Where Good Ideas Come From

W H E R E GOOD COME

IDEAS|

FROM The

Natural

History of

Innovation

STEVEN

JOHNSON

RivEHHEAD

BOOKS

a m e m b e r of P e n g u i n G r o u p ( U S A ) Inc. New

York

2010

W H E R E GOOD IDEAS COME

FROM

ALSO BY STEVEN JOHNSON

Interface HOLD

Culture:

IVeiu Technology Transforms the ffay

fJ^

Create and Communicate

Emergence: The Connected lives ofjints. Brains,

Cities, and Software

Mind fVide Opeji: Your Brain and the JVeuroscience of Everyday life

Everything Bad Is Good for You.Mow Today^s Popular Culture Is Actually IVItiking Us Smarter

The Ghost Map: The Story of London^s Most Terrifying Epidemic

and Mow

It Clianged Science, Cities, and the Modern fVorld

The Invention of A.ir: A Story of Science, Faith, Revolution, and the Birth of America

W H E R E GOOD COME

IDEAS

FROM The

Natural

History of

Innovation

STEVEN

JOHNSON

RivEHHEAD

BOOKS

a m e m b e r of P e n g u i n G r o u p ( U S A ) Inc. New

York

2010

RIVERHEAD BOOKS Published bv the Penguin G r o u p P e n g u i n G r o u p ( U S A ) I n c . , 375 H u d s o n S t r e e t , N e ^ York, X e w Y o r k 1 0 0 1 4 , U S A • P e n g u i n G r o u p ( C a n a d a ) , 90 E g h n t o n Avenue East, S u i t e 700, Ibronto, Ontario M 4 P 2Y5y C a n a d a ( a d i v i s i o n o f P e a r s o n P e n g u i n C a n a d a I n c . ) • P e n g u i n B o o k s L t d , SO Strand, London W C 2 R ORL, E n g l a n d

P e n g u i n Ireland, 25 St Steplien's G r e e n ,

D u b l i n 2, Ireland (a division of P e n g u i n Books L t d ) ' Penguin G r o u p (Australia), 250 C a m b e r w e l l R o a d , C a m b e r w e l l , Victoria 3124, Australia (a division of Pearson Australia G r o u p Pty Ltd) • Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 C o m m u n i t y Centre, PanchsLeel Park, N e w Delhi—110 017, India ' P e n g u i n G r o u p ( N Z ) , S7 Apollo Drive, Roaedale, North Shore 0632, N e w Z e a l a n d (a division o£ Pearson New Zealand LtdJ

Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) L t d ,

24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank, Johannesburg 2196, South Africa P e n g u i n B o o k s L t d , R e g i s t e r e d Ofrices; S O S t r a n d , L o n d o n W C 2 R O R L , E n g l a n d

C o p y r i g h t © 2 0 1 0 by Steven Johnson All rights reserved. Xo p a r t of tins book m a y be reproduced, scanned, or distributed in any printed or electronic f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n . P l e a s e do not p a r t i c i p a t e in or e n c o u r a g e piracy of copyrighted m a t e r i a l s in violation of t h e author's rights. P u r c h a s e only authorized editions. Published simultaneously in Canada

G r a t e f u l a c k n o w l e d g m e n t i s m a d e for p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r i n t f r o m F r a n c o M o r e t t i , Graphs,

Alaps^

Tress; Abstract Modehfar a Literary History.

Verso,

2007.

Copyright

© F r a n c o M o r e t t i 9007. All rights reserved. R e p r o d u c e d by permission.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publica.tion D a t a Johnson, Steven, date. W h e r e good ideas c o m e from : the natural history of innovation / Steven Johnson. p. ISBN

cm. 1-101-44020-1

1. Creative thinking. BF403.J5e

2010

I. T i t l e . 2010023481

303.4S'4—dc22 BOOK D E S I G N H¥ AMANDA DEWEY-

W h i l e tile a u t h o r h a s m a d e every effort t o p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r s a n d I n ternet addresses at the time of publication, neither the publisher nor the author a s s u m e s a n y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for e r r o r s , o r for c h a n g e s t l l a t o c c u r a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n . F u r t h e r , t h e p u b l i s h e r d e e s n o t h a v e a n y c o n t r o l o v e r a n d d o e s n o t a s s u m e a n v r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for a u t h o r or t h i r d - p a r t y websites or their content.

For Peter

CONTENTS

Introduction

REEF, CITY, WEB

i

I.

THE ADJACENT POSSIBLE

II.

LIQUID NETWORKS

«

in. THE SLOW HUNCH

IV.

SERENDIPITY

V.

ERROR

m

97

67

2^

vr. EXAPTATION

i49

VII. PLATFORMS

m

Conclusion

THE FOURTH QUADRANT

Acknowledgments

247

AppendiL: Chronology of Key Innovations^ Notes and Further Reading Bibliography Index

J05 515

211

1400—2000 295

251

Introduction

REEF, CITY, W E B . . . ( 7 i imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet^s pen Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name. -SHAKESPEARK,

A

Midsummer Night's

Dream,

Vi.14-17

Darwin's Paradox A p r i l 4 , 1836. O v e r t h e e a s t e r n e x p a n s e o f t h e I n d i a n Ocean^ t h e reliable northeast winds of monsoon season have b e g u n to give way to the serene days of s u m m e r . On the K e e l i n g Islands, two s m a l l atolls c o m p o s e d o f t w e n t y - s e v e n c o r a l i s l a n d s six h u n d r e d m i l e s w e s t of S u m a t r a , the e m e r a l d waters are invitingly placid and w a r m , t h e i r h u e e n h a n c e d b y t h e brilliant w h i t e s a n d o f d i s i n t e g r a t e d coral. O n o n e stretch o f s h o r e u s u a l l y g u a r d e d b y s t r o n g e r surf, t h e w a t e r i s s o c a l m t h a t C h a r l e s D a r w i n w a d e s out, u n d e r t h e v a s t b l u e s k y o f t h e tropics, t o t h e e d g e o f t h e l i v e c o r a l r e e f t h a t r i n g s t h e i s l a n d . For hours he stands and paddles a m o n g the crowded pageantry o f t h e reef. T w e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s old, s e v e n t h o u s a n d m i l e s from L o n don, D a r w i n is on the precipice, s t a n d i n g on an underwater p e a k ascending over an u n f a t h o m a b l e sea. He is on the e d g e of an idea a b o u t t h e forces t h a t b u i l t t h a t p e a k , a n i d e a t h a t will p r o v e t o b e t h e

STEVEN

JOHNSON

first g r e a t s c i e n t i f i c i n s i g h t o f h i s career. A n d h e h a s j u s t b e g u n e x p l o r i n g a n o t h e r h u n c h , still h a z y a n d u n f o r m e d , t h a t w i l l e v e n t u ally l e a d t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s u m m i t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. A r o u n d h i m , the crowds of the coral ecosvstem dart a n d s h i m m e r . T h e s h e e r v a r i e t y d a z z l e s : b u t t e r fly fish, d a m s e l f i s h , p a r r o t f i s h . N a p o l e o n fish, a n g e l f i s h ; g o l d e n a n t h i a s f e e d i n g o n p l a n k t o n a b o v e the cauliflower b l o o m s of the coral; the spikes a n d tentacles of sea urchins a n d anemones. T h e tableau delights D a r w i n ' s eye, but alr e a d y his m i n d is r e a c h i n g behind the surface display to a m o r e p r o f o u n d m y s t e r y . I n h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e Beagle^s v o y a g e , p u b l i s h e d four y e a r s later, D a r w i n w o u l d write: ^Tt i s e x c u s a b l e t o g r o w e n thusiastic over the infinite n u m b e r s of organic b e i n g s with which the sea of the tropics, so prodigal of life, teems; yet I m u s t confess I think those naturalists who have described, in well-known words, t h e s u b m a r i n e g r o t t o e s d e c k e d w i t h a t h o u s a n d b e a u t i e s , h a v e indulged in rather exuberant l a n g u a g e . " What lingers in the back of Darwin's mind, in the days and weeks to come, is not the beauty of the s u b m a r i n e grotto but rather the 'infinite n u m b e r s " of organic beings. On land, the flora a n d f a u n a o f t h e K e e l i n g I s l a n d s a r e p a l t r y a t best. A m o n g t h e p l a n t s , t h e r e i s little b u t ' ^ c o c o a - n u t " t r e e s , l i c h e n , a n d w e e d s . " T h e list o f l a n d a n i m a l s , " h e w r i t e s , '^is e v e n p o o r e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e p l a n t s " : a handful of lizards, a l m o s t no true land birds, a n d those recent i m m i g r a n t s f r o m E u r o p e a n s h i p s , rats, ' ^ T h e i s l a n d h a s n o d o m e s t i c q u a d r u p e d excepting the pig," D a r w i n notes with disdain. Y e t j u s t a f e w feet a w a y f r o m t h i s d e s o l a t e h a b i t a t , i n t h e c o r a l r e e f w a t e r s , a n e p i c diversity, r i v a l e d only b y t h a t o f t h e r a i n forests, thrives. T h i s is a true mystery. Why should the waters at the e d g e

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

o f a n atoll s u p p o r t s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t l i v e l i h o o d s ? E x t r a c t t e n t h o u s a n d c u b i c feet o f w a t e r f r o m j u s t a b o u t a n y w h e r e i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n a n d d o a full i n v e n t o r y o n t h e life v o u f i n d t h e r e : t h e list w o u l d b e a b o u t a s '^poor" a s D a r w i n ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e l a n d a n i m a l s o f t h e K e e l i n g s . Y o u m i g h t f m d a d o z e n fish i f y o u w e r e l u c k y O n t h e reef, y o u w o u l d b e g u a r a n t e e d a t h o u s a n d . I n D a r w i n ' s own words, s t u m b l i n g across the e c o s y s t e m of a coral reef in the m i d d l e of an ocean was like encountering a s w a r m i n g oasis in the m i d d l e o f a d e s e r t . W e n o w call t h i s p h e n o m e n o n D a r w i n ' s P a r a d o x : s o m a n y different life forms, occupying such a vast array of ecological niches, inhabiting waters that are otherwise r e m a r k a b l y nutrientpoor. C o r a l r e e f s m a k e u p a b o u t o n e - t e n t h o f o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e earth's surface, a n d yet roughly a quarter of the known species of m a r i n e life m a k e t h e i r h o m e s t h e r e , D a r w i n d o e s n ' t h a v e t h o s e s t a tistics a v a i l a b l e t o h i m , s t a n d i n g i n t h e l a g o o n i n 1 8 5 6 , b u t h e h a s s e e n e n o u g h o f t h e w o r l d o v e r t h e p r e c e d i n g four y e a r s o n t h e Beagle t o k n o w t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g p e c u l i a r i n t h e c r o w d e d w a t e r s o f the reef T h e n e x t day, D a r w i n v e n t u r e s t o t h e w i n d w a r d s i d e o f t h e atoll w i t h t h e Beagle\ c a p t a i n , Vice A d m i r a l J a m e s FitzRoy, a n d t h e r e t h e y w a t c h m a s s i v e w a v e s c r a s h a g a i n s t t h e c o r a l ' s w h i t e barrier. A n o r d i n a r y E u r o p e a n spectator, a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e c a l m e r w a t e r s o f t h e English Channel or the Mediterranean, would be naturally drawn to t h e i m p r e s s i v e crest o f t h e surf, ( T h e b r e a k e r s , D a r w i n o b s e r v e s , a r e a l m o s t " e q u a l i n force t o t h o s e d u r i n g a g a l e o f w i n d i n t h e t e m p e r ate regions, and never cease to r a g e , " ) B u t D a r w i n has his eye on s o m e t h i n g e l s e — n o t t h e v i o l e n t s u r g e o f w a t e r b u t t h e force t h a t r e s i s t s it: t h e tiny o r g a n i s m s t h a t h a v e b u i l t t h e r e e f itself.

STEVEN

JOHNSON

T h e ocean throwing its waters over the broad, reef appears an invincible, all-powerful enemy; yet we see it resisted, and even conquered., by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient. It is not that the ocean spares tile rock of coral; the great fragments scattered over the reef, and heaped on the beach, whence the tall cocoa-nut springs, plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves . . . Yet these low, insignificant coral-islets stand and are victorious: for here another power, as an antagonist, takes part in the contest. T h e organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime, one by one, from the foaming breakers, and unite them into a symmetrical structure. L e t the hurricane tear up its thousand huge fragments; yet what will that tell against the accumulated labour of myriads of architects at work night and day, month after month?

D a r w i n is drawn to those m i n u s c u l e architects because he b e lieves they are the key to solving the mystery that has brought the Beagle t o t h e K e e l i n g I s l a n d s , I n t h e A d m i r a l t y ' s m e m o r a n d u m authorizing the ship's five-year journey, one of the principal scientific d i r e c t i v e s i s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f atoll f o r m a t i o n . D a r w i n ' s m e n tor, t h e b r i l l i a n t g e o l o g i s t C h a r l e s L y e l l , h a d r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d t h a t atolls a r e created by u n d e r s e a volcanoes that have b e e n driven upw a r d b y p o w e r f u l m o v e m e n t s i n t h e e a r t h ' s crust. I n L y e l l ' s theory, t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c i r c u l a r s h a p e o f a n atoll e m e r g e s a s c o r a l c o l o n i e s c o n s t r u c t r e e f s a l o n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e v o l c a n i c crater, D a r win's m i n d h a d been profoundly shaped by Lyell's understanding of the d e e p t i m e of geological transformation, but standing on the b e a c h , w a t c h i n g t h e b r e a k e r s c r a s h a g a i n s t t h e coral, h e k n o w s t h a t h i s m e n t o r i s w r o n g a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e atolls. I t i s n o t a s t o r y

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

of s i m p l e geology, he realizes. It is a story about the innovative p e r s i s t e n c e o f life. A n d a s h e m u l l s t h e t h o u g h t , t h e r e i s a h i n t o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e i n h i s m i n d , a larger, m o r e e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e o r y t h a t m i g h t a c c o u n t for t h e v a s t s c o p e o f life's i n n o v a t i o n s . T h e f o r m s o f t h i n g s u n k n o w n a r e t u r n i n g , slowly, into s h a p e s . D a y s later, b a c k o n t h e Beagle^ D a r w i n p u l l s out h i s j o u r n a l a n d reflects on that m e s m e r i z i n g clash b e t w e e n surf a n d coral. P r e s a g i n g a line he would publish thirty years later in the m o s t f a m o u s p a s s a g e f r o m On the Origin of Species, D a r w i n w r i t e s , '^I c a n h a r d l y explain the reason, but there is to my m i n d m u c h grandeur in the view of the outer shores of these lagoon-islands." In t i m e , the reason would come to him.

T h e S u p e r l i n e a r City F r o m a n e a r l y a g e , t h e S w i s s s c i e n t i s t M a x K l e i b e r h a d a k n a c k for testing the e d g e s of convention. As an u n d e r g r a d u a t e in Zurich in the 1910s, he r o a m e d t h e streets dressed in s a n d a l s a n d an open collar, s h o c k i n g a t t i r e for t h e day. D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e i n t h e S w i s s a r m y , h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t h i s s u p e r i o r s h a d b e e n t r a d i n g inform a t i o n w i t h t h e G e r m a n s , d e s p i t e t h e official S w i s s p o s i t i o n o f neutrality in World War I. Appalled, he simply failed to appear at h i s n e x t c a l l - u p , a n d w a s u l t i m a t e l y j a i l e d for s e v e r a l m o n t h s . B y the t u n e he h a d settled on a career in agricultural science, he h a d h a d e n o u g h o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s o f Z u r i c h society. A n d s o M a x Kleiber charted a path that would be followed by countless sandalwearing, nonconformist war protesters in the decades to come. He m o v e d to California,

STEVEN

JOHNSON

K l e i b e r s e t u p s h o p a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e run b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t D a v i s , i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e fertile C e n t r a l Valley. H i s r e s e a r c h initially f o c u s e d o n cattle, m e a s u r i n g t h e i m p a c t b o d y s i z e h a d o n t h e i r m e t a b o l i c r a t e s , t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h a n org a n i s m b u r n s t h r o u g h energy. E s t i m a t i n g m e t a b o l i c r a t e s h a d g r e a t p r a c t i c a l v a l u e for t h e c a t t l e industry, b e c a u s e i t e n a b l e d f a r m e r s t o p r e d i c t w i t h r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y b o t h h o w m u c h food t h e i r livestock would require, and how m u c h m e a t they would ultimately produce after s l a u g h t e r . S h o r t l y after h i s a r r i v a l a t D a v i s , K l e i b e r s t u m b l e d a c r o s s a m y s t e r i o u s p a t t e r n in h i s r e s e a r c h , a m a t h e m a t i c a l o d d i t y that soon brought a m u c h m o r e diverse array of creatures to be m e a s u r e d i n h i s lab: rats, r i n g d o v e s , p i g e o n s , d o g s , e v e n h u m a n s . S c i e n t i s t s a n d a n i m a l l o v e r s h a d l o n g o b s e r v e d t h a t a s life g e t s b i g g e r , i t s l o w s d o w n . F l i e s l i v e for h o u r s o r d a y s ; e l e p h a n t s l i v e for half-centuries. T h e hearts o f birds a n d s m a l l m a m m a l s p u m p blood m u c h faster t h a n t h o s e o f g i r a f f e s a n d b l u e w h a l e s . B u t t h e r e l a t i o n ship between size a n d speed didn't s e e m to be a linear one. A horse m i g h t b e five h u n d r e d t i m e s h e a v i e r t h a n a r a b b i t , y e t its p u l s e c e r t a i n l y w a s n ' t five h u n d r e d t u n e s s l o w e r t h a n t h e r a b b i t ' s . A f t e r a formidable series of m e a s u r e m e n t s in his D a v i s lab, Kleiber discovered that this scaling phenomenon stuck to an unvarying m a t h e matical script called "negative quarter-power scaling," If you plotted m a s s v e r s u s m e t a b o l i s m o n a l o g a r i t h m i c g r i d , t h e r e s u l t w a s a perfectly s t r a i g h t l i n e t h a t l e d f r o m r a t s a n d p i g e o n s a l l t h e w a y u p t o bulls and hippopotami. Physicists w e r e used to discovering beautiful equations like this lurking in the p h e n o m e n a they studied, but m a t h e m a t i c a l elegance w a s a r a r i t y i n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y m e s s y w o r l d o f biology. B u t t h e m o r e species Kleiber a n d his peers analyzed, the clearer the equation

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

b e c a m e : m e t a b o l i s m s c a l e s t o m a s s t o t h e n e g a t i v e q u a r t e r power. T h e m a t h i s s i m p l e e n o u g h : y o u t a k e t h e s q u a r e root o f 1,000, w h i c h i s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y ) 5 1 , a n d t h e n t a k e t h e s q u a r e root o f 5 1 , w h i c h i s ( a g a i n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y ) 5,5, T h i s m e a n s t h a t a cow, w h i c h i s r o u g h l y a t h o u s a n d t u n e s h e a v i e r t h a n a w o o d c h u c k , will, on a v e r a g e , live 5.5 t i m e s l o n g e r , a n d h a v e a h e a r t r a t e t h a t i s 5.5 t i m e s s l o w e r t h a n the woodchuck's. As the science writer G e o r g e Johnson once observed, one lovely consequence of Kleiber's law is that the n u m b e r of heartbeats per lifetime tends to be stable from species to species. B i g g e r a n i m a l s just take longer to u s e up their quota. O v e r t h e e n s u i n g d e c a d e s , K l e i b e r ' s l a w wda e x t e n d e d d o w n t o t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s c a l e o f b a c t e r i a a n d cell m e t a b o l i s m ; e v e n p l a n t s w e r e found to obey negative quarter-power scaling in their patterns of growth. Wherever life appeared, whenever an o r g a n i s m h a d t o f i g u r e out a w a y t o c o n s u m e a n d d i s t r i b u t e e n e r g y t h r o u g h a body, n e g a t i v e q u a r t e r - p o w e r s c a l i n g g o v e r n e d t h e p a t t e r n s o f its d e v e l o p m ent, Several years ago, the theoretical physicist Geoffrey West dec i d e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e w h e t h e r K l e i b e r ' s l a w a p p l i e d t o o n e o f life's l a r g e s t c r e a t i o n s : t h e s u p e r o r g a n i s m s o f h u m a n - b u i l t cities. D i d t h e ' ^ m e t a b o l i s m " o f u r b a n life slow d o w n a s c i t i e s g r e w i n size? W a s t h e r e a n u n d e r l y i n g p a t t e r n t o t h e g r o w t h a n d p a c e o f life o f m e t r o p o l i t a n s y s t e m s ? W o r k i n g out o f t h e l e g e n d a r y S a n t a F e I n s t i t u t e , w h e r e h e s e r v e d a s p r e s i d e n t u n t i l 2 0 0 9 , West a s s e m b l e d a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m o f r e s e a r c h e r s a n d a d v i s e r s t o collect d a t a o n d o z e n s o f cities a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , m e a s u r i n g e v e r y t h i n g f r o m c r i m e t o h o u s e h o l d electrical c o n s u m p t i o n , f r o m n e w p a t e n t s t o g a s o l i n e s a l e s . W h e n t h e y finally c r u n c h e d t h e n u m b e r s . West a n d h i s t e a m w e r e d e l i g h t e d t o discover t h a t K l e i b e r ' s n e g a t i v e q u a r t e r - p o w e r seal-

