Water Quality_ Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations, Volume 4-American Water Works Association (2010)

A

• • • •

• Public water supply regulations, including potential future rules • Water quality monitoring and sampling, laboratory certification, record keeping; and sample preservation, storage, and transportation • Laboratory equipment and instruments • Microbiological contaminants Physical and aggregate properties of water Inorganic chemicals, particularly chlorine residuals and disinfection by-products; Organic and radiological contaminants, including health effects Customer inquiries and complaint investigation

Water Quality is Part Four of the five-part Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations (WSO) series of training texts for water operators, developed and published by the American Water Works Association.

Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations

WSO: Water Quality

clear understanding of water quality is the basis for all water treatment processes. Water operators need to recognize, monitor, and test for a wide variety of water quality elements and contaminants. They also must comprehend the regulations regarding safe water. This book is the premier reference on water quality for water treatment operators everywhere. Completely revised and updated, Water Quality, Fourth Edition covers

Water Quality

Additional titles in the Water Supply Operations Series • • • •

Water Sources Water Treatment Water Transmission and Distribution Basic Science Concepts and Applications

Fourth Edition

AWWA is the authoritative resource for knowledge, information, and advocacy to improve the quality and supply of water in North America and beyond. AWWA is the largest organization of water professionals in the world, advancing public health, safety, and welfare by uniting the efforts of the full spectrum of the water community. Through our collective strength, we become better stewards of water for the greatest good of people and the environment.

Advocacy Communications Conferences Education and Training Science and Technology Sections

The Authoritative Resource on Safe Water ®

1P-4E-7.5C-1958-6/10-SB

1958 Water Quality Cover.indd 1

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Water Quality

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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF WATER SUPPLY OPERATIONS SERIES Water Sources, Fourth Edition Water Treatment, Fourth Edition Water Transmission and Distribution, Fourth Edition Water Quality, Fourth Edition Basic Science Concepts and Applications, Fourth Edition

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Water Quality

Fourth Edition

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Copyright © 1979, 1995, 2003, 2010 American Water Works Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission of the publisher. Project Manager/Senior Technical Editor: Melissa Valentine Technical Editor: Linda Bevard Cover Design: Cheryl Armstrong Production: Kayci Wyatt, TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.

Disclaimer Many of the photographs and illustrative drawings that appear in this book have been furnished through the courtesy of various product distributors and manufacturers. Any mention of trade names, commercial products, or services does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the American Water Works Association or the US Environmental Protection Agency. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages arising out of the use of information presented in this book. In particular, AWWA will not be responsible for any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred as a result of lost revenue. In no event shall AWWA’s liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ritter, Joseph A. Water quality / by Joseph A. Ritter.—4th ed. p. cm. — (Principles and practices of water supply operations) Rev. ed. of: Water quality. 2003. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-58321-780-1 1. Water quality. 2. Water quality—Measurement. I. American Water Works Association. II. Water quality. III. Title. TD370.W392 2010 628.1'61—dc22 2010004522 ISBN 10: 1-58321-780-0 ISBN 13: 978-1-58321-780-1

6666 West Quincy Avenue Denver, CO 80235-3098 303.794.7711 www.awwa.org

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Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... ix Introduction ............................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1

Public Water Supply Regulations ............................................... 1 Safe Drinking Water Act ........................................................... 1 Current and Future Rules Affecting Drinking Water Systems.... 23 Drinking Water Program Requirements.................................. 33 Special Regulation Requirements ............................................ 34 Selected Supplementary Readings ........................................... 39

Chapter 2

Water Quality Monitoring ....................................................... 41 Sampling.................................................................................. 41 Monitoring for Chemical Contaminants ................................. 58 Laboratory Certification ......................................................... 59 Record Keeping and Sample Labeling..................................... 61 Sample Preservation, Storage, and Transportation ................. 62 Selected Supplementary Readings ........................................... 65

Chapter 3

Water Laboratory Equipment and Instruments ......................... 67 Labware .................................................................................. 67 Major Laboratory Equipment ................................................. 78 Safety Equipment .................................................................... 85 Support Equipment ................................................................. 90 Analytical Laboratory Instruments ......................................... 94 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 106

Chapter 4

Microbiological Contaminants ................................................ 107 History ................................................................................... 107 Indicator Organisms ............................................................... 111 Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) Procedure ......................... 118 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 120

Chapter 5

Physical and Aggregate Properties of Water ........................... 123 Acidity.................................................................................... 123 Alkalinity................................................................................ 124 Calcium Carbonate Stability .................................................. 125 Coagulent Effectiveness.......................................................... 127 Color ...................................................................................... 132 Conductivity........................................................................... 133 Hardness................................................................................. 134 Taste and Odor....................................................................... 135

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VI

WATER QUALITY

Temperature........................................................................... Total Dissolved Solids............................................................ Turbidity ................................................................................ Selected Supplementary Readings ..........................................

