Wiley Organizational Behavior - Chapter 2 - 13th Edition

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Individual Differences and Diversity LE A R N ING ROA DM A P

Individual differences are the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics. Surface-level diversity involves individual differences in visible attributes such as race, sex, age, and physical abilities. Deep-level diversity involves individual differences in attributes such as personality and values.

SELF CONCEPT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND AWARENESS OF OTHERS VALUING-OR NOT VALUING-DIVERSITY • DIVERSITY ISSUES IN THE WORKPLACE DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

People are complex. You approach a situation one way, and someone else may approach it quite differently. These differences among people can make it difficult to predict and understand individual behavior in relationships, teams, and organizations. They also contribute to what makes the study of organizational behavior so fascinating. The term individual differences refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics. The mix of individual differences in organizations creates workforce diversity. Some of these differences are easily observable and often demographic. They represent surface-level diversity based on quite visible physical attributes such as ethnicity, race, sex, age, and abilities. Other individual differences—such as personalities, values, and attitudes—are more psychologically innate and less immediately visible. They represent deep-level diversity that may take time and effort to understand.1 Regardless of the level, diversity issues are of great interest in OB. Women, for example, now lead global companies such as PepsiCo, Xerox, IBM, and Kraft. But they still hold only 3 percent of top jobs in American firms.2 Why have so few women so far made it to the top?3 Society is becoming more diverse in its racial and ethnic makeup. But a research study found that résumés of people with white-sounding first names—such as Brett— received 50 percent more responses from potential employers than those with blacksounding first names—such as Kareem.4 How can these results be explained given that the résumés were created equal?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Awareness of Others Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, or moral beings. Self-awareness means being aware of one’s own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on. Awareness of others is being aware of the behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities of others. Self-esteem is a belief about one’s own worth based on an overall self-evaluation. Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task. Prejudice is the display of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves.

To best understand and deal well with individual differences and diversity, it only makes sense that it’s important to have a strong sense of self. The self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.5 It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being. Two factors that increase awareness of individual differences—our own and others—are self-awareness and awareness of others. Selfawareness means being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on. Awareness of others means being aware of these same things in others. A person’s self concept shows up in self-esteem, a belief about one’s own worth based on an overall self-evaluation.6 People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worthwhile, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are low in self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. Someone’s self-concept is also displayed in self-efficacy, sometimes called the effectance motive, which is a more specific version of self-esteem. It is an individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task. You could have high self-esteem and yet have a feeling of low self-efficacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking. What determines the development of the self? How, for example, can we explain prejudice in the form of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves? Perhaps you have heard someone say “She acts like her mother,” or “Bobby is the way he is because of the way he was raised.” These two comments illustrate the nature/nurture controversy: Are we the way we are because of heredity—genetic endowment, or because of environment—the cultural places and situations in which we have been raised and live? It is most likely that these two forces act in combination, with heredity setting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them.7

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The glass ceiling effect is an invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities.

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denied the full benefits of organizational membership. An example is when a manager fabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a working mother on the belief that “she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a good job at this level.” Such thinking underlies a form of discrimination called the glass ceiling effect, an invisible barrier or “ceiling” that prevents women and minorities from rising above a certain level of organizational responsibility.11

Diversity Issues in the Workplace Race and Ethnicity The value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion.

organizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of racial and ethnic diversity. And Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin, sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state and local governments. According to Title VII, equal employment opportunity cannot be denied any person because of his/her racial group or perceived racial group, his/her race-linked characteristics (e.g., hair texture, color, facial features), or because of his/her marriage to or association with someone of a particular race or color. It also prohibits employment decisions based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. But, as noted earlier in the research showing prejudice in job searches against person’s with black-sounding first names, it’s still an imperfect world.12

Gender Women are bringing not just task expertise but valuable interpersonal skills

The leaking pipeline describes how women drop out of careers before reaching the top levels of organizations.

The leadership double bind describes how women are seen as weak in leadership if they conform to the feminine stereotype and also weak if they go against it.

and styles to the workplace, such as listening and collaborative skills, and abilities to multitask and synthesize alternative viewpoints effectively and quickly. Research shows that companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate officers, on average, financially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by significant margins.13 The presence of women leaders is also beneficial because they encourage more women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women. Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organization has a broad and deep talent pool, and offers an inclusive workplace. Despite these benefits to organizations and anti-discrimination protections afforded them under Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have not penetrated the highest level of organizational leadership to the extent we would expect. Even worse, many are still abandoning corporate careers just as they are positioned to attain higher-level responsibilities. The term leaking pipeline was coined by Professor Lynda Gratton and colleagues of the London Business School to describe this phenomenon.14 In one study of 61 organizations operating in 12 European countries, they found that the number of women decreases the more senior the roles become. The nonprofit research organization Catalyst reports that women consistently identify gender stereotypes as a significant barrier to advancement and cause for the leaking pipeline.15 They describe a “think-leader-think-male” mind-set in which men are largely seen as leaders by default because of stereotypically masculine “take charge” skills such as influencing superiors and problem solving. Women, by contrast are stereotyped for “caretaking skills” such as supporting and encouraging others. This creates what is called a leadership double bind for women. If they conform to the stereotype they are seen as weak, and if they go against the stereotype they are breaking norms of femininity. As some describe it, female leaders are “damned if they do, doomed if they don’t.”16 Organizations can help address these stereotypes by creating workplaces that are more meaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are less command-and-control and status-based. As Catalyst reports, “Ultimately, it is not women’s leadership styles that need to change but the structures and perceptions that must keep up with today’s changing times.”17

