Windsor Castle Badshahnama
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University Micrdrilms International 300 N. Z eeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
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8229942
Komala, Wilma
THE WINDSOR CASTLE "BADSHAH NAMA" AND ITS PLACE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORICAL PAINTING DURING THE REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN 1628-1658
The University o f Iowa
University Microfilms International
Ph.D. 1982
300 N. Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. MI 48106
Copyright 1982 by Komala, Wilma All Rights Reserved
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THE
WINDSOR
CASTLE
BADSHAH NAMA
AND ITS PLACE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORICAL PAINTING DURING THE REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN
1628-1658
by Wilma Komala
A t h e s i s su b m itted i n p a r t ia l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e req u irem en ts f o r th e d egree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y i n Art H isto r y i n th e Graduate C o lleg e o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f Iowa J u ly , 1982 T h e sis su p er v iso r* P r o fe s s o r Wayne E* B eg ley
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G raduate C o lle g e The U n iv e r s it y o f Iowa Iowa C it y , Iow a
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
PH.D. TRESIS
T h is i s t o c e r t i f y t h a t th e Ph.D . t h e s i s o f Wilma Komala
h as been approved by th e Exam ining Committee f o r th e t h e s i s req u irem en t f o r t h e D octor o f P h ilo so p h y d e g r e e i n A rt H is to r y a t th e J u ly 1982 g r a d u a tio n .
T h e s is com m ittee T h e s is s u p e r v is o r
Member
Member
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C
TO P r o fe s s o r Wayne E. B egley f o r h i s h e lp and encouragement
ii
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
?age LIST OP PLATES...................................................................................................... . . £V CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................
1
CHAPTER I I
BACKGROUND OP SHAH JAHANI PAINTING...........................
10
Survey o f S c h o la r ly L it e r a t u r e ............................... S t y l i s t i c Sources fo r Shah Jahani P a in t in g ..
10 25
SHAH JAHANI HISTORICAL PAINTING..................................
36
Overview o f E xtant I l l u s t r a t e d Shah Jahani M anuscripts and Albums................................................. Background o f Mughal H is t o r ic a l P a i n t i n g . . . . H i s t o r i c a l M anuscripts Under Shah Jahan
56 42 49
PAINTINGS OF THE WINDSOR CASTLE BADSHAH NAMA..
62
CHAPTER I I I
CHAPTER IV
Survey o f S c h o la r ly L it e r a t u r e .............................. P h y s ic a l D e s c r ip tio n and Date o f th e M an u scrip t............................................................................. Them atic D e s c r ip tio n o f th e P a i n t i n g s . . . . . . . CHAPTER V
62 67 73
ARTISTS OP THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT.............................
1 25
I n s c r ib e d Works................................................................. U n in scrib ed Works............................................ ...............
128 155
CONCLUSION..................................................................................
168
CATALOGUE OF THE PAINTINGS..........................................................................
174
APPENDIX A
DISPERSED WORKS PROM HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPTS...
254
APPENDIX B
LIST OP ATTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARTISTS OP THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT......................................................
270
BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................................................................
278
PLATES.............................................................................................................................
290
CHAPTER VI
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R e c e p t io n o f P r in c e Khurram Upon H is D e p a r tu r e f o r t h e Mewar C am paign, f o l i o 4 3 v , B ad sh ah Nama .R o y a l L ib r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ...................................................... ..
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P r in c e Khurram r e c e i v i n g t h e Subdued Rana Amar S in g h , f o l i o 46 v , B ad sh ah Mama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W in d sor C a s t l e .......................................................
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P r in c e Khurram R e c e i v in g t h e Subdued Rana Amar S in g h , f o l i o 4 7 ^ , B ad sh ah Nama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . ............................................
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J a h a n g ir R e c e i v i n g p r in c e Khurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l Cam paign A g a in s t t h e R ana o f Mewar, f o l i o 4 8 v , B ad sh ah Nama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . ........ ...........................
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J a h a n g ir R e c e i v i n g P r in c e Khurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l Cam paign A g a in s t t h e Rana o f Mewar, f o l i o 4 9 ^ , B ad shah Nama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d so r C a s t l e . . ...................................................
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A r r i v a l o f A s a f Khan and t n e P r i n c e s from L a h o r e , f o l i o 5 0 v , B a a sh a h Nama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ...................................... ..
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A r r iv a l o f A s a f Khan and t h e P r in c e s from L a h o r e , f o l i o 51^* B ad sh ah Nama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e .........................................................
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C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e H a u ro z F e s t i v a l a t A g r a , f o l i o 7 2 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ............................................................
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B e s i e g i n g t n e F o r t o f D h a r u r , f o l i o 9 2 v , B a d s h a h Mama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ........................ .................................
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D e a th o f K han J a h a n L o d i , f o l i o 9 4 v , B a d s h a h Mama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ............................................................
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R e c e p t i o n o f t h e P e r s i a n A m b a s s a d o r Munammad A l i Beg a t B u r h a n p u r , f o l i o 9 8 v , B a d s h a h Mama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e .....................
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The S ie g e o f Q a n d a h a r , f o l i o 1 0 2 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . ............ .... ...................
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A r r i v a l o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e w i t h T rib u te O f f e r i n g s , f o l i o 1 1 6 v , B a d sh a h ham a R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ...................................................... ..
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C a p tu re o f th e P o r tu g u e s e F o r t a t h u g h li , f o l i o 117^1 B a d s h a h Mama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ......................................................
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D e liv e ry o f t h e S a c h a q t o t n e H o u se o f t h e Widow o f t h e L a t e P r i n c e P a r w i z , Jahan Banu Begum, Mother o f B r i d e - t o - b e o f D a r a S n ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 0 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ........................ ........................
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D e liv e ry o f t h e Sachaq. t o t h e H o u se o f t h e Widow o f t h e L a t e P r i n c e P a r w i z , J a h a n Banu Begum, Mother o f th e B r i d e - t o - b e o f D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 1 r , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ............................................................ 312 E s c o r t i n g D a ra S h ik o h t o H is W ed d in g C erem o n y , fo lio 1 2 2 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e . . . . ........................................... .. E s c o r t i n g D a ra S h ik o h t o H is W edding C erem o n y , f o l i o 1 2 3 r , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r u a s t l e . . . . ................
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S h a h J a h a n P r e s e n t i n g W ed d in g G i f t s t o D a r a S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 5 r , B a d s h a h Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e . . . ............................
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W ed d in g o f S h a h S h u j a , f o l i o 1 2 7 r , B a d s h a h Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e .........................................................
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A u ra n g z e b C o n f r o n t i n g a n E n r a g e d E l e p h a n t , f o l i o 1 3 4 ^ , B ad s h a il Nama R oyal L ib r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e .........................................................
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p r i n c e K h u rram K i l l i n g a T i g e r , f o l i o 1 3 5 v , B a d s h a h Nama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e ................................... 320
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O n a g e r H u n tin g i n B h e r a i n t n e P u b j a b , f o l i o 1 b b v , B a d s h a h Nama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e . . . . . . ....................
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C a p t u r e o f t n e '- 'F o r t s o f O r c c h a a n d D ham uni, f o l i o 1 7 4 r , B a d s h a n Nama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e .................................
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P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e H ead s o f J u j h a r S in g h a n d H is S on J a g r a j S in g h , f o l i o 1 7 b v , B a d s n a h Nama R oyal L ib ra ry , W in d s o r C a s t l e .........................................................
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C a p t u r e o f F o r t U d g i r , f o l i o 2 0 4 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L ib r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e .........................................
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R e tu rn o f A u ra n g z e b fro m th e D eccan , f o l i o 217 v , B a d s h a h Rama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e ............................... ..
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A r r e s t o f S h a h A b u ' I M a ' a l i , f o l i o 7 , A k b ar Mama C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , D u D l i n . . . . . . .......................................
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J a h a n g i r i n D a r b a r , J a h a n g i r Nama B o s to n Museum o f F in e A r t s , 14 » 654*
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S h ah J a h a n R e c e i v i n g a P e r s i a n E m b assy ( R e c e p t i o n o f Y a d g a r B eg ) B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , O x f o r d , MS. Q u s e le y Add 1 7 3 ................
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C e le b r a t io n o f t n e F e s t i v a l o f A b p a s i, J a h a n g ir Nama Rampur S t a t e L i b r a i y ........................................................ Akbar G iv in g A u d ie n c e t o A b d -u r-R ah m in , A kbar Hama V i c t o r i a & A lb e r t Museum, L o n d o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L arb ar o f Shah J a h a n , f o l i o 433* Shah Jah an Nama B r i t i s h L ib r a r y , L on d on, MS. Or 2 1 5 7 . . . . ................................... Shamsa M e t r o p o l it a n Museum o f A r t , New Y ork , 5 5 * 1 2 1 . 1 0 . 3 9 . . .
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P r i n c e s o f t h e H ouse o f Timur B r i t i s h Museum, L o n d o n . . . . . . . . ....................................................
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Shah J a h a n i n D arb ar (C o r o n a tio n D arb ar) C o lle c t io n H enri V ev er, P a r i s . ............................... Shah J a h a n o n t h e P e a c o c k T hrone C o l l e c t i o n E dw in B i n n e y . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.
T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l f o c u s o n t h e W in d s o r c a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama a n d t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e
t h a t i t p la y e d i n th e d e v e lo p
m e n t o f M u g h al h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h a h J a h a n ( r . The W in d so r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama, w h ic h i s
1 6 2 8 -1 6 5 8 ) .
th e o n ly s u rv iv in g
i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r i p t a c t u a l l y p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S h ah J a h a n , r e p r e s e n t s an u n iq u e and r a r e B a d s h a h Nama i s
docum ent o f th e p e r io d .
T he
one o f t h e s e v e r a l h i s t o r i e s w r i t t e n by th e
v a r io u s c o u r t o h r o n ic le r s o f th e tim e .
T he t e x t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
m a n u s c r i p t r e p r e s e n t s t h e w o rk o f A b d 'u l H am id L a h a u r i , a f o l l o w e r o f A bul F a z l,^
t h e h i s t o r i a n who i m m o r t a l i z e d t h e r e i g n o f S h a ll
J a h a n 's g r a n d f a t h e r i n
t h e t h r e e v o lu m e A k b a r Nama.
e le v e n th o r tw e lf th y e a r o f shah Ja h a n * s r e ig n ,
In th e
L a h a u r i w as
summoned t o c o u r t b y S h a h J a h a n a n d w as o r d e r e d t o p r o d u c e a w o rk c o m p a ra b le t o A b u l F a z l ' s i n m a g n itu d e a n d s t y l e . m a n u s c r i p t r e p r e s e n t s o n l y o n e v o lu m e ( d a f t a r ) c o n s titu te
t h e e n t i r e B a d s h a h Nama.
o f th e th r e e th a t
E a c h v o lu m e c h r o n i c l e s t h e
e v e n ts o f o n e t e n y e a r c y c le o f S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n a c c o rd in g t o th e lu n a r c a le n d a r . tw o v o lu m e s o f t h e h i s t o r y ,
T h e W in d s o r
reck o n e d
L a h a u r i h i m s e l f l i v e d t o c o m p le te
f o r he d ie d i n
r e t i r e m e n t a few y e a r s p r i o r t o t h a t .
1 6 5 4 * and w ent in t o
The c o m p le tio n o f th e
f i n a l t e n y e a r s w as e n t r u s t e d t o h i s p u p i l M uham osd W a r i s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
A
2
c o lo p h o n i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t r a n s c r i p tio n
o f t h e t e x t w as d o n e b y Muhammad ‘ Amin o f M e s s h e d , a n d t h a t
t h e m a n u s c r i p t w as c o m p le te d b y 1 6 5 7 - 1 6 5 8 . w e re d o n e b y v a r i o u s c o u r t a r t i s t s , th e m ost s k i l l e d o f th e a t e l i e r ,
p
The i l l u s t r a t i o n s
who u n d o u b t e d l y w e re am ong
fo r th e
le v e l o f a r t i s t i c
e x c e l
le n c e i s o f a v e ry h ig h c a l ib e r . S u r p r i s i n g l y , no s y s te m a tic m a n u s c rip t h a s y e t a p p e a re d , and
s tu d y o f t h i s im p o rta n t
o n ly sev en o f th e f o r t y - s i x
i l l u s t r a t i o n s have been p u b lis h e d .
The m a n u s c rip t h a s o f te n b een
m e n tio n e d i n p a s s i n g i n w o rk s o n M u g h al a r t ,
but i t has never
re c e iv e d th e s e r io u s a t te n ti o n i t
F u rth e rm o re , Shah
Ja h a n i p a in tin g i s
d e se rv e s.
o n e a r e a o f M u g h al a r t w h ic h h a s b e e n l a r g e l y
ig n o r e d by s c h o l a r s , o r e l s e b e e n t r e a t e d i n a v e r y c u r s o r y fa s h io n . it
Of t n e l i t t l e
te n d s to
p a in tin g ;
p u b lis h e d m a te r ia l t h a t e x i s t s , m ost o f
b e p a r t o f l a r g e r s t u d i e s e n c o m p a s s in g a l l o f M u g h al
t h e r e a r e o n ly a h a n d fu l o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s .
o f th e r e l a t i v e
in a c c e s s ib ility
B ecau se
t o a n d t h e p a u c i t y o f S h ah
J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , m o s t o f t h e a r t h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h on t h e p e r i o d h a s t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e .
T h is n a s u n f o r tu
n a t e l y c a u s e d s t u d i e s on t h e p a i n t i n g t o t a k e a s e c o n d a r y r o l e . I n v ie w o f t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e p a in tin g ,
o f s c h o l a r s h i p on S h a h J a h a n i
t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n t e n d s t o m o d if y t h e s i t u a t i o n b y
p r e s e n tin g an a n a l y t i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f t h i s m ost im p o rta n t b u t y e t u n s t u d i e d m onum ent o f t h e p e r i o d — t h e W in d s o r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Hama.
T he s t u d y w i l l b e m ade u p o f t h r e e m a jo r d i v i s i o n s : a
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
3
b a c k g ro u n d , t o S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , g r a p h ic a l and s t y l i s t i c
a d o c u m e n ta t io n o f t h e i c o n o -
a s p e c t s o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , a n d a
c a ta lo g u e o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s * I n o rd e r to e s t a b l i s h a s e t t i n g f o r th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , i t
i s n e c e s s a r y to p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s o f th e b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l , firs t
s e c tio n p ro p o se s to d o .
and t h i s i s
e x a c tly w hat th e
A su rv e y o f th e s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e
p e r t a i n i n g t o Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l b e g in t h i s b a c k g ro u n d s e c t i o n , w h ic h w i l l a l l o w u s t o h a v e a n o v e r v ie w o f t h e e x t e n t and th e n a tu r e o f th e w ill i l l u s t r a t e th e f i e l d ,
s e c o n d a ry d o c u m e n ta tio n t h a t e x i s t s .
It
th e s c a r c i t y o f s u b s t a n t i a l r e s e a r c h d e v o te d to
a n d u n d e r l i n e t h e n e e d f o r f u r t h e r w o rk .
S ty lis tic
s o u r c e s f o r S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l b e t r e a t e d n e x t .
H e re t h e
• p u re ly f o r m a l a s p e c t s o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t,
tra c in g i t s
th e tr a n s f o r m a tio n i t d oes. its
d e v e lo p m e n t o u t o f J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g a n d u n d e r w e n t t o a r r i v e a t l o o k i n g t h e way i t
The m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g i s
h i g h t e c h n i c a l r e f i n e m e n t w h ic h r e i n f o r c e s t h e o r d e r e d f o r m a l
p r e s e n t a t i o n an d t h e o b s e s s iv e c o n c e rn f o r m in u te d e t a i l s .
I t is
t h e f i n a l a n d m o s t p o l i s h e d fo rm o f m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g t h a t w as b o m i n t h e A k b a r i p e r i o d a n d m a tu r e d d u r i n g J a h a n g i r * s r e i g n . F u r t h e r b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l w i l l i n c l u d e a n o v e r v ie w o f Shah J a h a n i h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g .
As S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g
en co m p asse s n o t o n ly h i s t o r i c a l w o rk s, b u t p o r t r a i t s , fig u re s , p la n ts ,
s in g le
a n im a ls , and g e n re s c e n e s a s w e ll, i t i s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
4
n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r s ta n d th e s o u r c e s f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t m a tte r.
T he f i r s t s t e p w i l l b e t o
su rv e y o th e r e x ta n t i l l u s t r a t e d
m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s o f t h e p e r i o d .
A d i s t i n c t i o n w i l l b e m ade
b e tw e e n c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w o rk s a n d a lb u m s a s s e m b l e d a t a l a t e r d a te .
W ore o f t e n t h a n n o t ,
t h e s e l a t e r a s s e m b le d a lb u m s c o n t a i n
a m i x t u r e o f p a i n t i n g s t a k e n fro m a l l s o r t s o f m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s . M u g h al h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g a s a g e n r e w i l l t h e n be d is c u s s e d .
F rom A k b a r t o S h ah J a h a n o n e s e e s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y
t r e n d t o w a r d s a m o re i n t r o v e r t e d a n d p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t .
Compa
r is o n s o f b o th th e c o n te x t and th e c o n te n ts o f h i s t o r i c a l s c r i p t s fro m illu s tra te e m p e ro r.
m anu
t h e r e i g n s o f A k b a r, J a h a n g i r a n d S h ah J a h a n w i l l
th e d i f f e r e n t p u rp o se s th e y s e rv e d f o r each s u c c e s s iv e A q u ic k g la n c e a t th e v a r io u s h i s t o r i e s p ro d u c e d u n d e r
th e s e t h r e e e m p ero rs r e v e a l s a d is p r o p o r t i o n a t e in c r e a s e i n th e d o c u m e n ta t io n o f t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e
o f Shah J a h a n .
F u r th e r m o r e
o n e a l s o n o t i c e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g im p o r t a n c e a c c o r d e d t o t h e p h y s ic a l - p o s i t i o n
o f t h e e m p e ro rs w i t h i n th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
From t h e d i s c r e t e l o c a t i o n a n d m o d e s t d e p i c t i o n o f A k b a r , e v e n i n h i s own h i s t o r i e s ,
one a r r i v e s a t th e im m e d ia te ly p e r c e p t i b l e
f i g u r e o f S h a h J a h a n , a n d che f l a g r a n t l a v i s h n e s s t h a t s u r r o u n d s h im . A f t e r h a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e n a t u r e o f M u g h al h i s t o r i c a l p a in tin g ,
t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l t h e n p r o c e e d o n to a t r e a t m e n t o f
th e h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip ts u n d e r Shah J a h a n .
One w i l l f i r s t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
5
e n c o u n te r th e v a r io u s h i s t o r i a n s an d th e t e x t s
th e y w ro te .
In
a d d i t i o n t o A b d 'u l H am id L a h a u r i a n d h i s B a d s h a h Hama, t h e r e w e re a b o u t s i x o t h e r o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e r e i g n o f S h ah Jahan.
D e c i d e d l y , t h e r e w e re o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s w h ic h w e re
n o t o f f i c i a l c o m m is s io n s , b u t w e re w r i t t e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y b y men o f l e a r n i n g who h o p e d t o g a i n m e r i t i n
th e p r o c e s s .3
To sum u p t h e
s e c tio n on th e h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c rip ts u n d e r Shah Ja h a n w i l l b e an a n a l y s i s o f how t h e p a i n t i n g s s e r v e d t o i l l u s t r a t e is ,
t h e t e x t , w h ic h
t h e m a n n e r i n w h ic h o n e may i n t e r p r e t t h e m e s s a g e t h a t w as
in te n d e d to be conveyed to th e r e a d e r .
T he t e x t i t s e l f g l o r i f i e s
t h e p e r s o n o f S h ah J a h a n , a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f h i s r e i g n . T he i l l u s t r a t i o n s v i s u a l i z e t h i s c o n c e p t b y a lw a y s p r e s e n t i n g him in a f a v o r a b le l i g h t t h a t im p lie s a c e r t a i n i n f a l l i b i l i t y . A ll t h i s b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l le a d s up to a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t i t s e l f .
To i n t r o d u c e t h e m a n u s c r i p t , a
su rv e y o f th e s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e
p e rta in in g to i t
p re s e n te d . is
w i l l be
L i k e t h e d o c u m e n ta t io n o n S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g ,
a v e ry m eager q u a n tity .
T he s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l b e
fo llo w e d by a p h y s ic a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m a n u s c r ip t. b rie fly , i t
is
th e re
a l a r g e a n d s u m p tu o u s
V e ry
m a n u s c r i p t m e a s u r i n g 21 ^ "
b y 1 4 " t h a t c o n t a i n s tw o h u n d r e d a n d f o r t y - o n e f o l i o s ,
o f w h ic h
fo rty -s ix a re illu s tr a te d *
In . t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , a n u m b e r o f l o o s e
s h e e ts
sum m ary a c c o u n t o f e a c h e v e n t w e re
c o n ta in in g a b r i e f
i n s e r t e d n e x t to th e c o rre s p o n d in g i l l u s t r a t i o n s . th irty
At p re se n t
s h e e t s r e m a i n , d o c u m e n tin g a l l b u t s i x o f t h e p a i n t i n g s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
6
The numbering sequence on th e s e s h e e ts shows t h a t some a re m is s in g , probably h avin g f a l l e n o u t a t some p o in t in tim e . The th em a tic a n a ly s is o f each i l l u s t r a t i o n w i l l attem pt to add a new dim ension t o th e study o f Shah Jahani p a in tin g by lo o k in g a t i t from an h i s t o r i c a l and ic o n o g r a p h ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e . Over th e p a s t y e a r s , th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e p erio d has tended to c o n c e n tr a te m a in ly on s t y l i s t i c a s p e c t s , w ith th e r e s u lt t h a t th e stu d y o f o th e r f e a tu r e s were r e le g a t e d to a secondary p o s i t i o n . To approach th e Windsor m an uscrip t from an h i s t o r i c a l and ic o n o g r a p h ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e , th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d accord in g to s u b j e c t , and th en th e ic o n o g r a p h ic a l f e a t u r e s o f each one w i l l be s e p a r a te ly d e a lt w ith .
The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e i l l u s
t r a t i o n s can be broken down in t o th e f o llo w in g c a t e g o r ie s : two sham sas,4tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s , fo u r te e n d a rb a rs, e le v e n c e le b r a t io n s and f e s t i v a l s , te n b a t t l e s , f i v e h u n ts, and two v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s .
O b viou sly th e c h o ic e o f what was to b e i l l u s t r a t e d was
th e r e s u l t o f much p la n n in g and fo r eth o u g h t t h a t u lt im a t e ly heeded th e co n sen t and approval o f Shah Jahan.
The
freq u en cy w ith which a c e r t a in theme i s d e p ic te d r e v e a ls c e r t a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Shah J a h a n 's t a s t e i n p a in tin g a s w e ll a s th e image which he d e s ir e d h i s p a in te r s to communicate.
I n s ig h t s in t o
th e custom s and modes o f b eh a v io r o f Mughal c o u r t ly s o c ie t y o f th e tim e w i l l a ls o be a c o n tr ib u tio n o f t h i s a n a ly s is . Of th e f o r t y - s i x i l l u s t r a t i o n s , tw en ty-on e are sig n ed works, and th ey r e v e a l th e names o f te n a r t i s t s .
The o th e r
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
7
p a in tin g s h av e t e n t a t i v e a t t r i b u t i o n s to v a r io u s a r t i s t s o f th e tim e .
From t h e w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d e x a m p le s o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g ,
th e n a m e s-o f a l to g e th e r tw e n ty -fiv e a r t i s t s h av e been r e c o rd e d , a n d a r e know n t o h a v e w o rk e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d . a r t i s t s who w o rk e d o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t , e x a m p le B i c h i t r ,
Among t h e n i n e
some a r e w e l l know n, f o r
f o r whom t h e r e r e m a in s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r p u s o f
s ig n e d and d a te d w o rk s. c a te g o ry o f a r t i s t s
C lo s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e w o rk s o f t h i s
i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w i l l s e r v e t o b r o a d e n
t h e e x i s t i n g k n o w le d g e o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t.
T h e re a r e a l s o a r t i s t s ,
f o r e x a m p le B o la , w h o se n am es a p p e a r o n l y i n t h i s m a n u s c r i p t , a n d who h a v e n o t a s y e t b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y know n w o r k s .
T h e ir
s i g n e d a n d i n s c r i b e d w o rk s a r e new d o c u m e n ts f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e a r t i s t s w o r k in g u n d e r S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n .
N a t u r a l l y t h e known
a r t i s t s w i l l b e t r e a t e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h a n t h e unknow n o n e s , th a t i s ,
c o m p a r a ti v e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e i n t r o d u c e d w h ic h w i l l h e l p
d e t e r m in e t h e w o rk s i n in d iv id u a l a r t i s t 's
th e m a n u s c rip t i n th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f th e
ca re e r.
A p p e n d ix A p r o v i d e s a l i s t o f a t t r i
b u t i o n s t o t h e a r t i s t s m e n tio n e d h e r e . T he f i n a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l b e a c a t a l o g u e d a c c o u n t o f e a c h p a i n t i n g i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t . T he f u n c t i o n o f s u c h a c a t a l o g u e i s t o c l a s s i f y t h e f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f e a c h w o rk , t h a t i s , and th e d a te o f th e e v e n t i t
its
d e p ic ts .
d im e n s io n s , i t s
a rtis t,
A s u m m a riz e d a c c o u n t o f
e a c h e v e n t w i l l a ls o b e in c lu d e d , and a c o rre s p o n d in g te x t u a l so u rce w ill a ls o be c i t e d .
The r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e c i t a t i o n s w i l l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
8
n a t u r a ll y be ta k en from th e Badshah Mama o f A b d 'u l Hamid L ahauri o f w hich c e r t a in p o r t io n s have b een t r a n s l a t e d i n S ir H.M. E l l i o t ' s The H is to r y o f I n d ia a s T o ld by i t s Own H is t o r ia n s ,
However, f o r
th o s e p a in t in g s w hich d e p ic t e v e n t s n o t fou nd i n E l l i o t * s t r a n s la t i o n , th e c i t a t i o n s w i l l be ta k en from th e Mulakhkhas o f In a y a t Khan, t r a n s la t e d by A .E . F u l le r and r e v i s e d and e d it e d by W.E. B e g le y .
F i n a l l y t o co n c lu d e th e d i s s e r t a t i o n , th e r e w i l l b e an
ap pendix c o n s i s t i n g o f a l i s t o f th e d is p e r s e d works b e lie v e d to h ave o n ce come from h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip ts.
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
9
Mo t e s t o C h a p ter I
1 M. H id a y a t H o s a in , " C on tem p orary H i s t o r i a n s D u r in g t h e R e ig n o f Shah J a h a n ," I s l a m i c C u lt u r e 15 ( 1 9 4 1 ) s 7 2 . S l i l o C le v e la n d B e a c h , The Grand M ogul I m p e r ia l P a in tin g in I n d ia 1 6 00 - 16 60 ( W illia m s t o w n : S t e r l i n g and F r a n c in e C la rk A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 78» ^Wayne E. B e g l e y , e d . , " C h r o n ic le o f t h e K in g o f th e W orld; The Shah J a h a n Nama o f ' I n a y a t Khan, th e n in e te e n th c e n t u r y m a n u s c r ip t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A. R. F u l l e r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e B r i t i s h L ib r a r y (Add. 3 0 * 7 7 7 ) " (T y n e s c r ip t, 1 9 8 1 ) , p. x.
A shamsa i s l i t e r a l l y a su n b u rst. I t i s a geom etric d e sig n r e p r e s e n tin g th e sun. F urther d is c u s s io n o f t h i s term can be found on p ages 73 - 7 4 . P la t e s I and I I i l l u s t r a t e th e shamsas o f th e Windsor m an u scrip t.
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
10
CHAPTER I I BACKGROUND OF SHAH JAHANI PAINTING
S u rv e y o f S c h o la r ly L i t e r a t u r e T he s t u d y o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g d o e s n o t h a v e a v e r y l o n g tra d itio n .
I t w as o n l y fro m a b o u t t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s o f t h i s c e n -
tu a ry t h a t s c h o la r s began to ta k e an i n t e r e s t i n t h i s a r e a o f In d ia n a r t .
The
e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e te n d e d t o b e m a in ly p r o f u s e ly
i l l u s t r a t e d w o rk s w h ic h a t t e m p t e d t o c l a s s i f y M u g h al p a i n t i n g w ith in th e c o n te x t o f b o th I n d ia n and I s la m ic a r t . im p o rta n t to c l a r i f y
and u n d e rs ta n d th e o r ig i n s o f th e a r t b e fo re
s e r io u s s t u d i e s on th e l a t e r p h a s e s c o u ld b e d o n e . a fa irly
I t w as v i t a l l y
As a r e s u l t ,
s u b s t a n t i a l am ount o f s c h o la r s h ip e x i s t s f o r th e f o r m a tiv e
an d e a r l y y e a r s o f M ughal p a i n t i n g , t h a t i s , w h ile v e r y l i t t l e
th e A k b a ri p e r io d ,
h a s b e e n d o n e on t h e S h a h J a h a n i p e r i o d .
Though
l e s s d o c u m e n te d t h a n t h e A k b a r i p e r i o d , p a i n t i n g u n d e r J a h a n g i r h a s r e c e i v e d f a r m o re a t t e n t i o n t h a n S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . th e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s phenom enon i s m o re n a t u r a l i s t i c
Gnr :of
t h a t J a h a n g ir i p a i n t i n g , b e in g
an d e x h i b i t i n g a p ro n o u n c e d E u ro p e a n i n f l u e n c e ,
h a d a s t r o n g e r a p p e a l t o W e s te r n s c h o l a r s t h a n t h e m o re c o d i f i e d and r i g i d Shah J a h a n i s t y l e .
M o st o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e
on S h ah J a h a n i
p a i n t i n g te n d s to b e p a r t o f a l a r g e r s tu d y c o v e rin g a l l o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g , w i t h s e c t i o n s o f v a r y i n g l e n g t h s a n d d e p t h s d e v o te d to th e S hah J a h a n i p e r i o d .
T h e s e w o rk s c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t l y
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
11
c la s s ifie d
in to f iv e c a te g o r ie s : g e n e ra l su rv e y s,
c a ta lo g u e s o f
e x h i b i t i o n s an d o f c o l l e c t i o n s , p i c t u r e b o o k s , m o n o g ra p h s, and th e m a tic and s t y l i s t i c d is c u s s , in
s tu d ie s .
c h ro n o lo g ic a l o rd e r,
T h is s e c t i o n w i l l u n d e rta k e to t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w o rk s o f e a c h
c a te g o ry . T he g e n e r a l s u r v e y b o o k s do n o t p r e s e n t d e t a i l e d c o v e ra g e o f e i t h e r S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g o r o f M ughal p a i n t i n g . T h e s e b o o k s t r e a t a b r o a d e r s p e c tr u m o f p a i n t i n g , p a in tin g o r Is la m ic p a in tin g ,
a n d d i s c u s s M u g h al a r t a s o n e o f t h e
m a n ife s ta tio n s o f t h i s la r g e r s u b je c t. lie s in
th e ir illu s tr a tio n s .
e i th e r In d ia n
T he v a l u e o f t h e s e b o o k s
A s m uch o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g i s
d is
p e r s e d a l l o v e r th e w o rld , and o f t e n tim e s i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s , it
h a s b e e n q u i t e d i f f i c u l t f o r s c h o l a r s t o h a v e a c c e s s t o th e m ,
and th e r e f o r e i l l u s t r a t e d books a re in d is p e n s ib le to o ls f o r th e s tu d y o f M ughal p a i n t i n g . The e a r l i e s t b o o k i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i s F r e d r i c
M a r t i n 's
T he M in ia tu r e P a i n t i n g a n d P a i n t e r s o f P e r s i a , I n d i a an d T u rk e y fro m t h e 8 t h t o t h e 1 8 t h C e n t u r y o f 1 9 1 2 .
Its
c o n trib u tio n to th e
a r e a o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w as i n i t s
p u b l i c a t i o n o f n u m e ro u s
p a i n tin g s o f Shah J a h a n an d h i s n o b le s ,
and i t s l i s t
and t h e i r p r i n c i p a l w o rk s.
o f p a in te rs
T he p a i n t i n g s o f t h e n o b l e s cam e
m a in ly fro m M s. 18801 o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , a n i m p o r t a n t monu m ent o f th e Shah J a h a n i p e r io d ,
and e s p e c i a l l y in v a lu a b le f o r th e
s tu d y o f th e c h i e f c o u r t p e r s o n a l i t i e s . id e n tific a tio n s
f o r th e n o b le s b u t a ls o
M a r t i n p r o v i d e d n o t o n ly fo r th e a r t i s t s
a s w e ll.
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12
H is a p p e n d ix i n c l u d e d a l i s t o f t h e a r t i s t s m e n tio n e d i n t h e t e x t a l o n g w i t h t h e i r p r i n c i p a l w o rk s a n d t h e i r l o c a t i o n s . m a t e r i a l w as n o t p r e s e n t e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l , c u r s o r y a c c o u n t o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g . "book a n d t h e d a t e o f p u b l i c a t i o n ,
H is t e x t u a l
a n d w as o n l y a v e r y
C o n s id e rin g th e sco p e o f th e
o n e c o u l d n o t e x p e c t a m o re p r o
fo u n d c o v e r a g e . A ls o o f s i m i l a r m a g n itu d e i n t h e m a t e r i a l c o v e r e d i s M aJbteau a n d V e v e r 's M i n i a t u r e s P e r s a n e s , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 3 . T he t e x t u a l a c c o u n t i s tiv e .
e x tre m e ly s u p e r f i c i a l ,
H o w e v er, w h a t i s p e r t i n e n t t o
s e v e ra l fin e e c tio n .
an d i s m e re ly d e s c r ip
th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e th e
e x a m p le s o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g fro m t h e V e v e r c o l l
W ith o u t s u c h a w o rk , t h e s e p a i n t i n g s w o u ld h a v e r e m a in e d
v irtu a lly
in a c c e s s ib le
t o p e o p l e s t u d y i n g M u g h al p a i n t i n g .
B a rre tt
a n d G r a y 's P a i n t i n g o f I n d i a o f 19&3 a p p e a r e d a s p a r t o f t h e S k i r a s e r i e s on t h e T r e a s u r e s a n d M ug h al p a i n t i n g i s
of A s ia .
It
c o v e rs a l l o f In d ia n p a in tin g ,
o n ly d e a l t w ith i n a s m a ll s e c t i o n ,
w h ile
t h e c o m m e n ta ry on S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l e r r o r s , t h e n u m e ro u s c o l o r p l a t e s , rip t,
i n c l u d i n g o n e fro m t h e W in d s o r m a n u sc
a re o f v a lu e to th e f i e l d o f s tu d y .
M in ia tu re s o f 1966 i s
M a r io B u s s a g l i ' s I n d i a n
a f a i r l y w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d bo ok w ith a r a t h e r
w id e s a m p l in g fro m a l l p h a s e s o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g .
E ach p a in tin g
h a s a n a c c o m p a n y in g c o m m e n ta ry w h ic h r e m a r k s o n t h e s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f e a c h w o rk . in i t s
o rg a n iz a tio n ,
H is t e x t i s
u n f o r tu n a t e ly r a t h e r ra m b lin g
a n d t h e l a c k o f c h a p t e r d i v i s i o n s m ak es i t
even h a rd e r to fo llo w .
F i n a l l y i n 1 9 6 8 R an d h aw a a n d G a l b r a i t h
p u b lis h e d I n d ia n P a in tin g ,
t h e S c e n e s , T hem es a n d L e g e n d s , a n o t h e r
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
13
g e n e ra l su rv e y book on a l l o f I n d ia n p a i n tin g t h a t g iv e s a v e ry s u p e r f i c i a l a c c o u n t o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n tin g . s u b je c t i s
Its
d e s c r ip tiv e and n o t a n a ly tic a l a t a l l .
tre a tm e n t o f th e I t s im p o r ta n c e
t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e p e r i o d com es fro m t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f tw o f o l i o s fro m t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t . I n th e c a te g o ry o f e x h ib itio n c a ta lo g u e s and c a ta lo g u e s o f c o lle c tio n s ,
th e re a re ab o u t f i f t e e n
s i g n i f i c a n t w o rk s w h ic h
t o u c h on t h e s u b j e c t o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g .
A lth o u g h t h e t e x t s
t o m any o f t h e s e c a t a l o g u e s a r e n o t o f a v e r y d e t a i l e d n a t u r e , t h e i r im p o rta n c e to t h i s a r e a o f s tu d y i s
in
and th e b rin g in g to g e th e r o f th e s e p a in tin g s .
th e p u b lic a tio n o f P erh ap s th e e a r l i e s t
w o rk i s S t a n l e y C . C l a r k e ^ I n d i a n D r a w in g s : T h i r t y M u g h al P a i n t in g s o f th e S ch o o l o f J a h a n g ir and F o u r P a n e ls o f C a llig ra p h y in t h e W a n ta g e B e q u e s t o f 1 9 2 2 . o f J a h a n g ir,
ed.
is
e n title d
th e S ch o o l
a g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e w o rk s a c t u a l l y d a t e t o t h e
S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d . tra its
A lth o u g h i t
T h e w a n ta g e B e q u e s t c o n s i s t e d m a in ly o f p o r
o f n o b l e s , t h o u g h p l a n t a n d a n im a l s t u d i e s w e re a l s o i n c l u d £ ach o f th e s e t h i r t y
f o r m a t w h ic h
a c c e n tu a te d
p a i n t i n g s w as
re p ro d u c e d on an e n la rg e d
som e o f t h e m i n u te d e t a i l s
w o u ld o t h e r w i s e n o t h a v e b e e n s o v i s i b l e .
th a t
C l a r k e 's c o m m e n ta ry t e n d e d
t o b e p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e ; f o r e x a m p le , h e w o u ld g i v e t h e b i o g r a p h y o f t h e p e r s o n i l l u s t r a t e d b u t w o u ld o f f e r n o a n a l y t i c a l com m ent. R em arks on t h e s t y l e w e re p r o v i d e d i n a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n .
In
1929 I v a n S t c h o u k i n e p u b l i s h e d a c a t a l o g u e t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f M ughal p a i n t i n g s i n t h e l o u v r e Museum w h ic h w as e n t i t l e d
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
14
L e a M i n i a t u r e s I n d ie n x ie a d e l 'E p o q u e d e s G r a n d s M o g h o ls a u M u see d u L o u v re*
T he p a i n t i n g s w e re a l l c l a s s i f i e d b y p e r i o d a n d l i s t e d b y
a c c e s s io n n u m b e rs.
N o t v e r y m uch m a t e r i a l a p p e a r e d i n t h e g h a h
J a h a n s e c t i o n , f o r t h e museum d i d n o t h a v e a v e r y l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n in th is a re a . C la rk e ,
F o r e a c h w o rk w as a co m m e n ta ry w h ic h , l i k e
w as d e s c r i p t i v e .
so m ew h at i n a c c u r a t e .
th a t of
I n a d d i t i o n , m uch o f t h e d a t i n g w as
A so m ew h at m o re i n d e p t h c a t a l o g u e i s t h e o n e
o f t h e M u g h al p a i n t i n g s i n t h e Museum o f F i n e A r t s i n B o s to n w h ic h a p p e a r e d i n 1930*
W r i t t e n by A n a n d a K . C oom arasw am y, i t
an h i s t o r i c a l and s t y l i s t i c
began w ith
i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d w as f o l l o w e d b y a n
a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e w o rk s i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n .
T h e r e w e re a t o t a l o f
a b o u t t e n w o rk s o f t h e S h a h J a h a n i p e r i o d , a n d f o r some o f t h e s e he o f f e r e d h is p e rs o n a l o p in io n s and a n a l y s i s ,
su ch as a t t r i b u t i o n s
t o a r t i s t s a n d d a t i n g o f w o r k s , o f w n ic h some h a v e b e e n p r o v e n t o be in a c c u ra te . a ttrib u tio n s ,
S till,
it
is
i m p o r t a n t f o r so m eo n e t o b e g i n m a k in g
a l b e i t in a c c u r a te , f o r f u tu r e s c h o la r s to have a
b a s i s t o w o rk f r o m . S i r T hom as A r n o l d 's T he L i b r a r y o f A . C h e s t e r B e a t t y . A C a t a lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e s , w h ic h w as p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 3 6 , c a n p e r h a p s b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o s t l u x u r i o u s c a t a l o g u e o f M u g h al p a in tin g e v e r to be p ro d u c e d .
T he B e a t t y c o l l e c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f
som e o f t h e f i n e s t S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s i n t h e w o r l d , n a m e ly h i s s h a r e o f t h e M in to A lb u m , a n d w h a t i s
d e s i g n a t e d a s R o y a l A lbum B .
D e ta ile d p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip tio n s o f each p a in tin g and th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a l l t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f a n e n o rm o u s a s s e t t o
su b seq u en t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
15
s tu d ie s .
I n th e l a t e
1930s a n d e a r l y 1 9 4 0 s, t h e c o l l e c t o r A .C .
A rd e s h ir p u t o u t a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d P a in tin g " .
"M u g h al M i n i a t u r e
Though n o t p u r p o s e ly in te n d e d a s a p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s
c o l l e c t i o n , h e u s e d t h o s e w o rk s a s t h e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s a rtic le s .
" T h e S c h o o l o f S h a h J a h a n " a p p e a r e d i n 1940{ a r a t h e r
l e n g t i y a r t i c l e w i t h a n o t a lw a y s a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f som e o f th e p a i n te r s and m a n u s c rip ts o f t h a t p e r io d .
T he e x h i b i t i o n o f
I n d i a n a r t h e l d a t t h e B o y a l A cadem y o f A r t i n L o n d o n fro m 1947 t o 1 9 4 8 w as am ong t h e e a r l i e s t i n s t a n c e s w h e re o r i g i n a l M u g h al a r t w as m ade a v a i l a b l e t o a p u b l i c a u d i e n c e .
Its
i n 1 9 5 0 a n d w as e d i t e d b y S i r L e i g h A s h t o n .
c a ta lo g u e ap p e a re d I t h a s n u m e ro u s
r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g a d e c e n t s a m p l in g o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s , and even one f o l i o
fro m t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Mama.
c o m m e n ta r ie s t o t h e p a i n t i n g s ,
The
l i k e m o s t o f t h e w o rk s a l r e a d y
m e n tio n e d , i s w e ig h te d to a p u r e ly p h y s ic a l d e s c r i p t i o n .
The n e x t m ajor e x h ib it io n o f Mughal a r t th a t in c lu d e d Shah Jahani works was a t th e A sia House i n New York in 1963.
The c a ta lo g u e , w r it te n by S.C . Welch, i s e n t i t l e d The Art o f
M ughal
I n d ia
P a in tin g and P r e c io u s O b.lects. I t p r o v id e s i l l u s t r a
t io n s accom panied by a n a ly t ic a l com m entaries, and th e t e x t u a l p r e fa c e g iv e s a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l and s t y l i s t i c summary o f th e majo major p e r io d s o f Mughal a r t . In 1963 and 1966 th e Sm ithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n exh ib i t e d works from th e c o l l e c t i o n s o f W.G. Archer and Edwin B inney, r e s p e c tiv e ly .
The Archer c o l l e c t i o n was o f In d ian m in ia tu r e s , both
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
16
Mughal, and R a jp u t, w h ile th e Binney c o l l e c t i o n was o f I s la m ic a r t . In b o th c a s e s Mughal p a in tin g was o n ly one o f th e many a rea s w ith in th e la r g e r framework, and t h e r e fo r e d id n o t f ig u r e a s im p o rta n tly . Yet works such a s t h e s e cannot be o v erlo o k ed a s th e y made p u b lic a lly a v a ila b le works o f th e f i e l d th a t o th e r w ise would have rem ained u n p u b lish ed .
Another d im en sion to t h i s k in d o f do cumen t a t i on comes
i n th e form o f s a le s c a ta lo g u e s o f m ajor c o l l e c t i o n s , such as th a t o f th e Kevorkian Foundation h e ld a t S o th e b y 's o f London i n 19 6 9 . 1 Not o n ly d id t h i s ca ta lo g u e p ro v id e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f some v ery f in e Shah Jahani p a in tin g s , b u t a ls o had a b r i e f but d e t a ile d commentary to each p ie c e , o u t lin in g h i s t o r i c and s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s a s w e ll as p ro v id in g a r e le v a n t b ib lio g r a p h y . In 1974» th e P o rtla n d Art Museum o rg a n ized an e x h ib i t io n e n t i t l e d In d ia n M in ia tu re P a in tin g s from t h e C o lle c tio n o f Edwin Binney ^rd.
The works were o f th e Mughal and Deccani s c h o o ls ,
and th e c a ta lo g u e , w r it te n by B inney, co n ta in e d numerous i l l u s t r a t i o n s a s w e ll a s some s c h o la r ly i n s i g h t s and o b s e r v a tio n s to th e iconography and th e a r t i s t s o f th e v a r io u s works.
Of a somewhat
l e s s e r c o n c e n tr a tio n on Shah Jahani p a in tin g was th e 1976 e x h ib i t io n o f P e r sia n and Mughal a r t h e ld a t C o ln a g h i's.
The p r e fa c e to
th e s e c t io n on Mughal a r t was w r it te n by T. F a lk , and was o f a r a th e r g e n e r a l n a tu re t h a t d id n o t r e a l l y o f f e r any new in fo rm a tio n to th e f i e l d o f stu d y.
The m ajor c o n tr ib u tio n o f t h i s , and in
g e n e r a l o f a l l e x h ib it io n s , was th e p u b lic a tio n o f o th e r w ise unknown works. A lso i n 1976 was th e World o f Islam F e s t iv a l whose
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
17
c a ta lo g u e e n t i t l e d P a in tin g frcm th e Muslim Courts o f I n d ia i l l u s t r a t e d and a n a ly zed a s ig n i f i c a n t number o f Mughal p a in tin g s from th e Shsh Jahani e r a .
Another e x h ib it io n o f Mughal a r t a ls o
h e ld i n 1976 was a t th e A sia House.
I t was d evoted to drawings and
p a in te d sk e tc h e s o f th e Mughal, R ajput and D eccani s c h o o ls .
The
c a ta lo g u e produced by S .C . Welch brought t o l i g h t many p rep aratory draw ings and a r t i s t s k e tc h e s o f a number o f m ajor p a in tin g s . Docum entation o f t h i s s o r t i s u s u a lly r a th e r d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in , and t h i s e x h ib it io n g a th ered to g e th e r th e s e p i e c e s , th u s adding an oth er diem nsion t o th e stu dy and u n d ersta n d in g o f Mughal p a in tin g . By f a r th e m ost d e t a il e d coverage o f Shah Jahani p a in tin g appeared in M.C. B ea ch 's The Grand Mogul, th e c a ta lo g u e t o th e 1978 e x h ib i t io n h e ld a t th e Clark A rt I n s t i t u t e .
C h a r a c t e r is t ic o f most
c a ta lo g u e s on Mughal p a in tin g , t h i s one b e g in s w ith an in tr o d u c to r y s e c t io n on th e em perors' l i v e s and th e s t y l i s t i c a s p e c ts o f the a rt.
Of g r e a te r im portance how ever, i s th e main body o f th e
work, which s e p a r a te ly t r e a t s albums and m a n u scrip ts, in d iv id u a l a r t i s t s and s e le c t e d themes such a s p o r t r a it s .
Because th e
e x h ib it io n c o n c e n tr a te d on th e p e r io d from 1 600-1660, Shah Jahani p a in tin g r e c e iv e d th e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t io n .
To enhance th e s c h o la r
s h ip on Shah Jahani a r t , th e r e n eed s to be a g r e a te r p r o li f e r a t i o n o f e x h ib it io n s and c a ta lo g u e s o f t h i s k in d . The n e x t c a te g o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e on Shah J ahani a r t i s th e p ic tu r e book s.
These are u s u a lly la r g e form at books w ith
s e v e r a l c o lo r e d i l l u s t r a t i o n s th a t p r e se n t a v ery g e n e r a liz e d view o f Mughal p a in tin g .
The accompanying com m entaries d e s c r ib e th e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
18
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p a i n t i n g s a n d s o m e tim e s g i v e a n h i s t o r i c a l b r ie f in g to
th e e v e n ts d e p ic te d *
e ith e r an h is t o r i c a l o r
s ty lis tic
An i n t r o d u c t o r y p r e f a c e g i v e s
o v e r v ie w o f t h e p e r i o d o r b o t h .
J . V . S . W i l k i n s o n 's M u g h al P a i n t i n g o f 1 9 4 3 , R„ K r i s h n a d a s ' M u g h al M i n i a t t i r e s o f 1 9 5 5 , a n d S .C . W e l c h 's I m p e r i a l M ughal f a i n t i n g o f 1 9 7 8 , a l l d e a l e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h M u g h al p a i n t i n g .
E a c h w o rk
i n c l u d e s a s a m p l in g o f p a i n t i n g s fro m e a c h o f t h e m a jo r p e r i o d s . W e l c h 's b o o k i s m uch m o re d e t a i l e d i n c o m p a r is o n w i t h t h e o t h e r tw o e a r l i e r o n e s , a s h e o f f e r s a m o re c o n c i s e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e an d a l s o a l a r g e r num ber o f w o rk s.
A n o tn e r tw o p i c t u r e b o o k s —
W.G. A r c h e r 's I n d i a n P a i n t i n g o f i 9 6 0 a n d R . E t t i n g h a u s e n 's P a i n t i n g s o f t h e S u l t a n s a n d E m p e ro rs o f I n d i a o f 1961 — t r e a t t h e l a r g e r s p e c tr u m
o f a l l o f In d ia n p a in tin g ,
c o v e r a g e o n M u g h al p a i n t i n g i s l e s s
and n a tu r a lly t h e i r
e x te n s iv e .
W h e re a s A r c h e r
a p p r o a c h e s t h e s u b j e c t fro m a p u r e ly d e s c r i p t i v e p o i n t o f v ie w , i n th e fo rm a t o f a c a ta lo g u e , E ttin g h a u s e n u s e s a s o r t o f th e m a tic ap p ro ac h .
He c o n c e r n s h i m s e l f w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f how e m p e r o r s
h a d th e m s e lv e s p e r c e iv e d ,
a n d d i s c u s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n
t h e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d t h e s t y l i s t i c
f e a t u r e s o f e a c h w o rk .
N o t m any s i g n i f i c a n t m o n o g ra p h s a r e t o b e f o u n d f o r t h e M u g h al p e r i o d ,
a n d t h e o n e s m e n tio n e d h e r e a r e d e t a i l e d t e x t u a l
s t u d i e s on s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f M u g h al a r t .
The e a r l i e s t m o n o g ra p h
i s B in y o n a n d A r n o l d 's C o u r t P a i n t e r s o f t h e G ra n d M oghul o f 1921 * w h ic h i n t r o d u c e d a f o r m a t t h a t w as t o su b seq u en t p u b lic a tio n s .
s e r v e a s a m o d e l f o r many
T h e ir book b e g in s w ith an h i s t o r i c a l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
19
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e M u g h al p e r i o d ,
fo llo w e d by a d is c u s s io n o f
p a i n t i n g s fro m A k b a r t o A u r a n g z e b , t h e n b y a c a t a l o g u e o f t h e p l a t e s in c lu d e d in
t h e w o rk .
T h e ir a p p ro a c h i s
c h ie fly d e s c rip tiv e ,
and
th e y a r e c o n c e rn e d m a in ly w ith th e s u b j e c t m a tte r a s an i l l u s t r a t i o n t o M u g h al h i s t o r y . t h e M u g h a ls f o l l o w s i n book, b u t i s
P . B r o w n 's 1 9 2 4 b o o k I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U n d er some w ay s t h e p r e m i s e o f B in y o n a n d A r n o l d 's
s tru c tu re d d if f e r e n tly in
b a s ic s t y l i s t i c
th a t th e h i s t o r i c a l and
c o n s id e r a tio n s a r e d is c u s s e d to g e th e r i n one
s e c ti o n , w h ile th e se c o n d s e c ti o n i s
a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i o u s th e m e s
su c h a s p o r t r a i t u r e an d E u ro p e a n i n f l u e n c e s . f e a t u r e o f t h i s w o rk i s
th e l i s t
o f p a i n t e r s a n d t h e i r w o r k s . Brown
d o c u m e n ts m a in ly A k b a r i p a i n t e r s a n d s e r v e s t o l i s t i n M a r t i n 's b o o k . little
o u td a te d ,
A v e ry im p o rta n t
c o m p le m e n t t h e
A lth o u g h som e o f B r o w n 's m a t e r i a l i s
t h i s w o rk s t i l l
a
s e rv e s a s one o f th e key fo u n d a
t i o n s f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e d e v e lo p e m e n t o f M ughal p a i n t i n g .
In 1^29, I .
S tc h o u k i n e p r o d u c e d L a P e i n t u r e I n d i e -
n n e a l 'E p o q u e d e s G ra n d s M o g h o ls , a w o rk w h ic h a t t e m p t e d t o p l a c e M u g h al p a i n t i n g i n r e l a t i o n tra d itio n s , p e rio d . m o tifs ,
to i t s
e a r l i e r In d ia n and P e rs ia n
t r a c i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e M u ghal
H is m e th o d w as t o
show t h i s e v o l u t i o n t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l
s u c h a s t h e d e p i c t i o n o f man a n d t h e d e p i c t i o n o f n a t u r e .
T h o u g h S t c h o u k i n e 's a p p r o a c h h a s a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g g r e a t d e a l m o re r e s e a r c h n e e d s t o b e u n d e r t a k e n i n p re se n t a tru ly
s u b s t a n t i a l v ie w .
p re m is e , a o rd e r to
T he f i n a l m o n o g ra p h
i s A .K .
D a s ' M u ghal P a i n t i n g D u r in g J a h a n g i r ' s T im e , p u b l i s h e d i n 1978*
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
20
A lth o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y o n s h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , i t m o s t c o m p le te a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f i t s
b a c k g ro u n d .
o f f e r s th e T ra c in g th e
e v o l u tio n o f th e p a i n t i n g o f th e p e r io d th r o u g h th e c h a r a c t e r and c a r e e r o f J a h a n g i r , D as sh o w s how t h e c h a n g e s i n
th e p o l i t i c a l
s i t u a t i o n a f f e c t e d t h e fo r m a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e p a i n t i n g s .
H is
a p p r o a c h t o M u g h al p a i n t i n g , w h i c h c l o s e l y l i n k s s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s ter t h e s t y l i s t i c
d e v e lo p m e n t, i s u n l i k e m o s t o f t h e
e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , w h ic h d e a l t m a i n l y w i t h s t y l e i n o n ly t h e p u re ly a r t i s t i c
sense,
a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s new i n s i g h t s i n t o
th e s tu d y o f th e s u b je c t* I n th e l i n e o f th e m a tic and s t y l i s t i c tu n a te ly v e ry l i t t l e p a in tin g is
e x is ts .
s tu d ie s ,
u n fo r
T h i s a r e a o f e x p e r t i s e i n M u g h al
a t t h e s t a g e w h e re s c h o l a r s h a v e o n l y j u s t come t o
te rm s w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n a n d v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f t h e s t y l e , n o t y e t p r o d u c e d m any s i g n i f i c a n t t h e m a t i c s t u d i e s .
b u t have
T he p e r i o d s
o f A k b a r a n d J a h a n g i r h a v e r e c e i v e d so m ew h at m o re a t t e n t i o n ,
and
t h e r e a r e i n e x i s t e n c e som e v e r y d e t a i l e d a n d s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d i e s . T h is i s n o t s u r p r is in g c o n s id e r in g th e q u a n t ity o f m a te r ia l t h a t e x i s t s f o r t h e s e tw o p e r i o d s a s c o m p a re d t o t h a t f o r t h e S h a h Ja h a n i p e rio d . d e v o te d t o
M o st o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w o rk s a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e l y
th e f i e l d o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t r a t h e r ,
s t u d i e s w h ic h e n c o m p a s s a l l o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g , g iv e n to
are
w ith a p a r t b e i n g
t h e w o rk s o f t h e S h a h J a h a n i p e r i o d . T he f i r s t t h r e e w o rk s t h a t f a l l u n d e r t h i s c a t e g o r y
a l l t r e a t t h e sam e th e m e — p o r t r a i t s .
T h e s e a r e C o o m a rasw am y 's
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
21
"M u g h a l P o r t r a i t u r e "
o f 1 9 1 2 , S t c h o u k i n e 's s e r i e s
of fo u r a r ti c le s
e n t i t l e d " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls " w h ic h a p p e a r e a b e tw e e n 1 9 2 9 a n d 1 9 3 5 , a n d I c h a p o r i a ' s " P o r t r a i t s o f t h e G r e a t e r M u g h a ls " o f 1 9 3 5 .
Cooma-
r a s w a m y 's a r t i c l e i s n o t r e a l l y
a t r u e t h e m a t i c s t u d y o f M u g h al
p o r t r a i t u r e , b e c a u s e t h e m a jo r
c o n c e rn h e re i s
b e tw e e n t h e M u g h al s t y l i s t i c ones.
in th e d if f e r e n c e s
f e a t u r e s an d th e in d ig e n o u s I n d ia n
He e x a m in e s t h i s q u e s t i o n u s i n g p o r t r a i t u r e a s h i s b a s i s .
S t c h o u k i n e 's a r t i c l e s u s e d s e l e c t e d w o r k s , n o t a b l y d a r b a r s c e n e s and in d iv id u a l p o r t r a i t s , th e f ig u r e s d e p ic te d .
to p r e s e n t th e b io g r a p h ic a l b a c k g ro u n d o f
H is s t y l i s t i c
a n a ly s is i s
o n t h e w h o le n o t
v e r y p r o f o u n d , a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e w o rk s s e l e c t e d w e re fro m t h e J a h a n g iri e r a .
H o w e v e r,
th e in f o r m a tio n p ro v id e d i n
th e i d e n t i f i
c a tio n o f and th e b io g r a p h ic a l s o u r c e s f o r th e v a r io u s p e rs o n a g e s a re in v a lu a b le r e s o u r c e s .
I c h a p o r i a 's r a t h e r le n g h ty a r t i c l e
e x a m in e s s e v e r a l p o r t r a i t s o f t h e f i r s t d e v o te s a l i t t l e
s i x M u g h al e m p e r o r s .
He
to o m uch s p a c e t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t i s h a p p e n
i n g i n t h e w o rk , a n d h i s a t t e m p t s a t a e s t h e t i c r e a l l y o f f e r any s ig n if i c a n t id e a s .
ju d g m e n ts do n o t
Q u i t e a n u m b e r o f t h e w o rk s
h e r e f e r s to h a v e b e e n re p ro d u c e d i n o th e r s o u r c e s , and h e m akes a g r e a t e f f o r t to p o in t o u t e r r o r s in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n s a n d e v e n t s m ade b y t h e p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s . A c o m p le te s t u d y a n d c a t a l o g u e
o f a n a lb u m o f p a i n t i n g s
b e l o n g i n g t o N a s i r a l - D i n S h a h o f I r a n w as d o n e i n 1937 b y Y. G o d a rd .
H e r w o rk i s
T i m u r id e s d e l ' I n d e . "
e n t i t l e d "Un A lbum d e P o r t r a i t s d e s P r i n c e s T h i s alb u m As c o m p r is e d o f p o r t r a i t s o f
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
22
v a r i o u s d i g n i t a r i e s a n d c o u r t s c e n e s o f a n d fro m th e r e i g n s o f J a h a n g ir an d S hah J a h a n .
H er a r t i c l e
is
e s s e n t i a l l y a c a ta lo g u e o f
t h e alh u m w h ic h i s p r e f a c e d ' by a b r i e f n o t e o n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e a lb u m b y N a s i r a l - D i n S h a h , t h e a r t i s t s w h o se n a m e s a p p e a r i n t h e a lb u m , a n d f i n a l l y
an h is to r ic
a c c o u n t o f th e h i g h l i g h t s o f
J a h a n g i r ' s a n d S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n s .
The c a t a l o g u e o f f e r s a
p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n a s w e l l a s some b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h o s e f i g u r e s w h ic h h e l d i m p o r t a n t r a n k s a n d p o s i t i o n s . a n o t h e r s tu d y o f p o r t r a i t u r e i s A .C . E a s t m a n 's a r t i c l e
Y et " F o u r M u g h al
E m p e ro r P o r t r a i t s i n t h e C i t y A r t Museum o f S t . L o u i s " . in g re a t d e ta il fo u r p o r tr a its S h ah J a h a n r e s p e c t i v e l y .
He e x a m in e s
o f H um ayun, A k b a r , J a h a n g i r a n d
F o r th e p o r t r a i t o f sh ah J a h a n he p ic k s
o u t th e m o st s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s and p ro c e e d s to g iv e an in - d e p th a n a ly s is .
He n o t e s t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s ,
th e ic o n o g ra p h y , and th e
uncom m o n n ess o f h i s p o s t u r e . H is d i s c u s s i o n i n c l u d e s t h e c i t i n g o f o t h e r r e l a t e d w o rk s t o i l l u s t r a t e
th e a rg u m e n t.
T h is i s
o n e o f t h e fe w i n s t a n c e s w h e re s p e c i a l e m p h a s is i s
p e rh a p s
g iv e n to
i c o n o g r a p h y , a n d a s s u c h , h i s a r t i c l e r e p r e s e n t s a m a jo r s t e p to w a r d s a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e s c h o l a r s h i p o f S h a h J a h a n i p a in tin g . "Ah I n d i a n M a n u s c r i p t o f t h e G o l e s t a n o f t h e s h a h J a h a n p e r i o d " b y J . V . S . W i lk in s o n o f 1957 i s r a r e S h ah J a h a n i m o n u m en t m a n u s c rip t.
a s tu a y o f a v e ry
a n i n t a c t c o n te m p o r a n e o u s i l l u s t r a t e d
H is t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t c o n s i s t s o f a
p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip tio n ,
an a c c o u n t o f th e s c r ib e ,
an e x a m in a tio n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
23
o f th e in s c r i p tio n , v e ry b r i e f ,
and an a n a ly s is o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
A lth o u g h
t h i s a r t i c l e h i g h l i g h t s th e im p o r ta n t e le m e n ts to b e
c o n s id e re d i n
th e s tu d y o f any m a n u s c r ip t.
A lth o u g h n o t
d e a lin g
e x p l i c i t l y w i t h a S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , B . E t t i n g h a u s e n 's "T he E m p e r o r 's C h o ic e " o f 1961 r e m a in s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t t o t h e do m a in o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g .
T h is i s
t h e f i r s t ti m e t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l
p a i n t i n g w as s i n g l e d o u t f o r a d e t a i l e d i c o n o g r a p h i c a l s t u d y , p r o v i d i n g t h u s a p a t t e r n f o r f u t u r e w o rk s o f t h i s k i n d .
F u rth e r
m o re , t h e a r t i s t who p a i n t e d t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w o rk , B i c h i t r , w as o n e w ho se c a r e e r f l o u r i s h e d u n d e r S h a h J a h a n , a n d s o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n ta r ie s a b o u t h i s s t y l e a r e u s e f u l to w a r d s a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h i s d e v e lo p m e n t. w as p u b l i s h e d i n
The L e n i n g r a d Album
1 96 2 u n d e r t h e j o i n t a u t h o r s h i p o f I v a n o v ,
A s h u s h k in a , G re k a n d G y u z a ly a n a .
The a lb u m c o n t a i n s a m i x t u r e o f
p a i n tin g s , b o th I n d ia n and P e r s ia n , o f th e 15 t h to tu rie s .
Many o f t h e p a i n t i n g s d a t e t o
th e 1 8 th c e n
th e r e i g n o f S hah J a h a n ,
a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e o f v a l u e to w a r d s t h e s t u d y o f t h i s a r e a o f p a in tin g . v e rs io n s , d a te .
M o r e o v e r , q u i t e a fe w o f t h e s e w o rk s e x i s t i n s e v e r a l som e r o u g h l y c o n te m p o r a n e o u s a n d some o f a m uch l a t e r
T h i s p r o v i d e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x a m in e t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n s
t h a t o c c u r w hen a p a i n t i n g i s
c o p ie d s e v e r a l tim e s o v e r.
A n o th e r s t u d y o f a n e n t i r e a lb u m i s
0 . K u r z 's "A
V olum e o f M u g h al D ra w in g s a n d M i n i a t u r e s " o f 1967* a lb u m o f d r a w in g s a n d m i n i a t u r e s , S h ah J a h a n ,
I t is
a s m a ll
some d a t i n g to t h e r e i g n o f
t h a t w as a s s e m b l e d b y a n E u r o p e a n .
2
T hese c o n s is t
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24
m a i n l y o f p o r t r a i t s k e t c h e s o f v a r i o u s m em bers o f a n d d i g n i t a r i e s a t th e c o u r t.
The m a jo r s i g n i f i c a n c e
Shah J a h a n i p a in tin g i s J a h a n and h i s s o n s .
o f t h i s a lb u m t o t h e s t u d y o f
an u n f in is h e d g e n e a lo g ic a l t r e e o f Shah
K u rz g i v e s some v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g
t o th e r e a s o n s b e h in d g e n e a l o g i c a l
th e o rie s as
c o n c e r n s o f t h e M u ghal e m p e r o r s .
T he f i n a l w o rk o f t h e t h e m a t i c c a t e g o r y i s P . P a l ' s A s p e c t s o f I n d ia n A rt p u b lis h e d i n
1972.