139 140 140 143

Chapter 6

Inorganic Chemicals ................................................................145 Carbon Dioxide ..................................................................... 145 Chlroine Residual and Demand ............................................. 146 Disinfection By-Products ....................................................... 148 Dissolved Oxygen................................................................... 150 Inorganic Metals .................................................................... 151 Fluoride ................................................................................. 153 Iron ........................................................................................ 154 Manganese ............................................................................. 155 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 157

Chapter 7

Organic Contaminants ............................................................159 Natural Organic Substances................................................... 159 Synthetic Organic Substances................................................. 162 Health Effects of Organic Chemicals...................................... 162 Measurement of Organic Compounds ................................... 163 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 167

Chapter 8

Radiological Contaminants .....................................................169 Radioactive Materials ............................................................ 169 Radioactive Contaminants in Water ...................................... 171 Adverse Health Effects of Radioactivity ................................ 173 Radionuclide Monitoring Requirements................................ 173 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 175

Chapter 9

Customer Inquiries and Complaint Investigation ......................177 General Principles .................................................................. 177 Specific Complaints................................................................ 179 Selected Supplementary Readings .......................................... 185

Glossary .................................................................................................................187 Index......................................................................................................................207

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Foreword Water Quality is part four in a five-part series titled Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations. It contains information required by treatment system operators on drinking water regulations and water quality sampling and monitoring and describes the laboratory equipment and instrumentation used today to analyze drinking water for microbiological, chemical, and physical contaminants. The other books in the series are Water Sources Water Treatment Water Transmission and Distribution Basic Science Concepts and Applications (a reference handbook) References are made to the other books in the series where appropriate in the text. The reference handbook is a companion to all four books. It contains basic reviews of mathematics, hydraulics, chemistry, and electricity needed for the problems and computations required in water supply operation. The handbook also uses examples to explain and demonstrate many specific problems.

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Acknowledgments This fourth edition of Water Quality has been revised to include the latest available information on new analytical techniques and current federal drinking water regulations. The material has also been reorganized for better coordination with the other books in the series. The author of the revision was Joseph A. Ritter (B.S. Chemistry and certified Water Treatment Operator). Special thanks go to Dr. Charles D. Hertz, Ph.D., Aqua America, Inc. and Dr. Jennifer L. Clancy, Ph.D., Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. for their review of the manuscript.

ix

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Introduction Water treatment plant operators are required to understand federal, state and local laws and the standards that apply to domestic water treatment systems. They should understand how drinking water regulations are administered and why compliance is essential to providing safe drinking water to the public. Potable water treatment is a health related industry. Drinking water regulations set the treatment goals for the water supply industry. Their intent is to ensure uniform delivery of safe and aesthetically pleasing drinking water to the public. Drinking water regulations specify monitoring requirements, and water system operators are responsible for two types of monitoring: 1) monitoring required to ensure that the water is safe for human consumption, i.e., the water is potable [compliance monitoring]; and 2) monitoring to measure the efficiency of treatment processes [process monitoring or testing]. Water treatment plant operators are responsible for the proper sampling, i.e., the proper collection and preservation, and in some cases, the basic microbiological and chemical analyses of these samples. This book contains nine chapters. Federal, state and local regulations continue to become more stringent and complicated. Chapter 1 provides a brief but thorough discussion of the Safe Drinking Water Act and federal drinking water regulations in effect as of publication of this fourth edition. Information on the regulations and suggested reading sources are provided for additional information. Each water system operator should have access to the latest Federal and state drinking water regulations. These documents will detail the specific requirements that must be met and the methods of water system operation, monitoring, and reporting required by the Federal and state primacy agencies. Care must be taken to learn the specifics of the primacy agency for each regulation in your specific geographical area, since some regulations now fall to the county or local levels for primary enforcement. The increasing complexity of the regulations and who has primacy over which regulation under varying circumstances has added to the operator’s burden of compliance. In some areas utilities are now having reporting regulations imposed on them by non-health related organizations such as public utility commissions. Water quality analysis is an important part of the operation of every public water system. Chapter 2 discusses the basics of proper sampling and monitoring. Large water systems usually have access to comprehensive onsite laboratories. Maintaining an onsite, dedicated laboratory requires a substantial capital investment in equipment and technicians trained to perform the various analyses. Medium size systems often have small laboratories with the capability to perform less complicated analyses. Small systems generally send samples to a state or commercial laboratory for microbiological and chemical analyses. Chapter 3 describes the equipment and instrumentation used in water analyses.

