take them. The children are taken away to learn the language that is spoken by the people of Quentaris, with the help of an unusual creature. I like this book because I enjoy fantasy and adventure books. The book was exciting and also a little bit sad. As soon as I started to read it I couldn’t put it down because of the suspense. I rate this book 10 out of 10.

Christopher, Year 8: review of The Cay The book The Cay by Theodore Taylor is set in the Caribbean, during World War II. It is a story about survival and friendship with a powerful message about racial prejudice. Phillip, an 11-year-old boy, and Timothy, a wise old negro sailor, find themselves stranded on a sandy coral cay after their freighter was hit by a German torpedo. Phillip has been left blind after he suffered a serious blow to the head. He must learn to put aside his prejudices and trust Timothy. Timothy becomes Phillip’s eyes and teaches him vital survival skills. Timothy has lived a hard life with both his parents being slaves. He never went to school and had worked on fishing boats since he was ten. The story is set in a time where there was segregation and discrimination against ‘coloureds’ in America. An example of this is how he refers to Phillip as ‘young bahss’. Throughout his entire life Timothy was exposed to racial prejudice. He is wise and very knowledgeable about the oceans, weather and survival even though he is illiterate. Timothy is a caring, understanding, compassionate and patient old man. Phillip is an 11-year-old white boy brought up on a small island in the Caribbean. When he finds himself on a raft in the middle of the ocean with Timothy, his racist attitudes can be seen. He insults Timothy, doesn’t listen to him and considers himself superior because he is white. He thinks of Timothy as stupid and worthless because he is black. Phillip is very resentful when Timothy asks him to help out on the island or when Timothy insists that he should learn to do things for himself.

Appendices 195

The relationship between Timothy and Phillip starts off as a difficult one but as time goes by Phillip begins to mature and realises he needs Timothy in order to survive. He learns how to provide shelter, find and prepare food and navigate his way around the island. Through doing these things with Timothy, their relationship starts to change. He stops seeing Timothy as a negro and just sees him as another human being. Timothy becomes more and more like a grandfather and a special bond grows between them. One of the themes that stand out in this story is survival. When faced with a life-or-death situation, survival soon becomes their only concern. After a serious dose of malaria, Timothy realises that he has to train Phillip to survive on his own. He knows that their chances of rescue are slim and that he will not always be there for Phillip. Timothy shares his abundance of survival skills with Phillip and teaches him to become more independent despite his blindness. Phillip also helped Timothy and saved his life. Phillip dragged Timothy out of the water when he hallucinated from malaria and cared for him until he recovered. On this island, Phillip learns things about life that he would never learn elsewhere. In their quest for survival Phillip learns about forgiveness, compassion, will and determination. Two other themes are fear and courage. These go together because being courageous means overcoming your fear. An example of this is when Phillip climbs the palm tree for the first time or when he first explored the island with his cane. After Timothy dies, Phillip again shows tremendous courage when he begins to put his life back in order and when he goes looking for lobsters in the waterhole. The story is also one about sacrifice. When Timothy realises there is a hurricane approaching, he prepares their camp for the worst. When the winds become too strong, he ties Phillip to a palm tree on high ground, and straps himself around Phillip to protect him. Timothy suffers lashings from flying sand and debris and eventually dies from his injuries and exhaustion. This was the ultimate sacrifice. The story is written in a narrative style, with Phillip as the narrator. There is a mixture of Phillip retelling the events and direct speech between Timothy and Phillip. For example, ‘I frowned at him. “I don’t think I can help you, Timothy. I can’t see any rocks.” ’ The way the writer spells Timothy’s speaking gives you an idea of his accent and how he pronounces words. For example, ‘young bahss’, ‘we ready Phill-eep’, ‘dis be a western starm’. The writer uses detailed descriptions to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind of the scenes as well as the action. For example, ‘There was nothing but blue sea with occasional patches of orange seaweed’ and ‘The rain sounded like bullets hitting on the dried palm frond roof.’ Some of the descriptions are also when Timothy is ‘painting’ pictures for Phillip. ‘Describe the sky to me. He said it was flaming red and that there were thin veils of high clouds.’ I found this book an exciting and thrilling novel. The writer made me want to keep reading and reading until I was finished. Many of the scenes kept me in suspense. I could feel the characters’ emotions and, as I was reading, could clearly see the main themes beginning to emerge.