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WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Would You Please Move Over? We’re Making Room for Generation Y

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mployers find a lot to like in the skills Generation Y members—the Millennials—bring to the workplace. No problem with technology—they’re always on the cusp of things. No problem with collaboration—they’ve grown up with teamwork and social media. No problem either with motivation—they’re task oriented and career focused. But Gen Ys also need special handling. They can be spoiled and self-centered, quick to complain when their bosses don’t communicate enough, when their skills aren’t fully tapped, and when work rules and bureaucracy get too restrictive. They’re also impatient for new assignments and promotions, and flexible work arrangements. And when they don’t get them they’re quick to move on. Loyalty to a single-employer career isn’t part of their DNA. Some employers go to great lengths to keep their Gen Ys happy, even to the point where “older” employers feel a bit put upon. The online book service Chegg cut middle management positions to make room for younger employees to advance. CEO Dan Rosensweig said, “If they don’t feel like they’re making a contribution to a company overall quickly, they don’t stay.” Software firm Aprimo guarantees Gen Ys promotion and a raise in a year if they perform up to expectations. When some of the older workers balked at this special treatment, President Bob Boehnlein said, “I had to strong-arm a little bit.”

Barry Austin/Moodboard/Corbis

Do the Analysis Do Gen Ys deserve special treatment? And when they get it, should it come at the expense of their more senior co-workers? Just how do you blend the needs and interests of a new generation of workers with others who have been around awhile—perhaps quite awhile? Who gains and who loses when the new generation pushes employers to rethink the nature of the employment contract?

points of conflict based on age stereotypes. Baby Boomers may view Millennials as feeling a sense of entitlement and not being hard working due to the way they dress and their interest in flexible hours. Millennials may view Baby Boomers and Gen Xers as more concerned about the hours they work than what they produce.22 The generational mix in organizations provides an excellent example of how diversity can deliver benefits. For example, Millennials seem to embrace gender equality and sexual, cultural, and racial diversity more than any previous generation, and they bring these values to work. Millennials also have an appreciation for community and collaboration. They can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. At the same time, Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment that contribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is benefiting their younger counterparts.23

Ability In recent years the “disability rights movement” has been working to bring attention and support to the needs of disabled workers.24 Estimates indicate that over 50 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and studies show these workers do their jobs as well as, or better than, nondisabled workers. Despite this, nearly three-quarters of severely disabled persons are reported to be unemployed, and almost 80 percent of those with disabilities say they want to work.25

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Social identity theory is a theory developed to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.

A feeling of in-group membership exists when individuals sense they are part of a group and experience favorable status and a sense of belonging. A feeling of out-group membership exists when individuals sense they are not part of a group and experience discomfort and low belongingness.

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Questions like those just posed are the focus of social identity theory as developed by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in their quest to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.30 According to the theory, individuals have not one but multiple “personal selves.” Which self is activated depends on the group with which the person identifies. The mere act of identifying, or “categorizing,” oneself as a member of a group will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in the form of “in-group” enhancement. This in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of the out-group. In terms of diversity, social identity theory suggests that simply having diversity in groups makes that identity salient in peoples’ minds. Individuals engage these identities and experience feelings of in-group membership and out-group membership. The implications of social identity theory are straightforward. When organizations have strong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity, this will work against a feeling of inclusion. Such in-group and out-group categorizations can be subtle but powerful, and they may be most noticeable to those in the “out-group” category. Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but when only a few members of a group are present, this may evoke a strong out-group identity. They may end up feeling uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. Managers and organizations try to deal with all this by creating work cultures and environments that welcome and embrace inclusion. The concept of valuing diversity emphasizes an appreciation of differences while creating a workplace where everyone feels valued and accepted.31

Personality LE A R N ING ROA DM A P

Personality is the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.

Personality traits are enduring characteristics describing an individual’s behavior. Big Five Personality  Dimensions

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS • SOCIAL TRAITS PERSONAL CONCEPTION TRAITS

The term personality encompasses the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others. It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. Think of yourself, and of your family and friends. A key part of how you interact with others depends on your own and their personalities, doesn’t it? If you have a friend who has a sensitive personality, do you interact with that person differently than you do with a friend or family member who likes to joke around? Sometimes attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires or special tests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personality is an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictable interplays between people’s individual differences and their tendencies to behave in certain ways.