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WATER QUALITY

Water system operators are required to perform basic water analyses and to interpret the test results. Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 discuss the techniques commonly used to characterize drinking water. Chapter 9 provides valuable suggestions for customer complaint and water quality inquiry investigation. Additional information on equipment, reagents, and detailed test procedures to conduct each test can be found in either of the following references: • •

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (most recent edition). Methods of Chemical Analyses for Water and Wastes, USEPA, Office of Technology (most recent edition).

Simplified procedures for the more common tests are also provided in the following publications: • •

AWWA Manual M12, Simplified Procedures for Water Examination (most recent edition). Several laboratory equipment manufacturers and suppliers have prepared handbooks that outline the required equipment, reagents, and common test procedures.

It should be noted that all procedures, methods or any related reporting should be in compliance with the agency that has primacy for your specific region, since these regulations and requirements can vary from one state to another.

SELECTED SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS Manual M12, Simplified Procedures for Water Examination. 2002. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association. Methods of Chemical Analyses of Water and Wastes. 1984. 600/4-79-020. Cincinnati, Ohio: US Environmental Protection Agency. [NOTE: This is an older manual that may not be available, Check the EPA web site for updated methods. http:// www.epa.gov/safewater/regs.html#proposed ] Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st ed. 1998. A.D. Eaton, L.S. Clesceri, and A.E. Greenberg, eds. Washington D.C.: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation.

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CHAPTER 1

Public Water Supply Regulations The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), passed by Congress and signed into law in 1974, started a new era in the field of public water supply. The number of water systems subject to state and federal regulations has vastly increased, and the complexity of the regulations that must now be met far exceeds what could have been imagined just a few years ago. In addition, public water systems are subject to many additional state, local, and federal environmental and safety regulations.

SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT The principal law governing drinking water safety in the United States is the SDWA. SDWA was passed by Congress and signed into law in 1974. Suspected carcinogens discovered in the drinking water of the United States established a widespread sense of urgency that led to its passage. SDWA directs the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to promulgate and enforce National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs) that cover more than 92 contaminants, ensuring safe drinking water for the consumer and protecting public health. These include turbidity, 8 microbial or indicator organisms, 4 radionuclides (unless you are determined to be at risk; then 3 more are added), 32 inorganic contaminants including the secondary standards and the disinfection by-products (DBPs) if applicable, and more than 60 organic contaminants including synthetic organic compounds (SOC), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and DBP compounds. There are also myriad regulations on plant operation, personnel qualified to operate a water system, and relationships with customers. These are set not only by the USEPA but by state and local regulatory bodies, and operators must be knowledgeable about all of these regulations. Under SDWA, USEPA sets legal limits on the levels of certain contaminants in drinking water. The legal limits reflect both the level that protects human health and the level water systems can achieve using the best available technology (BAT). Besides prescribing these legal limits, USEPA rules set water testing schedules and methods that water systems must follow. The rules also list acceptable techniques for treating contaminated water. SDWA gives individual states the opportunity to set and enforce their own drinking water standards if the standards are at least as stringent as USEPA’s national standards. Most states and territories directly oversee the water systems within their borders. The requirements of the SDWA are applicable to all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Indian lands, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Republic of Palau. The intent of the SDWA is for each state to accept primary enforcement responsibility (primacy) for the operation of the state’s drinking water program. Indian tribes may also be delegated primacy for administration of public water supplies on tribal lands. As of 1994, all the

1

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2

WATER QUALITY

states and territories except Wyoming and the District of Columbia had accepted primacy. Only a few of the larger Indian tribes have accepted primacy. SDWA was amended six times between 1974 and 1986 and again in 1996 and 1999. The 1986 SDWA amendments set up a timetable under which USEPA was required to develop primary standards for 83 contaminants. Other major provisions required USEPA to 1. 2. 3. 4.