T h is book c o n ta in s a c o l l e c t i o n o f
p a p e r s p r e s e n t e d a t a sy m p o siu m o n I n d i a n a r t h e l d i n L o s A n g e le s i n O c to b e r 1970*
A lth o u g h no o n e a r t i c l e
Shah J a h a n i p a i n tin g ,
e x p r e s s iv e ly d e a ls w ith
t h r e e o f th e m t o u c h on r e l a t e d a s p e c t s .
T h e s e a r e B .B . J o h n s o n 's "A P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y o f t h e T e c h n iq u e o f I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g ” , R . S k e l t o n 's "A D e c o r a t i v e M o t i f i n M u g h al A r t ” , a n d M .H . K a h l e n b e r g 's ”A S tu d y o f t h e D e v e lo p m e n t a n d U se o f t h e M u g h al p a t k a ( S a s h ) w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o t h e L o s A n g e le s C o u n ty Museum o f A r t C o l l e c t i o n ” .
T h ese a r t i c l e s a id g r e a tly in
th e re a lm o f th e d a t i n g o f w o rk s.
E ach a u th o r p ic k e d one m o tif
to
s e rv e a s a b a s is f o r th e d is c u s s io n on th e b ro a d e r a s p e c ts o f
M u g h al p a i n t i n g . prom t h i s p a in tin g , in
su rv e y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e
on S h ah J a h a n i
one g e t s a n i d e a o f w h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d o c u m e n ta t io n i s
e x is te n c e .
I t i s q u ite
e v i d e n t t h a t m uch m o re w o r k .n e e d s t o b e
done i n th e a r e a in o r d e r t h a t i t
be f u l l y u n d e rs to o d .
E a c h w o rk
m e n tio n e d r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t r i b u t i o n i n o n e way o r a n o t h e r t o f i e l d o f s tu d y ,
and in o rd e r to p u rsu e f u r th e r r e s e a r c h ,
th e
th e s e
books and a r t i c l e s h ave to be c o n s u lte d c o l l e c t i v e l y .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
25
S t y l i s t i c s o u rc e s f o r shah J a h a n i P a in tin g T he d e f i n i t i o n r a th e r n e b u lo u s . and o f te n tim e s
se t in .
I t h a s re c e iv e d l i t t l e
a t t e n t i o n fro m s c h o l a r s
h a s b een r a t h e r h a s t i l y d is m is s e d .
l y been r e f e r r e d b e fo re i t s
o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s t i l l r e m a in s
I t has v a rio u s
to as the fin a l p ro lifera tio n of M u g h a l p a i n t i n g
d e c l i n e , a n d t h e s t a t e w h e re t h e d e c l i n e h a s a l r e a d y
The f o l l o w i n g a r e s t a t e m e n t s m ade a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b y
d i f f e r e n t s c h o la r s c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu r e o f S hah J a h a n i p a in tin g . From 192 4 o n e r e a d s f r o m P . B ro w n t R e g a r d e d a s a w h o le , t h e p a i n t i n g e x e c u t e d d u r i n g S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n p r e s e n t s u s w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p le o f a n a r t w h ic h , w h ile o u t w a r d l y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s e m b le n c e o f i t s o r i g i n a l v i t a l i t y , n e v e r t h e l e s s m a n if e s ts i n i t s f o r c e d s u p e r i o r i t y th e f i r s t p r e m o n i t i o n s o f d e c a y . . . I n a w o rd o n e d e t e c t s b e h i n d a l l t h e l a v i s h d i s p l a y w n ic h i s t h e m a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h a h J a h a n , , t n a t s e n s e o f o v e r - r i p e n e s s w h ic h i s a s u re s ig n o f d e c lin e . C oom arasw am y, i n h i s c a t a l o g u e t o t h e B o s to n Museum s t a t e s t h a t M ugh al p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h a h J a h a n i s a l r e a d y o v e r - r i p e : t h e a tte n u a tio n o f th e s t y l e i s e s p e c ia lly a p p a r e n t... And f i n a l l y i n
1965* S *G* W e lc h w r o te t h a t
S h a h J a h a n 's l i f e seem s t o h a v e g a i n e d i n c e r e m o n io u s n e s s y e a r by y e a r . And a s i t c h a n g e d s o d i d M u g h al p a i n t i n g , w h ic h now e x c lu d e d v i r t u a l l y a l l o f th e R a j p u t ,.c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t h ad so e n liv e n e d i t i n th e A kbar p e r io d . T he a b o v e s t a t e m e n t s a l l s a y s o m e th in g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t n o t o n e o f th em com es t o p e r f e c t g r i p s a s t o w hat th e s t y l e a c t u a l l y
is .
T h e re i s
s o m e th in g m o r e , a n d t h i s h a s
to be p ro p e rly a n a ly z e d . T he o r i g i n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e M u g h al s t y l e o f
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
26
p a in tin g i s a s u b je c t which h as r e c e iv e d c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t io n . S in ce th e d isc o v e r y o f th e T u ti Nama in 19&3 by S. Lee and P. Chandra^, one h a s become w e ll acq u ain ted w ith th e s y n t h e s is o f In d ia n and P e r sia n s t y l e s , and a l i t t l e l a t e r , o f th e a s s im ila t io n o f European so u r c e s t h a t c r e a te d th e m ature phase o f Akbari p a in tin g . e v o lv e d .
The Mughal p a in tin g s t y l e d id n o t rem ain s t a t i c * i t The p ath i t took in i t s developm ent was th a t o f a c o n sta n t
r e fin em en t o f i t s te c h n iq u e s . r e ig n o f Shah Jahan.
The apex was reach ed d uring th e
The s t y l e o f t h i s p e r io d can be d e sc r ib e d as
b e in g t e c h n ic a ll y p e r f e c t , in th a t th e form s d is p la y e d a rem arkable accu racy and t h e co m p o sitio n s a s tr u c tu r e and order n e v e r seen b e fo r e i n th e devlopm ent o f Mughal p a in t in g .
B efore d is c u s s in g th e
ex a ct n a tu r e o f t h i s phase o f Mughal p a in t in g , i t would be b e s t to f i r s t examine th e im m ediate r o o t s from which i t e v o lv e d , th a t i s , J a h a n g ir i p a in tin g . 3y th e r e ig n o f Ja h a n g ir, Mughal p a in tin g had alrea d y a t ta in e d a mature p h a se, and was to rea ch i t s f i n e s t moments in th e developm ent o f th e s t y l e .
J a h a n g ir’ s lo v e f o r p a in tin g f a r
su rp a ssed th a t o f h i s f a t h e r Akbax.
So g r e a t was J a h a n g ir 's lo v e
f o r p a in tin g th a t he c u l t i v a t e d a c o n n o isse u r sh ip o f p a in tin g to a fin e a r t.
T h is can be a t t e s t e d to by a sta tem en t h e made in
h i s p r iv a te memoirs. As reg a rd s m y s e lf, my l i k i n g fo r p a in tin g and my p r a c t ic e in ju d g in g i t have a r r iv e d a t such a p o in t when any work i s brought b e fo r e me, w hether o f d eceased a r t i s t s or th o s e o f th e p r e se n t day, w ith o u t th e names b e in g t o ld to me, I say on th e spur o f t h e moment t h a t i t i s th e work o f such and such a man. And i f th e r e be a p ic tu r e c o n ta in in g many p o r t r a it s , and each f a c e be the work o f a d if f e r e n t m a ster, I can d is c o v e r which
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
27
f a c e i s t h e w ork o f e a c h o f th e m . I f any o th e r p e rs o n h a s p u t i n t h e e y e a n d t h e e y e b ro w o f a f a c e , I c a n p e r c e i v e w h o se w o rk t h e o r i g i n a l f a c e i s , a n d who h a s p a i n t e d t h e e y e a n d t h e e y e b ro w . ' B e c a u s e o f h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d l i k i n g f o r t h e m o re s u b t l e q u a l i t i e s o f a p a i n t i n g , J a h a n g i r t o o k a s t r o n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r a lb u m p a i n t in g s .
A lb u m s w e re a c o l l e c t i o n o f a s s o r t e d p a i n t i n g s , u s u a l l y o f
an in d iv id u a l s u b je c t.
T h ey t e n d e d t o b e s m a l l e r t h a n m a n u s c r i p t s
a n d a l l o w e d f o r a p r i v a t e a n d i n t i m a t e e n jo y m e n t o f t h e w o r k s . T h e re w o u ld b e n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e x t ,
b u t r a t h e r i t w o u ld b e c o m p le
m e n te d b y p i e c e s o f p o e t r y w r i t t e n i n
e x q u is ite c a llig r a p h ic
s ty le s .
Among J a h a n g i r ' s m o s t fa m o u s a lb u m s a r e t h e B e r l i n
a n d t h e G u ls h a n A lb u m .
Album
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P r e f e r r in g q u a lity t o q u a n tity , he g r e a t ly re d u c e d h is a te lie r,
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w e e d in g o u t t h o s e who
w e re l e s s a d e p t a t t h e a r t ,
t h e o n e s h e r e t a i n e d w e re a l l m a s t e r s i n t h e i r own r i g h t . . A k b a r 's a t e l i e r , h i s w as n o t a p r o d u c t i o n l i n e . th e r e to re p ro d u c e a r t f o r a r t 's o f la rg e q u a n titie s
o f w o rk s.
and U n lik e
T he a r t i s t s w e re
s a k e , and n o t j u s t f o r th e sak e
N o t o n l y w as h e a k e e n p a t r o n , b u t
h e a l s o p e r s o n a l l y s u p e r v i s e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d h i s p a i n t e r s , b e s to w in g g i f t s and t i t l e s
u p o n t h o s e who p r o v e d t o b e o u t s t a n d i n g .
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t re n o w n
o n e i s A b u l H a s a n , who r e c e i v e d t h e t i t l e
o f N a d i r a l Z am an, t h e w o n d e r o f t h e a g e . s u p e rv is io n ,
th e a r t i s t s ,
p r o d u c e d some o f t h e
U nder J a h a n g i r 's r e f i n e d
e x c e l l e n t c r a f ts m e n t h a t th e y w e re ,
o e s t In d ia n m in ia tu r e s ,
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1o an y o t h e r k i n g e v e r e x c e l l e d th e m . w
P erh ap s th e h ig h lig h t o f J a h a n g ir i a r t i s
th e
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28
c u lm in a tio n i n
t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a t u r a l i s m .
I t w as n o t a new
c o n c e rn , b u t on e t h a t h a d a l r e a d y b egun t o b e d e v e lo p e d i n th e a t e l i e r o f A k b a r.
N a t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w as o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t t o
t h e M u g h a ls , a n d w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e E u r o p e a n s , who b r o u g h t w i t h th e m a n a s s o r t m e n t o f p r i n t s ,
it
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s t u d y a n d a s s i m i l a t e t h o s e t e c h n i q u e s w h ic h a l l o w e d t h e i r W e s te r n c o u n t e r p a r ts t o p ro d u c e a t r u e r d e p i c t i o n o f n a t u r e .
T h is in c lu d e d
t h e u s e o f c o l o r s h a d in g a n d th e p la y o f l i g h t an d d a rk t o a c h ie v e a m o re t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l a n d m o d e lle d e f f e c t .
P e rh a p s t h e m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f E u r o p e a n a r t t o M u g h a l p a i n t i n g w as i n its
a b ility
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11
J a h a n g i r ' s p a i n t e r s q u i c k l y a b s o r b e d t h e s e m e th o d s a n d w e re s o o n p r o d u c i n g d e e p a n d c o m p le x c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s .
T he s k e t c h d r a w in g
f o r t h e D e a th o f I n a y a t K han o f a r o u n d 1 b 1 8 ( P l a t e X L V Il), f o r e x a m p le , sh o w s t h e l i m i t s t o w h ic h h i s a r t i s t s
c o u ld a t t a i n i n
t h e p o r t r a y a l o f hum an e m o t i o n s . A c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n a n A k b a r i a n d a J a h a n g i r i p a i n t in g w i l l s e rv e to c l a r i f y
t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t.
Prom t h e r e i g n o f
A k b a r o n e t a k e s a s a n e x a m p le t h e A r r e s t o f S h a h A b u 'l M a 'a l i , f o l i o 7 fro m t h e C h e s t e r B e a t t y A k b a r N am a,
12
( p l a t e X L V IIl) a n d
fro m t h e r e i g n o f J a h a n g i r i s J a h a n g i r E n t e r t a i n i n g s h e i k h s ,
a
p a i n t i n g fro m a d i s p e r s e d J a h a n g i r Nama m a n u s c r i p t , now i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f E . B in n e y I I I .
1 *5
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l i n e s s o f t h e J a h a n g i r i w o rk i s t u r e fro m t h e A k b a r i o n e .
( p l a t e XLIX )
T he c a lm a n d o r d e r
th e m ost n o tic e a b ly d i f f e r e n t f e a
B o th t h e s e s ire a u d i e n c e s c e n e s , b u t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
29
w h e r e a s t h e f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s a r e v e r y m uch c ro w d e d i n t h e A k b a r i o n e , t h e y a r e s p a c e d a p a r t a n d m o re n e a t l y p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e l a t t e r . F i g u r e s i n t h e A k b a r Kama show v e r y l i t t l e
f a c i a l e m o tio n s , a n d
a r e d e l i n e a t e d i n a v e r y s t y l i z e d a n d s o m e tim e s t w o - d im e n s io n a l m a n n e r.
I n t h e J a h a n g i r Nama o n e s e e s f a c i a l
e x p r e s s i o n s w h ic h
d i s p l a y t o some e x t e n t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e p e o p l e . t h e f i g u r e s a r e m uch W e i g h t i e r a n d s o l i d l y b u i l t .
F u rth e rm o re ,
W h e re a s t h e
d r a p e r y i n t h e A k b a r Mama i s m o s t l y co m p o sed o f s t y l i z e d p a t t e r n s and f o l d s ,
o n l y i n a fe w i n s t a n c e s d o t h e y show m o d e l l i n g , t h o s e o f
t h e J a h a n g i r Nama a r e g a r m e n ts t h a t a r e t r u l y w o rn b y t h e v a r i o u s fig u re s .
T h e s e fe w o b s e r v a t i o n s u n d e r l i n e t h e m a in d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n t h e
s t y l e s o f t h e s e tw o p h a s e s o f M u g h al p a i n t i n g a n d
show t h e e v o l u t i o n a t t a i n e d b y J a h a n g i r ' s a r t i s t s fro m t h e m o re v i g o r o u s b u t l e s s r e f i n e d p a t h o f A k b a r . T hey had b een e n c o u ra g e d to p a i n t w ith in c r e a s e d v e r i s i m i l i t u d e a n d s u b t l e t y , w i t h s o f t e r . c o l o r s , l e s s t u r b u l e n t r h y th m s , a n d m o re h a r m o n io u s d e s i g n s . As t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l f o l l o w u p t o J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g , S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g c a r r i e d o n som e o f t h e f e a t u r e s a l r e a d y p r e v a l e n t i n t h e s t y l e r e l a t i v e l y u n c h a n g e d a n d a t t h e sam e tim e in s titu te d a rts ,
som e im m ense t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s .
A lth o u g h f o n d o f t h e
S h a h J a h a n w as n o w h e re n e a r a s a v i d a n a r t l o v e r a s w as
J a h a n g ir.
I t i s know n t h a t h e d e v o t e d m o s t o f h i s a r t i s t i c
e n e r g i e s to w a r d s t h e r e a l m o f a r c h i t e c t u r e ,
and th e r e f o r e p a in tin g
o n ly r e c e iv e d h i s s e c o n d a ry c o n s i d e r a t i o n . N a t u r a l l y i t c o u l d n o t be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e s c h o o l s o f p a i n t i n g w o u ld a l s o r i s e t o s i m i l a r h e i g h t s a n d e c l i p s e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h is f a t h e r h ad a c h ie v e d in t h i s a r t . 5
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
30
S h ah J a h a n g r e a t l y r e d u c e d t h e n u m b e r o f t h e a r t i s t s i n h i s a t e l i e r , but th is
s e l e c t e d c o rp c o n s is te d o f th e m ost s k i l l e d an d th e m ost
ta le n te d ones.
A l t o g e t h e r t h e n am es o f a b o u t t w e n t y - f i v e a r t i s t s
h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d , and t h i s num ber i s t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r t h a t r e m a in e d i n
p ro b a b ly p r e t t y
th e im p e r ia l s t u d i o .
a r t i s t s n o l o n g e r e m p lo y e d b y t h e c o u r t , w h e re f o r p a t r o n a g e . th e m s e l v e s i n n o b ility .
F o r th o s e
th e y h a d to s e a r c h e l s e
T hose w ith a h ig h e r a r t i s t i c
a b ility
fo u n d
t h e s e r v i c e s o f o t h e r m em bers o f t h e c o u r t a n d t h e
The m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g p a t r o n f o r t h i s
D a ra S h ik o h .
c l o s e to
The l e s s
c l a s s w as t h e p r i n c e
adept a r tis ts
f e l l b a c k o n t h e i n d i g e n o u s m e th o d o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e m s e l v e s in sh o p s in th e b a z a a r , th e r e to c a t e r f o r a l e s s r e l i a b l e b u t m o re g e n e r a l dem and f o r t h e i r h a n d iw o r k . Thus i t
can b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e p a i n t i n g p ro d u c e d u n d e r th e
p a t r o n a g e o f S h ah J a h a n w as t r u l y a c o u r t a r t o f t h e m o s t im p e c c a b le o rd e r. T he p a i n t i n g p r o d u c e d u n d e r S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n w as o f a v e ry e le g a n t and s o p n is tic a te a f o u n d i n A k b a r* s r e i g n ,
s ty le .
The a c t i o n a n d l i v e l i n e s s
a l r e a d y c a lm e d down a n d t o n e d down u n d e r
J a h a n g i r , h a d now b e e n e v e n f u r t h e r m e llo w e d o u t .
T he f o r m a l i t y
t h a t p e r s i s t e d in th e s t y l e b y f a x tra n s c e n d e d th e o r d e r e s t a b l i sh ed i n J a h a n g ir i p a i n t i n g ;
i t h a d r e a c h e d a p o i n t w h e re
W elch te r m e d i t a s a " c r y s t a l l i n e
c o ld n e s s " .
17
s.C.
T hese c h a n g e s i n
t h e p a i n t i n g s t y l e w e re i n many w ays a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e s t h a t o c c u re d in th e c o u r tl y l i f e re ig n .
a n d m a n n e rs o f S h ah J a h a n 's
P a r t o f t h i s may b e a t t r i b u t e d
t o h i s m oves i n m a k in g
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
I n d ia a p re -e m in e n tly I s la m ic s t a t e .
Many o f t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g
u n - I s l a m i c c u s to m s t h a t w e re i n t r o d u c e d , b y A k b a r a n d t o l e r a t e d b y J a h n g i r , w e re a b o l i s h e d b y S h a h J a h a n . p ro s tra tio n
.Among t h e s e w e re t h e
to th e th r o n e an d th e a llo w a n c e o f i n t e r - m a r r i a g e
b e tw e e n H in d u s a n d M u s lim s . in a tio n o f p r a c tic e s and
18
S t r i c t o r th o d o x y r e q u i r e s t h e e lim
th o u g h ts t h a t add f l a v o r an d c o l o r to an
o t h e r w i s e r a t h e r m o n o to n o u s way o f l i f e . s e lf-im a g e
In a d d itio n ,
S h a h J a h a n 's
a s t h e p e r f e c t m o n a rc h a n d h i s d e s i r e t o b e p o r t r a y e d
a s s u c h , d id n o t a llo w f o r f r i v o l i t y
o r s p o n ta n e ity to d e tr a c t
fro m t h i s p e r f e c t e d s e l f im a g e . T h e r e f o r e ,
th e a r t p ro d u c e d u n d er
S h ah J a h a n t a k e s o n a p u r i s t q u a l i t y : w o rk s a r e t i g h t l y and n o th in g i s
co m p o sed
o u t of p la c e . In o rd e r to i l l u s t r a t e
t h i s p o i n t , i t w o u ld b e b e s t t o
co m p a re a S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i t h a J a h a n g i r i o n e .
We may t a k e
a s e x a m p le s tw o d a r b a r s c e n e s : J a h a n g i r i n D a r b a r o f a b o u t 1 6 2 0 i n t h e Museum o f F in e A r t s i n B o s to n
19
( P l a t e L ) a n d S h ah J a h a n
H e c e i v i n g a P e r s ia n E m b assy o f a b o u t 16 2 8 i n t h e B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y (P la te L i) .
I f J a h a n g ir i p a in tin g had ap p e a re d o rd e rly in
20
c o m p a r i
so n t o A k b a ri p a i n t i n g , s h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g h a s r e a c h e d th e e p ito m e . T he f i g u r e s a r e n e a t l y a n d im p e c c a b ly a r r a n g e d . in c re a s e d f o r m a lity , to be s a c r i f i c e d , t i c re g re s s io n .
To a c h i e v e t h i s
th e l i v e l i n e s s o f e x p re s s io n s and g e s tu r e s had
th o u g h t h i s d o e s n o t i n a n y way im p ly a s t y l i s T he f i g u r e s r e m a i n s t e a d f a s t l y i m p a s s i v e ,
an d th e
h o r s e s , i n t h e i r c a lm n e s s , a p p e a r a lm o s t l i k e g r a c e f u l and s t y l i zed l i n e s .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
te c h n ic a l a s p e c ts o f p a in tin g have
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
52
a t t a i n e d an u n s u rp a s s e d p e r f e c t io n ;
each d e ta il i s
e a te d , and th e re i s n o t a sp eck o u t o f p la c e .
c a re fu lly d e lin
The c o l o r s h a v e b e e n
r e n d e r e d i n s o l i d t o n e s , a d e v i c e w h ic h a c c e n t u a t e s t h i s o r d e r lin e s s .
To s m
i t u p , one c o u ld sa y t h a t
t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s b eco m e s o co n su m m ate a n d o f s u c h v i s u a l im p a c t t h a t i t h a s f u l l y a s s u m e d a n e x p r e s s i v e w e ig h t o f i t s o w n .2 * Two o t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s i n t h e a r t o f t h e p e r i o d c a n be se e n i n la n d s c a p e and p o r t r a i t u r e .
22
I n la n d s c a p e one s e e s f o r
t h e f i r s t ti m e t h e u s e o f g r a d a t i o n s o f t o n e s t o o b t a i n t h e e f f e c t o f a r e c e s s i o n i n t o a d i s t a n c e ; w o rk s o f t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s u s e d a d if f e r e n c e i n s c a le an d p la n e to in d i c a te d is ta n c e s .
23
T he
a d v a n c e s m ade i n p o r t r a i t u r e w e re m o s t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e im p r o v e d m a s te ry o f th e p a i n t i n g te c h n iq u e .
A lth o u g h p o r t r a i t s f r o m t h i s
ti m e d e p i c t i m p a s s i v e a n d e x p r e s s i o n l e s s p e o p l e ,
th e re has n ev er
b een su c h re fin e m e n t and s u b t l e t y in th e p o r tr a y a l o f f a c i a l f e a tu re s ,
a d e v i c e w h ic h a l l o w s f o r t h e r e v e a l i n g o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
w ith o u t th e b e t r a y a l o f e m o tio n s .
T h e s e tw o a d v a n c e m e n ts cam e
fr o m a n e v e n f u r t h e r a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f E u r o p e a n p a in tin g t h a t h ad begun to be e x p lo ite d u n d e r J a h a n g ir .
HavingV consid ered a l l th e se fa c t o r s , i t i s now p o s s ib le to g iv e a r e d e f in it io n to Shah Jahani p a in tin g .
Rather
than b ein g the d e c lin in g phase o f Mughal p a in tin g , i t i s the l o g ic a l con clu sion to a s t y l e o f p a in tin g th a t was an a s s im ila tio n o f sev era l very d iv e r se elem ents* P ersian , In dian , and European.
The
e a rly p eriod o f Mughal p a in tin g stro v e to combine th ese elem ents
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
33
in t o a com posite y e t harmonious s t y l e .
As t h i s com bination
rea ch ed m a tu rity d u rin g th e r e ig n o f J a h a n g ir, th e r e was no need t o r e p e a t th e same e f f o r t s during Shah J a h a n 's r e ig n .
Thus, a l l
th a t was l e f t was t o p e r f e c t th e t e c h n ic a l a s p e c t o f th e p a in tin g its e lf.
Forms were c o n s o lid a te d and th e co m p o sitio n s were
tig h te n e d up, u n t i l a s t a t e o f p u r ity was a t t a in e d .
However, t h i s
s t a t e m ight n o t have been a ch iev ed i f n o t f o r th e temperament o f Shah Jahan, th e p r in c ip a l p atron o f th e a r t s .
B ein g a p e r f e c tio n
i s t , he demanded a p e r f e c t p a in tin g s t y l e , and th e r e fo r e th e a r t ex ecu ted under h i s p atronage s tr o v e towards p u r ity and p e r f e c t io n .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
34
M o te s t o C h a p t e r I I ^ M ilo C l e v e l a n d B e a c h , T he G ra n d M o gul I m p e r i a l P a i n t i n g i n I n d i a 1 6 0 0 -1 6 6 0 ( W il li a m s to w n : S t e r l i n g a n d F r a n c i n e C la rk A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 7 6 . O O tto K u r z , ’’V olum e o f M u ghal P a i n t i n g s a n d M in ia tu r e s ," J o u r n a l o f t h e W a rb u rg a n d C o u r t l a n d I n s t i t u t e s 30 (1 9 6 7 ): 252. 5
P e r c y B ro w n , I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U n d er t h e M u g h als ( O x f o rd s T he C la r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) 1 p . 9 8 . ^ A n a n d a K. C oom arasw am y, C a ta lo g u e o f th e I n d ia n C o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e Museum o f F i n e A r t s , B o s to n , v o l . V is M ughal P a i n t i n g ( C a m b r id g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 1 1 . 5 J S t u a r t C a ry W e lc h , G o d s, T h r o n e s , a n d P e a c o c k s N o r t h e r n I n d i a n P a i n t i n g f r o m Two T r a d i t i o n s : 1 5 t h t o 1 9 th C e n t u r i e s (New Y o rk : A s i a S o c i e t y , I n c . , 1 9 ^ 5 )» P® 3 9 ,
^ P ram o d C h a n d r a , The T u ti-N a m a o f t h e C le v e la n d Museum o f A r t a n d t h e O r i g i n s o f M ughal P a i n t i n g , w i t h a f o r e w o r d b y S herm an E . L ee ( G r a n z : A k a d e m isc h e B ru c k u n d V e r l a n g s a n s t a l t , 1 9 7 6 ). F o r a c o m p le te s t u d y o f t h i s s u b j e c t p l e a s e r e f e r . 7
A le x a n d e r R o g e r s , t r a n s . a n d H en ry B e v e r i d g e , e d . , The TilpT Cham an b y C h a n d a r b h a n .
U n lik e t h e o t h e r w o rk s
d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h i s w as n o t a c h r o n i c l e o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e r e ig n , b u t a d e s c r ip t io n o f th e c p u r t,
th e p a la c e s ,
th e f e s t i v a l s ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
54
and. t h e c i t i e s .
C h a n d a rb h a n b eg an h i s c a r e e r a s a s e c r e t a r y to an
o f f i c i a l a t S hah J a h a n 's c o u r t i n
1628 ( 1 0 J 7 H ), a n d e n t e r e d t h e
i m p e r i a l s e r v i c e i n 1 6 4 5 ( 1 0 5 4 H ).
I n 1647 (1 0 5 6 H) h e w as
a p p o i n t e d w a q a i n a v i s - i - h u d u r , w h o se d u t i e s w as t o a t t e n d t o S h ah J a h a n o n h i s j o u r n e y s a n d t o r e c o r d t h e d a i l y c o u r t o c c u r a n c e s .^ ® I t w as p r o b a b l y w i t h h i s a p p o i n tm e n t t o t h i s p o s t t h a t h e w as c o m m is s io n e d t o w r i t e t h e Cha-r Chaman. tw o p a r t s :
th e f i r s t
T h i s w o rk i s
d iv id e d in to
c o n ta in s a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e v a r io u s f e s t i
v a l s a t th e c o u r t , w h ile th e s e c o n d s p e a k s a b o u t th e s p le n d o r s o f th e c o u r t,
th e d a i l y o c c u p a tio n s o f Shah J a h a n , an d o f f e r s a
d e s c r ip t io n o f th e p r in c i p a l c i t i e s . A lth o u g h n o t c o m m is s io n e d h i s t o r i e s h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y t o m e n tio n t h e
o f S h ah J a h a n , i t
'A m al i S a l i h o f
Mohammad S a l i h K anbo a n d t h e M u la k h k h a s o f I n a y a t K han.
T hese
tw o w o rk s a r e a b r i d g e m e n t s o f t h e m uch l o n g e r a n d m o re c o m p lic a te d c o u rt h is to r ie s .
T h ey a r e e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l t o t h e s t u d y o f
th e S hah ja h a n p e r io d a s th e y p r o v id e o r i e f b u t s u c c in c t c o v e ra g e o f th e e v e n ts o f th e r e ig n .
T he 'A m al i S a l i h , i n a d d i t i o n ,
ta k e s th s h i s t o r y o f Shah Ja h a n r i g h t up to th e end o f h i s r e ig n a n d i n t o t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f A u r a n g z e b 's . ^
L a h a u r i 1s a n d
W a r i s ' B a d s h a h Nama e n d s a t t h e J O th y e a r o f t h e r e i g n , a n d d o e s n o t d o c u m e n t t h e im p r is o n m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n b y h i s s o n . M u la k h k h a s i s
The
t h e o n l y e n t i r e l y t r a n s l a t e d d o c u m e n t fro m t h e
Shah J a h a n i p e r io d , a n d f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s tu d y , th e u n p u b lis h e d t r a n s l a t i o n o f A .R . P u l l e r , r e v i s e d a n d e d i t e d b y W .E. Be g l e y , h a s been an in v a lu a b le a s s e t (s e e b ib lio g r a p h y ) .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
55
T h a t S h a h J a h a n c o m m issio n e d , so many w o rk s a b o u t h im s e l f in d ic a te s th e n eed and d e s ir e to e s ta b l is h h is p o s itio n f o r th e p r e s e n t and th e f u t u r e .
I n t h i s r e s p e c t h e w as l i k e A k b a r ,
b u t d i f f e r e d fro m h im i n t h a t h e w a s b e q u e a t h e d a s t a b l e a n d p r o s p e r o u s e m p ir e .
H o w ev er h i s r i s e t o t h e t h r o n e w as n o t a s m o o th
and o r d e r ly o n e . had to p lo t , Y e t, i n
As h e w asn ’ t
th e o n ly c la im a n t to th e th r o n e , he
sch em e a n d m u r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f e m p e r o r .
s p ite o f th is ,
he h ad d is p o s e d o f th e p e o p le a t l a r g e show n a b i l i t y a s a t e n t g o v e rn m e n t o f
h e w as w e l l r e c e i v e d b y t h e p o p u la c e f o r
a l l p o s s i b l e r i v a l s o f t h e r o y a l b lo o d a n d w e re p r e p a r e d t o w elco m e a r u l e r who h a d g e n e r a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r a f t e r t h e im p o h is f a th e r .
One c a n s e e a t t h e b a c k o f a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s ,
S hah Ja h a n * s n e e d to
show t h e w o r ld t h a t h e w as a l e g i t i m a t e e m p e r o r , a n d t h i s h e d i d by o r d e r in g h i s t o r i e s o f h im s e lf t o be m ade. g r e a t d e a l o f e m p h a s is on h i s a n c e s t r y ,
He a l s o p l a c e d a
and i n e s ta b l is h in g h i s
d e s c e n d e n c y Yrom T im u r , h e e v e n a d a p t e d o n e o f T im u r ’ s e p i t h e t s f o r h im s e lf.
He s t y l e d h i m s e l f S a h ib Q i r a n ( l o r d o f t h e a u s p i c i
o u s p l a n e t a r y c o n j u n c t i o n ) , w h ic h w as a m a n n e r o f c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a s e c o n d T im u r , a n d t h e r e b y l e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o h i s p o s i t i o n .
E veryth in g from h i s r e ig n — th e f e s t i v a l s , t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e , th e a r t s — were more sumptuous than an yth in g ev er c r e a te d .
One co u ld d em on strate t h i s p o in t by lo o k in g a t p ages from
h i s t o r i c a l m an u scrip ts o f Akbar, Ja h a n g ir and Shah Jahan.
A com
p a riso n betw een any page o f a Shah Jahani m anuscript w ith th a t o f an Akbari or a J a h a n g ir i one c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s s u p e r io r l e v e l o f s o p h is t ic a t io n and e le g a n c e .
Take f o r example th r e e
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56-
a u d i e n c e s c e n e s fro m t h e r e s p e c t i v e
h is to r i e s o f th e s e th re e
e m p e ro r s * A k b a r g i v i n g a u d i e n c e t o Abd u r R ah m in f ro m t h e A k b ar N a m a ^ ( P l a t e L IV ), J a h a n g i r i n B a r b a r fro m t h e J a h a n g i r N a m a ^ ( P l a t e L ), a n d t h e d e p a r t u r e o f A u ra n g z e b f o r t h e D e c c a n , f o l i o 2 1 4 v f r o m t h e W in d s o r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama ( P l a t e X L I I l). S h a h J a h a n i w o rk , t h e a c t i o n u n f o l d s th e v e r y n u c le u s o f th e a u d ie n c e h a l l .
in a v e ry lim ite d Shah J a h a n i s
I n th e spaces
p h y s ic a lly
s e p a r a t e d f ro m t h e r e s t o f t h e p e o p l e b y t h e e n f r a m in g e l e m e n t s o f th e p i l l a r s .
H is im m e d ia te b a c k g r o u n d i s
h im u p a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e h e r e . th e sp ace r e p r e s e n te d i s
a h a l o , w h ic h s e t s
I n J a h a n g i r 's d a r b a r ,
a c t u a l l y n o l a r g e r t h a n t h a t i n S h ah
J a h a n 's a u d i e n c e , b u t t h e p o i n t o f v ie w f r o m w h ic h h e i s
seen —
a lo w p e r s p e c t i v e — m a k es h im a m uch m o re d i s t a n t a n d t h e r e f o r e a le s s
s ig n ific a n t fig u re .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h s e p a r a t e d f ro m
th e r e s t by s im ila r a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , he a p p e a rs hedged in , f o r n o t o n ly a x e t h e p i l l a r s p l a c e d s o c l o s e so t h a t h e d o e s n ' t h a v e m uch s p a c e a r o u n d h im , b u t t h e p r o x i m i t y a n d p r o f u s i o n o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p e o p l e d e t r a c t s fro m h i s c e n t r a l im a g e . A kbar a u d ie n c e s c e n e i s a re a .
T he
d e p i c t e d i n a v e r y m uch l a r g e r s p a t i a l
A lth o u g h s e t a p a r t b y b e i n g on a t h r o n e o n a d i a s , A k b a r 's
s ig n if i c a n c e i s n e g a te d by th e f a c t t h a t t h i s tw o o t h e r f i g u r e s . h im , f o r t h e r e i s
In a d d itio n ,
space i s
s h a r e d by
o n e 's a t t e n t i o n c a n n o t f o c u s on
t o o m uch o t h e r s e c o n d a r y a c t i o n g o i n g o n , a n d
o n e 's e y e c a n n o t b u t h e l p w a n d e r in g o v e r t h e p a g e . S h a h J a h a n i w o rk i s
th e re such a r i g i d
O n ly i n t h e
s y m m e tr ic a l c o m p o s i t i o n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
57
w h ic h c l e a r l y d e f i n e s e a c h p e r s o n 's p o s i t i o n . h e ig h te n s th e s e n s e o f s t a b i l i t y w o rk a n a i r o f r e g a l i t y p re v io u s ly ,
T h i s sy m m e try
a n d c a lm w h ic h i n t u r n g i v e s t h e
and s o p h is tic a ti o n .
As m e n tio n e d
s o p h is tic a ti o n and e le g a n c e a r e t h e p r e v a le n t f e a t u r e s
o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n tin g . P e r f e c t i o n a n d o r d e r l i n e s s w ere th u s th e f e a t u r e s w h ic h S h a h J a h a n saw a s t h e im ag e o f h i s r e i g n .
H o w e v er, a l l t h i s
re g a lity ,
s u m p tu o u s n e s s , e l e g a n c e , a n d p e r f e c t i o n w e re o n ly a n
im a g e ; i t
a p p e a re d to o p e r f e c t , a lm o s t f o r c e d .
H is h i s t o r i e s do
n o t h a v e t h e e a s y n a r r a t i v e f l o w o f t h e A k b a r Nama. n o r t h e f r a n k and c a n d id o b s e r v a tio n s o f th e T u z u k -i-J a h a n g i r i .
I n s t e a d Shah
J a h a n 's h i s t o r i e s p o r t r a y h im a s t h e p e r f e c t e d im a g e o f w h a t a n i d e a l e m p e ro r s h o u l d b e .
T h is a r t i f i c e
can th e re fo re
o n ly b e a
c o v e r f o r a m uch m o re s e r i o u s p r o b le m , w h ic h h e r e f u s e d t o f a c e a n d w a n te d t o c o n c e a l fro m h i s p e o p l e .
A lth o u g h a v e r y a b l e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d g e n e r a l , h e w as b y n o m e a n s f l a w l e s s .
He w as
u n a b l e t o e x t e n d t h e M u g h al e m p ir e m uch b e y o n d t h e l i m i t s e s t a b l i s h e d b y A k b a r , a n d e n c o u n t e r e d n u m e ro u s f a i l u r e s a n d s e t b a c k s i n c a m p a ig n s i n t h e D e c c a n a s w e l l a s i n t h e c e n t r a l A s i a n s p h e r e . M o r e o v e r , t h e u p h e a v a l s w h ic h m a rk e d h i s r i s e
t o p o w er o n l y s e r v e d
a s a n e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h e b lo o d y w a r s o f s u c c e s s i o n s s o n s , who w e re a l l
to o e a g e r t o r u l e a n d t h o u g h t n o t h i n g o f o u s t i n g
t h e i r f a t h e r fr o m t h e t h r o n e a n d c o n f i n i n g h im t o p r i s o n . f o llo w in g re m a rk by one o f th e le a d in g a u t h o r i t i e s h i s to r y a p t ly th e r e i g n 's
The
on S h a h J a h a n i
p re d ile c tio n to d e s tru c tio n .
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58
S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n w as t h e m o s t g l o r i o u s e p o c h o f m e d ie v a l h is to ry . T h e r e w as p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y a n d a n a l l - r o u n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e . T he m o s t g l o r i o u s b u i l d i n g s w e re e r e c t e d , t h e m o s t a m b i t i o u s m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s w e re u n d e rta k e n . B ut... u n d e r n e a t h t h i s g l i t t e r i n g a r r a y o f pomp a n d m a g n ific e n c e , s ig n s o f d e c lin e a r e a ls o n o t i c a b l e , and th e s o u r c e o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f d i s a s t r o u s t e n d e n c i e s w h ic h c u lm i n a t e d i n a c r a s h a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f A u r a n g z e b may b e w i t h j u s t i c e t r a c e d t o t h e r e i g n o f S h all J a h a n . 4 5
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59
N o tes t o Chapter I I I 1R.H. P in d er-W ilso n , "Three I l l u s t r a t e d M anuscripts o f th e Mughal P e r io d ," Are O r le n ta lia I I C1957)* 421. o J .V .S . W ilk in son , "An In d ian M anuscript o f th e G o lesta n o f th e Shah Jahan P e r io d ," Are O r ie n t a lis I I ( l 957)* 42 3 . 5i b i d , 4 2 5 . ^ P in d er-W ilson , 41 7• 5
S ir L eig h A shton, e d ., The Art o f I n d ia and P ak istan a Commemorative C atalogue o f th e E x h ib itio n Held a t th e Roval Academy o f A rts London 1847-1948 (London: Faber and Faber L td. 1 9 5 0 ) , p. 1 6 7 . : ^Yedda A. Godard, "Un Album de P o r t r a it s d es P r in c e s Tim urides de l ' I n d e ," Athar e Iran 2 ( 1 9 3 7 )s 1 7 9 -1 8 1 . 7
M ilo C lev ela n d Beach, The Grand Mogul Innae-rial P a in tin g i n I n d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stow n: S t e r lin g and F rancine Clark A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ), PP* 7 3-77• Q
Robert S k e lto n , "A D eco ra tiv e M o tif i n Mughal A rt," in A sp ects o f In d ian P a in t in g , ed: P. Pal (L eid en : E .J . B r i l l , 1 9 7 2 ), p. 150. ^Fredrik Robert M artin, The M in iatu re P a in tin g and P a in te r s o f P e r s ia . I n d ia and Turkey from th e 8 th to th e 18th Century (London: H olland P r e s s , 1 9 1 2 ), p . 85. 10Beach, p . 77* 11i b i d , p . 7 4 . 12
C atalogue o f Hi g h ly I m portant O rie n ta l M anuscripts and M in ia tu res The K evorkian F o u n d a t i o n (Sotheb y and C o ., Monday 1 s t December 1 9 6 9 ) , P. 61. 13
O tto Kurz, "Volume o f Mughal P a in tin g s and M inia t u r e s ." Journal o f th e Warburg and C ourtland I n s t i t u t e 30 ( 1967 ) : 2 6 1 . 14
R.C. Majumdar, g en . e d . , The H isto r y and C u lture o f th e In d ia n P e o p le , v o l . 7* The Mughal Empire (Bombay: B h a ra tiy a Vidya Bhavan, 1974)* p . 15. 15 ^Sir R ichard B um , e d ., The Cambridge H isto r y o f I n d ia , v o l . IV: The Mughal P erio d (New York: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 3 7 ) , P. 6 9 .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
60
^M ajundar, p.4« 17
'Deborah Brown L ev in e, "The V ic t o r ia and A lb ert Museum Akbar-Nama: A Study in H isto r y , Myth and Image" (Ph.D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan, 1 9 7 4 ), P» 110. 18
ib id , p . 1 0 9 .
19
S tu a rt Cary Welch, Im p eria l Mughal P a in tin g York; George B r a z il l e r , I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ), p i . 14*
(New
20 Majundar, pp. 8 - 9 .
Beach, p . 61. 22
A lexander R ogers, t r a n s . and Henry B ev e rid g e , e d . , The T u zu k -i-J a h a n g lr i o r Memoirs o f J a h a n g ir . 2nd ed . (D e lh i: Munshiram M anoharlal, 1 9 ^ 8 ), I p . 215. 2 ^Beach, p. 4 3 . OA Percy Brown, In d ian P a in tin g Under th e Maighals (O xford: The Clarendon P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) , f r o n t i s p i e c e .
^Wayne E. B e g le y , e d . , " C hron icle o f th e King o f th e World: The Shah Jahan Nama. o f 'In a y a t Khan, th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry m anuscript t r a n s la t io n o f A.R. F u lle r p reserv ed in th e B r i t i s h L ib rary (Add. 3 0 ,7 7 7 )" (T y p e s c r ip t, 1 9 8 1 ), p . i x . ^ ib id , p. x i. C h arles Ambrose S to r e y , P e r sia n L it e r a tu r e : a B io -B io g r a p h ic a l Survey (London: Roayl A s ia t ic S o c ie t y o f Great B r it a in and I r e la n d , 1 9 2 7 -1 9 3 9 ), P» 565* ^ ® ib i d , p .
566.
29
Survey
D.N. M a rsh a ll, Mughals in In d ia : a B io g ra p h ica l (Bombay: A sia P u b lis h in g House, 1 9 6 7 ), P« 240. ^ B e g le y , p. x i v . ^ S to r e y , p . 572. ^ S la r s h a ll, p. 8 3 4 *
^^M. H idayat H osain , "Contemporary H is to r ia n s D uring th e R eign o f Shah Jahan," I s la m ic C ulture 15 ( 1 941)* 6 8 .
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61
^ S t o r e y , p. 568.
^ M a r s h a ll, p. 1 8 9 3 . 56 i b i d , p. 2 0 . 37
S to r e y , p . 5 7 4 .
^ H oaain , 72. 39
B e g le y , p . x v i i i .
4° S to r e y , p . 570. 41 C harles R ieu , C atalogue o f th e P e r sia n Manuscript** i n th e B r i t i s h Museum (London: B r i t i s h Museum, 1 8 7 9 ), I , p. 263 . 42
R udorff p i . 24.
B u m , p. 216.
4 ^Mario B u s s a g li, In d ian M in ia tu r e s, t r a n s . Raymond (New D e lh i: The M acm illan Company o f I n d ia L im ited , 1 9 7 6 ), 44W elch, p i . 17. 45
D f lh i
B an arsi P rasad Saksena, H isto r y o f Shah Jahan o f (A llah ab ad : C en tra l Book D epot, 1 9 6 2 ), p . x xx.
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62
CHAPTER IV THE PAINTINGS OP THE WINDSOR CASTLE BADSHAH NAMA
The Windsor C a s tle Bad shah Nama. i s an uniq ue document f o r th e study o f Mughal p a in tin g during th e r e ig n o f Shah Jahan, i t b e in g th e o n ly s u r v iv in g exam ple o f a contemporaneous i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l m a n u scrip t.
A stu d y o f t h i s m a n u sc r ip t's p a in tin g s
a llo w s f o r a broader u n d erstan d in g o f th e n a tu re o f h i s t o r i c a l p a in tin g , a s w e ll a s o f th e v a r io u s a r t i s t s whose works are rep re s e n te d .
An a n a ly s is o f th e im agery o f the p a in tin g s e n a b les one to
comprehend th e way Shell Jahan wanted h im s e lf t o b e p e r c e iv e d by o th e r s and t h e r e fo r e , th e co n ce p tio n he had o f h im s e lf.
A fte r
su r v e y in g th e s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e and g iv in g a p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip t io n o f th e Windsor m a n u scrip t, t h i s ch a p ter w i l l c o n c e n tr a te on a th em a tic a n a ly s is o f th e p a in tin g s c o n sid ere d a s a group — based upon th e more d e t a il e d a ssessm en t o f each p a in tin g i n th e c a ta lo g u e .
Survey o f S c h o la r ly L it e r a t u r e The s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e on th e Windsor C a stle Badnhafr Mama i s ex trem ely s c a n ty .
Very few o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s have even
been rep rod u ced , and e x ce p t f o r a few p a s s in g r e f e r e n c e s , n o th in g o f su b sta n ce has e v e r been p u b lish e d on th e m an uscrip t i t s e l f .
The
e a r l i e s t contem porary r e f e m c e to th e m anuscript appeared i n 1 9 5 0 , in S ir L eigh A sh to n 's The Art o f I n d ia and P a k is ta n , th e c a ta lo g u e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
63
to an e x h ib itio n h e ld i n 1 9 4 7 a t London's Eoyal Ac ad a n y o f A rt, The Windsor m anuscript was one o f th e ite m s e x h ib it e d , and in th e c a ta lo g u e , f o l i o 117*, th e 1632 a s s a u lt on th e P ortu gu ese a t H uglai was reproduced,
d im en sion s o f b oth th e p a in tin g and page were pro
v id e d , a lo n g w ith a summary o f th e even t and th e d a te o f th e work, but n o th in g was m entioned about th e m anuscript a s a w h ole.
The n ex t
p u b lish e d page from th e Windsor m anuscript w^s i n W.G. Ar c h e r 's In d ia n Mini a t Tire s o f 1960, a p ic tu r e book d e a lin g w ith both Bajput and Mughal p a in t in g s .
The p a in tin g reproduced was f o l i o 49r,
Jah an gir R e c e iv in g P r in c e Khurram A fte r Hia S u c c e s s fu l Campaf/fn A gain st th e Rana o f Mewar.
Formal q u a l i t i e s o f th e work were
d is c u s s e d o n ly c u r s o r ily ! a r ec o u r se to m o d e llin g and shad in g th a t occu red under Shah J a h a n ,. . f i g u r e s r e t a i n th e q u ie t g r a v it y from th e J a h a n g iri p e r io d , a g r e a te r u s e o f p e r s p e c tiv e to convey th e i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h ... In 1 9 6 3 * B a r r e tt and G ray’ s P a in tin g o f I n d ia , a g en era l survey o f a l l o f In d ia n p a in tin g , reproduced f o l i o l6 5 r , Shah Jahan Hunting N jg la o .
The au thors d a ted th e p a in tin g s in th e m anusoript to th e
l a s t y e a r s o f Shah Jahan*s r e ig n , and a ls o s t a t e d t h a t: th e m an uscrip t was tw ic e i n th e 18th cen tu ry "improved" by th e a d d itio n o f more p a in t in g s . Some o f th e s e are in th e most rom antic s t y l e which th e Mughal sch o o l ev er a c h i e v e d . . . 2 T h is claim seems t o be u n j u s t i f i e d , a s a com parison between any o f th e Windsor m anuscript p a in tin g s and one from an 18th cen tu ry manu s c r i p t , such as th e Shah Jahan Nama in th e B r it is h L ib rary immedi a t e l y r e v e a ls v ery d i s t i n c t and d if f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s which cannot be e x p la in e d away by m erely assum ing th e hands o f d i f f e r e n t
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64
a r tis ts .
(S e e P la t e LV).
The s t y l e o f th e B r i t i s h L ib rary
m anuscript i s c h a r a c t e r i s t ic o f the l a t e r p e r io d and i s v ery rem ote from th a t o f th e Windsor m an u scrip t. I n 1 9 6 3 S .C .W e lc h p u b l i s h e d T he A r t o f M u g h al I n d i a . t h e c a t a l o g u e t o a n e x h i b i t i o n h e l d a t t h e A s i a H o u se i n New Y o r k . He r e p r o d u c e d f o l i o
9 4 v , t h e D e a th o f K han J a h a n L o d i .
c o v e r a g e on t h e m a n u s c r i p t w as t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d t o
H is
th a t d a te .
C o n v e n t io n a l c o u r t s u b j e c t s p r e d o m i n a t e , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o m a g n i f i c e n t p r o c e s s i o n s , c ro w d e d w i t h t h e p a n o p l y o f t h e G ra n d M o g u l, h u n t i n g s c e n e s , w e d d in g s a n d b a t t l e s . He a l s o l i s t e d
t h e n a m e s o f t e n a r t i s t s whom h e c l a i m e d c o n t r i
b u t e d t o t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s ; t h e y a r e L a l e h a n d , S a d i k i , M u rad " p u p i l o f N a d i r a l Z am an ", B i c h i t r , B o l a , B a l c h a n d , A h id , P a k / P i a k , D a s t , a n d D a l w a t .^
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1 9 6 8 , R andhaw a a n d G a l b r a i t h i n I n d i a n
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p u b l i s h e d tw o a d d i t i o n a l f o l i o s , 7 ^ t S o l a r
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d is c u s s e d a s b e in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t no a c c o u n t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t i t s e l f w as g i v e n .
A n o th e r p u b l i s h e d
p a g e fro m t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t a p p e a r e d i n B . G a s c o i g n e 's T h e G r e a t M o g h u ls , a p r o f u s e l y I l l u s t r a t e d p o p u l a r b o o k o n t h e M ughal p e r io d *
P o l i o 5 0 V, t h e A r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d t h e P r i n c e a
fro m L a h o r e w as r e p r o d u c e d , a n d w a s d i s c u s s e d n e i t h e r a s a S h a h J a h a n i p a i n tin g n o r i n th e c o n te x t o f th e m a n u s c rip t. I n 1 9 7 6 , S .C . W elch i n h i s b o o k I n d i a n D ra w in g s a n d P a i n t e d S k e t c h e s o n c e a g a i n m ade r e f e r e n c e t o t h e W in d so r
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m a n u s c rip t. re ig n ,
H e re h e d a t e d a l l t h e p a i n t i n g s t o S h a h J a h a n * s
t h u s q u e s t i o n e d t h e s t a t e m e n t m ade b y B a r r e t t a n d G ra y i n
1 9 6 3 t h a t p a r t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t w as a d d e d i n
th e 1 8 th c e n tu r y .
He r e p r o d u c e d a p r e p a t o r y s k e t c h f o r f o l i o 4 2 v , R e c e p t i o n o f B r l h c e K h u rram u p o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e M ev ar c a m p a ig n , now i n t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y , w h ic h w as a l s o r e p r o d u c e d i n P e r c y Brown* s I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U n d e r t h e M u g h a l a a n d J . V . S . W i l k i n s o n 's M u g h al P a i n t i n g .
W e lc h o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o
th e
m a n u s c rip t: . . . some m i n i a t u r e s seem t o h a v e b e e n do n e s o o n a f t e r t h e e v e n t t h e y d e s c r i b e w h i l e o t h e r s fro m v a g u e w r i t t e n o r s p o k e n d e s c r i p t i o n s . . . seem s th e a r t i s t s p a i n te d m o st o f th e im p o r ta n t e v e n t s a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n w as m ade w hen t h e b o o k w as a s s e m b le d a t t h e e n d o f S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n . . . 5 I t i s v e r y p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s w e re n o t a l l c o n c e iv e d a s a w h o le , a n d t h i s p r o b le m w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r o n i n t h i s
c h a p ter .
In 1974* E. Binney a ls o reproduced another p rep atory
s k e tc h to a p a in tin g i n t h a t t h i s w o rk w as t h e
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t . ^
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s o u r c e f o r t h e s k e t c h d i s c u s s e d b y W e lc h .
T he m o s t r e c e n t a n d t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t i s M ogul o f 1978*
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some r e f l e x i o n s o n c e r t a i n m a n u s c rip t.
t o b e f o u n d i n M .C . B e a c h 's T he G ra n d a s h o r t h i s t o r y o f an d
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D u st.
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T h e re a r e a fe w d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n h i s l i s t ,
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s tu d y .
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f e a t u r e s o f th e m a n u s c r ip t, B each s u g g e s te d t h a t th e m a n u s c rip t a s i t is
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, f u r t h e r u n c e r t a i n t y u p o n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , f o r i t w as
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t h e p r o j e c t o r w h e th e r t h e y w e re c h o s e n fro m a s t o c k p i l e
o f e x is tin g p a in tin g s .
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a h i s t o r i c a l n a t u r e w e re m ade f o r a n i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r y J a h a n i s p ro b a b ly t r u e ,
o f S h ah
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t h a t t h e y w e re m ade f o r p e r h a p s t h e s e c o n d v o lu m e o f L a h a u r i 1s h i s t o r y o r p e rh a p s f o r a n o th e r h i s t o r y , r a t h e r th a n f o r th e W in d s o r B a d s h a h Nama i t s e l f .
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u n c e r t a i n t y w as t h e o b v io u s e v i d e n c e o f r e m o u n t in g t h a t t h e m a n u s c r i p t u n d e r w e n t.
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c e n tu ry .
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67
T he s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e h a s show n t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s m ade t o t h e m a n u s c r i p t h a s t e n d e d t o i s o l a t e o n e o r tw o w o rk s a n d d i s c u s s th e m a s s i n g l e p a i n t i n g s , n o t a s a p a r t o f a l a r g e r fra m e w o rk .
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o f Shah J a h a n and c o rre s p o n d to c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s i n
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tw o p a i n t i n g s c a n b e c o n v i e n t l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o rie s ,
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th e r e a r e d a r b a r s (a u d ie n c e s ) and
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te e n p a i n tin g s o f d a r b a r s and e le v e n o f f e s t i v a l s an d c e l e b r a t i o n s . B a t t l e s , h u n t s a n d v i s i t s t o h o l y s h r i n e s c o m p r is e t h e s c e n e s o u ts id e th e c o u r t.
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h u n t s a n d tw o t o v i s i t i n g h o l y s h r i n e s .
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The o t h e r tw o w o r k s ,
a re n o n -n a rra tiv e in n a tu re ,
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t h e r e a r e tw o i l l u m i n a t e d p a g e s , f o l i o s 1v a n d 2 r , w h ic h a r e n o n n a r r a t i v e g e o m e tric d e s ig n s . fu n c tio n r a th e r li k e t i t l e c o n te n ts o f th e book.
T hese f o u r r io n - n a r r a tiv e p a g e s
p a g e s w h ic h s e r v e t o i n t r o d u c e t h e
A c o lo p h o n d a t e s t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e x t b y Mohammed Amin o f M e s sh e d t o 1 6 5 7 -
1658 (1067 H ).9 U n til v e ry r e c e n tly , c i t e d tw o d i f f e r e n t f o l i a t i o n s ,
th e l i t e r a t u r e
on t h e m a n u s c r i p t
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n a l P e r s i a n o n e o r t o t h e o n e t h a t w as a d d e d l a t e r i n We s t e m n u m e ra ls .
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s tu d y .
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t h i r t y l o o s e s h e e ts i n s e r t e d o p p o s ite c e r t a in o f th e p a in tin g s in th e m a n u scrip t.
These s h e e t s , w r itte n in P e r sia n , summarize a l l
hut s i x o f the e v e n ts d e p ic te d in th e p a in t in g s , and th ey were in c lu d e d i n th e m an uscrip t sometime in th e 1 8 th cen tu ry .
They
m ight have been added when th e m an uscrip t was i n th e p o s s e s s io n o f Nawab A saf ud-D aula o f Lucknow who bought i t i n th e 18th cen tu ry f o r 12,000 s i l v e r ru p ees (a p p ro x im a tely £ 1 5 0 0 ) .10 o f th e purchase and the s e l l e r a re unknown.
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The second h y p o th e s is i s p r e fe r r e d .
Prom th e
colophon one knows t h a t th e t r a n s c r ip t io n o f th e t e x t was a ch iev ed i n 1 657-1658, a d a te w hich does n ot im ply t h a t th e m anuscript was a c t u a lly i n a f in is h e d s t a t e .
In l i g h t o f th e tum ultuous e v e n ts
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70
w as n e v e r a c t u a l l y f o r th e f i r s t
fin is h e d .
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te n y e a rs and th e f o r t y - s i x i l l u s t r a t i o n s .
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a n d p r o p a g a n d a w h ic h h i s f a t h e r h a d c o n c e i v e d ,
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R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
71
Of course i t i s e n t ir e ly p o s s ib le th a t h i s t o r i c a l m anuscripts may have had a c e r ta in kind o f border, but th ere i s no way o f knowing fo r su re.
But g iv en th e l e s s jew el-rlik e f i n i s h , i t i s in a l l
p r o b a b ility more l i k e l y th a t the p resen t borders o f th e Windsor m anuscript were n o t th e production o f the im p erial a t e l i e r o f Shah Jahan, and as such fu r th e r supports the n o tio n th a t the m anuscript was n o t compiled under Shah Jahan*s su p e rv isio n . Although the m ajority o f th e p a in tin g s are in proper ch ro n o lo g ica l order, th e r e are a few d is c r e p e n c ie s .
But a sid e from
th e p a in tin g s showing d is c r e p e n c ie s in th e ages o f Shah Jahan and th e p r in c es (to be d isc u sse d in the C atalogu e), on ly one su b ject seems d is t r a c t in g ly out o f sequence.
This i s f o l i o 214v. De-parture
o f Aurangzeb fo r the Deccanr which occured in 1655 ( l 045 *0, w h ile th e preceed in g s e t o f p a in tin g s , th e p ilgrim age to the sh rin e o f Khwaja M u'inal Din C h is h ti, took p la c e in 1636 (1046 H).
This how-
ever may have been a d e lib e r a te arrangement in order to s it u a t e the departure scene j u s t b e fo r e Aurangzeb*s retu rn from the Deccan, f o l i o 217v, which occured in 1637 (1046 H).
In a d d itio n , a ra th er
su r p r isin g om ission from the m anuscript i s the coron ation scen e, which i f there were one, should come b e fo re f o l i o 50v , the A rrival o f Asaf Khan and th e P rin c es from Lahore. I t seems t e r r ib ly strange th a t Shah Jahan would have n e g le c te d to in c lu d e a d e p ic tio n o f the very event th a t launched h i s career as emperor o f the Mughal empire, a p o s itio n fo r which he fou gh t and schemed so hard to o b ta in .
These
above mentioned f a c t o r s corroborate the h y p o th e sis th a t th e p a in tin g s in the m anuscript may n o t have been assem bled u n t i l some tim e a f t e r
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
72
t h e i r e x e c u tio n . The i n c l u s i o n o f seem in g ly m isp la ced e v e n ts r e l a t i n g to th e p rin ceh ood o f Shah Jahan h as g r e a t ly d istu r b e d v a r io u s s c h o la r s who have d is c u s s e d th e m a n u scrip t.
Such scen es a re in
r e a l i t y n o t m isp la c e d , f o r as Wayne B eg ley f i r s t o b se rv ed , th e s e in c id e n t s were an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f L a h a u r i's t e x t and were in t r o 16 duced f o r d id a c t ic p u rp o se s. They ta k e th e form o f fla s h b a c k s or a s p a r a l l e l in c i d e n t s .
One such example can be found in f o l i o 135v,
which f o llo w s th e d e p ic tio n o f A urangzeb's courage in an elep h a n t f i g h t ( f o l i o 134 ^ ) .
The purpose o f th e secon d p a in tin g i s to show
Shah J a h a n 's own v a lo r d u ring a t i g e r hunt when he was a p r in c e . Here i s a prime exam ple where th e au th or d e li b e r a t e ly f l a t t e r s Shah Jahan by show ing th a t he was a s b rave i f n o t b raver than h i s own son.
W hile Aurangzeb o n ly fen d ed o f f an enraged e le p h a n t, P r in c e
Khurram a c t u a lly saved th e l i f e o f a s e r v a n t.
T his and th e o th e r
d e p ic te d f e a t s o f P r in c e Khurram ( f o l i o s 43v; 46 v-4 7 ^ j 4 8 v -4 9 r; 192 v ; 194 v **‘'95r ) a re th u s e n t ir e l y c o n s is t e n t w ith th e prim ary
purpose o f th e m a n u scrip t, th e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f Shah Jahan. T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n does n o t pu rport to g iv e d e f in i t e answ ers t o a l l problem s w ith in th e m a n u scrip t, i t g o es o n ly a s f a r as to o u t lin e them and t o o f f e r c e r t a in p o s s ib le s o lu t i o n s .
The
c o n c lu s io n s a r r iv e d a t h ere a re based b oth on f a c t u a l m a te r ia l and com parative d e d u c tio n s , f o r which c o n c r e te ev id en ce i s q u it e l im i t e d . I t i s hoped th a t f u tu r e r e s e a r c h i n th e a rea w i l l uncover a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n th a t w i l l c o n tr ib u te to an even g r e a t e r u n d ersta n d in g o f t h i s m anuscript i n p a r t ic u la r and Shah Jahani p a in tin g i n g e n e r a l.
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73
T h e m a tic D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e P a i n t i n g s T h is s e c t i o n o f th e s tu d y w i l l a n a ly z e th e i l l u s t r a tio n s in
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t f r o m a t h e m a t i c p o i n t o f v ie w .
T hese i l l u s t r a t i o n s tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s ,
can he c la s s if ie d in to fo u rte e n d a rb a rs ,
th e f o llo w in g c a t e g o r ie s :
e le v e n f e s t i v a l s and c e le b r a
t i o n s , t e n b a t t l e s , f i v e h u n t s , a n d tw o v i s i t s E xcept f o r th e f r o n ti s p i e c e s ,
th a t i s ,
S hah J a h a n .
a t th e c o u r t,
t h e i r m essag e an d im p lic a tio n to p o rtra y ,
shrines.
th e y r e p r e s e n t th e d i f f e r e n t
a c t i v i t i e s t h a t w e re o f i m p o r t a n c e t o in g v a rio u s f a c e t s o f l i f e
to* h o l y
t h e y r e m a in u n i f i e d i n
t h e im a g e S h a h
t h a t h e w as a p e r f e c t ,
A lth o u g h show
a lm o s t
J a h a n w is h e d t o d iv in e r u l e r .
tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s d i r e c t l y m a n i f e s t t n i s im a g e a n d a s s u c h , a s a m o st a p p r o p r ia te i n t r o d u c t i o n , n o t o n ly to la y o u t o f th e m a n u s c rip t,
b u t a ls o to i t s
T he
se rv e
th e p i c t o r i a l
ic o n o g ra p h ic a l im p lic a
tio n s . In a d d itio n
to th e f o r ty - f o u r p a i n tin g s ,
tw o i l l u m i n a t e d p a g e s w h ic h b e g i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t . m e tr ic d e s ig n s c a l le d sh a m sa s. • s u n b u r s t ',
is
A sham sa, o f te n
a p i c t u r e o f th e sun r e n d e r e d i n
d e c o r a te d g e o m e tric d e s ig n .
In a rc h ite c tu re
T hey a r e g e o
tra n s la te d as a p ro fu s e ly
t h e s e p i c t u r e s w e re
o f te n a f f ix e d to th e g a t e s o r w a ll o f p a l a c e s . re fe rs
th e re a re
17
A bul F a z l
t o th e sham sa a s
a d i v i n e l i g h t , w h ic h G od d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r s t o k i n g s , w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f m en ; a n d k i n g s a r e f o n d o f e x t e r n a l s D e ln d o u r b e c a u s e t h e y c o n s i d e r i t a n im a g e o f t h e D iv in e g l o r y . 18
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
74
T h e w o rd s n a m s a i s 'S h a m a s h ',
p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d e i t h e r fro m
t h e nam e o f t h e o l d S e m i t i c s u n g o d , o r fro m t h e
A r a b i c w o rd 'S h a m s ', m e a n in g t h e s u n *
S ham sas h av e b e e n i n t e r
p r e t e d a s h e a v e n ly im a g e s , th e c e n t e r o f th e
d e s ig n s b e in g th e
a x i s w h ic h c o n n e c t s t h e e x i s t e n t i a l w o r ld w i t h t h o s e a b o v e a n d b e lo w . ^
O f t e n t i m e s t h e c e n t e r o f t h e im a g e w o u ld b e i n s c r i b e d
W ith t h e nam e o f t h e p r e s e n t e m p e r o r ( P l a t e L V l) o r w i t h h i s s e a l ( P la te L V IIl).