Big Five Personality Traits Numerous lists of personality traits—enduring characteristics describing an individual’s behavior—have been developed, and used in OB research. A key starting point is to consider the personality dimensions known as the “Big Five Model”:32 ■ Extraversion—the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive. An extravert is comfortable and confident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more withdrawn and reserved. ■ Agreeableness—the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is a source of conflict and discomfort for others. ■ Conscientiousness—the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and careful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets

Personality

Attractiveness Good for Men But Bad for Women When Job Hunting Physical attractiveness is often considered a pathway to advancement and career success. The better looking among us, the reasoning goes, tend to fare better. But researchers from Ben Gurion University and Ariel University Centre in Israel faced unusual results when they tackled “attractiveness” in a study of employment practices. They sent similar résumés with and without photos of the job applicants to prospective employers. These photos of the male and female applicants were

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rated for attractiveness. Findings showed that attractive males were better off sending photos with their résumés, but attractive StockLite/Shutterstock females were not. The hiring bias against attractive women in the study was explained as jealousy on the part of human resource staffers who are mostly female.

commitments; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do too much and failing, or doing little. ■ Emotional stability—the degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and unworried. A person who is emotionally stable is calm and confident; a person lacking in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense. ■ Openness to experience—the degree to which someone is curious, open to new ideas, and imaginative. An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things, and comfortable with change; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has few interests, and is resistant to change. A considerable body of literature links the personality dimensions of the Big Five model with behavior at work and in life overall. For example, conscientiousness is a good predictor of job performance for most occupations, and extraversion is often associated with success in management and sales. Indications are that extraverts tend to be happier than introverts in their lives overall, that conscientious people tend to be less risky, and that those more open to experience are more creative.33 You can easily spot the Big Five personality traits in people with whom you work, study, and socialize. But don’t forget that they also apply to you. Others form impressions of your personality, and respond to it, just as you do in response to theirs. Managers often use these and other personality judgments when making job assignments, building teams, and otherwise engaging in the daily social give-and-take of work.

Social Traits Social traits are surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings. A person’s problem-solving style, based on the work of noted psychologist Carl Jung, is a good example. It reflects the way someone goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions. Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by the typically 100-item Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or feel in specific situations. The MBTI is often used by organizations to improve selfawareness of participants in management development programs.34 The first component in Jung’s typology, information gathering, involves getting and organizing data for use. Styles of information gathering vary from sensation to intuitive. Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in gathering information; they would rather work with known facts than look for possibilities. By contrast, intuitive-type individuals prefer the “big picture.” They like solving new problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts.

Social traits reflect how a person appears to others in social settings. Problem-solving style is how we gather and evaluate information when solving problems.

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OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Ambition and The Social Network Sony’s movie The Social Network is based on Facebook’s story and especially the role of visionary and controversial founder Mark Zuckerberg (played by Jesse Eisenberg). Although Zuckerberg calls the film pure “fiction,” it raises ethical questions about his actions while developing the initial Web site, refining it, and eventually turning it into a global company valued at over $50 billion. Two former Harvard classmates, Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, sued him, claiming the original idea was theirs. Another early collaborator and co-founder, Eduardo Saverin, was initially left out of the new firm’s financial gains. In its reaction to the film, Entertainment Weekly asks, “Why did Zuckerberg betray these people? Or, in fact, did he really?”

Columbia Pictures/Photofest

One thing that cannot be denied is Zuckerberg’s ambition, the desire to succeed and reach for high goals. He’s the youngest self-made billionaire in business history. As the movie shows, ambition is one of those personality traits that can certainly have a big impact on individual behavior—both for the good and for the bad.

Get to Know Yourself Better

Watch The Social Network and discuss with your friends and classmates how different personalities and talents played out in creating the Facebook revolution. What can you learn that might help you deal with the ethics and intricacies of human behavior in work situations? Then take “Assessment 19: Your Personality Type” in the OB Skills Workbook. Personality is a good starting point for exploring your preferences and gaining a better understanding of who you are. How difficult would it be for someone else to understand you? Spend a few minutes looking at that. After you score the assessment, sit down with your roommate or a close friend and discuss the results. Is what you discovered consistent with how they see you?