Jenny, Year 9: ‘Environmental, Street and Event theatre’ A sound understanding of the different theatrical techniques used in Environmental, Street and Event theatre and the ability to put these techniques into practice are vital to fulfil the performance makers’ goals and engage the imagination of the audience. These theatrical techniques are used in specific ways across Environmental, Street and Event theatre at all levels of performance, with the availability of resources and the

196 Appendices

target audience all playing a crucial part in the creation of the performance and the performance itself. The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day included a variety of techniques to engage the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/concept. The challenge of Environmental, Street and Event theatre is unlike traditional theatre. It must be more intimate, more confronting, and the connection between the audience and the performers must be extremely strong and identifiable. During the planning, making, devising and performance of our group’s piece at NHSPA Environmental Day, we had to incorporate this idea as well as use specific theatrical techniques. This particular performance had to be based on an environmental issue that was also relevant and relatable for the audience of NHSPA and, therefore, to fulfil our goal of engaging the imagination of the audience and to project a clear message/ concept to our specified audience, certain theatrical techniques were vital throughout. The most basic technique we used in our group’s piece at NHSPA Environmental Day was exaggeration. Exaggeration is a very important technique in Environmental, Street and Event theatre because of the kind of audience that are present, and the actual dimensions of the performance space means that things need to be bigger and simpler to be understood. Exaggeration was most obvious in the way the props were made. Every prop was made to be larger than life, and having the appliances strapped onto headpieces meant that the props were easier to manipulate and gave the props a sense of character. As well as the props being exaggerated, the whole performance was exaggerated to keep the audience interested and to give a clear/entertaining performance. In this type of performance, vocals cannot be relied on to narrate the story and so big gesture and movement is very important. The theatrical technique of exaggerating every element of the performance engaged the audience because it made the performance clear and the larger-than-life atmosphere of the performance was very entertaining. Another very important theatrical technique that we used to engage the imagination of the audience and to initially grab the audience’s attention was that of music. Using an electrical guitar to amplify some of the images in the performance engaged the audience because it forced them to be completely focused on the performance. (They must listen as well as watch.) The sounds of the guitar also helped to illustrate the actual idea/message of the performance and made the piece more relatable because the instrument was recognisable and familiar. For any piece of Environmental, Street or Event theatre to be successful, extensive planning of every detail (performers, place and time) is absolutely essential. In our group we started off by developing a story around an environmental theme. For this type of theatre to work, the narrative couldn’t be too complicated and the progression of the story relied completely on the images we were creating. Rehearsal of the actual performance was also important. This type of theatre is unpredictable and unreliable, and with so many variables in the one performance every element of the performance must be rehearsed. The planning, making and devising of the performance is important for the audience because unless every image/performer is working comfortably and in harmony, the piece will fall apart and won’t have the desired effect on the audience. Symbolism is a theatrical technique that was an integral part of our performance in all stages of devising the piece. Symbolism is a vital tool in capturing the imagination of the audience and building a connection between the performers and the audience. Symbolism was used in our production to make the piece more relatable to the intended audience and to make the message being conveyed more theatrical. In our piece we used the ‘powerboard’ to symbolise the earth and had ‘electricity’ symbolising the people around the world who are using too much non-renewable energy.

Appendices 197

Another theatrical technique we used in our performance to engage the audience was unison. By creating a ‘chorus’ concept, it gave the audience more layers, and we used the choreographed dance to symbolise the idea of ‘working appliances’. Unison cannot only be part of the story but it also makes it easier for the audience to watch and creates a very visually pleasing image. When the unison was broken it created another appropriate image for ‘breaking down’. The Year 9 Event Theatre performance at Newtown High School of the Performing Arts Environmental Day fulfilled the performance makers’ goals of projecting a clear message/idea, engaging the audience’s imagination and therefore connecting and in turn entertaining the audience. These goals could not have been achieved without effectively using various theatrical techniques in specific and original ways.