Define an approval treatment technique for each regulated contaminant, Specify criteria for filtration of surface water supplies, Specify criteria for disinfecting surface water and groundwater supplies, and Prohibit the use of lead products in materials used to convey drinking water.

In April 1993, the largest waterborne disease outbreak in the United States occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, when an estimated 403,000 people were affected by the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum. This event attracted national attention to the importance of safe drinking water and influenced the current theme of regulations. The 1996 amendments revised the contaminant list and regulatory process. On August 6, 1996, new SDWA amendments were signed into Public Law 104-182. These amendments created several new programs and included a total authorization of more than $12 billion in federal funds for drinking water programs. A section was added to the regulations to clarify the standardization of operator certification programs by the primacy agencies. A panel was formed to set policy so that all states, territories, and tribes have a minimum set of requirements for certified water treatment operators. The regulations that came out in 1999 gave the states the power to create their own separate programs as long as certain requirements were met. This included a minimum of a high school diploma or equivalent for the operator, a grading for systems by size and technology, mandatory testing of operators, and mandatory continuing education tied to a certification renewal that was not to exceed a three year cycle. There was also to be an enforcement policy to suspend or revoke certification including criminal and civil actions. Grandfathering for site-specific operators was to be allowed as determined by the primacy agency with the owner of the system applying for the certification for the system’s operators; these certifications would be nontransferable to other persons or other treatment facilities. The grandfathered operators had to meet all the requirements for the class of certification for renewal. The rules further stipulated that the system had to have an operator for the size and level of treatment, and if the system was upgraded or the technology changed, the operator had to be tested and upgraded before he could operate the changes.

Public Water Systems USEPA has further divided public water systems (PWS) that are covered by SDWA requirements into three categories based on the type of customers served, as follows:

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PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

1.

2.

3.

3

Community public water systems (CWS) serve year-round residents and include municipal systems, mobile home parks, and apartment buildings with their own water system serving 15 or more units or 25 or more people. Nontransient, noncommunity public water systems (NTNCWS) are entities with their own water supply serving an average of at least 25 persons who do not live at the location but who use the water for more than six months per year. These systems include schools and office buildings. Transient, noncommunity public water systems (TNCWS) are establishments that have their own water system, where an average of at least 25 people per day visit and use the water occasionally or for only short periods of time. Examples include restaurants, hotels, motels, churches, and parks.

A public water system covered under the provisions of the SDWA supplies piped water for human consumption and has at least 15 service connections or serves 25 or more persons 60 or more days each year. Examples of systems that do not fall under the provisions of the act are private homes on their own wells, housing developments, condominiums, and apartments that each have fewer than 15 connections and serve fewer than 25 residents. Summer camps with a water source that operates fewer than 60 days a year are also included. These systems are usually covered to some degree by state, county, or local health regulations. Figure 1-1 provides examples of the types of water systems or establishments that are covered under each category. The rationale for dividing systems into these three groups is the chemical exposure of persons using the water. Most chemical contaminants only cause adverse health effects after long-term exposure. Brief exposure of an individual to low levels of a chemical contaminant may not have an effect. Public Water System

Community Water Systems

Nontransient, Noncommunity Water Systems

Transient, Noncommunity Water Systems

– Municipal Systems – Rural Water Districts – Mobile Home Parks

– Schools – Factories – Office Buildings

– Parks – Motels – Restaurants – Churches

FIGURE 1-1 Classification of public water systems

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WATER QUALITY

Consider a municipal water system or mobile home park water supply contaminated with a low concentration of a carcinogen, a chemical known to cause cancer. A person who drinks this water every day for a period of years theoretically has an increased chance of getting cancer. A person who works in an office building that has a water supply contaminated by a carcinogen may experience adverse health effects if the person drinks the contaminated water over an extended period of time. A person who visits a hotel and drinks the same contaminated water will only drink a small amount of contaminated water and will have a lower risk of contracting cancer. Monitoring requirements for community and nontransient, noncommunity water systems apply to all contaminants considered a health threat. Transient, noncommunity systems are only required to monitor for contaminants currently considered to pose a potential health threat from brief exposure, such as nitrite and nitrate and microbiological contaminants. Approximately 155,000 public water systems in the United States are regulated under USEPA and SDWA rules. About 52,000 are classed as community systems, and approximately103,000 fall under one of the two noncommunity systems. The USEPA classifies community public water systems according to the number of customers they serve, the source of water and whether the service is year round or on an occasional or seasonal basis. • • • • •