The second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgments about how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of information evaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feelingtype individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to other people. They try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Thinking-type individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions. When the two dimensions of information gathering and evaluation are combined, four basic problem-solving styles can be identified. As shown in Figure 2.1, people can be classified into combinations of sensation–feeling (SF), intuitive–feeling (IF), sensation– thinking (ST), and intuitive–thinking (IT). Research indicates that there is a fit between the styles of individuals and the kinds of decisions they prefer. For example, STs (sensation–thinkers) prefer analytical strategies— those that emphasize detail and method. IFs (intuitive–feelers) prefer intuitive strategies—those that emphasize an overall pattern and fit. Not surprisingly, mixed styles (sensation–feelers or intuitive–thinkers) select both analytical and intuitive strategies. Other findings also indicate that thinkers tend to have higher motivation than do feelers, and that individuals who emphasize sensations tend to have higher job satisfaction than do intuitives. These and other findings suggest a number of basic differences among

Personality

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S Sensation–Feeling

Sensation–Thinking

Interpersonal Specific human detail Friendly, sympathetic Open communication Respond to people now Good at: Empathizing Cooperating Goal: To be helpful

Technical detail oriented Logical analysis of hard data Precise, orderly Careful about rules and procedures Dependable, responsible Good at: Observing, ordering Filing, recalling Goal: Do it correctly

F

T Intuitive–Feeling

Intuitive–Thinking

Insightful, mystical Idealistic, personal Creative, original Global ideas oriented to people Human potential Good at: Imagining New combinations Goal: To make things beautiful

Speculative Emphasize understanding Synthesize, interpret Logic-oriented ideas Objective, impersonal, idealistic Good at: Discovery, inquiry Problem solving Goal: To think things through

I

FIGURE 2.1 Four problemsolving styles of the Jungian typology.

different problem-solving styles, emphasizing the importance of fitting such styles with a task’s information processing and evaluation requirements.35

Personal Conception Traits What are known as personal conception traits represent various ways people think about their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientations toward a range of issues. Personal conception traits often discussed in the work context include locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavellianism, and self-monitoring.

Locus of Control The extent to which a person feels able to control his or her own life is known as locus of control.36 People have personal conceptions about whether events are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, or by outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an external orientation. Internals, or persons with an internal locus of control, believe that they control their own fate or destiny. In contrast, externals, or persons with an external locus of control, believe that much of what happens to them is beyond their control and is determined by environmental forces (such as fate). In general, externals are more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and are more oriented toward the world around them. Internals tend to be more introverted and are more oriented toward their own feelings and ideas. Figure 2.2 suggests that internals tend to do better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative. Proactive Personality Some people in organizations are passive recipients when faced with constraints, whereas others take direct and intentional action to change their

Personal conception traits show up as personal beliefs and orientations toward settings and issues.

Locus of control is the extent a person feels able to control his or her own life and is concerned with a person’s internal–external orientation.

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FIGURE 2.2 Ways in which internal locus of control differs from external locus of control.

A proactive personality is the disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environments.

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Information processing

Internals make more attempts to acquire information, are less satisfied with the amount of information they possess, and are better at utilizing information.

Job satisfaction

Internals are generally more satisfied, less alienated, less rootless, and there is a stronger job satisfaction/ performance relationship for them.

Performance

Internals perform better on learning and problemsolving tasks when performance leads to valued rewards.

Self-control, risk, and anxiety

Internals exhibit greater self-control, are more cautious, engage in less risky behavior, and are less anxious.

Motivation, expectancies, and results

Internals display greater work motivation, see a stronger relationship between what they do and what happens to them, expect that working hard leads to good performance, and feel more control over their time.

Response to others

Internals are more independent, more reliant on their own judgment, and less susceptible to the influence of others; they are more likely to accept information on its merit.

circumstances. The disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environments is known as proactive personality. Individuals with high proactive personalities identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. Those low in proactivity are the opposite. They fail to identify—let alone seize—opportunities to change things. They tend to be passive and reactive, preferring to adapt to circumstances rather than change them.37 In the ever more demanding world of work, many employers are seeking individuals with more proactive qualities—individuals willing to take initiative and engage in proactive problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Other studies have shown that proactive personality is related to team effectiveness and entrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovative change, these changes have more positive effects for proactive individuals—they are more involved and more receptive to change. This research is showing that proactive personality is an important and desirable element in today’s work environment.

Authoritarianism/Dogmatism Both authoritarianism and dogmatism as personal Authoritarianism is a tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. Dogmatism leads a person to see the world as a threatening place and to regard authority as absolute.

conception traits deal with the rigidity of someone’s beliefs. A person high in authoritarianism tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. This person is concerned with toughness and power and opposes the use of subjective feelings. Highly authoritarian individuals present a special problem because they can be so eager to comply with directives from authority figures that they end up willing to behave unethically.38 An individual high in dogmatism sees the world as a threatening place. This person regards legitimate authority as absolute, and accepts or rejects others according to how much they agree with accepted authority. Superiors who possess these latter traits tend to be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certainty imposed on them.

Personality

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CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Personality Testing Dear [your name goes here]: I am very pleased to invite you to a second round of screening interviews with XYZ Corporation. Your oncampus session with our representative went very well, and we would like to consider you further for a full-time position. Please contact me to arrange a visit date. We will need a full day. The schedule will include several meetings with executives and your potential team members, as well as a round of personality tests. Thank you again for your interest in XYZ Corp. I look forward to meeting you during the next step in our recruiting process. Sincerely, /signed/ Human Resource Director Getting a letter like this is great news: a nice confirmation of your hard work and performance in college. You obviously made a good first impression. But have you thought about this “personality test” thing? What do you know about them and how they are used for employment screening?