Ming, Year 10: review of ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ is a short story written by Ursula Dubosarsky. The title refers to a quote by William Yeats that starts the story and alerts the reader to important themes in the story. The two main characters are Snow and Martin, two high school students who sit together in English class. The plot is relatively simple: Snow introduces us to Martin, whose main characteristic is that he doesn’t talk much, he invites her to his house where she meets his British grandmother and on the way back, Martin tells Snow that his grandmother is dying. The story is mainly about communicating, through words, actions and silence. The story is not structured as a typical narrative, where a problem is concretely resolved. This sort of unresolved narrative is becoming increasingly popular as writers and film-makers are embracing a more realistic approach where there is no clear-cut resolution. The knowledge that Martin’s grandmother is dying leaves the reader at first unsatisfied. However, the reader later realises that the resolution is that Martin is no longer alone. He now has Snow. Another unusual feature of the story is that the author never formally introduces and describes her characters. She prefers instead to allow their actions and responses to speak for them. For example, we could have been told that Snow is an unusually selfconfident girl with a generous nature, but the fact that she continues to reach out to Martin despite the fact that he gives her little confirmation of their relationship gives us this information. This again makes the story more realistic and gives the reader a chance to form their own perceptions as we do in real life. Despite this, however, the author does give descriptive hints, which help us form an image of the characters. For example, the sentence describing the long relationship between Snow and her best friend, Viv, ‘Two little terrified girls in blue floppy hats, holding hands. Now they sat like confident cats ...’, tells us that Snow is a normal, popular girl who has no social incentive to reach out to Martin. Likewise, Martin’s actions of washing up and settling his grandmother for sleep tell us that he is responsible and gentle. Description of the settings also help us to understand the characters and their worlds. The description of Martin’s neighbourhood, ‘The houses were small and pale and had a furtive look, as though they were hiding behind the trees and the bushes ...’, gives the reader a clear image of Martin’s daily surroundings and isolation. The main theme of the story is communication. Martin chooses not to talk often and when he does, he doesn’t elaborate. The reaction of Snow’s friend Viv demonstrates the natural human reaction to finding somebody who doesn’t like interacting with others; we tend to think they’re strange or scary. The other characters, Snow and ‘the boys at school’, do not seem to be as bothered by this. This shows that there is not just

198 Appendices

References 199

one way of communicating; that different kinds of relationships depend on different kinds of communicating. A second important theme is loss and how we deal with it. Martin is about to lose his grandmother, who is (we guess) his last relative and therefore the only human he has much contact with. In the face of this, Martin finally reaches out to Snow. This is a comment about how no human ever wants to be truly alone. Despite the rich descriptions and relevance of the themes to young people, however, the story itself seems a bit hollow. Even though we learn about the characters through their actions, we don’t learn enough about Martin or his grandmother to be able to empathise when Martin tells Snow, ‘She’s got cancer. She’s going to die very soon.’ We don’t know enough about Martin and the thoughts he shares with Snow; ‘About colours’, ‘About Brazil’ etc. are just haphazard ideas that don’t lead anywhere. These could have been used to enlighten the reader about the plot and make Martin enigmatic instead of just underdescribed. Even when we see how he lives and meet his grandmother, it doesn’t say much about who he is. This story uses modern storytelling techniques to make it more identifiable to the reader. However, it could have been more poignant if it was longer and we came to identify with the characters more. Although, as the reader delves more into the story and finds more meaning, even a resolution of sorts, when the story ends, the reader is left wanting just a bit more.

References

Christie, F 1990, ‘The changing face of literacy’ in F Christie (ed.), Literacy for a Changing World, ACER, Hawthorn, Victoria, pp. 1–25. Derewianka, B 1991, Exploring How Texts Work, PETA, Newton, NSW. Derewianka, B 1998, A Grammar Companion for Primary Teachers, Primary English Teaching Association, Sydney. Dixon, J 1975, Growth Through English, Oxford University Press, Huddersfield. Droga, L & Humphrey, S 2003, Grammar and Meaning: An Introduction for Primary Teachers, Target Texts, Berry, NSW. Graves, D 1983, Writing: Teachers and Children at Work, Heinemann Educational Books, Exeter, NH. Green, B 2009, ‘English, rhetoric, democracy; or renewing English in Australia’, English in Australia, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 35–44. Goodman, K 1986, What’s Whole in Whole Language?, Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. Halliday, MAK 1994, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edn, Edward Arnold, Melbourne.