Very small systems serve fewer than 25 to 500 people, constitute 56 percent of the community water systems, and serve 2 percent of the community water system population. Small systems serve 501 to 3,300 people, constitute 27 percent of the community water systems, and serve 7 percent of the community water system population. Medium systems serve 3,301 to 10,000 people, constitute 9 percent of the community water systems, and serve 10 percent of the community water system population. Large systems serve 10,001 to 100,000 people, constitute 7 percent of the community water systems, and serve 36 percent of the community water system population. Very large systems serve more than 100,001 customers, constitute 1 percent of the community water systems, and serve 46 percent of the community water system population. (Data are from USEPA’s FACTOIDS: Drinking Water and Ground Water Statistics for 2008.)

National Primary Drinking Water Regulations NPDWRs specify maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or treatment techniques (TTs) for contaminants that may have an adverse health effect on humans. The primary regulations are mandatory, and all public water systems must comply with them. If analysis of the water produced by a water system indicates that an MCL for a contaminant is exceeded, the water system must initiate a treatment regime to reduce the contaminant concentration to below the MCL or take appropriate steps to protect the public’s health.

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PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

5

Table 1-1 lists the status of USEPA primary drinking water standards at the time this book was prepared, and Table 1-2 describes the required sampling. (Some of the special monitoring for the Stage 2 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-Products (D/DBP2) Rule and other rules is not shown in Table 1-2. The final result of the monitoring will differ for each system depending on the results of the preliminary sampling.)

Maximum contaminant level goals The maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) is the concentration or level of a contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety and are nonenforceable public health goals. An MCLG is determined using a combination of animal studies and human exposure data. It is the goal the experts would like to see achieved for complete protection of public health. In some cases the MCLG is economically achievable, and in other instances it is not. For noncarcinogens, the MCLG is a finite number. For known or suspected human carcinogens, the MCLG is zero.

Maximum contaminant levels The MCL is the highest level of a contaminant allowed in drinking water. MCLs are enforceable standards. SDWA attempts to establish an MCL and an MCLG for each drinking water contaminant. The MCL is set at a level as close as possible to the MCLG but at a concentration that is reasonable and economically achievable with BAT. When it is impossible or impractical to establish an MCL, the USEPA can establish a TT and specify treatment methods that must be used to minimize exposure of the public. Existing MCLs are adjusted from time to time as improved treatment technologies and laboratory testing methods are developed and it becomes economically feasible to move the MCL closer to the MCLG. An MCL may be changed if new health effects data indicate that the reduction or increase in the allowable levels will not harm the population. Compliance with the MCL levels varies by the contaminant and can be based on a single sample or running annual averages (RAA).

Maximum residual disinfectant level goal (MRDL/MRDLG). For chlorine, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide, the MRDL and the MRDLG have been set to the same level that is 4.0 mg/L for chlorine and chloramines and 0.8 mg/L for chlorine dioxide—the level of a drinking water disinfectant below which there is no known expected risk to health. These levels are monitored at the tap of the user; thus, more could be present on leaving the treatment facility as needed. MRDLGs do not reflect the benefits of a disinfectant used to control microorganisms.

Zero Zero N/A

Zero Zero

Cryptosporidium

Giardia lamblia

Heterotrophic plate count (HPC)

Legionella

Total coliforms (including fecal coliform and E. coli)

Microorganisms

MCLG,* mg/L†

5.0%**

TT

TT

TT

TT‡

MCL or TT, mg/L

Human and animal fecal waste

Human and animal fecal waste

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Coliforms are naturally present in the environment as well as feces; fecal coliforms and E. coli only come from human and animal fecal waste.

Not a health threat in itself; it is used to indicate whether other potentially harmful bacteria may be present.††

Table continued next page

Found naturally in water; multiplies in heating systems

Legionnaire’s disease, a type of pneumonia

HPC has no health effects; it is an anaHPC measures a range of bacteria that lytic method used to measure the variare naturally present in the ety of bacteria that are common in environment water. The lower the concentration of bacteria in drinking water, the better maintained the water system is.