I n m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s t h e y f u n c t i o n e d a s
th e o p e n in g p a g e s ,
as is
t h e c a s e i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t .
The s h a m s a s h e r e , h o w e v e r , a r e u n i n s c r i b e d ,
and as h a s a lre a d y
b e e n m e n t i o n e d , t h i s f e a t u r e may b e i n d i c a t i v e is
t h a t th e m a n u s c rip t
an u n f in is h e d one.
The F r o n t i s p i e c e s I m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e tw o s h a m s a s a r e t h e f r o n t i s p ie c e s .
T h e s e tw o f a c i n g p a g e s c o n s i s t o f a p o r t r a i t o f T im u r
on t h e r i g h t s i d e ,
a n d a p o r t r a i t o f S h ah J a h a n on t h e o t h e r .
B o th a r e s e a t e d on s u m p tu o u s t h r o n e s , a n d T im u r i s i n h a n d i n g a cro w n t o S h a h J a h a n . is
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s
t h a t S h a h J a h a n ' s p o s i t i o n on t n e t h r o n e ,
p re se n t ru le r,
is
th e a c t o f
th a t is ,
scene
a s th e
b e i n g s a n c t i o n e d a n d a p p r o v e d by T im u r , t h e
f o r e f a t h e r o f t h e M u g h al l i n e .
The i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h i s m o t i f
a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a n in n o v a tio n o f th e S hah J a h a n i e r a , f o r n o th in g s im ila r to t h i s
i s to
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t- i s o f t h i s p e rio d ,
it
be f o u n d i n a n y e a r l i e r w o r k s .
As
t h e o n ly e x t a n t h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t
i s i m p o s s i b l e t o know w h e t h e r o t h e r s u c h
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
75
m a n u s c rip ts had t h i s
ty p e o f ic o n o g ra p h y f o r t h e i r f r o n t i s p i e c e s .
A lbum s o f t h e p e r i o d ,
o f w h ic h t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l ,
e x h i b i t f r o n t i s p i e c e s w i t h a n im a g r y n o t u n l i k e t h a t o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t .
They a r e s l i g h t l y
d if f e r e n t in
t h a t t h e y show
T im u r , B a b u r a n d Humayun o n o n e p a g e , a n d S h a h J a h a n , J a h a n g i r a n d A k b a r on t n e f a c i n g o n e .
I n som e i n s t a n c e s ,
w a z ir s o f e a c h e m p e ro r a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d . f o u r e x a m p le s o f a lb u m f r o n t i s p i e c e s . B in A lbum .
20
J a h a n A lbum ,
t h e M in to A lb u m ,
22
21
To d a t e t h e r e e x i s t
T h ey a r e i n
p o rtio n , in
th e N a s ir u d -
th e l e f t p o r tio n o f th e L a te Shah
a n d t h e r i g h t p o r t i o n f ro m a n o t h e r r o y a l a lb u m .
T he s a n c t i o n i n g o f S h a h J a h a n a s t n e l e g i t i m a t e e v id e n t in
th e r e s p e c tiv e
t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s t o t h e M in to A lbum .
J
e m p e ro r i s m o s t The r i g h t
t h e V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M useum , sh o w s T im u r , B a b u r
a n d Humayun e n t h r o n e d w i t h t n e i r r e s p e c t i v e w a z i r s — M i r z a S h a h r u k h , M i r z a R u sta m a n d B a i r am K han — th em ( P l a t e L I X ) .
The l e f t p o r t i o n , i n
s ta n d in g i n f r o n t o f
tn e C h e s te r B e a tty L ib r a r y ,
d e p i c t s A k b a r , J a h a n g i r a n d S h a h j a h a n s e a t e d on t h r o n e s w i t h K han Azam, I t i m i d a l - D a u l a a n d A s a f K han s t a n d i n g b e f o r e th em ( P l a t e L X ).
T im u r i s h a n d i n g a c ro w n t o A k b a r o n t h e o t h e r s i d e , who i s
h a n d in g i t
d i r e c t l y o v e r to Shah ja h a n .
The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e
g e s t u r e s a r e t h a t S h ah J a h a n i s r e c e i v i n g th e a p p r o v a l o f n o t o n ly h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s b u t a ls o o f th e f o r e f a t h e r o f th e d y n a s ty . T h ese ty p e s o f f r o n t i s p i e c e s s e r v e t o e s t a b l i s h Shah J a h a n a s t h e n e x t r i g n t f u l h e i r t o t h e M u g h al t h r o n e . h a n d e d t h e c ro w n , a sy m b o l o f k i n g s h i p ,
He i s
b e in g
by o n e o f t h e p r e v i o u s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
76
ru le rs .
T h e f i g u r e o f T im u r i s
re s e n ta tio n .
He i s
t o r p a r e x c e lle n c e .
t h e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t i n
t h e f o r e f a t h e r o f ti i e M u g h a l l i n e , T h e ir
descent
24
M uch r e f e r e n c e
fro m t h e M u g h a l p e r i o d ,
and i t
th e an ce s
f r o m T im u r w as t r a c e d o n
th e p a t e r n a l s i d e , w h ile on th e m a te r n a l s i d e i t G e n g h is K h a n .
th e r e p
w as t r a c e d t o
i s m ade t o T im u r i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e is
p r id e and h o n o r i n t h e i r h e r it a g e .
e v i d e n t t h a t t h e y t o o k m uch The t e x t s
o f th e v a r io u s
h i s t o r i e s o f S h ah J a h a n o f t e n h a v e a few p a g e s d e v o te d t o a k in d o f g e n e a l o g i c a l a c c o u n t t h a t b e g i n s w i t h T im u r .
Shah J a h a n w ent
o n e s t e p f u r t h e r i n h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r T im u r ; h e i d e n t i f i e d h im s e l f w i t h h im . f o r h im s e lf,
T h i s h e d i d b y a d o p t i n g o n e o f T i m u r 's e p i t h e t s
a n d t n e o n e h e c h o s e w as S a h ib Q i r a n ( l o r d o f t h e
a u s p ic io u s p la n e ta r y c o n ju n c tio n ) .
Not o n ly was a l o t o f im portance p la c e d on th e p erson age o f Timur, but a ls o on th e co n cep t o f s o v e r e ig n ty a^ e s t a b lis h e d by th e t e n e t s o f Isla m .
The u n d erly in g p rem ise o f I s la m ic monar
chy was t h a t i t was an a u t o c r a t ic r u l e , an i n s t i t u t i o n d iv in e ly 25 ord a in ed by God, ^ and i t was in t h i s s p i r i t t h a t th e Mughal
emperors r u le d .
In e f f e c t th e y b e lie v e d th e m se lv e s t o be i n f a l
l i b l e , and th e y conveyed t h i s n o tio n to t h e ir s u b j e c t s . a t t it u d e had been ad op ted by t h e i r a n c e s to r Timur.
T h is
In Tim ur's
memoirs h e s t a t e s t h a t : whenever God A lm ighty e x a l t s any person to th e throne o f s o v e r e ig n ty , he c o n fe r s on him s p e c ia l d ig n it y and wisdom, by means o f which he r en d ers mankind o b e d ie n t to him; t h i s v ir t u e i s a ra y o f th e Grace o f G0 d which s h in e s on th e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
77
m o n a rc h , a n d a s l o n g a s h e i s g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f a v o r , h i s f o r t u n e a n d d o m in io n c o n t i n u e t o i n c r e a s e . ^6
The Mughals c o n sid e r e d th e m se lv e s th e la w fu l r u le r s o f th e whole o f I n d ia , and e x i s t i n g l o c a l powers such a s th e D eccani kingdoms were c o n sid e r e d o n ly a s s u c c e s s f u l r e b e ls .
The t i t l e s and r i g h t s
o f in d ep en d en t k in g s were n ev er acknowledged by th e M u gh als.2^ C o n sid erin g t h a t th e Mughals were a d yn asty f o r e ig n to I n d ia , i t i s h a rd ly s u r p r is in g t h a t th ey cla im e d d iv in e r ig h t and c o m p le te d o m in a n c e o v e r t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
By m a k in g t h i s c l a i m ,
th e y h o p ed to i n s p i r e o b e d ie n c e , an d r e d u c e th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
r e b e llio n .
The t e n e t s o f k in g sh ip a s p r a c t ic e d by Shah Jahan
were l i k e th o se e s t a b lis h e d by Akbar and documented by h i s h is t o r ia n Abul F a z l. illu s tra te
The f o llo w in g r e fe r e n c e w i l l se r v e to
t h e im a g e S h a h J a h a n a n d h i s a n c e s t o r s h a d o f
th e m s e lv e s a s k in g s a n d r u l e r s . No d i g n i t y i s h i g n e r i n t n e e y e s o f God t h a n r o y a l t y ; a n d t h o s e who a r e w i s e , d r i n k f r o m i t s a u s p i c i o u s f o u n t a i n . A s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f o f t h i s , f o r t h o s e who r e q u i r e o n e , i s t h e f a c t t h a t r o y a l t y i s a re m e d y f o r t h e s p i r i t o f r e b e l l i o n , a n d t h e r e a s o n why s u b j e c t s o b e y . E v e n t h e m e a n in g o f t h e w o rd F a d s h a h show s t h i s ; f o r pad s i g n i f i e s s t a b i l i t y an d p o s s e s s io n , and sh ah m eans o r i g i n , l o r d . A k in g i s th e r e f o r e th e o r i g i n o f s t a b i l i t y and p o s s e s s io n . I f r o y a l t y d i d n o t e x i s t , t h e s to r m o f s t r i f e w o u ld n e v e r s u b s i d e , n o r s e l f i s h a m b i t i o n d i s a p p e a r . M a n k in d , b e i n g u n d e r t h e b u r d e n o f l a w l e s s n e s s a n d l u s t , w o u ld s i n k i n t o th e p i t o f d e s t r u c t i o n ; th e w o rld , t h i s g r e a t m a rk e t p la c e , w o u ld l o s e i t s p r o s p e r i t y , a n d t h e w h o le e a r t h becom e a b a r r e n w a s te . B u t b y t h e l i g h t o f i m p e r i a l j u s t i c e , some f o l l o w w i t h c h e e r f u l n e s s t h e r o a d o f o b e d i e n c e , w h i l s t o t h e r s a b s t a i n f ro m v i o l e n c e t h r o u g h f e a r o f p u n is h m g g t ; a n d o u t o f n e c e s s i t y m ake c h o ic e o f th e p a th o f r e c t i t u d e . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e w h ic h a l l t h e M u g h al r u l e r s p l a c e d o n t h e n o t i o n a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s o v r e i g n t y , o n e may
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78
e x p e c t t h a t p e r h a p s t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e ty p e o f im a g e r y d i s c u s s e d a b o v e w o u ld h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n ily 'in
as fro n tis p ie c e s .
e a r l i e r w o rk s,
th o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r
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th e le g itim iz a tio n an d j u s t i f i c a t i o n
o f s o v e r e ig n p o w e r, t h e
n e e d f o r w o rk s s u c h a s t h e s e w e re n o t r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g '^ re ig n s .
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n e e d t o j u s t i f y h i s a c t i o n s w h ic h b r o u g h t h im t o h i s p r e s e n t p o s itio n .
He w as t h e o n l y m o n a rc h t o t h a t d a t e who h a d w i l l f u l l y
m u r d e r e d h i s r e l a t i v e s i n o r a e r t o e n s u r e t h a t h e w o u ld b e t h e n e x t on t h e t h r o n e ,
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th e b l e s s i n g s o f h i s a n c e s t o r s f o r h i s e n th ro n e m e n t.
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to h a v e h i s c o u r t h i s t o r i a n s w r i t e o f f h is b ra n d o f m u rd e r a s a ju s tif ia b le n e c e s s ity .
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fr o m Mohammad S a l i h K a m b u 's 1A m a l - i - S a l i h . I t i s e n t i r e l y la w fu l f o r th e s o v re ig n s to r i d t h i s m o rta l w o r ld o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s a n d o t h e r r e l a t i o n s w hose t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n i s c o n d u c i v e t o t h e common g o o d . . . and l e a d e r s , s p i r i t u a l an d te m p o r a l, j u s t i f y th e t o t a l e r a d i c a t i o n o f r i v a l c l a i m a n t s t o t h e f o r t u n a t e t h r o n e on g r o u n d s o f e x p e d i e n c y a n d common w e l f a r e . A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e n o p i c t o r i a l p r e c e d e n t s f o r t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e im a g e r y ,th e r e a r e , fro m e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , o f th e p r e s e n t em p e ro r w ith h i s a n c e s t o r s .
d e p ic tio n s
T hese a p p e a r as
im a g i n a r y g r o u p s c e n e s p o r t r a y i n g t h e v a r i o u s r u l e r s o f t h e M u g h al a n d T i m u r id l i n e s g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r a s i f each o th e r.
i n c o n v e r s a tio n w ith
One s u c h e x a m p le , w h ic h i n c i d e n t a l l y a l s o h a p p e n s
t o b e t h e o l d e s t know n p a i n t i n g o f t h e M u g h al s c h o o l ,
is
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d am ag ed c l o t h p a i n t i n g e n t i t l e d E m p e ro rs a n d P r i n c e s o f t h e H o u se o f T im u r . now i n
t h e B r i t i s h Museum ( P l a t e L X l ) .
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d e p ic ts a
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h a s been c o n je c tu re d t h a t in
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o f th e th e o r ig in a l
p l a c e w h e re t h e t h r e e a r e
s e a t e d . ' ’®
T h i s p i e c e w as o b v i o u s l y a w o rk o f H u m a y u n 's r e i g n , a n d i s
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a t t e s t a t i o n o f t h a t M u g h al e m p e r o r 's p r i d e i n h i s d e s c e n t fro m T im u r .
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T i m u r 's d e s c e n d a n t s down t o H um ayun. d i a t e fa m ily g ro u p i n s e r t e d i n t o
T h a t J a h a n g i r h a d h i s imme
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w ith th e r o o t s o f h i s a n c e s t r y . As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , m a n u s c rip ts f u n c tio n e d a s a r e f l e c t i o n im p lic a tio n s o f th e f r o n tis p ie c e s Nama p l a c e S h a h J a h a n i n is re a lly
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o f h i s own s e l f e s t e e m .
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a so m ew h at s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n , f o r i t
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h e w is h e s t o
e s ta b lis h .
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a fe w s u b t l e d e v i c e s w h ic h p o r t r a y S h a h J a h a n a s t n e m o re g r a n d i o s e and m a g n ific e n t p e rs o n .
S h a h J a h a n ' s t h r o n e i s m uch m o re e l a b o r a t e
a n d m o re f i n e l y o r n a m e n te d t h a t t h a t o f T im u r ; i t
is
T h e i n l a i d j e w e l s a n d c a r v i n g s a r e m o re i n t r i c a t e l y a r e m o re p r o f u s e ;
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a ls o la r g e r . l a i d o u t and
c u s h io n s a r e o f a r i c h e r q u a l i t y .
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He
80
a ls o h a s an a d d i tio n a l f o o t s t o o l t h a t i s n o t fo u n d i n th e o th e r . On h i s b o d y S h a h J a h a n w e a r s a g r e a t e r a m o u n t o f j e w e l l r y , a n d t h e b a c k g ro u n d a r e a o f a n a tm o s p h e r ic a lly r e n d e r e d sk y a d d s a c e r t a i n d y n am ism a n d o p u l e n c e t h a t i s
a b s e n t in th e p la in tu rq u o is e
g r o u n d b e h i n d T im u r . • P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c r a f t y d e v i c e i s th e h a lo .
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t h a t r a y s o f l i g h t e m a n a te f r o m i t ,
th a t of
u n d e n ia b le to th e p o in t
T i m u r 's h a l o i s l e s s c e r t a i n .
T he c i r c u l a r o b j e c t b e h i n d h i s h e a d c o u l d b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a lo , a p la in one o f c o u rs e , b u t i t
of a
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p a r t o f th e tr a p p i n g s o f th e b a c k r e s t t o h i s th r o n e .
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n a t u r e , S h a h J a h a n w as n o t t o b e o u t d o n e , n o t e v e n b y t h i s v e n e ra te d a n c e s to r .
P a la c e S cen es Of t h e e v e n t s t h a t t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e p a l a c e s , a r e d a r b a r s (a u d ie n c e s c e n e s ) tio n s .
and sc e n e s o f f e s t i v a l s
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.B o th t h e s e t y p e s o f e v e n t s c o n s i t u t e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t
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w e re h e l d s e v e r a l t i m e s a d a y , w h e re e a c h s e s s i o n w as d e v o t e d t o a s p e c if ic p u rp o se .
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o r g a n i z e d f e s t i v a l s w e re c a l l e d f o r .
t o o w hen l a r g e
T h ese in c lu d e d n o t o n ly
s p e c i a l e v e n t s s u c h a s t h e w e d d in g o f o n e o f t h e p r i n c e s , b u t a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e a n n u a l c e re m o n y o f t h e w e ig h i n g o f t h e e m p e ro r a g a i n s t v a r i o u s c o m m o d it ie s .
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81
a u d ie n c e s and f e s t i v a l s d e e p ly r o o te d i n
In a d d itio n ,
t h e s e e v e n t s w e re a l s o
t h e M u g h a l t e n e t s o f g o v e r n m e n t, a s w e l l a s i n
th e b e l i e f s an d s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f th e tim e .
D arb ars T he g r e a t .
m a jo r ity o f th e p a in tin g s i n
t h e W in d s o r
C a s t l e B a d s h a h Mama a r e d e v o t e d t o e v e n t s t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e m a n n e r i n w h ic h a f f a i r s o f s t a t e w e r e m a n a g e d .
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s c e n e s , f o r m a l a u d i e n c e s h e l d d a i l y w h e re m a t t e r s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d s t a t e p o l i c i e s w e re d i s c u s s e d and s e t t l e d . w e re c o n d u c t e d n o t o n l y w i t h r e g u l a r i t y , o b se rv a n c e to s t r i c t l y
T hese d a rb a rs
b u t a ls o w ith a g r e a t
p re s c rib e d r u le s o f e tiq u e tte
b e h a v io r.
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th e day to
day
an d m odes o f
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can be q u i t e e a s i l y
u n d e r s t o o d why p r o p e r p r o t o c o l w as c o n s i d e r e d a n e c e s s i t y . F u rth e rm o re , i n l i g h t o f w hat h a s a lr e a d y b e e n d is c u s s e d a b o u t th e s e l f im a g e o f t h e M u g h al e m p e r o r s , S h a h J a h a n i n
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t h e m e n t a l i t y o f M u g h al
a s a w h o le . T h e r e a r e f o u r t e e n p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t
t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t o t a l o f tw e lv e s e p a r a te d a r b a r s ,
e a c h o f th e m
b e i n g o n e w h e re som e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c i d e n t t o o k p l a c e . i t y • o f th em w e re h e l d a t A g r a , e i t h e r i n
The m a j o r
th e p u b lic o r th e
p r i v a t e a u d i e n c e c h a m b e r s , a n d t h e r e s t to o k p l a c e a t A jm i r ,
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82
L ah o re an d B u rh a n p u r. s ib le
F rom t h e p a i n t i n g s t h e m s e l v e s , i t
i s im p o s
to d e r iv e an a c c u r a te o r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s e h a l l s ,
f o r n o tw o p a i n t i n g s a r e i d e n t i c a l , th e a r c h i te c t u r a l
o n e c a n g e t som e i d e a a s t o
s t r u c t u r e o f th e p la c e , b u t n o t o f th e d e c o ra
ti v e tra p p in g s .
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a f t e r th e f a c t ,
a n d w e re t h e r e f o r e n o t o n - t h e - s p o t r e c o r d i n g s , i t
i s n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t th e y a r e n o t tr u e to l i f e d e v i a t i o n vwas
d e p ic tio n s .
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n o t a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n t o S h a h J a h a n , who w as l e s s
p re o c c u p ie d w ith t r u e r e a l i s m
t h a n h e w as w i t h t h e o v e r a l l im a g e
o f m a g n ific e n c e an d s p le n d o r .
A l l o f t h e s e d a r b a r s w e re p a i n t e d
in
t h a t v e r y p r e c i s e a n d a l m o s t p e r f e c t m a n n e r w h ic h i s
is tic
o f th e f i n e s t p h a s e o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g .
are a ll c re a te s
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s t r u c t u r e d a n a s y m m e t r i c a l l y b a l a n c e d , w h ic h
a v e ry s ta b le and o rd e re d a p p e a ra n c e .
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d u c e s a s e n s e o f m a j e s t y , a t o t a l im a g e o f g r a n d e u r , w h e re t h e e m p e ro r r e i g n s a b o v e h i s p e o p l e .
S h a h J a h a n 's p o s i t i o n , n o t o n l y
i n th e c e n t e r o f th e c o m p o s itio n , b u t a ls o
s e a te d above th e c o u r t
i e r s who o b e d i e n t l y s t a n d i n r o w s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r a n k s w i t h i n t h e c o u r t , f u r t h e r e n h a n c e s t h i s im a g e .
One g e t s t h e i m p r e s s i o n
o f e v e ry th in g b e in g u n d e r p e r f e c t c o n t r o l . T he r u l e s th e b e h a v io r th e r e in
and r e g u la tio n s o f c o u r t a tte n d a n c e and
se rv e d a d u al fu n c tio n ;
o f p r o v o k in g a n i n t i -
m ia a tin g a u r a o f o r d e r on th e one h a n d , an d o f h a v in g an o r d e r l y fra m e w o rk w i t h i n w h ic h t h e on th e o th e r .
em p ero r c o u ld e x e r c i s e h i s c o n t r o l ,
On t h e l e v e l o f a p p e a r a n c e s ,
th is
p ro v e d to b e v e r y
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83
s u c c e s s fu l.
One i s g i v e n t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f a n e v i d e n t l y im p o s e d
a u t h o r i t y fro m th e p r e s e n c e o f S h ah J a n a n .
H o w e v e r, i n r e a l i t y
t h i s w as n o t t h e c a s e ; a s t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d h a s show n i t to be o th e rw is e . th e
R e b e l l i o n fro m w i t h i n h i s own f a m i l y t o r e a p a r t
s tr e n g th o f th e a d m in is tr a tio n , and h is m i l i t a r y
m et w ith fe w e r v i c t o r i e s as h is t i t l e
c a m p a ig n s
th a n w hat o n e i s l e d to b e l i e v e .
H ow ever
S hah J a h a n im p lie d , h e b e l i e v e d h im s e lf to b e 'k i n g
o f th e w o r l d ', an d s tr o v e t o b e p e r c e iv e d a s s u c h .
In th is re s -
p e c t h e w as m o s t s u c c e s s f u l . O f t h e tw e lv e d a r b a r e v e n ts i n fiv e
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
o f th e m r e c o u n t i n c i d e n t s fro m t h e p r i n c e h o o d o f S h ah J a h a n *
T h e y w e re i n t r o d u c e d h e r e a s
a m e a n s o f d r a w in g p a r a l l e l s w i t h a
c u rre n t in c id e n t,
o f a d d in g a n o te o f p r e s t i g e
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i l l u s t r i o u s c a r e e r o f Shah J a h a n . chosen f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n
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T h e d a r b a r s fro m h i s p r i n c e h o o d
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w e re t h e d e p a r
t u r e a n d r e t u r n o f P r i n c e K h u rra m f ro m t h e c a m p a ig n a g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar; t h e c o n f e r r a l o f t h e t i t l e s
'S h a h *
a n d 'S h a h J a h a n '
u p o n P r i n c e K h u rra m ; a n d t h e
d e p a r t u r e o f K h u rram f o r t h e D e c c a n
1620.
a c c e s s i o n w e re t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f K han
The d a r b a r s a f t e r h i s
a n d t h e p r i n c e s f ro m L a h o r e i n 1628; t h e N a u ro z d a r b a r o f 1629 w hen I r a d a t K han w as t r a n s f e r r e d t o
t h e D eccan*
th e r e c e p tio n o f
t h e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r Muahmmad A l i B eg a t B u r h a n p u r i n 1631; t h e a r r i v a l o f th e P o rtu g u e s e w ith 1632;
tr ib u te o ffe rin g s in
th e d e p a r t u r e o f S h ah S h u ja f o r t h e D eccan i n 1 6 3 3 .
d e p a r t u r e o f A u ran g zeb f o r th e D eccan i n
th e
1635; a n d h i s r e t u r n i n
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84
1637 . I t c a n e a s i l y "be s e e n t h a t o c c u p a tio n w ith D eccan i a f f a i r s .
th e p a in tin g s r e v e a l a p re
T h is t e r r i t o r y
h a d a lw a y s b e e n
a s o r e s p o t f o r t h e M u g h a ls , who e n c o u n t e r e d m uch d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o g a i n d o m in a n c e t h e r e *
T h is o b s e s s io n to
g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e D e c c a n f i r s t b e g a n d u r i n g A k b a r 1s r e i g n , a n d h e w as a b l e t o a n n e x K h a n d e s h a n d B e r a r a n d t o t e m p o r a r i l y c o n q u e r 32 A h m ad ab ad . J
J a h a n g i r c o u l d o n l y p u t t e m p o r a r y c h e c k s on A h m ad abad,
and h i s r e ig n d id n o t r e a l l y th is
d ire c tio n .
m o re s u c c e s s . some r e s u l t s ,
s e e a n y e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e e m p ir e i n
U n d e r SUah J a h a n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as s l i g h t l y H is o n s l a u g h t s i n t o
th e
s o u t h e r n k in g d o m s y i e l d e d
a n d b y t h e e n d o f h i s r e i g n , K h a n d e s h , B e r a r , Ahmada
b a d a n d G o lc o n d a w e re a l l p a r t o f t h e e m p i r e . an
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t h e i r p h y s ic a l p r e s e n ta tio n s and th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e e v e n ts chosen f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n .
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s a id th a t th e tr u e r a is o n d 'e t r e o f th e c o n s ta n t exchange o f en v o y s, o v er a n d a b o v e t h e p u r s u i t o f s e c r e t i n f o r m a t i o n , w as t h e d e s i r e o f e i t h e r p a r ty to im p re s s th e o th e r w ith g ra n d e u r .* ^ A lth o u g h a c c o m p a n ie d b y a r e t i n u e
o f g i f t b e a rin g s e rv a n ts ,
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p e rso n a l v ic to ry . T h e se d a r b a r s c e n e s n o t o n ly p r o v id e an i l l u s t r a t e d a c c o u n t o f t h e m i l i e u w h e r e t h e m a k in g o f s t a t e p o l i c i e s t o o k p l a c e , b u t a l s o g i v e a n i d e a a s t o w h a t w as c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m ost im p o rta n t e v e n ts o f th o s e y e a r s .
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d e s i r e t o g a in c o n t r o l o v e r th e D e ccan , f o llo w e d by t h e e x e r t i o n o f t h e M u g h a ls ’ s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e to w a r d s t h e n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e s . H o w e v e r, t h e t r u e m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d b y t h e s e p a i n t i n g s f o c u s e s n o t s o m uch on t h e g l o r i o u s
c o n d i tio n o f th e e m p ire , b u t on th e
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p e r s o n a l i t y o f S h a h J a h a n , who i s
t h e d o m in a n t f i g u r e t h r o u g h o u t .
A u d ie n c e s w e r e h e l d on a d a i l y b a s i s , a n d t h e r e w ere u s u a lly
s e v e r a l a u d ie n c e s eac h d a y .
to o k p l a c e v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o Ja h a n h a d f o u r a u d ie n c e s a d a y , p u r p o s e , a n d w e re h e l d i n fo u r a u d ie n c e s ,
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a d i f f e r e n t h a l l o f th e p a l a c e . Of th e s e
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o t h e r w as a n a p p e a r a n c e a t t h e p a l a c e b a l c o n y . o f th e c a p i t a l c i t i e s
o f th e
e m p ire w e re v a r i o u s c h a m b e rs s p e c i a l l y
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35
'd a r s h *
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a l i v e and w e ll.
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s i d e w h ic h f a c e d t h e r i v e r ,
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w as a l a r g e a r e a w h e re t h e p u b l i c g a t h e r e d t o
s e e th e em p ero r.
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
88
When h e a p p e a r e d ., h e w o u ld b e g r e e t e d b y s h o u t s o f 'P a d s h a h S a l a m a t ' , m e a n in g l o n g l i v e
th e k in g .
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t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c w e re h e a r d , p r o v i d i n g t h a t a w r i t t e n p e t i t i o n w as f i r s t p r e s e n t e d .
L a h a u ri s ta te d th a t:
t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n w as t h e i n n o v a t i o n o f H a z r a t 'A r s h i A s h y a n i ( i . e . A k b a r), a n d i t h a s b e e n c o n tin u e d by h i s M a je s ty a l s o , so t h a t t h e p e o p l e m i g h t g e t t h e b l e s s i n g o f s e e i n g t h e k i n g b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e i r d a i l y w o rk , a n d t h e n e e d y a n d t h e o p p r e s s e d may g e t j u s t i c e a n d r e d r e s s w i t h o u t f o r m a l i t y o r h in d e re n c e .5 7 A lth o u g h i n
t h e o r y t h i s m o r n in g a p p e a r a n c e g a v e t h e s e m b le n c e o f
a f a i r a n d d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t w h e re e v e n t h e common p e o p l e h ad d i r e c t a c c e s s to f o r a d m is s io n t o a c c e s s ib le to and th e r e i s
t n e k i n g , i n p r a c t i c e i t w as n o t t h e c a s e ,
t h e e n c l o s u r e b e n e a t h t h e p a l a c e w indow w as o n l y
t h o s e who h a d f a v o r a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e g u a r d s , e v i d e n c e t h a t S h a h J a h a n c o m p la in e d o f n o t b e i n g a b l e
t o o b t a i n e v e n tw e n t y p e t i t i o n s a d a y . ^
From t i m e t o t i m e e l e
p h a n t f i g h t s a n d o t h e r s p o r t i n g e v e n t s w e re h e l d d u r i n g t h i s m o r n in g a u d i e n c e , a n d i n t o t a l i t w o u ld l a s t f o r a b o u t a n h o u r . 59 T he s e c o n d a u d i e n c e o f t h e d a y , w h ic h w as a d a r b a r , to o k p l a c e i n t h e d i w a n - i - k h a s - o - a m , t h e ro o m o f p u b l i c a u d i e n c e s . T h i s w as a p u b l i c d a r b a r w h e re m a t t e r s o f t h e d a y w e re r e v i e w e d , a p p o in tm e n ts m ade, d i g n i t a r i e s an d f o r e i g n e m i s s a r i e s p r e s e n te d , and d e p a rtm e n ta l and p r o v in c ia l r e p o r ts f i l e d . a t h r o n e t h a t w as p l a c e d o n a r a i s e d p l a t f o r m l o c a t e d a lo n g th e b a c k w a ll o f th e h a l l .
S h a h J a h a n s a t on w h ic h w as c e n t r a l l y
A c o n te m p o ra ry h i s t o r i a n ,
C h a n d a rb h a n , h a s l e f t th e f o ll o w i n g v e r y v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c e re m o n y t h a t t o o k p l a c e a t t h e s e a u d i e n c e s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
89
Of h i s a u s p i c i o u s a p p r o a c h ( a c c o r d i n g t o e s t a b l i s h e d c u s to m , fro m t h e m u s ic g a l l e r y s i t u a t e d i n f r o n t o f t h e a u g u s t J e h r o K a h ), t h e k e t t l e d r u m o f j o y p r o c l a i m s t n e fam e a l o u d . I n th e f i r s t p l a c e , c o n f o r m a b ly t o t h e r u l e s o f t h i s m i g h ty e m p ir e , p a s s i n r e v i e w , f l e e t s t e e d s , w i t h i n l a i d a n d e n a m e ll e d f u r n i t u r e ; re n o w n e d e l e p h a n t s , r e s e m b l i n g m o u n t a i n s , a n d d e c k e d i n c o m p le te t r a p p i n g s o r n a m e n te d w i t h g o l d a n d p r e c i o u s s to n e s . T hen th e p r i n c e s o f h ig h d e s c e n t , a g r e e a b ly t o t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e r a n k s , h av e p e rm is sio n to be s e a te d n e a r th e im p e ria l th ro n e . A f t e r w h ic h t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s , — K h a n s , O m arah , a n d M i r z a s . . . , th e m i n i s t e r s o f s t a t e , v i z i e r s . . . , t h e p r i n c i p a l n o b i l i t y , p u b l i c o f f i c e r s , g e n t le m e n o f t h e s w o rd a n d o f th e p e n ...S y e d s o f h ig h d e g r e e , g r e a t S h e ik h s .. . to g e th e r w ith th o s e o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . . . a s w e ll a s th e v a r io u s c h a ra c t e r s o f H in d o o s ta n .. . a g r e e a b ly to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e ra n k , s t a t i o n , d ig n ity , o f f i c e , c o n d itio n and q u a l i t y , b e in g a rra n g e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e s , th e y h av e n o t th e pow er to s t i r o r to s p e a k m o re t h a n i s b eco m m in g t h e i r s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r s . T he b u s i n e s s o f t h i s d a r b a r w as m a i n l y f o r r o u t i n e m a tte rs .
F i r s t th e s e c r e t a r i e s r e a d o u t t h e i r m in u te s , th e n th e
b a k h s h i s ( p a y m a s t e r g e n e r a l s o f t h e a rm y ) m ade r e c o m m e n d a tio n s c o n c e rn in g p o s tin g s o r in c re m e n ts r e l a t i v e Any o f f i c e r s wno h a p p e n e d t o
to
th e v a rio u s o f f i c e r s .
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t h e p r o v i n c e s w o u ld b e p r e s e n t e d a t t h i s
tim e .
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r e p o r t cam e t h o s e o f t h e S a d r - i - k u l ( t h e c h i e f m i n i s t e r o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l and j u d i c i a l a f f a i r s ) ,
and h i s
s u b s e q u e n t reco m m en d a
t i o n s f o r p r o m o t io n s a n d s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s . ^
w h en t h e s e m a t t e r s
w e re c o n c l u d e d , f o r e i g n a m b a s s a d o r s w e re t h e n r e c e i v e d . t h e y w e re a c c o m p a n ie d b y a r e t i n u e in s ta n c e can be seen in
fo lio
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JQv o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e
r e c e p t i o n o f Muhammad A l i B e g , t h e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , a t B u r h a n a p u r.
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th e m s e lv e s a t c o u r t to d i s p l a y t h e i r m e rc h a n d is e .
42
F o llo w in g
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90
t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n s came t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r n o b l e s t o f i l e p e rso n a l p e titio n s .
th e ir
On s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s , p r i n c e s o r n o b l e s
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T h i s w as o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t f o r m s o f h o n o r t o b e
b e s to w e d u p o n a p e r s o n .
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s e e s P r i n c e K h u rram b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o J a h a n g i r , b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r e m b a r k in g u p o n m i l i t a r y
c a m p a ig n s .
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so n s d u r in g th e tr o u b le d d ay s p re c e e d in g th e a c c e s
s io n to th e th r o n e , i s h e r e b e in g p r e s e n te d on th e b a lc o n y o f th e a u d ie n c e h a l l a s a to k e n o f g r a t i t u d e an d r e c o g n i t io n f o r h i s c o u rag e o u s a c t . The n e x t a u d i e n c e o f t h e d a y t o o k p l a c e i n a f t e r n o o n , a n d w as h e l d a u d ie n c e h a l l . th e v a k i l ,
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I t w as a p r i v a t e d a r b a r w h e re t h e t o p m i n i s t e r s —
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w h ic h c o u l d n o t b e p u b l i c l y tra n s a c te d ,
d a u la t-k h a n a -i-k h a s ,
th e
b ro u g h t u p .45
o b j e c t s fro m th e t r e a s u r y ,
T he b u s i n e s s b e i n g
th e r o y a l l i b r a r i e s
and
t h e f a c t o r i e s w e re t h e n b r o u g h t o u t f o r d i s p l a y a n d i n s p e c t i o n . Among t h e s e o b j e c t s w e re j e w e l s , g e m s, m a n u s c r i p t s , a lb u m s , p a in tin g s ,
c a llig ra p h ic
s p e c im e n s , v a r i o u s a r m s , s w o r d s a n d g u n s ,
an d an a s s o r tm e n t o f r a r e m e rc h a n d is e su c h a s f i n e
s i l k s and
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c a rp e ts .
P o e ts ,
th e ir s k ills ,
a rtis ts
a n d a r t i s a n s w e re c a l l e d u p o n t o e x h i b i t
w h i l e w i s e a n d l e a r n e d men w e re a s k e d t o p r o v e t h e i r
k n o w le d g e i n d i s c u s s i o n s a n d d e b a t e s o n v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s . ^ 4 w as a l s o
s p e n t i n a p p ro v in g and c r i t i c i z i n g
Tim e
t h e p l a n s f o r n e w ly
p r o p o s e d r o y a l b u i l d i n g s t h a t w e re p r e s e n t e d b y t h e a r c h i t e c t s and e n g in e e rs .
T h is a s s e m b ly u s u a l l y l a s t e d
a b o u t tw o h o u r s .
T h e f i n a l a u d i e n c e o f t h e d a y t o o k p l a c e im m e d i a t e l y a f t e r th e e v e n in g p r a y e r s , th e p r i v a t e c h am b ers.
a n d w as h e l d i n t h e d a u l a t k h a n a - i - k h a s ,
A t t e n d a n c e a t t h i s d a r b a r w as m uch s m a l l e r
t h a n a t t h e m o r n in g o n e , f o r t h i s w as b a s i c a l l y a c o u n c i l w h e re o n l y m i n i s t e r s a n d a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f h i g h o f f i c i a l s w e re p re s e n t. ro u tin e ,
45
A lth o u g h m o s t o f t h e b u s i n e s s c o n d u c t e d h e r e w as a l s o
i t w as o f a m o re p r i v a t e n a t u r e ,
w as w i t h s t a t e
p o lic ie s .
in v i te d to a tte n d ,
b e in g c o n c e rn e d as i t
S o m e tim e s f o r e i g n d i g n i t a r i e s w e re a l s o
a n d t h i s w as r e g a r d e d a s a m a rk o f h i g h h o n o r .
T he F r e n c h t r a v e l l e r , a n d p h y s i c i a n , B e r n i e r , who s p e n t tim e a t t h e M u g h al c o u r t d u r i n g t h e l a s t d a y s o f S h a h J a h a n ' s r e i g n a n d d u r i n g A u r a n g z e b 's , h a s l e f t t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n : T he h a l l i s , h o w e v e r , v e r y h a n d s o m e , s p a c i o u s , g i l t a n d p a i n t e d , a n d r a i s e d 4 ^ 5 F r e n c h f e e t f ro m t h e p a v e m e n t, li k e a la r g e p la tfo rm . I t i s i n t h i s p l a c e t h a t t h e K in g , s e a t e d i n a c h a i r , h i s U m rahs s t a n d i n g a r o u n d h im , g r a n t s m o re p r i v a t e a u d i e n c e s t o h i s o f f i c e r s , r e c e i v e s t h e i r ^ r e p o r t s , a n d d e l i b e r a t e s on im p o r ta n t a f f a i r s o f s t a t e . C o u rt a u d ie n c e s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t, w e re i n
a s p a r t o f t h e w o r k in g f u n c t i o n s o f
t h e m s e l v e s c e r e m o n ie s w h ic h w e re s u b j e c t e d
t o m any r a t n e r s t r i n g e n t r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s . c o m p u ls o r y f o r t h e o f f i c i a l s
A t t e n d a n c e w as
and m i n is te r s a t ta c h e d
to th e c ity
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c o u rt,
a n d a h e a v y p u n is h m e n t w as m e t o u t t o t h o s e who f a i l e d
m ake a n a p p e a r a n c e .
to
On t h e w h o le , p e o p l e d i d n o t m i s s t h e d a r b a r s ,
n o t so m uch fro m t h e f e a r o f i n c u r r i n g t h e h e a v y f i n e — w h ic h w as t h e p u n is h m e n t f o r a b s e n c e — b u t f r o m t h e f e a r o f l o s i n g and f a c e .
honor
As A b u l F a z l s o a p t l y s t a t e d * -
A d m it ta n c e t o t h e „ c o u r t i s n a tio n a t la r g e . 4 F u rth e rm o re ,
a d is tin c tio n
c o n fe rre d on th e
b e i n g p r e s e n t a t d a r b a r s w as a s i g n t h a t o n e w as i n
t h e e m p e r o r 's f a v o r .
If
a n o b l e w e re t o i n c u r t h e e m p e r o r 's d i s -
p l e a s u r e , h e w o u ld b e f o r b i d d e n t o b e p r e s e n t a t f u t u r e d a r b a r s . D u r in g t h e a u d i e n c e s , n o o n e w as a l l o w e d t o
s p e a k o r m ove w i t h o u t
p r i o r p e rm is s io n . I n e v e r y q u a r t e r b e tw e e n t h e o u t e r a n d t h e i n n e r b a l l u s t r a d e a r e s t a t i o n e d a c t i v e i4 e e r T o o z e k s a n d Y i s s a w u l s , b e a r i n g w an d s o f g o l d a n d s i l v e r , i n l a i d a n d e n a m e l l e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e K h id m u tte a h a n d t h e i n f a n t r y , who t a k e p r o p e r c a r e t h a t n o i n d i v i d u a l c a n p o s s i b l y m ove o u t o f h i s p l a c e . 4 -' S im ila rly ,
e a c h p e r s o n h a d h i s a s s i g n e d s p o t w h ic h w as d e t e r m i n e d
by h is ra n k and p o s iti o n
w i t h i n t h e g o v e r n m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e .
e m p e ro r w as t h e o n l y p e r s o n who w as s e a t e d , c h a i r w as a lw a y s on a r a i s e d p la tf o r m ev e ry b o d y e l s e .
The
and h i s th ro n e o r
s o t h a t h e w o u ld b e a b o v e
O n ly t h e p r i n c e s a n d a h a n d f u l o f f a v o r e d h i g h
r a n k in g n o b le s w e re p e r m i tt e d to s ta n d on th e p la tf o r m .
50
A t t e n d a n c e a t c o u r t w as s u b j e c t e d t o a s e t c o d e o f b e h a v io r an d fo rm a l e t i q u e t t e .
T h e se m a n n e rs h a d b e e n d e c r e e d a t
th e o n s e t o f th e M ughal r u l e i n I n d i a , m in o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s u n d e r e a c h e m p e r o r .
a n d w as s u b j e c t e d o n l y t o T he m o s t c o m p le te d o c u
m e n ta tio n o f th e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s o f th e c o u r t a r e fo u n d in
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93
A b u l F a z l 1s A i n - i - A k b a r i a n d i n
t h e C h a r C h arm an o f C h a n d ra b h a n
a r e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c o u r t c e r e m o n ie s a t w h ic h t h e s e r u l e s a r e a p p lie d .
When t h e e m p e r o r e n t e r e d t h e a u d i e n c e h a l l ,
a l l th e
p e o p l e p r e s e n t p e r f o r m e d t h e s a l u t a t i o n know n a s t h e k o r n i s h , w h ic h r e q u i r e d t h e p a lm o f t h e r i g h t h a n d t o b e p l a c e d u p o n t h e fo re h e a d and f o r th e h ead to
be b e n t d o w n w a rd s .
T h i s m ode o f s a l u t a t i o n . . . s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e s a l u t e r h a s p l a c e d h i s h e a d ( w h ic h i s t h e s e a t o f t h e s e n s e a n d t h e m in d ) i n t o t h e h a n d o f h u m i l i t y , g i v i n g i t t o t h e r o y a l a s s e m b ly a s a p r e s e n t , a n d h a s m ade h i m s e l f i n o b e d i e n c e a n d r e a d y f o r a n y s e r v i c e t h a t may b e r e q u i r e d o f h im . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l e x a m p le s i n k o m is h i s p e rfo rm e d , and i t fo lio
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w h e re t h e is
q u ite c le a r ly i l l u s t r a t e d in
4 8 v b y t h e m an o n t h e e l e p h a n t .
When o n e w as p r e s e n t e d t o
o r w as t a k i n g l e a v e o f t h e e m p e r o r , a n d w hen a g i f t , o r h o n o r w as b e s to w e d , show n,
a g e s tu re o f r e s p e c t,
D u r in g S h a h J a h a n ' s r e i g n ,
title ,
fa v o r,
th e ta s lim , had to be
f o u r t a s l i m s w e re p e r f o r m e d
a t th e s e o c c a s io n . T he s a l u t a t i o n c a l l e d t h e t a s l i m , c o n s i s t e d i n p l a c i n g t h e b a c k o f t h e r i g h t h a n d on t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e n r a i s i n g i t g e n t l y t i l l t h e p e r s o n s t a n d s e r e c t , w hen h e p u t s t h e p a lm o f h i s h a n d u p o n t h e c ro w n o f h i s h e a d , w h ic h p l e a s i n g m anner o f s a l u t i n g s i g n i f i e s t h a t he i s re a d y t o g iv e h im s e lf a s an o f f e r i n g . F o lio
214 v i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
f o r th e D eccan, i l l u s t r a t e s
th e ta s lim
t h e d e p a r t u r e o f A u ra n g z e b m anner of s a l u t a t i o n .
P r o s t r a t i o n b e fo re th e th ro n e ( s i j d a ) t h e g ro u n d
( z a m in b o s ) w e re a l s o
and k is s in g
o th e r g e s tu r e s o f o b e d ie n c e t h a t
w e re p e r f o r m e d b y c o u r t i e r s u p t i l l
th e r e ig n o f J a h a n g ir ;
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th e y
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w e re a b o l i s h e d b y S h a h
J a h a n .
53
T h e s i j d a h s a n d t h e z a m in b o s w e re
b o r r o w e d b y t h e M u g h a ls , p r o b a b l y d u r i n g A k b a r 's r e i g n , fro m e x i s t i n g H in d u c u s to m s ,
an d i n S hah J a h a n 's d e s i r e t o p u rs u e a
m o re o r th o d o x I s l a m i c p o l i c y , h e e n s u r e d t h a t h i s r e f o r m s so x ig h t to
e r a d i c a t e m any o f t h e u n - I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e s . ^
P rom t h e L u b b u t
T a w a r i k h - i H in d by B i n d r a b a n , a h i s t o r i a n o f A u r a n g z e b 's r e i g n , com es t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t o f S h ah J a h a n ' s r e f o r m
of th is p ra c tic e .
I t h a s l o n g b e e n c u s to m a r y w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h i s s t a t e t o p r o s t r a t e t h e m s e l v e s b e f o r e t h e K in g i n g r a t e f u l r e t u r n f o r a n y r o y a l f a v o u r s c o n f e r r e d o n th e m , a n d o n t h e r e c e i p t o f r o y a l m a n d a t e s . T h i s j u s t K in g ( s h a h J a h a n ) , o n h i s a c c e s s i o n t o t h e t h r o n e , com m anded t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e s h o u l d b e a b o l i s h e d , a n d a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f M a h a b a t K han ( K h a n - k h a n a n ) , h e e s ta b lis h e d in s te a d th e p r a c tic e o f k is s in g th e g ro u n d . T h is a l s o b e i n g a f t e r w a r d s f o u n d e q u a l l y o b j e c t i o n a b l e , t h e K in g , a c tu a te d by h i s d e v o tio n and p i e t y , o rd e re d t h a t i t lik e w is e s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d ; a n d t h a t t h e u s u a l m o se o f s a l u t a t i o n b y b o w in g a n d t o u c h i n g t h e h e a d s h o u l d b e r e s t o r e d , w i t h t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , t h a t , i n s t e a d o f d o in g so o n ly o n c e , a s b e f o r e , th e a c t s h o u ld be p e rfo rm e d t h r i c e s e v e r a l tim e s . C irc u la r o r a e r s , e n f o r c i n g t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f t h i s p r a c t i c e , w e re is s u e d to a l l th e G o v e rn o rs w ith in th e r o y a l d o m in i o n s .5 5 T he s m o o th f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e w as m a i n t a i n e d n o t o n l y b y t h e s e r e g u l a r l y
s ta te
s c h e d u le d c o u r t a u d i
e n c e s , b u t a l s o b y a b o d y o f v a r i o u s m i n i s t e r s who w e re r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s e p a r a t e s e c t o r o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , who i n h a d lo w e r r a n k e d o f f i c i a l s w o r k in g u n d e r th e m . t h e s t a t e w e re d i v i d e d i n t o re v e n u e , th e m i lit a r y , ju d ic ia l,
tu rn
T he f u n c t i o n s o f
fo u r p rin c ip a l u n its of c o n tro l:
t h e p u b l i c w o rk s a n d i n d u s t r i e s ,
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l d e p a r t m e n t s .5 6
w as i n t h e c h a r g e o f t h e d i v a n ; m i l i t a r y
th e
and th e R evenue
t h a t o f th e m ir b a k s h i;
p u b l i c w o rk s t h a t o f t h e m i r s a m a n ; a n d t h e j u d i c i a l t h a t o f t h e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
95
sa d r.
T h e s e f o u r m i n i s t e r s w e re r e s p o n s i b l e t o
t h e w a z i r , who n o t
o n l y saw t h a t t h e y c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d u t i e s , b u t a c t e d a s t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n t h e e m p e r o r a n d t h e m i n i s t e r s . 57 U n d o u b te d ly , in
t h e w a z i r w as t n e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n
th e e m p ire , f o r th e e m p e ro r h a d t o h a v e c o m p le te t r u s t a n d
c o n f i d e n c e i n h im .
S h a ll J a h a n h a d o n l y o n e w a z i r , h i s f a t h e r i n
la w A s a f K h a n , a n d w hen t h e l a t t e r d i e d i n
th e 1 5 th y e a r o f th e
r e i g n , S h a h J a h a n p r e f e r e d t o l e a v e t h e p o s t v a c a n t . 5® F i v e m en h e l d t h e p o s t o f d i v a n u n d e r t h e r e i g n o f Shah Ja h a n .
T h ey w e re I r a d a t K han ( 1 s t y e a r ) , A f z a l K han ( 2 n d t o
1 2 th y e a r s ) ,
I s l a m K h an ( 1 3 t h t o 1 9 t h y e a r s ) ,
to
3 0 th y e a r s ) ,
S a ' d u l l a h K han ( 1 9 t h
and R a i R ayan f o r th e re m a in d e r o f th e r e i g n .
T he d u t i e s o f a d i v a n w e re o f a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n a t u r e .
N ot o n ly
w as h e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g f i n a n c e a n d r e v e n u e , b u t a ls o f o r th e a u t h o r i s a tio n a n d s t a t e d o c u m e n ts . 59 tra tio n ,
o f a p p o in tm e n ts , o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s
y h i l e th e d iv a n d e a l t w ith s t a t e a d m in is
t h e m i r b a k s h i r w as i n
h a n d le d th e r e g i s t r a t i o n
c h a rg e o f m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s .
He
a n d p a y m e n t f o r t h e a rm y , m ade reco m m en
d a t i o n s f o r p ro m o tio n s an d a p p o in tm e n ts w ith i n t h e r a n k s , e n s u r e d t h e m a in te n a n c e o f th e h o r s e s an d e q u ip m e n t. h a d e i g h t m i r b a k h s h i r * S a d iq K han ( 1 s t t o 6 t h y e a r s ) ,
and
Shah J a h a n Is la m
K han ( 6 t h t o 8 t h y e a r s ) , M ir J u m a la ( 8 t h t o 1 0 t h y e a r s ) , M utammad K han ( 1 0 t h t o 1 3 t h y e a r s ) ,
S a l a b a t K h an ( 1 3 t h t o 1 7 t h y e a r s ) ,
A s a l a t K han ( 1 7 t h t o 2 0 t h y e a r s ) , J a f a r K han ( 2 0 t h t o 2 3 r d y e a r s ) , a n d K h a l i l u l l a h K han ( 2 3 r d t o
3 0 th y e a r s ) .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
96
T he m i r sam an w as i n c h a r g e o f t h e k a r k h a n a s (m e a n in g lite ra lly
fa c to rie s )
an d s to r e s m a in ta in e d by th e c e n t r a l g o v e m -
m en t f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f th e s t a t e .
61
He saw t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g
and s t o r i n g o f g o o d s, n o t o n ly th o s e f o r i n d u s t r i a l n e e d s , b u t a ls o t h o s e w h ic h w e re n e c e s s a r y f o r d a i l y u s e . -
T h e r e w e re f i v e m en who
h e l d t h i s p o s i t i o n u n d e r S h a h J a h a n ; A f z a l K h an , M ir J u m a l a , A q.il K h an , S a d u l l a K han a n d M u lla a l a - u l M u lk ( a l s o know n a s F a i z a l K h an ),
m a m a s — o r d o c t o r s o f t h e la w — w e re a b o d y o f l e a r n e d
men who w e re e x p e r t s o n m a t t e r s o f t h e la w , b o t h s t a t e
and r e l i
g io u s .
an d in th e
T h ey w e re c o n s u l t e d i n m a t t e r s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n
te a c h in g o f Is la m ic p r in c i p le s . s ta te
a n d c o u n c i l w as t h e s a d r ,
t h a t a l l men f u l f i l l e d Is la m .
O n ly t h r e e
T h e ir r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
to th e
a n d h i s m a in f u n c t i o n w as t o e n s u r e
t h e i r d u ti e s a c c o rd in g to th e t e n e t s o f
s a d r s w e re a p p o i n t e d d u r i n g t n e r e i g n o f
S h ah J a h a n ; M u sa v i K han ( 1 s t t o 1 6 t h y e a r s ) ,
S a y y id S a d r B0k h a r i
2 0 t h y e a r s ) a n d S a y y id H i d a y a t u l l a ( 2 1 s t t o '}Qth
G u ja ra ti
(1 6 th to
y e a rs).
T h i s sum m ary o f t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f t h e
s ta te
sh o w s a
d i v i s i o n o f p o w e rs a n d d u t i e s w h ic h e l i m i n a t e s a n o v e r l a p p i n g o f fu n c tio n s , b ilitie s
to
and a t th e
sam e t i m e , b y g i v i n g o n l y l i m i t e d r e s p o n s i
e a c h s e c t o r o f a d m in is tr a t io n , p r e v e n ts any one
m i n i s t r y fro m e v e r b eco m m in g t o o p o w e r f u l . w as a b l e t o h a v e a w e l l s t r u c t u r e d p o w e rs w e re k e p t i n
I n t h i s way s h a h J a h a n
a d m in is tra tiv e
s y s te m
w h o se
check.
W ed d in g C e l e b r a t i o n s a n d F e s t i v a l s The o t h e r t y p e s o f s c e n e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
97
c o u r ts axe th e c e l e b r a ti o n s and f e s t i v a l s ,
w h ic h t o t a l a n u m b e r o f
e le v e n p a in tin g a , r e p r e s e n t in g f o u r s e p a r a te i n c i d e n t s . t h e s e a r e w e d d in g c e r e m o n i e s , a n d t h e o t h e r i s o f Shah J a h a n .
T h re e o f
a n a n n u a l w e ig h m e n t
S ix p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n s o f P a r a
S h i k o h 's w e d d in g - - i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e a r e t h e a c t u a l w e d d in g d a y a n d tw o p r e p a r a t o r y f e s t i v a l s — tw o r e p r e s e n t t h a t o f S h a h S h u j a , and one o f A u ra n g z e b ’ s .
The l a r g e - n u m b e r o f p a i n t i n g s a c c o r d e d t o
P a ra i s
te s tim o n y to h i s r e l a t i v e
Jahan.
N o t o n l y w as h e t h e e l d e s t s o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e h e i r
a p p a re n t to th e th r o n e , one s e n s e ,
b u t h e w as a l s o
t h e e y e s o f S h ah
th e f a v o r i t e
t h e o v e r w h e lm in g a t t e n t i o n t o P a r a i s
th e g e n e a lo g ic a l a n o th e r, i t
im p o rta n c e i n
c h ild .
a c a rry o v e r o f
c o n c e rn s e x p re s s e d i n tn e f r o n t i s p i e c e s ,
s e r v e d a s a m e an s o f i l l u s t r a t i n g
In
and in
t h e im m en se w e a l t h
o f th e c o u r t. M a rria g e a s an i n s t i t u t i o n m o s t a s t h e d u ty o f e v e r y M u s lim , p a r t i c u l a r c r e e d , w e re o b l i g e d t o
63
w as r e g a r d e d f i r s t
and f o r e -
a n d t h e M u g h a ls , b e i n g o f t h a t
c a rry out th is ta s k .
I t w as,
a s s t a t e d by A bul p a z l , t h e m e an s o f p r e s e r v i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e hum an r a c e , e n s u r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e w o r l d . 64 I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t w as t h e f i r s t
and
s t e p to w a r d s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f
p r o g e n y , t h e c r e a t i o n o f new g e n e r a t i o n s w h ic h w o u ld f u l f i l l t h e d u ty o f m a in ta i n in g th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e n a t i o n . w as o n l y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e m a le c h i l d r e n i s f o r t h e y w e re t h e h e i r s ,
T hat a tte n tio n
an e v id e n t f a c t ,
a n d t h e y w e re t h e o n e s who w o u ld c a r r y
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
98
o n t h e nam e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d . o f t h e e m p e ro r n e v e r m a r r i e d ; q u a rte rs ,
F u rth e rm o re ,
th e fe m a le c h i l d r e n
t h e y s p e n t t h e i r l i v e s i n t h e w o m e n 's
s u p e r v is in g th e m anagem ent o f th e h o u se and te n d in g to
t h e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s ' c h i l d r e n . ^5 d u r in g t h e r e i g n o f A u ra n g z e b t h a t t h i s In a d d itio n
of th is
concept of
t h e s e w e d d in g s c e n e s a l s o
h e lp e d to e n h a n c e th e p r e s e n c e o f an u n d e n ia b le w e a lth i n M u g h al c o u r t . p re s e n ta tio n
w as o n ly
p r a c t i c e w as a b o l i s h e d .
to th e i l l u s t r a t i o n
th e c r e a tio n o f f u tu r e g e n e r a tio n s ,
it
th e
S u m p tu o u s i s p e r h a p s t h e b e s t w o rd t o d e s c r i b e o f th e s e e la b o ra te f e s t i v a l s .
p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p e o p le and o b je c ts , m ony o f w e a l t h .
One i s
th e
s t r u c k by th e
a s ig n o f p le n ty , a t e s t i
The f a c t t h a t a l l t h r e e s t a g e s o f th e c e re m o n ia l
p r o c e s s o f D a r a 's w e d d in g w e re r e p r e s e n t e d s e r v e d n o t o n l y t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n upon h i s im p o rta n c e , a s w e ll a s to g iv e a g r a p h ic r e n d itio n o f th e seq u en ce o f e v e n ts , b u t a ls o fu n c tio n e d a s a v e h ic le f o r th e d is p la y
o f t h e im m en se r i c h e s s
th a t abounded.
N e i t h e r S h u j a n o r A u r a n g z e b w e re a c c o r d e d t h i s h o n o r , f o r t h e y w e re l e s s f a v o r e d a n d l e s s p r i v i l e g e d , D ara.
H o w e v e r, t h e i r w e d d in g s s t i l l
b o th b e in g y o u n g e r th a n
d e p ic te d a g ra n d e u r and
l a v i s h n e s s w h ic h f u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t e d t h e w e a l t h a n d h e n c e t h e pow er o f th e c o u r t o f Shah Ja h a n . A lth o u g h t h e r e i s q u i t e a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n on w e d d in g c e r e m o n i e s i n I n d i a , t o b e f o u n d o n r o y a l w e d d in g s .
n o t a w h o le l o t i s
By s t u d y i n g t h e w e d d in g s c e n e s i n
t h e W in d s o r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama, o n e c a n g e t some i d e a a s t o w h a t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
99
t h e y w e re l i k e .
T he w e d d in g c e l e b r a t i o n f o r a p r i n c e o f t h e r o y a l
h o u s e h o ld to o k p la c e o v e r a p e r io d o f tim e .
A f te r th e c o n firm a
t i o n o f t h e b e t r o t h a l , p r e p a r a t i o n s w e re m ade f o r t h e s a c h a q w as t h e b r i n g i n g o f p r e s e n t s t o b r i d e 's p a r e n ts . v e re d th e g i f t s goods.
66
w e d d in g . I n d ia ,
and in
o f t h e g ro o m d e l i
je w e llr y and v a r io u s d ry
F o lio s 120v an d 1 2 1 r i l l u s t r a t e A p p a re n tly th e
t h e sach aq . o f D a r a 's
s a c h a q w as a r a t h e r common c u s to m i n
som e r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y ,
t h e groom w o u ld acc o m -
pany th e p r o c e s s io n to h i s f u t u r e b r i d e 's h o u s e .
6 7
A p e r i o d o f a b o u t tw o m o n th s s e p a r a t e d th e a n d t h e a c t u a l w e d d in g d a y .
D u r in g t h i s
68
No r e p r e s e n t a
t i o n s o f t h e s e a r e f o u n d i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
ro y a l fa m ily .
su re i f
sachaq
p e r i o d a num ber o f r i t e s
s y m b o lic o f t h e c o u p l e 's u n i o n w e re p e r f o r m e d .
can n o t be a b s o lu te ly
The
th e h o u se o f th e f u tu r e
F r ie n d s an d fe m a le r e l a t i v e s o f a s s o rte d fo o d s tu ff,
sachaq.
t h e r e f o r e one
t h e s e r i t u a l s w e re o b s e r v e d b y t h e
T he s h a b g a s h t ( n o c t u r n a l p r o c e s s i o n ) w as t h e f i n a l
f o r m a l ity b e f o r e th e m a rria g e c e r e m o n y .^
H e r e t h e b r id e g r o o m
w as f e t c h e d fr o m h i s h o u s e b y m a le r e l a t i v e s a n d f r i e n d s a n d e s c o r te d to th e c e re m o n y . o f s e r v a n ts and m u s ic ia n s .
T h ey w e re a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p r o c e s s i o n F o l i o s 122v an d 1 2 j r i l l u s t r a t e
th e
s h a b g a s h t o f D a r a S h ik o h , w h i l e f o l i o s 1 2 6 v a n d 1 2 7 r r e p r e s e n t t h a t o f Shah S h u ja . n e s s w h ic h i s
I n b o t h c a s e s t h e r e i s m uch f u s s a n d l a v i s h
t y p i c a l o f a l l th e f e s t i v i t i e s T he f i n a l
w e d d in g n i g h t .
s ta g e in
a t t h e M u g h al c o u r t .
th e c e l e b r a t i o n s i s
th e a c tu a l
F o lio 124v an d 1 2 5 r d e p i c t t h a t o f D a ra , w h ile
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
100
fo lio tra y
2 1 7 v sh o w s t h a t o f A u r a n g z e b .
N e ith e r o f th e s e sc e n e s p o r
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a c t u a l c e re m o n y , b u t r e p r e s e n t i n s t e a d
S hah J a h a n p r e s e n t i n g g i f t s
of je w e llr y to each o f h is so n s.
T h i r t y l a k h s o f r u p e e s w e re e x p e n d e d o n D a r a S h ik o h * s w e d d in g , b u t 70 no f ig u r e h a s b een re c o r d e d f o r A u ra n g z e b ‘s . 1 a re n ig h t sc e n e s,
th e y a r e g r e a t l y a n im a te d by t h e l i g h t s
t h e t o r c h e s w h ic h l e n d a s p a r k l i n g e f f e c t t o ta tio n .
As b o t h o f t h e s e fro m
th e o v e r a l l p re s e n
T he e m p h a s is o f t h e s e w e d d in g s c e n e s h a s b e e n on t h e
g iv in g o f p r e s e n ts r a t h e r th a n on th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e r i t e s . T h i s may b e a t t r i b u t e d o f th e r i t u a l s ,
to
tn e f a c t t h a t ,
Dy s h o w in g t h e e x e c u t i o n
t h e women o f t h e r o y a l f a m i l y w o u ld h a v e h a d t o
b e r e p r e s e n t e d , w h ic h w o u ld n o t n a v e b e e n p e r m i s s i D l e ,
c o n s id e rin g
t h e i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t r o y a l women b e i n g s e e n b y t h e p u b l i c . T h r o u g h o u t t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
th e re a re no a c tu a l p o r tr a y a ls
o f t h e q u e e n s o r t h e p r i n c e s s e s ; t h e o n l y women e v e r show n a r e t h e s e r v a n ts and th e e n t e r t a i n e r s .
I n a d d i t i o n , women p l a y e d a n
e x c e e d in g ly se c o n d a ry r o l e i n 17t h
c e n tu ry I n d ia ,
ana th e rfo re
t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n e v e n t h i s c e re m o n y m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d as e s s e n tia l.
H o w e v e r, t h e f i x a t i o n w i t h t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l a s p e c t
o f w e d d in g s i s
a c le a r r e f le c tio n
a ttitu d e
o f Shah J a h a n .
o f th e v e ry w e a lth - o r ie n te d
The d i s p l a y o f p r e s e n t s s e r v e d a s a
m e a n s o f h i g h l i g h t i n g h i s own p e r s o n a l w e l l - b e i n g , a n d i n e s s e n c e is
t h e th e m e o f t h e e n t i r e m a n u s c r i p t .