Appendix 2

Halliday, MAK & Hasan, R 1976, Cohesion in English, Longman, London. Higgins, C 2008, ‘The new Cicero’, The Guardian, 26 November 2008.

Common prepositions used to introduce adverbial phrases

Location in place or time

Other (manner, contingency, role, matter)

around, between, during, from, in, near, on, to, under, up

about, as, because of, despite, due to, like, with

Kress, G & Van Leeuwen, T 2006, The Grammar of Visual Design, 2nd edn, Routledge, London. Love, K & Macken-Horarik, M 2009, ‘Obama, Rudd and a grammar for rhetoric in the National English Curriculum’, Paper published in the proceedings of the National conference for Teachers of English and Literacy, Hobart, Tasmania, July 2009.

Common conjunctions used to link clauses

Macken-Horarik, M 2003, ‘Appraisal and the special instructiveness of narrative’, Text, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 285–312.

Linking two independent clauses

Martin, JR 1992, English Text: System and Structure, Benjamins, Amsterdam.

and, but, or, so, yet

Martin, JR 1993, ‘Genre and literacy: modelling context in educational linguistics’, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, vol. 13, pp. 141–72.

Linking a dependent clause to an independent clause Time

Concession/contrast

Cause/condition

after, before, ever since, once, until, when, whenever, while

although, even though, though, whereas, while

as, because, since, so … that, if … then

Martin, JR & Rose, D 2007, Working with Discourse: Meaning Beyond the Clause, 2nd edn, Continuum, London. Martin, J & White P, 2005, The Language of Evaluation, Palgrave, New York. Rothery, J 1994, Exploring Literacy in School English, NSW Department of School Education, Sydney. Sawyer, W 2009, ‘The national curriculum and enabling creativity’, English in Australia, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 57–68.

200 Further reading

Further reading ACARA, 2010, Australian Curriculum for English.

Christie, F 2005, Language Education and the Primary Years, UNSW Press, Sydney. Christie, F & Stenglin, M 2006, ‘Understanding English language and literacy development’, A position paper commissioned by Kristina Love for the Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne. Christie, F & Soosai, A 2001, Language and Meaning 1 & 2, Macmillan, Melbourne. Droga, L & Humphrey, S 2002, Getting Started with Functional Grammar, Target Texts, Berry, NSW. Eather, J 2010, creator of Writing Fun website containing resources on teaching with genre. Fang, Z & Schleppegrell, M 2008, Reading in the Secondary Content Areas: A Language-based Pedagogy, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Feez, S & Joyce, H 1998, Writing Skills: Narrative and Non-Fiction Text Types, Phoenix Education, Sydney. Frances, G 2008, Chambers Language Builder: Grammar in Practice from the Word to the Text, Chambers, Edinburgh. Gibbons, P 2002, Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom, Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. Hammond, J 1990, ‘Is learning to read and write the same as learning to speak?’, in F Christie (ed.), Literacy for a changing world, ACER, Hawthorn, Victoria. Love, K, Baker, G & Quinn, M 2008, Literacy Across the School Subjects, DVD, The University of Melbourne. Love, K, Pigdon, K & Baker, G 2005, Building Understandings in Literacy and Teaching, 3rd edn, CD-ROM, The University of Melbourne. Perera, K 1984, Children’s Writing and Reading: Analysing Classroom Language, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.