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps), Giardiasis

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps), Cryptosporidiosis

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

6

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs

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WATER QUALITY

Zero

Viruses (enteric)

Chloramines (as Cl2)

MRDLG =4

None***

Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs)

Disinfectants

N/A‡‡

0.8

Chlorite

Haloacetic acids (HAA5)

Zero

Bromate

Disinfection By-Products

N/A

MCLG,* mg/L†

Turbidity

Contaminant

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

MRDL =4.0

0.080

Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort; anemia

Liver, kidney, or central nervous system problems; increased risk of cancer

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

Table continued next page

Water additive used to control microbes

By-product of drinking water disinfection

By-product of drinking water disinfection

Increased risk of cancer

0.060

By-product of drinking water disinfection with ozone

Human and animal fecal waste

Anemia; nervous system effects in infants By-product of drinking water disinfection and young children chlorine dioxide

Increased risk of cancer

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps)

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness Soil runoff of water. It is used to indicate water quality and filtration effectiveness (e.g., whether disease-causing organisms are present). Higher turbidity levels are often associated with higher levels of disease-causing microorganisms such as viruses, parasites, and some bacteria. These organisms can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches.

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

1.0

0.010

TT

TT

MCL or TT, mg/L

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

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7

0.004

0.005

Cadmium

2

7 million fibers per liter (MFL)

0

Beryllium

Barium

Asbestos (fiber >10 micrometers)

Arsenic

Antimony

0.006

0.005

0.004

2

7 MFL

0.010 as of 1/23/06

0.006

MRDL =0.8

MRDLG =0.8

Chlorine dioxide (as ClO2)

Inorganic Chemicals

MRDL =4.0

MRDLG =4

MCL or TT, mg/L

Chlorine (as Cl2)

MCLG,* mg/L† Water additive used to control microbes

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Kidney damage

Intestinal lesions

Increase in blood pressure

Increased risk of developing benign intestinal polyps

Table continued next page

Corrosion of galvanized pipes; erosion of natural deposits; discharge from metal refineries; runoff from waste batteries and paints

Discharge from metal refineries and coalburning factories; discharge from electrical, aerospace, and defense industries

Discharge of drilling wastes; discharge from metal refineries; erosion of natural deposits

Decay of asbestos cement in water mains; erosion of natural deposits

Skin damage or problems with circulatory Erosion of natural deposits; runoff from systems; possible increased risk of conorchards, runoff from glass and electracting cancer tronics production wastes

Increase in blood cholesterol; decrease in Discharge from petroleum refineries; fire blood sugar retardants; ceramics; electronics; new lead-free solder

Anemia; nervous system effects in infants Water additive used to control microbes and young children

Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

8

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

0.1 1.3

0.2

4.0

Zero

0.002

Copper

Cyanide (as free cyanide)

Fluoride

Lead

Mercury (inorganic)

MCLG,* mg/L†

Chromium (total)

Contaminant Allergic dermatitis

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water Discharge from steel and pulp mills; erosion of natural deposits

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

0.002

TT; action level=0.015

4.0

0.2

Discharge from steel/metal factories; discharge from plastics and fertilizer factories

Kidney damage

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

Table continued next page

Erosion of natural deposits; discharge from refineries and factories; runoff from landfills and croplands

Infants and children: Delays in physical Corrosion of household plumbing sysor mental development; children could tems; erosion of natural deposits show slight deficits in attention span and learning abilities Adults: Kidney problems; high blood pressure

Bone disease (pain and tenderness of the Water additive that promotes strong teeth; bones); children may get mottled teeth erosion of natural deposits; discharge from fertilizer and aluminum factories

Nerve damage or thyroid problems

Corrosion of household plumbing sysTT†††; action Short-term exposure: gastrointestinal distress tems; erosion of natural deposits level=1.3 Long-term exposure: liver or kidney damage People with Wilson’s disease should consult their personal doctor if the amount of copper in their water exceeds the action level

0.1

MCL or TT, mg/L

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

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9

0.0005

Thallium

0.05 0.07 Zero

2,4,5-TP (Silvex)

2,4-D

Acrylamide

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs)

Organic Chemicals

0.05

1

Nitrite (measured as nitrogen)

Selenium

10

Nitrate (measured as nitrogen)

MCLG,* mg/L†

TT

‡‡‡

0.07

0.05

0.002

0.05

1

10

MCL or TT, mg/L

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Added to water during sewage/wastewater treatment

Table continued next page

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

Nervous system or blood problems; increased risk of cancer

Residue of banned herbicide

Leaching from ore-processing sites; discharge from electronics, glass, and drug factories

Kidney, liver, or adrenal gland problems

Liver problems

Hair loss; changes in blood; kidney, intestine, or liver problems

Hair or fingernail loss; numbness in fingers Discharge from petroleum refineries; eroor toes; circulatory problems sion of natural deposits; discharge from mines

Infants below the age of six months who Runoff from fertilizer use; leaching from drink water containing nitrite in excess septic tanks, sewage; erosion of natural of the MCL could become seriously ill deposits and, if untreated, may die. Symptoms include shortness of breath and bluebaby syndrome.