E v e ry s i n g l e p a i n t i n g
s e r v e s t o g l o r i f y h im , a n d t h e e v e n t s f u n c t i o n v a r i o u s m e th o d s by w h ic h t h i s
o n ly a s th e
e f f e c t may b e a c h i e v e d .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
101
T he o t h e r e v e n t w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f f e s t i v a l s c e le b ra tio n s i s in
and
t h e s o l a r w e ig h m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n w h ic h t o o k p l a c e
1629 (1 0 3 8 H ) .
On e a c h b i r t h d a y ,
a c c o rd in g to b o th th e s o la r
a n d l u n a r c a l a n d a r s , o f t h e e m p e r o r , a b i g f e a s t w as h e l d w h e re h e w as w e ig h e d a g a i n s t v a r i o u s p r e c i o u s o b j e c t s . w e ig h i n g a p e r s o n a g a i n s t w as i n t r o d u c e d i n t o
T h e c u s to m o f
o b j e c t s w as a n o l d H in d u c u s to m w h ic h
t h e M u g h a l c o u r t b y A k b a r .* ^
o n l y f o r t h e m e m b ers o f t h e r o y a l f a m i l y ;
I t w as r e s e r v e d
t h e r e i g n i n g e m p e ro r
b e i n g w e ig h e d t w i c e a y e a r , w h i l e t h e p r i n c e s w e re w e ig h e d o n l y once a y e a r .
The o b s e rv a n c e s o f f e s t i v a l s
t h a t w e re d e t e r m i n e d
b y a s t r o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g s show a d e e p s e a t e d s u p e r s t i t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e M u g h a ls .
S h a h J a h a n i n p a r t i c u l a r w as e x t r e m e l y
in v o lv e d w ith a c o r r e c t r e a d in g o f h e a v e n ly b o d ie s , h is
f o r he re g a rd e d
b i r t h d a y — h e w as b o r n i n t h e y e a r 1000 o f t h e H j j r i
d e r — a s an a u s p ic io u s
s ig n .
T h e re a r e d ia g r a m a tic a l c h a r t s o f
h is h o ro sc o p e in m ost e d itio n s o f h i s p e rs o n a l h i s t o r i e s , a p p e a rs on f o l i o
c a le n
an d one
2 8 r o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t .
On th e s o la r b ir th d a y , th e emperor was w eighed a g a in s t tw e lv e a r t i c l e s : g o ld , s i l v e r ,
s i l k , perfum es, cop p er, r u h - i-
t u t i y a , d ru g s, gh ee, ir o n , r i c e m ilk , seven k in d s o f g r a in , and s a lt .^
These were l a t e r d is t r ib u t e d among th e c o u r t ie r s , p io u s
men and b e g g a r s.
On th e lu n a r b ir th d a y , th e number o f a r t i c l e s
were red u ced t o sev en : s i l v e r , t i n , c lo t h , le a d , f r u i t s , m ustard o il,
and v e g e ta b le s ,
and lik e w is e ,
t h e y w e re a l s o g i v e n a w a y .
The order o f th e s e com m odities was d eterm ined by t h e ir v a lu e .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
73
102
T he p r i n c e s w ere n e v e r w e ig h e d a g a i n s t m o re t h a n tw e l v e a r t i c l e s , and on th e a v e ra g e , c o m m o d itie s .
t h e i r w e ig h m e n ts c o n s i s t e d o f s e v e n t o e i g h t
T h i s c e re m o n y s e r v e d a s a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r g i v i n g
a lm s , an a c t c o n s id e r e d t o b e a u s p ic io u s * r o y a l p e r s o n a g e : fro m b o d i l y
h a r m . 74
fo r i t
p r o te c te d th e
j n f o l i o s 70v and 71 r ,
one
s e e s t h e w e ig h m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n a t t e n d e d b y t h e p r i n c e s a n d o t h e r h ig h r a n k in g n o b le s .
I n th e c o u r ty a r d , m u s ic ia n s an d d a n c in g g i r l s
p ro v id e an a i r o f f e s t i v i t y
and e n te rta in m e n t.
The f a c t t h a t t h i s
c e re m o n y c o u l d h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t s e v e r a l t i m e s a y e a r , w as i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e s t a g g e r i n g w e a l t h o f t h e c o u r t w h ic h c o u l d so e a s ily a f f o r d to f r e e l y say,
d i s t r i b u t e th e s e a r t i c l e s .
t h e p r e c i o u s m e t a l s a lw a y s f o u n d t h e i r w ay b a c k t o t h e c o u r t s ,
e ith e r as p re s e n ts to
th e e m p e ro r o r a s t r i b u t e s .
T hese i n t e r i o r
s c e n e s g i v e some i d e a a s t o how t h e
c o u r t lo o k e d a t th e tim e ; n o t o n ly i t s t h e m a n n e r i n w h ic h l i f e lity
N e e d le s s to
w e re t h e r u l e s ,
p h y s i c a l m ake u p , b u t a l s o
w as c o n d u c t e d .
an d a m id s t a l l t h i s ,
h e ld an u n d e n ia b le p o s i t i o n .
C erem o n y a n d m uch f o r m a Shah Ja h a n * s p re s e n c e
I f n o t p h y s ic a lly p re s e n t,
s u r r o u n d i n g s — t h e o v e r w h e lm in g r i c h n e s s - -
th e
s p o k e f o r h im .
S c e n e s Away Prom C o u r t T he e v e n t s w h ic h to o k p l a c e o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f th e p a la c e w a lls p ro v id e a f u r t h e r u n d e rs ta n d in g i n t o m e n t o f t h e M u g h al e m p e r o r s .
t h e c o m p o rt
I n th e s e p a i n t i n g s one s e e s t h r e e
a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h , a l t h o u g h p h y s i c a l l y re m o v e d f ro m t h e p a l a c e s ,
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s t i l l m a in ta i n e d , t h e f o r m a l i t y a n d c e r e m o n io u s t r a p p i n g s o f c o u rtly a c t i v i t i e s .
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c a te g o ry o f w o rk s.
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t h e p r e v a l e n t th e m e .
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p i e c e s a n d t h e w e ig h m e n t s c e n e , i s g i v e n f u l l i m p a c t i n h o ly s h r in e s . T aken a s a c a te g o r y , c o n fo rm t o
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As h e w as n o t t h e r e ,
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an d th e y r e p r e s e n t a t o t a l
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to
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t o e m b a rk o n
m ilita ry
c a m p a ig n s w e re f o r m u l a t e d d u r i n g d a r b a r s ,
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te rrito rie s
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t e r r i t o r i a l h o ld in g s ,
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t h a t t h e M u g h a ls w e re a v e r y p o w e r f u l p e o p l e , w h ic h o f c o u r s e w as i n m any r e s p e c t s v e r y t r u e , b u t t h e y h a d m any s h o r t c o m in g s a n d f a i l u r e s w h ic h d i d n o t g e t r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e .
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105
b y t h e o u tc o m e o f t h e v a r i o u s b a t t l e s , w h e th e r t h e y w e re s u c c e s s e s o r fa ilu re s . M uch i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e g a i n e d a b o u t w a r f a r i n g t a c t i c s o f th e
tim e th r o u g h s tu d y in g th e b a t t l e
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i l l u s t r a t e d i n f o l i o s 4bv and 47^ — a s
w e l l a s t o t h e a r r a y o f c o s tu m e s , a r m s , w ea p o n s a n d e q u i p m e n t. F u r t h e r m o r e o n e c a n s e e t h e v a r i o u s m e th o d s o f a t t a c k t h a t w e re u s e d , a n d t h e w ay t h e enem y w as t r e a t e d u p o n h i s s u r r e n d e r . F in a lly ,
t h e a t t a c k o n t h e P o r t u g u e s e s e t t l e m e n t a t H p g h li o f f e r s
a v ie w o f n a v a l w a r f a r e .
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an in v a lu a b le a id to a b ro a d e r p e r s p e c tiv e
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s u b m is s io n o f R a n a Amar S i n g h , M u g h al cam p.
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a c o m p le te d e p i c t i o n o f a sh o w s P r i n c e K h u rram
r e c e iv in g th e d e f e a te d f o e in a m a k e s h if t a u d ie n c e h a l l . t h e M u g h a ls r e l i s h e d a l o t i n
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p a in e d to b r in g a lo n g a l l th e c o u r t p a r a p h e n e lia f o r a m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n .
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so n , and y e t th e r e i s
a s m uch f o r m a l i t y h e r e a s
i n an a u d ie n c e h a l l o f a p a la c e .
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106
o f a M u g h al cam p w as t h e a u d i e n c e h a l l , t h e n o b l e s a n d cam p f o l l o w e r s
a n d t h e en c a m p m e n ts o f
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s id e s .
T hese .
w as s i t u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p e r s o n ' s r a n k a n d s t a n d i n g . ^
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o r d e r l y s t r u c t u r e a n d g r e a t s t r i c t n e s s w as m a i n t a i n e d a t a l l t i m e s in
t h e cam p.
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own s h o p s a n d b a z a a r s ,
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n e v e r be a la c k o f a n y th in g . '
e n s u r e d t h a t t h e r e w o u ld
S i r T hom as E o e r e c o r d e d a d e s c r i p ~
t i o n o f o n e s u c h cam p i n h i s m e m o ir s : A ll en co m p assed a s o r d e r ly a s any h o u s e , one o f th e g r e a t e s t r a r i t i e s a n d m a g n i f i c e n c e I e v e r s a w . . . T h e v a l e sh o w ed l i k e a b e w i l d e r e d c i t y . 77 T h e p a i n t i n g s g i v e some i d e a a s t o w eapons u s e d a t th e tim e .
th e k in d s o f
C a n n o n s a n d m u s k e t s w e re w i d e l y i n u s e ,
a s w e re t r a d i t i o n a l a r m s s u c h a s bow s a n d a r r o w s , l a n c e s a n d sp e a rs.
H eavy a r t i l l e r y
se e m e d t o h a v e b e e n t h e m o re i m p o r t a n t
a n d m o re e f f i c i e n t w e a p o n , f o r o n e o f t h e i r f a v o u r i t e a s s a u l t \
m e th o d s w as t o bomb a n d b u r n down t h e e n e m y 's f o r t r e s s . b est illu s tra te d
by f o l i o
t h e M u g h a ls a l s o
p o s s e s s e d a s u b s t a n t i a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e u s e o f
e x p lo siv e s .
1 0 2 v , th e s e ig e a t Q a n d a h a r.
T h is i s O b v io u s ly
T r a d i t i o n a l a rm s a p p a r e n t l y s e r v e d i n h a n d t o h a n d
c o m b a t, a s c a n b e s e e n i n f o l i o
92v b e s e ig in g th e f o r t o f D h a ru r
and a ls o f o r d e c o r a tiv e p u rp o s e s . F o lio 1 1 7 v , th e c o n q u e s t o f th e P o rtu g u e s e f o r t a t H u g h l i , o f f e r s a v ie w i n t o n a v a l w a r f a r e .
H e re t h e a t t a c k fro m
t h e s e a w as n o t t h e o n l y a s s a u l t f o r c e , r a t h e r , i t w as a m e a n s o f s u r r o u n d i n g t h e enem y o n a l l s i d e s .
F ro m t h e p a i n t i n g o n e c a n
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107
deduce th a t t h e i r v e s s e ls ,
a c o m b in a tio n o f a ro w b o a t an d a s a i l
b o a t , w e re e q u i p p e d w i t h f a i r l y
p o w e r f u l c a n n o n s , w h i l e t h e m en
on b o a rd w ie ld e d g u n s .
A l th o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y
d e lin ia te d h e re ,
b o a t s w e re a l s o u s e d t o
t r a n s p o r t h e a v y e q u i p m e n t, i n c l u d i n g
e l e p h a n t s , a n d t h e r e 'w e r e a l s o t h o s e w h ic h s e r v e d f o r s e i g e a n d a t t a c k p u r p o s e s .^ ®
Sea. b a t t l e s w e re r a t h e r r a r e f o r t h e M u g h a ls ;
m o s t o f t h e i r e n c o u n t e r s t o o k p l a c e o n l a n d , a n d b o a t s w e re u t i l i z e d m a i n l y f o r c o m m e r c ia l a c t i v i t i e s .
It
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one
c o n s id e r th e g e o g r a p h ic a l c o m p o s itio n o f th e I n d i a c o n t
r o l l e d b y t h e M u g h a ls ,
o n e w o u ld n o t i c e t h a t t h e y h a d l i t t l e
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o f c o n t r o l w e re on l a n d . I n t h o s e p a i n t i n g s w h ic h show t h e s u b m i s s i o n o f t h e en em y ,, o n e s e e s n o t o n l y s u b d u e d a n d v a n q u i s h e d f o e s b e i n g b r o u g h t f o r w a r d t o t h e com m ander i n c h a r g e , b u t o n e a l s o
se e s th e r a th e r
g ru eso m e p r a c t i c e o f p r e s e n t i n g th e s e v e r e d h e a d s o f th e d e f e a te d en em y .
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K han J a h a n L o d i a n d 1 7 5 v , t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e h e a d s o f J u j h a r S in g h a n d h i s s o n .
T h i s c u s to m w as j u s t o n e o f t h e m any w ay s t o
k i l l a m an , a n d i t w as common t o u s e t h i s f o r r e b e l s . w e re f i r s t p r e s e n t e d t o
t h e em p ero r a s a p r o o f o f t h e i r d e f e a t ,
a n d t h e n t h e y w e re i m p a l e d to
on a s ta k e and l e f t i n th e c i t y
s e r v e a s a w a r n in g t o o t h e r p o t e n t i a l r e b e l s . ^
a n d t r e a s o n w e re a l s o
T h e ir head s
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108
in e v ita b le
t h a t a v a n q u i s h e d enem y w as f o u n d g u i l t y o f e i t h e r o n e
o r m o re o f t h e s e c r im e s * be l e f t to
If
t h e enem y w e re n o t b e h e a d e d , h e m ig h t
t h e m e rc y o f w i l d o r p o is o n o u s b e a s t s . H o r s e s a n d e l e p h a n t s w e r e t h e m o s t, i m p o r t a n t a n i m a l s
to be u sed in b a t t l e .
H o r s e s w e re t h e m ode o f t r a n s p o r t f o r t h e
c a v a l r y , w h e re a s e l e p h a n ts s e r v e d n o t o n ly a s a t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t y f o r b o t h m en a n d e q u i p m e n t, b u t a l s o a s a t a c t i c a l w e a p o n .
E le p h
a n t s w e re i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e enem y a n d t h e v i c t o r y o f t h e e m p e r o r . i n b o th f i g h t i n g and i n
80
T h e i r u s e s w e re m a n i f o l d
s e ig e w a rfa re .
I n f i g h t in g (th e y a c te d ) a s v a n , p r o te c tin g f la n k s , p re p a rin g r o a d s a n d c a m p in g g r o u n d s , c l e a r i n g t h e r o a d s o f t r e e s a n d s h ru b s , c r o s s in g r i v e r s , and a s b re a k in g th e c u r r e n t o f s w if t r i v e r s , s tr e n g th e n in g th e l i n e o f b a t t l e ; a c tin g as w ooden c a s t l e s o r s u p p l y i n g a l o f t y a n d m o b i l e o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t t o t h e k i n g o r t h e com m ander e n a b l i n g h im t o i s s u e n e c e s s a r y o r d e r s t o c h e e r u p h i s a rm y . I n s e i g e w a r f a r e t h e y s e r v e d a s b a t t e r i n g r a m s a n d a s r a n k b r e a k e r s w hen i n f u r i a t e d . E le p h a n ts p ro v id e d w ith a rm o u r, c a r r y i n g i r o n to w e rs o r a r m o u r - p la te d c a n o p ie d s e a t s s u p p lie d w ith h o l e s , th ro u g h w h ic h s o l d i e r s s h o t a r r o w s a n d n a p t h a b o t t l e s s e r v e d t h e p u r p o s e o f m o d e rn t a n k s a n d a r m o u r i e s a n d s e i g e m achinery.® "* Some o f t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t d e p i c t t h e f u n c tio n in g o f th e e le p h a n t a s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e . c a p tu r e o f th e f o r t a t D a u la ta b a d an d 174^ ,
F o lio s 147^,
th e
th e c a p tu r e o f th e
f o r t s o f O r c c h a a n d D h am u n i, show e l e p h a n t s u s e d a s m o r a l e r a i s e r s . I n b o th p a i n t i n g s th e b a t t l e s a r e o v e r , e le p h a n ts an d sound o u t th e v i c t o r y . o f Q a n d a h a r,
s e v e r a l co m m an d ers l i n i n g
and th e m u s ic ia n s r i d e
In f o lio
102v,
th e s u r r e n d e r
th e r i g h t s id e o f th e
w o rk a r e m o u n te d on e l e p h a n t s , g i v i n g o r d e r s a n d s u r v e t i n g t h e p r o g r e s s o f th e b a t t l e .
F in a lly ,
th e
t h e e l e p h a n t a s a m ean s o f
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109
tra n s p o rt, i s p re s e n ta tio n
illu s tr a te d in
th e b a c k g ro u n d o f f o l i o
o f th e h ea d s o f J u jh a r
176v, th e
S in g h a n d h i s s o n .
T h e M u g h a l a r m y 's a p p r o a c h t o w a r f a r e w as c l o a k e d i n a l o t o f c e r e m o n io u s t r a p p i n g s a n d e l a b o r a t e f a n f a r e . to b a t t l e
a c c o m p a n ie d b y a w h o le r e t i n u e
m u s ic ia n s .
o f s ta n d a r d b e a r e rs and
I n a d d i t i o n t h e y b r o u g h t a l o n g a l l t h e e q u ip m e n t a n d
s e r v a n ts n e c e s s a ry f o r th e m e n ts .
T hey w en t
s e t u p a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e en cam p
A l l t h e p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e r s a n d t h e i r h o r s e s w e re a d o r n e d
i n f i n e a rm o r
and b ro c a d e .
b y E d w ard T e r r y ,
M ughal s o l d i e r s h a v e b e e n d e s c r ib e d
th e c h a p la in to
t h e a m b a s s a d o r S i r T hom as R o e ,
" a s th o u g h s u r r o u n d e d b y a r m o u r y " , 8 2 a n d t h i s i s
im m e d i a t e l y c l e a r
w hen o n e s e e s e x a c t l y how a s o l d i e r w as c l a d . On t h e i r l e f t s i d e s w o rd h a n g i n g on a b e l t , u n d e r th em s h e a v e s o f m any a r r o w s ; on t h e i r l e f t s h o u l d e r b r o a d b u c k l e r f a s t e n e d and upon t h e i r b a c k s s m a ll guns l i k e c a r b in e s f ix e d lik e w is e ; a n d a t t h e i r r i g h t s i d e bow s h a n g i n g w i t h t h e i r c a s e s a n d la n c e s ( a b o u t 2 y a r d s an d a h a l f lo n g ) h a n g in g i n la o p s n e a r s t i r r u p s , w hen t h e y c a r r y th em n o t i n t h e i r h a n d s .® 3 A l l t h i s w as u n d o u b t e d l y d o n e f o r s h o w : t o d i s p l a y t h e i r w e a l t h and a ls o
t o i n t i m i d a t e t h e enem y w i t h n o i s e a n d p a g e a n t r y
v a in g lo rio u s an d w as a ls o
T h is
te n d e n c y w as a f e a t u r e a t t h e c o u r t o f S hah J a h a n p re v a le n t i n
e v e n t s t h a t t o o k p l a c e aw ay f r o m t h e
c o u r t. T h is d i s c u s s i o n
h as a lre a d y
n i e s o f t h e c o u r t w e re f a c i l i t a t e d
by th e w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d c e n t r a l
o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e a d m in is tr a tiv e body. la v is h
d i s p l a y s on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d
show n how t h e c e re m o
to
L ik e w is e , i n
be r e a l i z e d ,
o rd e r fo r
t h e arm y c o r p s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
110
had to be r i g i d l y o r g a n iz e d .
The A in -i-A k b a ri p r e s e n ts one o f th e
m ost d e t a ile d a cco u n ts o f th e co m p o sitio n o f th e Mughal army.
L ike
m ost arm ies o f th e tim e , t h i s one was d iv id e d in t o th e c a v a lr y and th e in fa n t r y ; th e form er b e in g s o ld i e r s w ith h o r s e s and th e l a t t e r th o se w ith o u t any means o f anim al tr a n s p o r t.
The commanding
o f f i c e r s were c a l l e d m ansabdars, and were d is t in g u is h e d in rank o n ly by th e s i z e o f t h e ir commands.
I n s te a d o f a s e p a r a te t i t l e f o r
each ran k , a s i s th e c a s e w ith th e armed f o r c e s o f th e W estern worLd, th e y were d is t in g u is h e d by a number, f o r exam ple, a mansab o f 5000*
The t i t l e mansabdar comes from th e word mansab, which Q i
means p o s t or o f f i c e .
The p r in c e s n a t u r a lly h e ld th e h ig h e s t
ra n k s, and d u rin g th e r e ig n o f Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh had th e h ig h e s t command o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 .
Shah Shuja had a mansab o f 15»000,
Aurangzeb one o f 15*000 and Murad Bakhsh one o f 12,000.® ^
The
o th e r o f f i c e r s h e ld mansabs from 7000 a l l th e way down to 1 0 0 , w h ile th o s e above 1000 were awarded th e a d d it io n a l t i t l e o f am ir. Three ty p e s o f c o n tin g e n ts made up th e c a v a lr y '• th e f i r s t were th o s e who se r v e d under th e m ansabdars, th e r e g u la r rank and f i l e who e n l i s t e d i n th e army; second were th o s e who were p rovid ed by fe u d a to ry p r in c e s f o r th e im p e r ia l s e r v ic e ; and th e t h ir d were th e a h a d is, an in dep end ent corps d ' e l i t e which c o n s t i tu te d a r o y a l c o n tin g e n t o f tr o o p s but owed no a lle g ia n c e t o any s in g le mansabdar or n o b le . th e c a v a lr y .
86
The in fa n t r y rem ained ap art from
They were i n th e keep o f a mansabdar, e it h e r
perm anantly or on c a l l .
These men were r e s p o n s ib le
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111
f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t o f a rm s a n d e q u i p m e n t, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f o r p a g e a h t r y p u r p o s e s , a n d f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f m e s s a g e s b e tw e e n t h e c a p i t a l and th e b a t t l e f i e l d .
87
T he B a d s h a h Nama o f L a h a u r i s t a t e s
t h a t t h e arm y o f S h a h J a h a n c o n s i s t e d o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 c a v a l r y a n d 4 0 ,0 0 0 i n f a n t r y . 7000 a h a d is ,
th e a m irs .
T h e c a v a l r y w as m ad e u p o f 8 0 0 0 m a n s a b d a r s ,
a n d 1 8 5 ,0 0 0 m en i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t s o f t h e p r i n c e s a n d I n t h e i n f a n t r y t h e r e w e re 1 0 ,0 0 0 who a c c o m p a n ie d t h e
e m p e r o r , a n d 3 0 , 0 0 0 who w e re s t a t i o n e d p e r m a n e n t l y i n t h e v a r i o u s fo rts
o f t h e e m p ir e .
QO
A l th o u g h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
M ughal arm y a p p e a r e d q u i t e
sound, i t
o v e r w h e lm in g d e s i r e f o r sh o w .
w as so m ew h at h a m p e re d b y t h e
T he co m m an d ers w e re s o m e tim e s m o re
c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e i r p e r s o n a l a p p e a ra n c e s an d a c c o u tr e m e n ts th a n t h e y w e re f o r a p r o p e r d e v o t i o n t o t h e i r j o b s .
H o w e v er, t h a t
d i s c i p l i n e w as m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h a t t h e t r o o p s r e c e i v e d a d e q u a t e tra in in g , te rs ,
c a n b e a t t e s t e d t o by th e num ber o f s u c c e s s f u l en co u n
and by th e n e a t and o r d e r ly a p p e a ra n c e o f th e tr o o p s .
H u n ts T he s e c o n d s e t o f s c e n e s aw ay f r o m t h e c o u r t a r e t h e h u n ts .
C o n tra ry t o th e b a t t l e s ,
th e p o l i t i c s o f th e e m p ire .
h u n t s w e re n o t i n s t r u m e n t a l t o
R a th e r,
th e y s e rv e d a s a d i v e r t i s e -
m e n t, b e i n g o n e o f t h e m a in f o r m s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t e n j o y e d by t h e M u g h al e m p e r o r s .
M e th o d s o f h u n t i n g w e re n u m e r o u s , a n d t h e y
v a r i e d , n o t o n l y fro m o n e a n i m a l s p e c i e s t o a n o t h e r , b u t a l s o w ith in th e ch ase o f a s in g le
s p e c ie s .
E n tire
t r e a t i s e s w e re
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
112
w r i t t e n o u t l i n i n g t h e s e a s s o r t e d m e th o d s , a n d a v e r y c o m p r e h e n s iv e d o c u m e n ta tio n c a n b e fo u n d i n th e A in - i- A k b a r i.
T he p a s s i o n f o r
t h e h u n t p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e M u g h a ls ' n o m a d ic h e r i t a g e , b u t t h e d a i l y a c t i v i t y o n c e n e c e s s a r y f o r s u b s i s t e n c e w as now e l e v a t e d t o
th e
s ta tu s o f a g lo rifie d
a rt of s k ill.
A lth o u g h a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f
s k i l l w as r e q u i r e d i n
o r d e r t o h u n t i n t h e M u g h al f a s h i o n , t h e o f f i
c i a l a c c o u n ts o f th e su p p o se d b r a v e r y a n d t a l e n t d is p la y e d by th e em p e ro rs a r e g r e a t l y e x a g g e ra te d *
T h e i r h u n t s w e re s e t u p a n d
p r e p a r e d w e l l i n a d v a n c e , w h ic h l e f t h a r d l y a n y c h a l l a n g e t o b e m et w ith .
I n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
th e re a re f iv e hunt sc e n e s.
T h e y show s e v e r a l t y p e s o f w i l d a n i m a l s b e i n g h u n t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t m a n n e rs, fa v o rite
an d th e y p r o v id e v i v i d i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o
th e
p a s t i m e o f t h e M u g h al e m p e r o r s . T he A i n - i - A k b a r i t h r o u g h l y d e s c r i b e s a l l t h e d i f f e r
e n t m e th o d s a n d a n i m a l s o f t h e h u n t .
In a d d itio n ,
i t p re s e n ts
th e h u n t fro m a s p i r i t u a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w .
A bul
F a z l s p o k e o f h u n t i n g a s a m e a n s o f t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f k n o w le d g e , a m e a n s b y w h ic h t h e e m p e r o r c o u l d s e c r e t l y d i t i o n s o f th e c o u n try s id e *
89
ch eck up on th e con
A lth o u g h on o c c a s i o n s t h e e m p e r o r
may h a v e i n d e e d m ade s u c h i n q u i r i e s , o n e may i n t e r p r e t t h a t th is
e x p la n a tio n
an a c t i v i t y
th a t,
w as g i v e n s o a s t o
e le v a te a b a s ic p le a s u re in to
w hen p r a c t i c e d b y t h e e m p e r o r s , t r a n s c e n d e d t h e
p e d e s tr ia n co n c e rn s i n l i f e . r e i g n m ade n o s u c h a l l e g a t i o n .
The h i s t o r i a n s
o f S h a h J a h a n 's
H o w e v er, t h e y l a v i s h e d on t h e i r
p r a is e s f o r h is s k i l l and d e x t e r ity .
As i s
th e c a s e w ith a l l th e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
113
o th e r a c t i v i t i e s d e p ic te d in hunt is
th e m a n u s c r ip t, Shah J a h a n a t th e
show n i n a v e r y f a v o r a b l e l i g h t — a lw a y s c o u r a g e o u s ,
a lw a y s t h e b e s t ,
a n d a lw a y s p r o m i n e n t .
T he W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t d e p i c t s t h e h u n t i n g o f e l e p h a n ts , lio n s ,
t i g e r s a n d n il-g a o * .
t o b e r o y a l g am e, t h a t i s ,
L i o n s a n d n i l g a o s w e re c o n s i d e r e d
o n ly t h e m o n a rc h w as a l l o w e d t o
i n th e p u r s u it o f th e s e anim als*
90
engage
As s t a t e d by B ern iers
Of a l l th e d iv e r s io n s o f th e f i e l d , th e h u n tin g o f th e l i o n i s n o t o n ly th e m o st p e r i l i o u s , b u t i s p e c u l i a r l y r o y a l ; f o r e x c e p t by s p e c i a l p e r m is s io n , th e k in « s an d p r in c e s a r e th e o n l y p e r s o n s who e n g a g e i n t h e s p o r t .9^ E l e p h a n t h u n t i n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e s e r v e d a s an a n im a l to be h u n te d o n ly by r o y a l t y , s tim u la te d in to
com bat by a n y o n e , sa v e th e e m p e ro r.
c o u ld n o t be 92
When a
h u n tin g p a rty was o rg a n iz ed , th e a p p o in te d o f f i c e r s e x e r t th e m s e lv e s i n c o l l e c t i n g t o g e th e r fro m t h e c i t i e s a n d to w n s som e t h o u s a n d s o f h i r e d m en, a n d h a v i n g e n c o m p a s s e d a s p a c e o f g r o u n d , a b u n d a n c e o f game c o n s i s t i n g o f a n i m a l s o f t h e w i l d s a n d m o u n t a in s a r e t h u s d raw n to g e t h e r ; th e c i r c l e i s th e n g r a d u a l ly r e d u c e d , t i l l th e y a r r i v e a t an a p p o in te d s p o t , w h ith e r h i s M a je s ty an d th e P r in c e s h a v in g r e p a i r e d , e n jo y t h e s p o r t i n th e h ig h e s t p e r f e c t i o n ; a f t e r w h ic h h i s M a j e s t y g i v e s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e d iv e r s i o n t o b e g e n e r a l.9 3 T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t h u n t i n g a lw a y s t o o k p l a c e i n a n
e n c lo se d a r e a , in t o which th e an im als were l e d . e n s u re d t h a t th e
T h is method
e m p e ro r w o u ld a lw a y s m an ag e t o c a p t u r e som e g am e.
P o l i o s 1 3 4 r and. 1 35’v r e p r e s e n t p a r a l l e l i n c i d e n t s , w n ic h a l t h o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d , b r a v e r y o f A u ra n g z e b i n
s e rv e d to c o n t r a s t th e
an e le p h a n t h u n t w ith t h a t o f Shah J a h a n
i n a t i g e r h u n t d u r in g h i s p rin c e h o o d .
T he d e v i c e o f i n c l u d i n g
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
114
e v e n t s f r o m t h e d a y s o f P r i n c e K h u rra m h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s e e n i n th e d a r b a r and b a t t l e
scenes.
I n a l l c a s e s th e y s e rv e d to h ig h
l i g h t th e p o s i t i v e a s p e c ts o f Shah J a h a n .
As i l l u s t r a t e d
in fo lio
1 35'W, A u r a n g z e b d i s p l a y e d e x e m p la r y c o u r a g e w h en a t t a c k e d b y a n e n r a g e d e l e p h a n t by. f e n d i n g i t b a t. life
com -
9A
H P r i n c e K h u rra m , h o w e v e r , show n i n f o l i o 1 3 4 r , s a v e d t h e
o f a s e r v a n t who w as i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g m a u le d t o d e a t h b y
a tig e r. te d ,
o f f and g e t tin g - it b a ck in t o
As p r e c e d i n g . p a r a l l e l i n c i d e n t s h a v e a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a
t h e v i r t u e s o f S h a h J a h a n f a r e x c e l l e d t h o s e o f a n y o n e e l s e 1s .
In th i s in c id e n t,
t h e t i g e r ju m p e d o u t a n d l a u n c h e d a s u r p r i s e
a t t a c k , b u t w as s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c e d u n d e r c o n t r o l a n d t h e n c u t a p a rt. F o lio
220v i l l u s t r a t e s
fa s h io n ( j i r g e h ) , ^ s tru c te d
th a t is ,
w h e re a c i r c u l a r e n c l o s u r e i s
i n t o w h ic h h e a t e r s d r i v e a n d e n t r a p t h e g a m e .
in g th e n ta k e s p la c e i n
t h i s c o n fin e d s p a c e .
num ber o f li o n s a r e tra p p e d i n s i d e Jahan s i t s w eapon.
a l i o n h u n t i n t h e M o ngol con
T he h u n t
In t h i s p a in tin g a
t h e e n c l o s u r e , w h i l e S h ah
on t o p o f a n e l e p h a n t a n d u s e s a m a t c h l o c k a s h i s
J u s t a s f i r e a r m s to d a y a r e u s e d f o r b o th w a r f a r e an d f o r
h u n tin g p le a s u r e s ,
s o w as i t
to o d u r i n g t h e d a y s o f t h e M u g h a ls .
Other combat weapons, such a s bows and arrow s or s p e a r s , were a lso
e m p lo y e d a s h u n t i n g g e a r .
96
A n o th e r i n s t a n c e w h e re t h e
m a tc h lo c k i s u s e d can be s e e n i n f o l i o n ilg a o ,
a s p e c ie s o f a n te lo p e .
l 64r ,
th e h u n tin g o f
I n th e M ughal p e r i o d ,
th e
w i l d s p e c i e s w e re h u n t e d t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f t h e t r a i n e d
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
115
on es.
The t r a in e d on es a c te d a s b a it th a t lu r e d th e w ild ones in t o
th e v i c i n i t y o f th e em peror, whereupon th e y c o u ld e i t h e r be caught o r sh o t.
The n e x t hunt sc e n e i n th e m a n u scrip t, f o l i o 1 6 6 v , shows
th e c o n c lu sio n o f a hunt where th e h u n tin g p a rty i s r e tu r n in g home w ith t h e i r c a tc h ~ a wagon.
a baby c h e e ts h - - w h ich i s b e in g tr a n sp o r te d on
I t i s p o s s i b l e th a t t h is p a in t in g , i n w hich Shah Jahan
i s n o t d e p ic te d , b e lo n g s w ith th e p ro ceed in g o n e , f o l i o l 6 ^r, a s p a r t o f an in te n d e d d o u b le-p a g e c o m p o sitio n . From th e h u n tin g s c e n e s i t h as been n o te d t h a t th e m ost dangerous p r e p a r a tio n s were done by th e s e r v a n ts , and th a t th e emperor o n ly had to d is p la y h i s s k i l l w ith e it h e r a firea rm or a more c o n v e n tio n a l weapon.
L ik e a l l o th e r a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Mughal
c o u r t, h u n ts were a ls o surrounded by a s much l a v i s h pomp and tr a p p in g s .
I t was a co m p lic a te d m a tter h a v in g to tr a n sp o r t a whole
r e t in u e o f s e r v a n ts and o th e r p a r a p h a n e lia , bu t i t was p a rt o f th e ceremony t h a t d is t in g u is h e d a r o y a l hunt from j u s t any o rd in a ry on e, and i t was a l s o i n k e e p in g w ith th e m e n ta lity and b eh a v io r o f co u r t s o c i e t y . V i s i t s to Holy S h rin es The f i n a l c a te g o r y i n th e sce n e s away from t h e p a la c e i s th e v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s .
T h is a c t i v i t y d id n o t p la y a v e r y
s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e day to day l i f e o f Shah Jahan, but was con s id e r e d im p ortan t enough t o w arrant in c lu s io n i n th e Windsor manu s c r ip t.
The f a c t t h a t th e r e i s o n ly one d ou b le-p age co m p o sitio n in
t h i s c a te g o r y i n d i c a t e s i t s
secondary s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The h o ly sh r in e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
116
in q u e s tio n h er e were th o s e a s s o c ia t e d w ith famous s u f i s a in t s o f th e p e r io d .
Sufism i s th e branch o f Islam which con cern s i t s e l f
w ith m y s tic is m .
S u f i s w e re h i g h l y v e n e r a t e d b y A k b a r, J a h a n g i r ,
an d Shah J a h a n .
To d a t e t h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o e v i d e n c e o f e i t h e r
B a b u r o r Humayun e v e r h a v i n g h a d m uch d e a l i n g w i t h s u f i s a i n t s , and i t
a p p e a rs t h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s w ith s u f i s b e g a n o n ly u n d e r
97 A k b a r .J 1
T h e s u f i s whom t h e M u g h a ls h a d t h e m o s t c o n t a c t w i t h
b e l o n g e d t o t h e C h i s t i a n d Q adL iri s c h o o l s . S h a h J a h a n w as p e r s o n a l l y q u i t e a n o r t h o d o x M u slim , a n d th o u g h n o t v e r y t o l e r e n t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n c e r n s c£ o t h e r s e c ts and b e l i e f s ,
h e w as m uch m o re s o t h a n w as h i s s o n a n d s u c
c e s s o r A u ran g zeb .
D u r in g S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n ,
f o r an i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n
t h e r e a l im p e tu s
cam e f r o m D a r a S h ik o h , h i s e l d e s t s o n ,
who s p e n t m uch o f h i s t i m e s t u d y i n g t h e t e n e t s
of a l l o th e r r e l i -
g o n s , v e r y m uch i n t h e m a n n e r o f h i s g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r A k b a r. P ro b a b ly ,
e n o u g h o f D a r a 's i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n s r u b b e d o f f on
S h a h J a h a n t o m ake h im e x e r c i s e a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f t o l e r e n c e . As a r e s u l t ,
Shah J a h a n a ls o d id h i s
s h a r e o f p a y in g r e s p e c t to
t h e s e v a r i o u s h o l y m en , b u t d i d s o o n l y on a m o d e r a te s c a l e .
P a rt
o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n i n v i s i t i n g h o l y m en w as a l s o p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d fro m h i s
s u p e r s titio u s te n d e n c ie s .
e a r l ie r s e c tio n s o f th is
c h a p te r,
w e re l i n k e d m a in ly t o h i s s c o p e , i n o th e r w o rd s, re la tiv e ly
As a l r e a d y d e m o n s tra te d i n S h a h J a h a n 1s s u p e r s t i t i o n s
s tro n g b e l i e f i n a s tr o lo g y and h o ro
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e by
ta n g ib le m ean s.
L ik e w is e , th e s e s u f i m y s tic s a ls o
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117
p re s e n te d a v ia b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e w o r ld .
I n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t t h e r e i s o f Shah J a h a n v i s i t i n g
o n ly one i n s t a n c e
a s u f i s h r i n e , a n d t h i s o c c u r s , i n t h e d o u b le
p a g e c o m p o s i t i o n o n f o l i o s 205v a n d 2 0 6 r , t h e v i s i t t o o f K h w a ja M u * i n a l - d i n C h i s h t i . th e 1 0 th y e a r o f h i s r e i g n , i t s io n
A l th o u g h t h i s w as t h e f i r s t
t h a t S h a h J a h a n m ade t h e p i l g r i m a g e ,
98
th e s h rin e
e v e n t to o k p la c e i n tim e s i n c e h i s a c c e s -
a s u re s ig n t h a t he
r e a l l y w as n o t t h a t d e d i c a t e d a n a d h e r e n t . . He i s
show n b e i n g m e t
o u t s i d e t h e g a t e s o f A jm ir b y a S u f i f i g u r e .
H o w e v e r, n o i n d i c a
tio n i s
b u t i t h a s been
g iv e n a s to
th e i d e n t i t y
o f th e S u f i,
h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t h e m i g h t b e K h w a ja M u » i n a l - d i n C h i s h t i h i m s e l f , somehow m i r a c u l o u s l y a p p e a r i n g b e f o r e S h a h J a h a n . o f f a c t and f i c t i o n , g lo rify in g
a b e n d in g o f th e t r u t h ,
A c o m b in a tio n
a l l w i t h t h e aim o f
t h e im a g e o f S h a h J a h a n . T h e s e e x t e r i o r s c e n e s r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r d im e n s io n
in to
th e d a ily a c t i v i t i e s
o f t h e e m p e r o r , a n d a t t h e sam e t i m e ,
p a r a l l e l som e o f t h e f u n c t i o n s a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r scenes.
T h ey s e r v e t o b r o a d e n t h e v i s u a l p e r s p e c t i v e
a lr e a d y d e n o te d ,
and a ls o le n d a v a r ie ty
to
o f id e a s
th e m a n u s c rip t.
t h e i n t e r i o r s c e n e s sh o w e d t h e m o n a rc h y a n d t h e c o u r t i n m ile u ,
t h e s e show t h e I n d i a n c o u n t r y s i d e ,
and c i t i e s , d a ily l i f e
and a ls o
th e
w ith th e c o u r t .
To s u m m a riz e t h e a b o v e t h e m a t i c a n a l y s i s , seen
th e ir
th e e x t e r i o r s o f f o r t s
p ro v id e an o c c a s s io n a l i n s i g h t i n t o
o f th e p e o p le n o t a f f i l i a t e d
W h ile
we h a v e
t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s f a l l i n t o tw o m a j o r d i v i s i o n s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
118
r e p r e s e n tin g f i v e s u b je c t c a t e g o r ie s — nam ely d arb ars, c e le b r a t io n s and f e s t i v a l s , b a t t l e s , h u n ts , and v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s .
These
ep ito m iz e th e f i v e p r in c ip a l a c t i v i t i e s o f Shah Jahan*s p u b lic l i f e . The freq u en cy w ith w hich an a c t i v i t y i s shown im p lie s i t s r e l a t i v e im p o rta n ce, and by e x t e n s io n , th e s ig n i f ic a n c e i t had f o r Shah Jahan*
Thus th e darbar s c e n e s , which are th e m ost numerous,
d e s c r ib e th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e empire and p o r tr a y Shah Jahan as i t s a b le and a l l - w i s e r u l e r .
Second comes th e c e le b r a t io n s and
f e s t i v a l s which show th e m arriages o f th e p r in c e s and t h e c e le b r a t io n s o f t r a d it i o n a l f e s t i v a l s .
Emphasis on m arriage d em on strates
th e con cern w ith l i n e a g e and s u c c e s s io n , a t o p ic a lr e a d y d is c u s s e d i n Chapter I I I .
In a d d itio n , th e g r e a t f a n fa r e s a llo w ed f o r an
e x h ib it io n o f th e w e a lth o f th e emperor.
B a t t le s rank t h ir d in
l i n e , and a s o n ly th e v i c t o r i e s were p a in te d , th ey su g g e ste d an a ll-p o w e r fu l empire t h a t was c o n t in u a lly expanding.
In th e hunts
one s e e s Shah Jahan a s a courageous and b rave person as he f a c e s an a sso r tm en t o f w ild and dangerous b e a s t s , and a ls o a s a s k i l l e d marksman a s he d em on strates h i s a b i l i t i e s w ith v a r io u s fir e a r m s . I l n a l l y i n th e v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s , Shah Jahan i s p ortrayed as a d e v o te e o f th e r e l i g i o n and a b a s tio n o f th e f a i t h .
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119
■Notes to Chapter IV
^William G. Archer, Indian M iniatures (Greenwich! New York Graphic S o c ie ty , i 960 ) , p i . 28. 2 D ouglas B a r r e tt and B a s il Gray, P a in tin g o f In d ia (Geneva: E d itio n s d 'A r t A lb e r t S k ir a , 19 6 3 ) , PP* 112—114^ S tu art Cary W elch, The Art o f Mughal I n d ia P a in tin g and P r ec io u s O b.lects (New York: The A sia S o c ie t y , I n c . , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 175. 4 ib i d .
^ S tu a rt Cary Welch, In d ia n Drawings and P ain ted S k etch es l 6 th _through 1 9 th C en tu ries (New York* The A s ia S o c ie t y , I n c . , 1 9 7 6 ), p . 50. 6 Edwin B in n ey, In d ia n M in iatu re P a in tin g from th e C o lle c t io n o f Edwin Binney 3rd (P o r tla n d : P o r tla n d Art Museum, 1 9 7 4 ), p . 79. 7
M ilo C lev ela n d Beach, The Grand Mogul Im perial P a in tin g in I n d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stow n : S t e r lin g and F rancin e C lark A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1978)* P» 184*
^ ib id , p. 78. 9ib id . 10
Lord Teignmouth, d e sc r ip tio n o f P ersian m anuscripts, dated June 1799* 11 Memo from Lord Teignmouth to George I I I , dated June 1799. ^ S t u a r t Cary W elch, Im p eria l Mughal P a in tin g York* George B r a z i l l e r , I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ), p i . 30*
(New
^ B each , cover.
P inder-W ilson, MThree I l l u s t r a t e d M anuscripts o f the Mughal P eriod ," Ars O r ie n ta lis I I (1957)* 146. 15
As f i r s t n oted by E llen Smart, a l l o f th e Windsor p a in tin g s , and a ls o some o f th e d isp e rse d p ages, appear to have been a t one tim e stack ed to g e th e r , s in c e each has a s in g le t in y worm h o le in approxim ately th e same lo c a t io n . 16
Wayne B egley,
personal l e t t e r , dated 30 March 1981.
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120
17 'Abul F a z l, A in -i-A k b a r i. t r a n s . H. Biochmann . (C a lc u tta : A s i a t i c S o c ie t y o f B en g a l, 1 9 2 7 ), P» 52 n o te 2 , 18ib id , p .
19 'W elch ,
52.
Im p eria l Mughal P a in t in g ,
p. 98.
20Y edda A . G od ard , "Un Album d e P o r t r a i t s d e s P r i n c e s T im u r id e s d e l ' I n d e , " A th a r e I r a n 2 ( 1 9 3 7 ) * 1 8 5 - 1 8 9 . F or i l l u s t r a t i o n s , p le a s e r e f e r . 21
W e lc h , I n d i a n D r a w in g s , p i . 4 8 . A ls o r e f e r S i r Thomas W. A r n o ld , T he L ib r a r y o f A. C h e s t e r B e a t t y A C a ta lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e s , r e v i s e d and e d i t i e d b y J . V . S . W ilk in s o n , (B lo o m sb u ry * Emery W a lk e r , L t d . , 1 9 3 6 ) , I* P*33« 2 % r e d e r ik R o b e r t M a r t in , The M in ia t u r e P a in t ix \g and P a i n t e r s o f P e r s i a , I n d i a and T u rk ey fro m t h e 8 t h t o t h e 1 8 t h C en tu r y (L on d on : H o lla n d P r e s s ” 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 214* For i l l u s t r a t i o n , p le a s e r e f e r .
23
C a t a lo g u e o f H ig h ly I m p o r ta n t O r i e n t a l M a n u s c r ip t s and M i n ia t u r e s The K e v o r k ia n F o u n d a tio n ( S o th e b y and C o ., M onday, 1 s t D ecem b er, 19& 9 ) * P*73» l o t 1 5 2 . For i l l u s t r a t i o n , p le a s e r e f e r .
1 7 t h C en tu ry ,'*
S .A .A . R i z v i , "The M ughal E l i t e i n t h e 1 6 t h and A b r -N a h r a in XI ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 71*
^ R am P r a s a d K h o s la , M ughal K in g s h ip and N o b i l i t y ( D e l h i : I d a r a h - i A d a b i y a t - i D e l h i , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3* T im u r, M u lf u z a t T im ury (M em oirs o f . T im u r ), t r a n s . b y M a jo r C h a r le s S t e w a r t (L a h o r e : S a n g -e -M e e l P u b ., 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 6 - 7 . ^ A . B io ch m a n n , " B io g r a p h ic a l N o t i c e s o f th e G r a n d ee s o f t h e M ughal C o u r t," I n d i a n A n t iq u a r y I (1 8 7 2 ): 260. PA A bul F a z l,
p. 2.
^Mohammad S a l i h Kambu, 'A m a l - i - S a l i h ( B i b l i o t h e c a I n d i c a , n . d . ) , I , p . 1 3 7 , q u o t e d i n B a n a r s i P r a s a d S a k se n a H i s t o r y o f Shah J a h a n o f D i l h i ( A lla h a b a d : C e n t r a l B ook D e p o t, 19 6 2 ), p . 35. ^ L a w r e n c e B in y o n , A P e r s ia n P a in t in g o f th e 1 6 th C en tu r y E m perors and P r i n c e s o f t h e H ouse o f Tim ur (L o n d o n : l ‘n e B r i t i s n Museum,
^ ib id .
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121
32
S te p h e n M e r e d y th E d w a rd s a n d H .L .O . G a r r e t t , M u g h al R u le i n I n d i a ( D e l h i : S . C h an d & C o . L t d . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 7 9 . ^ S a k s e n a , p . 210. ^ K h o s la ,
p . 74*
35
J a d u n a th S a rk a r, M u g h al A d m i n i s t r a t i o n M .C . S a r k a r & S o n s , 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 1 3 2 . 36
F r a n c i s G la d w in , C h r o n i c l e P r e s s , 1 7 9 5 )» p . 4 6 .
T he P e r s i a n M o o n sh e e
(C a lc u tta , . (C a lc u tta :
37
'A b a a l H am id L a h a u r i , B a d s h a h Namah ( C a l c u t t a : B ib l io th e c a I n d i c a , 1 8 6 6 -1 8 7 2 ), I , p p . 143- 1 4 4 * q u o te d i n Ib n H asan, T h e C e n t r a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M u g h al E m p ir e , 2 n d e d . (hew D e l h i ; M u n sh ira m M a n o h a r l a l P u b l i s h e r s L t d . , 1 9 3 ^ )* P*69» 70 R .C . M a ju m d a r, g e n . e d . , T he H i s t o r y a n d C u l t u r e o f t h e I n q j a n P e o p l e , v o l . 7* T he M u g h al E m p ire (B om bay: B h a r a t i y a V id y a B h a v a n , 1 9 7 4 )* p .5 2 5 * ^ G la d w in , 4° i b i d , 41
p. 46.
p p . 1 7 -1 8 .
I b n H a s a n , p . 75*
4 ^ G la d w in , p . 4 8 . 43
Ib n H asan, p. 8 0.
44G 1 a d w in , p p . 5 2 -5 4 * 4 ^ K h o s la , p .
52.
46
F ra n c o is B e rn ie r, T r a v e l s i n t h e M ogul E m p ire 1 6 5 6 -1 6 6 8 , t r a n s . by I r v i n g B ro c k (L o n d o n : A r c h ib a l C o n s ta b le & C o ., 1 8 9 1 ) , p . 2 6 5 . 47A b u l F a z l , 48
p . 165.
K h o s l a , p . 55*
49G 1 a d w in , p . 4 8 . 50
Muhammad A z h a r A n s a r i , S o c i a l L i f e o f t h e M ughal E m p e ro rs ( 1 5 2 6 - 1 7 0 7 ) ( A l l a h a b a d : S h a n t i P r a k a s h a n , 1 9 7 4 )* P» 9 6 .
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122
91 Abul F a z l, p . 1 6 7 . •^ ib id . 53 54
A n s a ri,
S o c ia l L i f e , p . 99.
M a ju m d a r,
p . 212.
55
S i r H.M . E l l i o t a n d J o h n D ow son, T he H i s t o r y o f I n d i a a s T o l d b y i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , v o l . 3 3s S h a h J a h a n (L o n d o n , 1 8 6 6 - 1 8 6 7 ; r e p r i n t e d . , C a l c u t t a ; S u s i l G u p ta P r i v a t e L t d . , 1 9 6 3 ) , P. 152. 56
M a ju m d a r, p .
528.
^ I b n H asan, p . 58 59
62
p . 114 , q u o te d i n I b n H a sa n , p .
134*
J a h u n a th S a r k a r , p p . 2 3 0 -2 3 1 .
60 61
L a h a u ri, I ,
111.
Ib n H asan,
p p . 2 3 0 -2 3 1 .
ib id ,
p.
235*
ib id ,
p . 257.
63 ^ Ja lf a r S h a rif, Is la m i n I n d i a o r Q a n u n - i- I s la m , t r a n s . b y G .A . H e r k l o t s , r e v i s e d a n d e d . by W i lli a m C ro o k e (O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 1 ; r e p r i n t e d . , L ondons C ru z o n P r e s s L t d . , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 5 8 . 64
A bul P a z l,
p . 287.
65 P r a n H a th C h o p r a ,
L i f e a n d L e t t e r s U n d er t h e M u g h a ls (New D e l h i ; A s h a j a n a k P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 1 7 9 ^ ib id ,
p. 183.
^ S h a rif,
68
p p . 63- 6 4 .
ib id , p . 72.
69ib id . 70
B e g le y , p e r s o n a l l e t t e r .
^ A b u l F a z l,
p.
2 7 7 » n o te 2 .
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123
72i b i d , p. 2 7 7 . 75ib id . 74ib i d . 7 ^ ib id ,
p p . 4 9 - 5 O.
76
Mohammad A z h a r A n s a r i , E u r o p e a n T r a v e l l e r s U n d er t h e M u g h a ls ( 1 5 8 0 - 1 6 2 7 ) ( D e l h i : I d a r a h - i A d a b i y a t - i D e l h i , 1 9 7 5 )» P. 72. 77 ' S i r T hom as H o e , T h e E m b assy o f S i r T hom as Hoe t o I n d i a 1 6 1 5 - 1 6 1 9 , e d . b y W. F o s t e r (L o n d o n : M a c m illa n & C o ., 1 8 8 9 ) , p .326. 78A b u l F a z l , p . 79
A n s a ri,
269.
E u ro p e a n T r a v e l l e r s , p . 4 1 •
SO
J a g a d is h H aray an S a r k a r , "Men a n d B e a s t i n M e d ie v a l I n d i a n W a r f a r e ,'* J o u r n a l o f I n d i a n H i s t o r y G o ld e n J u b i l e e V olum e (1 9 7 3 )* 4 7 5 -4 7 6 . 81
ib id ,
478.
82
,
E d w ard T e r r y , A V o y ag e t o E a s t I n d i a (L o n d o n : M a c m illa n & C o ., 1 7 7 7 ) , P* 1 5 2 , q u o t e d i n A n s a r i , E u r o p e a n T r a v e l l e r s , p. 83. 85ib i d . 8^A bul F a z l , p . ^ L a h a u ri, I I ,
86
M a ju m d a r, p .
87
88
247. p . 717» q u o t e d i n A b u l F a z l ,
p . 2 4 9 -2 5 0 .
534*
J a g a d is h N aray an S a k a r, 4 6 4 . L a h a u ri, I I ,
8^A bul F a z l,
p . 715» q u o t e d i n A b u l F a z l , p . 2 5 4 .
p . 292.
• ^ G la d w in , p . 7 4 “^ B e r n i e r , p . 92
S aksena, p .
378. 140.
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124
^ G la d w in , p. 74* ■ ^ Ib n H a s a n , p . 7 0 . 95
M o rah M. T i t l e y , S p o rx s a n a P a s tim e s S c e n e s f ro m T u r k i s h , P e r s i a n a n d M u g h al P a i n t i n g s (L o n d o n : B r i t i s h M useum, 1 9 7 9 ) , P . 7* 96. . ib ia . 97
M a ju m d a r, p p . 6 6 7 - 6 6 8 .
96
Wayne E . B e g l e y , e d . , " C h r o n i c l e o f t h e K in g o f t h e W o rld : T he S h ah J a h a n Nama o f ' I n a y a t K h an , th e n in e te e n th c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A .R . F u l l e r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e B r i t i s n L i b r a r y (A d a . 3 0 , 7 7 7 ) " ( T y p e s c r ip t, 1 9 8 1 ), p . 286.
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125
CHAPTER V ARTISTS 03? THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT
T h is s e c t io n o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l d is c u s s th e p a in t in g s i n r e l a t i o n to th e a r t i s t s who worked on them.
From th e
i n s c r i p t i o n s on tw en ty -o n e o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , one f in d s th e names o f te n a r t i s t s .
Each o f t h e s e te n a r t i s t s w i l l he t r e a t e d
s e p a r a t e ly , and t h e i r p a in tin g s in th e Windsor m an u scrip t w i l l then he d is c u s s e d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f t h e i r known works.
The o th e r
tw e n ty -th r e e p a in tin g s a re u n in s c r ih e d , and t h e s e w i l l he a s sig n e d t o c a t e g o r ie s h ased upon t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e a r t i s t i c q u a lit y . The Windsor C a s tle Badshah Namaf h e in g a r o y a l commis s io n , was produced i n th e im p e r ia l p a in tin g a t e l i e r .
The e s t a h l i s h -
mdht o f a p a in tin g s tu d io as p a rt o f th e make-up o f th e Mughal co u r t came ahout a f t e r Humayun's r e tu r n from P e r s ia i n 1554*
U nder
Akbar, th e s tu d io in c r e a s e d g r e a t ly in s i z e , a s i t was h i s d e s ir e t o s e e a f lo u r i s h i n g p r o d u ctio n o f m a n u sc r ip ts.
Brown e s t a b lis h e d 1 th e number o f a r t i s t s th en to have been around one hundred. J a h a n g ir , b e in g more i n t e r e s t e d i n th e a e s t h e t i c s o f p a in tin g than i n h a v in g huge q u a n t i t i e s o f p a in tin g s and m a n u scrip ts produced, re o r g a n iz e d th e p a in tin g a t e l i e r and red u ced t h e number o f p a in t e r s , but th e e x te n t to w hich he d id so i s n o t known.
2
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came t o th e th ron e he d e cr e a se d even f u r t h e r th e number o f p a in te r s i n h i s employ, b eca u se he was l e s s in t e r e s t e d in th e a r t o f
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126
p a i n t i n g t h a n w e re h i s tw o p r e d e c e s s o r s , T h e e x i s t i n g c o r p u s o f S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w h ic h b e a r i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d a s c r i p t i o n s h a s r e v e a l e d t h e n a m e s o f t w e n t y - f i v e a r t i s t s whom a r e know n t o h a v e been p a r t o f th e im p e r ia l a t e l i e r .
H o w e v e r, t h e e x a c t s i z e o f t h i s
d e p a rtm e n t c a n n o t be d e te rm in e d , f o r t h e r e i s
s till
a s ig n ific a n t
q u a n t i t y o f u n i n s c r i b e d w o rk s. The p a i n t i n g p ro d u c e d u n d e r th e r e ig n o f Shah Ja h a n can b e im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n iz e d by a c e r t a i n is tic s . d e ta il,
s e t o f sh ared c h a ra c te r
T h e m a jo r f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e a c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f j e w e l - l i k e
c o lo rs ,
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s m a ll
an d a f i x a t i o n w ith
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q u a l i t i e s , p a i n t i n g s o f t h i s p e r i o d h a v e s o m e tim e s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h e i r sam en ess, f o r h a v in g no i n d i v i d u a l i t y , d e v o id o f any p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . t h e o v e r w h e lm in g s i m i l a r i t y u n f a ir to
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s u f f ic ie n t d a ta — i t
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th e p l a s t i c tio n
p o s s ib le to even
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expense o f
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127
e v e ry th in g e l s e .
F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h e p r e s e n t e x a m p le o f t h e
W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , w h ic h i s a w o rk m e a n t t o b e s e e n a s a n e n t i t y in i t s e l f ,
th e c o n fo rm ity to
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A t f i r s t g la n c e one c o u ld v e ry e a s i l y be d e c e i
b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk o f o n l y
th r e e to f o u r a r t i s t s .
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d is c ip lin e s th a t can n o t be r e a d ily
s u b m it i t s e l f
g e n t _ g u id e - lin e s , th e in d i v id u a l ity becom es a p p a r e n t.
I t is
one o f th o s e s u b je c tiv e to a s e t o f s t r i n
o f each a r t i s t e v e n tu a lly
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p e r s o n a l m a n n e r is m s a n d a d h e s i o n t o a s e t s t y l e
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p a r t i c u l a r m a n u s c r i p t s u c h b e a u t y a n d c h a rm . d o c u m e n t a t i o n on a r t i s t s q u ite
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o f t h e sam e p e r i o d ,
th e I n d ia n o n e s p la c e d
e m p h a s is o n e x e r t i n g a p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y .
ex cep t f o r p o e ts , by c r i t i c s
t h e i r l i v e s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t w e re n o t d o c u m e n te d
o r h i s t o r i a n s o f th e p e r io d .
o f th e a r t i s t s
F u rth e rm o re ,
C o n s id e rin g th e
s ta tu s
a s a r t i s a n s r a t h e r th a n a s e l e v a te d f i g u r e s o f a
p h ilo s o p h ic a l n a tu re , i t
i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t l e s s im p o rta n c e
w as a c c o r d e d t o th e m i n r e s p e c t t o a r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r l i v e s . a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d ,
As
t h e a r t i s t s w e re e x p e c t e d t o c o n fo rm t h e i r
s t y l e t o t h e w him s o f t h e i r p a t r o n ,
and th e r e f o r e i t
w as i m p o s s i
b l e f o r tn e m t o d e v e l o p c o n s i d e r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
T h ey p r o d u c e d
w hat th e y w ere i n s t r u c t e d
A lth o u g h t h e y
t o , n o t w h a t t h e y w a n te d .
w e re n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e s t y l i s t i c
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128
p re c e p ts o f th e p e r io d , in
th e y d id c o n t r i b u t e to
th e v a r i e t y
fo u n d
th e u n ity .
I n s c r i b e d W orks As a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d a b o v e , t h e i n s c r i b e d p a i n t i n g s come t o a t o t a l o f t w e n t y - o n e , a n d t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk s o f te n a r t i s t s :
A D id , B a l e h a n d , B i c h i t r ,
P a y a g , Ram p a s , a n d T i r B u s t ,
B o l a , P a u l a , L a l c h a n d , M u ra d ,
som e o f t h e s e a r t i s t s ,
s u c h a s A b id ,
B a l c h a n d , B i c h i t r , M u ra d , a n d P a y a g , a r e n a m e s w h ic h h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n u m b e r o f e s t a b l i s h e d w o rk s o f t h e S h a h Ja h a n i p e rio d . know n, F in a lly
O t h e r s l i k e L a l c h a n d a n d Ram P a s Eire i e s s w e l l
a n d h a v e h a d o n l y o n e o r tw o w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d
t h e n am es o f B o l a , P a u l a a n d T i r B u s t w e re p r e v i o u s l y
unknow n, an d a r e a r t i s t s duced.
t o th e m .
In
whom t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t h a s i n t r o
th e e n s u in g p a g e s ,
in d iv id u a lly d is c u s s e d ,
e ac h o f th e s e a r t i s t s
u s in g th e p a i n tin g s i n
t h e W in d s o r m anu
s c r i p t a s a fo c a l p o in t f o r an a n a ly s is o f t h e i r th o s e a r t i s t s
w ill be
s ty le s .
For
who a l r e a d y h a v e a n u m b e r o f w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d t o
th e m , a b r i e f t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i r c a r e e r s w i l l b e i n c l u d e d . th e s e c a s e s i t
s h o u ld b e p o s s i b l e to
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t i n t o lo p m e n ts .
A lis tin g
s itu a te
th e ir p a in tin g s in
th e fra m e w o rk o f t h e i r a r t i s t i c
o f t h e know n w o rk s o f t h e s e a r t i s t s
deve
can be
f o u n d i n A p p e n d ix B.
A b id As an a r t i s t
In
o f t h e S h a h J a h a n i p e r i o d , A b id h a s
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129
s e v e n w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d m a n u s c rip t: f o li o
t o h im .
9 4 v t h e d e a t h o f K han J a h a n L o d i a n d f o l i o
th e c o n f e r r a l o f th e t i t l e a u d ie n c e s c e n e s .
Two o f t h e s e a r e i n t h e W in d so r 192v
S h a h K h u rra m , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s a r e
I n f o r m a tio n a b o u t h i s b a c k g ro u n d h a s b een
r e v e a le d th ro u g h an i n s c r i p t i o n
o n t h e p a i n t i n g S h ah J a h a n i n
d a r b a r w i t h M a h a b a t K han a n d a S h e ik h ( p l a t e L X I l ) , w h ic h i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e w as t h e b r o t h e r o f A b u l H a s a n , N a d i r a l Z am an,
3
and on th e
p a i n t i n g S h a h J a h a n o n t h e P e a c o c k T h ro n e ( p l a t e L X I I l ) , w h e re h e s i g n e d h i m s e l f a s th e
s o n o f A qa R iz a .
4
B o th h i s b r o t h e r a n d
f a t h e r w e re m em b ers o f t h e M u g h al r o y a l a t e l i e r , common t o f i n d m em b ers o f t h e s tu d io .
and i t
w as q u i t e
sam e f a m i l y w o r k in g i n t h e sam e
A b i d 's o u t p u t i s m uch s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f h i s b e t t e r
know n b r o t h e r ,
and i s
a ls o o f a v e ry d if f e r e n t s ty le .
A b id w as
o b v i o u s l y t h e y o u n g e r o f t h e tw o a s h e w o rk e d u n d e r S h a h J a h a n w h ile A bul H asan a l r e a d y h a d a f l o u r i s h i n g c a r e e r u n d e r J a h a n g ir . A b id p r o b a b l y b e g a n w o r k in g d u r i n g t h e h e i g h t o f h i s b r o t h e r ' s c a re e r,
a r o u n d 1615* a n d h a d a l r e a d y • a t t a i n e d , t h e l e v e l o f a
m a s t e r a r t i s t w hen h e e x e c u t e d t h e p a g e s i n H is s t y l e ,
lik e
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t .
th e o th e r p a i n t e r s
o f th e p e rio d ,
s t a y e d w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e f o r m e d c o u r t l y mode o f sy m m e try and b a la n c e .
T h e d a r b a r s c e n e i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , f o l i o
192v, m o st c l e a r l y d e m o n s tra te s h i s a d h e re n c e to I t i s p e rfe c tly
s y m m e t r i c a l , w h ic h im m e d i a t e l y g i v e s a c e r t a i n
sen se of o rd er ana r i g i d ity . w o rk s may b e ,
th is p rin c ip le .
Y e t, h o w ev er n e a t an d p r e c i s e h i s
one d o e s n o t g e t tn e s e n s e o f q u i e t and r e g a l i t y
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130
t h a t c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e w o rk s o f some o f t h e o t h e r a r t i s t s , e x a m p le M u ra d .