Index

201

Index abstract action verb 154 abstract language 149 abstract noun 42, 107–8, 112, 144, 151, 152 abstract verb 151, 152 accompaniment adverb 44, 46 action process 151 action verb 31–3, 38, 40, 143 active voice 55–7 ‘Adaan’ (Tristan Bancks) 40 adjectival clause 63, 114, 145 adjectival grader 82 adjectival phrase 62–3, 145 adjective 19, 70–3, 152, 153, 154 adverb 19, 20, 21, 43–7, 144 adverbial 67–8, 72, 80, 81, 99, 115, 116, 146, 148, 151, 153–4, 158 adverbial group 21, 22, 23, 27, 30, 43–7, 66–8, 119, 120 adverbial manner 146 adverbial phrase 66–8, 117 affect 73, 74, 75, 77, 83, 84 alternative position 150 analytical framework 147–8 angle adverb 44, 46 antonymy 133, 134, 135 appreciation 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 83, 84 argument 15, 34, 137, 149, 150, 152, 156 article 19 aspect verb 57 attitude 83 attitudinal adjective 70–3, 146 atypical grammatical theme 116 Australian Curriculum for English 3, 16, 160 auxiliary verb 49–50, 144 Belinda: review of The Plague of Quentaris 31–2, 36, 37, 142–3, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 153, 158–9, 163, 182, 194 building blocks, language 18–25 ‘Can literature change the world?’ (Jana) 59, 87, 100, 106, 107, 109, 120, 130, 167, 175, 179, 189–90 Candide (Voltaire) 137, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158–9, 190–1 causal adverb 44, 46 causal interactive language 104, 136 Cay, The (Theodore Taylor) 11, 36, 37, 38, 75–6, 111, 123–4,

142–3, 144, 145, 146–8, 149, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158–9, 163, 182, 194–5 characters 128 Christopher: review of The Cay 11, 36, 37, 38, 75–6, 111, 123–4, 142–3, 144, 146–8, 149, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158–9, 163, 182, 194–5 chronological pattern (sentence opener) 116–17 citation 86, 93–7 clarification 136 Clark, Margaret 127 classification 38 classifier 61, 62, 63, 70, 71, 145 class-to-member relationship 133, 134, 135 clause 23, 26, 28–9, 30, 71, 144 cohesive device 123–39 comment expression 99, 119, 120 common noun 41, 42 comparative 124 complex noun group 107–8, 110, 111, 112, 128, 146 complex sentence 27–8 complex sentence opener 115–19 complex verb 144 complication 9–10 compound sentence 27 concession 86, 98, 136, 156 concrete language 109 concrete noun 41, 42, 144 condition 136 conjunction 19, 21, 27, 119–20, 137–8 context 10, 11, 37, 144, 146 contingency adverb 44, 46 contrast 97–8, 156 core meaning 81, 83 countable things 125 creating verb 151 cultural context 5 declarative sentence 68 defence argument 150 definite article 127 demonstrative 124 dependent clause 27, 28, 67, 111, 115, 116 describing adjective 61, 62, 63, 70, 145 description 121, 149 determiner 61, 62, 63, 70, 124, 125, 126, 145 dialogic text 103, 104 dialogue 85, 88 direct object 25 direct speech 33

discussion 89, 94 domino pattern (sentence openers) 119 elaboration 13, 14 ellipsis 123, 131–2 embedded relative clause 63 empathy 36 ‘Environmental, street and event theatre’ (Jenny) 50, 105–6, 107, 109–10, 111, 114–15, 130–1, 134, 179, 195–7 evaluation target 76, 77 evaluative language 69–84, 149, 154–5 everyday noun 42 exclamation mark 82 existing verb 39 experiential device 158 experiential lens 16, 17 experiential meaning 86 experiential resources 142–6, 148, 151 explicit evaluative vocabulary 76, 77–9 exploratory language 104 exposition 8, 12, 88, 89, 95, 112, 149 extended noun group 153, 154 extent adverb 44, 46 external conjunction 138 factual adjective 70, 71 feeling verb 35, 36, 40 Fejo, Nanna 35, 72, 78, 96, 119, 138 field 6, 16 formal non-interactive language 104 functional linguistics 5–6 future continuous tense 52, 53 future perfect tense 52, 53 future tense 51, 52, 143, 144 general noun 42 genre 5–6, 8–17, 38 graded core vocabulary 80–1, 82, 83, 90 grading 80–4, 155–6 ‘Graffiti should be seen as a form of art. Do you agree or disagree?’ (Kim) 12, 13, 65, 107, 113, 187–8 grammar teaching 1–5 grammatical category 79 grammatical resources 95, 97, 148–9 grammatical structure 48–68 grammatical theme 113–18 groups 20–1