STEVEN

JOHNSON

i n g g o v e r n e d t h e e n e r g y a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n gro%\'th o f city h v i n g . T h e n u m b e r o f g a s o l i n e stations, g a s o l i n e sales, r o a d s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e l e n g t h o f electrical cables: all t h e s e factors follow t h e e x a c t s a m e power law that governs the speed with which energy is expended in biological o r g a n i s m s . I f a n e l e p h a n t w a s j u s t a s c a l e d - u p m o u s e , t h e n , from an e n e r g y p e r s p e c t i v e , a city w a s j u s t a s c a l e d - u p e l e p h a n t . B u t the most fascinating discovery in West's research c a m e f r o m t h e d a t a t h a t didn't t u r n out t o o b e y K l e i b e r ' s law. W e s t a n d h i s t e a m discovered another power law lurking in their i m m e n s e datab a s e o f u r b a n statistics. E v e r y d a t a p o i n t t h a t i n v o l v e d c r e a t i v i t y a n d innovation—patents, R & D budgets, super creative" professions, i n v e n t o r s — a l s o f o l l o w e d a q u a r t e r - p o w e r law, in a w a y t h a t w a s e v e r y b i t a s p r e d i c t a b l e a s K l e i b e r ' s law. B u t t h e r e w a s o n e f u n d a m e n t a l difference: the quarter-power law governing innovation w a s positive^ n o t n e g a t i v e , A city t h a t w a s t e n t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n its n e i g h bor w a s n ' t t e n t i m e s m o r e i n n o v a t i v e ; i t w a s seventeen t i m e s m o r e i n n o v a t i v e , A m e t r o p o l i s fifty t i m e s b i g g e r t h a n a t o w n w a s 150 t i m e s m o r e innovative, K l e i b e r ' s l a w p r o v e d t h a t a s life g e t s b i g g e r , i t s l o w s d o w n . B u t West's m o d e l demonstrated one crucial way in which h u m a n - b u i l t cities b r o k e f r o m t h e p a t t e r n s o f b i o l o g i c a l life: a s cities g e t b i g g e r , t h e y g e n e r a t e i d e a s a t a faster clip. T h i s i s w h a t w e call " s u p e r l i n e a r s c a l i n g " : i f c r e a t i v i t y s c a l e d w i t h size i n a s t r a i g h t , l i n e a r f a s h i o n , you would of course fmd m o r e patents and inventions in a larger city, b u t t h e n u m b e r o f p a t e n t s a n d i n v e n t i o n s per c a p i t a w o u l d b e s t a b l e . W e s t ' s p o w e r l a w s s u g g e s t e d s o m e t h i n g far m o r e p r o v o c a tive: t h a t d e s p i t e a l l t h e n o i s e a n d c r o w d i n g a n d d i s t r a c t i o n , t h e a v e r a g e r e s i d e n t of a m e t r o p o l i s w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of five m i l l i o n p e o p l e w a s a l m o s t three times m o r e c r e a t i v e t h a n t h e a v e r a g e r e s i -

10

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

d e n t o f a t o w n o f a l i u n d r e d t h o u s a n d , " G r e a t cities a r e n o t l i k e t o w n s o n l y l a r g e r , " J a n e J a c o b s w r o t e n e a r l y fifty y e a r s a g o . W e s t ' s positive quarter-power law gave that insight a m a t h e m a t i c a l found a t i o n . S o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f a b i g city w a s m a k i n g its r e s i d e n t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e i n n o v a t i v e t h a n r e s i d e n t s o f s m a l l e r t o w n s . B u t w h a t w a s it?

The 10/10 Rule T h e first n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t o f a color t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m t o o k p l a c e on J a n u a r y 1, 1954, w h e n N B C aired an hour-long telecast of the T o u r n a m e n t o f R o s e s p a r a d e , a n d d i s t r i b u t e d i t t o t w e n t y - t w o cities across t h e country. For t h o s e l u c k y e n o u g h t o s e e t h e p r o g r a m , t h e effect o f a m o v i n g color i m a g e o n a s m a l l s c r e e n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m e s m e r i z i n g . T h e JSfew York Times., in t y p i c a l l a n g u a g e , c a l l e d it a " v e r i t a b l e b e v y o f h u e s a n d d e p t h . " " T o c o n c e n t r a t e s o m u c h color i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n t h e f r a m e o f a s m a l l s c r e e n , " t h e TY/Tiej w r o t e , " w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t for e v e n t h e m o s t g i f t e d a r t i s t d o i n g a ^still' painting. To do it with constantly m o v i n g pictures s e e m e d pure wizardry," Alas, the R o s e P a r a d e " b r o a d c a s t " turned out to be not all t h a t b r o a d , g i v e n t h a t i t w a s v i s i b l e only o n p r o t o t y p e t e l e v i s i o n s in R C A showrooms. Color p r o g r a m m i n g would not b e c o m e stand a r d o n p r i m e - t i m e s h o w s u n t i l t h e l a t e 1960s. A f t e r t h e a d v e n t o f color, t h e b a s i c c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t d e f i n e d t h e t e l e v i s i o n i m a g e w o u l d g o u n c h a n g e d for d e c a d e s . T h e d e l i v e r y m e c h a n i s m s b e g a n t o d i versify with the introduction of V C R s a n d cable in the late 1970s, B u t the i m a g e remained the same. I n t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , a n u m b e r o f influential m e d i a a n d t e c h n o l -

11

STEVEN

JOHNSON

o g y e x e c u t i v e s , a l o n g w i t h a few v i s i o n a r y p o l i t i c i a n s , h a d t h e e m i nently good idea that it w a s t i m e to u p g r a d e the video quality of broadcast television. S p e e c h e s were delivered, committees formed, e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o t o t y p e s built, b u t i t w a s n ' t t m t i l J u l y 2 5 , 1996, t h a t a R a l e i g h , N o r t h C a r o l i n a , C B S a f f i l i a t e i n i t i a t e d t h e first p u b l i c transmission o f a n H D T V signal. L i k e the T o u r n a m e n t o f

Roses

footage, though, there were no ordinary consumers with sets capable o f d i s p l a y i n g its " w i z a r d r y , " ' A h a n d f u l o f b r o a d c a s t e r s b e g a n t r a n s m i t t i n g H D T V signals i n 1999, but H D television didn't b e c o m e a

1. T h e convoluted history of HEíTV's origins could be the subject of an entire book, but the c o n d e n s e d v e r s i o n g o e s s o m e t h i n g like this: i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s t h e J a p a n e s e p u b l i c b r o a d c a s t i n g c o m p a n y N H K gave a series of demonstrations of a prototype high-definition television platf o r m t o m e m b e r s o f t b e L I S . C o n g r e s s a n d other g o v e r n m e n t officials. T h i s w a s a t t h e h e i g h t o f A m e r i c a n f e a r s a b o u t J a p a n ' s e c o n o m i c a s c e n d a n c y a t i m e w h e n S o n y televisions w e r e already outselling venerable A m e r i c a n b r a n d s like R C A a n d Zenith. T h e idea that the J a p a n e s e m i g h t introduce a b i g h e r - q u a l i t v i m a g e to t h e U.S. m a r k e t posed a threat both to A m e r i c a n c o n s u m e r electronics c o m p a n i e s and, as then-senator Al G o r e pointed out after watching the N H K d e m o , t o t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r c o m p a n i e s t h a t w o u l d m a k e t h e c h i p s for a l l t h o s e n e w t e l e vision boxes. Within a m a t t e r of months, the Federal C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C o m m i s s i o n formally decided to investigate the possibility of i m p r o v i n g the picture qualitv of broadcast and cable T V . A l l t h e f o r c e s w e r e a l i g n e d for t h e n e x t m a j o r s t e p f o r w a r d i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n m e d i u m . R o n ald R e a g a n , always one to g r a s p the transformative possibilities of television, even called the d e v e l o p m e n t of a U.S. H D T V s t a n d a r d a m a t t e r of ''national interest." B u t w h a t followed i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s w a s less o f a G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d a n d m o r e of an endless, serpentine crawl. First, the F C C appointed a c o m m i t t e e — t h e Advisory C o m m i t tee on A d v a n c e d Television S e r v i c e ( A C A T S ) — t h a t solicited a n d reviewed twenty-three different proposals over t h e n e x t year, eventually w i n n o w i n g t h e m d o w n to six different s y s t e m s , each using a u n i q u e s c h e m e to convey higher-definition sound and i m a g e . S o m e were analog, others digital. S o m e were backward compatible with the current systems; others would require the consumer to u p g r a d e to new equipment. For five years, the sponsor organizations enhanced and tested their v a r i o u s p l a t f o r m s , at a cost of h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s in r e s e a r c h - a n d - d e v e l o p m e n t dollars. T h e whole process w a s supposed to c o m e to a conclusion in 1995, w h e n A C A T S w a s s c h e d u l e d to r u n a series of final tests a n d pick a winner, b u t t h e final tests t u r n e d o u t to be a p r e a m b l e : the only thing the c o m m i t t e e a g r e e d on was that digital w a s preferable to analog, w h i c h r e d u c e d t h e field slightly. I ' h e r e m a i n i n g c o n t e n d e r s all h a d e n o u g h f l a w s i n d i v i d u a l l y to keep the committee from anointing a new heir apparent, and so the A C A T S group proposed that the r e m a i n i n g candidates collaborate on a single standard. This g r o u p — c a l l e d the G r a n d A l l i a n c e — r e a c h e d a g r e e m e n t o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for d i g i t a l h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n v i d e o a n d a u d i o i n 1995, w h i c h t h e F C C e m b r a c e d t h e following year.

12

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

m a i n s t r e a m c o n s u m e r p h e n o m e n o n for a n o t h e r f i v e y e a r s . E v e n after t h e F C C m a n d a t e d t h a t all t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s c e a s e b r o a d c a s t i n g t h e o l d a n a l o g s t a n d a r d o n J u n e 12, 2 0 0 9 , m o r e t h a n 1 0 p e r c e n t o f U . S , h o u s e h o l d s h a d t e l e v i s i o n s t h a t w e n t d a r k t h a t day. I t i s o n e o f t h e g r e a t t r u i s m s o f our t i m e t h a t w e l i v e i n a n a g e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l acceleration:, t h e n e w p a r a d i g m s k e e p r o l l i n g in, and the intervals between t h e m keep shortening. T h i s acceleration reflects n o t only t h e f l o o d o f n e w p r o d u c t s , b u t a l s o our g r o w i n g willingness to e m b r a c e these strange n e w devices, and put t h e m to u s e . T h e w a v e s roll i n a t e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c i e s , a n d m o r e a n d m o r e of us are b e c o m i n g trained surfers, p a d d l i n g out to m e e t t h e m t h e s e c o n d t h e y s t a r t t o crest. B u t t h e H D T V story s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n i s h a r d l y a u n i v e r s a l law. I f y o u m e a s u r e h o w q u i c k l y a new technology progresses from an original idea to m a s s adoption, then it turns out that H D T V was traveling at the exact s a m e speed t h a t color t e l e v i s i o n h a d t r a v e l e d four d e c a d e s earlier. I t t o o k t e n y e a r s for color T V t o g o f r o m t h e f r i n g e s t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m ; t w o g e n e r a t i o n s later, i t t o o k H D T V j u s t a s l o n g t o a c h i e v e m a s s s u c c e s s . I n fact, i f y o u look a t t h e e n t i r e t y o f t h e t w e n t i e t h century, t h e most important developments in mass, one-to-many communications clock in at the s a m e social innovation rate with an eerie regularity. Call it t h e 1 0 / 1 0 rule: a decade to build the new platf o r m , a n d a d e c a d e for i t t o f i n d a m a s s a u d i e n c e . T h e t e c h n o l o g y s t a n d a r d o f a m p l i t u d e - m o d u l a t e d r a d i o — w h a t w e n o w call A M r a d i o — e v o l v e d i n t h e first d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h century. T h e first c o m m e r c i a l A M s t a t i o n b e g a n b r o a d c a s t i n g i n 1 9 2 0 , b u t i t wasn't until the late 1920s that radios b e c a m e a fixture in A m e r i c a n h o u s e h o l d s , S o n y i n a u g u r a t e d r e s e a r c h into t h e first c o n s u m e r v i d e o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r i n 1 9 6 9 , b u t d i d n ' t s h i p its first B e t a m a x for

STEVEN

JOHNSON

another seven years, and V C R s didn't b e c o m e a household necessity imtil t h e mid-eighties. T h e D V D player didn't statistically replace the V C R in A m e r i c a n households until 2 0 0 6 , nine years after the first p l a y e r s w e n t o n t h e m a r k e t . C e l l p h o n e s , p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s , G P S navigation devices—all took a similar t i m e frame to go from innovation to m a s s adoption. Consider, as an alternate scenario, the story of C h a d Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, three former employees of the online p a y m e n t site P a y P a l , w h o d e c i d e d i n e a r l y 2 0 0 5 t h a t t h e W e b w a s r i p e for a n u p g r a d e i n t h e w a y i t h a n d l e d v i d e o a n d s o u n d . Video, o f c o u r s e , w a s n o t n a t i v e t o t h e V\'eb, w h i c h h a d b e g u n its life fifteen y e a r s b e f o r e a s a p l a t f o r m for a c a d e m i c s t o s h a r e h y p e r t e x t d o c u ments. B u t over the years, video clips h a d b e g u n to trickle their way online, thanks to n e w video standards that e m e r g e d , such as QuickT i m e , F l a s h , o r W i n d o w s M e d i a Player, B u t t h e m e c h a n i s m s t h a t a l l o w e d p e o p l e t o u p l o a d a n d s h a r e t h e i r o w n v i d e o s w e r e too c h a l l e n g i n g for m o s t o r d i n a r y u s e r s . S o H u r l e y , C h e n , a n d K a r i m c o b b l e d t o g e t h e r a r o u g h b e t a for a s e r v i c e t h a t w o u l d correct t h e s e deficiencies, raised less than $10 million in v e n t u r e capital, hired about two dozen people, a n d l a u n c h e d YouTube, a website that utterly transformed the way video information is shared online. Within sixteen m o n t h s of the company's founding, the service was s t r e a m i n g m o r e t h a n 5 0 m i l l i o n v i d e o s a day. W i t h i n t w o y e a r s , Y o u T u b e was one of the top-ten m o s t visited sites on the Web. Before H u r l e y , C h e n , a n d K a r i m h i t u p o n t h e i r i d e a for a s t a r t - u p , v i d e o o n the Web was as c o m m o n as subtitles on television. T h e Web was about doing things with text, a n d u p l o a d i n g the occasional photo. Y o u T u b e b r o u g h t W e b v i d e o into t h e m a i n s t r e a m . N o w compare the way these two i d e a s — H D T V and Y o u T u b e —

14

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

c h a n g e d t h e b a s i c r u l e s o f e n g a g e m e n t for t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p l a t forms. G o i n g from analog television to f l D T V is a c h a n g e in degree, not i n k i n d : t h e r e a r e m o r e p i x e l s ; t h e s o u n d i s m o r e i m m e r s i v e ; t h e colors a r e sharper. B u t c o n s u m e r s w a t c h H D T V t h e e x a c t s a m e w a y they watched old-fashioned analog TV T h e y choose a channel, and sit b a c k a n d w a t c h , Y o u T u b e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d t h e b a s i c r u l e s o f t h e m e d i u m . F o r s t a r t e r s , i l m a d e watchino; v i d e o o n the Web a m a s s phenomenon. But with YouTube you weren't h m i t e d t o s i t t i n g a n d w a t c h i n g a show, t e l e v i s i o n - s t y l e ; y o u c o u l d a l s o u p l o a d y o u r o w n clips, r e c o m m e n d o r r a t e o t h e r c l i p s , g e t into a c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t t h e m . W i t h j u s t a few e a s y keystrokes, y o u co uld t a k e a clip r u n n i n g on s o m e o n e e l s e ' s site, a n d d r o p a c o p y of it o n t o y o u r o w n site. T h e t e c h n o l o g y a l l o w e d o r d i n a r y e n t h u s i a s t s t o effectively p r o g r a m their own private television networks, stitching together v i d e o c l i p s f r o m all a c r o s s t h e p l a n e t . S o m e will say that this is m e r e l y a m a t t e r of software, which is i n t r i n s i c a l l y m o r e a d a p t a b l e t h a n h a r d w a r e like t e l e v i s i o n s o r cellular phones. B u t before the Web b e c a m e m a i n s t r e a m in the m i d 1990s, the pace of software innovation followed the exact s a m e 1 0 / 1 0 pattern of d e v e l o p m e n t that we saw in the s p r e a d of other t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y t e c h n o l o g i e s . T h e g r a p h i c a l u s e r i n t e r f a c e , for instance, dates back to a f a m o u s technology d e m o given by pioneering c o m p u t e r scientist D o u g E n g e l b a r t i n 1968, D u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s , m a n y o f its c o r e e l e m e n t s — l i k e t h e n o w u b i q u i t o u s d e s k t o p m e t a p h o r — w e r e d e v e l o p e d b y r e s e a r c h e r s a t X e r o x - P A R C , B u t t h e first c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t w i t h a fully r e a l i z e d g r a p h i c a l u s e r i n t e r f a c e d i d n ' t s h i p tmtil 1 9 8 1 , i n t h e f o r m o f t h e X e r o x S t a r w o r k s t a t i o n , f o l l o w e d b y t h e M a c i n t o s h i n 1984, t h e first g r a p h i c a l u s e r i n t e r f a c e t o r e a c h a m a i n s t r e a m , if niche, audience. B u t it wasn't until the release of

STEVEN

JOHNSON

W i n d o w s 3,0 i n 1 9 9 0 — a l m o s t e x a c t l y t e n y e a r s after t h e X e r o x S t a r h i t t h e market—^that g r a p h i c a l u^er i n t e r f a c e s b e c a m e t h e n o r m . T h e s a m e p a t t e r n o c c u r s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l h i s t o r y o f o t h e r softw a r e genres, such as word processors, spreadsheets, or e-mail chents. T h e y w e r e all b u i l t out o f b i t s , n o t a t o m s , b u t t h e y t o o k j u s t a s l o n g t o g o f r o m i d e a t o m a s s s u c c e s s a s H D T V did. T h e r e are m a n y ways to m e a s u r e innovation, but perhaps the m o s t elemental yardstick, at least where technology is concerned, r e v o l v e s a r o u n d the job t h a t t h e t e c h n o l o g y in q u e s t i o n lets y o u do. All other t h i n g s b e i n g equal, a b r e a k t h r o u g h that lets y o u e x e c u t e two jobs that were i m p o s s i b l e before is twice as innovative as a b r e a k t h r o u g h that lets you do only one new thing. By that m e a s u r e , YouTube was significantly m o r e innovative than H D T V , despite the fact t h a t H D T V w a s a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m , Y o u T u b e let you publish, share, rate, discuss, a n d watch video m o r e efficiently t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . H D T V l e t y o u w a t c h m o r e p i x e l s t h a n ever before. B u t even with all those extra layers of innovation, YouT u b e went from idea to m a s s adoption in less than two years. S o m e thing about the Web environment had enabled Hurley, Chen, and K a r i m to unleash a good idea on the world with astonishing speed. T h e y took the 1 0 / 1 0 rule and m a d e it 1 / 1 .

T

This is a book about the space of innovation. S o m e environm e n t s squelch new ideas; s o m e environments s e e m to breed

t h e m effortlessly. T h e city a n d t h e W e b h a v e b e e n s u c h e n g i n e s o f i n n o v a t i o n b e c a u s e , for c o m p l i c a t e d h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e y a r e b o t h e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t a r e p o w e r f u l l y s u i t e d for t h e c r e a t i o n , d i f f u s i o n , a n d adoption of good ideas. N e i t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t is perfect, by any

16

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

m e a n s . ( T h i n k o f c r i m e r a t e s i n b i g cities, o r t h e e x p l o s i o n o f s p a m o n l i n e . ) B u t b o t h t h e city a n d t h e W e b p o s s e s s a n u n d e n i a b l e t r a c k r e c o r d a t g e n e r a t i n g innovation.^ I n t h e s a m e w a y t h e ' ^ m y r i a d t i n y architects" of Darwin's coral reef create an environment where b i o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n c a n flourish. I f w e w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e good ideas c o m e from, we h a v e to put t h e m in context, D a r w i n ' s world-chan^ino; i d e a unfolded inside his brain, but think of all the environments a n d tools he n e e d e d to piece it together: a ship, an a r c h i p e l a g o , a n o t e b o o k , a library, a c o r a l reef. O u r t h o u g h t s h a p e s t h e s p a c e s w^e i n h a b i t , a n d o u r s p a c e s r e t u r n t h e favor. T h e a r g u m e n t of this book is that a series of shared properties a n d patterns recur a g a i n a n d a g a i n in unusually fertile environments, I have d i s t i l l e d t h e m d o w n into s e v e n p a t t e r n s , e a c h o n e o c c u p y i n g a s e p a r a t e chapter. T h e m o r e w^e e m b r a c e t h e s e p a t t e r n s — i n o u r p r i v a t e w o r k h a b i t s a n d h o b b i e s , i n o u r office e n v i r o n m e n t s , i n t h e d e s i g n o f n e w s o f t w a r e t o o l s — t h e b e t t e r w e w i l l b e a t t a p p i n g our e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a p a c i t y for i n n o v a t i v e thinking.^

2 . T h i s fact, ironically, m a y b e r e l a t e d t o s o m e o f t h e i r b l e m i s h e s . I t m a y b e t h a t t h e c r i m i n a l s a n d s p a m m e r s t h r i v e i n t h e s e s p a c e s b e c a u s e they, too, a r e a b l e t o b e m o r e i n n o v a t i v e a t t h e i r t r a d e s . 3. Sections of t h e a r g u m e n t that follows will be f a m i l i a r to a n v o n e w h o has spent tbe last d e c a d e o r t w o e x p l o r i n g t h e n e w p o s s i b i l i t y s p a c e s o f t h e W e b . I l a s t w r o t e a b o u t t h e W'eb i n b o o k f o r m ten years ago; since that time, a m a r v e l o u s c o m m u n i t y of entrepreneur theorists h a s materialized, capable of p u s h i n g the b o u n d a r i e s of the m e d i u m , a n d at the s a m e t i m e reflecting on w h a t t h o s e a d v a n c e s m i g h t m e a n . W e h a v e , all o f u s , s e e n f i r s t h a n d h o w i n n o v a t i v e a s p a c e t b e W e b c a n be, a n d we h a v e a s s e m b l e d a g r e a t d e a l of local k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e forces that m a k e that innovation possible. In a s s e m b l i n g the seven patterns of innovation, I have tried to organize that knowledge into productive categories, a n d I hope I have provided a few insights into h o w the W'eb w o r k s t h a t w i l l s u r p r i s e t h e n a t i v e s . B u t e v e n t h e m o s t d e v o t e d c r o w d - s o u r c i n g , m i c r o b l o g g m g W i k i p e d i a - h e a d h a s d o u b t s a b o u t h o w p o r t a b l e t h e W'eb e x p e r i e n c e i s t o r e a l - w o r l d i n n o v a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t s . J u s t b e c a u s e t h e p a t t e r n s w o r k for G o o g l e d o e s n ' t m e a n t h a t t h e y a r e r e l e v a n t for an u n d e r s t a f f e d nonprofit^ or a u t o - p a r t s m a n u f a c t u r e r , or city g o v e r n m e n t . A n d so one w a y to think about the p a g e s that follow is as an a r g u m e n t that the particular m a g i c that we have seen on the Web has a long history that predates the Web and can be reproduced in other

environments.