T h is i s
f a c e s o f th e f i g u r e s ; t a c t w ith e a c h o t h e r .
due to
s ta tu s .
th e
t h e y s m i l e , g r im a c e a n d e s t a b l i s h e y e c o n A b id w as am ong t h e v e r y fe w a r t i s t s
p e r i o d who w e r e a b l e t o c r e a t e p e o p le p e r s o n a l i t y ,
th e a n im a tio n i n j e c t e d i n t o
fo r
o f th e
su ch c h a r a c te r i z a ti o n , to g iv e h is
and to l i b e r a t e
th em f ro m t h e i r m a n n e q u in
T h e sam e c a n a l s o b e s a i d o f h i s o t h e r p a i n t i n g f o l i o
9 4 v , w h e re o n e i s i m m e d i a t e l y s t r u c k b y t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y i n f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s .
A n o th e r d e v i c e w h ic h h e u s e d t o b r i n g h i s
s u b j e c t s c l o s e r t o t h e v i e w e r w as b y c o m p o s in g f ro m a v e r y lo w p e rs p e c tiv e .
H is f i g u r e s w e re t h e n p u s h e d r i g h t t o t h e e d g e o f
t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e , a n d b y c r o p p i n g th e m , h e b r o u g h t th em i n t o v i e w e r 's s p a c e . in
th e b a t t l e
T h is d e v ic e h a s an e s p e c i a l l y
s c e n e , w h ic h i s
fro m a lo w v a n t a g e p o i n t ;
s ta rtlin g
th e o n ly one o f t h i s
a l l th e o th e r b a t t l e s in
m a n u s c r i p t a r e v ie w e d f r o m a b i r d ' s - e y e v ie w .
th e
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s u b je c t seen t h e W in d s o r
By b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y
i n p r o x i m i t y , A b i d 's f i g u r e s h a v e a g r e a t e r im m e d ia c y t h a t a c c o r d s v e r y w e ll w ith t h e i r a n im a te d f e a t u r e s . N o t o n l y w a s A b id a m a s t e r a t p r o d u c i n g v a r i e d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , b u t h e w as a l s o a n a c u t e o b s e r v e r o f s m a l l i n t r i c a t e d e ta ils .
A l l o b j e c t s , b o t h n a t u r a l a n d i n n a t e w e re d e p i c t e d w i t h
th e u tm o s t p r e c i s i o n .
T h i s w as d o n e i n a v e r y h a r d m a n n e r o f
h a n d l i n g w h ic h u s e d v e r y t h i n b r u s h s t r o k e s a n d c l e a r l y d e f i n e d o u tlin e s .
B o th o f h i s p a i n t i n g s i n
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e u s e o f a v e r y r i c h t u r q u o i s e g r e e n , w h ic h
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
131
c a n be s e e n on th e lo w e r w a lls o f th e d a r b a r s c e n e s an d i n h ills
o f th e b a t t l e
scene,
'f h i s v e r y s p e c i a l g r e e n i s
e v id e n t in h ia o th e r a t t r i b u t i o n s . e v e ry th in g e ls e aro u n d i t ,
a ls o
v iv i d n e s s c o n t r a s t s w ith
and i n a c e r t a in r e s p e c t , p ro d u c e s a
r a th e r fa n ta s y lik e q u a lity . a p p e a r r a t h e r im a g in a ry
Its
th e
D e s p i t e a l l h i s r e a l i s m , h i s w o rk s
on a c c o u n t o f t h i s
c o lo ris tic
e ffe c t.
O f h i s o t h e r a t t r i b u t e d w o r k s , o n l y f o u r o f th e m h a v e been d a te d ,
a n d t h e y r a n g e b e tw e e n 1 6 2 8 (1 0 3 7 H) t o 1 6 5 9 ( 1 0 4 8 H ).
P l a t e LXII i s lim it.
a t th e
e a r l y l i m i t w h i l e P l a t e L X III i s
B o th t h e s e e x h i b i t c e r t a i n
W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t p a i n t i n g s ,
a t th e l a t e r
o f th e f e a t u r e s fo u n d i n th e
su ch a s th e u se o f th e tu r q u o is e
g re e n , an d th e p r e c is io n i n d e t a i l s .
H o w e v e r, m uch o f t h e r e f i n e
m e n t a n d e l e g a n c e o f h i s W in d s o r p a i n t i n g s a r e n o t e v i d e n t i n w o rk s.
th e s e
F o r e x a m p le , h i s f i g u r e s d o n o t d i s p l a y t h e w id e r a n g e o f
e m o tio n s o r f a c i a l f e a t u r e s ; v e ry n a tu r a l. t h i s la c k
t h e y a r e v e r y s t a i d a n d do n o t a p p e a r
H is c o m p o s i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a l s o
of s p o n ta n e ity .
c o n tr ib u te s to
I n P l a t e LXII t h e h i g h v a n t a g e p o i n t
s e t s t h e w h o le s c e n e r a t h e r d e e p b a c k i n t o s p a c e , w h ic h c r e a t e s a n i m m e d i a te s e p e r a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e
e v e n t an d th e v ie w e r.
H o w e v e r,
i n P l a t e LXIII o n e n o t i c e s t h a t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n p u s h e d c lo s e r to I t is
th e p i c t u r e p la n e an d th e v a n ta g e p o i n t h a s been lo w e re d .
a p p ro a c h in g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t .
o f th e p a in tin g s o f th e
T h e s e c o m p a r is o n s show t h a t A b i d 's w o rk s i n
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w e re o f a l a t e r d a t e t h a n t h e s e a t t r i b u t i o n s a n d i m p l i e s h i s e v o l u t i o n fro m a n a r t i s t who b e g a n i n
an
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132
u n in s p ire d c o u r tly t r a d i t i o n
to
flo u ris h in to
a v e r y p e r s o n a l fo rm
o f e x p r e s s i o n w h ic h h e w as a b l e t o w o rk i n u n i s o n w i t h t h e d i c t a t e s o f th e c o u r t s t y l e .
B a lc h a n d B a l c h a n d w as q u i t e a p r o d u c t i v e a r t i s t w i t h a l o n g c a r e e r w h ic h s p a n n e d fr o m t n e th e Shah J a h a n i p e r io d .
e n d o f A k b a r 1s r e i g n a n d w e l l i n t o
N o t m uch i s know n a b o u t h i s b e g i n n i n g s ,
e x c e p t t h a t h e w as p a r t o f t h e A k b a r i' 'p r o d u c t i o n l i n e 1 o f a r t i s t s who t u r n e d o u t l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s
o f m a n u s c rip ts .
U nder J a h a n g ir
h e m oved aw ay fro m m a n u s c r i p t s t o p o r t r a i t s a n d g r o u p s t u d i e s , an d c o n tin u e d to f l o u r i s h i n t h i s tr e n d u n d e r S hah J a h a n . h e w as r e t a i n e d a s p a r t o f t h e
e lite
a rtis tic
T hat
c o rp s o f Shah J a h a n * s
a t e l i e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e w as c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a g r e a t t a l e n t . L i k e A b id , B a l c h a n d a l s o
cam e fr o m a f a m i l y o f a r t i s x s ,
b r o t h e r , P a y a g , w as a l s o
a c o n te m p o ra ry p a i n t e r a t th e c o u r t o f
Shah J a h a n . th e m a jo r ity
H is m o s t p r o l i f i c
fo r h is
p e r i o d w as i n t h e 1 6 3 0 s , t o w h ic h
o f h is tw e n ty -th re e a t t r i b u t i o n s a re d a te d .
o f t h e s e a r e w o rk s i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t : f o l i o
T h ree
43v, th e re c e p
t i o n o f P r i n c e K h u rram u p o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e M ew ar c a m p a ig n , f o l i o 7 2 v f t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u ro z a t A g ra , and f o l i o
1 3 5 v , P r i n c e K h u rra m K i l l i n g a T i g e r .
o f th e s e a r e d a r b a r s c e n e s w h ile th e t h i r d
is
Two an o u td o o r h u n t.
In th e s e and in h is o th e r a t t r i b u t i o n s , re m a rk a b le a b i l i t y
and v e r s a t i l i t y .
h e sh o w s a
H is w o rk s a r e m a rk e d b y a n
e s p e c i a l l y h a r d an d p r e c i s e d r a u g h t s m a n s n i p , w h ic h g i v e s a n e f f e c t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
133
o f t h i n g s b e i n g c l e a r c u t a n d m a rk e d o u t , a l m o s t a s i f to s ta n d o u t i n r e l i e f .
t h e y w e re
One s e e s i n h i s p a i n t i n g s t h e a b i l i t y
w o rk t e c h n i q u e u p t o a p o i n t o f n e a r p e r f e c t i o n ; o r d e r , tru e , l i k e n e s s i s
e v e ry th in g i s
to in
s tr iv e d f o r , and i n a l l t h i s p e r s i s t s
e le g a n c e * f o r m a l ity a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .
Y et a l l i s n o t l i f e l e s s
a n d w o o d e n ; B a lc h a n d w as n o t m e r e l y a t a l e n t e d c r a f t s m a n , h e a l s o e x c e lle d *
in h is a b ility
to b rin g o u t a c e r ta in i n t e n s i t y o f th e
f ig u r e s he c h a r a c te r iz e d . I n h i s tw o d a r b a r s c e n e s o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , th e f a c e s o f th e f i g u r e s p a r t i c u l a r s e n tim e n ts ,
seem f o r t h e m o s t p a r t d e v o i d o f a n y
a n d g a z e s t o n i l y a b o u t th e m .
T he a b s e n c e
o f e x p r e s s io n s a c c o rd s w ith th e s o le m n ity o f th e o c c a s io n , a s w ith th e
a s w e ll
s t r i c t d e c o ru m t h a t w as e x p e c t e d t o b e m a i n t a i n e d a t
such f u n c tio n s .
H o w e v e r ,a d m id s t t h i s m a s s o f z o m b i e - l i k e f a c e s ,
o n e c a tc h e s a g lim p s e o f l i f e
— a c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n t h e
f i g u r e s e s t a b l i s h e d by ey e c o n ta c t and g e s t u r e s .
F o r e x a m p le , i n
fo lio
43v, one can s e n s e a k in d o f a n x ie ty i n
th e fa c e o f J a h a n g ir,
he i s
c o n c e r n e d a n d w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e o u tc o m e o f t h i s m i s s i o n .
On
t h e c o n t r a r y , P r i n c e K h u rra m sh o w s a n a r r o g a n c e a n d c o c k s u r e n e s s w h ic h w as v e r y m uch h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ;
he d is p la y s an im p a tie n c e
t o g e t m o v in g t o a c c o m p l i s h a f e a t w h ic h h e b e l i e v e s w i l l e n d s u c c e s s fu lly .
T he t h i r d
t e d t o B a lc h a n d i s f o l i o
w o rk i n t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t a t t r i b u 1 3 4 r, a h u n tin g s c e n e .
th e c o n fin e s o f th e p a la c e s ,
t h e d e c o ru m i s
H ere o u ts id e
so m ew h at s l a c k e n e d .
T he a c t i v i t y o f t h e h u n t a l l o w s f o r m uch e x c i t e m e n t a n d m o v e m e n t,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
134
but th is is
n o t th e c a se h e re .
The f i g u r e s k i l l t h e b e a s t i n a
m e c h a n ic a l an d u n i n s p i r e d f a s h i o n .
L ik e th o s e i n h i s d a r b a r
s c e n e s , t h e s e f i g u r e s d i s p l a y no e m o tio n s , b u t t h e r e a c e rta in
c o n t a c t b e tw e e n th e m t h a t i s m o re e v i d e n t i n t h e b a c k
g r o u n d f i g u r e s th a n , i n h e re i s
s t i l l re m a in s
i n th e
th e fo re g ro u n d o n e s.
tra n q u ility
The g r e a t e s t b e a u ty
a n d g r a c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g w h ic h i s
c r e a t e d b y t h e s u b t l e b l e n d i n g o f lo w k e y e d c o l o r s t h a t a r e e v e n e d o f f t o a s m o o th f i n i s h . B a l c h a n d 's w o rk s i n
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t seem t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e m a t u r e s t a g e o f h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , w h ic h w as a r o u n d 1 6 J5 »
He w as a t t h e p e a k o f h i s c a r e e r w hen c o m m is s io n e d t o do
t h e B a d s h a h Mama i l l u s t r a t i o n s . s tr e n g th and firm n e s s o f l i n e s ,
H is e a r l i e r w o rk s l a c k t h e a n d t h e d e x t e r i t y o f f i n i s h w h ic h
a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s l a t e r w o rk s. w ith a c h i ld
F o r e x a m p le , i n S h a h J a h a n
( p l a t e L X IV ), a p a i n t i n g d a t e d t o 1 6 2 1 ,^ h i s f i g u r e s
show e i t h e r t o o m u ch e m o tio n o r e l s e n o n e a t a l l .
T h ey h a d
not
y e t a r r i v e d a t t h e p o i n t w h e re e x p r e s s i o n w as r e l e g a t e d t o a s im p l e g e s t u r e o r r e g a r d .
T he s e r v a n t o n th e r i g h t e f f u s e s w ith
h u m i lit y w h ile Shah J a h a n re m a in s t o t a l l y th e u se o f v e ry h a rd and p r e c is e do n o t d e s c r i b e t h e s h a p e s .
p la c id .
T h e re i s a l s o
o u t l i n e s w h ic h o n l y d e f i n e b u t
T he c o l o r s c h e m e , th o u g h ,
a lre a d y
d i s p l a y e d t h e s m o o th s u b t l e b l e n d o f s o f t c o l o r s w h ic h r e m a in e d one o f th e h a llm a r k s o f h i s o e u v re .
B ic h itr B ic h itr i s
t o d a y p e r h a p s o n e o f t h e b e s t know n a r t i s t s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
135
o f t h i s p e rio d .
H is o u t p u t i s q u i t e l a r g e ,
e i g h t w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d
t o h im , a n d t h e s e show h im t o h a v e b e e n
one- o f th e m o st b r i l l i a n t p a i n t e r s little
i s know n a b o u t h i s c a r e e r ,
of th e 17th c e n tu ry . ex cep t th a t i t
1 6 2 0 t o 1 6 6 0 , a n d t h a t h e w as a H in d u . o b v io u s t a l e n t ,
o n ly one p a i n t i n g i n
e x e c u t e d b y h im , t h i s
th e r e b e in g tw e n ty -
w as f o l i o
H o w e v er,
ra n g e d fro m a b o u t
M o re o v e r, d e s p i t e h is
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w as
5 0 v t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d
th e p r in c e s fro m L a h o re .
One i s h a r d p r e s s e d
t o come u p w i t h a
s a tis fa c to ry
fo r th is
a s o n e w o u ld e x p e c t
e x p la n a tio n
s itu a tio n ,
t h a t a w o rk o f t h i s m a g n itu d e a n d g r a n d e u r w o u ld
have b een e n tr u s te d
t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e v e r y b e s t m en . F o l i o 5 0 v sh o w s him t o h a v e b e e n a s e n s i t i v e a n d a c c u r a t e o b s e r v e r o f t h e p e o p l e a n d o b j e c t s a r o u n d h im , w h ic h h e r e n d e re d w ith a t o t a l f i d e l i t y su rfa c e d e ta ils to ta lly
N ot o n ly d id he g e t
c o r r e c t , b u t h e m a n ag ed t o
c h a r a c te r s w ith a m a je s tic is
to n a tu re .
s o lid ity .
c o ld and e x p r e s s io n le s s .
endow h i s
The d e p i c t i o n o f t h e i r f a c e s
T h ey s t a r e b l a n k l y i n d e a d s i l e n c e .
N obody l o o k s a t a n y b o d y e l s e , r a t h e r t h e y l o o k p a s t e a c h o t h e r a n d in to
some d i s t a n t s p a c e .
The s o l i d m o d e llin g a n d a l o o f n e s s r e n
d e r e d t r u l y m o n u m e n ta l f i g u r e s .
L ik e h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , h i s
c o m p o s i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w as b a s e d o n a h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , w h ic h c r e a t e d a n o r d e r e d s t a b i l i t y . th e scen e even f u r t h e r .
T h is h e ig h te n s
Y e t f o r m a l a n d m a j e s t i c th o u g h h i s w o rk s
may b e ,
t h e y do n o t p o s s e s s t h e r e g a l i t y
o f a n a r t i s t l i k e M u ra d .
T h is i s
d u e m a i n l y t o B i c h i t r ' s u s e o f g e n t l e o u t l i n e s w h ic h
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
136
c r e a t e s a v e r y s o f t and. q u i e t f e e l i n g .
In a d d itio n h is p a le tte
o f p a le ,a lm o s t p a s t e l c o lo r s h e lp s to
t o n e dow n t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e
and th e c o ld n e s s i n th e p r e s e n ta tio n .
I n th e f i n a l a n a ly s is one
may s a y t h a t w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e d f r a m e w o r k , and s e a o f e x p r e s s io n le s s f a c e s ,
a m id s t th e r i g i d i t y
t h e r e i s h o w e v e r a h u m an ism
t h a t p r e v a i l s w h ic h s h o w s t h a t B i c i t r w as a n e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e a n d so m ew h at r o m a n t i c a r t i s t . As t h e r e i s B ic h itr, i t to h i s
is
a s u f f i c i e n t am ount o f d a t e d w o rk s f o r
p o s s ib le to a r r iv e
s ty lis tic
d e v e lo p m e n t.
a t som e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a s
F u rth e rm o re , i t
is
a ls o p o s s ib le
t o a s s i g n a n a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e t o h i s p a i n t i n g i n t h e W in d s o r m anu s c rip t.
H is e a r l i e s t know n w o rk , J a h a n g i r o n a n H o u r g l a s s T h ro n e n
( p i £."t e LXV), h a s b e e n d a t e d t o a r o u n d 1 6 2 0
and i t
a p r e c i s e an d d e te rm in e d a p p ro a c h to p a i n t i n g . fa irly
u n d e v e lo p e d e a r l y
m a tu rity .
s ty le ,
T h i s may i n d i c a t e
a lre a d y
U n lik e B a l c h a n d 's
B i c h i t r ' s w as q u i t e a d v a n c e d i n
t h a t h e w as a l r e a d y a n e x p e r i e n c e d
a r t i s t b y t h e ti m e h e e n t e r e d t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r , h a v in g r e c e iv e d h i s
show s
t r a i n i n g w h ile i n
th e s e r v ic e o f a c o u r t i e r ,
o r t h a t h e w as j u s t a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y g i f t e d p a i n t e r . f i g u r e s w e re s o l i d l y m o d e l l e d a n d r e n d e r e d i n sh o w ed a c l o s e s t u d y o f t h e s u b j e c t .
p o s s ib ly
B i c h i t r 1s
a m a n n e r w h ic h
H o w e v er t h e r e w as s t i l l
u n c e r ta in ty t h a t s u g g e s ts e x p e rim e n ta tio n .
some
W orks o f t h i s p e r i o d
a r e l e s s r i g i d a n d m o re h u m an e; t h e y h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s h i s Q s o f t e r m o re .r o m a n ti c a n d o p e n l y i n n o v a t i v e s t y l e . i n w o rk s o f t h e 1 6 3 0 s, p r i n c i p a l l y fro m a ro u n d 1635 o n w a rd s , t h e r e i s
a
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
137
g r e a t e r d e g re e o f f o r c e f u ln e s s i n th e e x e c u tio n th a t d is p la y s a m a ste ry o f tn e te c h n iq u e .
H o w e v er, b y t h i s t i m e h e w as t o t a l l y
u n d e r t h e sw ay o f t h e d e m a n d s o f S h a h J a h a n ' s a r t i s t i c an d th u s th e e m o tio n a l an d ro m a n tic f e a t u r e s
p re fe re n c e s,
o f h is e a r ly p e rio d
g a v e w ay t o a t i g h t e n i n g o f f o r m s a n d a n e l i m i n a t i o n o f m uch o f t h e e m o t i o n a l i s m f o r t h e s a k e o f a n im m a c u la te a n d t e c h n i c a l l y p e rfe c t p re s e n ta tio n . H is c a r e e r s e e m s t o h a v e t e r m i n a t e d a r o u n d 1 6 6 0 , w h en h e once a g a in r e tu r n e d , s o fte r,
b u t to a le s s e r d e g re e ,
a n d m o re h u m a n i s t i c s t y l e .
p a in tin g e n t itl e d
to h i s a tm o s p h e ric ,
T h is can b e s t be se e n i n th e
E p i s o d e i n a B a z a a r ( P l a t e L X V l).
When c o m p a re d
w i t h h i s e a r l y w o rk , P l a t e LXV, o n e n o t i c e s g r e a t s i m i l a r i t i e s i n th e p e r c e p tio n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f th e f i g u r e s .
I n b o th c a se s
th e f ig u r e s
50v i n
re v e a l th e ir p e rs o n a litie s ,
u n lik e f o l i o
W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w h e re t h e y a r e c o l d l i f e l e s s m o d e l s .'
th e
H o w e v er,
E p is o d e i n a B a z a a r i n e v i t a b l y r e t a i n s
som e o f t h e f r i g i d i t y ,
e s p e c ia lly in
T h is i s
th e b a c k g ro u n d s e t t i n g .
th e r e s u l t o f
B i c h i t r ’ s t o t a l m a s te ry an d c o n tr o l o f th e te c h n iq u e s o f th e p a in tin g s ty le . fin is h e d
s ty le ,
As f o l i o
50v d i s p l a y s a s u p e r b ly h a n d le d an d
b u t a l s o c o l d a n d d i s t a n t a t t h e sam e t i m e , o n e
c o u l d s u r m i s e t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g cam e fr o m B i c h i t r ' s m i d d le p e r i o d ,
a n d i t m ay b e d a t e d t o a r o u n d t h e e a r l y 1 b 4 0 s .
S o la To d a t e ,
t h e r e h a s o n l y b e e n o n e w o rk a s c r i b e d t o
a r t i s t B o la , an d t h i s i s
fo lio
71r in
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
th e th e
138
s o l a r w e ig h m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n .
J u d g i n g fro m t h i s
p a i n t i n g , B o la
a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a h i g h l y c o m p e te n t a r t i s t who a d h e r e d t o t h e t
t e n e t s o f th e o rg a n iz e d c o u r tl y
s ty le .
U n l i k e som e o f h i s
c o l
l e a g u e s h i s p a i n t i n g d o e s n o t c o n v e y a s e n s e o f pomp a n d m a g n i f i cence.
To b e g i n w i t h , h i s c o m p o s i t i o n a v o i d s ,
th e s t r i c t h o r iz o n t a l- v e r t ic a l o r ie n t a ti o n .
to a c e r t a in
T h is i s n o t to
t h a t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s u n b a la n c e d , b u t r a t h e r t h a t i t
e x te n t, say
fo llo w s an
a s s y m e t r i c a l a l i g n m e n t , w h ic h c a n b e s t b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e l i n e up o f th e f ig u r e s i n th e c o u r ty a r d .
A lth o u g h t h e r e g a l i t y i s
so m ew h at d i m i n i s h e d , h i s c o m p o s i t i o n a l l o w s t h e v i e w e r t o f o c u s a t te n ti o n upon th e f ig u r e
o f Shah J a h a n .
T he p i c t u r e p l a n e i s
c l o s e d up b y t h e e s t a b l i s n m e n t o f a f i r m h o r i z o n t a l a t b o t h t h e to p an d th e b o tto m .
The t o p h o r i z o n t a l i s
c r e a t e d by th e p a v i l i o n
a n d t h e b o tto m o n e b y t h e ro w o f c o u r t i e r s who a r e n o t o n l y r i g h t on t h e e d g e b u t a r e a l s o
s e v e r l y c r o p p e d ; a d e v i c e w h ic h p r o d u c e s
a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f im m e d ia c y .
T he r e s u l t i n g
e ffe c t is
t r i a n g l e w ith th e a p e x p o i n t i n g to Shah J a h a n . f u r t h e r h e ig h te n e d by th e lo o s e b r u s h s tr o k e s .
one o f a
Im m e d ia c y i s B o l a 's p a i n t i n g
t e c h n i q u e h a d a n a l m o s t f r e e h a n d , v e r y p a i n t e r l y m a n n e r w h ic h h e lp e d to r e n d e r a g r e a t e r in f o r m a lit y .
Y e t h e m a n a g e d t o m a in
t a i n a c h e c k upon h i s f lo w in g b r u s h s t r o k e s by e n c a r d in g a l l th e f ig u r e s and o b je c ts in a l i g h t b u t c a r e f u lly d e lin ia te d o u tlin e . I t i s v e r y p o s s i b l e t h a t o t h e r w o rk s b y B o la e x i s t , c o m p a ris io n s w ith t h i s p a i n t i n g ,
o n e may b e l i k e l y
a n d b y m a k in g to a t t r i b u t e
some p r e s e n t l y u n i n s c r i b e d w o rk s t o h im .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
139
H aul a F o l i o 2 0 4 v o f t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t ,
th e c a p tu re of
F o r t U < ig ir ,h a s a s i g n a t u r e w h ic h m ay b e r e a d a s e i t h e r D a u l a t o r P a u la .
B a s e d o n B e a c h 's s t u d y , w h ic h i n d i c a t e d s u f f i c i e n t d i f f e r
e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e - s t y l e o f t h e know n p a i n t e r D a u l a t a n d t h e o n e o f th is p a r tic u la r p a in tin g , th a t th e re a re
i t h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d b e s t to assum e
tw o s e p a r a t e a r t i s t s
in v o lv e d .
n e x t t o n o t h i n g i s know n a b o u t D a u la ,
9
th o u g h i t
Ab a p a i n t e r , is
h e may h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r tw o o t h e r w o r k s . ^ in
th o u g h t t h a t T he p a i n t i n g
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t sh o w s h im t o h a v e b e e n a s k i l l e d a n d
p ro b a b ly a n e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t a t th e tim e . T he s c e n e d e p i c t s t h e p r i s o n e r s , o u t o f th e f o r t in te d to
a f t e r h a v i n g come
s m a l l g r o u p s o f f o u r t o f i v e m en, b e i n g p r e s e n
t h e co m m an d er i n
fo n d o f g ro u p in g f i g u r e s
c h ie f. in to
in g an o r d e r ly p r e s e n t a t i o n .
A p p a re n tly t h i s
a r t i s t w as q u i t e
s m a ll u n i t s a s a m eans o f c o n s t r u c t T h e m a in b u l k o f t h e f i g u r e s l i n e
t h e b o tto m a n d r i g h t e d g e o f t h e p a i n t i n g , a n d t h i s h e l p s c r e a t e c o n tr o l a s w e ll a s le a d s th e v ie w e r ’ s a t t e n t i o n o f th e p r in c ip a l a c tio n . fig u re s r e ta in
A lth o u g h D a u la u s e d a t h i c k o u t l i n e , h i s
a s u p p le n e s s and e a s e i n
f u r t h e r h e ig h te n e d by th e v a r i e t y n is c h a ra c te rs .
to w a rd s t h e f o c u s
t h e i r m o v e m e n ts .
o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n s fo u n d in
P e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t a w k w a rd n e s s com es i n h i s
d e p i c tio n o f h a n d s — th e y a r e o f te n n o t n a t u r a l l y and g e s tic u la te
T h is i s
i n a n u n c o m fo rta b le m a n n e r.
p o s itio n e d ,
H o w ev er t h i s m in o r
i n c o n s i s t e n c y i s m ade u p f o r b y t h e s o f t a n d l u s h o v e r a l l q u a l i t y ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
140
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a n d s c a p e , w h ic h i s
a c h ie v e d th ro u g h th e u se o f
a v e ry th ic k p a in t and h eav y b r u s h s tr o k e s .
L a lc h a n d V e ry l i t t l e f o l i o 46v i n
i s know n a b o u t t h i s a r t i s t who p a i n t e d
t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , P r i n c e K h u rra m r e c e i v i n g t h e
s u b d u e d R a n a Amar S i n g h . a ttrib u te d
O n ly tw o o t h e r w o rk s h a v e p r e s e n t l y b e e n
t o h im , a n d o f t h e s e o n l y o n e h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d .
L a l c h a n d 's s t y l e d i s p l a y s t h e n e a t f o r m a l i t y w h ic h i s S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g ,
a n d a l s o sh o w s t h e a b i l i t y
p e r f e c t f i d e l i t y , m any s m a l l a n d m i n u t e d e t a i l s .
th e b a s is o f
t o r e n d e r , w ith T h i s se e m s t o
be th e r e s u l t o f a k e e n ey e f o r o b s e r v a tio n r a t h e r th a n o f an a d h e re n c e to s e t p r i n c i p l e s .
L a l c h a n d w as n o t r e a l l y
a m a s te r o f
t h e hum an b o d y , f o r h i s f i g u r e s h a v e a n aw kw ard a t t e n u a t i o n , e s p e c ia lly in e v id e n t i n
t h e d o m a in o f t h e i r h a n d s .
T h is i s
e s p e c ia lly
t h e o n ly p u b l i s h e d p a i n t i n g by h im , t h e p o r t r a i t o f
R a j a B i k r a m a j i t ( P l a t e L X V I l) , who s t a n d s i n p o s e w i t h h i s a rm s s u s p e n d e d a t h i s w a i s t . p a in tin g , i t
is
a p a in fu lly u n n a tu ra l H e r e , a s i n t h e W in d s o r
e v id e n t t h a t he m ust h av e la b o r e d o v e r th e d e t a i l
i n g o f s p e c i f i c o b j e c t s . A l t h o u g h h i s c o l o r sch em e i s l u s c i o u s a n d r i c h , h i s w o rk d o e s n o t h a v e t h e s p a r k l e a n d t h e l u s t r o u s m e n t w h ic h i s m a n u s c rip t.
a p p a re n t in
T h is i s
some o f t h e o t h e r p a i n t i n g s i n
re fin e th e
d u e t o h i s c o m p o s i t i o n 's l a c k o f t h a t c o l d
an d r i g i d t i g h t n e s s t h a t a llo w s f o r a b r i l l i a n t and s c i n t i l l a t i n g fin is h .
I n - c o m p a r i s o n w i t h som e o f t h e o t h e r p a i n t e r s who w o rk e d
on t h e m a n u s c r i p t , i t
a p p e a r s t h a t L a l c h a n d w as n o t am ong t h e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
141
l e a d i n g t a l e n t s o f t h e a t e l i e r . H is w o rk s a r e s t y l i s t i c a l l y
cons
c i e n t i o u s o f th e p r i n c i p l e s o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t th e l e v e l is
o n ly a v e ra g e .
M u rad M u rad w as t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c m a n u s c rip t,
th e re
a r t i s t i n t h e W in d so r
b e i n g s i x w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d
o f th e s e a re c o u rt sc e n e s.
t o h im .
A ll b u t one
F o lio s 4 9 r . J a h a n g ir r e c e iv in g P rin c e
K h u rram a f t e r h i s s u c c e s s f u l c a m p a ig n a g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar. I 4 7 v ,th e
d e p a r t u r e o f S h a h S h u .ia f o r t h e D e c c a n : 1 9 4 v , t h e C o n f e r a l
o f th e t i t l e
o f S h a h J a h a n ; a n d 2 1 7 v , t h e R e t u r n o f A u r a n g z e b fro m
th e D eccan a r e a c t u a l d a r b a r s , t h e w e d d in g o f D a r a S h ik o h .
w h ile f o l i o
d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e o t h e r s i n
s c e n e , w h ic h i s
s t y l e and c o m p o s itio n ,
f o r e nave to be c o n s id e re d s e p a r a te ly . th e c o u rt sc e n e s i s
m a g n ific e n c e .
a s c e n e fro m
T he e x c e p t i o n i s f o l i o
C a p tu r e o f F o r t P a u l a t a P a d , a b a t t l e
in g in
122v i s
th e
1 4 4 ^, th e s lig h tly and w ill th e r e
W hat i s i m m e d i a t e l y s t r i k
o v e r w h e lm in g s e n s e o f r e g a l i t y
H is p a i n t i n g s e x u d e a c e r t a i n
and
s p le n d o r t h a t i s
u n e q u a l e d a n y w h e re e l s e i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t , a n d i t w as p r o b a b l y f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t h e w as c h o s e n t o e x e c u t e t h e s e m any p a i n t i n g s . A l l h i s w o rk s show him t o h a v e b e e n a m a s t e r p a i n t e r o f t h e f i n e s t o rd e r. T h ere i s v e r y l i t t l e a rtis t,
d o c u m e n te d e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h i s
a n d o n ly f o u r o t h e r w o rk s h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o h im .
T hese c o n s is t o f th r e e p o r t r a i t s ,
a l l d a te a to a ro u n a 1 6 3 0 , and
a d o u b le p a g e d a r b a r s c e n e d a t e d t o a b o u t 1640»
The o n ly p ie c e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
142
o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t h i s w h ic h s t a t e s
b a c k g ro u n d
co m es f ro m a n i n s c r i p t i o n
t h a t h e w as t h e p u p i l o f A b u l H a s a n .
11
S ty lis tic a lly -
s p e a k i n g , t h e r e i s n o t m uch i n M u r a d 's o e u v r e t h a t i n d i c a t e s h e w as t r a i n e d b y t h e N a d i r a l Z am an, e x c e p t p e r h a p s h i s s u p e r b te c h n ic a l e x e c u tio n .
I t m u s t b e re m e m b e re d t h a t t e a c h e r a n d p u p i l
w o rk e d f o r tw o d i f f e r e n t p a t r o n s ,
and th a t i t
w as t h e p a t r o n who
w as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s w e re t o l o o k l i k e .
As a n
a r t i s t w o r k in g u n d e r J a h a n g i r , A b u l H a s a n w as a l l o w e d a g r e a t e r fre e d o m o f e x p r e s s io n , lity ,
a n d c o u l d t h u s g i v e v e n t t o m uch i n d i v i d u a
w h e r e a s M u rad h a d t o c o n fo rm t o
th e
r u l 'e s
s e t by Shah J a h a n
a n d h a d t o c o m p ro m is e h i s c r e a t i v i t y w i t h i n t h i s
s e t fra m e w o rk .
A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , M u r a d 's c o u r t p a i n t i n g s a r e c h a r a c te r iz e d by t h e i r r e g a l i t y w as a c h i e v e d l a r g e l y
a n d m a g n i f i c e n c e , a f e a t u r e w h ic h
th r o u g h h i s h a n d lin g o f c o l o r s .
T h ey a r e
b r i g h t s o l i d t o n e s m ix e d w i t h a l i b e r a l u s e o f g o l d , w h ic h r e n d e r a b r i l l i a n t je w e l-lik e e f f e c t.
In a d d itio n ,
h i s c o m p o s itio n a l
s t r u c t u r e w as b u i l t o n a h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l f r a m e w o r k , c o n trib u te d
to w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n
When t h e c o m p o s i t i o n i s
s ta b le ,
it
o f an e q u ilib riu m
and s t a b i l i t y .
p ro d u c e s a s e n s e o f b a la n c e
a n d o r d e r , o f e v e r y f i g u r e a n d o b j e c t b e i n g w h e re i t The j e w e l - l i k e
w h ic h
s h o u ld b e .
e f f e c t w as r e n d e r e d e v e n m o re s t u n n i n g b y h i s u s e
o f e x tre m e ly h a rd and w e ll d e f in e d o u t l i n e s , ed th e o r d e r ly im p r e s s io n .
T hese f e a tu r e s
and i t
show h im t o h a v e b e e n
a tr u e m a s te r o f th e r e f in e d and e le g a n t s t y l e th e c o u r t o f sh ah J a h a n .
a ls o h e ig h te n
th a t p re v a ile d a t
One s e e s t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s i l l u s t r a t e d
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
143
f o r e x a m p le i n f o l i o w o rd .
2 1 7v ,
a d a rb a r scene in
th e tr u e s e n s e o f th e
F o r m a lity ab o u n d s i n th e p la c e m e n t o f th e f i g u r e s :
Jahan i s
S h ah
s e t d ead c e n t e r an d e le v a te d upon h i s th ro n e w e ll above
th e o th e r p e o p le .
On e i t h e r s i d e s t a n d tw o c o u r t i e r s .
p o r ts o f th e th ro n e h e lp to a c c e n tu a te th e l i n e a r i t y .
T he s u p H is c o l o r
c o n t r a s t o f g o ld an d w h ite f o r th e u p p e r w a lls an d a g r e e n is h b l a c k f o r t h e l o w e r c r e a t e s a n i n t e n s i t y w h ic h m a k es t h e a l r e a d y b r i g h t c o l o r s ju m p o u t a t t h e v i e w e r . A d iffe re n t e ffe c t is c a p tu r e o f f o r t D a u la ta b a d . i n M u r a d 's o e u v r e ,
e n c o u n te re d i n f o l i o
144^,
B e in g t h e o n l y o u t d o o r b a t t l e
th is p a in tin g i s
s l i g h t l y p ro b le m a tic .
th e
scene A ll th e
o t h e r p a i n t i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o h im h a v e b e e n w o rk s w h ic h f o c u s e d on p o rtra its , b a ttle
and f o r t h i s re a s o n f o l i o
144* i s
n o t ty p ic a l.
s c e n e s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e hum an f i g u r e d o e s n o t p l a y
su c h an im p o rta n t r o l e ;
i t is
is
o u t o f k e e p in g w ith h i s u s u a l w o rk s.
im p o rta n t, and i t
c le a r e s t in d ic a tio n
is
t h e o v e r a l l v ie w o f t h e s e t t i n g w h ic h
t h a t t h i s p a i n t i n g w as by M u rad i s
t i o n w h ic h b e a r s h i s n a m e . little
In
S ty lis tic a lly
T he
th e a s c r ip
t h i s p a in tin g h a s v e ry
i n common w i t h h i s o t h e r w o r k s , a n d e v e n t h e
e ffe c t
is
n o t o f t h e sam e h i g h c a l i b r e .
P e r h a p s t h i s w as b e c a u s e h e s p e c i a
liz e d
a n d w as t n e r e f o r e u n a b l e t o r e p r o
o n ly i n i n t e r i o r s c e n e s ,
duce th e e f f e c t s o f v ie w i s
ta k e n ,
w h o le e v e n t . a s to
of re g a lity
in
th is a lie n
c o n te x t.
A h ig h p o in t
a n d t h i s a l l o w s f o r a p a n o r a m ic sw e ep o f t h e
By t r y i n g t o a d h e r e t o
th e p r in c i p le s o f p ro p o rtio n s
s p a t i a l r e c e s s io n , h is f ig u r e s have u n f o r tu n a te ly been
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
144
r e d u c e d t o w h e re t h e y c a n n o t b e f u l l y th is p a in tin g l i e b e in g e n c a se d i n
in i t s
a p p re c ia te d .
e x tr e m e n e a t n e s s ,
s tro n g s o lid o u tlin e s .
of a ll
T he v i r t u e s o f th e e le m e n ts
T hese o u tl in e s how ever
c r e a t e a c e r t a i n u n n a t u r a l n e s s , i n t h a t th e f i g u r e s an d th e a n im a ls t a k e 'o n a s t y l i z e d c h a r a c t e r , w h ic h i s f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d b y t h e g o l d tr i m m i n g s i n
th e o rn a m e n ta tio n .
T he c o l o r a t i o n i s
e x tre m e ly
d a r k a n d s o m b r e , a n d s e r v e s o n ly t o p r o d u c e a n o t e o f g lo o m .
T h is
p a i n t i n g may b e a n e x a m p le o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h S h a h J a h a n i a r t i s t s n o l o n g e r s p e c i a l i z e d t h e way A k D a ri o n e s d i d , h i s own a r e a i n
w h ic h h e e x c e l l e d ,
each had
a n d w hen h e m oved t o
a n o th e r
s u b j e c t , h e p ro v e d to b e l e s s s u c c e s s f u l.
In th e above p a in t in g s , a s w e ll a s in th e o th e r s in th e m a n u scrip t, i t i s c l e a r t h a t Murad was a f i n e p o r t r a i t i s t .
In
f a c t , a l l th e o th e r works a t t r ib u t e d to him, th e human f ig u r e i s predom inant.
He p a in te d f a c e s w ith a g r e a t r e a lis m , n e v e r f a i l i n g
to in c lu d e a l l th e m in u te p h ysiogn om ical d e t a i l s .
T h is can be
seen i n th e f a c e s o f a l l h i s f ig u r e s i n th e Windsor m a n u scrip t, but i s l e s s n o t ic a b le i n f o l i o 144 r» and i n th e o th e r works by him.
One su ch example i s Shah Jahan H onoring th e R e lig io u s
Orthodoxy ( H a t e LXVTIl).
Y et a l l Murad's f ig u r e s la c k l i f e .
a re n o t anim ated i n any way or g iv e n any p e r s o n a lit y .
T h eir f a c i a l
e x p r e s s io n s r e v e a l n o th in g , and th ey lo o k l i k e m annequins.
It
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a n d d e s p i t e a l l h i s v i r t u e s , M u rad w as n o t a b l e c o n v in c in g an d r e a l i s t i c m a n n e r. n o r do t h e y h a v e a n y v o lu m e .
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2 1 4v i a a t y p i c a l e x a m p le o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c S h a h J a h a n i s t y l e , th a t i s ,
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p r o b a b l y t h e r e s u l t o f h i s h a v i n g d o n e n u m e ro u s p o r t r a i t s a n d m a rg in f i g u r e s .
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P a y a g h a d a r a t h e r l o n g c a r e e r t h a t r a n g e d fro m a r o u n d 1598 t o 1655»
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th re e p a in tin g s ,
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151
a n d d re w o u t t h e i r r i c h n e s s b y p l a y i n g c o m p le m e n ta r y h u e s o f f a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r , o u tlin e s .
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t h e c a p t u r e o f f o r t s O r c h h a e n d Pham u n i . t u r e on t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t , A 16 a s M ir D u s t .
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o f t h e c a m p a ig n .
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t h i s v e r y s im p l e d e v i c e .
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q u i t e b l a n k , w h ic h i s
t h e i r f a c e s r e m a in
i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e c o l d a n d f o r m a l a tm o s
p h e re o f c o u r tly p a in tin g .
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153
r e c e s s io n back i n t o sp a c e .
F a r away b u ild in g s and f ig u r e s j u s t
d im in ish i n s c a le and a re s ta c k e d on top o f one a n o th e r, and t h e r e fo r e , rem ain on th e same s p a t i a l p la n e .
T h is p a in tin g i s a
document w hich adds a new name t o th e p a in t e r s o f th e Shah Jahani p e r io d , and i t i s p o s s ib le th a t some p r e s e n tly u h in sc r ib e d works are a t t r ib u t a b le t o him* U n i n s c r i b e d W orks The r e m a i n i n g t w e n t y - t n r e e p a i n t i n g s n o t y e t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r h a v e n e i t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s n o r a t t r i b u t i o n s to any a rtis t. le n c e .
T h ey r a n g e b o t h i n
s t y l e and i n l e v e l o f te c h n ic a l e x c e l
Some o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s may v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n d o n e by
one o f th e t e n a r t i s t s
d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r o n ; w h i l e o t h e r s may h a v e
b e e n b y t n e h a n d s o f o t h e r know n S h ah J a h a n i a r t i s t s , may y e t r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk o f unknow n p a i n t e r s . w ill be d is c u s s e d i n in g to th e p a i n tin g s '
T hese p a in tin g s
c a te g o r ie s th a t have b een e s ta b lis h e d a c c o rd d e g re e o f te c h n ic a l e x c e lle n c e .
le v e ls have b een o b se rv e d , ric a l title s ,
and o th e r s
and i n o r d e r to
s im p lif y th e c a te g o
th e y h av e b e e n l a b e le d a s c a te g o r ie s 1,
The f i r s t b e in g t h a t o f th e h ig h e s t o r d e r .
T h re e
2 , a n d 3*
A t tr ib u t io n has n o t
been a ttem p ted , f o r t h i s i s n o t th e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s stu d y .
T his
d i s s e r t a t i o n i s c h i e f l y co n cern ed w ith th e n a tu r e o f h i s t o r i c a l p a in tin g under Shah Jahan a s e x e m p lifie d by th e Windsor C a s tle Badshah Naina.
The a r t i s t s a re d is c u s s e d b eca u se th ey p a r t ic ip a t e d
i n th e c r e a t io n o f th e m a n u scrip t, b u t p r e c is e a t t r ib u t io n i s beyond th e sco p e o f t h i s stu d y .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
154
C a te g o r y One in
C a t e g o r y O ne t h e r e a r e s i x p a i n t i n g s w h ic h r e p r e
s e n t t h e w o rk s o f v e r y c o m p e te n t a r t i s t s to hav e b een m a s te r p a i n t e r s .
T e c h n ic a l e x c e lle n c e i s
d e n o m in a to r o f a l l t h e s e p a i n t i n g s , a re m a n ife s te d i n
d i f f e r e n t m a n n e rs.
s id e re d a re th e f r o n tis p ie c e s , Jah an .
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s u c h a s t h e d e s i g n s on t h e t h r o n e s a n d t h e r o b e s ,
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P e r f e c t i o n w as t h e g o a l h e s t r i v e d f o r ,
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and a lth o u g h th e y t h e r e i s n o ey e
T hey s t a r e p a s t
a n d t h e i r h a n d g e s t u r e s do n o t h a v e
much r a p p o r t w i t h t h e m e s s a g e t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e g e t t i n g a c ro ss.
T h is a r t i s t i s
c o m p a r a b le t o M u rad i n h i s c o l d a n d
f o r m a l p r e c i s i o n , b u t t h e f o r m e r h a d a m uch m o re r i g i d
and l e s s
s u p p le m an n er o f h a n d l in g .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
155
T he s e c o n d w o rk i n t h i s a r r i v a l o f th e P o rtu g u e s e w ith t h e tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s ,
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v
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s y m m e tric a lly b a la n c e d on a h o r i z o n t a l an d v e r t i c a l a rra n g e m e n t, and n o t s u r p r is in g ly , i t
is
c o ld i n i t s
p re s e n ta tio n .
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do t h e f i g u r e s b e t r a y n o e m o t i o n s , b u t t h e m u te d p a l e s h a d e s o f c o lo r s h e lp to i n t e n s i f y o f th is c a lib re ,
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h e re th e d e t a ils
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o f c lo th in g ,
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sch em e i s
a r c h i te c t u r e and to
th e ir tru e
T h i s a r t i s t * s w o rk i s m uch
o th e r a r t i s t s
o n l y a m inim um o f p e o p l e a n d o b j e c t s .
c o n trib u te s to
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in th e m a n u s c rip t. T h is b a re n e s s a ls o
th e c o ld an d v e ry d i s t a n t im p r e s s io n .
c o m p a r a b le t o B i c h i t r ' s ,
T h e re
H is c o l o r
b u t h is o r g a n iz a tio n and deve
lo p m e n t o f s p a c e i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t . F o l i o 1 2 4 v , S h ah J a h a n p l a c i n g p e a r l s on D a r a S h ik o h , is
a g re a t c o n tra s t to
t h e w o rk s m e n tio n e d a b o v e .
t h i s may b e d u e t o t h e o c c a s i o n to
re p re s e n te d , b u t i t i s
th e a r t i s t ' s m anner o f h a n d lin g .
a rtis ts
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o n ly h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d w ith n e g l i g i b l e v e r t i r e m i n i s c e n t o f Ram D a s ' c o u r t y a r d s c e n e .
f ig u r e s a re re la x e d in s iv e i n
I t is
t h e i r p o s tu re s and g e s tu r e s ,
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T he v i g o r o f t h i s
The
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156
is
b e s t seen in
t h e n i g h t s k y , w h ic h w as c r e a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s
s h a d e s o f d a r k n e s s , a n d m ade a l i v e by th e r o l l i n g
c lo u d s .
t r a s t to th e d a rk s a r e th e b r ig h t w a lls and l i g h t s v itie s .
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T he f u n c t i o n o f
a p a i n t i n g b y M u ra d , w h e re
H e re th e g o ld s a r e l i k e l i t t l e
l i g h t t h a t m ake t h e c o m p o s i t i o n s p a r k l e . g irls
o f th e f e s t i
a d d i t i o n th e a r t i s t u se d a l o t o f g o ld s , n o t w ith th e
in te n tio n to d a z z le , b u t to c r e a te h ig h lig h ts .
re g a lity is
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w h is p s o f
The b o d ie s o f th e d a n c -
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r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l G u p ta s t y l e . th is a r tis t is
T he g a i e t y p r o d u c e d b y
h o w e v e r q u i t e re m o v e d , a s h e h im s e lf to o k a
d i s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d him f r o m t h e e v e n t . I t is
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th e
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o f th e c o u r tly
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s t y l e , h e p l a c e d m uch a t t e n t i o n o n t h e
i n h a n d lin g f i g u r e s , a n im a ls an d o b j e c t s , a s
w e ll i n s m a ll an d m in u te d e t a i l s m e n ts .
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su ch a s i n th e d e s ig n s o f v e s t
H is w o rk h a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l n e a t n e s s , w i t h e a c h f i g u r e
o r o b je c t c a r e f u lly
e n fra m e d w ith in s h a rp o u t l i n e s .
As i s
tru e
w i t h m any c o u r t p a i n t i n g s o f t h i s
p e rio d ,
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ex p en se o f h u m a n is tic v a lu e s .
t e n d t o d o m i n a te a t t h e
th e o r d e r an d fo rm a l
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157
.A lth o u g h p e r f e c t i o n w as s t r i v e d f o r a n d w as a c h i e v e d i n .in d i v i d u a l f ig u r e s and o b je c ts , i t tio n .
w as n o t r e a l i z e d i n
th e o v e r a ll p re s e n ta
p e r s p e c t i v e a n d r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s w e re n o t a d h e r e d t o ,
w h ic h i s r a t h e r d i s t u r b i n g a t t i m e s .
T h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e to o
“b i g f o r t h e s e t t i n g m ay h a v e b e e n a n i n t e n t i o n a l d e v i c e t o r e n d e r a g r e a t e r im p o r ta n c e t o S h ah J a h a n .
It
a p p ea rs th a t th i s a r t i s t
w as t a l e n t e d i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i n g l e f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s o r g ro u p s th e r e o f i n a n e u t r a l s e t t i n g ,
s u c h a s i n b o r d e r s t o m anu
s c r i p t s a n d a l b u m s , b u t w as i n c a p a b l e o f p u t t i n g t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s t o g e t h e r i n a h a r m o n io u s f a s h i o n , a n d t h u s a r r i v e d a t a r a t h e r d i s j o i n t e d c o m p o s itio n .
H o w e v e r, t h i s
i s m o re t h a n com pen
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th e sk y .
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m u l t i - c o l o r e d g lo w i s h e i g h t e n e d b y t h e g o l d e n a u r a o f t h e s u n , a n d p r e s e n t s a m a g n i f i c e n t c o n t r a s t t o t h e g r e e n s a n d b ro w n s t h a t d o m in a te t h e f o r e g r o u n d .
T h i s l u m i n o s i t y h e l p s t o c o m p lim e n t
t h e a u r a o f l i g h t s u r r o u n d i n g s h a h j a h a n , who i s m ade t o
s ta n d o u t
fro m t h e so m b re b a c k g r o u n d . T he f i n a l a r t i s t i n p a in te d f o lio t h i s one i s
th e
m a s te r c a te g o ry
218 v , t h e w e d d in g o f A u r a n g z e b .
L ik e f o l i o
124v,
a l s o a n i g h t s c e n e , b u t i s m uch l e s s a n i m a t e d .
The
g a i e t y a n d m u s ic o f t h e e v e n t d o n o t q u i t e p e r m e a te t h r o u g h t o th e f i g u r e s .
T h ey do n o t a p p e a r t o b e e n j o y i n g t h e m s e l v e s .
It
i s a n e x t r e m e l y w e l l e x e c u t e d w o rk w h ic h c a r e f u l l y d e p i c t s e v e n a l l t h e s m a l l a n d m i n u te i t e m s .
T h is th e a r t i s t a c h ie v e d by u s in g
an o rd e rly s t r i a t i o n - l i k e b ru s h s tro k e .
S y m m etry i s
t h e m a in
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158
s tr u c tu r a l su p p o rt o f th e p a in tin g , eq ual h a lv e s. p a in tin g i s
w h ic h d i v i d e d i t
in to
tw o
Shah J a h a n o c c u p ie s th e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n .
a t y p i c a l e x a m p le o f t h e c o u r t l y
T h is
s t y l e a s e x e c u te d by
a n a r t i s t who w as i n f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f h i s m e tie r.
C a t e g o r y Two T he s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f p a i n t e r s n e s s a t c o n f o r m in g t o t h e c o u r t l y s t y l e . a re n e ith e r v ery n e a t n o r c a re fu lly
sh o w s a l e s s e r a d e p t
O f t e n t i m e s t h e i r w o rk s
c o m p o se d , a n d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y
t h e p a i n t i n g s d o n o t com e a c r o s s a s a u n i f i e d w h o le . p r o b le m s seem
to
s te m f r o m t h e a r t i s t s '
p a rtic u la r d e ta il,
l i k e a h a n d g e s t u r e f o r e x a m p le .
p e r f e c t t h a n t h e C a t e g o r y One p a i n t i n g s , ta in
t h e b e a u t y a n d e l e g a n c e w h ic h i s
o f th e m a n u s c rip t.
in a b ilitie s
is
Though l e s s
one o f th e u n if y in g f a c t o r s
T h e r e a r e a t o t a l o f t e n w o rk s i n t h i s
fo lio
s u b m is
T h is p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t h ad a n a iv e
e s p e c i a l l y m a rk e d i n
th e w id e -e y e d g a z e s o f th e
f ig u r e s and th e s tr a ig h t- f o r w a r d n a tu ra lis m . th e s t r i k i n g r e a l i s t i c
c a te
T h e f i r s t w o rk t o
47*» t h e c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n o f t h e
s i o n o f R a n a Amar S i n g h . s t y l e w h ic h i s
to h a n d le a
t h e s e w o rk s s t i l l m a in
g o ry , an d can b e g iv e n t o n in e d i f f e r e n t h a n d s . be d is c u s s e d
M o st o f th e
He h a d n o t a t t a i n e d
f o r m u l a w h ic h m any o f t h e o t h e r a r t i s t s
h a d , b u t h e p r o d u c e d m o re b e l i e v a b l e f i g u r e s . h i s a r e a n im a te d ; n o t i n
L ik e A b i d 's w o r k s ,
th e f a c i a l a p p e a ra n c e of th e f i g u r e s ,
b u t i n t h e i r m a n n e r is m s a n d g e s t u r e s .
In p re s e n ta tio n i s
u n l i k e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d w o rk s e n c o u n t e r e d i n
is
C a t e g o r y O n e, a n d
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
159
is
a r e f r e s h i n g c h a n g e fro m th e a r t i f i c e g e n e r a te d by th e fo rm a
lity
s o p r e v a l e n t i n m any o f t h e
o th e r p a in tin g s .
T h e c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n o f f o l i o 7 0 v , t h e w e ig h m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n , i s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e w h e re g a i e t y a n d l i v l i n e s s d o m i n a te a t th e expense o f a r i g i d
s tru c tu re .
The d a n c in g g i r l s *
b o d i e s t w i s t a n d t u r n . in . a n u n d u l a t i n g f a s h i o n , w h i l e t h e i r arm m o v e m en ts p r o d u c e v e r y g r a c e f u l e f f e c t s .
The p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e
i s m uch m o re e l e g a n t t h a n i n t h e p r e v i o u s p a i n t i n g , b e c a u s e i t n o t a s d ir e c t a s ta te m e n t.
T h e f i g u r e s do n o t a f f r o n t t h e v i e w e r ,
and th e c o lo r s a r e l e s s b r ig h t and f o r t h r i g h t . g ra c e h e re i s
T he e l e g a n c e a n d
so m ew h at m a r r e d b y t h e r a t h e r c lu m s y h a n d l i n g o f
th e h an d s and th e
u n b a la n c e d a r c h i t e c t u r a l s e t t i n g .
th e r e c e p tio n o f th e P e r s ia n am b assad o r, i s
is
su p e rb in i t s
s trik in g c o lo ris tic
e ffe c ts .
th o u g h s y m m e t r i c a l , i s v e r y c r o w d e d , a n d i t o rd e rlin e s s th a t i s
In a d d itio n , T he c o m p o s i t i o n ,
d e tra c ts
t h e u s u a l n o rm o f c o u r t p a i n t i n g .
t h e d e t a i l s w e re n o t p a i n s t a k i n g l y r e f i n e d , a n d t h i s m in im iz e s th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s tio n .
b ut in h is c o lo r is tic
fr o m t h e M o re o v e r fa c to r
o f an e le g a n t and m a je s tic p r e s e n ta
T h e n e x t a r t i s t w o rk e d o n f o l i o 9 2 v ,
f o r t D h a r u r . H is m e r i t s l i e
F o lio 98v,
a p a i n t i n g w h ic h h a s
m ost o f th e q u a l i t i e s o f th e r e f in e d c o u r t s t y l e . it
is
n o t in h is
e ffe c ts .
th e b e s e ig in g o f
s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o s itio n ,
He u s e d b a s i c a l l y
e a r th to n e s ,
an d c o n c e n tr a te d h e a v i l y on t h e v a r io u s s h a d e s o f b ro w n s.
He
w o rk e d t h e d i f f e r e n t g r a d a t i o n s t o g e t h e r t o o b t a i n a m o s t d i v e r s i f i e d an d b le n d e d h u e i n
th e la n d s c a p e .
B e in g a b a t t l e
scene,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
160
t h e s e b ro w n s f u n c t i o n w e l l i n c o n v e y in g t h e s o m b re m ood a n d a tm o s p h e re o f th e s e t t i n g .
T h is a r t i s t a ls o fo c u s e d a l o t o f a t t e n t i o n
on a n a c c u r a t e r e n d i t i o n o f s m a l l m i n u te d e t a i l s * c r e a s e s an d f o l d s o f th e g a rm e n ts . n o te d i n
n o ta b ly i n
th e
T he sam e c a r e c a n a l s o b e
t h e tr i m m i n g s o f t h e h o r s e s a n d i n t h e v e g e t a t i o n .
How
e v e r h i s w o rk d o e s n o t come a c r o s s a s a c o h e s i v e u n i t ,
f o r a lth o u g h
th e la n d s c a p e i s
ro u g h , and
re fin e d ,
th e c o lo r a tio n o f th e sk y i s
th e r e f o r e a j a r r i n g im p a c t r e s u l t s . T h e n e x t p a i n t i n g i n C a te g o r y Two i s
th e l e f t p o r tio n
o f t h e e s c o r t i n g o f D a r a S h ik o h t o h i s w e d d in g c e re m o n y , f o l i o 1 2 3 r.
L ik e f o l i o
9 8 v , t h i s o n e l a c k s t h a t f i n a l p o l i s h w h ic h
m a k e s f o r t h e s u m p tu o u s n e s s a n d e l e g a n c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g s i n C a te g o r y O n e.
W hat t h i s
sense of a c tiv ity
a rtis t
a n d m o v e m e n t.
s u c c e s s f u l l y b r o u g h t o u t w as t h e He a c h i e v e d t h i s t h r o u g h t h e
l i v e l y e x p r e s s io n s o f th e f i g u r e s an d th e b o ld s p la s h e s o f b r i g h t c o l o r s an d a r e a s o f g o ld th r o u g h o u t t h i s p re d o m in a te ly d a rk s e t tin g .
H o w e v er, t h e r e i s
a r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e t h a t t o n e s down t h e
a n im a tio n ; one d o e s n o t g e t th e im p r e s s io n o f so u n d , a l l i s q u i e t in
s p ite o f th e e x c ite m e n t.
T h is p e rh a p s i s
th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t
e x p r e s s i v e f a c t o r w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h e s S b a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g fro m th o s e o f th e p r e v io u s p e rio d s *
th e co o l d e ta tc h e d r e s t r a i n t .
fo llo w in g p a in tin g a ls o r e p r e s e n t s a s ta g e i n S h ik o h , fo lio
t h e w e d d in g o f L a r a
th e l e f t p o r tio n o f Shah J a h a n p la c in g p e a r l s on L a ra ,
1 2 5 r.
T h i s p a i n t i n g se e m s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk o f a n
o r n a m e n ta l a r t i s t ,
fo r i t
is
T he
th e d e t a i l s — th e d e s ig n on th e
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161
c a rp e t,
th e g rillw o r k o f th e a r c h ite c tu r e —
s ta n d in g .
T hese d e t a i l s
th a t a re tr u ly
o u t
t e l l o f a p a in s ta k in g b u t la b o rio u s c a re
on t h e p a r t o f t h e a r t i s t i n m a k in g e x a c t r e p l i c a s o f t h e s e f i n e a r t o b je c ts .
A lth o u g h t h e c o l o r s a r e v i v i d ,
e s p e c ia lly in
c o n t r a s t o f th e w h ite w a l l s t o th e d a r k a k y , t h e r e i s n e a t n e s s , t o o m uch f o r m a l i t y , t o come t h r o u g h .
th e
t o o m uch
to p e rm it th e jo y o f th e o c c a s s io n
As t h e f i g u r e s a r e v e r y i m p a s s i v e a n d s e r i o u s ,
th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e x p e r ie n c in g a f e s t i v e a tm o s p h e re i s f u r t h e r d im in is h e d . T h e n e x t tw o p a i n t i n g s , f o l i o w e d d in g o f S h a h s h u j a ,
126v an d 1 2 7 r, th e
a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n d o n e by t h e sam e a r t i s t .
B o th t h e s e w o rk s show a v e r y l a b o r e d a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e f i n i s h in g
to c re a te
a n e a t and tid y a p p e a ra n c e .
f u l l y m e a su re d o u t l i n e s to a r c h ite c tu r a l fe a tu re s
T he a r t i s t u s e d c a r e
p ro d u c e a n im p e c c a b le o r d e r i n th e
a s w e ll a s in
th e f i g u r e s and a n im a ls .
H o w e v e r, h e w as n o t t h a t s k i l l e d i n r e a l i s t i c a l l y hum an b o d y . a b ly i n
re n d e rin g th e
T h e f i g u r e s a r e n e i t h e r s i t u a t e d n o r m ove c o m f o r t
th e ir spaces.
F o r e x a m p le , n o n e o f t h e r i d e r s r e a l l y
s it
o n t h e i r a n i m a l s , r a t h e r t h e y seem t o b e m e r e l y p e r c h e d o n t o p , a n d t h o s e f i g u r e s who a r e t e l y p la c e d b a c k w a rd s i n
t u r n i n g a r o u n d , h a v e t h e i r h e a d s c o m p le a m ost u n r e a l i s t i c f a s h io n .
A lth o u g h
m u te d c o l o r s p r e d o m i n a t e , t h e t h i c k p a i n t a p p l i c a t i o n a n d t h e l i b e r a l s c a t t e r i n g o f g o ld s g iv e t h i s c o m p o s itio n a c e r t a i n r e g a lity ,
a l l o w i n g t h e n o t i o n o f c e re m o n y t o come t h r o u g h q u i t e
s tro n g ly .
T h is a r t i s t w as o b v i o u s l y q u i t e t a l e n t e d i n
th e g e n e ra l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
162
e x e c u tio n o f t h e S hah J a h a n i c o u r t l y tis e
in
s ty le ,
b u t la c k e d th e e x p e r
t h e r e n d i t i o n o f t h e hum an f i g u r e . p o l i o 1 3 4 ^ , A u ra n g z e b c o n f r o n t i n g a n e n ra g e d e l e p h a n t,
sh o w s g r e a t m o v em en t a n d a c t i v i t y o rd e r and f o r m a lity . in g s e r v a n ts ru s h to
th a t i s
The e le p h a n ts
c o n ta in e d w ith in an
s to r m f o r w a r d a s t h e s u r r o u n d
c o u n te r t h e i r a d v a n c e s.
T h is s e n s e o f
e x c i t e m e n t i s r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e c o o l c a lm o f A u ra n g z e b a n d t h e im p a s s i v ity o f Shah J a h a n an d th e th e p a in tin g . v a rie ty
T h i s w o rk i s
and a t th e
o n lo o k e rs on th e l e f t
s t r u c t u r e d o n c o n t r a s t s w h ic h a d d
sam e tim e b a l a n c e s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n .
a w id e r a n g e o f f a c i a l frig h te n e d r e c o ilin g
T h e re i s
e x p r e s s io n s r a n g in g fro m th o s e o f t h e
s e rv a n ts in th e l e f t fo re g ro u n d to
a n d i m p a s s i o n e d o n e s who c h a r g e a t t h e e l e p n a n t . c o lo r c o n tr a s t to s t a b i l i z e o f th e
edge o f
th e an g ry
T h is a r t i s t u s e d
t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , w h i l e th e . d a r k m a s s e s
e le p h a n ts on th e r i g h t o f f s e t th e w h ite an d g o ld o f th e
h o r s e s a n d t h e g a r m e n ts o n t h e l e f t .
In a d d itio n
th e e l e g a n t l i n e s
o f th e h o rs e s g r e a t l y
c o n t r a s t w ith th e h e a v y m a s s iv e e l e p h a n t s .
T he f i n a l p a i n t i n g i n
t h i s c a te g o ry i s f o l i o
h u n tin g li o n s a t B a r i.
220v, Shah Ja h a n
The m o st s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s h e r e a r e th e
v e g e t a t i o n a n d t h e f e n c e s , w h ic h a r e r e n d e r e d v e r y r e a l i s t i c a l l y and e x e c u te d i n
s o f t b le n d s o f c o l o r s .
h ad a k e e n eye f o r d e t a i l .