Tek Image/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission says that personality tests can’t have an adverse impact on members of protected groups. And, a report in the Wall Street Journal advises that lawsuits can result when employers use personality tests that weren’t specifically designed for hiring decisions. Some people might even consider their use an invasion of privacy.

Make the Decision

What are the ethical issues of personality testing? When might the use of personality tests be considered an invasion of privacy? When might their use be considered unethical? Now go back to the situation just described: Will you take the tests at XYZ? Will you ask any questions about the tests when you contact the human resources director? Is the fact that XYZ uses personality tests a positive or a negative in terms of your likely fit with the firm?

Machiavellianism The very name of the sixteenth-century author Niccolo Machiavelli often evokes visions of someone who acts with guile, deceit, and opportunism. Machiavelli earned his place in history by writing The Prince, a nobleman’s guide to the acquisition and use of power.39 The subject of Machiavelli’s book is manipulation as the basic means of gaining and keeping control of others. From its pages emerges the personality profile of Machiavellianism—the practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain. Persons high in Machiavellianism approach situations logically and thoughtfully, and are even capable of lying to achieve personal goals.40 They are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or the opinions of others, and they are skilled at influencing others. They can also be expected to take control and try to exploit loosely structured environmental situations but will perform in a perfunctory, even detached, manner in highly structured situations. Where the situation permits, they might be expected to do or say whatever it takes to get their way. Those low in Machiavellianism, by contrast, tend to be more strongly guided by ethical considerations and are less likely to lie, cheat, or get away with lying or cheating.

Machiavellianism causes someone to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain.

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Self-monitoring is a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situational (environmental) factors.

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Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring reflects a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors.41 High self-monitors are sensitive to external cues and tend to behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors can present a very different appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors, are less able to disguise their behaviors—“What you see is what you get.” There is also evidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conform more readily than do low self-monitors.42 Thus, they appear flexible and may be especially good at adjusting their behavior to fit different kinds of situations and the people in them.

Personality and Stress LE A R N ING ROA DM A P

Emotional adjustment traits are traits related to how much an individual experiences emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts. Persons with Type A orientations tend to be impatient, achievement oriented, and competitive. Persons with Type B orientations tend to be easygoing and less competitive. Stress is a state of tension in response to extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.

Type A Behaviors 

TYPE A ORIENTATION AND STRESS • WORK AND LIFE STRESSORS OUTCOMES OF STRESS • APPROACHES TO MANAGING STRESS

An individual’s personality can also be described in terms of emotional adjustment traits that indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts, such as impatience, irritability, or aggression.43 Among these, a personality with Type A orientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. In contrast, those with a Type B orientation are characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events.44 Type A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt, uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as “obsessive” behavior. When carried to the extreme, it may lead to greater concerns for details than for results, resistance to change, and overzealous attempts to exert control. In contrast, Type B people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Type A Orientation and Stress In one survey of college graduates, 31 percent reported working over 50 hours per week, 60 percent rushed meals and 34 percent ate lunches “on the run,” and 47 percent of those under 35 and 28 percent of those over 35 had feelings of job burnout. A study by the Society for Human Resources Management found that 70 percent of those surveyed worked over and above scheduled hours, including putting in extra time on the weekends; over 50 percent said that the pressure to do the extra work was “self-imposed.”45 The situations just described all evidence the presence of stress as a state of internal tension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.46 If you look back to the discussion of Type A and Type B personalities, the fact is that Type As often bring stress upon themselves. They may even do this in situations others may find relatively stress free. You can spot Type A personality tendencies in yourself and others through the following patterns of behavior: ■ Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly ■ Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting ■ Doing, or trying to do, several things at once ■ Feeling guilty when relaxing ■ Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others47

Work and Life Stressors Not all stress that we experience is personality driven. Any variety of things can cause stress for individuals. Some stressors can be traced directly to what people experience in the workplace, whereas others derive from life situations and nonwork factors.

Work Stressors There is no doubt that work can be stressful and job demands can sometimes disrupt one’s work–life balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively

Personality and Stress

high or low task demands, role conflicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations, career progress that is either too slow or too fast, and more. The following is a list of common stressors: ■ Task demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little ■ Role ambiguities—not knowing what one is expected to do or how work performance is evaluated ■ Role conflicts—feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly conflicting, performance expectations ■ Ethical dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values ■ Interpersonal problems—experiencing bad relationships or working with others with whom one does not get along ■ Career developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck on a plateau ■ Physical setting—being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other unpleasant working conditions