17

STEVEN

JOHNSON

T h e s e p a t t e r n s t u r n o u t t o h a v e a l o n g history, m u c h o l d e r t h a n m o s t o f t h e s y s t e m s t h a t w^e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e w i t h innovation. T h i s history is particularly rich because it is not exclusively limited to h u m a n creations like the Internet or the metropolis. T h e amplification a n d adoption of useful innovation exist t h r o u g h o u t natural h i s t o r y a s w e l l . C o r a l r e e f s a r e s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d the "cities of the sea," a n d part of the a r g u m e n t of this book is that we need to t a k e the m e t a p h o r seriously: the reef ecosystem is so i n n o v a t i v e i n its e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h o s e n u t r i e n t - p o o r w a t e r s b e c a u s e i t s h a r e s s o m e d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h a c t u a l cities. I n t h e l a n g u a g e o f c o m p l e x i t y theory, t h e s e p a t t e r n s o f i n n o v a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v i t y a r e fractal: t h e y r e a p p e a r i n r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r m a s y o u z o o m i n a n d out, f r o m m o l e c u l e t o n e u r o n t o p i x e l t o s i d e w a l k . W h e t h e r y o u ' r e l o o k i n g a t t h e o r i g i n a l i n n o v a t i o n s o f c a r b o n - b a s e d life, o r t h e e x p l o s i o n o f n e w s o f t w a r e tools o n t h e W e b , t h e s a m e s h a p e s k e e p t u r n i n g u p . W h e n life g e t s c r e a t i v e , i t h a s a t e n d e n c y t o g r a v itate toward certain recurring patterns, whether those patterns are emergent and self-organizing, or whether they are deliberately crafted by h u m a n agents. It m a y s e e m odd to talk about such different regions of experie n c e a s t h o u g h t h e y w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . B u t i n fact, w e a r e c o n stantly m a k i n g equivalent conceptual leaps from biology to culture without blinking. It is not a figure of speech to say that the pattern of

c o m p e t i t i o n " — a t e r m often a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n n o v a t i o n — p l a y s

a critical r o l e i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f m a r k e t p l a c e s , i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a s w a r m o f s p e r m cells a n d a n e g g , a n d i n t h e e c o s y s t e m s c a l e b a t t l e b e t w e e n o r g a n i s m s for f i n i t e e n e r g y s o u r c e s . W e a r e n o t u s i n g a metaphor of economic competition to describe the struggles o f t h o s e s p e r m cells: t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d " c o m p e t i t i o n " i s

18

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

w i d e (or p e r h a p s d e e p ) e n o u g h t o e n c o m p a s s s p e r m cells and corporations. T h e s a m e principle applies to the seven patterns I have assembled here. T r a v e l i n g across these different environments a n d scales is not merely intellectual tourism. Science long a g o realized that we can u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r b y s t u d y i n g its b e h a v i o r i n d i f f e r e n t contexts. W h e n we w a n t to answer a question like "Why h a s the W e b b e e n s o i n n o v a t i v e ? " w e n a t u r a l l y i n v o k e t h o u g h t s o f its c r e ators, a n d t h e w o r k s p a c e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k s t h e y u s e d i n b u i l d i n g it. B u t i t t u r n s out t h a t w e c a n a n s w e r t h e question m o r e comprehensively if we draw analogies to patterns of i n n o v a t i o n t h a t w e s e e i n e c o s y s t e m s like D a r w i n ' s c o r a l reef, o r i n the structure of the h u m a n brain. We have no shortage of theories t o i n s t r u c t u s h o w t o m a k e our o r g a n i z a t i o n s m o r e c r e a t i v e , o r e x p l a i n w h y t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t s e n g i n e e r s o m u c h m o l e c u l a r diversity. W h a t w e l a c k i s a u n i f i e d t h e o r y t h a t d e s c r i b e s t h e c o m m o n a t t r i b u t e s s h a r e d b y all t h o s e i n n o v a t i o n s y s t e m s . W h y i s a c o r a l r e e f s u c h a n e n g i n e o f biological innovation? W h y d o cities have such an extensive history of idea creation? W h y was D a r w i n able to hit u p o n a theory that so m a n y brilliant contemporaries of his missed? No doubt there are partial answers to these questions that are unique to each situation, and each scale: the ecological history o f t h e reef; t h e s o c i o l o g y o f u r b a n life; t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l b i o g r a p h y o f a scientist. B u t t h e a r g u m e n t o f this b o o k i s t h a t t h e r e a r e other, m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g a n s w e r s t h a t a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o all t h r e e situations, a n d t h a t b y a p p r o a c h i n g t h e p r o b l e m i n t h i s fractal, c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n a r y way, new insights become visible. Watching the ideas spark on these different scales reveals patterns that single-scale observations easily miss or undervalue.

19

STEVEN

JOHNSON

I c a l l t h a t v a n t a g e p o i n t t h e long zoom. It c a n be i m a g i n e d as a k i n d of h o u r g l a s s :

global evolution ecosystems species brains cells nature culture ideas workspaces organizations settlements information networks

As y o u descend toward the center of the glass, the biological s c a l e s contract: f r o m t h e g l o b a l , d e e p t i m e o f e v o l u t i o n t o t h e m i c r o scopic e x c h a n g e s of neurons or D N A , At the center of the glass, the p e r s p e c t i v e shifts f r o m n a t u r e t o c u l t u r e , a n d t h e s c a l e s w i d e n : f r o m i n d i v i d u a l t h o u g h t s a n d p r i v a t e w o r k s p a c e s t o i m m e n s e cities a n d g l o b a l i n f o r m a t i o n networks. W h e n w e l o o k a t t h e h i s t o r y o f i n n o v a tion from the v a n t a g e point of the long zoom, what we find is that tmusually generative environments display similar patterns of crea t i v i t y a t m t i l t i p l e s c a l e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y You c a n ' t e x p l a i n t h e b i o diversity of the coral reef by s i m p l y studying the genetics of the c o r a l itself. T h e r e e f g e n e r a t e s a n d s u s t a i n s s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f life b e c a u s e o f p a t t e r n s t h a t r e c u r o n t h e s c a l e s o f cells, o r g a n -

20

REEF,

CITY,

WEB

i s m s , a n d t h e w i d e r e c o s y s t e m itself. T h e s o u r c e s o f i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e city a n d t h e W e b a r e e q u a l l y fractal. I n t h i s s e n s e , s e e i n g t h e problem of innovation from the long-zoom perspective does not just g i v e t i s n e w m e t a p h o r s . It g i v e s us

new Jucts.

T h e pattern of "competition" is an excellent case in point. E v e r y e c o n o m i c s t e x t b o o k will t e l l y o u t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n rival f i r m s leads to innovation in their products a n d services. B u t when you look at innovation from the long-zoom perspective, comp e t i t i o n t u r n s out t o b e l e s s c e n t r a l t o t h e h i s t o r y o f g o o d i d e a s t h a n we generally think. Analyzing innovation on the scale of individuals and organizations—as the standard textbooks do—distorts our view. I t c r e a t e s a p i c t u r e o f i n n o v a t i o n t h a t o v e r s t a t e s t h e r o l e o f proprietary research and "survival of the fittest" competition. T h e l o n g - z o o m approach lets us see that openness a n d connectivity may, in the end, be m o r e valuable to innovation than purely competitive mechanisms. T h o s e patterns of innovation deserve recognition—in p a r t b e c a u s e it's i n t r i n s i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y g o o d i d e a s e m e r g e historically, a n d i n p a r t b e c a u s e b y e m b r a c i n g t h e s e patterns we can build environments that do a better job of nurturing good ideas, whether those e n v i r o n m e n t s a r e schools, g o v e r n m e n t s , software platforms, poetry s e m i n a r s , or social m o v e m e n t s . We c a n think m o r e creatively if we open our m i n d s to the m a n y connected environments that m a k e creativity possible. T h e a c a d e m i c literature on innovation a n d creativity is rich with subtle distinctions between innovations and inventions, bet w e e n d i f f e r e n t m o d e s o f c r e a t i v i t y : artistic, scientific, t e c h n o l o g i cal, I h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e p h r a s i n g — g o o d i d e a s — t o suggest the cross-disciplinary vantage point I am trying t o occupy. T h e g o o d i d e a s i n t h i s s u r v e y r a n g e f r o m s o f t w a r e p l a t -

21

STEVEN

JOHNSON

f o r m s t o m u s i c a l g e n r e s t o s c i e n t i f i c p a r a d i g m s t o n e w m o d e l s for government. My p r e m i s e is that there is as m u c h v a l u e to be found i n s e e k i n g t h e c o m m o n p r o p e r t i e s a c r o s s all t h e s e v a r i e d f o r m s of innovation a n d creativity as there is value to be found in docum e n t i n g the differences between them. T h e poet and the engineer ( a n d the coral reef) m a y s e e m a m i l l i o n m i l e s apart in their part i c u l a r f o r m s o f e x p e r t i s e , b u t w h e n t h e y b r i n g g o o d i d e a s into t h e world, similar patterns of development and collaboration shape that process. If there is a single m a x i m that runs through this book's argum e n t s , it is t h a t we a r e often better s e r v e d by connecting i d e a s thtin w e a r e b y p r o t e c t i n g t h e m . L i k e t h e free m a r k e t itself, t h e c a s e for r e s t r i c t i n g t h e flow o f i n n o v a t i o n h a s l o n g b e e n b u t t r e s s e d b y a p p e a l s t o t h e " n a t u r a l " o r d e r o f t h i n g s . B u t t h e t r u t h is, w h e n o n e l o o k s a t innovation in nature a n d in culture, environments that build walls around good ideas tend to be less innovative in the long run than m o r e o p e n - e n d e d e n v i r o n m e n t s . G o o d i d e a s m a y n o t w a n t t o b e free, b u t t h e y d o w a n t t o connect, fuse, r e c o m b i n e . T h e y w a n t t o r e i n v e n t themselves by crossing conceptual borders. T h e y w a n t to complete each other as m u c h as they want to compete.

22

I.

THE ADJACEN POSSIBLE

S

o m e t i m e in the late 1870s, a Parisian obstetrician n a m e d S t é p h a n e T a r n i e r took a day off from his work at M a t e r n i t é de

P a r i s , t h e l y i n g - i n h o s p i t a l for t h e city's p o o r w o m e n , a n d p a i d a visit to the nearby Paris Zoo. W a n d e r i n g past t h e elephants a n d r e p t i l e s a n d c l a s s i c a l g a r d e n s o f t h e zoo's h o m e i n s i d e t h e J a r d i n d e s Plantes, Tarnier stumbled across an exhibit of chicken incubators. S e e i n g the hatchlings totter about in the incubator's w a r m enclosure t r i g g e r e d an association in his head, a n d before long he h a d h i r e d O d i l e M a r t i n , t h e zoo's p o u l t r y raiser, t o c o n s t r u c t a d e v i c e t h a t w o u l d p e r f o r m a s i m i l a r function for h u m a n n e w b o r n s . B y m o d ern standards, infant mortality w a s staggeringly high in the late n i n e t e e n t h century, e v e n i n a city a s s o p h i s t i c a t e d a s P a r i s , O n e i n five b a b i e s d i e d b e f o r e l e a r n i n g t o crawl, a n d t h e o d d s w e r e far w o r s e for p r e m a t u r e b a b i e s b o r n w i t h l o w b i r t h w e i g h t s . T a r n i e r k n e w t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e r e g u l a t i o n w a s critical for k e e p i n g t h e s e infants alive, a n d he knew that the F r e n c h m e d i c a l establishment h a d a d e e p - s e a t e d o b s e s s i o n w i t h statistics. A n d s o a s s o o n a s h i s new^born i n c u b a t o r h a d b e e n i n s t a l l e d a t M a t e r n i t é , t h e f r a g i l e in-

STEVEN

JOHNSON

fants w a r m e d by hot water bottles below the wooden boxes, Tarnier e m b a r k e d o n a q u i c k s t u d y o f five h u n d r e d b a b i e s . T h e r e s u l t s shocked the Parisian medical establishment: while 66 percent of l o w - w e i g h t babies died within w e e k s of birth, only 58 percent died i f t h e y w e r e h o u s e d i n T a r n i e r ' s i n c u b a t i n g b o x . Y o u c o u l d effect i v e l y h a l v e t h e m o r t a l i t y r a t e for p r e m a t u r e b a b i e s s i m p l y b y t r e a t i n g t h e m l i k e h a t c h l i n g s i n a zoo. T a r n i e r ' s i n c u b a t o r w a s not t h e first device e m p l o y e d for w a r m ing newborns, a n d the contraption he built with Martin would be i m p r o v e d u p o n significantly i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e c a d e s . B u t T a r n i e r ' s statistical a n a l y s i s g a v e n e w b o r n i n c u b a t i o n t h e p u s h t h a t i t n e e d e d : w i t h i n a few y e a r s , t h e P a r i s m u n i c i p a l b o a r d r e q u i r e d t h a t i n c u b a t o r s b e i n s t a l l e d i n all t h e city's m a t e r n i t y h o s p i t a l s . I n 1896, a n enterprising physician n a m e d Alexandre L i o n set up a display of i n c u b a t o r s — w i t h live n e w b o r n s — a t t h e B e r l i n Ejcposition. D u b b e d t h e Kinderbrutenstalt, o r " c h i l d hatchery," L i o n ' s e x h i b i t t u r n e d o u t to be the sleeper hit of the exposition, a n d launched a bizarre tradition o f i n c u b a t o r s i d e s h o w s t h a t p e r s i s t e d w e l l i n t o t h e t w e n t i eth century. ( C o n e y Isltind h a d a p e r m a n e n t b a b y i n c u b a t o r s h o w u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1940s,) M o d e r n i n c u b a t o r s , s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h h i g h oxygen therapy and other advances, b e c a m e standard equipment in all A m e r i c a n h o s p i t a l s after t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I I , t r i g g e r i n g a s p e c t a c u l a r 7 5 p e r c e n t d e c l i n e i n infant m o r t a l i t y r a t e s b e t w e e n 1950 a n d 1998. B e c a u s e i n c u b a t o r s focus e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f life, their b e n e f i t t o p u b l i c h e a l t h — m e a s u r e d b y t h e s h e e r n u m b e r of extra years they provide—rivals any medical advance of the twent i e t h century. R a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y o r a d o u b l e b y p a s s m i g h t g i v e y o u a n o t h e r d e c a d e o r two, b u t a n i n c u b a t o r g i v e s y o u a n e n t i r e l i f e t i m e . I n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d , however, t h e infant m o r t a l i t y s t o r y

26

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

r e m a i n s b l e a k . W l i e r e a s infant d e a t h s a r e b e l o w t e n p e r t h o u s a n d b i r t h s t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , over a h u n d r e d i n f a n t s d i e per t h o u s a n d i n c o u n t r i e s like L i b e r i a a n d E t h i o p i a , m a n y of t h e m premature babies that would have survived with access to incubators. B u t m o d e r n incubators are complex, expensive things, A s t a n d a r d i n c u b a t o r i n a n A m e r i c a n h o s p i t a l m i g h t cost m o r e t h a n $40,000. B u t the expense is arguably the smaller hurdle to overcome. C o m p l e x equipment breaks, a n d when it breaks you need the technical e x p e r t i s e t o fix it, a n d y o u n e e d r e p l a c e m e n t p a r t s . I n t h e y e a r t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e 2 0 0 4 I n d i a n O c e a n t s u n a m i , t h e I n d o n e s i a n city o f Meulaboh received eight incubators from a r a n g e of international r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n s . B y l a t e 2 0 0 8 , w h e n tin M I T professor n a m e d T i m o t h y P r e s t e r o v i s i t e d t h e h o s p i t a l , all e i g h t w e r e out o f order, t h e victims of power surges a n d tropical humidity, a l o n g with the hospital s t a f f s i n a b i l i t y t o r e a d t h e E n g l i s h r e p a i r m a n u a l . T h e M e u l a boh incubators were a representative sample: s o m e studies suggest that as m u c h as 95 percent of medical technology donated to develo p i n g c o u n t r i e s b r e a k s w i t h i n t h e first five y e a r s o f u s e . Prestero h a d a vested interest in those broken incubators, because the organization he founded, D e s i g n that Matters, had been w o r k i n g for s e v e r a l y e a r s o n a n e w s c h e m e for a m o r e r e l i a b l e , a n d less expensive, incubator, o n e that recognized c o m p l e x m e d i c a l t e c h n o l o g y w a s likely to have a very different t e n u r e in a developi n g world context than it would in an A m e r i c a n or E u r o p e a n hosp i t a l . D e s i g n i n g a n i n c u b a t o r for a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y w a s n ' t j u s t a m a t t e r of creating s o m e t h i n g that worked; it w a s also a m a t t e r of d e s i g n i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w o u l d b r e a k i n a n o n - c a t a s t r o p h i c way. You couldn't g u a r a n t e e a steady supply of s p a r e parts, or trained repair technicians. So instead, Prestero and his t e a m decided to

27

STEVEN

JOHNSON

b u i l d an incubator out of parts that were already abundant in the developing world. T h e idea h a d originated with a Boston doctor n a m e d Jonathan Rosen, who had observed that even the smaller towns of the developing world s e e m e d to be able to keep a u t o m o b i l e s i n w o r k i n g order. T h e t o w n s m i g h t h a v e l a c k e d a i r c o n d i t i o n ing a n d laptops a n d cable television, but they m a n a g e d to keep their Toyota 4 R u n n e r s on the road. So Rosen approached Prestero with a n i d e a : W h a t i f y o u m a d e a n i n c u b a t o r out o f a u t o m o b i l e p a r t s ? T h r e e y e a r s after R o s e n s u g g e s t e d t h e i d e a , t h e D e s i g n t h a t Matters t e a m introduced a prototype device called the NeoNurture, F r o m the outside, it looked like a s t r e a m l i n e d m o d e r n incubator, b u t its g u t s w e r e a u t o m o t i v e . S e a l e d - b e a m h e a d l i g h t s s u p p l i e d t h e crucial w a r m t h ; d a s h b o a r d fans provided filtered air circulation; door c h i m e s s o u n d e d a l a r m s . You could power the device v i a an a d a p t e d c i g a r e t t e lighter, or a s t a n d a r d - i s s u e m o t o r c y c l e battery. B u i l d i n g t h e N e o N u r t u r e out o f car p a r t s w a s d o u b l y efficient, b e cause it tapped both the local supply of parts themselves and the local k n o w l e d g e of a u t o m o b i l e repair. T h e s e were both a b u n d a n t r e s o u r c e s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d c o n t e x t , a s R o s e n l i k e d t o say. Y o u didn*t h a v e t o b e a t r a i n e d m e d i c a l t e c h n i c i a n t o fix t h e N e o N u r ture; you didn't even h a v e to r e a d the m a n u a l . You just needed to k n o w how to replace a broken headlight. G o o d ideas are like the N e o N u r t u r e device. T h e y are, inevitably, c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e p a r t s a n d s k i l l s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e m . W e h a v e a natural tendency to romanticize breakthrough innovations, i m a g ining m o m e n t o u s ideas transcending their surroundings, a gifted m i n d s o m e h o w s e e i n g over t h e d e t r i t u s o f o l d i d e a s a n d o s s i f i e d t r a d i t i o n . B u t i d e a s a r e w o r k s o f b r i c o l a g e ; t h e y ' r e b u i l t out o f t h a t detritus. W e t a k e t h e i d e a s w e ' v e i n h e r i t e d o r t h a t w^eVe s t u m b l e d

28

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

a c r o s s , a n d w e j i g g e r t h e m t o g e t h e r into s o m e n e w s h a p e . W e l i k e to think of our ideas as $40,000 incubators, shipped direct from the factory, b u t i n r e a h t y t h e y ' v e b e e n c o b b l e d t o g e t h e r w i t h s p a r e p a r t s that happened to be sitting in the garage.