T h i s sh o w s t h e a r t i s t
O th e r s i g n s o f h i s h a v i n g d o n e m uch
c lo s e o b s e rv a tio n can be se e n in
th e v a r ie ty
o f p e o p le ,
t h e i r g e s tu r e s and t h e i r f a c i a l
e s p e c ia lly
e v id e n t in
fo u n d i n
th e ty p e s
e x p re s s io n s .
th e g ro u p o f s e r v a n ts i n
T h is i s
th e fo re g ro u n d .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
163
O th e r t h a n t h a t ,
th e c o l o r a tio n an d h a n d lin g o f p r o p o r tio n s a r e
o n ly a v e r a g e .
C a te g o ry T h re e T h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y r e p r e s e n t s w o rk s b y t h o s e who d i d n o t
seem t o b e i n
a rtis ts
c o m p le te m a s t e r y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e , a n d
h a d p r o b le m s w i t h b o t h i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s a n d t h e t o t a l c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e s e w o rk s a r e t h e r e f o r e o n e s t e p f u r t h e r aw ay fro m t h e p e r f e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e f i n e s t Shah J a h a n i c o u r t p a i n t i n g s .
T h e y do
n o t h a v e a b o l d m a j e s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a r e m uch l e s s s t r i k i n g . I t i s n o t to
s a y t h a t t h e s e w o rk s a r e n o t b e a u t i f u l , o r t h a t t h e y
m ar th e s p le n d o r
o f th e m a n u s c rip t, b u t j u s t t h a t th e y r e p r e s e n t
t h e w o rk s o f l e s s s k i l l e d a r t i s t s
w ho, i n
s p ite of th is ,
w ere
c o n s i d e r e d a s t e p a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e a s t h e y w e re c h o s e n t o b e p a r t o f th e r o y a l p a in tin g a t e l i e r . p la y a l l th e q u a l i t i e s p a in tin g
s ty le
t h a t one i s
A t f i r s t g l a n c e t h e s e w o rk s d i s
and e le g a n c e t h a t a re a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
o f th e p e r io d .
I t is
o n ly u p o n c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n
a b le to d is c e rn d iffe re n c e s in th e le v e ls o f c r a f t
m a n s h ip . T h e re a r e s i x p a i n t i n g s i n t h e c a te g o r y , an d th e y r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk s o f
fiv e d iffe re n t a r t i s t s .
fo lio
a g a i n s t th e P o rtu g u e s e a t H u g h li.
117v, th e b a t t l e
p a i n t i n g ’ s m o st re m a rk a b le f e a t u r e i s i t s s e n s e o f c o m p o s u r e , w h ic h i s e v e n t.
As a r e s u l t ,
a little
The f i r s t o n e i s
p r e v a i l i n g c a lm n e s s a n d
o u t o f k e e p in g w ith th e
th e f u l l im p a c t o f th e b a t t l e
a c ro ss as fo rc e fu lly a s i t
c o u ld .
T h is
d o e s n o t come
A s a d r a u g h ts m a n t h i s a r t i s t
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
164
was n o t v er y t a le n t e d , f o r he was u n ab le to c o r r e c t ly p ro p o rtio n a l l th e f ig u r e s and o b j e c t s i n r e l a t i o n w ith one a n o th e r.
More
o v e r , he k ep t th e w hole co m p o sitio n on a more o r l e s s tw o-d im en sion al p la n e , and combined s e v e r a l d is j o in t e d p o in ts o f v ie w .
For exam ple,
th e d e p le tio n o f th e cannons from a s id e v iew w h ile th e ev en t i s to be view ed from above.
H is p eo p le seem t o be c o p ie s o f t y p e s ,
p ro b a b ly tak en from an e s t a b lis h e d book o f m o d els, and th e y show n e it h e r e x p r e s s io n nor em otion . A nother a r t i s t worked on f o l i o s 120v and I 2 1 r , th e se n d in g o f p r e s e n ts to th e house o f Dara S h ik oh 1s fu tu r e in - la w s . T h is a r t i s t may have had a p r o v in c ia l t r a in in g , f o r th e r e i s a c e r t a in p r im it iv e q u a l i t y about h i s b r ig h t and alm ost gaudy c o lo r s t h a t le a p o u t a t th e v ie w e r w ith f u l l f o r c e .
U n lik e th e c o l o r i s t i c
im pact seen in Ram D as’ co u rty a rd scen e ( P la t e X l) , which comes a c r o s s w ith a s o p h i s t i c a t i o n th a t r e v e a ls an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s , th e e f f e c t h ere i s one o f random c h o ic e w hich s t a r t l e s r a th e r than a ttr a c ts.
T h is , to g e th e r w ith th e l i v e l y f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n s r e s u l t s
i n a d isc o r d a n t e f f e c t .
However, a l l t h i s i s c o n fin e d w ith in th e
decorum o f th e Shah Jah an i p e r io d .
H is approach was a ls o two-
d im e n sio n a l, i n th a t h i s f ig u r e s are n o t r e a l l y s o l i d m asses th a t c o n v in c in g ly occupy t h e i r s p a c e s .
T h is i s m ost e v id e n t in th e
e q u e s tr ia n f ig u r e s who do n o t s i t but m erely p erch upon t h e ir h o r s e s . In th e n e x t p a in t in g , f o l i o 166v
,
r e tu r n from a hunt,
th e a r t i s t appears to have had a p r o v in c ia l t r a in in g , f o r i t d is p la y s a c e r t a in n a iv e t e and d ir e c t n e s s i n i t s p r e s e n t a t io n .
There i s a
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
165
g r e a t d e a l o f e x p r e s s iv e n e s s and v a r ie t y in th e f a c i a l f e a t u r e s . ■While m ost o f th e c o lo r s are t y p i c a l , th e a r t i s t u sed some excep t i o n a l l y unusual sh ad es o f g r e e n s t h a t prove to he more u n s e t t l in g th an harm onious.
On th e w hole he was n o t v e r y s u c c e s s f u l a t
e s t a b l i s h i n g r e c e s s io n i n t o sp ace w ith d im in is h in g s i z e s , and in a d d itio n , h i s r e n d it io n o f th e human b o d ie s was n o t alw ays propor t io n a l and n a t u r a li s t i c *
On th e o th e r hand, h i s h a n d lin g o f
p o r t r a i t s i s more com p eten t, and s u g g e s ts t h a t p o r t r a itu r e may have been h i s a r e a o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w ith in th e a t e l i e r .
He p a in te d
w ith a f a i r l y lo a d e d b ru sh t h a t l e f t t h ic k ly d e fin e d b r u sh s tr o k e s. The e f f e c t i s rough, and makes th e p a in tin g appear l e s s s o p h is t i c a te d than th e o th e r works i n th e m an u scrip t — th e in t r u s io n o f a s l i g h t l y p r o v in c ia l s t y l e in t o an o th e r w ise e le g a n t c o u r t ly work.
The n ex t p a in tin g i s f o l i o 205v, v i s i t i n g th e sh rin e a t Ajmir.
This work has a s t i f f and r a th e r wooden p r e se n ta tio n .
The la c k o f f r e e and ea sy n a t u r a l i s t i c movement comes from a la b o r e d e f fo r t to c r ea te ord er.
T h is a r t i s t o u t lin e d h i s form s and l e f t
v e r y c le a r - c u t s t r o k e s , an e f f e c t w hich d e t r a c t s from sm oothness. However, h i s o u t li n e s a c h ie v e a c e r t a in s t y l i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in th e h o r s e s which a r e , i n some r e s p e c t s , e le g a n t and s o p h is t ic a t e d m o tifs .
The s t i f f n e s s h e lp s t o c o n c r e t iz e th e s o le m n ity o f th e
o c c a s io n , e s p e c i a l l y i n th e f ig u r e o f Shah Jahan who i s ren d ered even more im m obile by th e aura o f g o ld around him .
Some attem pt
was made t o draw th e v ie w e r i n t o th e sc e n e , b u t w ith o u t to o much su ccess.
The d e v ic e o f cro p p in g, b oth a t th e bottom and s id e s
attem pt t o a c h ie v e t h i s end.
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166
The f i n a l p a in t in g in C ategory Three i s th e c o r r e sponding page to th e one j u s t d is c u s s e d ah ove, f o l i o 206r; and l i k e th e f o m e r , one can n ot h e lp b u t n o t ic e th e s t i f f n e s s o f th e f ig u r e s and th e a n im a ls.
Many o f th e same t e c h n ic a l d e v ic e s were u sed ,
such a s a heavy o u t li n i n g and c le a r b r u sh str o k e s t o c r e a t e e le g a n t s ty liz a tio n .
However, t h e s e works were n o t done by th e same hand,
f o r d e s p it e s i m i l a r i t i e s in some d e t a i l s , the c o m p o sitio n a l s tr u c t u r e s a re v e r y d i f f e r e n t .
Here th e a r t i s t adopted a d is t a n t
and h ig h v a n ta g e p o in t , w hereas th e p r e c e e d in g one u sed a low and n e a r p o in t o f v ie w .
W hile th e one composed in c l u s t e r s and grou p s,
t h e o th e r tended t o see t h e p ic tu r e a s a u n i t .
I n a d d itio n , t h is
a r t i s t did n o t pout a s much en ergy in t o r e f i n i n g la n d sca p e d e t a i l s a s d id th e o th e r o n e.
I n s te a d he l e f t j u s t a r a th e r g e n e r a liz e d
v ie w .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
167
N otes to Chapter V 1
P ercy Brown, In d ian P a in t in g Under th e M u gh ala (Oxford* The Clarendon P r e s s , 1924)» P« 109* o
Asok Kumar Das, Mughal P a in tin g D uring Jahangir* g Time (C a lc u tta : The A s i a t i c S o c ie t y , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 79« 3 'G eorge M arteau and H enri V ever, M in ia tu res PersaneR (P a r is * B ib lio th e q u e d*Art e t A r c h e o lo g ie , 1913)> P* 229. 4
Edwin B in n ey , In d ia n M in ia tu re P a in tin g s from th e C o lle c t io n o f Edwin Bjnnev 3rd (P o rtla n d * P o r tla n d A rt Museum, 1 9 7 4 ), P. 8 3 . ^ l o C lev ela n d Beach, The Grand Mogul Im perial P a in tin g in I n d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stow n* S t e r lin g and P ran cin e C larke A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 98. 8S ir L eig h A shton, e d . , The Art o f I n d ia and P a k ista n (London* Paber and Paber L t d ., 1 9 5 0 ), P* 136. 7
B each, p . 105.
8ib id , p. 102. 9i b i d , p. 1 1 4 . 1° i b i d , p . 1 8 5 .
11
S tu a r t Cary W elch, Im p eria l Mughal P a in tin g York* George B r a z i l l e r , I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 101.
(New
1 2Beach, p . 151 • 15 i b i d .
^^Binney, p . 8 7 . 15 i b i d , p . 8 7 . 16
Beach, p . 184; and S tu a r t Cary W elch, The Art o f Mughal I n d ia P a in tin g and P r e c io u s O b jects (New York* The A sia S o c ie t y I n c . , 1 9 6 3 ) , P« 1 7 5 * P l e a s e r e f e r f o r v a r ia n t r e a d in g s o f th e name.
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
168
CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION.
T he s t u d y c a x r i e d o u t i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s s e r v e d tw o p r i n c i p a l p u r p o s e s .
I t has f i r s t l y
p re s e n te d d e t a ile d
c o v e ra g e o f a v e r y im p o r ta n t docum ent o f th e Shah J a h a n i p e r io d , n a m e ly , t h e W in d s o r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama; a n d s e c o n d l y , u s i n g t h i s m a n u s c r i p t a s a p i v o t a l w o rk , p e r s p e c t i v e of
th e n a tu r e
p e rio d o f a r t i s t i c fro m s c h o l a r s i n h is to ric
i t h a s , by
d ra w n up a n o v e r a l l
o f p a in tin g u n d e r Snah J a h a n .
d e v e lo p m e n t h a s r e c e i v e d v e r y l i t t l e
th e f i e l d ,
an d a s i t
e v o l u tio n o f M ugnal p a i n t i n g ,
is it
T h is a tte n tio n
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e can n o t be ig n o re d .
T he b a c k g ro u n d , i n f o r m a t i o n on M u g h al p a i n t i n g p re s e n te d , a s u rv e y o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e a n d a sum m ary o f i t s to
s itu a te
s ty lis tic
o f th e p e r io d
s o u rc e s and a s p e c ts .
S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g an d to r e d e f i n e i t
T h is s e r v e d a s th e
s ta g e
i n M u g h al p a i n t i n g w h e re e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e s t y l e w as n o lo n g e r n e c e s s a ry .
T h is f o r m u la tio n o f th e s t y l e
up d u rin g th e r e ig n o f J a h a n g ir ;
w as a l r e a d y s e t
t h e e l e m e n t s f ro m I n d i a n , P e r s i a n
an d E u ro p e a n p a i n t i n g h a d a lr e a d y b een a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o an d u n iq u e s t y l e ,
ta in tin g
a c o h e s iv e
u n d e r S h ah J a h a n e x p e r i e n c e d a r e f i n e
m en t and p e r f e c t i o n o f th e t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s w ith o u t c h a n g in g th e b a s ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e e s ta b lis h e d s t y l e .
I t w as t h e l o g i c a l
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169
c o n c l u s i o n t o a mode o f p a i n t i n g t h a t c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e d e v e l o p e d any f u r t h e r a lo n g i t s
lin e s
of o r ig i n s .
By t h i s t i m e a r t i s t s
had
a l r e a d y s o lv e d t h e p ro b le m o f h a rm o n io u s ly co m b in in g t h e t h r e e d is p a r a t e elem en ts i n t o
a lo g ic a l e n tity ,
f o r th e m t o do w a s t o r e f i n e a rt.
and so ,
a l l t h a t w as l e f t
and p o l i s h th e m e c h a n ic a l s id e o f th e
I n th e p ro c e ss of c r e a tin g t h i s
te c h n ic a l p e rfe c tio n ,
fe a tu re s
w h ic h d e t r a c t e d fro m t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s w ere e l i m i n a t e d . n o t a b l e o f c o u r s e w a re t h e im m e d ia c y a n d v i t a l i t y p e r i o d s w h ic h h a a t o b e s a c r i f i c e d i n
M ost
of th e e a r l i e r
o rd e r f o r th e a r t to r e a c h
t h a t l e v e l o f e l e g a n c e a n d e x c e l l e n c e w h ic h w as t h e h a l l m a r k o f Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . T h e d i s c u s s i o n on h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g r e v e a l e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h i s t o r i c a l a n d a lb u m p a in tin g .
C o m p o sitio n a lly ,
h i s t o r i c a l p a i n tin g encom passes a
m u ltitu d e of f i g u r e s i n an i n t r i c a t e
se ttin g ,
w h e r e a s a lb u m p a i n t
in g o n ly d e p i c ts a s i n g l e f ig u r e
o r a sm all gro u p o f f i g u r e s i n
a n e u t r a l o r sim p le b a ck g ro u n d .
As s u c h , h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g
a llo w s f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n n in g o f tn e c o m p o s itio n a l a b i l i t i e s o f th e a r t i s t s o f th e p e rio d , th is
fe a tu re to b e ,tra c e d .
v iv a c io u s A kbari s t y l e
and a llo w s f o r th e d ev elo p m en t of
I t w a s s e e n how t h e c l u t t e r e d a n d
slo w ly o rg a n iz e d i t s e l f u n d e r J a h a n g i r 's
r e ig n u n t i l i t re a c h e d th e sy m m e tric a lly b a la n c e d s t a t e
o f alm o st
t o t a l fo rm a l o r d e r u n d e r Shah J a h a n . A lso d e m o n s tr a te d i n th e d i s c u s s i o n on n i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g w as t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d v a l u e o f h i s t o r y — g e n e a l o g y i n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
170
p a r t i c u l a r — n o t o n ly to Sdah J a h a n ,
but a lso
to h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s .
T h is can be s e e n i n
t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e i r l i v e s a n d d e e d s w h ic h t h e y
l e f t fo r p o s te rity ,
and a l s o o f th e im p o rta n c e a c c o rd e d to
an c e sto rs,
th e ir
e s p e c i a l l y T i m u r f r o m whom t h e M u g h a l l i n e w as s a i d t o
have d escen d ed .
The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n ts r e f l e c t s
t h e a e s i r e t o b e rem em b ered , a s t h e y rem em b ered t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , but also i t
i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e y b e l ie v e d th e m s e lv e s to have been
of g re a t s ig n ific a n c e to
th e i r tim e .
S hah J a h a n ,m o r e so t h a n an y
o t h e r M ughal e m p e ro r b e f o r e h im , t h o u g h t v e r y h i g n l y o f h i m s e l f ,
as
t h e q u a n t i t y a n d d i m e n s i o n s o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n ts f a r e x c e e d th o s e o f h is p re d e c e s s o rs . e f f e c t d e te rm in e d re ig n .
T h is p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t o f Shah J a h a n i n
th e n a t u r e o f th e p a i n t i n g pro d u ced d u rin g h is
As h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o b e t h e p i v o t a l f i g u r e o f t h e
e p o c h , n i s p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t e d n im i n a c o n s p i c u o u s , u s u a l l y c e n t r a l , p o sitio n , tic
w h e r e s i l l a t t e n t i o n c o u l d b e f o c u s e d o n h im .
The s t y l i s
d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t M u g h a l p a i n t i n g w as t o t a k e w e r e c r y s t a l l i z e d
b y S h a h J a h a n 1s d e s i r e
t o be p o r t r a y e d a s t h e p e r f e c t m o n a rc h .
T he o r d e r e d a n d s t r u c t u r a l l y b a l a n c e d c o m p o s i t i o n p l a c e d h im i n a p ro m in en t p o s i t i o n , w h ile th e p e r f e c t e d te c h n i c a l e x e c u tio n c r e a t e d a n e l e g a n c e t h a t w a s a t t h e same t i m e b e d a z z l i n g a n d in tim id a tin g . The b a c k g r o u n d t o S h a h j a h a n i p a i n t i n g h a v i n g b e e n e sta b lish e d , d e ta il. d e ta il,
t h e W i n d s o r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Mama w as t h e n t r e a t e d i n
B ein g th e f i r s t it
tim e
t h a t t h i s m a n u s c r i p t w as s t u u i e d i n
w as n e c e s s a r y t o f i r s t p r o v i d e a f a c t u a l a n d p h y s i c a l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
171
d e s c rip tio n .
C o n t r a r y t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m som e o f t h e p r e v i o u s
tr e a tm e n ts o f th e m a n u s c rip t,
th e r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d h e re p ro v e d
t h a t t h e W in d s o r m a n u s c r i p t w as c o n c e i v e d a s a n e n t i t y b u t t h a t it
w as n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y f i n i s h e d .
T he m a in b o d y o f t h e w o r k , t h a t
is
t h e t e x t a n d t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , w as c o m p le te d a r o u n d 1 6 5 8 , b u t
w i t h c e r t a i n d e t a i l s l e f t u n d o n e , f o r e x a m p le , l e f t u n in s c rib e d .
It
se e m s f a i r l y
c e rta in
t h e s h a m s a s w e re
t h a t t h e f i n a l a s s e m b ly
o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t w as n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f Shah J a h a n .
And i n
s p i t e o f th e f a c t
th a t th e e x a c t d a te
i s n o t kn o w n , i t h a s t o h a v e b e e n so m e tim e b e f o r e 1 7 7 6 , t h e d a t e on th e s e a l fo u n d on e v e ry r e c t o
fo lio
o f th e m a n u s c rip t.
o r n o t t h e m a n u s c r i p t w as to u c h e d u p a f t e r t h i s d a t e i s o f s p e c u la tio n , th e y e a r i t
W h e th e r
a m a tte r
b u t i t h a s n o t b e e n ta m p e r e d w i t h s i n c e J u n e 1 7 9 9 ,
w as s e n t t o E n g la n d t o b e p a r t o f t h e R o y a l L i b r a r y
a t W in d s o r C a s t l e . T he i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t w e re t n e n a n a l y z e d fro m a t h e m a t i c p o i n t o f v ie w . tie s
T h i s sh o w e d t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i
o f S hah Ja h a n b o th i n s i d e an d o u ts id e th e c o u r t ,
num ber o f tim e s a c e r t a i n th e r e la tiv e
im p o rta n c e i t
a c tiv ity
w as p r e s e n t e d ,
p la y e d i n
th e l i f e
a n d fro m t h e
one c o u ld s e e
o f Shah J a h a n .
Of
t h e f i v e th e m e s , t h e d a r b a r w as t n e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , f o l l o w e d b y s c e n e s o f c e l e b r a ti o n s an d f e s t i v a l s in s id e tn e c o u r t. th e b a t tle s , gous s h rin e .
fo llo w e d by h u n ts ,
and f i n a l l y
N e x t came
w as t h e v i s i t t o a r e l i -
T h ro u g h o u t a l l th e s e d e p i c i t o n s ,
a s w e l l a s i n t h e tw o
f r o n t i s p i e c e s , o n e c o u l d s e e t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i f w as t h a t o f
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
172
g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f Shah Jahan.
He was alw ays r e p r e se n te d as th e
p e r f e c t monarch from whom no wrong cou ld em anate.
To enhance t h i s
image e la b o r a te p r o to c o l and c o u r t cerem on ies en velop ed ev ery one o f h i s a c t i v i t i e s , ra n g in g from th e g o v ern in g o f s t a t e to th e h u n tin g o f l i o n s .
These c o u r t ly r i t u a l s fu n c tio n e d as a s h i e ld
behind which a l l th e f la w s o f th e emperor and h i s r e ig n co u ld be h id d en , but more im p o r ta n tly , th e y were a d e fe n s e mechanism which Shah Jahan u sed t o in t im id a t e and c o n tr o l h i s s u b j e c t s .
T h is
th em a tic a n a ly s is a llo w e d f o r th e a t t r ib u t io n o f s e v e r a l d is p e r s e d p a in t in g s t o h i s t o r i c a l m a n u scrip ts; some perhaps f o r volum es I I and I I I o f th e Badshah Nama. and o th e r s p erhap s f o r y e t a n oth er i l l u s t r a t e d e d it io n o f th e same m an u scrip t.
These d isp e r s e d
p a in tin g s are l i s t e d i n Appendix A. The d is c u s s io n on th e a r t i s t s dem onstrated th a t in s p i t e o f th e o v e r a ll u n it y in th e p r e s e n t a t io n , th e r e was a ls o much v a r i e t y in s t y l e t h a t was due to in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f each a r tis t.
The names o f te n a r t i s t s were r e v e a le d through th e
i n s c r i p t i o n s on th e p a in t in g s , and each o f t h e s e a r t i s t s were d is c u s s e d in d i v i d u a l l y .
By com paring t h e i r p a in tin g s i n th e
Windsor m an uscrip t w ith o t h e r s o f t h e ir s ig n e d works, an ap p roxi mate d a te was e s t a b lis h e d f o r each p a in t in g i n th e m a n u scrip t. Appendix B l i s t s a l l th e known a t t r ib u t io n s to th e s e a r t i s t s , th a t have been made i n th e p u b lish e d l i t e r a t u r e , e it h e r on th e b a s is o f i n s c r i p t i o n s or c o n n o is s e u r s h ip .
The p a in tin g w ith o u t in s c r i p t i o n s
were c l a s s i f i e d a cc o rd in g t o t h e ir a r t i s t i c e x c e lle n c e .
T his
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a g a i n sh o w ed t h e v a s t r a n g e o f s t y l e s w i t h i n t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r , a n d m ade a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n m a s t e r p a i n t e r s a n d l e s s a d ep t ones.
H o w ev er v a r i e d t h e s t y l e s a n d e x e c u t i o n s may h a v e
b e e n , th e y a l l c o n fo rm e d t o th e b a s ic p a in tin g — i t s
fo rm a l o rd e r, i t s
p e r f e c tio n , and i t s
s t r u c t u r e o f Shah J a h a n i
in s is te n c e on te c h n ic a l
e le g a n c e .
The C a talogu e to th e p a in t in g s p r o v id e s th e m ost com p lete docum entation o f t h i s s o r t t o d a te .
F ir s t o f a l l , id e n ti
f i c a t i o n s o f th e s u b j e c t s o f th e p a in t in g s were made on th e b a s is o f th e in s e r t e d 1 8 th cen tu ry c a p tio n s h e e t s found i n th e m an u scrip t, t r a n s la t e d e x t r a c t s o f th e Badshah Nama. and th e t r a n s la t e d Mulakhkhas.
To a r r iv e a t a d e f i n i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e
p a in t in g s , fu r th e r r e s e a r c h i s needed on th e P e r sia n t e x t o f th e Windsor m an u scrip t i t s e l f , which u n fo r tu n a te ly was beyond th e sco p e o f t h i s s tu d y .
However, th e p r e s e n t C atalogue i n d i c a t e s t h a t
th e p a in tin g s were a c c u r a t e ly lo c a t e d i n r e l a t i o n to each o th e r , th a t i s , th ey seem to f o llo w a l o g i c a l c h r o n o lo g ic a l sequence f o r w hich a t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e can be fou nd .
The e v e n ts r e l a t i n g t o th e
p rin ceh o o d o f Shah Jahan found i n the m id d le o f th e m an uscrip t corresp on d t o th e t e x t u a l sewuence o f L a h a u r i's Badshah Mama, and a re t h e r e fo r e n o t m isp la c e d a s was p r e v io u s ly b e lie v e d .
T h is
c a ta lo g u e and th e d i s s e r t a t i o n a s a whole i s by no means a d e f i n i t i v e stu d y on e i t h e r th e Windsor C a stle Badshah Mama or Shah Jahani p a in tin g ; i t i s m erely an elem en tary e x p lo r a tio n in t o a v e r y r ic h b u t r e l a t i v e l y u n resea rch ed f i e l d .
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174
CATALOGUE OF THE PAINTINGS
T h is C atalogu e o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s in th e Windsor C a s tle Badshah Nama. o f f e r s a b r i e f d e s c r ip t io n o f th e e v e n ts r e p r e se n te d by each p a in tin g .
The sequence o f th e p a in tin g s e x a c t ly
fo llo w s th e sequence o f L a h a u r i's t e x t , though t h i s d oes n o t n e c e s s a r i l y corresp on d to th e a c tu a l ch ron ology o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s . For exam ple, th e r e are s e v e r a l in t e r s p e r s e d scen e which r e f e r to th e p rin ceh o o d o f Shah Jahan, and o b v io u s ly t h e s e took p la c e b e fo r e he ascen d ed th e th r o n e .
As f i r s t ob served by Wayne B e g le y , th e s e
in c id e n t s were in tr o d u c e d by Lahauri f o r d id a c t ic purposes in order to h ig h lig h t a p r e s e n t in c id e n t and to g l o r i f y Shah Jahan by em phasizing h i s p a st a ch iev em en ts.
Some o f th e p a in tin g s show
d is c r e p a n c ie s betw een Shah J a h a n 's appearance and h i s a c tu a l age a t th e tim e o f th e e v e n t.
One p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n i s t h a t th e s e
p a in t in g s a re l a t e r c o p ie s th a t were made t o r e p la c e th e o r i g i n a l s w hich were found damaged when th e m an uscrip t was read y to be m ounted.
The a r t iB t may have d e p ic te d Shah Jahan, n ot a s he
appeared i n th e o r ig in a l works, b u t a s he was a t th e tim e th e p a in tin g was e x e c u te d . In th e C a ta lo g u e, a l l f o r t y - f o u r p a in tin g s are numbered s e r i a l l y , f o llo w in g the e x a c t ord er o f th e m an u scrip t. The f o l i a t i o n numbers u sed in th e C atalogu e, and throughout th e e n t ir e stu d y , corresp on d s to th e new p a g in a tio n e s t a b lis h e d in th e
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175
m anuscript by th e l i b r a r i a n s o f th e Royal L ib ra ry i n December 1 9 8 0 . Each c a ta lo g u e en tr y in c lu d e s th e a r t i s t ' s name, where known, th e dim en sion s o f th e work, th e d a te o f th e e v e n t, and a b r i e f d e s c r ip t io n o f th e e v e n t.
Where d ou b le-p age c o m p o sitio n s form a s in g l e
p i c t o r i a l s u b j e c t , theB e are l i s t e d to g e th e r under one t i t l e , but f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n and s t y l i s t i c a sse ssm e n ts a re g iv e n s e p a r a te ly f o r each p a in t in g .
For each s c e n e , th e r e i s a q u o ta tio n from th e
o r ig in a l P e r sia n s o u r c e s , e it h e r L a h a u r i's Badshah Nama ( t r a n s la t e d e x t r a c t s tak en from E l l i o t and Dowson's The H is to r y o f India, as Told by i t s Own H is t o r ia n s ): o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y , In a y a t Khan's Mulakhkha.a (A .R . F u l l e r ' s u n p u b lish ed t r a n s la t io n e d ite d by Wayne B e g le y ).
For th e e v e n ts r e l a t i n g to Shah J a h a n 's p rin ceh ood , th e
t r a n s la t e d e x t r a c t s a re from th e T u z u k -i-J a h a n g ir iT t r a n s la t e d by Rogers and B ev erid g e.
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176
1
P o r t r a it o f Timur f o l i o 2v dim ensions* 1 0 . 3 ” x 6 " a r t i s t * unknown P la t e I I I
T h is i s th e r i g h t h a l f o f a d ou b le-p a g e c o m p o sitio n .
Timur i s
se a te d on a m a ssiv e square th ron e sup ported by fo u r carved l e g s , w ith a r o s e t t e shaped back and h e a d - r e s t . th e w hole s t r u c t u r e .
A sm a ll p a r a s o l crowns
The throne i s o f g o ld and has many je w e lle d
in l a y s ; t h e s e red s to n e s are probably r u b ie s .
He i s d r e sse d i n a
dark g reen ro b e, em broidered w ith w h ite f lo w e r s , and he i s w earing a s c a r l e t undergarment w ith g o ld l e a f p a tte r n e d em broidery.
H is
turban i s w h ite w ith bands o f g o ld , and i s topped w ith a s c a r l e t p ie c e .
I t i s t i e d i n th e b u lbous P e r sia n fa s h io n .
He i s s i t t i n g
c r o s s e d le g g e d , h o ld in g a w h ite h a n d k erch ief i n h i s l e f t hand, and a crown su p p o rtin g a b la c k f e a th e r i n h i s r i g h t .
The th ron e sta n d s
on a b la c k c a r p e t w ith r e d and p in k f l o r a l d e s ig n s and i s p la c e d a g a in s t a p a le tu r q u o is e ground.
There a re no v i s i b l e i n s c r i p t i o n s
on th e p a in tin g i t s e l f w hich may a t t r ib u t e i t t o any p a r t ic u la r a r tis t.
T h is p o r t r a i t i s t o be seen i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e
f a c in g one o f Shah Jahan, and to g e th e r th ey make up th e f r o n t i s p ie c e o f th e m a n u scrip t.
U npublished
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177
2
P o r t r a it o f Shah Jahan f o l i o Jr d im en sio n s: 5 - 5 M x 3 « 1 5 " f
a r t i s t : unknown H a t e IV This i s th e l e f t h a l f o f a d o u b le-p age f r o n t i s p i e c e .
Shah Jahan i s
s e a te d on an i n t r i c a t e l y carved g o ld je w e l-s tu d d e d th r o n e , square i n shape, th a t sta n d s on fo u r l e g s .
I t has a low back w hich i s alm ost
t o t a l l y co n c e a le d by a g o ld c l o t h cu sh io n em broidered w ith green f l o r a l d e s ig n s .
A g o ld p a r a s o l d eco ra ted w ith s c a r l e t flo w e r s
r i s e s from th e b ack .
In fr o n t o f th e thron e i s a f o o t s t o o l covered
w ith red em broidered m a t e r ia l, and to i t s l e f t i s a sm a ll low round t a b l e .
The th ron e sta n d s on a b lu e c a r p e t which i s d eco ra ted
w ith v e r y f in e s t y l i z e d f l o r a l p a t te r n s .
Shah Jahan i s s i t t i n g
f a c in g r i g h t w ith h i s l e g s tuck ed under him, and h i s r ig h t hand i s h e ld up in a g e s tu r e o f b e in g read y t o r e c e iv e th e crown h e ld ou t by Timur on th e f a c in g p a g e.
In th e p a in tin g Shah Jahan has a lr e a d y
a w h ite b eard , and appears to be about f i f t y - f i v e y e a r s o ld . p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s may have been a p o r t r a it from l i f e .
It is
The back
ground i s done i n a p a le tu r q u o is e green and i s h ig h lig h t e d by th e c r e a tio n o f an a tm o s p h e r ic a lly rend ered sky a t th e to p .
Above th e
p a in t in g in th e d e co r a te d border i s a c a s u a lly w r it t e n , probably l a t e r , i n s c r i p t i o n g iv in g th e name o f Shah Jahan.
U npublished
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178
3
R ecep tio n o f P r in ce Khurram Upon H is D eparture f o r t h e Mewa-r Campaign d a te o f e v e n t: 25 December 1613 f o l i o 43v d im en sio n s: 1 2 . 7 5 " x 8 . 5 " a r t i s t : Balchand
s ig n a t u r e : bottom l e f t co rn er on book
P la te Y T h e M ew ar c a m p a ig n o f 1 6 1 3 - 1 8 1 4 w as t h e f i r s t m a j o r m i l i t a r y u n d e r t a k i n g e n t r u s t e d t o t h e command o f P r i n c e K h u rra m . th e s ta t e
o f M ew ar,
The p r o b le m w i t h
t h e n c o n t r o l l e d b y h a n a A n a r S i n g h , w as t h a t
i t h a d f i e r c e l y r e s i s t e d M u g h al d o m i n a t i o n .
A tte m p ts by A kb ar an d
t h e o t h e r o f f i c e r s d i s p a t a c h e d by J a h a n g i r h a d m e t w i t h v e r y l i t t l e success.
A f t e r r e p e a t e d f a i l u r e s b y v a r i o u s c o m m a n d e rs, J a h a n g i r
e n t e r t a i n e d th e s u g g e s tio n to
s e n d P r in c e K h u rra m .
a s s i g n e d a c o n t i n g e n t o f .1 2 ,0 0 0 m en . th e a u d ie n c e h a l l i n A jm ir, m oved i n in to
1
K h u rram w as
T he s c e n e t a k e s p l a c e a t
w h e re J a h a n g i r h a d t e m p o r a r i l y
t h e a u tu m n o f 1 6 1 3 . As w as t h e c u s to m ,
t h e h a l l w as d i v i d e d
tw o l e v e l s — t h e r a i s e d b a l c o n y w h e re t h e e m p e r o r s a t a n d t h e
h a l l i t s e l f w h e re s t o o d t h e c o u r t i e r s . p e r s o n a l l y r e c e i v e d on t h i s
He i s
b o w in g t o t h e s e a t e d
an d th e y a r e a t te n d e d to by t h r e e s e r v a n t s .
n o b le s an d a m irs s ta n d a c c o r d in g t o on e i th e r s id e o f th e h a l l .
b e in g
r a i s e d b a l c o n y , a m a rk o f t h e h i g h
e s te e m i n w h ic h h e w as r e g a r d e d . J a h a n g ir,
P r i n c e K h u rram i s
T he v a r i o u s
t h e i r ra n k and s o c ia l s ta t u s ,
C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y t h e w o rk h a s a
s y m m e t r i c a l b a l a n c e , w h ic h i s f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e s t r o n g
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
179
h o r iz o n ta l and v e r t i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l e le m e n ts . c o lo r s in f u s e d w ith a l i b e r a l p o r tio n o f th e p a i n tin g .
s p r i n k i n g o f g o l d d o m in a te t h e lo w e r
T h is c o n c e n tr a ti o n o f c o l o r s i s
by th e i n t e n s e w h ite o f th e m a rb le s t r u c t u r e . fig u re s id e n tify
A ccount in
B rig h t je w e l- lik e
o ffse t
I n s c r i p t i o n s on t h e
t h e n a m e s o f m any o f t h e c o u r t i e r s .
th e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g ir i (R o g e rs and B e v e rid g e , I , p .
2 7 6 -2 7 7 )
To p u t a s t o p t o t h e a f f a i r , o f t h e r e b e l R a n a . . . o n t h i s a c c o u n t I d e t e r m i n e d t o r e m a i n m y s e l f a t A jm ir a n d s e n d o n B a b a K h u rra m , my f o r t u n a t e s o n . T h i s i d e a w as a v e r y g o o d o n e , a n d o n t h i s a c c o u n t , o n t h e b t h o f D ay , a t t h e h o u r f i x e d u p o n , I d e s p a t c h e d h im w i t h h a p p i n e s s a n d t r i u m p h . I p r e s e n t e d h im w i t h a q a b a ( o u te r c o a t) o f g o ld b ro c a d e w ith je w e lle d f lo w e r s and p e a r l s , a g o l d w oven s a s h w i t h c h a i n s o f p e a r l s , o n e o f my p r iv a t e e le p h a n ts c a l l e d F a th G aj w ith tr a p p i n g s , a s p e c ia l h o r s e , a j e w e l le d sw o rd , an d a je w e l le d tih a p w a w ith a p h u l k a ta ra . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m en f i r s t a p p o i n t e a t o t h i s d u t y u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f K han Azam, I s e n t 1 2 ,0 0 0 m o re h o r s e s w i t h my s o n , a n d h o n o u r e d t h e i r l e a d e r s , e a c h a c c o r d i n g t o h i s c o n d i tio n , w ith s p e c i a l h o r s e s an d e l e p h a n ts and r o b e s o f h o n o u r a n d d i s m i s s e d th e m . F i a a i K han w as n o m i n a te d t o t h e p a y m a s t e r s h i p o f t h e a rm y .
P u b lish ed :
L o sty , Jerem iah P. The Art o f th e Book in I n d ia . London: The B r i t i s h L ib ra ry , 1982. P la t e XXXII.
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180
4 -5
P r in c e Khurram R e c e iv in g th e Subdued Rana Amar Singh d a te o f e v e n t: 15 February 161 4 f o l i o 46 v d im e n s io n s : 1 3 *5 ” x 9 ” a r t i s t : L a lc h a n d
.
si gnat ur e:
b o tt o m r i g h t e d g e
P la t e VI P r i n c e K h u rra m 1s b a t t l e success*
a g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar p r o v e d t o b e a
By u t i l i z i n g u n c o n v e n t i o n a l m e th o d s a n d d i s p l a y i n g a n
in c re d ib le
show o f c o u r a g e , h e m a n a g e d t o w h i t t l e down t h e
s tre n g th
a n d n u m b e rs o f t h e S a n a 's a r m i e s u n t i l t h e l a t t e r w as o b l i g e d t o sue f o r p e a c e . a g re e d to
A s a r e s u l t o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , R a n a Amar S in g h
s u r r e n d e r h i s in d e p e n d e n c e an d to p e r s o n a l l y
h i m s e l f t o P r i n c e K h u rra m .
As h e w as g e t t i n g o n i n y e a r s ,
a s k e d t o b e e x c u s e d fro m th e c o u r t , s o n K aram i n s t e a d . th e f o r t o f C h ito r . by J a h a n g ir . t o K h u rra m .
s u b m it th e R ana
b u t w o u ld b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y h i s
F u rth e rm o re h e p ro m ise d n e v e r a g a in to f o r t i f y
2
a
p e a c e t r e a t y w as d ra w n u p a n d w as r a t i f i e d
As a t o k e n o f s u b m i s s i o n , T h is s c e n e ta k e s p la c e i n
th e R an a p r e s e n te d h im s e lf t h e c o u n t r y s i d e o f M ew ar,
a n d sh o w s a s e t t i n g w h ic h w as m ade t o s i m u l a t e a n a u d i e n c e h a l l . A th ro n e i s
s e t u p o n a p l a t f o r m , a n d a r o u n d K h u rram s t a n d t h e
d i f f e r e n t o f f i c e r s a n d n o b l e s who a c c o m p a n ie d h im o n t h i s m i s s i o n . R a n a .Amar s i n g h bows b e f o r e P r i n c e K h u rra m , a m a rk o f h i s s u b j u g a tio n ,
and i s b e in g g r a c io u s ly r e c e iv e d .
T h i s w o rk i s
c o n s tru c te d
on a h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , w ith f i g u r e s d i s t r i b u t e d to th e r i g h t and l e f t
of a c e n tra l p o in t.
T he o v e r a l l c o l o r sch em e
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181
i s q u ite dark, where d u lle r shades and a more r e s e r v e d a p p lic a tio n o f g o ld was u sed . U npublished f o l i o 47 ^ dim ensions* 13*3U x 9»3" a r t i s t s unknown P la t e V II
T h is p a in tin g i s p a r t o f a d ou b le-p age co m p o sitio n and i s to be v iew ed i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith f o l i o 4 6 r .
While th e o th e r s id e d e p ic ts
t h e a c t u a l r e c e p t io n o f th e Rana, t h i s one shows th e p e r ip h e r a l a r ea s o f th e m a k e -s h ift a u d ien ce h a l l .
S erv a n ts and a tte n d a n ts o f
b o th Shah Jahan and th e Rana are p o r tr a y e d , a s are th e m u sic ia n s and tr o o p s w nich form p a r t o f th e c o r te g e o f a m il i t a r y cam paign. The f ig u r e s i n th e fo reg ro u n d a re t h e a tte n d a n ts o f th e Rana, w h ile th o s e a lo n g th e o u t s t r e tc h e d sc r e e n are th e l e s s e r Mughal o f f i c e r s . In th e background one s e e s a p a v ilio n o f m u sic ia n s w h ile rows o f p e o p le , p o s s ib ly tr o o p s and o n lo o k e r s, l i n e th e e x t r e m it ie s o f th e camp.
The c o lo r scheme i s a ls o r a th e r dark, bu t th e pigm ents are
v ery i n t e n s e , th u s p ro d u cin g a v e r y v i v i d e f f e c t .
A lthough n o t
composed around a c e n t r a l a x i s , th e p ic tu r e e s t a b lis h e d a sen se o f ord er through th e o r g a n iz a tio n a lo n g p a r a l l e l and p erp en d icu la r row s. Unpubli shed
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182
A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - i- J a h a n g i r i (R o g e rs an d B e v e r id g e , I p . 2 7 4 -2 7 6 ) B e in g w i t h o u t re m e d y h e c h o s e o b e d i e n c e a n d l o y a l t y , a n d s e n t t o my f o r t u n a t e s o n h i s m a t e r n a l u n c l e . . . a n a p e t i t i o n e d t h a t i f t h a t f o r t u n a t e s o n w o u ld a s k f o r g i v e n e s s . . . h e w o u ld h i m s e l f come a n d w a i t on my s o n a n d w o u ld s e n d h i s s o n a n d s u c c e s s o r t o c o u r t • . . h e a l s o b e g g e d t h a t h e h i m s e l f m i g h t b e e x c u s e d f r o m c o m in g t o c o u r t o n a c c o u n t o f h i s o l d a g e . . . A t t h e r e q u e s t o f my s o n I f o r g a v e t h e R a n a 's o f f e n c e s . . . I a l s o w r o te a f a r m a n o f k i n d n e s s t o my s o n . . . a n d i t w as s e t t l e d t h a t on S u n d a y , t h e 2 6 t h o f t h e m o n th o f B ahm an, h e a n d h i s s o n s s h o u l d come a n d p a y t h e i r r e s p e c t s t o my s o n . On S u n d a y , t h e R a n a p a i d h i s r e s p e c t s t o my f o r t u n a t e s o n w i t h t h e p o l i t e n e s s a n d r i t u a l t h a t s e r v a n t s p a y t h e i r r e s p e c t s , a n d p r o d u c e d a s o f f e r i n g s a fa m o u s l a r g e r u b y t h a t w as i n h i s h o u s e , w i t h som e d e c o r a t i v e a r t i c l e s a n d sev en e le p h a n ts . My s o n a l s o b e h a v e d t o h im w i t h p e r f e c t k i n d ness. When t h e R a n a e l a p s e d h i s f e e t a n d a s k e d f o r g i v e n e s s f o r h i s f a u l t s , h e to o k h i s h e a d a n d p l a c e d i t o n h i s b r e a s t , a n d c o n s o l e d h im i n s u c h a m a n n e r a s t o c o m f o r t h im . He p r e s e n t e d him w i t h a s u p e r b d r e s s o f h o n o u r , a j e w e l l e d s w o rd , a h o r s e w ith a je w e l le d s a d d le , an d a p r i v a t e e le p h a n t w ith s i l v e r h o u s in g s .. .
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6 -7
Ja h a n g ir R e c e iv in g P rin ce Khurram A fte r H is S u c c e ssfu l Campaign A g a in st th e Rana o f Mewar d a te o f event* 1 March 1614 f o l i o 48 v d im a isio n s* 1 2 . 7 5 ” x 8 . 7 5 ” a r t i s t : Ram Das
sig n a tu re* bottom l e f t c o m e r on t r id e n t
P l a t e V III T h is p a in t in g i s th e r i g h t h a l f o f a double page co m p o sitio n , and r e p r e s e n ts th e co u rty a rd scen e o f th e au d ien ce h a l l a t A jm ir. Here one s e e s n o b le s o f l e s s e r ranks sta n d in g i n o r d e r ly row s, each a cc o rd in g to h i s s t a t i o n .
A l i n e o f h o r s e s , each covered
w ith a sumptuous red b ro ca d e, form a v i s u a l w atershed betw een th e l i g h t e r c o lo r e d ly c la d n o b le s i n th e f r o n t and th e more b r ig h t ly d re sse d ones a t th e b ack .
At th e to p o f th e w a ll upon th e en tran ce
gateway i s a g a lle r y f i l l e d w ith m u sic ia n s. Unpublished f o l i o 49 * dim ensions* 1 2 .4 5 ” x 8 .8 5 ” a r t i s t s Murad
sig n a tu r e * on s t e p , and bottom r i g h t c o m e r on book
P la t e IX This p a ir o f p a in t in g s r e p r e s e n ts th e g lo r io u s cu lm in a tio n o f P r in ce Khurram's Mewar campaign.
Having o b ta in ed peace and th e
su b ju g a tio n o f Mewar to th e c o n fin e s o f th e Mughal em pire, t h is p a in tin g shows th e r e c e p t io n and c o n g r a u la tio n s o f Khurram on
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184
h i s su c c e ss*
A ccord in g t o Saksena, when th e P r in c e a r r iv e d n ear
Ajmir, a l l c o u r t am irs were o rd ered t o go o u t t o m eet him, and o f f e r v a lu a b le p r e s e n ts . When th e p r in c e appeared b e fo r e h i s f a t h e r , th e l a t t e r was overcom ed by h i s f e e l i n g s o f a f f e c t i o n and j o y . He embraced him, k i s s e d h i s head a n d ,fa c e , and fa v o red him w ith s p e c ia l k in d n e ss and g r e e tin g s * On th e throne b a lc o n y , J a h a n g ir h a s sto o d up t o p e r s o n a lly r e c e iv e Khurram.
There i s o n ly one in s t a n c e where th e T uzuk -i-Jahangi-ri
m en tion s Jah an gir s ta n d in g up t o g r e e t Khurram, and th a t was when Ja h a n g ir g ra n ted h i s son th e t i t l e o f Shah Jahan.
S in c e t h i s
in c id e n t i s d e p ic te d on f o l i o 197 v , and t h a t p a in t in g shows a s e a te d J a h a n g ir, one may g u e ss t h a t t h e s e two p a in tin g s were mixed up d u rin g th e assem b ly o f th e m a n u scrip t.
Below i n th e co u rty a rd ,
th e gran d ees a re l i n e d up on e i t h e r s id e o f th e th ron e a cco rd in g to t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e ran k s and p o s i t i o n s .
The assortm en t o f g i f t s f o r
Khurram, which in c lu d e d j e w e llr y , ornamented weapons and o th e r p r e c io u s o b j e c t s , are b e in g h e ld up f o r d is p la y by a number o f th e n o b le s in th e fo reg ro u n d .
The e n t ir e p a in tin g i s ren d ered in f i n e
hard o u t li n e s and b r i l l i a n t s o l i d to n e s , w hich cou p led w ith th e b lan k e x p r e s s io n le s s f a c e s , g iv e s a s e n s e o f g r e a t s o le m n ity and f o r m a lit y .
T h is f e e l i n g i s fu r th e r enhanced by the sy m m etrica lly
b a la n ced co m p o sitio n and th e n e a t o r d e r ly p r e s e n ta t io n . P u b lish e d :
A rcher, W illiam G. In d ia n M in ia tu r e s. York Graphic S o c ie t y , 1960. P la t e 28.
G reenwich: New
P rep a ra to ry S k etch e s: B in n ey, Edwin. In d ian M in ia tu re P a in tin g s from th e C o lle c t io n o f Edwin B innev 3 rd . P o r tla n d : P o r tla n d Art Museum, 1974. Page 79*
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185
Brown, P ercy. In d ia n P a in tin g Under th e Mughal s . Oxfords The Clarendon P r e s s , 1924. P la t e L V III. Welch, S tu a r t Cary. In d ia n Drawings and P a in ted S k etch es 1 6 th Through 19th C e n t u r i e s . New I n c ., 1976. P a g e 49*
A ccount i n T u z u k - i - j a h a n g i r i ( R o g e r s a n a B e v e r i d g e , I p . 2 7 6 -2 7 7 ) An o r d e r w as g i v e n t h a t a l l t h e A m irs s n o u l a go t o m e e t h im , an d t h a t e a c h s h o u ld p r e s e n t an o f f e r i n g a c c o r d in g to h i s s t a n d i n g a n d c o n d i t i o n , a n a on t h e n e x t d a y , S u n d a y t h e 1 1 t h , h e s h o u l a h a v e t h e g o o d f o r t u n e t o w a i t o n m e. The n e x t d ay th e p r in c e , w ith g r e a t m a g n ific e n c e , w ith a l l v i c t o r i o u s f o r c e s t h a t h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d t o acc o m p an y him on t h a t s e r v i c e , e n te re d th e p u b lic p la c e . The h o u r f o r h im t o w a i t o n me w as tw o w a tc h e s a n a tw o g h a r i s o f t h e d a y h a d p a s s e d , a n a he h a d th e good f o r tu n e to pay h i s r e s p e c t s an d p e rfo rm e d h i s p ro s t r a t i o n and s a l u t a t i o n s . He p r e s e n t e a 1000 a s h r a f i s a n d 1000 r u p e e s b y way o f o f f e r i n g , 1000 m u h rs a n d 1000 r u p e e s b y way of c h a rity . I c a l l e d t h a t s o n f o r w a r d a n a e m b ra c e d h im , a n d h a v i n g k i s s e d h i s h e a d a n d f a c e , f a v o u r e a h im w i t h s p e c i a l k in d n e s s and g r e e t i n g s . When h e h a d f i n i s h e d t h e a u e s o f s e r v ic e and h ad p re s e n te d h i s o f f e r in g s and c h a r i t i e s , he p e t i t i o n e d t h a t K a ra n m i g h t be e x a l t e d w i t h t h e g o o d f o r t u n e o f p r o s t r a t i n g h im s e lf and p a y in g h i s r e s p e c t s .
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186
8 -9
A r r iv a l o f A saf Khan and th e P r in c e s from Lahore d a te o f e v e n t: 8 March 1628 ( 2 Rajab 1 0 3 7 ), 1 s t r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 50 v d im en sio n s: 1 2 .5 ” x 8 .8 5 ” a r t i s t : B ic h it r
s ig n a tu r e : under th ron e betw een t h e tw o l i o n s
P la t e X T h e s c e n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d t h e
th r e e o ld e r
s o n s o f S h ah J a h a n a t t h e c o u r t o f A g r a s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c o r o n a t i o n c e re m o n ie s .
D u r in g t h e t r o u b l e d p e r i o d b e tw e e n J a h a n g i r ' s d e a t h on
th e 2 9 th O ctober 1627 (28 S a fa r 1037) and S h a h J a h a n 1s a c c e s s io n on t h e 1 4 th F e b r u a r y 1626 ( 8 J u m a d a I I K h an , n o t i n g t h e s t r i f e
1 0 3 7 ) » A s a f K han a n d I r a d a t
t h a t e n s u e d fro m N ur J a h a n ' s d e s i r e t o
m a in ta in c o n t r o l o f th e g o v e rn m e n t b y t r y i n g t o p la c e S h a h r iy a r on t h e t h r o n e , d eem ed i t
s a f e r t o re m o v e D a r a S h i k o h , S h a h S h u j a a n d
A u r a n g z e b aw ay fro m t h e c u s t o d y o f t h e i r g r a n d m o t h e r . S h a h J a h a n w as s t i l l i n s u p p o rte rs o f h is ,
A t t h a t tim e
t h e D e c c a n , a n d t h e tw o o f th e m , l o y a l
a c te d in h is i n t e r e s t .
U pon t h e i r r e t u r n S h a h
J a h a n o r d e r e d a m a g n i f i c e n t r e c e p t i o n f o r A s a f K han! A l l t h e p r e m i e r n o b l e s w e re a s k e d t o go o u t t o w elco m e h im , a n d t o e s c o r t h im t o c o u r t . He w as l e d t o t h e J h a r o k a w i t h t h e p r i n c e s , who o f f e r e d t h e i r n a z r s t o t h e E m p e ro r i n t u r n s . S h a h J a h a n cam e dow n, h e a r t i l y e m b ra c e d h i s s o n s , a n d p e r m i t t e d A s a f K han t o k i s s h i s f e e t , i n i t s e l f a r a r e h o n o u r i n th o s e d ay s. S tru c tu ra lly c a lly
t h i s w o rk i s
s i m i l a r i n f o r m a t t o t h e o t h e r s y m m e tr i
c o m p o se d a n d e q u a l l y b a l a n c e d w o rk s w h ic h w e re t y p i c a l o f
Shah J a h a n i p a in tin g ,
h e r e t h e a r t i s t e m p lo y e d a g e n e r a l l y p a l e r
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187
p a l e t t e where tu r q u o is e and w h ite a re th e predom inant c o lo r s . Coupled w ith a s o f t a tm osp h eric h a n d lin g o f th e b r u sh s tr o k e s, t h i s adds a n o te o f g e n t le n e s s and te n d e r n e s s , w hich i s ex p ressed by Shah J a h a n 's a f f e c t i o n tow ards h i s c h ild r e n , to t h i s o th e r w ise v e ry solem n a f f a i r .
On th e th ron e b a lco n y a s e a te d Shah Jahan i s
em bracing Dara Shikoh who i s bowing b e fo r e h i s f a t h e r . Shah Shuja and A saf Khan stan d beh in d t o th e l e f t .
Aurangzeb,
In th e h a l l
th e n o b le s stan d t o th e r i g h t and l e f t o f th e th r o n e .
On th e
w a ll b en ea th th e th ro n e i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f two s u f i s sta n d in g on a g lo b e , and betw een them i s th e m o tif o f two l i o n s l y i n g w ith a lamb.
Most o f th e assem b led n o b le s are i d e n t i f i e d by sm all
P e r sia n i n s c r i p t i o n s , w hich in d ic a t e s th e im p ortan t documentary fu n c tio n se rv ed by th e p a in tin g . P u b lish ed s
G a sco ig n e, Bamber. The G reat M oghuls. Harper and How, I n c . , 1.971 • Page 145-
New Yorks
f o l i o 51 r d im en sio n s: 1 3 .8 5 ” x 9" a r t i s t : Ram Das
s ig n a tu r e : m id d le l e f t edge on book
P la t e XI The f a c in g page to th e p r e v io u s s c e n e , t h i s shows th e l e s s e r n o b le s assem b led in th e cou rtyard o f th e a u d ien ce h a l l a t Agra. J u s t above th e e n tra n ce gatew ay, on th e co u rty a rd w a ll, th e r e i s a m usic g a l l e r y f i l l e d w ith m u sic ia n s and t h e ir v a r io u s in s t r u m en ts.
In com parison w ith th e p r e v io u s p a g e, t h i s one has a much
l i v e l i e r a i r , f o r in s t e a d o f b e in g s tr u c tu r e d upon a s t r i c t
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188
h o r iz o n ta l and v e r t i c a l g r id p a tte r n , i t i s composed a lo n g d ia g o n a ls .
These d ia g o n a ls are th e two l i n e s o f n o b le s which
occupy a lm ost th e w hole c o m p o sitio n .
The c o lo r s are much r ic h e r
i n ton e and axe a c c e n tu a te d a g a in s t a s t r ik in g background t h a t c o n t r a s t s a w h ite w a ll and a dark gray ground. U npublished
A c c o u n t i n B a d s h a h Mama ( E l l i o t a n d D ow son, p .
5-6)
N u r M a h a l , who h a d b o r n t h e c a u s e o f m uch s t r i f e a n d c o n t e n t i o n , now c l u n g t o t h e v a i n i d e a o f r e t a i n i n g t h e r e i n s o f g o v e r n m e n t i n h e r g r a s p , a s s h e h a d h e l d th e m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f t h e l a t e e m p e r o r . . . Y a m i n u - d d a u l a A s a f Khan a n d I r a d a t K h a n , who a l w a y s a c t e d t o g e t h e r d e t e r m i n e d t h a t , a s S h a h J a h a n w as f a r aw ay f r o m A g r a , i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e some s t e p s t o p r e v e n t d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e c i t y , a n d t o g e t p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e p r i n c e s Muhammad D a r a S h u k o h , Muhammad S h a h S h u j a , a n d Muhammad A u r a n g z e b , who w e r e i n t h e f e m a l e a p a r t m e n t s w i t h Mur M a h a l . . . A s t h e y o u n g p r i n c e s w e re n o t s a f e w i t h N u r M a h a l , t h e y r e m o v e d h e r f r o m t h e r o y a l p a l a c e , a n d t o o k t n e y o u n g p r i n c e s u n d e r t h e i r own c h a r g e . A c c o u n t i n M u lak h k h as ( B e g l e y ,
p . 2 8-29)
On t h e 1 s t o f H a j a b i n t h i s a u s p i c i o u s y e a r ( 1 0 5 7 ) » t h e g r e a t l y e s t e e m e d a n d a u g u s t P r i n c e s , a c c o m p a n i e d b y Y amin a l - D a u l a A s a f K h an , o t h e r n o b l e s a n d m em bers o f t h e r e t i n u e o f t h e l a t e E m peror, r e a c h e d th e o u t s k i r t s o f th e m e t r o p o l i s o f A k b arabad from t h e L a h o re c a p i t a l . . . O n th e f o l l o w i n g d a y . . . a l l th e s t a t e n o b l e s by i m p e r i a l command w e n t t o w e lc o m e th e m a n d e s c o r t e d th e P r i n c e s o f e x a l t e d d e s c e n t and a u g u s t g e n e a lo g y , a lo n g w ith Yamin a l - D a u l a a n d o t h e r n o b l e s a n d r e n o w n e d c h i e f s , i n t o H i s M a je sty * s a u g u s t p r e s e n c e . Upon t h e i r a r r i v a l a t t h e p a l a c e , t h e i l l u s t r i o u s P r i n c e s , a l o n g w i t h Y am in a l - D a u l a a n d h i s c o m p a n io n s, w ere a l l h o n o u r e d w ith a r o y a l a u d i e n c e , i n acco rd an ce w ith t h e i r n o b le s t a t u s . A t t h i s tim e th e y p r e s e n t e d s u i t a b l e g i f t s and r e c e i v e d a l l k in d s o f r o y a l f a v o u r s and m ark s o f a f f e c t i o n , a g a i n a c c o r d in g to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r a n k s . On t h i s o c c a s i o n , H i s M a j e s t y a s s i g n e d t h e h i g h o f f i c e o f F i r s t L o r d o f t h e H e a lm ( W a k i l ) t o Yamin a l - D a u l a a n d h a n d e d o v e r t o him t h e r o y a l s e a l .
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189
10 -
11
S o l a r V e jg h m e n t o f S h a h J a h a n
d a te o f e v e n t: 26 January 1629 (3 Jumada I I 1 0 3 8 ), 2nd r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 70 v d im en sio n s: 1 3 *2M x 9*6" a r t i s t : unknown P la t e XII These two p ages r e p r e s e n t th e s o la r weighmeht o f Shah Jahan th a t marked h is t h ir t y - s e v e n t h b ir th d a y .
T h is h a l f o f th e sc e n e shows
th e co u rty a rd o f th e p a la c e a t G w alior, where d an cin g g i r l s and m u sic ia n s c r e a te a f e s t i v e atm osphere fo r th e ceremony.
The
m u sic ia n s are d iv id e d i n t o two g rou p s: th e on es on th e b a lco n y p la y p r e c u s s io n and wind in str u m e n ts , w h ile th o se in th e cou rtyard p la y s t r in g in str u m e n ts .
The p a la c e w a lls a re o f w h ite m arble and
a re d eco ra ted w ith i n t r i c a t e l y carved l a t t i c e work.
In c o n tr a s t
t o t h e s e w h ite w a lls a re th e c o lo r f u l and a lm ost gaudy garm ents o f . th e dancers and m u s ic ia n s .
They l i v e n up and b r ig h te n what would
o th e r w ise have been a v e r y s t e r i l e p ie c e o f a r c h it e c t u r a l s e t t i n g . The d ir e c t io n fa c e d by th e p e o p le in th e c o u rty a rd , to th e l e f t , le a d s th e v ie w e r l s ey e tow ards th e f a c in g p a g e, where th e main a c t io n ta k e s p la c e . TJnp u b lish e d
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190
fo lio 7 dim ensions* 13«1" x 9" a r t i s t : B o la
s ig n a tu r e s on m arble p la tfo rm
P la t e XEII The w eig h in g ceremony o f Shah Jahan on th e o c c a s io n o f h i s t h i r t y se v e n th s o la r b ir th d a y i s i l l u s t r a t e d on t h i s p a g e.
At t h i s tim e
he was w eighed a g a in s t tw e lv e d i f f e r e n t com m odities which a f t e r wards were d is t r ib u t e d among th e p o o r.
T h is ceremony was a ls o
r e p e a te d a t h is lu n a r b ir th d a y , but th e number o f a r t i c l e s were reduced to sev en .
I t was c o n sid e r e d an a u s p ic io u s a c t th a t would
p r o t e c t him from any c o n c e iv a b le b o d ily harm.
On t h i s page Shah
Jahan i s shown s e a te d on an e la b o r a t e ly d eco ra ted p a ir o f s c a le s w hich i s i n s t a l l e d i n a p a v ilio n o f th e p a la c e .
What e x a c t ly he
i s b e in g w eighed a g a in s t cannot be p r e c is e ly d eterm in ed , f o r th e ite m s a re i n sm all b a g s.
Around him stan d h i s fo u r sons and h is
w a z ir A sa f Khan, and around them are v a r io u s o th e r c o u r t ie r s and n o b le s .
In th e background stan d th e gu ard s, whose p r e s e n c e s were
r e q u ir e d a t ev ery c o u r t f u n c t io n .
The arrangem ent o f th e c o u r t ie r s
i n a t r ia n g u la r f a s h io n c r e a t e s an empty c e n t r a l space d i r e c t l y i n fr o n t o f Shah Jahan.
T h is a llo w s th e a t t e n t io n o f th e view er
to be fo c u s e d upon him, and t h e r e fo r e e s t a b l i s h e s him as th e f ig u r e o f c e n t r a l im p o rta n ce.
The u se o f g o ld i s q u it e abundant i n t h i s
s c n e , and s e r v e s to h i g h lig h t th e r ic h n e s s and w ea lth im p lie d and g e n e r a te d by t h i s p a r t ic u la r cerem ony.
As in th e p r e c e d in g sc e n e ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
191
th e w h ite m arble p a v ilio n i s o f f s e t t e d by th e lu s h t a p e s t r y and m u ltic o lo r e d garm ents o f th e p e o p le . P u b lish ed :
Randhawa, Mohinder Singh and G a lb r a ith , John K enneth, In d ia n P a in t in g . The S cen es. Themes and L egends. B oston : Houghton M i f f l i n , 1 9 6 8 . P la t e 6 .
A ccount in Mulakhkhas ( 3 e g le y , p . 4 2 ) On th e 3rd o f Jumada I I t h i s y e a r , 1038 A .H ., th e a u s p ic io u s c e le b r a t io n o f th e s o la r w eigh in g o f His M ajesty was h e ld a t G w alior, on th e o c c a s io n o f th e co m p letio n o f th e t h i r t y sev en th y e a r o f h i s e t e r n a l age a c c o r d in g to th e s o la r c a le n d e r . As p r e v io u s ly o rd a in ed , h i s sa cred p erson was w eighed once a g a in s t pure g o ld , once a g a in s t s i l v e r , then te n tim es a g a in s t o th e r a r t i c l e s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
192
12
C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e F e s t i v a l o f t h e N au ro z a t A gra d ate o f ev en t:
19 M a r c h 16 29 ( 2 4 R a j a b 1 0 3 8 ) ,
2nd r e g n a l y e a r
f o l i o 7 2v d i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 »9 " * 9 » 9 M a rtis t:
B alch an d
sig n a tu re : l e f t
edge on book
P l a t e XIV Upon t h i s p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n o f t h e N a u r o z ,
th e m ost n o t a b l e ev en t'
w as t h e
t r a n s f e r o f I r a a a t K han t o t h e p o s t o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e
D eccan,
and th e i n s t a l l a t i o n
o f A f z a l Khan t o
M i n i s t e r ( D iw a n ) i n h i s p l a c e .
th e o f f i c e
A p a r t from t h a t , t h e r e
o f P r im e
w ere th e
u s u a l p r o m o tio n s an d c o n f e r r a l o f f a v o r s t h a t m a rk ed c e r e m o n ie s o f th is n a tu re .