‘I Am Alone’ (James Phelan) 118 idea sequence 136 imperative sentence 68 implicit evaluative resources 77–9, 154, 155 indefinite article 127 independent clause 26, 27, 28, 67 indirect grading resources 81–3 indirect object 25 indirect speech 33 infinitive form (tense) 51 information addition 136 information organisation and signalling 105–22 interactive language 104 internal conjunction 137–8 interpersonal perspective 16, 17, 158, 159 interpersonal resources 146–7, 148, 154 interpretation 147–8, 149 interrogative sentence 68 Jamie: ‘Saving kids from the unthinkable’ 34, 44, 94, 101, 188–9 Jana: ‘Can literature change the world?’ 59, 87, 100, 106, 107, 109, 120, 130, 167, 175, 179, 189–90 Jenny: ‘Environmental, street and event theatre’ 50, 105–6, 107, 109–10, 111, 114–15, 130–1, 134, 179, 195–7 judgement 10, 11, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 83, 84 judgement stage 144 KAL (knowledge about language) 2 Keating, Paul: Redfern speech 59 Kim: ‘Graffiti should be seen as a form of art’ 12, 13, 65, 107, 113, 187–8 language structure 18–29 ‘Letter to the Principal’ (Rafik) 187 Lewis: TakingITGlobal (blog) 45–7, 96–7, 101, 116–17, 120–1, 131, 138, 139, 140, 160, 193 lexical cohesion 123, 133–6 ‘Like a Long-legged Fly’ (Ursula Dubosarsky) 22–3, 25, 36, 39, 43, 79, 82, 112–13, 129, 132, 163, 197–8

202

Working Grammar

linear pattern (sentence openers) 117–18 listing 82, 83 literacy development 141–60 literary appreciation 141–60 main noun 61, 62, 63, 145 main verb 57, 115 manner adverb 44, 46 marked grammatical theme 116 mass noun 125, 127 matter adverb 44, 46 meaning 30–47, 73–7 mental process 151 metalanguage 7 metaphor 82, 83 Ming: review of ‘Like a Longlegged Fly’ 36, 39, 43, 79, 163, 197–8 modal auxiliary 49, 50 modality 86–92, 100, 156 mode 6, 16 ‘Monkey Man’ (Clark) 127 monologic text 103, 104, 105 narrative 8, 9, 34, 55, 116, 118, 126–30, 138, 144 narrative opener 112–13 negative affect 75 ‘Never Again’ (Jack) 9, 41 new information 114, 115, 117–18, 119, 120 Nixon Cooper, Ann 35 nominalisation 64–5, 73, 152–3, 154 noun 19, 20, 41–3, 66, 72, 125 noun group 21, 22, 23, 41–3, 60–6, 70, 71, 114, 116, 131, 144–5, 148, 151, 152, 153, 158 noun reporting 93 Obama, Barack Inaugural address 35–6, 63, 64, 71, 114, 117, 131, 135, 194 Victory speech 2, 14 object 25 objective evaluative vocabulary 146, 147 obligation 91 opinion modification 87 orientation 9–10 outline view 107 paragraph 25–6 paragraph opener (topic sentence) 106, 108–13, 137, 148, 157 parallelism 82 particular noun 42 part of speech 19 passive voice 55–7, 143 past continuous tense 52, 53 past perfect tense 52, 53, 143, 144

past tense 51, 52–7 perceiving verb 35, 36, 40 performance 134 personal pronoun 124, 128–9, 131 personal response 149 persuasion, rhetoric and 85–101 phrasal verb 58, 144 phrase 20–1 phrase reporting 93 place adverbial 44, 46, 146 Plague of Quentaris, The (Gary Crew) 31–2, 36, 37, 142–3, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 153, 158–9, 163, 182, 194 plural determiner 125 plural noun 125, 127 point 13, 14 polarity 49, 86 position statement 13 post-modifier 61, 62–3, 144, 153 pre-modifier 61, 63, 70, 144, 146, 153 preposition 19, 21, 56, 66 prepositional phrase 98 present continuous tense 51, 53 present perfect tense 51, 52, 53 present tense 51, 143, 144 presenting reference 124–8 preview 13 probe question 27, 61, 62 pronoun 19, 41, 60 proper noun 41, 42 quantifier 70 quantity adjective 61, 62, 63, 145 quotation 93 Rafik: ‘Letter to the Principal’ 187 rebuttal 149, 150, 156, 157 recount 116 reference 123–31 reflective language 104 register 6 relating verb 37–9, 40, 111, 143, 151 relative pronoun 63 repeating pronoun 130 repetition 82, 83, 118, 133, 134, 135 resolution 9–10 resources, reference 95, 124–8 rhetorical devices 1–3, 85–101, 116, 155 role adverb 44, 46 ‘Roses’ (Libby Gleeson) 127 Rosie: ‘Utopias should be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs’ 137, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 183, 190–1