B

efore his untimely death in 2 0 0 2 , the evolutionary biologist S t e p h e n J a y G o u l d m a i n t a i n e d an o d d collection of footware

that he h a d p u r c h a s e d d u r i n g his travels t h r o u g h the developing world, in open-air m a r k e t s in Quito, Nairobi, a n d Delhi, T h e y were s a n d a l s m a d e f r o m r e c v c l e d a u t o m o b i l e tires. A s a f a s h i o n s t a t e m e n t , they m a y not have a m o u n t e d to m u c h , but G o u l d treasured his tire sandals as a testimony to " h u m a n ingenuity." B u t he also s a w t h e m a s a m e t a p h o r for t h e p a t t e r n s o f i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l w o r l d . N a t u r e ' s i n n o v a t i o n s , too, r e l y o n s p a r e p a r t s . E v o l u tion advances by t a k i n g available resources a n d cobbling t h e m together to create new uses. T h e evolutionary theorist François J a c o b captured this in his concept of evolution as a "tinkerer," not an engineer; our bodies are also works of bricolage, old parts strung t o g e t h e r t o f o r m s o m e t h i n g r a d i c a l l y new. " T h e t i r e s - t o - s a n d a l s principle works at all scales a n d times," G o u l d wrote, " p e r m i t t i n g odd a n d unpredictable initiatives at any m o m e n t — t o m a k e nature as inventive as the cleverest person who ever pondered the potential of a j u n k y a r d in N a i r o b i , " You can see this process at work in the primordial innovation of life itself. W e d o not y e t h a v e scientific c o n s e n s u s o n t h e specifics o f life's origins. S o m e b e l i e v e life o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e b o i l i n g , m e t a l l i c vents of undersea volcanoes; others suspect the open oceans; others p o i n t t o t h e t i d a l p o n d s w h e r e D a r w i n b e l i e v e d life first t o o k hold.

29

STEVEN

JOHNSON

M a n y r e s p e c t e d scientists t h i n k t h a t life m a y h a v e a r r i v e d f r o m outer space, e m b e d d e d in a meteor. But we have a m u c h clearer picture of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e b e f o r e life e m e r g e d , t h a n k s t o a field k n o w n a s p r e b i o t i c c h e m i s t r y . T h e lifeless e a r t h w a s d o m i n a t e d by a h a n d f u l of b a s i c m o l e c u l e s : a m m o n i a , m e t h a n e , water, carb o n d i o x i d e , a s m a t t e r i n g o f a m i n o acids, a n d o t h e r s i m p l e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s . E a c h o f t h e s e m o l e c u l e s w a s c a p a b l e o f a finite series o f transformations a n d e x c h a n g e s with other molecules in the primordial soup: m e t h a n e a n d oxygen r e c o m b i n i n g to form formaldehyde a n d water, for i n s t a n c e . T h i n k o f all t h o s e i n i t i a l m o l e c u l e s , a n d t h e n i m a g i n e all t h e potential new combinations that they could form spontaneously, s i m p l y b y c o l l i d i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r (or p e r h a p s p r o d d e d a l o n g b y t h e e x t r a e n e r g y o f a p r o p i t i o u s l i g h t n i n g strike). I f y o u c o u l d p l a y G o d a n d t r i g g e r all t h o s e c o m b i n a t i o n s , y o u w o u l d e n d u p w i t h m o s t o f t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f life: t h e p r o t e i n s t h a t f o r m t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f cellä; s u g a r m o l e c u l e s c r u c i a l t o t h e n u c l e i c a c i d s o f our D N A . B u t you would not be able to trigger chemical reactions that would build a m o s q u i t o , or a sunflower, or a h u m a n b r a i n . F o r m a l d e h y d e is a firs^t-order c o m b i n a t i o n : y o u c a n c r e a t e i t directly f r o m t h e m o l e c u l e s in the primordial soup. T h e atomic elements that m a k e up a sunflower a r e t h e v e r y s a m e o n e s a v a i l a b l e o n e a r t h b e f o r e t h e e m e r g e n c e o f life, b u t y o u ccin't s p o n t a n e o u s l y c r e a t e a s u n f l o w e r i n t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t , b e c a u s e it r e l i e s on a w h o l e s e r i e s of s u b s e q u e n t inn o v a t i o n s t h a t w o u l d n ' t e v o l v e o n e a r t h for b i l l i o n s o f y e a r s : ch lor o p l a s t s t o c a p t u r e t h e sun's energy, v a s c u l a r t i s s u e s t o c i r c u l a t e r e s o u r c e s t h r o u g h t h e p l a n t , D N A m o l e c u l e s t o p a s s o n sunflowerbuilding instructions to the next generation. T h e s c i e n t i s t S t u a r t K a u f f m a n h a s a s u g g e s t i v e n a m e for t h e

}0

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

s e t o f all t h o s e f i r s t - o r d e r c o m b i n a t i o n s : " t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e , " T h e p h r a s e captures both the limits and the creative potential of c h a n g e and innovation. In the case of prebiotic chemistry, t h e adjacent possible defines all those m o l e c u l a r reactions that were directly a c h i e v a b l e i n t h e p r i m o r d i a l s o u p . S u n f l o w e r s a n d m o s q u i t o e s a n d b r a i n s e x i s t o u t s i d e t h a t c i r c l e o f possibility. T h e a d j a c e n t p o s sible is a kind of s h a d o w future, hovering on the edges of the prese n t s t a t e o f t h i n g s , a m a p o f all t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t c a n r e i n v e n t itself. Yet is it not an i n f i n i t e s p a c e , or a t o t a l l y o p e n p l a y i n g field. T h e n u m b e r o f p o t e n t i a l f i r s t - o r d e r r e a c t i o n s i s v a s t , b u t it is a f i n i t e n u m b e r , a n d it e x c l u d e s m o s t of t h e f o r m s t h a t n o w p o p u l a t e t h e b i o s p h e r e . V\^iat t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e t e l l s u s i s t h a t at any m o m e n t the world is capable of extraordinary c h a n g e , but only certain c h a n g e s c a n h a p p e n . T h e strange and beautiful truth about the adjacent possible is t h a t its b o u n d a r i e s g r o w a s y o u e x p l o r e t h o s e b o u n d a r i e s . E a c h n e w c o m b i n a t i o n u s h e r s n e w c o m b i n a t i o n s into t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . T h i n k of it as a house that magically expands with each door you o p e n . Y o u b e g i n in a r o o m w i t h four d o o r s , e a c h l e a d i n g to a n e w r o o m t h a t y o u h a v e n ' t v i s i t e d yet. T h o s e four r o o m s a r e t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . B u t o n c e y o u o p e n o n e o f t h o s e d o o r s a n d stroll into t h a t room, three new doors appear, each l e a d i n g to a b r a n d - n e w r o o m that you couldn't have reached from your original starting point. K e e p opening new doors and eventually you'll have built a palace. B a s i c fatty a c i d s will n a t u r a l l y s e l f - o r g a n i z e i n t o s p h e r e s l i n e d with a dual layer of molecules, very similar to the m e m b r a n e s that d e f i n e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f m o d e m cells. O n c e t h e fatty a c i d s c o m b i n e to form those bounded spheres, a new wing of the adjacent possible opens up, because those molecules implicitly create a fundamental

STEVEN

JOHNSON

division between the inside and outside of the sphere. T h i s division i s t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f a cell. O n c e y o u h a v e a n "^^inside," y o u c a n p u t t h i n g s t h e r e : food, o r g a n e l l e s , g e n e t i c c o d e . S m a l l m o l e c u l e s c a n p a s s t h r o u g h the m e m b r a n e a n d then c o m b i n e with other m o l e c u l e s t o f o r m l a r g e r e n t i t i e s too b i g t o e s c a p e b a c k t h r o u g h t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p r o t o - c e l l . W h e n t h e first fatty a c i d s s p o n t a n e ously f o r m e d those dual-layered m e m b r a n e s , they opened a door into t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e t h a t w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o n u c l e o t i d e based genetic code, a n d the power plants of the chloroplasts a n d m i t o c h o n d r i a — t h e p r i m a r y " i n h a b i t a n t s " o f all m o d e r n cells. T h e s a m e pattern appears again and again throughout the evol u t i o n o f life. I n d e e d , o n e w a y t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e p a t h o f e v o l u t i o n is as a c o n t i n u a l e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e ,

when

dino-

saurs such as the velociraptor evolved a new bone called the s e m i l u n a t e c a r p a l ( t h e n a m e c o m e s f r o m its h a l f - m o o n s h a p e ) , i t e n a b l e d t h e m t o s w i v e l t h e i r w r i s t s w i t h far m o r e flexibility. I n t h e s h o r t term, this gave t h e m m o r e dexterity as predators, but it also opened a door in the adjacent possible that would eventually lead, m a n y m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s later, t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f w i n g s a n d flight. W h e n our a n c e s t o r s e v o l v e d o p p o s a b l e t h u m b s , t h e y o p e n e d u p a w h o l e new cultural branch of the adjacent possible: the creation and use o f finely c r a f t e d t o o l s a n d w e a p o n s . O n e of the things that I find so inspiring in Kauffman's notion of the adjacent possible is the continuum it suggests between natural and m a n - m a d e systems. He introduced the concept in part to illustrate a fascinating secular trend shared by both natural and h u m a n history: t h i s r e l e n t l e s s p u s h i n g b a c k a g a i n s t t h e b a r r i c a d e s o f t h e adjacent possible. " S o m e t h i n g h a s obviously happened in the past 4.8 b i l l i o n y e a r s , " h e writes. " T h e b i o s p h e r e h a s e x p a n d e d , i n d e e d .

}2

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

m o r e o r l e s s p e r s i s t e n t l y e x p l o d e d , into t h e e v e r - e x p a n d i n g a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . . . . I t i s m o r e t h a n s l i g h t l y i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t this fact i s c l e a r l y true, that it is rarely r e m a r k e d upon, a n d that we have no particular t h e o r y for t h i s e x p a n s i o n , " F o u r b i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , i f y o u w e r e a carb o n a t o m , t h e r e w e r e a few h u n d r e d m o l e c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s y o u c o u l d s t u m b l e into. T o d a y t h a t s a m e c a r b o n a t o m , w h o s e a t o m i c properties haven't changed one single n a n o g r a m , can help build a s p e r m whale or a giant redwood or an f l l N l virus, along with a n e a r - i n f i n i t e list o f o t h e r c a r b o n - b a s e d life f o r m s t h a t w e r e n o t p a r t of the adjacent possible of prebiotic earth. A d d to that an equally f o r m i d a b l e list o f h u m a n c o n c o c t i o n s t h a t r e l y o n c a r b o n — e v e r y s i n g l e o b j e c t o n t h e p l a n e t m a d e o f p l a s t i c , for i n s t a n c e — a n d y o u c a n s e e h o w far t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e h a s e x p a n d e d s i n c e t h o s e fatty a c i d s s e l f - a s s e m b l e d into t h e first m e m b r a n e .

r I

I h e h i s t o r y o f life a n d h u m a n c u l t u r e , t h e n , c a n b e t o l d a s t h e

I

story of a g r a d u a l but relentless p r o b i n g of the adjacent pos-

sible, each n e w innovation opening up n e w paths to explore. B u t s o m e systems are m o r e adept than others at exploring those possibility spaces. T h e mystery of Darwin's paradox that we b e g a n with ultimately revolves around the question of w h y a coral reef ecosvst e m s h o u l d b e s o a d v e n t u r o u s i n its e x p l o r a t i o n o f t l i e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e — s o m a n y di fferen t l i f e f o r m s s h a r i n g s u c h a s m a l l s p a c e — while the surrounding waters of the ocean lack that s a m e marvelo u s diversity. S i m i l a r l y , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s o f b i g c i t i e s a l l o w far m o r e commercial exploration of the adjacent possible than towns or villages, allowing tradesmen and entrepreneurs to specialize in fields that would be unsustainable in s m a l l e r population centers.

STEVEN

JOHNSON

T h e W e b h a s e x p l o r e d t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e o f its m e d i u m far faster than any other communications technology in history In early 1994, the Web w a s a text-only m e d i u m , p a g e s of words connected b y h y p e r l i n k s . B u t w i t h i n a few y e a r s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y s p a c e b e g a n t o e x p a n d . I t b e c a m e a m e d i u m t h a t let y o u d o f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s , w h i c h t u r n e d i t into a s h o p p i n g m a l l a n d a n a u c t i o n h o u s e a n d a casino. Shortly afterward, it b e c a m e a true two-way m e d i u m where it was as easy to publish your own writing as it was to read other people's, which engendered forms that the world had never seen before: user-authored encyclopedias, t h e b l o g o s p h e r e , social n e t w o r k sites, Y o u T u b e m a d e t h e W e b o n e o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l video delivery m e c h a n i s m s on the planet. A n d now digital m a p s are t m l e a s h i n g their own c a r t o g r a p h i c revolutions. You can see the fingerprints of the adjacent possible in one o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e p a t t e r n s i n all o f i n t e l l e c t u a l history, w h a t s c h o l a r s n o w call " t h e m u l t i p l e " : A b r i l l i a n t i d e a o c c u r s to a s c i e n tist o r i n v e n t o r s o m e w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d , a n d h e g o e s p u b l i c w i t h his r e m a r k a b l e finding, only to discover that three other m i n d s h a d i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o m e u p w i t h t h e s a m e i d e a i n t h e p a s t year. S u n s p o t s w e r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s c o v e r e d i n 1 6 1 1 b y four s c i e n t i s t s livi n g i n f o u r d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . T h e first e l e c t r i c a l b a t t e r y w a s i n v e n t e d s e p a r a t e l y b y D e a n Von K l e i s t a n d C u n e u s o f L e y d e n i n 1745 a n d 1746, Joseph Priestley a n d Carl W i l h e l m Scheele independently isolated oxygen between 1772 a n d 1774, T h e law of t h e cons e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y w a s f o r m u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y four t i m e s i n t h e l a t e 1840s. T h e e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f g e n e t i c m u t a t i o n w a s p r o p o s e d b y S , K o r s c h i n s k y i n 1899 a n d t h e n b y H u g o d e V r i e s i n 1 9 0 1 , while the impact of X-rays on mutation rates was independently t m c o v e r e d b y t w o s c h o l a r s i n 1927. T h e t e l e p h o n e , t e l e g r a p h , s t e a m

}4

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

engine, photograph v a c u u m tube, radio—just about every essential t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e o f m o d e r n life h a s a m u l t i p l e l u r k i n g s o m e w h e r e i n its o r i g i n s t o r y In the early 1920s, two C o l u m b i a University scholars n a m e d William O g b u r n and Dorothy T h o m a s decided to track down as m a n y m u l t i p l e s a s t h e y c o u l d f m d , e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h i n g t h e i r survey in an influential essay with the delightful title "Are Inventions I n e v i t a b l e ? " O g b u r n a n d T h o m a s f o u n d 148 i n s t a n c e s o f i n d e p e n dent innovation, most t h e m occurring within the s a m e decade, R e a d i n g t h e list now, o n e i s s t r u c k n o t j u s t b y t h e s h e e r n u m b e r o f cases, b u t h o w i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e t h e list i s f r o m a n u n f i l t e r e d h i s t o r y of big ideas. Multiples have been invoked to support hazy theories about the "zeitgeist," but they have a m u c h m o r e grounded explanation. G o o d i d e a s a r e not c o n j u r e d o u t o f t h i n air; t h e y a r e b u i l t out o f a c o l l e c t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p a r t s , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f w h i c h e x p a n d s ( a n d , occasionally, c o n t r a c t s ) over t i m e . S o m e o f t h o s e p a r t s are conceptual: w a y s of solving problems, or new definitions of what c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o b l e m i n t h e first p l a c e . S o m e o f t h e m a r e , literally, m e c h a n i c a l p a r t s . T o g o l o o k i n g for o x y g e n , P r i e s t l e y a n d S c h e e l e n e e d e d t h e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t t h e a i r w a s itself s o m e t h i n g w o r t h s t u d y i n g a n d t h a t i t w a s m a d e u p o f distinct g a s e s : n e i t h e r o f these ideas b e c a m e widely accepted until the second half of the e i g h t e e n t h century. B u t t h e y a l s o n e e d e d t h e a d v a n c e d s c a l e s t h a t enabled t h e m to m e a s u r e the minuscule changes in weight trigg e r e d b y o x i d a t i o n , t e c h n o l o g y t h a t w a s itself o n l y a few d e c a d e s o l d i n 1774. W h e n t h o s e p a r t s b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e , t h e d i s c o v e r y o f o x y g e n entered the r e a l m of the adjacent possible. Isolating oxygen was, as t h e s a y i n g g o e s , " i n t h e air," b u t o n l y b e c a u s e a s p e c i f i c set o f p r i o r discoveries a n d inventions h a d m a d e that e x p e r i m e n t thinkable.

}5

STEVEN

JOHNSON

r I

I h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e is as m u c h a b o u t h m i t s as it is a b o u t o p e n -

I

ings. At every m o m e n t in the t i m e h n e of an e x p a n d i n g bio-

s p h e r e , t h e r e a r e d o o r s t h a t c a n n o t b e u n l o c k e d yet. I n h u m a n culture, we like to think of breakthrough ideas as sudden accelerat i o n s o n t h e t i m e l i n e , w h e r e a g e n i u s j u m p s a h e a d fifty y e a r s a n d invents s o m e t h i n g that n o r m a l m i n d s , trapped in the present m o ment, couldn't possibly have come up with. B u t the truth is that technological ( a n d scientific) advances rarely break out of the adj a c e n t p o s s i b l e ; t h e h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r a l p r o g r e s s is, a l m o s t w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , a story o f o n e d o o r l e a d i n g t o a n o t h e r door, e x p l o r i n g t h e palace one r o o m at a t i m e . B u t of course, h u m a n m i n d s a r e not b o u n d by the finite laws of m o l e c u l e formation, a n d so every now a n d then an i d e a does occur to s o m e o n e that teleports us forward a few rooms, s k i p p i n g s o m e exploratory steps in the adjacent possible. B u t those ideas almost always end up being short-term failures, p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e s k i p p e d a h e a d . W e h a v e a p h r a s e for t h o s e i d e a s : w e call t h e m " a h e a d o f t h e i r t i m e . " Consider the legendary Analytical E n g i n e designed by nineteenth-century British inventor Charles B a b b a g e , w h o is considered by m o s t technology historians to be the father of m o d e r n c o m p u t ing, t h o u g h h e s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e c a l l e d t h e g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r o f m o d e r n c o m p u t i n g , b e c a u s e i t t o o k s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s for t h e world to catch up to his idea, B a b b a g e is actually in the p a n t h e o n for t w o i n v e n t i o n s , n e i t h e r o f w h i c h h e m a n a g e d t o b u i l d d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e . T h e first w a s h i s D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e , a f a n t a s t i c a l l v c o m p l e x fifteen-ton c o n t r a p t i o n , w i t h over 2 5 , 0 0 0 m e c h a n i c a l p a r t s , designed to calculate polynomial functions that were essential to

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

creating the trigonometric tables crucial to navigation. H a d B a b b a g e a c t u a l l y c o m p l e t e d h i s project, t h e D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e w o r l d ' s m o s t a d v a n c e d m e c h a n i c a l calculator, V\^ien the L o n d o n Science M u s e u m constructed one from B a b b a g e ' s plans to c o m m e m o r a t e the centennial of his death, the m a c h i n e returned accurate results to thirty-one places in a m a t t e r of seconds. Both the speed and precision of the device would have exceeded anything else possible in B a b b a g e ' s t i m e by several orders of m a g n i t u d e . For all its c o m p l e x i t y , however, t h e D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e w a s w e l l w i t h i n t h e adjacent p o s s i b l e o f Victorian technology. T h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s a w a s t e a d y s t r e a m of i m p r o v e m e n t s to m e c h a n i c a l calculation, m a n y o f t h e m b u i l d i n g o n B a b b a g e ' s a r c h i tecture. T h e S w i s s i n v e n t o r P e r G e o r g S c h e u t z c o n s t r u c t e d a working Difference E n g i n e that debuted at the Exposition Universelle of 1855; w i t h i n t w o d e c a d e s t h e p i a n o - s i z e d S c h e u t z d e s i g n h a d b e e n r e d u c e d to t h e s i z e of a sewino; m a c h i n e . In 1884, an A m e r i c a n inventor n a m e d W i l l i a m S , B u r r o u g h s f o u n d e d t h e A m e r i c a n A r i t h m o m eter C o m p a n y t o sell m a s s - p r o d u c e d c a l c u l a t o r s t o b u s i n e s s e s a r o u n d t h e country, ( T h e fortune g e n e r a t e d b y t h o s e m a c h i n e s w o u l d h e l p f u n d h i s n a m e s a k e g r a n d s o n ' s %\'riting career, not t o m e n t i o n his d r u g habit, a l m o s t a c e n t u r y later.) B a b b a g e ' s d e s i g n for t h e D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e w a s a work of genius, no doubt, but it did not transcend the a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e of its day. T h e s a m e cannot be said of B a b b a g e ' s other brilliant idea: the A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e , t h e g r e a t u n f u l f i l l e d p r o j e c t o f B a b b a g e ' s career, w h i c h h e t o i l e d o n for t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f h i s life. T h e m a c h i n e w a s so complicated that it never got past the blueprint stage, save a s m a l l portion t h a t B a b b a g e built shortly before his death in 1871, T h e A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e w a s — o n p a p e r , a t l e a s t — t h e w o r l d ' s first