The p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e i s o f a d a r b a r o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
b u t w i t h a l e s s e r d e g r e e o f f o r m a l i t y a n d o r d e r w h i c h w as t h e u s u a l norm .
On t h e b a l c o n y S h a h J a h a n i s
en th ro n e d i n
a c c o m p a n i e d by h i s f o u r s o n s a n d a t t e n d e d t o on t h e f l o o r o f t h e a u d i e n c e h a l l g u a r d s i n a m o re o r l e s s
c o n ta in e rs of p re c io u s
by a s e r v a n t .
B elow
s ta n d th e v a r io u s n o b le s and
o rd e rly fa sh io n .
on t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e p a i n t i n g ;
th e c e n te r,
They a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d
on t h e l e f t s i d e t r a y s a n d
o b je c ts a re d isp la y e d .
The b e a r d e d man
s t a n d i n g am ong t h e s e g o o d s b e a r s a s t r o n g r e s e m b l e n c e t o I s l a m K han t h e u n d e r B a k s h i ,
p a r t o f w h o se f u n c t i o n w as t o a n n o u n c e a n d
p r e s e n t t h e v a r i o u s c o u r t i e r s who w e r e t o be r e c e i v e d b y S h a h Jahan.
o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e g a t e s a r e m o re n o b l e s ,
th e y s ta n d aro u n d i n a r e la x e d and c a s u a l f a s h io n . tio n a l
but
T he c o m p o s i
s t r u c t u r e a llo w s tn e v ie w e r to fo c u s upon sh ah J a h a n as
th e m ost im p o r ta n t f i g u r e i n th e p a i n t i n g .
H is c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n
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193
is
p in p o i n te d by t h e v e r t i c a l en c a d re m e n t o f th e t h r o n e ,
f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e j a d e g r e e n p i l l a r s In a d d itio n ,
and i s
o f th e au d ien ce h a l l .
a lo w p o i n t o f v ie w i s a d o p t e d , w h ich p l a c e s th e
v i e w e r o n t h e sam e l e v e l a s t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e t h e g a t e , a n d t h u s f o r c e s h im t o l o o k u p w a r d t o S h a h J a h a n . c o lo rs are used in a g r e a t c o n t r a s t to
th e c l o th in g o f th e n o b le s ,
V ery b r i g h t
and t h i s p re s e n ts
th e g o ld o f th e t r a y s and c o n t a i n e r s o f p r e c io u s
o b je c ts* A c c o u n t i n M u lak h k h as ( B e g l e y ,
p. 4 2-43)
T h e f e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u r o z t h i s y e a r w as c e l e b r a t e d o n T u e s d a y , t h e 2 4 t h o f R a j a b , 1 0 3 8 AH ( 1 9 ^ M a r c h 1 b 2 9 ) . On t h i s a u s p i c i o u s d a y , t h e a n n u i t y o f H e r M a j e s t y t h e Q u e e n was en h an ced by one l a k h o f ru p e e s * Rukn a l - S u l t a n a t , t h e a u t h o r ' s g r a n d f a t h e r , r e c e i v e d r o y a l b e n e v o l e n c e by b e i n g p r o m o t e d t o a man s a b o f 6 , 0 0 0 z a t a n d 6 , 0 0 0 s u w a r , a f t e r a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 .0 0 0 i n e a c h c a t e g o r y ; a n d I r a d a t K han, a f t e r c o n fe rm e n t o f t h e r o y a l f a v o u r s , w as a p p o i n t e d a s th e g o v e r n o r o f t h e D eccan. O w ing t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f I r a d a t K h a n , t h e o f f i c e o f P r i m e M i n i s t e r (D iw a n A ' l a ) w as now e n t r u s t e d t o ' A l l a m i A f z a l K h a n ; a n d h i s m a n s a b r a n k w as d e s e r v e d l y f i x e d a t 5 .0 0 0 z a t an a suw ar.
P u b lish e d : Beach, M ilo C le v ela n d . The Grand Mogul Im p eria l P a in tin g in I n d ia 1600 - 166 0 . W illiam stow n: S t e r lin g and F rancine C lark Art I n s t i t u t e , 1978* F ig u re 6 ( d e t a i l o f f o l i o 7 2 v , m is id e n t if ie d as s e l f p o r t r a it o f th e a r t i s t B a lch an d ).
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194
13
B e s ie g in g th e F ort o f Dharur d a te o f e v e n t: February 1630 (23 Jumada I I 1 0 4 0 ) , 4 th regn al year f o l i o 92 v d im en sio n s: 1 3 * 5 ” x a r t i s t : unknown P la t
e
XV
The f o r t o f Dharur in th e Deccan was one which had proven to be extrem ely d i f f i c u l t to b e s ie g e , as i t was stu rd y and had a stro n g weapon f o r c e .
I t was, a t th a t tim e, under th e command o f S id i
Salim H abshi,
who had managed to put up a v ery tough r e s is t a n c e .
However, through th e e f f o r t s o f A'zam Khan, the commanding o f f i c e r f o r t h i s s ie g e , th e f o r t was f i n a l l y cap tu red and an oth er v ic t o r y was g a in ed f o r th e Mughal crown.
A lthough no p r e c is e rea so n has
been g iv e n f o r th iB a t ta c k , i t i s sim ple enough to se e i t as p a rt o f the lo n g l a s t i n g a ttem p ts to break down th e r e s is t a n c e o f the v a r io u s D eccani a r e a s in o rd er to su b ju gate th e whole r e g io n under a Mughal command.
The p a in tin g was ex ecu ted in sombre e a r th to n e s ,
w ith v er y l i t t l e u se o f g o ld s . s a id to have been d u l l .
In g e n e r a l, th e p a le t t e can be
T his g iv e s an e f f e c t o f a gloomy and
heavy atm osphere which a cco rd s w e ll w ith th e n a tu re o f th e e v e n t. In s p i t e o f t h i s , b a ttle scen e,
one d oes n o t g e t a t o t a l im pact o f a f i e r c e
f o r n o t o n ly i s th e a c tio n lim it e d , but what l i t t l e
th e re i s , i s q u it e s t a t i c .
Furtherm ore, th e ev en t i s taken from a
d is t a n t and h ig h p o in t o f v ie w , and t h i s o n ly s e r v e s t o remove th e v iew er away from th e s c e n e .
The f o r t r e s s o f Dharur l i e s in th e top
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
195
l e f t c o m e r , and around i t i s a p a r t o f th e Mughal tr o o p s .
In th e
m id d le ground l i e th e b o d ie s o f some o f th e van q u ish ed f o e s , and coming i n on th e r i g h t co rn er a re th e commanders o f t h e Mughal army. A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h Nama ( E l l i o t a n d D ow son, p .
2 1 -22)
'Azam K h a n , h a v i n g a s c e n d e d t h e p a s s o f A n j a n - d u d h e n c a m p e d t h r e e k o s from D h a ru r. He t h e n d i r e c t e d M u l t a f i t K han a n d o t h e r s t o m ake a n a t t a c k u p o n t h e to w n o f D h a r u r a n d i t s p e t t a , w here o n c e a w eek p e o p l e fro m a l l p a r t s , f a r and n e a r , w ere a c c o u sto m e d t o m eet f o r b u y in g and s e l l i n g . The f o r t o f D h a r u r w as c e l e b r a t e d t h r o u g n o u t t h e D a k h in f o r i t s s t r e n g t h and m u n itio n s o f w ar. I t w as b u i l t u p o n t h e t o p o f a r i d g e , a n d d e e p r i v e r s o f d i f f i c u l t p a s s a g e r a n o n two s i d e s of i t . I t w as s o s e c u r e t h a t a n y e f f o r t u p o n i t b y t h e r o y a l a rm y w as l i k e l y t o p r o v e u n s u c e s s f u l ; so M a r h a m a t Khan was d i r e c t e d t o p l u n d e r t h e to w n a n d p e t t a , b u t n o t t o m ake a n y a t t e m p t u p o n t h e f o r t r e s s . . . T h e g a r r i s o n b eca m e d i s h e a r t e n e d , a n d r e m i s s i n t h e i r d u t y . . . O n t h e 2 3 r d J u m a d a - s s a n i M a rh a m a t K han m ade h i s way i n w i t h a p a r t y o f m e n , a n d o p e n e d t h e w i c k e t . 'Azam K nan t h e n e n t e r e d w i t h a l l h i s o f f i c e r s , a n d n e a r l y two t h o u s a n d men s c a l e d t h e w a l l s a n d g o t i n t o t h e f o r t . A ll th e v a s t m u n i t i o n s , t h e j e w e l s e t c . becam e s p o i l s o f w a r . •
U n p u b lish e d
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196
14
D e a t h o f Khan J a h a n I.nHt d a te o f ev en t:
3 F e b r u a r y 1 6 30 (1 R a j a b 1 0 4 0 ) ,
4th re g n a l y e a r
f o l i o 94v d im e n sio n s: 1 3 " x 8 . 5 5 ” a rtist:
A b id
s i g n a t u r e : b o tto m m id d le i n g r a s s
P l a t e XVI Khan J a h a n L o d i was a p o w e r f u l n o b l e o f A f g h a n d e s c e n t who h a d Deen g iv e n im p o rta n t m i l i t a r y c h a rg e s , D eccan.
i n c l u d i n g a command o f t h e
B ut b e in g g r e e d y f o r pow er he a l l i e d h i m s e l f ,
b e g in n in g o f Shah J a h a n 's r e i g n ,
w ith t h e en e m ie s o f th e t h r o n e .
T h e s e e n e m i e s w e r e t h e N izam S h a h i r u l e r s t h e r w i t h Khan J a h a n L o d i ,
a t th e
o f A hm adnagar,
5
and to g e
th e y c r e a te d r e b e l l i o n in th e s o u th .
If
s u c c e s s f u l th e y c o u ld h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a u n io n b etw een th e s o u th e r n k in g d o m s a n d u l t i m a t e l y w o u ld h a v e b e e n a b l e t o t h r o w o f f M ughal co n tro l.
It
t o o k t h e M u g h a l arm y o v e r tw o y e a r s t o f i n a l l y
up to and su b ju g a te th e r e b e l .
c atc h
T he u l t i m a t e o u tc o m e was t h a t t h e
M u g h a ls e x e r t e d e v e n s t r o n g e r p r e s s u r e i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r tn e D e c c a n .^ to h is f a ilu r e
Khan J a h a n ' s d e f e a t h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d
to p ro p e rly e s tim a te th e l o y a l t i e s
o f t h e R a j p u t c h i e f t a i n s f o r t h e M u g h als.
of th e m a jo rity
He t h u s e n c o u n t e r e d
many h o s t i l e r e c e p t i o n s when h e w as f l e e i n g f r o m t h e i m p e r i a l a rm ies.
When t h e M u g h al arm y f i n a l l y c a u g h t up w i t h h im , h e a n d
h i s f o l l o w e r s w ere s l a u g h t e r e d an d b e h e a d e d , h e a d s w ere s e n t to t h e c o u r t . i n g i s uncom m only c a l m .
ana t h e i r se v e re d
F or su ch a gruesom e e v e n t ,t h e p a i n t
The s o l d i e r s i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d v ie w t h e
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197
sc e n e w itn g r e a t n o n c h a le n c e , and a f a n t a s y - l i k e atm o sp h ere i s p ro d u ced th ro u g h th e p e c u l i a r c o m b in a tio n o f sh a d e s of g reen * c o m p o sitio n i s
b a sic a lly
a tria n g le
w h o se s l o p e s a r e f o r m e d b y t h e
s p e a r s o f t h e tw o o f f i c e r s n e x t t o t h e h o r s e s , apex w ith th e t r e e . w h ic h i s
and th e y form an
A ll th e a c tio n ta k e s p la c e w ith in t h i s t r i a n g l e
b r o u g h t c l o s e r t o t h e v i e w e r by i t s
o f th e page,
The
and a ls o by i t s
p o s i t i o n a t t h e b o tto m
d a rk e r c o l o r a t i o n a s opposed to
l i g h t e r shades in th e upper p o r tio n s .
th e
I n th e tr i a n g le th e s o ld ie r s
and o f f i c e r s a r e d e c a p ita tin g and b ra n d is h in g th e heads of th e en em y .
T he s c e n e i s
b e i n g o b s e r v e d b y a r o w o f s o l d i e r s who l i n e
th e to p edge o f th e p a g e . tria n g le
As t h e y a r e o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e
t h e y do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e a c t i o n ,
A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h flama ( E l l i o t a n d D owson, p .
th e y o n ly w a tc h .
22-24)
T he u n h a p p y Khan J a h a n . . . h a v i n g n o h o p e e x c e p t i n e v a s i o n , f l e d a n d s o u g h t o b s c u r i t y ; b u t t n e r o y a l f o r c e s p u r s u e d h im c l o s e l y . . . B y g r e a t e x e r t i o n h e t r a v e l l e d tw en ty x o s t h a t d ay , and r e a c h e d t h e b o r d e r s o f S a h e n d a w h e r e h e w as t o e n d h i s m o r t a l life . A b d u l l a K han B a h a d u r a n d S a i y i d M a z a f f a r K han p u r s u e d h im c l o s e l y w i t h t h e i r f o r c e s i n a r r a y . K han J a h a n w as much a f f l i c t e d a t th e l o s s o f h i s sons and f a i t h f u l f o llo w e r s . A ll h o p e o f e s c a p e w as c u t o f f ; s o h e t o l d h i s f o l l o w e r s t h a t h e w as w e a r y o f l i f e , t h a t h e h a d r e a c n e d t h e e n d o f h i s c a r e e r , a n d t h e r e w as n o l o n g e r a n y m e a n s o f d e l i v e r a n c e f o r h i m ; h e d e s i r e d t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e v e r y man s h o u l d m ake o f f a s b e s t a s he co u ld . A f e w d e t e r m i n e d t o s t a n d by h im t o t h e l a s t , b u t many f l e d . T h e a d v a n c e d , f o r c e s o f t h e r o y a l a rm y u n d e r M andhu S i n g h now came u p . Kham J a h a n w i t h h i s s o n ' A z i z , who w as t h e d e a r e s t o f a l l , a n d A i m a l , a n d t h e A fg h a n is , who r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t , p l a c e d t h e i r tw o r e m a i n i n g e l e p h a n t s i n f r o n t , a n d a d v a n c e d t o m eet M u z a ffa r K han. T h ey m ade t h e i r c h a r g e , aind w hen Khain J a h a n f o u n d t h a t t h e y w e r e d e t e r m i n e d t o t a k e h im , h e a l i g h t e d from h i s h o r s e an d f o u g h t d e s p e r a t e l y . I n th e m i d s t o f t h e s t r u g g l e M adhu S i n g h p i e r c e d h im w i t h a s p e a r ,
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198
a n d b e f o r e M u z a f f a r K han c o u l d come u p t h e b r a v e f e l l o w c u t K han J a h a n , h i s d e a r s o n ' A z i z a n d A im a l t o p i e c e s . A bout a h u n d r e d o f h i s a d h e r e n t s f e l l , a n d t h e i r h e a d s w e re c u t o ff, but a p a rty escaped. A g r a n d s o n o f S a i y i d M u z a f f a r Khan a n d .tw e n ty s e v e n o t h e r r o y a l i s t s w ere s l a i n . The h e a d s o f K han J a h a n , ' A z i z a n d A im a l w e r e s e n t t o t h e I m p e r i a l C o u r t . . . The h e a d s o f t h e r e b e l s w e r e p l a c e d o v e r t h e g a t e o f t h e f o r t . P u b lish e d !
W e lc h , S t u a r t C a r y . The A r t o f M u g h a l I n d i a P a i n t i n g and P re c io u s O b je c ts . New Y o r k ; The A s i a S o c i e t y I n c . , 19b% F ig u re 4 .
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15
A u d i e n c e o f t h e P e r s i a n A m b a s s a d o r Muhammad A l i Beg a t ■burhan-pur d a te of e v en t: fo lio
26 M a rc h 1 6 3 0 ( 2 2 S h a b a n 1 0 4 0 ) ,
4th
reg n al y e a r
98v
d i m e n s i o n s : 1 2 . 7 5 " x Q»75" a rtis t:
unknovm
P l a t e XVII T he a r r i v a l o f Muhammad A l i B eg c o i n c i d e d w i t h t n e f e s t i v a l o f t h e N au roz o f t h e y e a r 10 4 0 ( 1 6 3 0 ) .
On t n i s o c c a s io n th e a m b a ssa d o r
d e l i v e r e d a l e t t e r o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s fro m Shah S a f i , k i n g o f P e rsia ,
to shah Ja h a n f o r h i s a c c e s io n to
tn e th ro n e ,
an d a few
d a y s l a t e r h e p r e s e n t e d t h e M ughal em p e ro r w ith an a r r a y o f p r e s e n t s from t h e Shah v a l u e d a t t h r e e l a k h s o f r u p e e s . p la c e a t B urhanpur i n
t h e D e c c a n w h e re S h a h J a h a n h a d g o n e t o
s u p p r e s s t h e r e b e l l i o n o f K han J a h a n L o d i . w e lc o m e d i n t o
T he m e e t i n g t o o k
7
Muhammad A l i Beg was
t h e tow n b y A s a f K han a n d S a d i q Khan who t h e n
D r o u g h t him i n t o a u d i e n c e w i t h S h a n J a h a n .
T h e r e was a n e x c h a n g e o f
g ifts
b etw een Shan J a h a n and tn e P e r s i a n a m b a ssa d o r,
trie d
t o o u td o t h e o th e r i n l a v i s h n e s s and v a l u e .
and each p a rty
The a u d ie n c e
ta k e s p la c e u n d e r an oran g e t e n t i n f r o n t o f a p i l l a r e d a u d ie n c e h a ll.
Snah Ja n a n i s
s e a t e d on a c e n t r a l l y p l a c e d g o l d t h r o n e ,
w ith f i v e g u ard s to th e r i g h t and c o u r ti e r s
to th e l e f t .
A l i Beg s a l u t e s t h e e m p e r o r f r o m o u t s i d e t h e g a t e . lin e
th e b o tto m edge o f th e p a i n t i n g .
cro w d ed w ith a l l t h e f i g u r e s
Mnhammad
G ift b eare rs
The c o m p o s itio n i s v e r y
s ta n d in g v e ry c lo s e to each o th e r .
T he g r e a t r a n g e o f c o l o r s a l s o h e l p t o c r e a t e a c r o w d e d f e e l i n g ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
200
A c c o u n t i n M u lak h k h as ( B e g le y p . 87) The f e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u r o z t h i s y e a r f e l l on F r i d a y , t h e 7 t h o f S h a ' b a n 10 4 0 AH, a n d t h e n e x t d a y , t h e a m b a s s a d o r Muhammad A Li B e g , a f t e r b e i n g u s h e r e d i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e , d e l i v e r e d a l e t t e r from Shah S a f i th e r u l e r o f I r a n , f u l l o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s on H is M a j e s t y 's a c c e s io n to th e t n r o n e ; and r e c e i v e d in r e t u r n a g o ld e m b ro id ered ro b e of h o n o u r, and a Q iz a lb a s h i t i a r a and tu r b a n o rn am e n t s tu d d e d w ith g e m s ...O n th e 22nd o f t h i s m o n t h , Muhammad A l i B e g , b r o u g h t f o r w a r d t h e S h a h ' s c h o i c e p r e s e n t s v a l u e d a t t h r e e l a k h s o f r u p e e s , a n d tw o o r t h r e e d a y s a f t e r w a r d s , h i s own o f f e r i n g a m o u n t i n g t o 6 0 , 0 0 0 ru p ees.
U npublished
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201
16
The S ie g e o f Qandahar d a te o f ev en ts May 16 31 (Shawwal 1 0 4 0 ), 4 "th r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 102 v d im e n sio n s*
13 *4 U x 9 » 7 ”
a r t i s t s Payag
s ig n a tu r e s bottom r ig h t corn er on s h ie ld
P l a t e XVIII The d i r e c t i v e b eh in d th e ca p tu re o f Qandahar was p a rt o f th e n ev er en d in g s tr u g g le a g a in s t th e kingdoms o f th e D eccan.
The f o r t was
th e n under th e p r o t e c tio n o f S ad iq , s o n - in -la w o f Yaqut Khudawind.
g
N a s ir i Khan was put i n ch arge o f t h i s o p e r a tio n , and he cap tu red t h e town and d e fe a te d t h e tro o p s o u t s id e th e f o r t w ith o u t to o much d iffic u lty .
A’ zam Khan was sen t to a s s i s t N a s ir i Khan i n b e s ie g in g
th e f o r t , and th ey bombarded one w a ll w ith two m in es.
Once th e
w a ll was p a r t i a l l y d e s tr o y e d , th e Mughal tr o o p s rushed forw ard in th e hope o f g a in in g an en tra n ce to th e f o r t .
However, th ey were
h e ld o f f by heavy f i r e from th e g a r r is o n w it h in , and so co n tin u ed t h e i r a tta c k from the tr e n c h e s .
When th e t i d e o f th e b a t t l e was
h e a v ily i n fa v o r o f th e Mughal army, th e g a r r is o n t r i e d to n e g o t ia t e p ea ce through R aja Bharat B undela, who was in a tren ch o p p o s it e th e gatew ay.
A tr u c e was f i n a l l y rea ch ed , and so ended
th e s ie g e a f t e r a p e r io d o f fo u r and a h a lf m onths.
The p a in tin g
r e p r e s e n ts th e d y n a m itin g o f th e f o r t , which sta n d s in th e top l e f t co rn er, and has a v e r y sombre and a u s te r e p r e s e n ta t io n which i s i n k e e p in g w ith th e mood o f th e e v e n t.
The dominant c o lo r
scheme i s dark, w ith an em phasis on g r a y is h brown t o n e s .
The
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
202
o n ly a r e a s o f b r ig h t e r c o lo r s can befound a t th e bottom r ig h t c o m e r where th e costu m es and stan d ard s o f N a s ir i Khan and h is army sta n d o u t a g a in s t t h i s darkened background.
As th e f o r t
b u m s , th e Mughal army, which i s p o s it io n e d i n rows on th e r ig h t s id e o f th e p a in t in g , su rv ey s th e scen e from t h e i r tr e n c h e s which are a t v a r y in g d is t a n c e s from th e f o r t .
A cco u n t i n M u lak h k h as ( B e g l e y , p .
93-94)
N a s i r i K han p r o s e c u t e d t h e s e i g e w i t h r e d o u b l e d a r d o u r ; a n d o u t o f tw e n ty one m in es i n a l l t h a t h e had c o m p le te d , he c h a rg e d t h r e e w i t h g u n p o w d e r a n d h e l d t h r e e o t h e r s i n r e s e r v e w h ic h h e c o u ld c h a rg e and ex p lo d e a t p l e a s u r e . A t t h i s t i m e , a s A 'z a m K han h a d m a r c h e d t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e a n d a r r i v e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y a t Q a n d a h a r , N a s i r i K han b r o u g h t h im i n t o h i s own t r e n c h e s t o v ie w t h e s p e c t a c l e o f th e d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f o r t and t h e a s s a u l t of th e g a l la n t tr o o p s . The m i n e s w e r e a c c o r d i n g l y c h a r g e d a n d s p r u n g i n h i s p r e s e n c e , one o f w h ic h f a i l e d t o i g n i t e , b u t t h e o t h e r tw o e x p l o d e d a n d d e m o l i s h e d t h e w a l l o f t h e S h e r h a j i d e fe n c e s and h a l f a l a r g e b a s t i o n , th u s b lo w in g a l l th e u n f o r tu n a te b y sta n d e rs i n t o th e a i r . N a s i r i K han w i t h h i s c o m a r d e s th e n r u s h e d fo rw a r d on f o o t t o f o r c e an e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e f o r t ; a n d fro m m id d ay t o s u n s e t , t h e f i g h t r a g e d f u r i o u s l y on b o th sid e s. As t h e e x p l o s i o n h a d n o t d e s t r o y e d t h e w a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y , a n d t h e g a r r i s o n k e p t u p a t r e m e n d o u s f i r e , h e w as f o i l e d i n h i s a t t e m p t t o e n t e r ; n e v e r t h e l e s s h e a f f e c t e d a l o d g e m e n t on t h e b r e a c h , a n d d u r i n g t h e n i g h t com m enced d r i v i n g o t h e r m i n e s . T h e g a r r i s o n now s e n s e d c l e a r l y t h a t t h e y m u s t s o o n b e o v e r p o w e r e d ; a n d s i n c e t h e t r e n c h o p p o s i t e t h e g a t e w a y , w h i c h w as u n d e r R a j a B u n d e l a 's d i r e c t i o n , was w i t h i n s p e a k in g d i s t a n c e , t h e y s u e d f o r q u a r t e r t h r o u g h h im . N a s i r i K han c o n s e n t e d a n d s e n t th e R a ja w ith th e r e q u i s i t e p ard o n t o th e g atew a y . W h ere upon th e g o v e rn o r and sev en o t h e r s o f t h e g a r r i s o n h a d an i n t e r v i e w w i t h h im a n d o p e n e d t h e g a t e .
U npublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
203
17
A r r iv a l o f th e P o rtu g u ese w ith T rib u te O ffe r in g s d a te o f e v e n t: June-Septem ber 1632 ( Z ' i l H ij j a 1041-R abi I 1042) 5 th r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 116v dim en sion s* 13*5" x 9 *9 " a r t i s t : unknown P la t e XIX
This p a r t ic u la r i n c i d e n t , which i s con n ected w ith th e f o llo w in g on e, grew o u t o f th e f a c t t h a t th e P ortu gu ese had g a in e d to o g r e a t a c o n tr o l o v e r th e v i c i n i t y o f H u gh li, an e s tu a r y i n B engal from where th ey e s t a b lis h e d t h e i r tr a d in g c e n t e r .
That th ey had a b ase
was n o t th e ca u se o f th e problem , but what became ann oying t o Shah Jahan was t h e f a c t th a t th ey had managed t o e x e r t a s u b s t a n t ia l amount o f in flu e n c e o v e r th e n e ig h b o r in g towns and v i l l a g e s .
T his
in c lu d e d c o n v e r tin g th e in h a b it a n t s to C h r is t ia n it y and u s in g them as g a l l e y w orkers on t h e i r s h ip s .
In Sha'ban 1041 (March 1 6 3 1 ) ,
Qasim Khan, th en th e governor o f B en gal, se n t h i s son 'In a y a t A lla h , th e commander A li Yar Khan, and s e v e r a l o th e r n o b le s to ca p tu re th e f o r t o f H u g h li,
Bahadur Kambu was a ls o d isp a tc h e d under th e p r e t e x t
o f a n o th er m is s io n , but i n r e a l i t y he was to team up w ith th e o th e r s a t th e p rop er tim e .
9
I t was th e d u ty o f A lla h Yar Khan to b lo ck
th e e s tu a r y so as to p r ev e n t th e P o rtu g u ese fr a n e s c a p in g when th ey bacame aware o f th e imm inent a t t a c k .
The f i r s t a s s a u l t came on th e
2nd Z ' i l H ijj a 1041 (2 0 th June 1 6 3 2 ) , and th e s ie g e l a s t e d th r e e
and a h a l f m onths.
D uring t h i s tim e , th e P o rtu g u ese made
s e v e r a l a ttem p ts a t d is c u s s in g p eace s e t t le m e n t s , and even o f f e r e d
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204
trib u te
a s a m eans o f n e g o t i a t i o n s .
H ow ever t h i s n e v e r p r o v e d t o
be s u c c e s s f u l f o r t h e y w ere l a u n c h i n g a t t a c K s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . is
It
t h i s p e a c e o f f e r i n g o f n e a r l y one la k h o f ru p e e s t h a t i s r e p r e
se n te d in t h i s
p a in tin g .
The s c e n e i s
a d a r b a r h e l d a t A gra, and
i s p r e s i d e d o v e r b y S h a h J a h a n who s i t s p o s itio n .
He i s
th e c o u rt.
a t t e n d e d , t o by h i s s o n s a n d v a r i o u s n o b l e s o f
The P o r t u g u e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
and th e y h o ld o f f e r i n g s o rg a n iz a tio n i s c o u rt sty le *
in a c e n tr a lly e le v a te d
s ta n d o u ts id e th e g a te
o f je w e ls and o th e r p re c io u s ite m s .
sy m m e tric a l and a u s t e r e ,
The c o l o r s a r e m a in ly p a s t e l
The
t y p i c a l o f t h e Shah J a h a n i shades th a t
ag a in st a r ic h red
c a r p e t and w h ite m a rb le w a l l s .
A ccount i n Padshah
Hama ( E l l i o t a n d
Dowson, p .
are o ffs e t
36“ 3 7 )
The r o y a l arm y w as e n g a g e d f o r t h r e e m o n t h s a n d a h a l f i n t h e se ig e of t h i s s tro n g p la c e . S o m e tim e s t h e i n f i d e l s f o u g h t , s o m e t i m e s t h e y m ade o v e r t u r e s o f p e a c e p r o t r a c t i n g t h e t i m e i n h o p es o f s u c c o r from t h e i r co u n try m en . W ith b a s e t r e a c h e r y t h e y p r e t e n d e d t o m ake p r o p o s a l s o f p e a c e , a n d s e n t n e a r l y a l a c o f r u p e e s a s t r i b u t e w h i l e a t t n e sam e t i m e t h e y o r d e r e d 7 , 0 0 0 m u s k e t e e r s who w e r e i n t h e i r s e r v i c e t o o p e n f i r e .
U npublished
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205
18
Capture o f th e P o r tu g u ese F ort a t Hughji i d a te o f e v e n t: 10 O ctober 1632 (1 4 Rabi I 1 0 4 2 ), 5 th r e g n a l y e a r f o lio 117r d im en sio n s: 1 3 *5 " x 9 * 8 ” a r t i s t : unknown P la te XX
The s c e n e d e p i c t e d h e r e i s
a f o llo w up to
th e p r e c e d in g o n e , and
r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n c i d e n t w h ic h b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e f i n a l d e f e a t o f th e P o rtu g u e se .
E x p lo s iv e m in e s w ere p l a n t e d i n c h a n n e ls a lo n g th e
c h u r c h w a l l a t H u g h l i » a n d o n t h e 1 4 t h R a b i I 1042 ( 1 0 t h O c t o b e r 1 6 3 2 ) t h e M u g h a l arm y d r e w t h e
opened heavy f i r e ,
enemy t o t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c h u r c h ,
and s e t o f f th e m in es.
w e r e d ro w n e d a n d t h o s e who t r i e d o ff.
At t n i s p o in t o f th e b a t t l e
d e f e a t w as i m m i n e n t , p r e f e r e d t o
Many o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e
t o e s c a p e to t h e i r s h i p s w ere c u t th e P o rtu g u e se , r e a l i z i n g
th e ir
s a b o t a g e t h e i r own s h i p s a n d
c o m m it s u i c i d e r a t h e r t h a n f a l l p r i s o n e r t o t h e M u g h a l s .
In th e
p a i n t i n g one s e e s th e e x p lo s io n a t th e f r o n t o f t h e c h u rc h ,
th e
a s s a u l t l a u n c h e d by t h e M u g h a l a r m y , a n d t h e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a n d a t t e m p t s t o f l e e by t h e P o r t u g u e s e .
The p a i n t i n g b r i n g s o u t t h e
t u r b u l e n t a c t i v i t y o f t h e b a t t l e w h ic h i s h i g h l i g h t e d by th e c o lu m n o f d a r k b l a c k sm oke r i s i n g f r o m t h e e x p l o s i o n i n t h e b a c k gro u n d .
The M u g h a l a rm y i s p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e l e f t e d g e a n d
b o tto m o f th e p a i n t i n g , r i g h t edge.
w h ile th e P o rtu g u e s e a r e a lo n g th e c e n t e r
T h e s e two cam p s a r e d i v i d e d by a s t r i p
o f gray b lu e
w a t e r w h ic h r u n s d i a g o n a l l y fro m r i g h t to l e f t a c r o s s t h e p a i n t i n g .
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206
A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h Mama ( E l l i o t a n d D owson, p . 5 7 ) By t n e c h u r c h . . . t h e y d u g c h a n n e l s a n d d r e w o f f t h e w a t e r . M in e s w e r e t h e n d r i v e n o n f r o m t h e t r e n c h e s , b u t tw o o f t h e s e w e r e d i s c o v e r e d b y t h e enem y a n d c o u n t e r a c t e d . The c e n t e r m i n e w as c a r r i e d u n d e r a n e d i f i c e w h i c h w as l o f t i e r a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n a l l t h e o t h e r b u i l d i n g s , an d w here a l a r g e num ber o f F i r i n g i s . w ere s t a t i o n e d . T h i s w as c h a r g e d a n d t a m p e d . On t h e 1 4 t h R a b i - u l awwal t h e b e s e i g e r ' s f o r c e s w e r e d r a w n u p i n f r o n t o f t h i s b u i l d i n g , i n o r d e r t o a l l u r e t h e enem y t o t h a t p a r t . When a l a r g e n u m b e r w e r e a s s e m b l e d , a h e a v y f i r e w as o p e n e d , a n d t h e m in e w as f i r e d . The b u i l d i n g w a s b lo w n u p , a n d t h e m any i n f i d e l s who h a d c o l l e c t e d a r o u n d i t w e r e s e n t f l y i n g in t o th e a i r . The w a r r i o r s o f I s l a m r u s h e d t o t h e a s s a u l t . Some o f t h e i n f i d e l s f o u n d t h e i r way t o h e l l b y t h e w a t e r , b u t some t h o u s a n d s s u c c e e d e d i n m a k i n g t h e i r way t o t h e s h i p s . At t h i s j u n c t u r e K h w a ja S h e r came u p w i t h t h e b o a t s and k i l l e d m any o f t h e f u g i t i v e s . T h e se f o e s o f t h e f a i t h w ere a f r a i d l e s t o n e l a r g e s h i p , w h i c h h a d n e a r l y tw o t h o u s a n d men a n d women a n d m uch p r o p e r t y on b o a r d , s h o u l d f a l l i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e M uhamm adans; s o t h e y f i r e d t h e m a g a z i n e a n d b le w h e r up. Many o t h e r s who w e r e on b o a r d t h e g h a r b s s e t f i r e t o t h e i r v e s s e l s , and tu r n e d t h e i r f a c e s to w a rd s h e l l . P u b lish e d :
A sh to n , S i r L e ig h , ed . T he A r t o f I n d i a London: F a b e r & F aber L t d ., 1950- P l a t e
and P a k is ta n . 158
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
207
19-20
D e liv ery o f th e Sachaq to the House o f the Widow o f the L ate Prince Parwiz, Jahan Banu Begum. Mother o f the D-ridpto -b e o f Para Shikoh d ate of event* November*-December 1632 (Jumada I 1042 ) , 5 th re g n a l y ear fo lio
120v
d i m e n s i o n s * 1 3 » 6 rt x 9 » 7 " a rtist*
unknow n
P l a t e XXI
T h is p a i n tin g and i t s
fa c in g page, f o lio
a lo n g s e r i e s o f p r e p a r to r y r i t e s mony o f a p r i n c e . th e m a rria g e , in -la w s.
I2 1 r,
d e p ic t th e f i r s t
t h a t p r e c e e d e d t h e w ed d in g c e r e
A f t e r t h e b e t r o t h a l a n d a b o u t tw o m o n t h s b e f o r e
g i f t s w ere ta k e n to th e h o u s e o f th e p r i n c e ' s f u t u r e
H ere i t
was t h e widow o f t h e l a t e p r i n c e P a r w i z , J a h a n
B an u Begum, m o t h e r o f D a r a s h i k o h ' s f u t u r e b r i d e .
These g i f t s
a r e c a l l e d t h e s a c h a q ,' an d c o n s i s t e d o f m oney, j e w e l l r y , and o th e r v a lu a b le s .
c lo th in g
A t o t a l o f tw o l a k h s o f r u p e e s w e r e s p e n t
f o r D ara S h i k o h 's s a c h a q ; one l a k h b e in g c a s h , je w e llry ,
of
and h a l f a la k h of o th e r goods.
lo n g p ro c e s s io n of g i f t b e a re rs ,
h a l f a la k h b ein g
T h e p a i n t i n g sho w s t h e
s e r v a n ts and m u s ic ia n s e s c o r tin g
t h e n o b l e s who w e r e t o d e l i v e r t h e s a c h a q i n D a r a S h i k o h ' s n a m e . T here i s
a se n se o f g r e a t s t a t e l i n e s s and m a je s ty in th e p ro c e s s io n
w h i c h m o v e s f r o m r i g h t t o l e f t a n d o c c u p i e s a l m o s t t h e w h o le l e n g t h o f th e p a in tin g .
The g r o u n d i s
a r a t h e r m u ted g r a y i s h b lu e and
u p o n t h i s a r e im p o s e d a m u l t i t u d e o f c o l o r s w h i c h a r e t h e c o s t u m e s , g i f t s and a c c o u tre m e n ts i n
th e p r o c e s s io n .
The f o u r p r i n c i p a l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
208
n o b les are in the c e n te r , kept a sm all d is ta n c e away from the r e s t o f the crowd, so as to make them more prominent* Unpubli shed f o l i o 121r dim ension s s 13*4 M x 9»7" a r t i s t : unknown P la t e XXII T his p a in tin g con tin u es the p r o c e ssio n from th e p reviou s page, and i t i s stru ctu red alon g th e same l i n e s , th a t i s , w ith th r ee columns o f people moving frcm r ig h t to l e f t th a t f i l l alm ost the e n tir e le n g th o f th e page.
The r ig h t edge column c o n s is t s o f serv a n ts
carryin g branches o f flo w e r s , w h ile in the m iddle i s a l i n e o f elep h a n ts upon which s i t th e fem ale r e l a t iv e s o f Para Shikoh.
It
was customary fo r the fem ale r e l a t i v e s to be p art o f th e c o rteg e th a t brought the sachaq. to the house o f th e fem ale in -la w s .
On
the extreme l e f t , rounding o f f the p r o c e ssio n , i s a band o f m u sicia n s.
As in the p rev io u s page, the atmosphere i s gay and
f e s t i v e , w ith the same gray b lu e ground animated by a m u ltitu d e o f c o lo r s . Unpublished Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , p . 128) A ccordingly, in a chosen moment o f the month o f Jumada I o f the p receed in g regnal y e a r , one lakh worth o f goods and another in cash had been sen t to the mansion o f Jahan Banu Begum, the widow o f P rince Parwiz, by way o f th e customary sachaq g i f t s to th e b rid e; and one h a lf o f th e goods c o n s is te d o f j e w e llr y , and the remainder o f other v a lu a b le s and d r e s s e s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
209
21 - 22
E sco rtin g Dara Shikoh to Hia Wedding Ceremony date o f events 12 February 1633 (2 Shaban 1042), 6 th regn al year f o l i o 122v dim ensions: 13 «9 " x 9«9" a r t i s t s Murad
sig n a tu re s r ig h t o f c e n tr a l fig u r e
P la te XXIII On th e day o f the m arriage — the c e le b r a tio n s o f the r i t e s took p la ce a t n ig h t — Dara S h ik oh 's b roth ers and a few o f the h ig h e s t ranking n o b les went to h i s house to f e t c h and e s c o r t him to th e p u b lic audience h a ll f o r h is m arriage ceremony.
T his event i s
c a lle d th e shabgasht, th e n octurnal p rocession .^ ®
In t h i s s e t o f
p a in tin g s , one se e s the b roth ers and the n o b les a r r iv in g a t Dara S h ikoh 's h ou se.
The guard o f honor i s mounted on horseback and i s
made up o f e le v e n p e o p le .
They are d ressed in f i n e c lo th in g o f a
v a s t array o f c o lo r s , and advance in a .s e m i- c ir c le th a t occu p ies th e c e n te r to th e bottom r ig h t s id e o f the p a in tin g .
In fr o n t o f
them are the se r v a n ts who lead, the way w ith lig h t e d to r c h e s, w h ile in the background another servan t i s s c a tt e r in g r ic e on the ground, a symbol o f good lu c k .
The p a in tin g i s composed o f th ree stro n g
h o r iz o n ta ls : th e back w a ll, and th e two l i n e s th a t are th e guard o f honor.
T his i s complemented by a v e r t i c a l which i s made up of
th e fig u r e s on th e l e f t edge o f the p a in tin g .
A composed and
balanced str u c tu r e i s ach ieved which enhances th e aura o f m ajesty. Unpublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
210
f o l i o 123 r
dim ensions: 13 * 5 " x 10 " a x t i s t : unknown P la te XXIV The p ro cessio n o f the preceding page i s continued on t h i s one. From the courtyard th e p r o c e ssio n i s e n ter in g the house.
I»ike the
previou s scen e, th e p ro cessio n moves p a r a lle l to the p alace w a lls in the background, but the arrangement here i s more crowded and l e s s m a je s tic .
M usicians and standard b earers le a d th e way, on th e
l e f t sid e o f the com p osition , and they are fo llo w ed by other serv a n ts who are ca rry in g the n ecessary item s fo r the use o f the groom b efore the a c tu a l ceremony. c o lo r in g s fo r the e y es, b e t e l
Included among th e se are
nut and flo w e r s , a l l o f which are
d e c o ra tiv e or used to ward o f f e v i l .
The com position i s very
c lo s e ly packed w ith people and o b je c ts .
They are p ain ted in a
m u ltitu d e o f c o lo r s and th e r e fo r e stand out ga y ly a g a in st the predominant darkness o f th e elep h an ts and th e n ig h t sky. Unpublished Account in Mulakhkhas (B e g le y , pp. 129-130) In conform ity to the ever obeyed mandate, the P rince Muhammad Shah Shuja, Muhammad Aurangzeb, and Murad Bakhsh, attended by Yamin a l-D au la Asaf Khan and a l l the grandees o f high rank, proceeded to His Royal Highness* mansion. And in the e a r ly p art o f the n ig h t, having formed a gorgeous p r o c e ssio n , in which some o f the n o b les were on horseback and o th e r s on fo o t according to the h eir-ap p aren t w ith g r e a t pomp and m agnificence in to the p u b lic assem bly in the F o r ty -P illa r e d H all (C h ih il Sutun) and in trod u ced him in to the august p resen ce.
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211
23 - 24
P resen ta tio n o f Wedding G ifts to Para Shikoh by Shah
Jahan
date of even t: 12 February 1633 (2 Shaban 1042), 6th regn al year f o l i o 124v dim ensions: 16 " x 9 »9 " a r t i s t : unknown P la te XXV A f te r b ein g e s c o r te d to th e p u b lic a u d ien ce h a l l ,
D a r a S h i k o h was
p r e s e n t e d t o S h a h J a h a n who c o n f e r r e d u p o n h im a n u m b e r o f e l a b o ra te g ifts . and j e w e l l r y ,
Among t h e s e w e re r o b e s a n d w e a p o n s o f h o n o r , and i n t o t a l
e le p h a n ts,
t h e y a m o u n te d t o f o u r l a k h s o f r u p e e s .
The p a i n t i n g sh o w s S h ah J a h a n p l a c i n g a p e a r l v e i l u p o n h i s
son.
A f a c i a l v e i l w as p a r t o f t n e w e d d in g c o s t u m e w o rn by t n e groom as a safeguard a g a in st e v il fo rc e s . b e f o r e th e a c t u a l m a rria g e s e r v ic e , absence of th e b r i d e .
11
B e s t o w i n g t h e p r e s e n t s came
an a t h i s a c c o u n ts f o r th e
T h e c e r e m o n y w as h e l d i n t h e c o u r t y a r d o f
th e p u b l i c a u d ie n c e n a i l a t A gra,
and as i t
to o k p la c e i n th e
e v e n in g , la m p s w ere p l a c e d a ro u n d t h e g a r d e n s , an d on t h e b o a t s l i n i n g
tn e
u n d er th e b a lc o n y ,
b a n k s o f t h e r i v e r Jum m na.
d a n c in g an d f i r e w o r k s w ere t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
12
M u sic,
e n te rta in m e n t f o r th is
p a r t o f th e cerem ony, a n d d a n c in g g i r l s
c a n be s e e n i n t h i s
of th e p a in tin g .
c la d and dance b e n e a th th e
These g i r l s
are g a ily
p o rtio n
a u d i e n c e b a l c o n y w h e r e S h a h J a h a n , h is s o n s a n d t h e c o u r t i e r s sta n d .
I n t h e b a c k g r o u n d f i r e w o r k s l i g h t up t h e n i g h t sk y
r e v e a lin g a vague s i l h o u e t t e background.
of th e w a lls of th e f o r t i n th e
The f a i r l y la r g e d i s t a n c e between th e audience
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
212
■balcony and th e d an cin g g i r l s d iv id e d t h e p a in tin g in t o two d is t in c t s e c tio n s .
T h is e s t a b lis h e d a se p a r a te space i n which
t h e s e two v ery d i f f e r e n t a c t io n s ta k e p la c e .
The o r d e r ly one on
th e to p i s r e in f o r c e d by th e h o r iz o n ta l row o f f i g u r e s , w h ile th e rh yth m ic flo w o f th e d a n cers i s a c h iev ed by t h e i r la c k o f a s tr u c tu r e d p o s i t i o n . U npublished
f o l i o 125 r dim ensions: 15 «7 ” * 10.1" a r t i s t : unknown P la te XXVI This p a in tin g i s a co n tin u a tio n o f the p reced in g page, and d e p ic ts th e firew ork s in th e upper p art o f the p a in tin g .
The firew ork s
a c ts as a background to the audience which stands on th e balcony w it n e s s in g th e sce n e ta k in g p la c e on th e o th e r p age.
Below i n
th e co u rty a rd a la r g e band o f m u sic ia n s p ro v id e th e m u sica l
accompaniment fo r the dancing g i r l s .
In a d d itio n to g i f t s fo r
Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan a ls o bestow ed fa v o rs upon th e o th er n o b les and th e e n te r ta in e r s .
13
The whole wedding ceremony to g e th e r w ith
a l l th e g i f t s p resen ted came to a t o t a l o f th ir ty -tw o la k h s o f r u p e e s .^
As in the preced in g page, the f ig u r e s are d ressed in
b r ig h tly colored costumes which stand out very handsomely a g a in st the dark sky. U npublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
215
A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y ,
p .1 3 0 )
H is M a j e s t y , t h e s h a d o w o f G od, t h e n c o n f e r r e d o n him a s u p e r b r o b e o f h o n o u r, a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w ith i n c i s e d o rn a m e n t; a s w o r d a n d b e l t s t u d d e d w i t h g e m s; a r o s a r y o f p e a r l s , o n w h ic h w e r e a l s o s t r u n g some r u b i e s ; tw o f i n e h o r s e s , o n e c a r r y i n g a j e w e l l e d , t h e o t h e r a n en am ele d s a d d l e ; an d a s p l e n d i d e l e p h a n t c a p a ris o n e d w ith s i l v e r h o u s in g s , t o g e t h e r w ith a fe m a le one — t h e w h o le b e i n g w o r th f o u r l a k h s o f r u p e e s . Gn Yamin a l - D a u l a he b e s t o w e d a h a n d s o m e r o b e o f h o n o u r w i t h v e s t w o r k e d i n g o l d a n d a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w i t h i n c i s e d o r n a m e n t ; a n d on t h e o t h e r c h i e f d i g n i t a r i e s , n o b l e s a n d men o f n o t e , t h e r e w e r e b e s t o w e d c h o ic e d r e s s e s o f h o n o u r a s w e ll a s r o b e s , w ith g r a t u t i e s b e in g p re s e n te d to tn e v a r io u s e n t e r t a i n e r s . By H i s M a j e s t y ' s command, t h e g a r d e n s b e n e a t h t h e r o y a l c h a m b e r s a n a t h e g r o u n d s b elo w t h e a u d i e n c e b a l c o n i e s , a s w e l l a s t h e b o a t s u p o n t h e Jummna, w e r e i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h l a m p s ; a n d f i r e w o r k s , w h i c h h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d a t h i s p r i v a t e e x p e n s e , w e r e d i s p l a y e d on t h e b a n k s o f t h e Jummna a n a s i n g i n g w as k e p t u p w i t n s p i r i t .
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25 - 26
Wedding P ro cessio n o f Shah Shu.ia date o f ev en t: 4 March 1655 (22 Shaban 1042), 6 th regnal year f o l i o 126 v dim ensions: 13 ®6 " x 9 ®7 ” a r t i s t : unknown P la te JflCVII
This double-page p a in tin g r e p r e se n ts the moment when Shah Shuja was esco rted to h is wedding ceremony.
I t i s the same sta g e of the
wedding as th a t o f f o l i o s 122v and 123r.
This h a lf o f the p a in tin g
shows Shah Shuja’ s younger b ro th ers, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh, along w ith a number of n o b le s , e sc o r tin g him to th e audience h a ll where th e r i t e s were to be c e le b r a te d .
The p ro cessio n moves from
the r ig h t to the l e f t in two v e r t i c a l rows.
T h is guard o f honor
i s mounted on horses and occu p ies the c en te r o f the com p osition. Accompanying i t are th e customary array o f m u sician s and servan ts who are carryin g to r c h e s .
The s e t t in g i s in the courtyard o f the
p a la c e where on the w a lls numerous ca n d les are i n s t a l l e d .
The
atmosphere i s gay and f e s t i v e , and the s e t t in g i s very b r ig h tly illu m in a te d .
The f e s t i v i t y i s heightened by th e array o f b rig h t
c o lo red costum es.
Shah Shuja and h is two b ro th ers occupy the
c en te r o f the page, and they make a very n ob le and e le g a n t p ic tu r e . Behind them are two n o b le s and se v er a l se rv a n ts.
A to ta l o f
s ix te e n la k h s o f rupees was spent on t h i s o c c a sio n . 15 Unpublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
215
f o l i o 125 r
dim ensions: 13*55" x 10*7” a r t i s t : unknown P la te XXVIII As the a d jo in in g scene to th e p reced in g page, t h i s p a in tin g shows th e c o n tin u a tio n o f th e p ro c essio n le a d in g towards the audience h a ll.
Here one se e s o n ly serv a n ts and m u sic ia n s.
The bottom and
low er r ig h t edges are lin e d w ith torch b e a r er s, w h ile a t the top and the l e f t o f the bottom edges are th e m u sicia n s.
The m usicians
are mounted on elep h a n ts and h o r se s, and p la y drums and trum pets. In th e m iddle ground are fo u r t standard b earers on elep h a n ts who le a d th e e n tir e p r o c e ssio n .
While t h i s scene i s l e s s b r ig h tly
illu m in a te d than the preceding one, i t i s much more a c tiv e and one g e ts the im pression o f a very n o isy environment.
The c o lo r s
used are a lso very gay and b r ig h t, which h eig h ten s t h i s f e s t i v e atmosphere. Unpublished Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , p. 132) At the c lo s e o f th e day, H is M ajesty took h is s e a t a t the balcony (jharoka) o f th e F o r ty -P illa r e d H a ll; and th e P rin ces Muhammad Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh, a lon g w ith Yamin a l Daula and a l l the n o b le s , proceeded a t th e august command to His Eoyal H ig h n ess's r e sid e n c e and conducted him alon g the r iv e r bank in t o th e ro y a l p resen ce. During h i s p rogress t h it h e r , b r ig h t lamps and firew ork s — the most b e a u tifu l th a t can be con ceived — were e x h ib ite d on a l l s id e s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
216
27
Aurangzeb C on fron tin g an Enraged. E lephant
date o f events June 1 633 ( Z ' i l Qada 1042), 6th regn al year f o l i o 134 r dim ensions: 1 5 »9 " x 10 . 4 ” a r tiB t: unknown P la te XXIX The i n c i d e n t r e l a t e d h e r e t e l l s th e n aged f i f t e e n ,
o f t h e o c c a s i o n w here A u ra n g z e b ,
d e m o n s t r a te d u n m a tch ed c o u r a g e i n d e a l i n g w i t h
an en rag ed e le p h a n t*
D u rin g an e le p h a n t f i g h t ,
by Shah J a h a n , A urangzeb and Shah S h u ja ,
w h i c h w as w i t n e s s e d
one o f th e e le p h a n ts
h a p p e n e d t o t u r n upo n A u ran g zeb a n d r u s h e d a t h im . b r a v e ly w ent fo rw a rd to
subdue i t ,
a n d t h o u g h h e w as t h r o w n f r o m
h i s h o r s e , he c o n tin u e d th e ad v an c em en t. a spear a t i t s b ro th e r,
fo reh ead .
The p r i n c e
He s u c c e e d e d a t h u r l i n g
S h u j a who w as n e a r b y t r i e d
b u t w as t h r o w n f r o m h i s h o r s e .
o rd ered th e s e rv a n ts to a s s i s t in th i s
to h e lp h is
At t h i s p o i n t Shah Ja h a n a f f a i r w h i c h w as f i n a l l y
b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l w hen t h e o t h e r e l e p h a n t c h a r g e d a t t h e f i r s t one.
T h ere fo re th e f i r s t
one o f f ,
e l e p h a n t w as o b l i g e d t o f i g h t t h e s e c o n d
a n d l e f t t h e tw o p r i n c e s a l o n e .
T h e m om ent d e p i c t e d h e r e
i s when A u r a n g z e b h a d j u s t p i e r c e d t h e e l e p h a n t ’ s f o r e h e a d w i t h h is
sp ear.
The p r i n c e ,
on h o r s e b a c k ,
and th e e le p h a n t a r e i n
th e
cen ter foreground, and th e open space crea ted j u s t behind then by th e rows o f servan ts alo n g the l e f t and back edges o f the p a in tin g , make th e p air the fo c u s o f the v ie w e r 's a tt e n t io n .
In the back
ground i s a fr e n z ie d a c tio n o f serv a n ts running to and f r o .
They
are p a r t i a ll y masked by th e cloud o f dust r i s i n g from the musket
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
217
sh o ts.
On th e l e f t a re Shah Jahan surrounded by a tte n d a n ts , and
Shah Shuja a l i t t l e lo w er down. r i g h t hand c o rn er .
The o th e r elep h a n t i s in th e top
T h is p a in tin g i s th e o n ly one i n th e m anuscript
done i n a h o r iz o n ta l fo rm a t.
T h is s tr u c t u r e a llo w s f o r a g r e a te r
panoram ic v ie w o f th e w h ole in c id e n t , and l e t s th e a c t i v i t i e s be spaced o u t f a r enough t o a v o id any c o n g e s tio n which may d e tr a c t from th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e a c t io n .
A c c o u n t from M u lak h k h as ( B e g l e y , p . 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 ) I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c o n f l i c t f i n d i n g th e a n im a ls w ere g e t t i n g o u t o f s i g h t , h e (S h a h J a h a n ) f o l l o w e d a f t e r them on h o r s e b a c k , a t t e n d e d by t h e P r i n c e s Muhammad Shah S h u ja and Muhammad A u r a n g z e b , who r o d e up t o t h e l e f t o f t h e e l e p h a n t s t o w i t n e s s th e e x c it in g s c e n e . P r e s e n t l y t h e a n im a ls p a u s e d and d e p a r te d from e a c h o t h e r a l i t t l e , u n t i l a t l e n g t h t h e r e w as a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r v a l b e tw e e n t h e t w o . W hereupon o n e o f th em , s e e i n g h i s a n t a g o n i s t a l o n g way o f f , tu r n e d ro u n d and r u s h e d f i e r c e l y upon P r in c e Muhammad A u r a n g z e b ...T h e l i o n - h e a r t e d y o u t h w it h g r e a t c o u r a g e and i n t r e p i d i t y d ia n o t s t i r from h i s p o s t ; b u t a s s o o n a s t h e e l e p h a n t a p p r o a c h e d h e g a l l o p e d a t i t and r o s e up i n h i s s t i r r u p s and h u r le d h i s s p e a r w it h h i s w h o le s t r e n g t h a g a in s t i t s fo r e h e a d . The m o n s t e r , s m a r t in g from t h e wound, a g a in r u s h e d f u r i o u s l y t o t h e a t t a c k ; a n a t h e s t e e d o f t h a t ••b old k n ig h t o f t h e l i s t s o f v a lo u r '* b e in g s t r u c k i n t h e f l a n k s by t h e e l e p h a n t ’ s t r u n k r o l l e d o v e r from t h e v i o l e n c e o f th e s h o c k . The i n s t a n t t h e P r i n c e f e l l from h i s s a d d le t o t h e g r o u n d , h e s p r a n g n im b ly u p , and s t o o d sw ord i n h a n d . S e e in g t h i s P r in c e Muhammad Shah S h u ja g a l l o p e d f o r w a r d , i n t e n d i n g i n s t a n t l y t o h u r l h i s s p e a r a t t h e e l e p h a n t . . . W h i l s t c h a r g in g on w ard , P r in c e S h a h S h u ja * s h o r s e s u d d e n ly r e a r e d . . . ( h e ) w as th ro w n from h i s s a d d l e , and w as c o n s e q u e n t l y u n a b le t o o v e r t a k e t h e e n r a g e d e l e p h a n t . . .M e a n w h ile , t h e o t h e r e le p h a n t n o t i c e d h i s a n t a g o n i s t e n g a g e d i n a n o t h e r q u a r t e r and s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f c h a r g in g a lo n e upon h im . B e in g t h u s ta k e n a t a d is a d v a n t a g e , t h e e n r a g e d e l e p h a n t . . . ( l e f t ) t h e P r in c e (a n d ) f l e d a w a y ...T h e i l l u s t r i o u s P r i n c e s , a f t e r b e in g t h u s r e s c u e d by D iv in e P r o v id e n c e , r e p a i r e d t o H is M a j e s t y ’ s p r e s e n c e . A f t e r t e n d e r l y e m b r a c in g A u r a n g z e b , H is M a je s ty d i s t i n g u i s h e d h im b y t h e t i t l e o f B a h a d u r, and w arm ly commended Shah S h u ja .
U npublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
218
28
P rin ce Khurram K i l l i n g a Lton d a te o f ev en t: 20 December 1610 f o l i o 135 v d im en sio n s: 13 . 8 " x 9 * 8 ” a r t i s t : Balchand
s ig n a tu r e : bottom r ig h t edge on s h ie ld
P la t e XXX A lth o u g h t h i s i n c i d e n t t o o k p l a c e d u r in g t h e p r in c e h o o d o f Shah Jahan, i t
was in t r o d u c e d h e r e f o r d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e s .
It
serves
t o p a r a l l e l t h e b r a v e r y o f A u ran gzeb d e m o n s tr a te d i n f o l i o w it h t h a t o f p r in c e Khurram a t t h e a g e o f e i g h t e e n .
1 34r
On a h u n tin g
t r i p i n t h e company o f J a h a n g ir , ham D a s, I t im a d R ay, H ayat Khan and Anup R ay, P r i n c e Khurram 3 a v e d Anup Ray from b e in g m a u led t o d e a t h Dy a l i o n .
16
The e x p e d i t i o n fo u n d a t one p o in t a
devoured b u llo c k in t h e i r p a th , th e c a r c a s s , a l i o n
h a lf
and when Anup Ray w en t t o exam ine
sp r a n g o u t a t him from t h e b u s h e s .
Jahan6i r
f i r e d a t t h e b e a s t t w ic e b u t m is s e d on b o th o c c a s i o n s , and was t h u s u n a b le t o
sto p th e l i o n
from a t t a c k i n g t h e p o o r s e r v a n t .
moment, p r i n c e Khurram urew h i s r e l e a s i n g Anup Ray from i t s
c o n tr o l,
sw ord and s t r u c k t h e a n im a l, th u s
c lu tc h e s .
members o f t h e h u n t in g p a r t y ,
th e li o n
'i'he p a i n t i n g sh ow s t h e l i o n
W ith t n e h e lp o f o t h e r w as d u ly b r o u g h t u n d er b e in g su b d u ed a f t e r h a v in g
r e c e i v e d t h e f a t a l b lo w from P r in c e Khurram. u n der t h e b e a s t , s itio n .
At t h i s
Anup Ray i s
ly in g
and th e y o ccu p y t h e c e n t r a l g ro u n d o f t h e compo
They a r e su r r o u n d e d by p r i n c e Khurram and tw o o t h e r
members o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n .
J a h a n g ir s t a n d s o f f t o t h e r i g h t .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
219
In th e background s e r v a n ts and o th e r n o b le s watch t h i s scen e from a d is t a n c e .
P u b lish ed t r a n s la t io n s r e l a t i n g t h i s even t s t a t e th a t
a t i g e r a tta c k e d Anup Ray, but i n th e p a in tin g , i t i s o b v io u s ly a l i o n th a t i s d e p ic te d .
However t h i s in c o n s is t e n c y betw een th e
t e x t and th e p a in tin g d oes n o t in any way a l t e r th e m essage o f th e p a in tin g i t s e l f .
The b a s ic h o r iz o n ta l o r ie n t a t io n s t a b l i z e s
th e c o m p o sitio n , but u n fo r tu n a te ly e lim in a te s any sen se o f dynamism one would e x p e c t from a scene o f t h i s k in d .
A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - i- J a h a n g i r i (R o g e r s and B e v e r id g e , I p . 1 8 6 - 1 6 7 ) Anup Ray l e t t n e r e s t s l i p o u t o f h i s hand an a tu r n e d to w a r d s tn e t i g e r . Tne t i g e r tu r n e d on him and he m a n f u lly f a c e d him an a s t r u c k nim tw o t im e s w it h D oth h a n d s on t h e h ea d w it h t h e s t i c k n e had i n h i s h a n d . The t i g e r , o p e n in g n i s m ou th , s e i z e d b o th o f Anup R a y 's arm s w it n i t , and b i t them s o t h a t h i s t e e t n p a s s e d tn r o u g h b o t h , .b u t t h e s t i c k and t h e b r a c e l e t s on h i s arm s w ere h e l p f u l , and a id n o t a llo w h i s arm s t o be d e str o y e d . From tn e a t t a c k and p u s n in g 't n e t i g e r , Anup Ray f e l l down b e tw e e n t n e t i g e r ' s f o r e f e e t s o t n a t h i s h ea d and f a c e w ere o p p o s i t e t h e t i g e r ' s c h e s t . A t t h i s moment Baba Khurram and ham Das came up t o t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f Anup R a y . The p r in c e s tr u c K t n e t i g e r on t n e l o i n s w it h h i s sw o rd , and Ram Das a l s o s t r u c k him tw o t im e s w it n n i s s w o r a ...A n u p Ray w it h f o r c e a r a g g e d n i s arm s o u t o f t n e t i g e r ' s m outh ana s t r u c k him tw o o r t h r e e t im e s on t h e c n e e x w it h h i s f i s t , ana r o l l i n g o v e r on n i s s i a e s t o o d up Dy t n e f o r c e o f h i s k n e e s .
U npublished
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220
29
Capture o f th e F o rt o f D aulatabad d a te o f e v e n t: 22 December 1632-27 June 1633 ( 9 Jumada 11-19 Z’i l H ij j a 1 0 4 2 ), 6 th r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 144^ d im ensions* 1 2 " x 9»S" a r t i s t * Murad
sig n a tu r e * bottom m id d le edge on f la g
P la t e XXXI
The s i e g e and c a p t u r e o f t h e f o r t o f D a u la ta b a d r e s u l t e d i n a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e k in gd om o f Ahm adnagar i n t o M ugnal e m p ir e ,
itfot o n l y w a s i t
th e
t h e dom ain o f t h e
an im p o r t a n t v i c t o r y f o r t h e M ughal
arm y, b u t i t w as a l s o an a c c o m p lis h m e n t to w a r d s t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t n e l o n g s t a n d in g D ecca n p r o b le m .
A hm adnagar, b e in g on t h e s o u t h
e r n b o r a e r o f t h e M ughal e m p ir e , had e n d u r e d many o n s la u g h t s d u r in g t n e r e i g n o f J a h a n g ir , b u t u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f M a lik Ambar, t h e s t a t e h ad h e l d f i r m .
Upon h i s d e a t h t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s t a t e
b eg a n t o d i m i n i s h , an d t h e s i t u a t i o n was a g g r a v a t e d by i n t e r n a l t r o u b l e s t h a t a r o s e b e tw e e n t h e s u l t a n and h i s new m i n i s t e r F a th Khan.
The f a c t t h a t t h i s
s u l t a n , N iza m u -1 M ulk h a d o n ce e n t e r e d
i n t o an a l l i a n c e w it h t h e r e b e l Khan J a h a n L o d i was e x c u s e en ou gh f o r Shah J a h a n t o a t t a c k t h e to w n . t o t n e M u g h a ls i n
F a th Khan s o l d t h e s u l t a n o u t
e x c n a n g e f o r h e l p t o v a n q u is h t h e B ij a p u r t r o o p s
who w ere th e n b e s i e g i n g t n e f o r t a t D a u la t a b a d . im p e r ia l f o r c e s le d
A c o n tin g e n t o f
by M ahabat Khan e v e n t u a l l y s u c c e e d e d i n
r e p e l l i n g t h e B ij a p u r f o r c e s , b u t p a th Khan t h e n c h a n g e d a l l e g i e n c e
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221
and r e f u s e d t o s u r r e n d e r t h e f o r t t o t h e M u g h a ls. th u s fo llo w e d ,
17
1
A lo n g s i e g e
and a t t h e en d o f a b o u t tw o m o n th s when P a th Khan
r e a l i z e d t h a t th e f o r t w o u ld s o o n e r o r l a t e r c a p i t u l a t e , h e s t r u c k up a b a r g a in f o r p e a c e , an d h a n d ed t h e k e y s o f t h e f o r t , and o f f e r e d th e s u lta n a s a h o sta g e *
1Q
That th e s i e g e l a s t e d f o r su ch
a lo n g tim e was due n o t t o t h e w e a k n e ss o f t h e M ughal t r o o p s b u t t o t h e s h e e r i m p r e g n a b i l i t y o f th e f o r t r e s s .