Rudd, Kevin, Apology speech 2, 3, 4, 14, 20, 26, 28, 35, 42, 54, 56, 72, 77–8, 82–3, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 101, 116, 119, 137, 138, 194 Saro 16–17, 28–9, 30–1, 33, 35, 37, 43–4, 53–4, 58, 73–4, 80, 114–15, 126, 185–6 ‘Saving kids from the unthinkable’ (Jamie) 34, 44, 94, 101, 188–9 saying verb 33–4, 152, 154 semiotic noun 108 senior secondary English, development of 149–57 sensing verb 31, 35–6, 40, 143 sentence 26–9 sentence opener (grammatical theme) 106, 113–18 sentence type 68 showing verb 151 simile 82 simple future tense 52, 53 simple past tense 52, 53, 143 simple present tense 51, 53, 143 simple sentence 26 simple sentence opener 114–15 ‘Snapshot’ (David Metzenthen) 50, 127 social view of language 7 sociocultural context 5 sources 95, 97 specific context 5 speeches 14–15 spoken language, written language and 102–4 spoken-like language 124, 132, 138 stages, genres and 12–13 Standard Australian English 3 story family 15 style 11, 147, 148 subject 24, 25, 115, 119, 120 subordinate clause 27 substitution 123, 131–2 subtopic 110, 111 ‘Sudden Snow, The’ (Paul Collins) 34, 81, 129–30 supporting argument 12, 13–14 suspense building 80–4 swearing 82 Swerve 43, 60, 67, 70, 71, 72 synonymy 133, 134, 135 syntax 2 TakingITGlobal (blog) (Lewis) 45–7, 96–7, 101, 116–17, 120–1, 131, 138–9, 140, 160, 193 technical language 42, 149 tenor 6, 16 tense 49, 51–3, 54, 143 ‘Test, The’ (Angelica Gibbs) 103

text connective 123, 136–9, 148 text development 157 text interpretation 10, 11, 37 text opener (text preview) 106, 107, 112 text response 8, 10–11, 15, 142 text response and exposition, presenting reference in 128, 130–1 text types 5–6, 8–17 textual perspective 16, 17, 159 textual resources 102–22, 147–8 theme 11, 38, 147, 148 thesis 12, 149, 150 thesis reinforcement 12, 14, 137, 150 thinking verb 35, 36, 40 time adverbial 44, 46, 146 time indication 136 topic sentence (paragraph opener) 108–10, 113 tracking reference 124, 128–31 ‘Tres Malum, The’ (Saro) 16–17, 28–9, 30–1, 33, 35, 37, 43–4, 53–4, 58, 73–4, 80, 114–15, 126, 185–6 Utopia (Thomas More) 137, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158–9, 190–1 ‘Utopias should be taken as serious manifestos of their authors’ beliefs’ (Rosie) 190–1 verb 19, 20, 24, 25, 30–40, 72 verb group 22, 23, 28, 30–41, 48–66, 143–4, 148, 151–2, 153, 158 verb reporting 93 verb type 40 viewpoint expression 86, 99, 119 volume (vocabulary) 81 Wazefadost, Nooria: ‘AYoung Refugee’s Pleas for a Better Future, A’ 74, 77, 78, 91, 160, 192 whole-to-part relationship (abstract) 133, 134, 135 whole-to-part relationship (concrete) 133 written language, spoken language and 102–4 written-like language 124, 131, 146 ‘Young refugee’s pleas for a better future, A’ (Nooria Wazefadost) 74, 77, 78, 91, 160, 192 zigzag pattern (sentence openers) 118–19