J7

STEVEN

JOHNSON

p r o g r a m m a b l e computer. B e i n g p r o g r a m m a b l e m e a n t that the m a c h i n e w a s f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p e n - e n d e d ; i t w a s n ' t d e s i g n e d for a s p e cific s e t o f t a s k s , t h e w a y t h e D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e h a d b e e n o p t i m i z e d for p o l y n o m i a l e q u a t i o n s . T h e A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e w a s , l i k e a l l m o d ern computers, a shape-shifter, capable of reinventing itself b a s e d o n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n j u r e d b y its p r o g r a m m e r s . ( T h e b r i l l i a n t m a t h e m a t i c i a n A d a L o v e l a c e , the only d a u g h t e r o f L o r d Byron, wrote several sets of

i n s t r u c t i o n s for B a b b a g e ' s s t i l l - v a p o r w a r e

A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e , e a r n i n g h e r t h e t i t l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s first p r o g r a m m e r , ) B a b b a g e ' s d e s i g n for t h e e n g i n e a n t i c i p a t e d t h e b a s i c structure of all contemporary computers: " p r o g r a m s " were to be inputted via punch cards, which h a d been invented decades before t o control t e x t i l e l o o m s ; i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d d a t a w e r e c a p t u r e d i n a " s t o r e , " t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f w h a t w e n o w call r a n d o m a c c e s s m e m o r y , or R A M ; a n d calculations were executed via a system that B a b b a g e called "the mill," using industrial-era l a n g u a g e to describe what we n o w call t h e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s i n g unit, o r C P U . B a b b a g e h a d m o s t of this system sketched out by 1857, but the first t r u e c o m p u t e r t o u s e t h i s p r o g r a m m a b l e a r c h i t e c t u r e d i d n ' t a p p e a r for m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s . W h i l e t h e D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e engendered an i m m e d i a t e series of refinements and practical app l i c a t i o n s , t h e A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e effectively d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e m a p . M a n y o f the pioneering insights that B a b b a g e h a d hit u p o n in the 1850s h a d to be independently rediscovered by the visionaries o f W o r l d W a r II—era c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e , V\^iy d i d t h e A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e prove to be s u c h a s h o r t - t e r m d e a d e n d , g i v e n t h e brillitince o f B a b b a g e ' s i d e a s ? T h e fancy w a y t o say i t i s t h a t h i s i d e a s h a d e s c a p e d t h e b o u n d s o f t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . B u t i t i s p e r h a p s better p u t i n m o r e p r o s a i c t e r m s : B a b b a g e s i m p l y

}8

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

didn't h a v e t h e r i g h t s p a r e parts. E v e n i f B a b b a g e h a d built a m a c h i n e to h i s specs, it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r it w o u l d h a v e worked, b e c a u s e B a b b a g e w a s effectively s k e t c h i n g out a m a c h i n e for t h e electronic a g e during the m i d d l e of the steam-powered mechanical revolution. U n l i k e all m o d e r n c o m p u t e r s , B a b b a g e ' s m a c h i n e w a s t o b e c o m p o s e d entirely o f m e c h a n i c a l g e a r s a n d s w i t c h e s , s t a g g e r i n g i n their n u m ber a n d i n t h e intricacy o f their d e s i g n . I n f o r m a t i o n flowed t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m a s a c o n s t a n t b a l l e t o f m e t a l objects shifting positions i n carefully c h o r e o g r a p h e d m o v e m e n t s . It wcis a m a i n t e n a n c e n i g h t m a r e , b u t m o r e t h a n that, i t w a s b o u n d t o b e h o p e l e s s l y slow. B a b b a g e b r a g g e d t o A d a L o v e l a c e t h a t h e b e l i e v e d t h e m a c h i n e w o u l d b e able to multiply two twenty-digit n u m b e r s in three minutes. E v e n if he w a s r i g h t — B a b b a g e w o u l d n ' t h a v e b e e n t h e first t e c h e n t r e p r e n e u r to exaggerate his product's performance—that kind of processing t i m e w o u l d h a v e m a d e e x e c u t i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d p r o g r a m s torturously slow. T h e first c o m p u t e r s o f t h e d i g i t a l a g e c o u l d p e r f o r m t h e s a m e c a l c u l a t i o n i n a m a t t e r o f seconds. A n i P h o n e c o m p l e t e s m i l lions of such c a l c u l a t i o n s in tlie .'^ame a m o u n t of t i m e . P r o g r a m m a b l e c o m p u t e r s n e e d e d v a c u u m t u b e s , or, e v e n better, i n t e g r a t e d circuits, w h e r e i n f o r m a t i o n flows an t i n y p u l s e s of electrical activity, i n s t e a d of clanking, rusting, steam-powered metal gears. Y o u c a n see a c o m p a r a b l e p a t t e r n — o n a vastly a c c e l e r a t e d t i m e t a b l e — i n t h e story o f Y o u T u b e . H a d H u r l e y , C h e n , a n d K a r i m t r i e d t o e x e c u t e t h e e x a c t s a m e i d e a for Y o u T u b e t e n y e a r s earlier, i n 1 9 9 5 , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n a s p e c t a c u l a r flop, b e c a u s e a site for s h a r i n g v i d e o w a s n o t w i t h i n t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e o f t h e e a r l y Web. For starters, t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f W e b u s e r s w e r e o n p a i n f u l l y slow d i a l - u p connections that could s o m e t i m e s take m i n u t e s to download a small image, ( T h e average two-minute-long YouTube clip would have

}9

STEVEN

JOHNSON

t a k e n a s m u c h a n a n h o u r t o d o w n l o a d o n tlie t h e n - s t a n d a r d 14.4 b p s m o d e m s . ) A n o t h e r key t o Y o u T u b e ' s early s u c c e s s i s t h a t its d e v e l o p e r s w e r e able t o b a s e t h e v i d e o s e r v i n g o n A d o b e ' s F l a s h p l a t f o r m , w h i c h m e a n t t h a t t h e y c o u l d focus o n t h e e a s e o f s h a r i n g a n d d i s c u s s i n g clips, a n d not s p e n d m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s d e v e l o p i n g a w h o l e n e w v i d e o s t a n d a r d from scratch. B u t F l a s h itself w a s n ' t r e l e a s e d until l a t e 1996, a n d didn't e v e n s u p p o r t v i d e o until 2 0 0 2 . To u s e otir m i c r o b i o l o g y a n a l o g y , h a v i n g t h e i d e a for a D i f f e r e n c e E n g i n e i n t h e 1 8 5 0 s w a s l i k e a b u n c h o f fatty a c i d s t r y i n g t o f o r m a cell m e m b r a n e . B a b b a g e ' s c a l c u l a t i n g m a c h i n e w a s a l e a p forward, to be sure, but as advanced as it was, the Difference E n g i n e w a s still w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s o f t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e , w h i c h i s p r e cisely w h y s o m a n y p r a c t i c a l i t e r a t i o n s o f B a b b a g e ' s d e s i g n e m e r g e d in the subsequent decades. B u t trying to create an Analytical E n g i n e i n 1 8 5 0 — o r Y o u T u b e i n 1 9 9 5 — w a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h o s e fatty a c i d s t r y i n g t o s e l f - o r g a n i z e into a s e a u r c h i n . T h e i d e a w a s r i g h t , b u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w a s n ' t r e a d y for i t yet.

A

ll of us live inside our own private versions of the adjacent p o s s i b l e . I n o u r w o r k lives, i n o u r c r e a t i v e p u r s u i t s , i n t h e or-

g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t e m p l o y u s , i n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e i n h a b i t — i n all these different environments, we are surrounded by potential n e w c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , n e w w a y s o f b r e a k i n g o u t o f otir s t a n d a r d r o u t i n e s . We are, each of us, surrounded by the conceptual equivalent of t h o s e T o y o t a s p a r e p a r t s , a l l w a i t i n g t o b e r e c o m b i n e d into s o m e t h i n g m a g i c a l , s o m e t h i n g new. I t n e e d not b e t h e e p i c a d v a n c e s o f b i o l o g i c a l diversity, o r t h e i n v e n t i o n o f p r o g r a m m a b l e c o m p u t i n g . U n l o c k i n g a n e w d o o r ccin l e a d to a w o r l d - c h a n g i n g scientific b r e a k -

40

THE ADJACENT

POSSIBLE

t h r o u g h , b u t i t c a n a l s o l e a d t o a m o r e effective s t r a t e g y for t e a c h i n g s e c o n d - g r a d e r s , o r a n o v e l m a r k e t i n g i d e a for t h e v a c u u m c l e a n e r your c o m p a n y ' s about to release. T h e trick is to figure out ways to explore the e d g e s of possibility that surround you. T h i s can be as s i m p l e a s c h a n g i n g t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t y o u w o r k in, o r cultiv a t i n g a s p e c i f i c k i n d o f social n e t w o r k , o r m a i n t a i n i n g c e r t a i n h a b its i n t h e w a v v o u s e e k o u t a n d s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . R e c a l l the question we b e g a n with: W h a t kind of e n v i r o n m e n t creates good ideas? T h e simplest w a y to answer it is this: innovative environments are better at h e l p i n g their inhabitants explore the adjacent possible, because they expose a wide and diverse s a m p l e of spare p a r t s — m e c h a n i c a l or c o n c e p t u a l — a n d they encourage novel w a y s of r e c o m b i n i n g those parts. E n v i r o n m e n t s that block or limit those new combinations—by punishing experimentation, by obs c u r i n g c e r t a i n b r a n c h e s o f possibility, b y m a k i n g t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e so satisfying that no one bothers to explore the e d g e s — w i l l , on a v e r a g e , g e n e r a t e a n d c i r c u l a t e fewer i n n o v a t i o n s t h a n e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t e n c o u r a g e e x p l o r a t i o n . T h e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f life t h a t so impressed Darwin, standing in the calm waters of the Keeling Islands, exists because the coral reef is supremely gifted at recycling a n d r e i n v e n t i n g t h e s p a r e p a r t s o f its e c o s y s t e m . T h e r e ' s a f a m o u s m o m e n t i n t h e story o f t h e n e a r - c a t a s t r o p h i c Apollo

13

mission—wonderfully

captured

in

the

Ron

floward

f i l m — w h e r e t h e m i s s i o n control e n g i n e e r s r e a l i z e t h e y n e e d t o c r e a t e a n i m p r o v i s e d c a r b o n d i o x i d e filter, o r t h e a s t r o n a u t s w i l l p o i s o n the lunar m o d u l e a t m o s p h e r e with their own exhalations before they return to Earth. T h e astronauts have plenty of carbon "scrubb e r s " o n b o a r d , b u t t h e s e filters w e r e d e s i g n e d for t h e o r i g i n a l , d a m a g e d s p a c e c r a f t , a n d don't fit t h e air v e n t i l a t i o n s y s t e m o f t h e

41

STEVEN

JOHNSON

lunar m o d u l e they a r e using as a lifeboat to return h o m e . Mission Control quickly a s s e m b l e s what it calls a "tiger t e a m " of engineers to hack their way t h r o u g h the problem, and creates a rapid-fire i n v e n t o r y o f all t h e a v a i l a b l e e q u i p m e n t c u r r e n t l y o n t h e l u n a r m o d u l e . In the movie, D e k e Slayton, head of F l i g h t C r e w Operat i o n s , t o s s e s a j u m b l e d p i l e of g e a r on a c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e : suit h o s e s , canisters, stowage bags, duct tape, a n d other assorted gadgets. He holds up the carbon scrubbers. " W e gotta f m d a w a y to m a k e this fit i n t o a h o l e for t h i s , " h e s a y s , a n d t h e n p o i n t s t o t h e s p a r e p a r t s on the table, " u s i n g nothing but

thatr

T h e s p a c e g e a r o n t h e t a b l e d e f i n e s t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e for t h e p r o b l e m of building a w o r k i n g carbon scrubber on a l u n a r m o d u l e . T h e d e v i c e t h e y e v e n t u a l l y concoct, d u b b e d t h e " m a i l b o x , " perf o r m s beautifully. T h e c a n i s t e r s a n d nozzles a r e like t h e a m m o n i a a n d m e t h a n e m o l e c u l e s o f t h e early e a r t h , o r B a b b a g e ' s m e c h a n i c a l g e a r s , o r t h o s e T o y o t a p a r t s h e a t i n g a n incubator: t h e y a r e t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s t h a t c r e a t e — a n d l i m i t — t h e s p a c e o f p o s s i b i l i t y for a s p e cific p r o b l e m . In a way, t h e e n g i n e e r s at M i s s i o n C o n t r o l h a d it e a s i e r t h a n m o s t . C h a l l e n g i n g p r o b l e m s don't u s u a l l y d e f i n e t h e i r a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e in s u c h a clear, t a n g i b l e way. P a r t of c o m i n g up w i t h a g o o d idea is discovering what those spare parts are, and ensuring that y o u ' r e not j u s t r e c y c l i n g t h e s a m e old i n g r e d i e n t s . T h i s , t h e n , i s w h e r e t h e n e x t six p a t t e r n s o f i n n o v a t i o n w i l l t a k e us, b e c a u s e t h e y all involve, in o n e w a y or another, tactics for a s s e m b l i n g a m o r e e c l e c t i c collection o f b u i l d i n g b l o c k i d e a s , s p a r e p a r t s t h a t c a n b e r e a s s e m b l e d into useful n e w c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h e t r i c k t o h a v i n g g o o d i d e a s i s not t o sit a r o u n d i n g l o r i o u s i s o l a t i o n a n d t r y t o t h i n k b i g t h o u g h t s . T h e trick i s t o g e t m o r e p a r t s o n t h e t a b l e .

42

II.

LIQUID

NETWORKS

Go t o N

r I

There a r e a d o z e n d i f f e r e n t m e t a p h o r s we u s e c o h o q u i a l l y to

I

d e s c r i b e g o o d i d e a s : w e call t h e m s p a r k s , h a s h e s , h g h t b u l b

moments: we have brainstorms and breakthroughs, eureka m o m e n t s and epiphanies. S o m e t h i n g about the concept pushes our l a n g u a g e into r h e t o r i c a l o v e r d r i v e , o u r v e r b i a g e s t r a i n i n g t o r e p r o d u c e tlie i n n o v a t i o n it d e s c r i b e s . A n d yet, f l o r i d a s t h e y a r e , n o n e o f t h o s e m e t a p h o r s c a p t u r e s w h a t a n i d e a a c t u a l l y is, o n t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a l level. A g o o d i d e a is a network. A s p e c i f i c c o n s t e l l a t i o n of n e u r o n s — t h o u s a n d s o f t h e m — f i r e i n s v n c w i t h e a c h o t h e r for t h e first t i m e in your brain, a n d an idea pops into your consciousness, A n e w idea i s a n e t w o r k o f cells e x p l o r i n g t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e o f c o n n e c t i o n s that they can m a k e in your m i n d . T h i s is true whether the idea in q u e s t i o n is a n e w w a y to s o l v e a c o m p l e x p h y s i c s p r o b l e m , or a c l o s i n g l i n e for a n o v e l , or a f e a t u r e for a s o f t w a r e a p p l i c a t i o n . If w e ' r e g o i n g to try to explain the m y s t e r y of w h e r e ideas c o m e from, we'll

STEVEN

JOHNSON

have to start by s h a k i n g ourselves free of this c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p tion: a n i d e a i s n o t a s i n g l e t h i n g . I t i s m o r e l i k e a s w a r m . W h e n you think about ideas in their native state of neural n e t w o r k s , tw^o k e y p r e c o n d i t i o n s b e c o m e clear. F i r s t , t h e s h e e r s i z e o f t h e n e t w o r k : y o u can't h a v e a n e p i p h a n y w i t h o n l y t h r e e n e u r o n s firing. T h e n e t w o r k n e e d s t o b e d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d . Your b r a i n h a s r o u g h l y 100 b i l l i o n n e u r o n s , a n i m p r e s s i v e e n o u g h n u m b e r , b u t all t h o s e n e u r o n s w o u l d b e u s e l e s s for c r e a t i n g i d e a s ( a s w e l l a s a l l t h e other achievements of the h u m a n brain) if they weren't capable of m a k i n g s u c h e l a b o r a t e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h e a c h other. T h e a v e r a g e neuron connects to a t h o u s a n d other neurons scattered across the braiin, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a d u l t h u m a n b r a i n c o n t a i n s 100 trillion distinct neuronal connections, m a k i n g it the largest and m o s t complex network on earth, (By comparison, there are s o m e w h e r e o n t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 b i l l i o n p a g e s o n t h e W e b . I f y o u a s s u m e a n avera g e of ten links per p a g e , that m e a n s you a n d I are w a l k i n g around with a high-density network in our skulls that is orders of m a g n i tude larger t h a n t h e entirety of the World Wide Web.) T h e s e c o n d p r e c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t t h e n e t w o r k b e plastic^ c a p a b l e of adopting new configurations, A dense network incapable of formi n g n e w p a t t e r n s is, b y d e f i n i t i o n , i n c a p a b l e o f c h a n g e , i n c a p a b l e o f p r o b i n g a t t h e e d g e s o f t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . W h e n a new^ i d e a p o p s into y o u r h e a d , t h e s e n s e o f n o v e l t y t h a t m a k e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e so m a g i c a l h a s a d i r e c t c o r r e l a t e in t h e cells of y o u r b r a i n : a b r a n d n e w assemblage of neurons has come together to m a k e the thought possible. T h o s e connections are built by our g e n e s and by personal experience: s o m e connections help regulate our heartbeat and trigg e r reflex r e a c t i o n s ; o t h e r s c o n j u r e u p v i v i d s e n s e m e m o r i e s o f t h e cookies we ate as children; others help t i s invent the concept of a

46

LIQUID

NETWORKS

p r o g r a m m a b l e computer. T h e connections are the key to wisdom, w h i c h i s w h y t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f l o s i n g n e u r o n s after w e h i t a d u l t h o o d i s a r e d h e r r i n g , V\^iat m a t t e r s i n y o u r m i n d i s n o t j u s t t h e n u m b e r of neurons, but the m y r i a d connections that have formed between them. O f c o u r s e , e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s i n y o u r b r a i n is, t e c h n i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , a n e t w o r k . R e m e m b e r i n g to c u t y o u r t o e n a i l s i n v o l v e s a network of neurons firing in s o m e kind of orderly fashion. B u t that d o e s n ' t m a k e i t a n e p i p h a n y . I t t u r n s o u t t h a t g o o d i d e a s h a v e certain signature patterns in the networks that m a k e them. T h e creati n g b r a i n behaves differently from the b r a i n that is p e r f o r m i n g a repetitive task. T h e neurons c o m m u n i c a t e in different ways. T h e networks take on distinct shapes. T h e question is how to push your brain toward those m o r e creative networks. T h e answer, as it h a p p e n s , is delightfully fractal: to m a k e your m i n d m o r e innovative, you h a v e to place it inside environments that share that s a m e network signature: networks of ideas or people that m i m i c the neural networks of a m i n d exploring the boundaries of the adjacent possible. Certain environments enhance the brain's natural capacity to m a k e new links of association. B u t these patterns of connection are m u c h older t h a n the h u m a n brain, older than neurons even. T h e y take us back, once again, to t h e o r i g i n o f life i t s e l f

A

s far as we know, " c a r b o n - b a s e d l i f e " is a r e d u n d a n t e x p r e s s i o n : life w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e c a r b o n a t o m . M o s t

a s t r o b i o l o g i s t s — s c i e n t i s t s w h o s t u d y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f life e l s e w h e r e in the u n i v e r s e — b e l i e v e that if we are ever to discover con-

47

STEVEN

JOHNSON

vincing evidence of extraterrestrial life, be it on M a r s or in s o m e d i s t a n t g a l a x y , it, too, will t u r n o u t t o b e c a r b o n - b a s e d . W h y are we so confident about carbon's essential role in creating living things? T h e answer h a s to do with the core properties o f t h e c a r b o n a t o m itself. C a r b o n h a s four v a l e n c e e l e c t r o n s r e s i d i n g i n t h e o u t e r m o s t s h e l l o f t h e a t o m , w h i c h , for c o m p l i c a t e d r e a sons, m a k e s it uniquely talented at f o r m i n g connections with other atoms, particularly with hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, s u l f u r — a n d , cruciallv, w i t h o t h e r c a r b o n a t o m s . T h e s e s i x a t o m s m a k e u p 9 9 p e r c e n t o f t h e d r y w e i g h t o f all l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s o n e a r t h . T h o s e four v a l e n c e b o n d s g i v e c a r b o n a s t r o n g p r o p e n s i t y for forming elaborate chains and rings of polymers: everything from the genetic information stored in nucleic acids, to the building b l o c k s o f p r o t e i n s , t o t h e e n e r g y s t o r a g e o f c a r b o h y d r a t e s a n d fats, ( M o d e r n technology has exploited the generative potential of the c a r b o n a t o m v i a t h e a r t i f i c i a l p o l y m e r s w e call p l a s t i c s . ) C a r b o n a t o m s m e a s u r e only 0,05 percent of the overall composition of the e a r t h ' s crust, a n d y e t t h e y m a k e u p n e a r l y 2 0 p e r c e n t o f our b o d y mass. T h a t abundance highlights the unique property of the carbon a t o m : its c o m b i n a t o r i a l power. C a r b o n is a connector. T h o s e c o n n e c t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l for t h e d a y - t o - d a y f u n c t i o n i n g o f life: c h a i n s o f n u c l e i c a c i d s i n s t r u c t i n g a m i n o a c i d s t o a s s e m b l e into l o n g s t r i n g s o f p r o t e i n , p o w e r e d b y t h e s t o r e d e n e r g y o f c a r b o hydrates. B u t the connective properties of carbon w e r e essential to t h e o r i g i n a l i n n o v a t i o n s o f life itself. W i t h o u t c a r b o n ' s i n n a t e t a l e n t for f o r m i n g n e w c o m p l e x m o l e c u l e s w i t h o t h e r a t o m s , i t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e h o w t h e first o r g a n i s m s w o u l d h a v e e v o l v e d . T h o s e four v a l e n c e e l e c t r o n s a l l o w e d t h e p r e b i o t i c e a r t h t o e x p l o r e its o w n a d jacent possible, sifting through the l o n g list of potential m o l e c u l a r