The s c e n e h e r e
r e p r e s e n t s t h e e n t r y o f t h e M ughal army i n t o t h e f o r t and t h e h a n d in g o v e r o f i t s
c o n t r o l b y P a t h Khan t o K h a n -i-K h a n a n .
The
f o r t r e s s s t a n d s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , o c c u p y in g a g o o d h a l f o f th e c o m p o s itio n .
I n t h e f o r e g r o u n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e , w it h
M ahabat Khan i n t h e c e n t e r e x t e n d in g a hand to w a r d s th e a p p r o a c h in g F a th Khan.
The c o m p o s it io n i s v e r y d a rk and i s
m e ly som bre c o l o r s .
e x e c u te d in e x tr e
T h is n e l p s t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e h e a v y g lo o m o f t h e
b a ttle .
A c c o u n t i n P a d sh a h Hama ( E l l i o t and D ow son, p . 3 9 - 4 4 ) The B i j a p u r i s w ere d is c o u r a g e d by t h e c h a s t is e m e n t t h e y had r e c e i v e d fro m t h e i m p e r i a l arm y, so t h e y maae o f f e r s o f an a r r a n g e m e n t t o F a t h Ktian. T hey o f f e r e d t o l e a v e t h e f o r t r e s s i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n , ' t o g i v e him t h r e e l a c s o f p a g o d a s i n c a s h and t o th ro w p r o v i s i o n s i n t o t h e f o r t . That i l l - s t a r r e d f o o l i s h f e l l o w , a l l u r e d by t h e s e p r o m is e s , b r o k e h i s fo r m e r e n g a g e m e n t, and e n t e r e d i n t o an a l l i a n c e w it h t h e m .. .K h a n -k h a n a n , on b e in g in fo r m e d o f t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , m arch ed from Z a fa r n a g a r t o D a u l a t a b a d ...H e p la c e d t h e a r t i l l e r y and s e i g e m a t e r i a l u n d e r t h e a o r e c t i o n o f ( h i s s o n s ) L u h r a sp , and o r d e r e d t h a t a c o n s t a n t f i r e s h o u ld be k e p t u p . . . H e a l s o o r d e r ed K han-zam an t o b e c o n s t a n t l y on t h e a l e r t w it h 5>000 c a v a l r y , and r e a d y t o r e n d e r a s s i s t a n c e w h e r e v e r i t m ig n t be r e q u ir e d in th e tr e n c h e s . Tne i m p e r i a l army h a v in g t h u s i n v e s t e d t h e
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222
p l a c e , and fo rm ed t r e n c h e s , p u sh ed on t h e s e i g e , r u n n in g z i g z a g s , fo r m in g m in e s and p r e p a r in g s c a l i n g l a d d e r s . . .P a t h Khan now w ork from h i s s l e e p o f h e e d l e s s n e s s and s e c u r i t y . He saw t h a t D a u la ta b a d c o u ld n o t r e s i s t t h e I m p e r ia l arm s and t h e v i g o u r o f t h e I m p e r ia l com m ander. To s a v e t h e h o n o u r o f h i s own and N izam S h a h 's women, h e s e n t h i s e l d e s t so n 'A b d u -r R u su l t o Khan K hanan. He b e g g e d f o r g i v e n e s s and s e n t f o r a w e e k 's d e la y s t o e n a b le him t o rem ove h i s and N izam S h a h 's f a m i l y from t h e f o r t r e s s * w h i le h i s so n r e m a in e d a s a h o s t a g e i n K h a n -k h a n a n ' s p o w e r . K h an -k han an h ad c o m p a s s io n on h i s f a l l e n c o n d i t i o n , g r a n t e d him s a f e t y and k e p t h i s s o n a s a h o s t a g e . . .F a t h Khan s e n t t h e k e y s t o K h an -k h an an , an d s e t a b o u t p r e p a r in g h i s own d e p a r t u r e . . .O n t h e 1 9 t h Z i- 1 h i j j a F a th Khan came o u t o f t h e f o r t r e s s and d e l i v e r e d i t u p . . .K h a n -k h a n a n w en t i n t o t h e f o r t r e s s , and h ad t h e k h u tb a r e a d i n t h e E m p ero r's nam e.
U npublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
223
30
D eparture o f Shah Shuja f o r th e Deccan d ate o f e v e n t: 28 August 1633 (S a fa r 1043)» 6 th r e g n a l y ea r i
f o l i o 147 v d im en sio n s: 13 *5 ” x 10'* a r t i s t : Murad
s ig n a tu r e : on s c r o l l , m id dle o f p a in t ing
P la t e XXXII Soon a f t e r
t n e f a l l o f D a u la ta b a d , Khan Khanan r e q u e s t e d t o be
r e lie v e d , o f h is
command a s b o th h e and h i s
a f t e r tn e lo n g s ie g e .
Shah J a h a n t h u s d e s i g n a t e d S hah S h u ja a s
commander o f t h e r e l i e f f o r c e s , in
t r o o p s w ere worn o u t
th e m onth o f S a f a r IO4 3 .
and t h e p r in c e p r e p a r e d t o l e a v e
Upon r e c e i v i n g t h e command, Shah
S h u ja * s r a n k was i n c r e a s e d t o a m ansab o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 z a t su w a r , g ifts .
and 5 * 0 0 0
and i n a d d i t i o n h e was aw arded many f i n e and h o n o r a b le
1q
A num ber o f n o b l e s ,
in c l u d e d among tnem w ere S a y y id Khan
Jan u and R a ja J a i S in g h , w ere a l s o g r a n t e d in c r e m e n t s i n t h e i r r a n k s and w ere a p p o in t e d t o accom pany tn e p r i n c e .
The p a i n t i n g
h e r e sn ow s Shah J a h a n r e c e i v i n g Shan s n u j a a t t h e d a r b a r h e ld i n honor o f h i s d e p a r tu r e .
He i s
b e in g r e c e i v e d on t h e b a lc o n y and
i s b o w in g r e v e r e n t l y i n f r o n t o f h i s f a t h e r .
P r e s e n t a l s o on t h e
b a lc o n y a r e A u r a n g z eb and Murad B akhsh on t h e r i g h t and A s a f Khan on th e l e f t .
On t n e f l o o r o f t h e a u d ie n c e h a l l ,
i n o r d e r l y ro w s and q u i e t l y o b s e r v e t h e s c e n e . th e p r e s e n ta tio n h ere i s
sta n d
As a t y p i c a l d a r b a r ,
on e o f c o l d f o r m a l i t y w h ich i s
by t h e s t r o n g v e r t i c a l l i n e s sen se o f n e a tn e ss i s
c o u r tie r s
e m p h a siz e d
t h a t c u t a c r o s s th e p a i n t i n g .
The
a u g m en ted by th e g r i d p a t t e r n fo rm ed by t h e
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224
i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l l i n e s , c o m p a r t m e n t a liz e s t n e f i g u r e s i n t o
a d e v ic e w h ich
s m a ll g r o u p s .
A c c o u n t i n M u lak n k h as ( .B e g le y , p . 1 7 2 ) On h i s t a k in g l e a v e , H is R o y a l H ig h n e s s , w hose in co m e up t o t h i s t im e h a d b e e n 7 5 0 r u p e e s d a i l y , was c o n f e r r e d a m ansab o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 z a t and 5 » 0 0 0 su w a r . He w as a l s o aw ard ed a handsom e r o b e o f h o n o u r , w it h t u n i c o f g o l d em b r o id e r y and b u t t o n s o f e m e r a ld s and p e a r l s ; a j e w e l l e d sw o rd and d a g g a r w it h i n c i s e d o r n a m e n ts ; tw o f i n e h o r s e s , o n e w it h j e w e l l e d , t h e o t h e r w it h en a m ele d t r a p p in g s ; a s p le n d id e le p h a n t c o v e r e d w it h s i l v e r h o u s i n g s , t o g e t h e r w it h a f e m a le o n e ; and a d o n a t io n o f s i x la k h s o f r u p e e s . W ith p r o f u s e k i n d n e s s , H is M a j e s t y th e n commanded t h a t t h e P r i n c e s n o u ld s t a r t o f f from t h e p a la c e t o t h e d i g n i f i e d so u n d o f d rum s.
U npublished
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225
31
Shah Jahan H unting N jlg ao Near P al am d ate o f ev en ts February 1634 (Shaban 1 0 4 3 ), 7 th r e g n a l y ea r f o l i o l 65 r d im en sio n s: 1 3 »B" x 9 " a r t i s t s unknown P l a t e XXXIII
At th e b eg in n in g o f th e 7 th reg n a l y e a r , Shah Jahan d ecid ed to pay a v i s i t to h is c a p i t a l a t Lahore in the Punjab, to where he had n o t been s in c e h i s a c c e s s io n .
The r o y a l c o r te g e proceeded from
Agra a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e month o f Shaban 1043, and a r r iv e d at D elh i tow ards th e end o f th e month.
Here Shah Jahan made a sm all
d iv e r s io n t o th e r o y a l h u n tin g grounds o f P al am, and sp en t fou r days sh o o tin g b la ck b u ck s. o f them.
20
He i s s a id to have sh o t fo u r hundred
T his p a in t in g i s a b e a u t if u l s e a o f browns and g reen s
th a t s t r e t c h e s f a r back i n t o th e h o r iz o n , and c r e a t e s a v e r y r e p o s e fu l y e t m a je s tic d eco r.
Shah Jahan and th e members o f th e
h u n tin g p a r ty a re on th e lo w er l e f t edge o f th e p a in t in g , but y e t dom inate the p a in tin g by th e sh e e r w eigh t o f t h e ir s i z e s s th ey are d is p r o p o r t io n a te ly la r g e f o r t h e ir s e t t i n g .
T h is however
h e lp s to em phasize th e im portance o f Shah Jahan, which i s a lr e a d y r a th e r o b v io u s, thanks to h i s c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and h i s enfram ing h a lo .
That Shah Jahan h ere appears much o ld e r than in th e
p r e c e d in g p a in tin g , has cau sed some s c h o la r s to q u e stio n th e d ate o f t h i s work.
I t i s p o s s ib le th a t t h i s p a in t in g may be a s l i g h t l y
l a t e r copy o f an o r i g i n a l work th a t was found t o be damaged at
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
th e tim e o f assem b ly.
The a r t i s t , n o t h a v in g been p r e s e n t a t the
e v e n t, may have d e p ic te d Shah Jahan, n o t a s he appeared in th e 7 th re g n a l y e a r , but a s he was a t th e tim e th e p a in t in g was ex e c u te d .
A ccount i n Mulakhkhas (B e g le y , p . 1 7 6 ) At th e c l o s e o f the above month o f Shab'an (end February 1 6 3 4 ) , when th e stan d ard o f r o y a lt y a r r iv e d a t th e c a p it a l o f D e lh i, His M a jesty went o f f to th e p r e s e r v e s a t Palam, which i s one o f th e r e g u la r s h o o tin g grounds o f th a t p la c e , and lo d g ed at th e v i l l a s e r e c te d th e r e by h is f a t h e r ' s and h i s own commands. He th e r e amused h im s e lf w ith fo u r days o f s p o r t. During th a t tim e , he one day bagged w ith h i s own gun 400 b uck s, every one o f which he brought down a t th e f i r s t s h o t. P u b lish e d :
B a r r e tt, D ouglas and Gray, B a s il . P a in tin g o f I n d ia . Geneva: E d it io n s d 'A rt A lb ert S k ira , 1 Fage 1 1 3 .
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32
Onager Hunting In Bhera i n th e Pun.iab d ate o f e v e n t: O ctober 1 634 (Jumada I 1 0 4 4 ), 7 th r e g n a l y ea r fo lio
166
v
dim ensions: 13 * 5 ” x 9*8" a r t i s t : unknown P la te XXXIV As i n f o l i o l6 5 r , t h i s p a in t in g i l l u s t r a t e d Shah J a h a n 's p a stim es and th e im portance th ey had to th e r e ig n by d in t o f th e f a c t th ey were done by th e emperor*
Here one s e e s th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e
hunt when th e p rey has been ca p tu red .
Vftiat was so p a r t ic u la r
about t h i s hunt was t h a t th e on agers were hunted i n a new and more e f f e c t i v e m ethod.
B a s i c a l l y th e system was to entrap them a t th e
tim e th ey v i s i t e d t h e i r r e g u la r w a te r in g h o le .
A t o t a l o f s ix t y -
th r e e on agers were h u n ted , tw enty h avin g been p e r s o n a lly captured by Shah Jahan, who o rd ered t h a t th e young on es be tak en a l i v e . ^ The p r o c e s s io n i s m oving a lo n g fra n th e r ig h t edge o f th e p a in tin g and ap p ears to be em erging o u t from th e background.
The r e c e s s io n
o f th e la n d sc a p e by i t s d im in is h in g s c a le c r e a t e s a n o tio n o f an immense s p a c e .
A w a lle d c i t y sta n d s i n th e to p l e f t hand c o r n e r .
This p a in tin g h as o n ly been t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as th e onager h u n t in Bhera, on a c c o u n t o f i t s lo c a t io n w ith in th e m a n u scrip t. However, as t h i s o n ly r e p r e s e n ts th e p r o c e s s io n o f s e r v a n ts , and seems to be o n ly a p a r t o f a d ou ble-p age c o m p o sitio n , and th a t th e la n d sca p e background c l o s e l y resem b les t h a t o f f o l i o l 65 r , i t may be th a t th e two p a in tin g s were meant to have been p la c e d
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
228
to g e th e r and th a t d u rin g th e assem bly o f the m an uscrip t th ey g o t m ixed up.
Furtherm ore, c h e e ta h s were o f t e n u sed in hunts to trap
an im als such as d eer
o r n i l g a o s , and the p resen ce o f a ch eetah
i n t h i s p a in tin g fu r th e r c o r r o b o r a te s th e assu m ption th a t t h is work was meant to be v iew ed in co n ju n c tio n w ith th e p reced in g one.
Account in Mulakhkhas (B e g le y , p . 2 0 6 ) Bhera, one o f th e f i n e s t and m ost a n c ie n t parganas o f th e Punjab, i s s it u a t e d on the bank o f the B ehat, and in i t s v i c i n i t y on agers a re ex trem e ly numerous. However, th e r e i s one s p e c i f i c w a terin g p la c e th a t th ey a l l f r e q u e n t .. . When th e on agers came f o r w ater and t h e ir t h i r s t grew overp ow erin g, th ey would o f n e c e s s i t y b e o b lig e d to go in t o a narrow gorge c l o s e by in w hich th e r e was some w a ter. A fte r g e t t i n g the on agers i n t o t h i s p la c e , th ey were to sto p up a l l th e i n l e t s and o u t l e t s so a s to en trap them. ..H i s M ajesty p roceed ed in p erson to en joy th e s p o r t and caught tw en ty on agers h im s e lf; w h ile f o r t y - t h r e e more were by h is p erm issio n hunted down by th e i l l u s t r i o u s P r in c e s and n ob le g ra n d ees. The young on es were by h is ord er cap tu red a l i v e by th e a tte n d a n ts ; and th e w hole sp o r t was a sou rce o f g r e a t e s t d e lig h t to H is M a jesty . U npublished
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229
33
Capture o f th e F o r ts o f Orccha and DhamuJi d ate o f e v e n t: 1 4-28 O ctober 1635 ( 2 - 1 6 Jumada I 1 0 4 5 ), 8 th r e g n a l y ea r f o l i o 174r d im en sion s: 1 3 *8 " x 9 »8 " a r t i s t : T ir Dust
s ig n a tu r e : bottom c e n te r under h o r s e 's mouth
P la t e XXXV The f o r t s
o f u r c c h a a n d D h a m u li i n t h e D e c c a n w e r e u n a e r t h e g o v e r
n o r s h i p o f J u j n a r S in g h B u n d e la .
D u rin g th e 8 t h r e g n a l y e a r ,
l a u n c n e d a n a t t a c k on t n e t e r r i t o r y z a m in a a r t o d e a th . Upon h e a r i n g t n i s ,
A ll t n i s
o f C h a u ra g a rh and p u t th e
was a o n e w i t n o u t S h a h J a n a n 1s s a n c t i o n .
Shan J a h a n im m e d ia te ly d is p a tc h e d im p e r ia l tr o o p s
u n d e r t h e command o f K han D u ra n t o
s u p re s s tn e re D e l and to
t n e D e l o n g i n g s a n d t h e f o r t s n e l a Dy h im . a rriv e d in th e v i c i n i t y
22
th r o u g h and f o r c e an e n t r y i n t o t n e im m i n e n t v i c t o r y
9e i z e
Tne t r o o p s f i r s t
o f O rccha, and i n s p i t e
f o r e s t and ru g g e d ra o u n ta in e o u s t e r r a i n ,
liz e d
he
of th e tn i c k
th e y m anaged t o p e n e t r a t e
th e f o r t .
When J u j h a r S i n g h r e a
o f t h e M u g h al a rm y , h e w i t h h i s s o n
J a g r a j a n d a l l h i s r e l a t i v e s r e t r e a t e d t o D h a m u l i. l a t e a on th e 2nd Jumada I 10 4 5 ( 1 8 t h O c to b e r 1 6 3 5 )» e s t a b l i s h e d t n e m s e lv e s a t o r c c h a ,
urcch a c a p itu 23
A f t e r h a v in g
th e tr o o p s th e n p ro cee d e d to
D h am u li, w here a f t e r a s h o r t o u t f i e r c e
D a ttle ,
tn e y fo r c e d th e
r e b e l s t o s u r r e n d e r th e f o r t and p le a d f o r p e a c e . tn e 1 b tn Jumada I 1045 ( 2 8 t h O c to b e r 1 6 3 5 ) .
T h is o c c u r e o on
T h is p a i n t i n g show s
t h e v i c t o r i o u s e n t r y o f t h e im p e r i a l t r o o p s , h e a d e d by Khan D auran,
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230
i n t o t n e f o r t o f D h am u li.
i ’h e f o r t o c c u p i e s t n e b a c k g r o u n u o f t n e
p a in tin g ; w h ile t h e t r o o p s m arch to w a rd s i t th e p ic tu r e p la n e . a rm y ,
I n o r a e r to c r e a te
from t h e b o tto m edge o f
a s e m b l e n c e o f a n u m e ro u s
th e a r t i s t d i s t o r t e d th e p e r s p e c t i v e and co m p ressed th e
s p a c e — t h e r e b y m a k in g t h e arm y come r o u n d f r o m t h e l e f t and e s ta b lis h e d g r e a t d i s p a r i t i e s
D etw een t n e
sid e —
s iz in g o f th e p e o p le .
To u n d e r l i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f Khan D a u r a n a n d t h e o t h e r tw o p r i n c i p a l c o m m a n d e rs ,
'A b d A l l a h Khan a n d B a h a d u r F i r o z J a n g ,
a r t i s t n o t o n l y p l a c e d tn e m i n
tn e c e n te r ,
th e
b u t a l s o m ade them
l a r g e r th a n th e r e s t .
A c c o u n t i n M u lak n k n as ( B e g l e y ,
pp. 2 2 7 -2 2 8 )
On t h e 2nd Jumada I t n i s y e a r ( 1 4 th u cto 'b er 1 6 3 5 )* a s s o o n a s t h e r o y a l i s t l e a d e r s w ere a p p r is e d o f J u j n a r ' s r e t r e a t , t h e y a d v a n c e d upon t h e o u t s k i r t s o f tn e f o r t ( u r c c n a ) ; and h a v in g th row n up in t r e n c h m e n t s , t h e y commenced g e t t i n g t h e i r s c a l i n g la d d e r s read y fo r th e a s s a u l t . T ow ards t h e c l o s e o f t h e n i g h t , t h e y e s c a l a a e d t h e w a l l s , w hereupon t n e p a n i c - s t r i c k e n g a r r i s o n f l e d i n c o n s t e r n a t i o n from t n e o p p o s i t e s i d e . The r o y a l i s t s th e n d e s c e n d e d from t h e w a l l s i n t o tn e i n t e r i o r o f t n e c i t a d e l , and o p en ed t h e g a t e . . . A f t e r a d a y 's h a l t , t n e r o y a l i s t s s e t o f f to w a r d s D h a m u li.. .S u m m a r ily , t n e r o y a l i s t s c u t t h e i r way th r o u g h t n e f o r e s t s and r e a c h e d up t o th e f o r t D ham uli i n a c o u p le o f d a y s . By p r o s e c u t i n g t n e s e i g e w it h v i g o u r , t h e y so o n c a r r i e d th e a p p r o a c h e s up t o t n e e d g e o f t h e d i t c h , n o t w i t h s t a n d in g a n e a v y f i r e o f arms from t n e r e b e l g a r r i s o n . On t h e 1 6 th o f Jumada I ( 2 8 t h O c to b e r 163 5 )> t h e b a t t l e r a g e d w it h f u r y on b o th s i d e s t i l l m id n ig h t , when t h e b e s e ig e d a t l e n g t h becam e d ism a y ed a t t h e in d o m it a b le c o u r a g e anu s p i r i t o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s arm y. They th e n saw no r e s o u r c e l e f t o u t t o s u r r e n d e r t h e f o r t , and t n e g o v e r n o r a c c o r d i n g ly s e n t a p e r s o n t o Khan D auran t o beg f o r q u a r t e r .
U npublished
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
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34
P r e s e n ta tio n o f th e Heads o f Jn.ihar Singh and H is Son J a g ra i Singh d a te o f e v e n t: 10 January 1 636 (1 Shaban 1045) 9 t h r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 176 v d im en sio n s: 13*9” * 9 «7 " a r t i s t : Payag
s ig n a tu r e : n on e, a t t r ib u t e d by R obert S k e lto n ^4
P la te XXXVI
A l t h o u g h t h e f o r t s o f O r c c h a a n d D ham uni h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d ,
th e
r e b e l J u j h a r S in g h m anaged to f l e e and h e a d e d to w a rd s th e D eccan, b r i n g i n g w i t h h im h i s t r e a s u r y a n d h i s h a r e m . a h e a d sta rt,
A lth o u g h th e y h ad
t h e y w e r e v e r y m u ch s l o w e d down b y t h e w e i g h t t h a t
t h e y w ere c a r r y i n g .
As a r e s u l t t h e i m p e r i a l t r o o p s b e g a n t o c l o s e
i n d a n g e r o u s l y on th e m .
When J u j h a r S i n g h r e a l i z e d t h i s he d i d
aw ay w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e women w h o se h o r s e s w e re r u n dow n, a n d s e n t t h e a b l e o n e s on t o G o lc o n a a . in b a ttle
T h e n he a r r a n g e d h i s r e a r t r o o p s
f o r m a t i o n t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e o n s l a u g h t o f t h e M ughal arm y .
H e a v y l o s s e s w e re i n c u r r e d b y t h e r e b e l s ,
and th e y w ere f o r c e d to
abandon p a r t o f t h e i r t r e a s u r y a s th e y b e a t t h e i r r e t r e a t . ev er,
it
How
was n o t l o n g b e f o r e t h e M u g h al a rm y c a u g h t u p w i t h th e m .
J u j h a r S in g h a n a J a g r a j
S in g h w ere h i a i n g i n
th e f o r e s t s in th e
v i c i n t y o f G o lc o n a a w here t h e y w ere b r u t a l l y p u t t o d e a t h by t h e Gonds o f th e r e g i o n .
K han D a u r a n came a n d s e v e r e d t h e i r h e a d s
w h ich h e t h e n s e n t b a c k t o v ic to rio u s
th e c o u r t.
The p a i n t i n g sh o w s t h e
arm y a d v a n c i n g i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n a n a t t a c k f o r m a t i o n .
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232
T h is s c e n e p r e c e e a s t h e i n c i d e n t i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d , b u t w as i n t e r g r a t e d i n t o t h e p a i n t i n g s o a s t o i n c l u d e a s much d e s c r i p t i v e and n a r r a tiv e f a c t s a s p o s s ib le .
I n th e fo r e g r o u n d one s e e s th e h ead s
o f J u j h a r S in g h a n d J a g r a j S in g h b e in g p r e s e n t e d t o Khan D auran a n d t h e o t h e r com m anding o f f i c e r s .
The h e a d s w ere t o b e s e n t t o
c o u r t w h ere t h e y w ere t o b e d i s p l a y e d t o
s e r v e n o t o n ly a s a s i g n
o f v i c t o r y b u t a l s o a s a w a rn in g t o o t h e r w o u ld b e r e b e l s . sen se o f a u s te r ity i s
A
a r r i v e d a t i n t h e som bre c o l o r s and t h e
o r g a n iz e d m anner i n w h ic h t h e f i g u r e s and la n d s c a p e i s
arranged.
The o r d e r i s h o w e v er o n l y e v i d e n t on t h e s i d e w h ere t h e M ughal tr o o p s sta n d ,
th a t i s
on t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e p a i n t i n g .
On t h e
c o n t r a r y , on t h e l e f t s i d e , w h ere s t a n d s t h e v a n q u is h e d enem y, i s a h ap hazard o r g a n iz a tio n . e ffe c tiv e ly
T h is c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n o r d e r and d i s o r d e r
b r in g s a c r o s s t n e m e s s a g e o f t n e e v e n t : v i c t o r y and
d e fe a t.
A c c o u n t i n M ulakhkhas ( B e g l e y , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 1 ) The r o y a l army t h e n b iv o u a c k e d by t h e s i d e o f a n e ig h b o u r in g t a n k , and a l l t h e c o i n , g u n s , g o l d , s i l v e r and j e w e l l e d a r t i c l e s , and i n f a c t t h e e n t i r e p r o p e r t y o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s t h a t h ad f a l l e n i n t o t h e i r h an ds w as s e c u r e d f o r t h e s t a t e exch eq u er. They w ere s t i l l e n c a m p e d .. .w h en in f o r m a t io n w as r e c e i v e d t h a t J u j h a r and J a g r a j had b e t a k e n t h e m s e lv e s t o a d e n s e wood i n t h e v i c i n i t y , w here t h e y w ere h o r r i b l y and ig n o m in i o u s ly p u t t o d e a t h by t n e Gonds o f t h a t p l a c e . Khan D auran w en t i n p e r s o n t o t h e s p o t ; and h a v in g summoned t h e m u rd erer s and i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e m a t t e r , h e s e v e r e d t h e h e a d s o f b o th t h e t r a i t o r s fro m t h e i r b o d ie s and fo r w a r d e d them t o c o u r t . On t h e 1 s t o f S h a 'b a n (1 0 J a n u a r y 1 6 3 6 ) , t h e h e a d s o f th e r e b e l s J u j h a r S in g h and J a g r a j r e a c h e d t h e camp a t S a h u r; and by su b l i m e command, t h e y w ere s u sp e n d e d o v e r t h e g a t e o f th e s e r a i t h e r e a s a w a rn in g t o a l l b e h o l d e r s .
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35
C o n ferra l o f th e T i t l e
Shah Khurram
d a te o f even ts 2 March 1616 (1 Shawwal 1025) f o l i o 192 v dim ensions* 1 4 " x 10" a r t i s t * Abid
s ig n a tu r e s bottom l e f t c o m e r man, on h i s r in g
P la t e XXXVII T he f o l l o w i n g t h r e e f o l i o s p r e s e n t i n c i d e n t s w h i c h o c c u r e d d u r i n g t h e p rin c e h o o d o f Shah J a h a n .
L i k e f o l i o s 4 3v, 4&V, 45^ a n d 135v,
th e y a r e ^ In tro d u ced h e r e f o r d i d a c t i c p u rp o s e s t o p a r a l l e l e v e n ts t h a t w e re t h e n t a k i n g p l a c e
w itn th o s e o f
These t h r e e f o l i o s a r e a l l r e l a t e d to n o t c o n s ta n tly ra g in g ,
th e
D eccan w a rs w h ic h
w ere c o n t i n u a l l y i n
K h u r r a m 's e x p l o i t s a r e i n s e r t e d h e r e t o te x tu a l lo c a tio n ,
p r i n c e K h u r r a m 1s d a y s . ^
and a r e l o g i c a l l y
e x iste n c e ,
p rin c e
co rre sp o n d w ith t h e i r
p l a c e d b e t w e e n tw o p a i n t i n g s
r e p r e s e n t i n g s ta g e s o f t h e D eccan w a rs .
T h i s p a i n t i n g - sh o w s t n e
d e p a r t u r e o f K h u rra m f o r t h e D e c c a n u p o n h i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o p o s t o f com m an der down t h e r e .
th o u g h
th e
He was t o r e p l a c e h i s b r o t h e r
P a r w i z whom J a h a n g i r h a d r e m o v e d o n t h e g r o u n d s o f i n c o m p e t e n c y .
26
A b d u l l a h K han p i r o z J a n g w as r e c a l l e d f r o m G u j a r a t t o b e t h e s e c o n d i n command t o K h u r r a m .
A t t h e d a r b a r h e l d i n h o n o r o f K h u r r a m 's
d e p a r t u r e , K h u rra m p r e s e n t e d h i s s u b co m m an d ers a n d w as g r a n t e d a n u n i q u e h o n o r when J a h a n g i r b e s t o w e d u p o n h im t n e t i t l e H ever b e fo re had a p r in c e r e c e iv e d such a t i t l e o f an e m p e ro r.
27
o f shah.
d u rin g th e r e ig n
t h i s p a i n t i n g o n e s e e s K h u rra m on t h e
b a lc o n y p a y in g r e s p e c t s
to h is f a th e r ,
and i n th e h a l l b eh in d th e
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234
b a r r i e r s t a n d th e o t h e r com m anders.
T he s c e n e i s
s e e n f r o m a lo w
a n d d i s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e w h ic h m akes t h e b a l c o n y v e r y rem oved fro m th e v ie w e r.
T h is d e v ic e
i s used to i s o l a t e
t h e m a i n a c t i o n so a s
t o h i g h l i g h t th e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e m a in f i g u r e s .
In a d d itio n ,
P r i n c e K h u rra m a n d J a h a n g i r a r e s e t a g a i n s t a w h i t e b a c k g r o u n d w h ich i s
in t o t a l o p p o s itio n to th e tu rq u o is e g re e n ground a g a in s t
w h ich t h e o t h e r n o b le s
sta n d .
The w h i t e g r o u n d h e l p s t o c r e a t e a n
even g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e b etw ee n th e v ie w e r and th e b a lc o n y .
A ccount i n T u z u k - i- J a h a n g ir i
(R o g ers and B e v e rid g e , I p -3 3 8 )
T he t i m e o f t h e l e a v e - t a k i n g o f B a b a K h u rra m h a d b e e n f i x e d on F r id a y , th e 2 0 th A ban. A t th e end o f t h i s day he p a ra d e d b e f o r e me t h e p i c k o f h i s m en a r m e d a n d r e a d y i n t h e p u b l i c h a l l o f a u d ien ce. Of t n e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a v o u r s b e s t o w e d o n -Che a f o r e s a i d s o n o n e w as t n e t i t l e o f S h a h , w n i c h w as m ade p a r t o f h i s nam e. I o r d e r e d t h a t t h e r e a f t e r n e s h o u l d De s t y l e d S h a h S u l t a n K h u rr a m . I p r e s e n t e d h im w i t h a r o b e o f h o n o u r , a j e w e l l e d c h a r q a b , t h e f r i n g e s a n d c o l l a r o f w h ich w ere d e c o r a t e d w ith p e a r l s , an I r a q h o rs e w ith a je w e lle d s a d d le , a T u rk i h o r s e , a s p e c ia l e le p h a n t c a l l e d B an si badan, a c a r r ia g e , a c c o rd in g to t h e E n g l i s h f a s h i o n , f o r h im t o s i t a n d t r a v e l a b o u t i n , a j e w e l l e d sw ord w itn a s p e c i a l p a n d a la (sw o rd b e l t ) t h a t h ad b een t a k e n a t t n e c o n q u e s t o f t n e f o r t o f A h m a d n a g a r a n d w as v e r y c e le b r a te d , and a je w e lle d d ag g ar.
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235
36
C on ferral o f th e Titlr* Shah Jahan d a te o f ev en ts 12 O ctober 1617 (11 Shawwal 1026) f o l i o 194 v d im en sio n s: 1 3 . 4 5 " x 9 . 9 " a r t i s t s Murad
sign atvires on w a ll under b alcon y
P la t e XXXVIII P r in c e Khurram proved t o be a v ery a b le d ip lom at and managed to n e g o t ia t e p eace w ith M alik Ambar and A d il Shah, a l b e i t tem porary, o v e r t h e A h m ad n ag a r t e r r i t o r i e s .
A fte r h av in g e s ta b lis h e d a
sem blence o f ord er he p la c e d th e a u th o r ity o f th e t e r r it o r y in th e hands o f Khan Khanan and Shahnawaz Khan, and went to Mandhu to meet h is fa th e r .
So p le a se d was Jah an gir a t th e s u c c e s s a t ta in e d by h is
son , t h a t ax th e darbar J a h an gir r o s e and g r e e te d Khurram and o f fe r e d him a s e a t by th e th ro n e.
Not o n ly was Khurram's rank
in c r e a s e d to an un p reced en ted number o f 30»000 z a t suwar
and 2 0 , 0 0 0
and had numerous g i f t s showered upon him, but he was a ls o
gran ted th e t i t l e which was to be h i s r u lin g one — Shah Jahan.
28
A fte r a l l t h e s e honors had been bestow ed upon Khurram, th e o f f i c e r s who had accom panied him p r e se n te d Jah an gir w ith t h e ir o f f e r in g s . The p a in tin g i s s e t in a t y p ic a l darbar arrangem ent w ith Jahan gir and Khurram on th e b a lco n y a tten d ed by one s e r v a n t, who sta n d s on th e l e f t , w h ile in th e h a l l are th e c o u r t ie r s sta n d in g in rows on e it h e r s id e o f th e c e n t e r .
To fo c u s a t t e n t io n upon Jah angir and
Khurram, th e a r t i s t s e t them a g a in s t a w h ite background.
T h is
c o n s t r a s t s w ith th e dark ground a g a in s t which th e c o u r t ie r s have
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
2^6
been s e t .
There was th e o n ly c it e d ev en t when Jah an gir r o s e to
p e r s o n a lly g r e e t Khurram, and y e t i n t h i s p a in tin g Jah an gir i s s h o w s t i l l s e a te d on h i s th ron e w h ile r e c e i v i n g Khurram. in f o lio
However,
.Jahangir i s shown sta n d in g to r e c e iv e h i s so n , though
th e t e x t d oes n o t m en tion t h i s f a c t .
T h is may in d ic a t e t h a t th e s e
two p a in tin g s were m ixed up d u rin g th e assem bly o f th e m an u scrip t.
A ccount i n T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i (R o g ers and B e v e rid g e , I p . 393-395) On T h u r s d a y , t h e 2 0 t h o f t n e m o n th o f M i h r , i n t h e t w e l f t h y e a r f r o m my a c c e s s i o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h t h e 1 1 t h S h a w w a l, 1026 H i j r a , a f t e r tn r e e w a tc n e s an a one g h a r i h a d p a s s e d , he e n t e r e d t h e f o r t o f M anau a u s p i c i o u s l y a n d j o y f u l l y , a n d h a d t h e h o n o u r o f w a i t i n g o n m e. T h e d u r a t i o n o f o u r s e p e r a t i o n w a s 11 m o n t h s a n d 11 d a y s . A f t e r h e h a d p e r f o r m e d t h e d u e s o f s a l u t a t i o n a n d k i s s i n g t n e g r o u n d , I c a l l e d h im u p i n t o t h e j h a r o k h a , a n d w i t h e x c e e d i n g k i n d n e s s a n d u n c o n t r o l l e d d e l i g h t r o s e f r o m my p l a c e a n d h e l d h im i n t h e e m b r a c e o f a f f e c t i o n . I n p r o p o r tio n as he s t r o v e t o b e h u m b le a n d p o l i t e , I i n c r e a s e d my f a v o u r s a n d k i n d n e s s t o h im a n d m ade h im s i t n e a r m e. He p r e s e n t e d 1 , 0 0 0 a s h r a f i s a n d 1 , 0 0 0 r u p e e s a s n a z a r a n d t h e s a m e am o u n t b y way o f a lm s ...W h e n h e had h a s te n e d t o t h e c a p t u r e o f th e D eccan h e had o b t a i n e d t h e t i t l e o f S h a h , a n a now , i n r e w a r d f o r t h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e r v i c e , I g a v e him a m a n s a b o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n a l a n d 2 0 , 0 0 0 h o r s e a n d b e s t o w e d o n h im t h e t i t l e o f S h a h J a h a n . An o r d e r w as g i v e n t h a t h e n c e f o r t h t h e y s h o u l d p l a c e a c h a i r i n t h e p a r a d i s e - r e s e m b l i n g a s s e m b l i e s n e a r my t h r o n e f o r my s o n t o s i t upon. T h i s w as a s p e c i a l f a v o u r f o r my s o n , a s i t h a d n e v e r b e e n t h e c u sto m h e r e t o f o r e . A s p e c ia l d re ss o f honour w i t h a g o ld - e m b r o id e r e d ch arq .ab , w ith c o l l a r , t h e end o f t h e s l e e v e s an d t h e s k i r t d e c o r a te d w ith p e a r l s , w o rth 5 0 , 0 0 0 r u p e e s , a j e w e l l e d sw ord w ith a j e w e l l e d p a r a a l a ( b e l t ) , and a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w ere b e s to w e d upon h im . I n h is honour I m y self came down f r o m t h e j h a r o k h a a n d p o u r e d o v e r h i s h e a d a s m a l l t r a y o f je w e ls and a t r a y o f g o ld ( c o i n s ) .
P rep a ra to ry Sketch*
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. C atalogue o f th e In d ia n C o lle c t io n s i n th e Museum o f F in e A r ts . B o sto n . V o l. VI: Mughal P a in t in g . Cambridge* Harvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1930. P la t e XXXIII.
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37
Final Encounter Between Jahangir and P rin ce Khurram Upon the L a tte r 1a Second Departure fo r the Deccan d a te o f e v e n t: 26 December 1620 f o l i o 195 ^ d im en sion s: 1 3 « 3 ” x 8 . 5 ” a r t i s t : Payag
s ig n a tu r e : bottom l e f t edge on p a le tte
P la te XXXIX The t r u c e a t t a i n e d f r o m M a l i k AmDar a n d A a i l 5 h a h was i n a e e d a
temporary on e, f o r as soon a s Mughal troop p r e s su r e s were taken o f f from tn e Deccan, botn o f them began tr y in g to r e g a in t h e ir l o s t te r r ito r ie s .
A g u e r i l l a t a c t i c campaign was lau n ch ed upon th e
Mughal army th e r e in th e aim of s ta r v in g and i s o l a t i n g them.
Khan
Khanan, who was th e commander of th e D eccani based f o r c e s , r e t r e a t e d to Burhanapur, and from th e r e he se n t out numerous a p p ea ls fo r h e lp , s t a t i n g th a t i t was im p o s sib le to n o la out much lo n g e r .
29
P rin ce
Khurram was chosen to le a d th e r e l i e f e x p e d itio n , and he was sen t o u t on th e 2 6 t h DecemDer 1 6 2 0 .
At th e le a v e - t a k in g darbar ne was
g iv e n a rob e of honor, a sword and two e le p h a n ts .
His c o n tin g e n t
c o n s is t e d o f 650 m ansabdars, 1 , 0 0 0 a h a d is, 1 , 0 0 0 m u sk eteers, a la r g e a r t i l l e r y and many e le p h a n ts .
T h is was th e l a s t en cou n ter
betw een J a h a n g ir and p r in c e Khurram, and i t marks the e a r ly s ta g e s o f co u rt i n t r ig u e d ir e c t e d by Nur Jahan on th e s u b je c t o f th e fu tu r e emperor o f I n a i a .
once a g a in t h is p a in tin g i s s e t ou t in
th e t y p ic a l darbar fa s h io n w ith J a h a n g ir and Khurram on th e balcony and th e n o b le s and guards in th e h a l l sta n d in g a cco rd in g to t h e ir
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238
ra n k s.
The flo w e re d back w a ll i n d i c a t e s th a t t h i s au d ien ce took
p la c e in one o f th e h a l l s a t Lahore.
On th e throne b alcon y
J a h a n g ir i s handing a j e w e lle d a ig r e t t e t o P r in ce Khurram who sta n d s r e s p e c t f u l l y b e fo r e h is f a t h e r .
On th e w a ll beneath th e
throne i s a p a in tin g show ing two s u f i s behind a g lo b e , and underneath i s th e m o tif o f th e l i o n ly in g down w ith an ox.
The
d is t r ib u t io n o f th e c o u r t ie r s in th e h a l l in a ca su a l fa s h io n c o n tr a ts w ith th e s t r i c t e r order found on th e th r o n e b a lco n y . T h is c o n tr a s t i s r e p e a ted in th e c o lo r scheme which d e p ic ts a w h ite m arble w a ll d eco ra ted w ith sm all f l o r a l d e s ig n s on th e th ron e b a lco n y , and a v a r i e t y o f b r ig h t garm ents o f the c o u r t ie r s i n th e h a l l .
A ccount in T u z u k - I - J a h a n g ir i
(R ogers and B e v e rid g e , I I
p . 1^0)
A c c o r d i n g l y , on F r i d a y t h e 4 t h o f D a i , I d e s p a t c h e d K h u rra m i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n , b e s t o w i n g o n h im a d r e s s o f h o n o u r , a s w o r d a n d an e le p h a n t. N ur J a h a n Begum a l s o g a v e h im a n e l e p h a n t . I t o l d h im a f t e r h e n a a c o n q u e r e d t n e p r o v i n c e o f t n e B e c c a n h e s h o u l d t a k e a s r e w a r d 2 c o r c e s o f dams f r o m t h e c o n q u e r e d co u n try . b^C m a n s a b d a r s , 1 , 0 0 0 a h a u i s , 1 , 0 0 0 T u r k i s h m u s k e t e e r s an d 1 , 0 0 0 g u n n e r s on f o o t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t n e 3 1 , 0 0 0 h o r s e s a l r e a d y i n t h a t q u a r t e r , and a l a r g e f o r c e o f a r t i l l e r y , and many e l e p n a n t s , w e r e a p p o i n t e d t o a c c o m p a n y h im . I a l s o gave h im a c o r e e o f r u p e e s f o r t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s a rm y . Tne s e r v a n t s wno w e r e a p p o i n t e d on t h i s d u t y r e c e i v e d e a c h a c c o rd in g to h i s s ta n d in g as a re w a rd , h o r s e s , e le p h a n ts and d re s s e s o f honour.
P u b lis h e d 1
b each , M ilo C lev ela n d . The Grand Mogul Inrperip-) P a in tin g in I n d ia 1600 - 1 6 6 0 . W illiam stow n: S t e r lin g and F rancine Clark Art I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 . F ig u re 5 ( d e t a i l of f o l i o I 95 r , i d e n t i f i e d a s s e l f p o r t r a it o f th e a r t i s t P ayag).
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239
38
Capture o f F ort U dgir d a te o f e v e n t: 8 O ctober 1636 (8 Jumada I IO4 6 ) , 9 th r e g n a l y e a r f o l i o 204 v d im en sio n s: 13 . 7 " x 1 0 . 3 M a r t i s t : Daula
s ig n a tu r e : bottom l e f t on h o r se
P l a t e XL The f o r t o f U dgir had fo rm e rly been under th e t e r r i t o r i a l l i m i t s o f A d il Shah th e nizam o f B ija p u r , and when lie su b m itted a l l e g i e n c e to th e Mughal crown, Khan Dauran Bahadur was in s t r u c t e d t o take c o n tr o l o f the f o r t .
On a r r iv in g i n th e v i c i n t y , he is s u e d warning o rd ers
to S id i M ifta , th e commander o f th e f o r t , to su rren d er q u i e t l y or e l s e be s u b je c te d t o heavy a t t a c k s .
T h is ord er b ein g ig n o r e d , the
Mughal tr o o p s began r e c o n a is s a n c e work and prepared to a t ta c k .
When
S id i M ifta saw t n i s ne became d ish e a r te n e d and agreed to n e g o t ia t e , but e x e r c is e d such u n rea so n a b le terms th a t Khan Dauran Bahadur c e a se d n e g o t ia t io n s and c o n tin u e d th e o f f e n s e s .
A b a s tio n was
blown up, but th e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s rem ained un touch ed, and Khan Dauran Bahadur r e a l i z e d th a t i t was b e t t e r t o le a v e them i n t a c t r a th e r th en to have to expend th e en ergy to r e b u ild them i f th ey were d em olish ed . H is o f f e r s to make p eace w ere e a g e r ly a c cep ted by S id i M ifta who w i l l i n g l y handed over th e k eys to tne f o r t .
The p a in tin g shows
th e moments j u s t b e fo r e t h i s v ery i n c id e n t .
Khan Dauran Bahadur
i s s e a te d on h is h orse and i s ad van cin g forw ard t o m eet S id i M ifta and h is r e p r e s e n t a x iv e s .
Behind th e Khan are th e o th e r o f f i c e r s
and s o l d i e r s , arranged i n n e a t row s.
The f o r t l i e s in th e
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240
background, and from th e r e th e h an dcuffed p r is o n e r s come o u t.
The
p r is o n e r s a re in two grou p s; one i s b ein g p r esen ted to Khan Dauran Bahadur, and th e o th e r sta n d s a few yard s b eh in d. th e p a in tin g i s s tr u c tu r e d on a v e r t i c a l a lig n m en t
The f a c t th a t — composed o f
th e rows o f s o ld i e r s on th e r ig h t edge and the row o f p r is o n e r s coming out from th e f o r t ~
and th a t i t i s taken from a h igh
v a n ta g e p o in t, a llo w s th e v ie w e r 's a t t e n t io n to be fo cu sed on th e group of Ahan Dauran Bahadur and th e group o f p r is o n e r s .
Account i n M ulajchKhas ( B e g l e y , p . 28 4) As s o o n a s t n i s p r o p o s a l r e a c h e a n im , t h e b e s e i g e d S i a i M i f t a , wno h a d c o n c l u d e d t h a t c a p t u r e o f t h e f o r t a n a n i s own a e s t r u c t i o n s w ere i n e v i t a b l e , s t r i c t l y o b e y e a t n e i n j u n c t i o n and so u g h t a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h K han D a u r a n d u r i n g w h i c h ne d e l i v e r e d o v e r t o h im t h e k e y s o f t h e f o r t , un t h e 8 t h o f t h e a f o r e s a i d m o n th o f J u m a d a I ( b t h O c t o b e r I b j b ) , a f t e r a s e i g e o f t h r e e m o n th s a n d some d a y s , t h e c i t a u e l w as s u r r e n d e r e d i n t o t n e h a n d s o f th e r o y a li s ts .
U npublished
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241 39 - 40
P ilg r im a g e t o th e Shrine o f Khwa.ia M»« 1969*
S k e lto n , R o b ert.
V i c t o r i a and A lb e r t
V i c t o r i a and A lb e r t Museum
" F a c e t s o f In d ia n P a in tin g ."
A p ollo
(1 9 7 6 ):
2 6 b - 273* S x e lto n , R o b e r t. "The I n d i a n C o l l e c t i o n s : 1 7 9 8 - 1 9 7 8 i n t h e V i c t o r i a and A l b e r t M useum." B u r li n g t o n M a g a zin e 120 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 2 9 7 -3 0 4 .
S k e lto n , R o b ert. The In d ia n H e r ita g e . Museum, 1982.
London: V ic t o r ia and A lb ert
Staart, Ellen. "Painting from the Babur Nama: A Study of 16th Century Mughal Historical Manuscript Illustrations." PhD dissertation. S.O.A.S., University of London, 1977* Sm ith, V in ce n t A. "Joannes de L aet on I n d ia and Shah Jahan." In d ia n A n t iq u it ie s 43 (1914)* 2 3 9 -2 4 4 . Sm ith, V in cen t A. The Oxford H isto r y o f I n d ia . 3rd ed. E d ited by P e r c iv a l Spear. O xford: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1958. Sotheby & Co. C atalogu e o f P e r s ia n . In d o -P e r sia n and In d ian M in ia tu r e s. Tuesday May 26 t h , 1936. S otheby & Co. C atalogue o f Fine O r ie n ta l M an u scrip ts and Mughal M in ia tu r e s. Monday 2 8 th January, 1952. Sotheby & Co.
C atalogu e o f H igh ly Im portant O r ie n ta l M an u scrip ts and
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288
Miniatures.. The. Kevorkian Foundation. Monday 1 st December, 1969 . S o t h e b y & Co.
B ib lio th e c a P h illip p ic a .
W e d n e sd a y 2 7 t h N o v em b er,
1^74 . S o u stie l, Jean. M in ia tu r e s Q r ie n ta le s ae l 'I n d e : Les E co les e t L eurs S t y l e s . P a r i s : L i D r a i r i e L e g u e l t e l , 1973* S o u s t i e l , J e a n a n d D a v i d , M .C . M i n i a t u r e s d e . l ' I n d e : E c o l e s M o g h o le s. du D eccan , e t A u tr e E c o le s I n d i e n n e s . P a r i s : L i b r a r i e L e g u e lte l, 1974. S ta n d ish , J .S . Q u a rte rly
' ' P e r s i a n I n f l u e n c e s i n M u g h al I n d i a . " 16 0-173.
Isla m ic
12 ( 1 9 6 8 ) :
S tc h o u k in e , Iv an * La P e i n t u r e I n d i e n n e a l'E p o q u e d e s G ran d s M o g h o ls. P a r i s : L i b r a r i e E r n e s t L e r o u x , 1 9 2 9 . S tc h o u k in e , Iv a n . L e s M i n i a t u r e s de l ' E p o q u e d e s G r a n d s M o g h o ls a u M usee d u L o u v r e . P a r i s : L i o r a r i e E rn e s t L ero u x , 1929. S tc h o u k in e, Iv a n . " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls : D eux D a r b a r d e J a h a n g i r . " R ev u e d e s A r t s A s i a t i q u e s 6 (1 9 2 9 ): 212-241. S t c n o u k i n e , I v a n . " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls ; Le p o r t r a i t S o u s J a h a n g i r . " Revue a e s A r ts A s i a ti q u e s 7 (1 9 2 9 ): 1b3-176. S tch o u k in e, l e G uzl
I v a n . " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls : Un D a r b a r d e J a h a n g i r d a n s K h a n a h ." Revue d e s A r t s A s i a t i q u e s 7 0 9 3 1 ) : 2 3 3 -2 4 3 *
S t c h o u k i n e , I v a n . " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls : L a C o l l e c t i o n B a r o n M a u r i c e de R o t h s c h i l d ." Revue d e s A r ts A s i a t i q u e s 9 ( '• 9 3 5 ) : 1 9 ^ -2 0 8 . S t o r e y , C h a r l e s A m brose. P e rs ia n L ite r a tu r e ; a B io -b io g ra p h ic a l S urvey. London: R oyal A s i a t i c S o c ie ty o f G re a t B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d , 1927 - 1939* S u t t o n , S .C . A G u id e t o t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y . M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 19^7* T a v e rn ie r, Jean B a p tio e . T ra v e ls in I n d i a . 2 v o ls. by V. B a l l . London: M a c m illa n & C o ., 1889-
London: H er
T ra n sla te d
T i m u r . M u l f u z a t T im u r y (M e m o irs o f T i m u r ) . T r a n s l a t e d by M a jo r C h arles S te w a rt. L a h o r e : S a n g - e - M e e l P u o . , 1975* T i t l e y , N o ra h M. M i n i a t u r e s f r o m P e r s i a n M a n u s c r i p t s A C a t a l o g u e an d S u b j e c t In d e x o f P a i n t i n g s from P e r s i a , I n d i a and T u rk ey i n t h e B r i t i j h L i b r a r y a n a t h e B r i t i s h Museum. London: B r i t i s h Museum P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d . , 1 9 7 7 .
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289
Titley, Norah M. Sports and Pastimes Scenes from Turkish, Persian and Mughal Paintings. Londons British Library, 1979* Titley, Norah M. Plants and Gardens in Persian, Mughal and Turkish Art. London: British Library, 1979* Toy, Sidney.
The Fortifications of India* London: Heinemann, 19^5*
W atson, F r a n c is . A C o n cise H isto r y o f I n d ia . Hudson, 1974*
London: Thames and
W elch, S tu a r t Cary. "Mughal and D eccan i P a in t in g s from a P r iv a t e C o lle c t io n ." Ars O r ie n t a lis V ( 1963 ): 221-234*
Welch, Stuart Cary. The Art of Mughal India Painting and Precious Ob.iects. New York: The Asia Society In c., 19^3* Welch, Stuart Cary. Gods. Thrones, and Peacocks Northern Indian Painting from Two Traditions: 15 to 19 Century. New York: The Asia Society In c., 19&5* Welch, Stuart Cary. A Flower from Every Meadow: Indian Paintings from American Collections. New York: The Asia Society In c., 197?* Welch, Stuart Cary. Indian Drawings and Painted Sketches 16th through 19th Centuries. New York: The Asia Society Inc., 1976 . Welch, Stuart Cary. Imperial Mughal Painting. Braziller Inc., 1978* Wilkinson, 'J.V.S. 1948.
Mughal Painting.
New York: George
London: Faber & Faber Co.,
Wilkinson, J.V.S. "Portrait of Shah Daulat by Bichitr." of the Royal Asiatic Society (1950)* 1*
Journal
Wilkinson, J.V.S. "An Indian Manuscript of the Golestan of the Shah Jahan Period." Ars Orientalis II (1957)* 423-425*
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PLATES
A ll th e ph otographs in t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n were rep ro duced by th e a u th o r, e i t h e r from o r i g in a l photographs or from books th a t a re f u l l y c i t e d i n th e b ib lio g r a p h y .
Acknowledgement to th e
f o llo w in g s o u r c e s: Royal L ib r a ry , W indsor C a s tle : I-XLVI B r i t i s h L ib ra ry : LV V ic t o r ia and A lb ert Museum: LIX; LXIV Brown, In d ia n P a in t in g : XLVII; L I; L III; LXI A rnold, The L ib rary o f A .C h ester B e a tty : Beach, The Grand M ogul:
XLVIII; LX
XLIX; LVII; LXLII; LXVI; LXIX
Welch, Im p eria l Mughal P a in t in g : B u s s a g li, In d ia n M in ia tu r e s :
L; L II; LVI; LXV
LIV
G alloway and Spink, I s la m ic Art from I n d ia : Marteau and V ever, M in ia tu r e s P e r sa n e s : H o l l i s , " P o r tr a it o f a R aja":
LXVII
G a sco ig n e, The G reat M oghuls:
LXVIII
LVIII
LXII
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P la te I
Shamsa, f o l i o 1v, Badshah Nama Royal L ib ra ry , Windsor C a stle
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P la te I I S ttam sa, f o l i o
2 r,
batis-hah mama
R o y al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e
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P la te
III
P o r t r a it of Timur, f o l i o 2v, Baashah Nama Royal L ib ra r y , W indsor C a stle
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P la t e IV P o r t r a it o f Shah. Jahan, f o l i o Royal L ib r a ry , Windsor C a stle
Badshah Mama
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295
P la te V R e c e p t i o n o f P r i n c e K h u rra m Upon H i s D e p a r t u r e f o r t h e Mewar C a m p a ig n , f o l i o 4 J v , B a a s h a h Hama R oy al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e
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P la t e VI P r i n c e K h u rra m R e c e i v i n g t h e S u b d u e d R a n a Amar S i n g h , f o l i o 46 v , B a d s h a h Mama
R oyal L ib ra ry , W indsor C a stle
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P la t e VII P r i n c e K h u rra m R e c e i v i n g t h e Subdued. R a n a Amar S i n g h , f o l i o 4 7 r , B a d s h a h Rama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e
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P la te V III J a h a n g ir R e c e iv in g P r in ce Khurram A lt e r H is S u c c e s s fu l Campaign A g a in st th e Rana of Mewar, f o l i o 48v, Badshah Nama Royal L ib r a r y , W i n d s o r C a s tle
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P la t e IX J a h a n g i r R e c e i v i n g P r i n c e K n u rra m A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l C a m p a ig n A g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar, f o l i o 4b^»
Badshah Nama Royal L ib r a ry , W indsor C a stle
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P la te X A r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d t n e P r i n c e s f r o m L a h o r e , fo lio B a d s h a h Nama
R oyal L ib ra r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XI A r r i v a l o f A s a f Xhan a n a t n e P r i n c e s f r o m L a h o r e , f o l i o 51 r , B a d s h a h Nama R o y al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e
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302
.v.
P la t e X II S o l a r W eig n m en t o f S tiah J a n a n , f o l i o
7 0 v , B a d s h a h Mama
R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e
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ff(F3j£3
P la te X III S o l a r W eig hm ent o f S h a h J a h a n , f o l i o
71^* B a d s h a h Nama
R o y al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s tle
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P la te XIV C e l e b r a ti o n o f tn e N au ro z F e s t i v a l a t A g ra , f o l i o 72v> B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P l a t e XV B e s ie g in g th e P o r t o f D h a ru r, f o l i o y 2 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XVI Death o f Khan Jahan L od i, f o l i o 94v, Badshan Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , W indsor C a stle
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P la te XVII R ecep tio n o f th e P e r sia n Ambassador Muhammad A li Beg a t Burhanpur, f o l i o 9Qv» Badshah Rama Royal L ib ra ry , Windsor C a stle
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308
P l a t e X V III P he S ie g e o f K a n d a h a r, f o l i o
1 0 2 v , B a d s h a h Nama
R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la te XIX A r r iv a l o f th e P ortu gu ese w ith T rib u te O ffe r in g s , f o l i o 1 1 6 v , BadshaJh Nama Royal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XX Capture o f th e P ortu gu ese P ort a t H u gh li, f o l i o 117r, Badshah Mama Royal L ib ra r y , W indsor C a s tle
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P la t e XXI D e l i v e r y off t h e S achaq. t o t h e H o u se o f t h e Widow o f •che L a t e P r i n c e P a r w i z , J a h a n B anu B egum , M o th e r o f t h e B r i d e - t o - b e o f B a r a S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 0 r , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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312
P l a t e X XII D e l i v e r y o f t h e S a c h a q t o t h e H o u se o f t h e Widow o f t h e L a t e P r i n c e P a r w i z , J a h a n B an u Begum , M o th e r o f t h e B r i d e - t o - b e o f D a r a S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 1 r , B a d s h a h Nama. R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XXIII E s c o r tin g Dara Shikoh to H is Wedaing Ceremony, f o l i o 122v, Badshah Mama R oyal L ib r a ry , Windsor C a stle
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P la t e XXIV E s c o r tin g Dara Sdikoh to H is Wedding Ceremony, f o l i o 123r, Badshan Hama Royal L ib ra ry , Windsor C a stle
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P la te XXV Shah Jahan P r e s e n tin g Wedding G i f t s to Dara Shikoh, f o l i o 124v, Badshah Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , Windsor C a s tle
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P l a t e XXVI S h a h J a h a n P r e s e n t i n g W e d d in g G i f t s t o D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 5 r , B a d s h a h Mama
R oyal L ib ra r y , W indsor C a stle
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P la te XXVII Wedding o f Shah Shu ja, f o l i o 126v, Badshah Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XXVIII Wedding o f Shah. S huja, f o l i o 127r, Badshah Mama R oyal L ib ra ry , W indsor C a stle
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P la te XXIX A urangzeb C o n fr o n tin g an. E nraged E le p h a n t f o l i o 134r, Badshah Kama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XXX P r i n c e K h u rram K i l l i n g a L i o n , f o l i o R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
1 3 5 v , B a d s h a h Nama
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P la t e XXXI C a p t u r e o f t h e P o r t o f D a u la ta b a c L , f o l i o 144^* B a d s h a h mama
R oyal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XXXII D e p a r t u r e o f S h a h S h u ja f o r t h e D e c c a n , f o l i o 147 v , B a d s h a h Mama
Royal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s tle
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323
P l a t e X X X III S h ah J a n a n H u n tin g N ilg a o N e a r P a la m , f o l i o 1 b 5 r , B a d s d a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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324
P l a t e XXXIV O n a g e r H u n tin g i n B H era i n t h e P u n j a b , f o l i o 1 6 6 v , BacLsnah Mama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XXXV Capture o f th e F o r ts o f Orccha and Dhamuli, f o l i o 174^, Badshah Nama Royal L ib ra r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XXXVI P r e s e n ta tio n o f tn e Heads o f Ju jh ar Singh and H is Son J a g ra j S in g h , f o l i o 176v, Badshah Nama R oyal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a stle
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P la t e XXXVII C o n fe r a l o f th e T i t l e Shah Khurram. f o l i o 1 9 2 v , Badshah Kama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XXXVIII C o n fe ra l o f th e T i t l e Shah J a h a n , f o l i o 1 9 4 v , B a d s h a h Nama
R oyal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a stle
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P la t e XXXIX P i n a l E n c o u n t e r B e tw e e n J a h a n g i r a n d p r i n c e K h u rra m , f o l i o 1 ^ 5 ^ , B a d s h a h Nama
Royal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s tle
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P la t e XL Capture o f F o r t U dgir, f o l i o 204v, Badshan Mama Royal L ib ra r y , W indsor C a s tle
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P la te XLI P i l g r i m a g e t o t n e b h r i n e o f K h w aja M u 'i n a l p i n C h i s h t i , f o l i o 2 0 5 v , B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XLII P ilg r im a g e to
t n e S h r i n e o f K h w a ja M u 'i n a l D in C h i s h t i , f o l i o 2 0 far, B a d s h a h Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e
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P la t e XLIII D eparture of Aurangzeb f o r th e Deccan, f o l i o 214 v , Badshah Mama Koyal L ib ra r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XLIV Return o f Aurangzeb from th e B eccan, f o l i o 217 v , Badshah tiama R oyal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XLV Wedding o f Aurangzeb, f o l i o 21bv, Padshah Nama Royal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a stle
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P la t e XLVI H unting L io n s a t B a r i, f o l i o 220v, BadsLah Nama R oyal L ib r a r y , Windsor C a s tle
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P la t e XLVII D e a th o f I n a y a t K han
B o d le ia n L ib ra ry , Oxford MS. O u seley Add 171b
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P la t e XLVIII A r r e st o f Shah Abu'l M a 'a li, f o l i o 7> Akbar Nam a C h ester B e a tty L ib rary, D ublin
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P la t e XLIX J a h a n g i r E n t e r t a i n i n g S h e i k h s , J a h a n g i r Nama C o l l e c t i o n E d w in B in n e y
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P la te L J a h a n g i r i n B a r b a r , J a h a n g i r ham a B o s to n . M useum o f P i n e A r t s , 1 4 . 6 5 4
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P la t e LI S b a n J a h a n R e c e i v i n g a P e r s i a n E m b assy ( R e c e p t i o n o f Y a a g a r B eg )
B o d le ia n L ib r a r y , O xford, MS. O u seley Add 173
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P la t e LI I A K bar H u n tin g i n a n E n c l o s u r e , f o l i o
5 6 , A k b a r Hama
V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M useum, L o n d o n
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P la t e L III C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e F e s t i v a l o f A b p a s i , J a h a n g i r Nama R am pur S t a t e L i b r a r y
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P la t e LIV A k b ar G iv in g A u d ie n c e t o A b d - u r - k a h m in , A k b ar Mama V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M useum, L o n d o n
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345
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P l a t e LV D a r b a r o f Shah. J a h a n , f o l i o 433> S h ah J a h a n Nama B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , L o n d o n , MS. O r 2157
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P la t e LVI Shamsa M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum o f A r t , New Y o r k ,
5 5 * 1 2 1 .1 0 .3 9
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P la te LVII S h am sa P r iv a te C o lle c tio n .
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P la t e LVIII S n a m sa , L i w a n - i A n v a r i S o ld a t S p in k & S o n , L o n d o n , 24 A p r i l - 10 May 1980
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P la t e LIX F r o n t i s p i e c e , M in to Album V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M useum , L o n d o n , I.M * 8 - 1 9 2 5
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350
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F r o n t is p ie c e , Minto Album C h e s te r B e a tty L i b r a r y , D u b lin , 7 -1 9
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351
P l a t e LXI P r i n c e s o f t h e H o u se o f T im u r B r i t i s h M useum , L o n d o n
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P l a t e L X II Shah J a n a n i n D arb a r (C o ro n a tio n D a rb a r) C o l l e c t io n H e n ri V e v e r, P a r i s
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P la t e LXIII Shah Jahan on the Peacock Throne C o lle c t io n Edwin Binney
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P la t e LXIV S h ah J a h a n w ith a C h ild V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M useum , L o n d o n , I . S . 9 0 - 1 9 6 5
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P la t e LXV J a h a n g i r p r e f e r i n g a S u f i S h a ik h t o K in g s F r e e r G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a s h in g t o n D .C ., 4 5 » 1 5 a
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356
P l a t e LXVI E p iso d e i n a B a z a a r R o th s c h ild C o lle c tio n
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P l a t e LXVII R a ja B ik ra m a jit C l e v e l a n d Museum o f A r t ,
45*^70
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558
P l a t e L X Y III
Shah Jahan H onoring th e R e lig io u s Orthodoxy (N ig n t C e le b r a tio n o f th e P r o p h e t's B irth d a y ) F r e e r G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a s h in g to n D .C „ , 4 2 .1 7 A & 4 2 .1 8 A
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P la t e LXIX I z z a t Khan w itn O f f ic e r s ana Wise Men C o lle c t io n Edwin B inney
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