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 Common Work Stressors

Life Stressors Life stressors such as family events (e.g., the birth of a new child), economic difficulties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse), and personal affairs (e.g., a separation or divorce) can all be extremely stressful. That pretty much goes without saying. But it’s also true that people can easily suffer from spillover effects that result when forces in their personal lives spill over to affect them at work or when forces at work spill over to affect their personal lives. Because it is often difficult to completely separate work and nonwork lives, especially in this age of smart devices that keep us continually in touch with work and personal affairs, life stressors and spillover effects are highly significant. Outcomes of Stress The stress we experience at work or in personal affairs isn’t always negative. Scholars talk about two types of stress.48 The first is eustress—constructive stress that results in positive outcomes. It occurs when moderate—not extreme—stress levels prompt things like increased work effort, greater creativity, and more diligence. You may know such stress as the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class, and complete assignments on time. The second type of stress is distress—destructive stress that turns out to be dysfunctional for both the individual. Key symptoms of individuals suffering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to

Learning to Power Down: Vacation Habits Vary Around the World “Most years I leave my vacation days on the table”—so says a bank marketing manager. Sound farfetched? Not necessarily; perhaps a bit extreme but still indicative of a pattern. A global survey of vacation habits finds that Americans on the average take fewer vacation days than they are allowed: an average of 12 out of 14. They leave anywhere from 2 to 11 days unused. This contrasts with French and Spanish workers who take all of their allocated 30 days, whereas the Japanese take only 4 of 10. One worker says, “It’s almost not worth the stress of

Eustress is constructive stress that results in positive outcomes for the individual. Distress is destructive stress that is dysfunctional for the individual.

having double the work when you get back.” Some employers are trying to curb tendencies to “work too much” as a way of helping people “do better Photomorphic/Robert Churchill work.” The consulting firm KPMG uses a wellness scorecard to track and counsel workers who skip vacations and work excessive overtime.

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Job burnout is a loss of interest in or satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions.

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a negative attitude, from openness to change to resistance to change, or from cooperation to hostility. One possible outcome of extended distress, for example, is the job burnout that shows up as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions. Someone who is “burned out” feels emotionally and physically exhausted, and is less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extreme reactions to distress include bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. It is also clear that too much stress can overload and break down a person’s physical and mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction, reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.49

Approaches to Managing Stress Coping Mechanisms Along with rising sensitivities to stress in the workplace, interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation. There are two major types of coping mechanisms. Problem-focused coping strateProblem-focused coping mechanisms manage the gies try to manage the problem that is causing the distress. Indicators of this type of problem that is causing the coping are comments like “I’ll get the person responsible to change his or her mind,” “I’ll distress. make a new plan of action and follow it,” and “I’m going to stand my ground and fight for Emotion-focused coping are what I need.” Emotion-focused coping strategies try to regulate the emotions drawn mechanisms that regulate forth by stress. Indicators of this type of coping include comments like “I’ll look for the emotions or distress. silver lining, try to look on the bright side of things,” “I’ll accept the sympathy and understanding offered by others,” and “I’ll just try to forget the whole thing.”50 People with different personalities tend to cope with stress in different ways. In respect to the Big Five, emotional stability has been found linked with increased use of hostile reaction, escapism/fantasy, self-blame, withdrawal, wishful thinking, pasAchievement-Striving, and Learning to Say “No” sivity, and indecisiveness. People high in extraversion and optimism Persons high in achievement-striving can be overwhelmed by opportunities. tend to show rational action, posiThey may end up over committed and less successful in the long run. A key tive thinking, substitution, and element of managing stress is learning to say “No.”51 restraint. And individuals high in openness to experience are likely to When to Say No use humor in dealing with stress. • Focus on what matters most—focus on your priorities. Coping is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened.

• Weigh the yes-to-stress ratio—how much added stress will this cause? Is it worth it? • Take guilt out of the equation—guilt is inflated due to feeling of selfimportance—it’s okay to say no. • Sleep on it—discipline yourself to not automatically say yes; what will it cost you? How to Say No • Just say no—or “I’m sorry but I can’t. . . .” • Be brief—state your reason and avoid elaborations or justifications—“I’m swamped.” • Be honest—don’t fabricate reasons; the truth is always best and people do understand. • Be respectful—”I am honored to be asked but I can’t do it.” • Be ready to repeat—stick to it if they ask again; just hit the replay button, don’t give in.

Stress

Prevention Stress prevention is the best first-line strategy in the battle against stress. It involves taking action to present stress from reaching destructive levels. Work and life stressors must be recognized before one can take action to prevent their occurrence or to minimize their adverse impacts. Persons with Type A personalities, for example, may exercise self-discipline, whereas supervisors of Type A employees may try to model a lower-key, more relaxed approach to work. Family

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problems may be partially relieved by a change of work schedule; simply knowing that your supervisor understands your situation may also help to reduce the anxiety caused by pressing family concerns.

Personal Wellness To keep stress from reaching a destructive point, special techniques of stress management can be implemented. This process begins with the recognition of stress symptoms and continues with actions to maintain a positive performance edge. The term wellness is increasingly used these days. Personal wellness involves the pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program. The concept recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to such factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical fitness.