Infants below the age of six months who Runoff from fertilizer use; leaching from drink water containing nitrate in excess septic tanks, sewage; erosion of natural deposits of the MCL could become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die. Symptoms include shortness of breath and bluebaby syndrome.

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

10

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

Zero 0.003 Zero 0.04 Zero 0.2 0.4 Zero Zero

0.007 0.02 Zero

Atrazine

Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs)

Carbofuran

Chlordane

Dalapon

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP)

Dinoseb

Diquat

Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)

MCLG,* mg/L†

Alachlor

Contaminant

0.00000003

0.02

0.007

0.0002

0.006

0.4

0.2

0.002

0.04

0.0002

0.003

0.002

MCL or TT, mg/L

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Cataracts

Reproductive difficulties

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Reproductive difficulties; liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Weight loss; liver problems; possible reproductive difficulties

Minor kidney changes

Liver or nervous system problems; increased risk of cancer

Problems with blood, nervous system, or reproductive system

Reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Cardiovascular system or reproductive problems

Eye, liver, kidney, or spleen problems; anemia; increased risk of cancer

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

Table continued next page

Emissions from waste incineration and other combustion; discharge from chemical factories

Runoff from herbicide use

Runoff from herbicide used on soybeans and vegetables

Runoff/leaching from soil fumigant used on soybeans, cotton, pineapples, and orchards

Discharge from rubber and chemical factories

Discharge from chemical factories

Runoff from herbicide used on rights-ofway

Residue of banned termiticide

Leaching of soil fumigant used on rice and alfalfa

Leaching from linings of water storage tanks and distribution lines

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

Runoff from herbicide used on row crops

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

WaterQuality.book Page 11 Friday, April 30, 2010 2:46 PM

11

Zero

Pentachlorophenol

0.001

0.2

0.2

0.0002

Oxamyl (Vydate®)

0.0002

Lindane

0.05

0.04

0.05

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene (HEX)

0.001

0.04

Zero

Hexachlorobenzene

0.0002

0.0004

0.7

0.00005

TT

0.002

0.1

MCL or TT, mg/L

Methoxychlor

Zero

0.7

Glyphosate

Zero

Zero

Ethylene dibromide

Heptachlor epoxide

Zero

Epichlorohydrin

Heptachlor

0.002

0.1

Endrin

Endothall

MCLG,* mg/L†

Liver or kidney problems; increased cancer risk

Slight nervous system effects

Reproductive difficulties

Liver or kidney problems

Kidney or stomach problems

Liver or kidney problems; reproductive difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Liver damage; increased risk of cancer

Liver damage; increased risk of cancer

Kidney problems; reproductive difficulties

Problems with liver, stomach, reproductive system, or kidneys; increased risk of cancer

Increased cancer risk, and over a long period of time, stomach problems

Liver problems

Stomach and intestinal problems

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

Table continued next page

Discharge from wood-preserving factories

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on apples, potatoes, and tomatoes

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on fruits, vegetables, alfalfa, livestock

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cattle, lumber, gardens

Discharge from chemical factories

Discharge from metal refineries and agricultural chemical factories

Breakdown of heptachlor

Residue of banned termiticide

Runoff from herbicide use

Discharge from petroleum refineries

Discharge from industrial chemical factories; an impurity of some water treatment chemicals

Residue of banned insecticide

Runoff from herbicide use

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

12

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

WaterQuality.book Page 12 Friday, April 30, 2010 2:46 PM

WATER QUALITY

0.004 Zero

Simazine

Toxaphene

0.07 0.1

cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene

trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene

0.075

p-Dichlorobenzene Zero

0.6

o-Dichlorobenzene

0.007

Zero

Carbon tetrachloride

1,1-Dichloroethylene

0.1

Chlorobenzene

1,2-Dichloroethane

Zero

Benzene

Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)