48

LIQUID

NETWORKS

c o m b i n a t i o n s until it hit u p o n a series of stable c h e m i c a l reactions t h a t b l o s s o m e d into t h e first o r g a n i s m s . W i t h o u t t h e g e n e r a t i v e l i n k s o f c a r b o n , t h e e a r t h w o u l d h a v e lik ely r e m a i n e d a l i f e l e s s s o u p of elements, a planet of d e a d chemistry. Carbon's connective talents lie at the center of one of the m o s t f a m o u s s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h century. I n 1 9 5 3 , two University of Chicago professors, Stanley L, Miller and H a r o l d C. Urey, created a closed system of glass tubes a n d flasks that s i m u lated the early conditions of the prebiotic earth. T h e m a i n ingredients were m e t h a n e (CH^), a m m o n i a (NH_), hydrogen (H^), a n d w a t e r ( H ^ O ) , O n l y t h e m e t h a n e c o n t a i n e d c a r b o n a t o m s . O n e flask connected to the chemical soup contained a pair of electrodes, which Miller and U r e y used to simulate lightning by triggering a series of q u i c k s p a r k s b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e y r a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t for s e v e n s t r a i g h t d a y s , a n d b y t h e t i m e t h e y h a d c o m p l e t e d t h e first c y c l e , they found that m o r e than 10 percent of the carbon h a d spontaneo u s l y r e c o m b i n e d into m a n y o f t h e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s e s s e n t i a l t o life: s u g a r s , l i p i d s , n u c l e i c a c i d s . M i l l e r c l a i m e d a t t h e t i m e t h a t "just turning on the spark in a basic pre-biotic e x p e r i m e n t " produced half of the twenty-two a m i n o acids. S e v e r a l years ago, a t e a m r e a n a l y z e d t h e o r i g i n a l flasks f r o m t h e M i l l e r - U r e y e x p e r i m e n t s , and found that in one v e r s i o n — w h i c h sunulated the environment around an u n d e r s e a v o l c a n o — a l l twenty-two a m i n o acids had been created. In the half-century that has passed since Miller and U r e y triggered their primordial

spark, hundreds of

rival theories

have

e m e r g e d t o e x p l a i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f life, s o m e e m p h a s i z i n g t h e initial development of self-replication, s o m e e m p h a s i z i n g the development of metabolism; s o m e are predicated on the intense heat

49

STEVEN

JOHNSON

of u n d e r s e a vents, others on life-bearing comets colliding with the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . B u t all o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s s h a r e a c o m m o n m o t i f : t h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l p o w e r o f t h e c a r b o n a t o m , A few r e s e a r c h e r s a n d science-fiction authors have speculated on an alternate scenario, w h e r e life e m e r g e s a r o u n d t h e silicon a t o m . S i l i c o n sits d i r e c t l y b e l o w c a r b o n o n t h e p e r i o d i c t a b l e , a n d s h a r e s its four v a l e n c e e l e c trons. B u t silicon l a c k s c a r b o n ' s u n i q u e versatility, its a b i l i t y t o f o r m the double a n d triple bonds that create the long chains a n d rings of fatty a c i d s a n d s u g a r s . S i l i c o n a l s o r e q u i r e s far m o r e e n e r g y t o f o r m bonds than carbon does. Tellingly, the earth contains over a h u n d r e d t i m e s as m u c h silicon as it does carbon, a n d yet M o t h e r N a t u r e dec i d e d t o b a s e life o n t h e m u c h r a r e r e l e m e n t . S i l i c o n - b a s e d l i f e m a y b e i m p o s s i b l e for o n e o t h e r r e a s o n : s i l i con b o n d s r e a d i l y d i s s o l v e i n water. M o s t t h e o r i e s o f life's o r i g i n d e p e n d o n H^O n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e h y d r o g e n a n d o x y g e n a r e i m p o r tant elements in m a n y organic compounds, but also because the environment of liquid water facilitated the early "chemistry experi m e n t s " t h a t l e d t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f life. T h e M i l l e r - U r e y e x p e r i m e n t w a s , i n a way, a n a t t e m p t t o t e s t m o r e r i g o r o u s l y a h u n c h t h a t Charles D a r w i n h a d had a century before about the watery origins o f life. I n a l e t t e r t o t h e b o t a n i s t J o s e p h H o o k e r , D a r w i n s p e c u l a t e d t h a t life h a d first e m e r g e d i n " s o m e w a r m l i t t l e p o n d , w i t h a l l s o r t s o f a m m o n i a a n d p h o s p h o r i c salts, l i g h t , h e a t , electricity," M o s t theories of life's origins incorporate s o m e variation of the "primordial s o u p " : an e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e novel c o m b i n a t i o n s could occur t h a n k s t o t h e s w i r l a n d flow o f l i q u i d . C a r b o n m a y b e a t a l e n t e d connector, b u t w i t h o u t a m e d i u m t h a t a l l o w s i t t o c o l l i d e r a n d o m l y with other elements, those connective powers are likely to go to

JO

LIQUID

NETWORKS

waste. All those spectacular polymer chains would r e m a i n unrealized, hidden behind the locked doors of the adjacent possible. L i k e c a r b o n , t h e H^O m o l e c u l e p o s s e s s e s s e v e r a l e x c e p t i o n a l properties that m a k e the m e d i u m of liquid water uniquely suited to s u s t a i n e a r l y life. T h e h y d r o g e n b o n d s t h a t f o r m between d i s t i n c t water molecules are about ten times stronger than equivalent bonds in " n o r m a l " liquids, which gives the m e d i u m several crucial properties. F o r s t a r t e r s , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e a t w h i c h w a t e r r e m a i n s i n liquid form is m u c h larger than that of almost every other substance, thanks in part to those hydrogen bonds, thus preventing the o c e a n s f r o m b o i l i n g a w a y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y d a y s o f life o n e a r t h . Water is also a fiendishly talented dissolver of things, ( E v e n the famously inert gold is soluble in seawater if you give it e n o u g h time.) T h e combination of water's fluidity and solubility m a k e s it marvelously adept at creating new networks of elements, as they churn through the ever-shifting m e d i u m , colliding with each other in unpredictable ways. At the s a m e time, the strength of the hydrog e n boncl.'^ m e a n s tllat n e w c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h s o m e stability t o t h e m — m a n y of t h e m ancliored around carbon a t o m s — c a n endure a n d s e e k out a d d i t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s i n t h e s o u p . A n d so, w h e n w e l o o k b a c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l i n n o v a t i o n e n g i n e on earth, we find two essential properties. First, a capacity to m a k e n e w c o i m e c t i o n s w i t h a s m a n y other e l e m e n t s a s p o s s i b l e . A n d , s e c ond, a " r a n d o m i z i n g " environment that e n c o u r a g e s collisions between all the e l e m e n t s in the system. On earth, at least, the story of

life's c r e a t i v i t y b e g i n s w i t h a l i q u i d , h i g h - d e n s i t y n e t w o r k :

connection-hungry carbon a t o m s colliding with other elements in the primordial soup. T h e molecules they formed m a r k the point at

STEVEN

JOHNSON

w h i c h c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i c s g a v e w a y t o biology. W l i e n t h e first lipids s e l f - a s s e m b l e d , they unlocked a door that w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o t h e cell m e m b r a n e ; w h e n t h e first n u c l e o t i d e s f o r m e d , a w i n g of the adjacent possible opened that eventually traced a path t o D N A . T h e y w e r e t h e first h i n t s o f life's g o o d i d e a .

r I

Ihe c o m p u t e r scientist Christopher L a n g t e n observed several

I

d e c a d e s a g o t h a t i n n o v a t i v e s y s t e m s h a v e a t e n d e n c y to g r a v i -

t a t e t o w a r d t h e " e d g e o f c h a o s " : t h e fertile z o n e b e t w e e n too m u c h o r d e r a n d too m u c h anarchy. ( T h e n o t i o n i s c e n t r a l t o S t u a r t K a u f f m a n ' s idea of the adjacent possible, as well.) L a n g t o n s o m e t i m e s uses the m e t a p h o r of different phases of m a t t e r — g a s , liquid, solid—to d e s c r i b e t h e s e n e t w o r k states. T h i n k o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f m o l e c u l e s i n each of these three conditions. In a g a s , chaos rules; new configurations are possible, but they are constantly b e i n g disrupted and torn apart by the volatile n a t u r e of the environment. In a solid, the opp o s i t e h a p p e n s : t h e p a t t e r n s h a v e stability, b u t t h e y a r e i n c a p a b l e o f change. But a liquid network creates a m o r e promising environment for t h e s y s t e m t o e x p l o r e t h e a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e . N e w c o n f i g u r a t i o n s can e m e r g e t h r o u g h r a n d o m c o n n e c t i o n s f o r m e d b e t w e e n m o l e c u l e s , b u t t h e s y s t e m isn't s o w i l d l y u n s t a b l e t h a t i t i n s t a n t l y d e s t r o y s its new creations. T h o s e connective carbon a t o m s swirling in the prim o r d i a l s o u p f o r m e d a h i g h - d e n s i t y l i q u i d n e t w o r k . T h e 100 b i l l i o n neurons in your brain form another kind of liquid network: densely interconnected, constantly exploring new patterns, but also capable o f p r e s e r v i n g u s e f u l s t r u c t u r e s for l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . T h e r e is a prediction (albeit retroactive) l u r k i n g in this idea of the liquid network, as well as in the p r e m i s e that innovative

52

LIQUID

NETWORKS

environments share s i g n a t u r e patterns at different scales. T h e pred i c t i o n i s t h a t w h e n e v e r h u m a n b e i n g s first o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s into s e t t l e m e n t s t h a t r e s e m b l e d l i q u i d n e t w o r k s , a g r e a t f l o w e r i n g o f i n n o v a t i o n w o u l d h a v e i m m e d i a t e l v followed. For ao;es, e a r l v h u m a n s lived in the cultural equivalent of gaseous networks: small packs of hunter-gatherers bouncing around the landscape, with alm o s t n o c o n t a c t b e t w e e n g r o u p s . B u t t h e rise o f a g r i c u l t u r e c h a n g e d all that. F o r t h e first t i m e , h u m a n s b e g a n f o r m i n g g r o u p s t h a t n u m b e r e d i n t h e t h o u s a n d s , o r t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s . After m i l l e n n i a o f l i v i n g i n a n i n t i m a t e c l u s t e r o f e x t e n d e d family, t h e y b e g a n s h a r i n g a space crowded with strangers. With that increase in population c a m e a crucial increase in the n u m b e r of possible connections that could be formed within the group. G o o d ideas could m o r e readily f i n d t h e i r w a y into o t h e r b r a i n s a n d t a k e root t h e r e . N e w f o r m s o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e c a m e p o s s i b l e . E c o n o m i s t s h a v e a t e l l i n g p h r a s e for the kind of sharing that happens in these densely populated envir o n m e n t s : " i n f o r m a t i o n spillover," V\^ien y o u s h a r e a c o m m o n civic culture with thousands of other people, g o o d ideas have a tendency t o flow f r o m m i n d t o m i n d , e v e n w h e n t h e i r c r e a t o r s t r y t o k e e p t h e m secret. " S p i l l o v e r " i s t h e r i g h t w o r d ; i t c a p t u r e s t h e e s s e n t i a l l i q u i d i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e n s e s e t t l e m e n t s . A s s p e c i e s g o . Homo sapiens h a d b e e n o n a fairly g o o d r u n i n t h e m i l l i o n y e a r s t h a t l e d u p t o t h e b i r t h o f a g r i c u l t u r e : its m e m b e r s h a d i n v e n t e d s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , art, s o p h i s t i c a t e d tools for h u n t i n g , a n d cooking. B u t u n t i l t h e y s e t t l e d i n cities, t h e y h a d n o t f i g u r e d o u t a w a y t o l i v e i n s i d e a high-density liquid network. What happened when they did? To grasp the m a g n i t u d e of the change, we need to put it in s o m e kind of perspective, by m e a s u r i n g t h e s p e e d o f i n n o v a t i o n before t h e first cities w e r e settled. S o l e t u s

STEVEN

JOHNSON

c o n d e n s e s e v e n t y t h o u s a n d y e a r s o f i n n o v a t i o n into a s i n g l e t i m e l i n e , e n d i n g c i r c a 2 0 0 0 B . C . , a few m i l l e n n i a after t h e first t r u e cities formed. L o o k i n g at the past from this perspective m a k e s one thing clear: s o m e w h e r e w i t h i n a t h o u s a n d y e a r s o f t h e first cities e m e r g ing, h u m a n b e i n g s invented a w h o l e new w a y of inventing, A strong correlation exists between those dense settlements and the dramatic surge in the societal innovation rate. B u t is there a causal relationship between the two? T h e chart alone cannot tell us, a n d we do not know enough about the specific histories of these innovations to d o c u m e n t h o w e s s e n t i a l t h e u r b a n c o n t e x t w a s t o their c r e a t i o n . B u t the circumstantial evidence is strong. No doubt s o m e ingenious hunter-gatherer s t u m b l e d across the c l e a n s i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f a s h e s m i x e d w i t h a n i m a l fat, o r d r e a m e d o f b u i l d i n g a q u e d u c t s i n t h o s e l o n g e o n s b e f o r e t h e rise o f cities, a n d we s i m p l y h a v e no record of his epiphany. B u t the lack of a record is exactly the point. In a low-density, chaotic network, ideas c o m e a n d go. I n t h e d e n s e n e t w o r k s o f t h e first cities, g o o d i d e a s h a v e a n a t u r a l p r o p e n s i t y t o g e t i n t o c i r c u l a t i o n . T h e y s p i l l over, a n d t h r o u g h t h a t s p i l l i n g t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d for f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s . For r e a s o n s w e w i l l s e e , h i g h - d e n s i t y l i q u i d n e t w o r k s m a k e i t e a s i e r for innovation to happen, but they also serve the essential function of storing iho^e i n n o v a t i o n s . B e f o r e w r i t i n g , b e f o r e b o o k s , b e f o r e W i k i p e d i a , t h e l i q u i d n e t w o r k o f cities p r e s e r v e d t h e a c c u m u l a t e d w i s d o m o f h u m a n culture. T h e pattern w a s repeated in the explosion of commercial and artistic innovation that e m e r g e d in the densely settled hill towns of N o r t h e r n Italy, t h e b i r t h p l a c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e n a i s s a n c e , O n c e again, the rise of urban networks triggers a dramatic increase in the

54

o 1

^™

^ l rld N e w

York: R a n d o m H o u s e , 2001.

. Code^ and Other Laws of Cyberspace. Lovell, Jmi., a n d Jeffrey Kluger. Houghton Lyell,

Charles,

Changes

Mifflin, Sir.

of

the

N e w York: Biisic B o o k s ,

Lost Moon: The Perilous Poyage of

1999.

A p o l l o 13. Boston:

1994.

Principles Earth^s

of

Geology: Being

Surface Are

Beferable

an Inquiry How Far the Former to

Causes

Now

in

Operation.

London: J. Murray, 1855. M a c l a u r l n , W'. R u p e r t . " T h e P r o c e s s o f T e c h n o l o g i c a l I n n o v a t i o n : T h e L a u n c h i n g o f a

New

Sc\eTii\f\clná\istvy.^^ American Economic BeviewM},

30S

no.

1

(1950):

90—112.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M a c L e o d , Christine, and Alessandro Nuvolari. P r o s o p o g r a p h y of

British Inventors,

" ' T h e Ingenious Crowd': A Critical

Journal of Kconomic Mistory

1650—1850."

5 (2005J: 66-85.

Gutenberg: Hou! One Man Kemade the World with Words.

Man, John.

N e w York: John

Wiley & Sons, 2002. Margulis,

Lynn,

and

Dorion

from Our Microbial Ancestors. Mason,

John.

A

Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Evolution

Sagan.

Berkeley:

Universitv

Treatise on Self Knowledge: Showing

Important Science, and the Way to Attain It. McKeen,

William.

Times, Meyer,

"The

March

Peter B.

26,

Endangered Joy

Collective

tics W o r k i n g P a p e r W P - 3 6 8 "A Production

.

"Production of

Boston: J.

Loring,

1997.

That

1835.

SL Petersburg [ F l o r i d a ]

Serendipity"

U.S.

Bureau

of

Labor

Statis-

(2003). of

Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth 5

(1993).

S o m e O r g a n i c C o m p o u n d s U n d e r Possible Primitive Eiirth

Journalof the American Chemical Society 77,

Conditions."

Press,

the Nature and Benefit of

Invention."

Journal of NIH Research

Conditions."

California

2006.

"Episodes of

Miller, Stanley L.

of

of

no.

9

(1955):

2351-61.

Mills, L. Scott, M i c h a e l E. Soulé, a n d D a n i e l F. D o a k . " T h e Keystone-Species Concept in Ecology and Conservation." Moretti,

BioScience

43,

no. 4 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 2 1 9 - 2 4 .

Graphs, Alaps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary Mistory.

FVanco.

New

York: Verso, 2005.

. Atlas of the European Novel, 1800-1900. .

N e w York:

Verso,

1998.

The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture.

Translated

by Albert S b r a g i a . L o n d o n : Verso, 1987.

.

Signs

Paken for Wonders: Essays in the Sociology of Literary Forms.

York: Verso, Mumford,

pects. National

New

1983.

Phe

Lewis.

City in Mistory: Its

Origins, Its

Pransformations and Its Pros-

N e w York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , Jovanovich, 1961.

Commission

mission

on

Terrorist

Attacks Upon

Report- Final Report of

Upon the united States.

the

the

National

N e w York: W. W.

United

States.

Commission

on

Phe 9/Í1 ComPerrorist Attacks

Norton, 2004.

Nemeth, Charlan Jeanne. "Dissent as Driving Cognition, Attitudes, and Judgments."

Social Cognition

13,

no.

3

(1995): 2 7 3 - 9 1 .

N i s t a d , B . A., W o l f g a n g S t r o e b e , H e i n F M . Lodew-djkx. " T h e Illusion o f G r o u p P r o ductivity:

A

Reduction

Psychology

^5^.^

no.

1

of

Failures

Explanation."

(January/February 2006):

309

European Jourruil of Social

31-48.

BiBLiOGRAPHY

. "DiffeTential ContTÍbutions of Majority a n d Minority Influence."

logical Reviewno. Ogburn, William

F.,

1 and

Social ¥.vo\^xúoïìr Ogle,

(1986): Dorothy

Psycho-

25-52.

Thomas.

"Are

Inventions

Political Science Quarterly'^l.,Y\o.

1

Inevitable? A Note (1922):

on

85-98.

Smart fVorld: Breakthrough Creativity and the New Science of Ideas.

Richard.

Boston: H a r v a r d Business School Press, 2007. Oldenburg,

Ray.

Phe

Great Good Place:

Cafhs,

Coffee Shops,

Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts, and Mow the Day.

N e w York:

Marlowe,

Phey Get You Phrough

1997.

O'Reilly, T i m . " G o v 2.0: T h e P r o m i s e o f I n n o v a t i o n . " www.forbes.com/2009/08/

Community Centers,

Forhes

( A u g u s t 10, 2 0 0 9 ) . h t t p : / /

10/government-inter net-soft war e-technology

- b r e a k t h r o u g h s - o r e i lly. h t m l .

of

Creative

Paine, R . T. "Conversation on Refining the Concept of Kevstone Species."

Conserva-

Osborn,

Alex

Faickney.

Problem Solving

tion Biology Palermo,

Applied Imagination:

N e w York: Scribner,

Principles

and Procedures

1965.

9, no. 4 ( 1 9 9 5 ) : 9 6 2 - 6 4 .

David Stuart, a n d J a m e s J. Jenkins.

Phrough College.

fVord Association Norms: Grade School

Minneapolis: University of

Minnesota Press,

1964.

P a u h u s , R B., M. T. Dzindolet, G. Poletes, a n d L. M. C a m a c h o . "Perception of Perf o r m a n c e in G r o u p B r a i n s t o r m i n g : T h e Illusion of G r o u p Productivity."

sonality and Social Psychology Bulletin Paulus,

Paul B., a n d Bernard Arjan

Collaboration.

N e w

York:

Oxford

19, no.

Nijstad.

(1993):

78.

Group Creativity. Innovation Phrough

University

Poincaré, Henri, a n d George Bruce Halsted.