Personal wellness involves the pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program.

Values LE A R N ING ROA DM A P

SOURCES OF VALUES

•

PERSONAL VALUES

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CULTURAL VALUES

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. They reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be.52 Statements like “Equal rights for all” and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” are indicators of values. And we recognize that values tend to influence attitudes and behavior.

Sources of Values Parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groups are all possible influences on individual values. Our values develop as a product of the learning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learning and experiences differ from one person to another. Value differences result. Such differences are likely to be deep seated and difficult (though not impossible) to change. Many have their roots in early childhood and the way a person has been raised.53

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.

Personal Values The noted psychologist Milton Rokeach classified values into two broad categories.54 Terminal values reflect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved; they are the goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values reflect the “means” for achieving desired ends. They represent how you might go about achieving your important goals. Rokeach identifies the eighteen terminal values and eighteen instrumental values shown in Figure 2.3. Take a look at the list. Then ask this: What are my top five values, and what do they say about me and how I relate or work with others? Bruce Meglino and colleagues discuss the importance of value congruence between leaders and followers. 55 It occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own. When values differ, or are incongruent, conflicts over such things as goals and the means to achieve them may result. Research finds that satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruence among the four values of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness.56 ■ Achievement—getting things done and working hard to accomplish difficult things in life ■ Helping and concern for others—being concerned for other people and with helping others ■ Honesty—telling the truth and doing what you feel is right ■ Fairness—being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

Terminal values reflect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved. Instrumental values reflect a person’s beliefs about the means to achieve desired ends.

 Megilino Values Schema

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Terminal Values • A comfortable life (and prosperous) • An exciting life (stimulating) • A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) • A world at peace (free of war and conflict) • A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) • Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity) • Family security (taking care of loved ones) • Freedom (independence, free choice) • Happiness (contentedness) • Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) • Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) • National security (attack protection) • Pleasure (leisurely, enjoyable life) • Salvation (saved, eternal life) • Self-respect (self-esteem) • Social recognition (admiration, respect) • True friendship (close companionship) • Wisdom (mature understanding of life)

Instrumental Values • Ambitious (hardworking) • Broad-minded (open-minded) • Capable (competent, effective) • Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) • Clean (neat, tidy) • Courageous (standing up for beliefs) • Forgiving (willing to pardon) • Helpful (working for others' welfare) • Honest (sincere, truthful) • Imaginative (creative, daring) • Independent (self-sufficient, self-reliant) • Intellectual (intelligent, reflective) • Logical (rational, consistent) • Loving (affectionate, tender) • Obedient (dutiful, respectful) • Polite (courteous, well mannered) • Responsible (reliable, dependable) • Self-controlled (self-disciplined)

FIGURE 2.3 Terminal and Instrumental Values in the Rokeach value survey.

Cultural Values Culture is the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society.

Cultural quotient, or CQ, describes someone’s ability to work effectively across cultures.

Power distance is a culture’s acceptance of the status and power differences among its members. Uncertainty avoidance is the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainty and risk in everyday life.

Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture. In this sense, culture can be defined as the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society. It is the way, for example, in which its members eat, dress, greet and treat one another, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on.57 Geert Hofstede, a Dutch scholar and consultant, refers to culture as the “software of the mind,” making the analogy that the mind’s “hardware” is universal among human beings.58 But the software of culture takes many different forms. We are not born with a culture; we are born into a society that teaches us its culture. And because culture is shared among people, it helps to define the boundaries between different groups and affect how their members relate to one another. Cultures are known to vary in their underlying patterns of values, and these differences are important in OB. The way people think about such matters as achievement, wealth and material gain, risk, and change, for example, may influence how they approach work and their relationships with organizations. Increasingly now you will hear the term cultural quotient (CQ) used to describe someone’s ability to work effectively across cultures. And it’s a point well worth considering in terms of personal growth and professional development. One framework for understanding how value differences across national cultures was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in Figure 2.4 and includes these five dimensions of national culture: ■ Power distance is the willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among its members. It reflects the degree to which people are likely to respect hierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distance culture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture. ■ Uncertainty avoidance is a cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and ambiguity. It reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus unstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high-uncertaintyavoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty-avoidance culture.

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Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers Why are individual differences and diversity important?

• The study of individual differences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies are similar and where they are different to more accurately predict how and why people behave as they do. • Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings. It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being. • Both self-awareness (being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities) and awareness of others (being aware of these same things in others) are important capabilities if we are to best understand individual differences and diversity. • The nature/nurture controversy addresses whether we are the way we are because of heredity or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live. • There are many types of diversity, but the most commonly discussed in the workplace are racial/ethnic, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation. • In recent years there has been a shift from a focus on diversity to a focus on inclusion. This represents a need to emphasize not only recruitment but retention. • Social identity theory suggests that many forms of discrimination are subtle but powerful, and may occur in subconscious psychological processes that individuals of outgroups perceive in the workplace. • Organizations can value diversity by promoting cultures of inclusion that implement policies and practices to help create a more equitable and opportunity-based environment for all.