0.5 Zero

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

MCLG,* mg/L†

Picloram

Contaminant

Liver problems

Liver problems

Liver problems

Increased risk of cancer

Anemia; liver, kidney, or spleen damage; changes in blood

Liver, kidney, or circulatory system problems

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Liver or kidney problems

Anemia; decrease in blood platelets; increased risk of cancer

Kidney, liver, or thyroid problems; increased risk of cancer

Problems with blood

Skin changes; thymus gland problems; immune deficiencies; reproductive or nervous system difficulties; increased risk of cancer

Liver problems

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

Table continued next page

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from chemical plants and other industrial activities

Discharge from chemical and agricultural chemical factories

Discharge from factories; leaching from gas storage tanks and landfills

Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cotton and cattle

Herbicide runoff

Runoff from landfills; discharge of waste chemicals

Herbicide runoff

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

0.1

0.07

0.007

0.005

0.075

0.6

0.005

0.1

0.005

0.003

0.004

0.0005

0.5

MCL or TT, mg/L

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

WaterQuality.book Page 13 Friday, April 30, 2010 2:46 PM

13

0.7 0.1 Zero

Ethylbenzene

Styrene

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 0.07 0.2 0.003 Zero Zero 10

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

1,1,1-Trichloroethane

1,1,2-Trichloroethane

Trichloroethylene (TCE)

Vinyl chloride

Xylenes (total)

1

Zero

1,2-Dichloropropane

Toluene

Zero

Dichloromethane

MCLG,* mg/L†

10

0.002

0.005

0.005

0.2

0.07

1

0.005

0.1

0.7

0.005

0.005

MCL or TT, mg/L

Discharge from factories and dry cleaners

Discharge from rubber and plastics factories; leaching from landfills

Discharge from petroleum refineries

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from drug and chemical factories

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

Nervous system damage

Increased risk of cancer

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Liver, kidney, or immune system problems

Liver, nervous system, or circulatory problems

Changes in adrenal glands

Table continued next page

Discharge from petroleum factories; discharge from chemical factories

Leaching from PVC pipes; discharge from plastics factories

Discharge from metal degreasing sites and other factories

Discharge from industrial chemical factories

Discharge from metal degreasing sites and other factories

Discharge from textile finishing factories

Nervous system, kidney, or liver problems Discharge from petroleum factories

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Liver, kidney, or circulatory system problems

Liver or kidney problems

Increased risk of cancer

Liver problems; increased risk of cancer

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

14

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

WaterQuality.book Page 14 Friday, April 30, 2010 2:46 PM

WATER QUALITY

None Zero

None Zero Zero

Beta particles and photon emitters

Radium 226 and radium 228 (combined)

Uranium

Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water

Increased risk of cancer

Increased risk of cancer

30 μg/L as of Increased risk of cancer, kidney toxicity 12/8/03

5 pCi/L

4 millirems per year

15 picocuries Increased risk of cancer per liter (pCi/L)

MCL or TT, mg/L

Erosion of natural deposits

Erosion of natural deposits

Decay of natural and synthetic deposits of certain minerals that are radioactive and may emit forms of radiation known as photons and beta radiation

Erosion of natural deposits of certain minerals that are radioactive and may emit a form of radiation known as alpha radiation

Sources of Contaminant in Drinking Water

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY REGULATIONS

Table continued next page

* Definitions: Maximum contaminant level (MCL)—The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best available treatment technology and taking cost into consideration. MCLs are enforceable standards. Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG)—The level of a contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety and are nonenforceable public health goals. Maximum residual disinfectant level (MRDL)—The highest level of a disinfectant allowed in drinking water. There is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for control of microbial contaminants. Maximum residual disinfectant level goal (MRDLG)—The level of a drinking water disinfectant below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reflect the benefits of the use of disinfectants to control microbial contaminants. Treatment Technique (TT)—A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in drinking water. † Units are in milligrams per liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted. Milligrams per liter is equivalent to parts per million.

None Zero

MCLG,* mg/L†

Alpha particles

Radionuclides

Contaminant

TABLE 1-1 List of contaminants and their MCLs (Continued)

WaterQuality.book Page 15 Friday, April 30, 2010 2:46 PM

15

‡ USEPA’s Surface Water Treatment Rules (SWTRs) require systems using surface water or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water to (1) disinfect their water, and (2) filter their water or meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the following levels: Cryptosporidium (as of 1/1/02 for systems serving >10,000 and 1/14/05 for systems serving