1

Per-

Press,

2005.

Phe Foundations of Science; Science and

Mypothesis, the Palue of Science, Science and Method.

N e w York:

Science Press,

1921. Powell, Walter W , and Stine Grodal. "Networks of Innovators."

tion(2005): Prestero, Timothy.

Mandbook of Innova-

1009-51. "Better by Design: H o w E m p a t h y C a n L e a d to M o r e Successful

T e c h n o l o g i e s a n d S e r v i c e s for the Poor ( D i s c u s s i o n o f D e s i g n C a s e Niirratives: Rickshaw Bank, Solar-Powered Tuki, F G N Pump)."

Governance, Globalization Priestley, Joseph.

5,

no.

1

(2010):

Innoixitions: Pechnology,

79-95.

Experiments and Observations on P}ifferent Kinds of Air and Other

Branches of

hiatural Philosophy;

Former Six

Folumes Abridged

Connected with the Subject . . . and Methodized,

m i n g h a m , UK: T h o m a s Pearson,

1790.

with

; Being the

Many Additions.

Bir-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Exploring Complexity.

Prigogine, Hya, a n d G r é g o i r e Nícolis. man,

W. H . F r e e -

1989.

Rheingold,

ToolsJor Thought:

Howard.

Technology. Ridley,

N e w York:

C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: M I T Press, 2000.

The Red

Matt.

The Mistory and Future of Niind-Expanding

Sex and the Evolution of

Queen:

Human Nature.

New

York:

HarperPerennial, 2005.

. Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters. Collins,

N e w York:

Harper-

1999.

R o a c h , J o h n . " R i c h C o r a l R e e f s i n N u t r i e n t - P o o r W a t e r : P a r a d o x E x p l a i n e d ? " A^a-

tional Geographic news/2001/1 Robson, David.

(November

7,

2001).

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/

l/1107_keyholecoral.htmL

New Scientist 27U

"Disorderly Genius."

Diffusion of Innovations.

Rogers, Everett M.

Rosenberg, S u s a n M., and P. X Hastings. M u t a t i o n R a t e s in t h e Wild."

New

York:

(2009): 54-37.

Free Press,

1985.

"Microbiology and Evolution: \Iodulating

Science Signaling

500, no.

5624 (2005):

1582.

Ruef, Martin. "Strong Ties, W e a k Ties and Islands: Structural and Cultural Predictors

of

(2002): Sawyer,

R.

Organizational

Innovation."

Industrial and Corporate Change

11,

no.

5

427.

Explaining

Keith.

Creativity:

The

Science

of

Muman Innovation.

New

York: O x f o r d University Press, 2006. Schofield,

Robert

E.,

A Scientific Autobiography of Joseph Priestley (1733—1804):

ed.

Selected Scientific Correspondence. Schopf,

J.

William.

Cambridge,

Mass.:

M I T

Press,

1966.

Pife's Origin- Phe Beginnings of Biological Evolution.

Berkeley:

University of California Press, 2002. Schulz,

Being

Kathryn.

Wrong: Adventures

in

the Margin

of

Error.

New

York:

HarperCollins, 2010.

Phe Scientific Revolution.

Shapin, Steven. Shapin,

Steven,

and

Simon

the Experimental Pife. Shirky,

Clay.

tions. Smionton,

Mere

Schaffer.

Princeton:

Comes Everybody:

Chicago: University of

Cliicago Press,

1996.

Peviathan and the Air-Pump: Mobbes, Boyle, and Princeton

University Press,

Phe Power of

Organizing

1985.

Without Organiza-

N e w York: P e n g u i n Press, 2008. Dean

Keith.

Creativity in Science: Chance, Logic,

Genius, and Zeitgeist.

C a m b r i d g e , U K : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2004.

.

Origins of

Genius: Darusinuin Perspectives on Creativity.

University Press,

.

New

York:

1999.

Greatness: Who Makes Mistory and Why.

3Î1

New

York:

Guilford,

1994.

Oxford

LIOGRAPHY

.

Genius,

Creativity,

and Leadership: Historióme trie Inquiries.

Cambridge,

Mass.: H a r v a r d University Press, [984.

A History of the fVorld in Six Glasses.

Standage, Tom.

Handbook of Creativity.

Sternberg, Robert J.

N e w York:

Walker, 2005.

Cambridge, U K : C a m b r i d g e University

Press, 1999.

Going to Extremes: How Like IHinds Unite and Divide.

Sunstein, Cass R.

Oxford, U K :

Oxford University Press, 2009. Surowiecki, James.

The Wisdom of Crowds.

Swade, Doron,

Charles

and

The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the

Babbage.

Quest to Build the First Computer. Tapscott,

Don,

and

Anthony

Changes Everything. Thaler,

Richard

H.,

New

D.

Wealthy and Happiness.

New

York:

Portfolio,

Sunstein.

Viking,

A

Two

Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health,

N e w York: P e n g u i n

Compartmental

4 2 , no. 4 ( 2 0 0 8 ) : Urbina,

Ian.

York

Books, 2009.

of

"Intelligence and E E G Phase

Phase

Shift and Lock."

Neurolmage

1659-55.

"Growing

Times,

Model

Collaboration

2008.

T h a t c h e r , R o b e r t W'., D . M . N o r t h , a n d C . J . B i v e r . Reset:

2001.

Wikinomics: How JMass

Williams.

York:

imd Cass R.

N e w York: Anchor, 2005.

Pains

April

8,

for

2008.

a

Deep-Sea

Home

Built

of

Subway

Cars."

New

http://www.nytlmes.com/2008/04/08/uii/08reef

.htmL Valenstein,

The War of the Soups and the Sparks: The Discovery of Neuro-

E l l i o t S.

transmitters

and

the

Dispute

over

How

Nerves

Communicate.

New

York:

C o l u m b i a University Press, 2005. Vinten-Johansen,

Peter,

Eife of John Snow. Wagner,

Ullrich, Steffen

Inspires Insight." Waldrop,

Mitchell

Chaos.

M.

et

al.

Cholera,

Chloroform, and the Science of Aledicine: A

N e w York: O x f o r d University Press, 2005. Gais,

Nature

Hilde Haider, Rolf Verleger, 427, no.

6972 (2004):

and Jan Born.

552-55.

Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of

N e w York: S i m o n and Schuster,

Weinbaum, Stanley Grauman.

"Sleep

Order and

1992.

A ISIartian Odyssey, and Others.

Reading, Pa.: Fantasy

Press, 1949. Wilson,

Edward

Wright, Robert.

O.

Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge.

NonZero: The Logic of Human Destiny.

New

York:

N e w York:

Knopf,

1998.

Pantheon Books,

2000. Yu,

Peter

K.

Intellectual Property and Irformation

DigitalAge.

Westport,

Conn.:

Wealth: Issues and Practices

Praeger Publishers,

3Í2

2007.

in the

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zimnier,

CarL

The

Tangled Bank: An Introduction to Evolution.

Greenwood

Village,

Colo.: R o b e r t s & Co. Publishers, 2010. .

"Evolutionary Roots: O n the Origin of Life on Earth."

(2009):

Science

525, no. 5911

198.

Zittrain, Jonathan L .

The Euture of the Internet—And Mow to Stop It.

Yale University Press, 2009.

il3

New

Haven:

Go to N

Index

A b s o l u t e zero. 2 7 2

Amazon, 245

Accounting, double-entry. 56-57, 228, 251

A m e r i c a n Airlim-s K U g h t 77, 70

A d j a c e n t possible, 2 5 - ^ 2 . « * , 72, 107, 110,

Analytical K n g i n c , 5 6 - 4 0 , 155, 157. 2 7 0

1 5 5 . 156, 185, 1 < > L 2 5 1

A n a l n i c gpomoiry, 258

for A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e , 5 6 - 4 0 , 153

Ansoff, V i n c e m , 2 8 7

of b i o s p h e r e , 52—55, 5 6 . 156

Apollo 15 mission, 4 1 - 4 2

D a r \ v i n s P a r a d o x and, 53. 2 + 5

A p p l e , 124. 1 6 9 - 7 1 , 200, 244, 291

e r r o r a n d , 158

iPhone, 39, 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 195, 1 9 5 , 2 4 4

of e v o l u t i o n , 3 2 , 142, 147

iPod,

e x p l o r i n g , 38, 63, 102, 141 of jazz,

192

n e t w o r k s a n d . 45—47

170

Macintosh, 15 Application progri^mming interfaces (APIs), 194, 2 0 9

i n o r i g i n s o f l i f e . 51—52

A p p s for A m e r i c a , 1 9 5 - 9 6

serendipity and, |09

A p p s for D e m o c r a c y , 1 9 5 - 9 7

of Web. 54, 59

Archaea. 295

A d o b e F l a s h , 1 4 , 4 0 , 189

Archaeopteryu, 1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 7 4

AdSense, 95

A r c h i m e d e s , 58, 110, 2 4 0

A f g h a n i s t a n , w a r in, 9 4

Aristotle, 255. 258

Air conditioning, 2 1 4 - 1 8 , 220, 251, 280

A R P A N E T . 221

Airplanes, 280

Ashbery, John, 122

Algorithms

Aspirin, 272

c o m p u t e r , 94, 114, M 6 , 158, 2 7 0

A s t e r o i d i m p a c t , e x t i n c t i o n c a u s e d by, 2 9 5

e\'olutionary, 79, 2 5 8

A s s e m b l y lines, 2 8 3

Al Qaeda. 70

A s s m a n n , Rich(ird, 280

Altmann. Richard, 27S

Atomic reactors, 286

Alvarez, L u i s a n d \\dlii'r, 2 9 5

A t o m i c theory. 2 6 7

NDEX

Atta, M o h a m e d , 75

Bose Acoustics, 65

Audion, 153-55,

Bouchon, Basile, 268

157, 2 8 5

Automobiles, 28, 215, 277, 2 8 5

Boyle, Robert, 259, 260

Avery-MacLeod-McCarthy

B r a h e , Tycho, 254, 256

experiment, 287

Avogadro, Count Amedeo, 267

Braille, 269 Br amah, Joseph, 255

B a b b a g e , C h a r l e s , ò6-^, 4 2 ,

155,

157, 2 7 0 ,

Brand, Stewart, 65

287

Brattain, Walter, 2 8 8

Bacon, Francis, 84 Balance-spring watches,

Braun, Kari Ferdinand, 279 259—60

Brazil, social n e t w o r k i n g sites in, 95

Ball bearings, 252

Brin, Sergey, 158

Barbier, Charles, 269

B r i t a i n , B a t t l e of, 2 8 6

Bardeen, John, 288

Brunelleschi, Filippo, 56

Barometers, 258, 259

Buchner, E d u a r d , 276

B a r t h , J o h n , 108

Buffalo F o r g e C o m p a n y , 214—15

Battelle, John,

122

Bunsen burner, 2 7 2 - 7 5

Bayliss, William Maddock, 281

B u m e l l , Jocelyn Bell, 290

Beagle

B u r r o u g h s , W i l l i a m S e w a r d , 57, 277

( s h i p ) , 4 - 7 , 8 2 , 177,

Beatles, the,

180

164

Burt, Ronald,

166-67

Becquerel, Henri, 279

B u s h , G e o r g e W., 9 4

Begun, Semi Joseph, 286

Büyükkökten, Orkut, 95

Beh aim, Martin, 252

Byrne, David, 164

Bell, Alexander G r a h a m , 275

Byron, L o r d , 58. 270

Bell, John, 85 B e l l l j b s , 288, 290

Calculators, 57, 259, 277

Beneden, Edouard van, 276

Calculus, 258, 261

Benkler, Yochai,

220n

Galera, 205

Benz, Karl, 277

California, University of

B e n z e n e , s t r u c t u r e of, 1 0 5 , 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 1 6 0 , 2 7 5

Berkeley, 159, 160

Bernardos, Nikolai, 277

Davis, 8

Berners-Lee, Tim, 88-90, 92-94,

117,

158,

Santa Barbara, 205

188,206,218,220-21,294

Santa Cruz, 205

Berti, Gasparo, 258

Capitalism, 217, 220n, 256, 257

Bessemer, Henry, 272

agrarian, 244

Bharat, Krishna, 94-95

industrial,

250

merchant,

56—57

Bible, G u t e n b e r g , 152, 155, 2 2 8 Bicycles,

268

Carbonated water, 264

Bifocals, 265

Carnot, Sadi, 269

Big Bang,

Carotbers, Wallace, 286

159, 2 9 0

B i n L a d e n , O s a m a , 70, 9 +

Carrier, Willis Haviland, 2 1 4 - 1 8 , 220, 2 5 1 ,

B i o s p h e r e , a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e of, 5 1 — 5 3 , 5 6 , 107,

280

156

C a r r i e r E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 215—16

Birüni, A b u R a y h ä n al-, 266

C a r t Wright, E d m u n d , 2 6 6

Bishop, J

G a r y I n s t i t u t e for E c o s y s t e m S t u d i e s , 1 8 2

Michael, 292

BlackBerry, 195

Cell diyision, 276

Blood circulation, 257

Cerf, Vincent, 2 9 1

Blood types, 2 7 9 - 8 0

C E R N ( E u r o p e a n L a b o r a t o r y for P a r t i c l e

Bohr, Niels, 285, 284

Physics), 9 0 - 9 5 , 29+

316

NDEX

Chadwick, J a m e s , 286

Cordus, Valerius, 255

C h a o s , 5 2 , 6 2 - 6 5 , 8 5 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 12Q, 1 4 8

Cosmic rays, 285

C h a r d a c k , W i l h a m , 156

Cotton gin, 266

C h e n , S t e v e , 14, 16, 5 9 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 7

C P U (central processing unit), 58, 270

C h i c a g o , U n i v e r s i t y of, 4 9 , 1 6 6 , 2 8 8

Creative C o m m o n s , 125

China

Credè, Carl, 276

ancient, 255, 266

Cretaceous period, 154

G r e a t W a l l of, 2 0 5

C r i c k , F r a n c i s , 159, 1 6 8 - 6 8 , 190, 2 8 9

m o v a b l e t y p e i n v e n t e d in, 1 5 5 , 2 5 1

Cristofori, Bartolomeo, 262

s m a l l p o x inoculation in, 2 6 6

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihály, 64

Chloroform, 269-70

CT scan (computerized t o m o g r a p h y ) , 291

Chomsky, Noam, 65

Cubic equations, 255

Chromosomes, 282

Cumings, Alexander, 255

Chronic Disease Institute (Buffalo,

Cuneus of Leyden, 54

N e w York), 155

Curie, Marie and Pierre, 279

Chronometer, 264 Cities, 1 6 - 2 1 , 59, 65, 115, 222, 2 4 5

D a g u e r r e , L o u i s , 154—55, 2 7 1

a d j a c e n t possible in, 55

Daimler, Gottlieb, 277

ancient,

Dalton, John, 267

55—54

d i s c a r d e d spaces in, 199, 2 0 0

Damadian, Raymond, 292

I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e , 54—58, 2 2 8 , 2 5 5

D a m a s i o , Antonio, 76

s u b c u l t u r e s of,

D a p h n i a (water flea), 1 0 7 - 8

160—62

D a r k A g e s , 151

s u p e r l i n e a r s c a l i n g of, 9 — 1 1 , 7 5 , 1 6 2 Clarkson, Martha, 64

D a r l i n , D a m o n , 118, 120

Clausius, Rudolf, 269

Darnton, Robert, 8 6 - 8 7

Clinton, Bill,

D a r w i n , C h a r l e s , 17, 1 9 , 7 8 - 7 9 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 2 4 5 ,

196

269

Clocks, pendulum, 259 Collins, Wilkie, 159, 191

biblical a r g u m e n t against, 153

Colt, S a m u e l , 270

on Keeling Islands, 5-7, 41, 177-81, 258

C o l u m b i a University, 55, 282

M a r x on, 2 5 6 - 5 7

Comets, 254, 262

n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n t h e o r y of, 7 9 — 8 2 , 1 4 5 ,

Complex numbers, 255

190, 2 7 5

C o m p u t e r s , 59, 47, 75, 116, 2 7 0

n o t e b o o k s of, 85—86

A n a l y t i c a l E n g i n e a s , 57—59

on o r i g i n s of life, 29, 50

early, 154, 157, 185, 188

s i d e i n t e r e s t s of, 1 7 1 — 7 2

graphical interface with,

t a n g l e d b a n k m e t a p h o r of, 2 5 8 — 4 0

1 5 - 1 6 , 160,

D a r w i n , E r a s m u s , 85—87

291 i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n of,

D a r w i n ' s P a r a d o x , 5, 55, 1 8 1 - 8 2 , 190, 2 0 2 ,

see I n t e r n e t ;

World Wide Web

245 Data.gov, 195

mainframe, 217 m u l t i t a s k i n g of,

Davis, Miles,

172

191-92,210

p e r s o n a l , 14, 1 6 5 , 1 7 0 , 2 2 4

Dean, Howard,

197

v a c u u m t u b e s a n d , 152—55

D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t , U S . , 290, 291

Concave lenses, 251

D e Forest, L e e , 1 5 1 - 5 5 , 157, 157, 220, 251

ConsUntz, Brent, 2 0 5 - 5

Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Enviroimiental Control,

C o n t a c t lenses, 2 7 8

198-99

C o n t i n e n t a l drift, 2 8 5

Dennett, Daniel,

Copernicus, Nicolaus, 226, 252-55, 256

JÍ7

190

NDEX

Deiiucé, J e a n - L o u i s - P a u l , 276

Endorphins, 292

D e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d , see D N A

E n g e l b a r t , D o u g , 15, 160, 2 9 0

Descartes, René, 258

Engels, Friedrich, 256-58

Design that Matters, 27-28

England, 2+4, 254

D E V G N t b i n k , 1 1 4 - 1 6 , 127

c o m m o n s of, 2 4 4

D i c k e n s , C h a r l e s , 159, 191

E n l i g h t e n m e n t in, 84, 162, 188

Difference Engine, 56-58, 40

I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n in, 2 5 0 , 2 6 4

Digital Equipment Corporation, 65

Victorian, 8 7 - 8 8

D i n , T a q i a l - , 254-

E N I A C , 15+, 157

D J n o s a u r s , e x t i n c t i o n of, 2 9 5

E n l i g h t e n m e n t , 84, 86, 162, 226, 228, 254

D i o d o r u s Siculus, 24^>-+l

Eno, Brian, 165-65

Djerassi, Carl, 289

E n q u i r e s o f t w a r e a p p l i c a t i o n , 88—90, 9 5

D N A , 2 0 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 1 9 0 , 254-, 2 8 7 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 1

Enzymes, 275-76, 291

c o m p l e m e n t a r y r e p l i c a t i o n s y s t e m of,

Erdapfel, 252 Error, 1 5 1 - + 8 , 156

159 d o u b l e - h e l i x s t r u c t u r e of, 2 8 9 , 1 6 8

i n v e n t i o n s g e n e r a t e d by,

f o r e n s i c u s e of, 2 9 5

noise and, 1 5 8 - 4 5 , 1 4 5 - 4 8

n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n a n d , 106—7, 14-2

p a r a d i g m s h i f t s a n d , 157—58 Ether,

r e p a i r s y s t e m i n , 144—47 D o p p l e r effect,

152-56

172, 2 5 5 - 5 4 , 2 7 0

E y a n s , Oliver, 240-1^2, 2 7 0

184-85

E v o l u t i o n , 2 0 , 2 9 , 106, 1+2, 1 5 + - 5 8

D o r i a n scale, 192, 2 1 0 Dorsey, Jack, 1 9 2 - 9 +

a d j a c e n t p o s s i b l e in, 5 2 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 7

D o u b l e - e n t r y a c c o u n t i n g , 56—57, 2 2 8 , 2 5 1

Darwin's tbeor>-of, 7 8 - 8 0 , 1 7 1 - 7 2 , 269

D r a i s , Kari von, 268

of facial expressions, 116

D r e a m s , 1 0 0 - 1 0 5 , 105, 109, 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 125,

m u t a t i o n in, 54, 1 + 2 - 4 5

156, 2 7 5 Drosophila

melanogaster,

see also N a t u r a l 282

selection

E x a p t a t i o n , 1 5 1 - 7 + , 192, 2 5 2 , 2 4 +

D u c h a m p , Marcel, 165

in coffeehouse model,

Dujardin, Edouard, 158-^9

in evolutionary theory,

D u n b a r , Kevin, 5 9 - 6 2 , 158

i n s u b c u l t u r e s , 160—65

DuPont Corporation, 286

165-70 155—57, 1 7 1 - 7 2

i n s h a r e d m e d i a , 165—65

D V D players, 14

Exposition Uniyerselle (Paris, 1855), 57

D y l a n , B o b , 165, 191

Eyeglasses bifocal, 2 6 5

E a r t h q u a k e s , 276, 281

concave lens, 251

E c c l e s , J o h n C a r e w , 101 Edison, T h o m a s Alva, 251, 276, 278

E^bricius, Johannes a n d David, 257

Einstein, Albert, 59, 219, 281, 2 8 +

P^cobook,

EKG, 278

Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, 265

Electrical batteries, 54, 152, 267, 2 8 5

P^lcon, J e a n , 2 6 8

Electric motors, 269, 277

P o l l i n g b o d i e s , l a w of, 2 5 8

Electroencephalogram ( E E G ) , 10+

EVaday, Michael, 269

E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s p e c t r u m , 151—52, 1 5 +

P^rnsworth, Philo, 285

Electrons, 279, 285

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI),

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 255

126-27

A u t o m a t e d C a s e S u p p o r t system, 69, 76,

Elliptical orbits, 256 BrUaiinica,

195,196

6 9 - 7 4 , 9+,

Elevators, 272

Encyclopaedia

118,

91,92,95, 122-25

127

Gounterterrorism, 72

Ì1S

NDEX

Radical Fundamentalist Unit ( R F U ) , 71, 72, 9 2 , Federal

v i t i c u l t u r e in, 152, 135, 167

127

in World War 1,7

Communications Commission (FCC),

i2n,

Germ

theory, 2 7 4

Getting, Ivan, 290

B

Ferdinand III, Holy R o m a n Emperor, 259

Gilbert, William, 255

Fermi, Enrico, 287

Ginsburg, Charles Paulson. 289

Ferraris, Galileo, 277

G l a d w e l l , M a l c o l m , 6 2 , 76,

Ferro, S c i p i o n e del, 2 5 5

Global Positioning System ( G P S ) ,

Fick, Adolf E u g e n , 278

167

186-87, 207, 209, 290

Finley, J a m e s , 267

Global warming,

Fiore, Antonio, 2 5 5

G o d d a r d , R o b e r t H., 284

Firearms, 256, 270, 275

Godfrey, T h o m a s , 265

Fischer, Q a u d e ,

G o e t h e , J o h a n n Wolfgang von, 56

160-62, 200

122, 2 9 5

Fisher, Alva John, 282

Golgi. Camillo, 282

Fitch, John, 266

Goodyear, Charles, 271

FitzRoy, Vice A d m i r a l J a m e s , 5, 177, 181

G o o g l e , I7n, 9 1 , 9 5 - 9 5 ,

Flaubert, GusUve,

Fleming, Alexander,

154, 2 8 5

Alerts, 208

Flemming,

276

Books,

Fletcher,

William,

115,

1 2 1 - 2 5 , 127,

128, 158, 196, 2 0 0 , 2 0 9 , 2 4 5

191

Walther,

14,

280

114

Gmail, 95

Flintlock firing m e c h a n i s m , 256, 270

I n n o v a t i o n T i m e Off,

F l u s h toilets, 2 5 5

M a p s , 194

95—94

Flying shuttle, 265

News,

Ford Motor Company, 285

Search Products and User Experience, 94

94—95

Forensics, D N A , 295

G o r e , Al,

Foursquare, 207

G o u l d , S t e v e n J a y , 2 9 , 126, 1 5 5 - 5 4 . 156.