What is personality?

• Personality captures the overall profile, or combination of characteristics, that represents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others. • Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 50–50. The Big Five personality traits are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. • A useful personality framework consists of social traits, personal conception traits, emotional adjustment traits, and personality dynamics, where each category represents one or more personality dimensions.

How are personality and stress related?

• Stress emerges when people experience tensions caused by extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities in their jobs. • Personal stressors derive from personality type, needs, and values; they can influence how stressful different situations become for different people. • Work stressors arise from such things as excessive task demands, interpersonal problems, unclear roles, ethical dilemmas, and career disappointments. • Nonwork stress can spill over to affect people at work; nonwork stressors may be traced to family situations, economic difficulties, and personal problems. • Stress can be managed by prevention—such as making adjustments in work and nonwork factors; it can also be dealt with through coping mechanisms and personal wellness—taking steps to maintain a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding stressful situations.

Self-Test 2

What are values, and how do they vary across cultures?

• Values are broad preferences concerning courses of action or outcomes. • Rokeach identifies terminal values (preferences concerning ends) and instrumental values (preferences concerning means); Meglino and his associates classify values into achievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness. • Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture values are power distance, individualism– collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, and long-term/shortterm orientation. • Culture is the learned and shared way of doing things in a society; it represents deeply ingrained influences on the way people from different societies think, behave, and solve problems.

Terms to Know Americans with Disabilities Act (p. 33) Authoritarianism (p. 38) Awareness of others (p. 28) Coping (p. 42) Culture (p. 44) Cultural quotient (p. 44) Deep-level diversity (p. 28) Discrimination (p. 29) Distress (p. 41) Dogmatism (p. 38) Ecological fallacy (p. 45) Emotion-focused coping (p. 42) Emotional adjustment traits (p. 40) Eustress (p. 41) Glass ceiling effect (p. 30) In-group membership (p. 34) Individual differences (p. 28) Individualism–collectivism (p. 45)

Instrumental values (p. 43) Job burnout (p. 42) Leaking pipeline (p. 30) Leadership double bind (p. 30) Locus of control (p. 37) Long-term/short-term orientation (p. 45) Machiavellianism (p. 39) Masculinity–femininity (p. 45) Out-group membership (p. 34) Personal conception traits (p. 37) Personal wellness (p. 43) Personality (p. 34) Personality traits (p. 34) Power distance (p. 44) Prejudice (p. 28) Proactive personality (p. 38)

Problem-focused coping (p. 42) Problem-solving style (p. 35) Self-awareness (p. 28) Self-concept (p. 28) Self-efficacy (p. 28) Self-esteem (p. 28) Self-monitoring (p. 40) Social identity theory (p. 34) Social traits (p. 35) Stigma (p. 33) Stress (p. 40) Surface-level diversity (p. 28) Terminal values (p. 43) Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (p. 30) Type A orientation (p. 40) Type B orientation (p. 40) Uncertainty avoidance (p. 44) Universal design (p. 33) Values (p. 43)

Self-Test 2 Multiple Choice 1. Individual differences are important because they ____________. (a) mean we have to be different (b) reduce the importance of individuality (c) show that some cultural groups are superior to others (d) help us more accurately predict how and why people act as they do 2. Self-awareness is ____________ awareness of others. (a) more important than (b) less important than (c) as important as (d) not at all related to

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3. Self-efficacy is a form of ____________. (a) self-awareness (b) self-esteem (c) nurture (d) agreeableness 4. Personality encompasses ____________. (a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person (b) only the nurture components of self (c) only the nature components of self (d) how self-aware someone is 5. People who are high in internal locus of control ____________. (a) believe what happens to them is determined by environmental forces such as fate (b) believe that they control their own fate or destiny (c) are highly extraverted (d) do worse on tasks requiring learning and initiative 6. Proactive personality is ____________ in today’s work environments. (a) punished (b) missing (c) becoming more important (d) losing importance 7. People who would follow unethical orders without question would likely be high in ____________. (a) internal locus of control (b) Machiavellianism (c) proactive personality and extraversion (d) authoritarianism and dogmatism 8. Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards, and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________. (a) Type B (b) Type A (c) high self-monitors (d) low Machs 9. Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress. (a) constructive, destructive (b) destructive, constructive (c) negative, positive (d) the most common, the most relevant 10. Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements. (a) cognitive, intellectual (b) promotion, prevention (c) problem-focused, emotion-focused (d) cultural, psychological 11. When it comes to values, ____________. (a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values (b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction (c) it is rare that people hold similar values (d) most cultures share the same values 12. Culture is ____________. (a) a person’s major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues (b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information (c) the way someone appears to others when interacting in social settings (d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society