Ì2n,

192

259

F r a n c e , m e d i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t in, 25—26 F r a n k l i n , B e n j a m i n , 148, 172, 2 2 8 , 264, 2 6 5

G r a n d Alliance,

Franklin, Rosalind,

G r a n o v e t t e r , M a r k , 167

168

G r a p h i c a l u s e r i n t e r f e c e ( G U I ) , 15—16, 1 6 0 ,

Frasca, David, 71. 7 2 , 9 1

291

F r a u n h o f e r , J o s e p h von, 2 6 8 F r e u d , S i g m u n d , 1 0 1 - 2 , 109, 162, 188

Gravity, 262, 284

F u c h s i a n functions,

Gray, Elisha, 275

Fulton,

12n

110—11

G r e a t Barrier Reef, 205, 2 0 5

Robert, 2 6 5 - 6 6

Greatbatch, Wilson, GABA,

155-56

G r e e k s , ancient, 151, 192

101

m y t h o l o g y of, 1 0 5 , 1 6 0

G a l a p a g o s Islands, 82, 85 Galileo Galilei, 226, 254. 255-60, 265, 266

G r e e n X c h a n g e , 125, 126, 158

Galvani, Luigi, 267

G r u b e r , H o w a r d , 7 9 - 8 1 , 172

G a m m a ray bursts, 294

G u e r i c k e , Otto von, 259

G a t e s , Bill,

Guier, William,

112-15

Gunter, Edmund, 258

Gatling gun, 275 G e n e r a l Electric,

154

Gutenberg, Johannes, 1 5 2 - 5 5 , 167-68, 218,

Geological uniformitarian ism, 269 Geometry,

185-88, 209, 290

220, 221, 226, 251

111,258

Guthrie, Samuel, 270

Gerhardt, Charles, 272 Germany

Hadley, John, 265

t e c h n o l o g y c o m p a n i e s in, 2 8 6

Halley, E d m u n d , 2 6 2

319

NDEX

Hancock, Thomas, 271

H u r l e y C h a d , 14, 16, 5 9 , 189, 1 9 7

Hanjour, Hani, 70

H u x l e y T H.,

Hargfeaves, James, 254

Huygens, Christian, 259

79

Harrington, John, 255 Harriot, Thomas, 257

I B M , 125, 189

Harrison, Thomas, 264

Incubators, 25-29, +2, 276

H a r v a r d University, 254, 288

India, 70

Harvey, William, 257

social n e t w o r k i n g sites in, 95

H a y e k , Friedrich von, 217

Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), 27

H e g e l i a n dialectics, 257

Induction motors, 277

Heisenberg, Werner, 2 8 4

Industrial Revolution, 250, 25+, 265

Helicopters, 284

Infant morUlity, 2 5 - 2 7

H e l i o c e n t r i c theory, 252—55

I n f o r m a t i o n spillover, 55, 58, 65, 162, 2 5 5 , 2+2

H e n l e i n , Peter, 2 5 2 Heredity, 275, 282

Ingenhousz, Jan, 265

H e r s c h e l , W i l l i a m and C a r o l i n e , 2 6 6

''Intelligent design,"

Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf, 151-52, 279

I n t e r n e t , 18, 1 1 9 , 1 8 9 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 4 , 2 9 1

155

H e s s , Victor, 2 8 5

c o m m e r c i a l v a l u e of, 1 8 7

Hewish,

filters on, 120

Antony, 290

Hewlett-Packard, 200 High-definition television ( H D T V ) ,

g e n e r a t i v e p l a t f o r m of, 2 4 5 12-16,

o p e n a r c h i t e c t u r e of, 2 2 0 n

190

start-ups on, 200

Highs, Thomas, 26+

t r a n s m i s s i o n costs of idea s h a r m g on,

High-Z Supernova team, 29+

255

see also

Hippocrates, 272

World Wide Web

H o m e b r e w C o m p u t e r C l u b , 165, 188

IQ s c o r e s , 104—5

H l N l virus, 5 5

I r a n , p o l i t i c a l p r o t e s t s in, 1 9 2

Hooke, Robert, 228, 2 5 9 - 6 2

I R C m e s s a g i n g platform, 195

Hooker, Joseph, 50

Islam, 57, 2 5 1 , 2 5 5

Hopps, John, 288 Hormones,

f u n d a m e n t a l i s t , 70, 7+, 91

281,289

I t a l y R e n a i s s a n c e , 54, 5 6 - 5 8 , 228, 2 5 1 , 255

H o t air balloons, 266 Hounsfield, Godfrey 291

Ive, J o n a t h a n , 169, 170

Howard, Ron, 41 H o w e , Elias, 271

Jacob, Francois, 29

H T M I ^ 158, 189

Jacobs, J a n e , 11, 161-62, 199-200

HTTP,

Jacquard, Joseph-Marie,

189,209

157, 2 6 8

Hubble. Edwin, 285

J a m e s , W i l l i a m , 1 0 5 - 6 , 158

Hughes, John, 292

Janssen, Zacharias and Hans, 255

H u n c h e s , 6 9 - 9 5 , 99, 101, 102, 2 + 6

Japan,

A P L p l a t f o r m and, 185, 188

286

e a r t h q u a k e s in, 2 7 6

Dar\YÌn's, +, 5 0 , 7 8 - 8 7 , 177

H D T V in,

Ì2n

instant, 7 6 - 7 7

Javascript,

about 9 / 1 ] terrorists, 6 9 - 7 6

Jefferson, T h o m a s , 228, 2 + 0 - 4 2

s e r e n d i p i t y and, 109, 111, 1 1 5 - 1 5 , 1 2 5 - 2 + ,

Jeffreys, Alex, 2 9 5

126-28, 2+4

189

Jenner, Edward, 266

slow, 77, 7 8 , 8 1 , 8 5 , 8 9 - 9 + , 105, 115,

J e t e n g i n e s , 285—86

152-56,204-5,252

Jevons, W i l l i a m Stanley, 1 5 6 - 5 7

320

INDEX

J o b s , S t e v e , 169, 170, 2 9 2

Lessìg, 1 jwrenot?, 256, 2+2

J o h n s H o p k i n s Univoraity, 291

L i b b y , W i l l a r d , 2H8

Applied Physics Laboratory,

185-85,

L i e b i g , J u s t u s vou, 2 7 0

187-88

L i f e , o r i g i n s of, 2 9 - 5 2 , 4 9 - 5 2

Johnson, George, 9

simulation

J o n e s . Clive. 182

of,

49,289

Light

Jones, Greg, 74

s p e c t r u m of. 260, 268

Joyce, J a m e s , 59, 159, I 9 l

s p e e d of,

J u p i t e r , m o o n s of, 2 5 6

260-61,

281

Lighibulhs,251,276 L i g h t n i n g rods, 2 6 4

K a r i m , J a w e d , 14, 16, 5 9 . IH9. 1 9 7

L i l i e n t h a l , t)tto, 2 8 0

K a u f f m a n , Stuart, 5 0 - 5 1 , 52, 52, 107

L i n n a e u s , Carl, 228, 265

Kay, A l a n , 160

L i o n , A l e x a n d r e , 26

K a y John, 265

Lippershoy, Huns, 255

Keeling Islands, 5-7, 4 1 , 8 2 , 1 7 7 - 8 1 , 200,

L i q u i d networks, + 5 - 6 5 , 75, 162, 169, 2 5 2 ,

258

255,

K e k u l é von Stradonitz, Friedrich August, 105,

109-10,

246

Lithography, 267 U o y d , l-jlward.

160,275

188-89

84-85,

Kelly T . J . , 291

Locke, John,

Kelvin scale, 2 7 2

Locomotives,

Kepler, J o h a n n e s . 159, 256, 2 5 7

L o e w i . Otto,

Khosla. Vinod, 205

Logarithms, 8, 2 5 7 - 5 8

K m d l e , 114

London,

Kleiber, M a x , 7 - 1 0

100-102

165

c h o l e r a in, 1 1 4 - 1 5 ,

Koestler, Arthur, 5 8 - 5 9 , 159

172-74

Science Musi^um, 57

Kolhörster, Werner, 285

University,

K o r e a n A i r L i n e s F l i g h t 01)7, 1 8 6

168

World's F a i r { l 8 6 2 ) , 2 7 +

K o r s c h i n s k y . S., 54

Long-zoom

Kosterlitz, H a n s , 292

iiorsiu-clivc, 2 0 - 2 1

L o o m s , m e e h a n i / i i l i o n of, 5 8 , 8 5 , 1 5 7 , 2 6 5 ,

K r e b s cycle. 2 8 7

266. 278

K u h n . T h o m a s , 59, 157 Kühne, Wilhelm,

87, 228

268

Loschmidt, Joseph, 275

275

L o u i s Xni. K i n g o f T r a n c e , 2 5 6

K u n d r a , Vivek, 195, 197

L o ^ ^ l a c e , A d a , 5 8 , 59, 2 7 0 Lyell, C h a r l e s . 6, 82, 177, 179, 2 6 9

Laennec, René, 268 L a m a r c k i a n i s m , 145

Magnetism,

Landsteiner, Karl, 279

Malthus, Thomas,

L a n g t o n . Christopher, 52

Maps

Lanier, Jaron, 58 Lasers,

Google,

290

255 79-81,85, 222

194

Mercator proinllon, 254

Lavoisier, Antoine, 228, 265, 267

Marconi, Guglielmo,

Lee. William, 255

M a r i n l e R o u r g o o y s , 256

Leeuwenhoek, Antonie

Philips

M a r i o t t e , ECdm*', 260

van, 255,

260

Marius, Simon, 256

Lehrer, J o n a h , 159

Martin, Odile, 25, 26

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 261

M a r x , Karl, 2 5 6 - 5 7

L e n o r m a n d , Louis-Sébastioti, 252

Mason, John, 86

L e o n a r d o da Vinci, 56, 226, 252, 278

Mason jars. 272

J2i

151-52. 279

NDEX

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 27 Building 20,

M u l t i p l e s , 54—55 M u t a t i o n , 54, 1+2, 1 + 4 - + 7 , 1 5 4 - 5 6 , 2 8 2

62-65,65

Muybridge, E-adweard, 278

M a s s production, 152, 155, 250, 2 8 5 Mathematical symbols, 255

N a i r o b i ( K e n y a ) , 29, 126, 156, 259

M a u n a K e a , 178

Napier, John, 2 5 7 - 5 9

M a u r i t i u s , 177

National Science Foundation ( N S F ) , 205

Maybach, Wilhelm,

277

N a t u r a l selection, 7 9 - 8 2 , 1 0 6 - 7 , 1 + 2 - 4 5 ,

Mayer, Marissá, 94

155-56,190,

M c C l u r e , F r a n k T., 1 8 5 - 8 7 , 209 McGaffey, Ives W, 274

see also G P S

M c K e e n , W i l l i a m , 117, 118, 120 McPherson, Isaac, 2+0, 2+2 Mellotron synthesizer,

Navy, U S . , 155 Nemelh, Charlan,

164

1 5 9 - 4 2 , 147

NeoNurture, 28

Mendel, Gregor, 275

Neurotransmitters, 99, 2 8 2

Mendeleev, Dmitri, 101, 27+ Mendelian genetics,

275

Navigational devices, 57, 257, 2 6 5

190

Neutrons, 286, 287 Newcomen, Thomas, 262

Mercator projection, 2 5 4

Newlands, John, 27+

Mesopotamia, 245 Newton, Isaac, 228, 257, 258, 2 6 0 - 6 5 , 286 M e t a b o l i s m , r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s i z e to, 8—10 Michelangelo,

N e w York City,

56

165, 2 0 0 , 2 1 5 - 1 5

Police Etepartment ( N Y P D ) , 77

Microorganisms, 260

Nicholas of Cusa, 251

Microscopes, 61, 255, 260

Niepce, Joseph Nicephore, 271

Microsoft, 65,

N i k e C o r p o r a t i o n , 125, 158

112-15

Building 99, 6 5 - 6 4

Nitroglycerine,

Windows,

Nobel, Alfred, 2 5 1 , 2 7 4

16,244

W i n d o w s M e d i a Player,

14

M i c r o w a v e ovens, 287

271

N o b e l P r i z e , 101, 159, 169, 2 8 5 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 5 N o i s e , 1 0 4 - 5 , 116, 120, 2 2 2 , 2 5 2

Microwaves, 185, 185, 290

error and,

158-45, 145-48

M i l k y Way, 2 6 6

Non-Euclidian geometry,

Miller, S U n l e y L . , 49, 50, 289

Nucleotides, 52, 52. I +4. 289

Milne, John, 276

Nylon,

111

286

Milton, John, 59, 84 M i t o c h o n d r i a , 52, 2 7 8

O b a m a , B a r a c k , 195

M o l e c u l e s , f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e o r y of, 2 6 7

Ocean tides, 257

Montgolfier, Joseph-Michel a n d J a c q u e s -

Octants, 265

Etienne,

266

Moretti, F r a n c o , 158, 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 Morgan, T h o m a s Hunt, 275, 282 M o r s e code, 152, 2 7 0 M o t i o n , l a w s of, 2 6 2 Motion picture camera, 278 Motorcycle,

Ogburn, Wilham, 55 Ogle, Richard, 167-69 Obain, H a n s von, 285 O l d e n b u r g , Ray, 162 Oldham, Richard, 281 Olszewski, Stanislav, 277

277 Oncogenes,

M o u n t Vesuvius,

292

151 Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, 282

M o u s s a o u i , Zacarias, 7 5 - 7 6 , 9 1 , 9+, 127 M R I (magnetic resonance imaging), 292 Mueller, Robert, 71, 75 Muller,

Oral contraceptives, 25+, 2 8 1 , 2 8 8 - 8 9 Orbits of comets, 262

RA.,278

of electron around nucleus of atom, 285

J 22

NDEX

of m a n - m a d e satellites, 183, 1 8 5 - 8 6 , 290

Platforms, 2 1 , 4 0 , 9 3 , 125, 1 7 7 - 2 1 0 , 2 3 4 city as, 2 4 5

planetary, 252, 256

emergent,

O'Reilly, T i m , 197

1 8 7 - 8 8 , 194, 196, 1 9 7 , 2 3 2 ,

234

Orkut, 93

generative,

O s b o r n . Alex, 126

open, 125, 178, 194, 1 9 8 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 1 , 235,

Otis, Elisha, 272

189, 2 4 3 - 4 4

243

Otto, Nilcolaus, 2 7 7

stacked, 189-94, 206, 209, 210

Oughtred, William, 257-58

P l i n y t h e Elder, 151

Outside.in, 208, 209

Poe, E d g a r Allan, 191

Oxford University, 84

Poincaré, Henri, 110-13, 245

O x y g e n , i s o l a t i o n of, 3 4 , 3 5 , 2 6 5

Poindexter, A d m i r a l John, 73

Ozzie, Ray, 1 1 2 - 1 3

Polaris n u c l e a r missiles, 186, 2 0 9 Portland cement, 204

P a c e m a k e r s , 136, 2 8 8

Pressure cookers, 261

P a c i o l i , L u c a , 57, 2 5 1

Prestero, Timothy, 2 7 - 2 8

P a g e , L a r r y , 158

Priestley, J o s e p h , 34, 3 5 , 7 7 - 7 8 , 86, 138, 172,

P a g e R a n k s , 158

218, 228, 264, 265

P a n A m I n t e r n a t i o n a l F l i g h t A c a d e m y , 73,

Princeton University,

139, 2 3 4

Printing press, 152-53, 221, 226, 251

74 Pangea, 283

Procter & G a m b l e , 125

P a p i n , r>enis, 2 6 1 , 2 6 2

Proust, Joseph, 267

Paracelsus, 254

Ptolemaic astronomy,

Parachutes, 252

Public B r o a d c a s t i n g S y s t e m ( P B S ) , 122

P a r a d i g m shifts, 1 3 7 - 3 8

Public E n e m y , 165

P a r i s . 163

Pulmonary respiration, 253

Maternitéde,

152

Pulsars, 290

25-26

U n i v e r s i t y of, 2 5 3

P u n c h cards, 38, 157, 2 6 8

Parkes, Alexander, 274

Pyramids, 203

Pascal, Blaise, 259 Pasteur, Louis, 2 7 4 276

Quantum mechanics, 284

Pelouze, X T , 271

Q u a r t e r - p o w e r l a w s , 8—11

Pencils, 254

Q u i c k - T i m e , 14

Pendulums, 259, 276 Penicillin.

134, 2 8 5

Radioactivity, 279

Penzias, Arno, 139,290

Radiocarbon dating, 288

Periodic table, 50, 101, 274

R a d i o s , 13, 3 5 , 1 3 2 - 3 5 , 164, 165, 2 2 4 , 2 7 9

Perkins, Jacob, 270

R A M ( r a n d o m access m e m o r y ) , 3 8

Pescara, Raúl Pateras, 284 P h o e n i x m e m o , 6 9 - 7 3 , 7 5 - 7 6 , 9 1 , 94,

R a m o n v Cajal, Santiago, 282 127

R a n g i r o a atoll, 2 0 4

Photography, 35, 135, 271

R a y t h e o n C o r p o r a t i o n , 166—67, 2 9 0

Photosynthesis,

R e a g a n , R o n a l d , 186

265

Piano, 262

Red Sea, 201

P i S h e n g 153, 167

Refrigerators, 270

Planck, Max, 284

Relativity theory, 219, 2 8 1 , 2 8 4

Plante, Gaston, 272

R E M sleep, 101, 102

P l a n t r e s p i r a t i o n , 78, 2 6 5

R e n a i s s a n c e , 54, 56, 151, 226, 228, 234,

P l a s t i c , 33, 48, 1 5 6 , 2 7 4

253

NDEX

R e p r o d u c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , 106—8, 1 4 6 — 4 7

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks ( 9 / 1 1 ) ,

R e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t ( R & D ) labs,

6 9 - 7 6 , 9 1 , 94, 9 5 Serendipity, 99-128,

1 2 4 - 2 5 , 127, 158, 2 5 3 Respiration

chaos and, 105-6,

156, 2 5 2 , 2 4 6 120

plant, 78, 2 6 5

in d r e a m s , 1 0 0 - 1 0 5 , 105, 109, 1 1 6 - 1 7

pulmonary, 255

h u n c h e s and, 109, 111, 1 1 5 - 1 5 ,

Restriction enzymes, 291

125-24,

126-28,244

Revolvers, 270

Web and,

117-25

Richter, Claudio, 201

Servetus, Michael, 255

Riess, A d a m , 29+

Sewing machines,

RNA,

S e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , 106—8, 1 + 6 — 4 7

290-05

280

Roberts, Richard X, 2 9 2 - 9 5

SGML,

Rock, John, 288

S h a r p , P h i l i p A., 2 9 2 - 9 5

Rockets, 28+

S h i b b , R a m z i bin al-, 75

Roemer, Olaus, 2 6 0 - 6 1

Sbocklee, H a n k , 165

Roentgen, Wilhehn,

Sbockle>-, Bill, 2 8 8

279

189

R o m a n s , ancient, 151

Sholes, Christopher L