VSA

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT — FIELD GUIDES

VSA

V I S U A L

S O I L

A S S E S S M E N T

Field Guides

ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8

9

789251 059418 TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000

F I E L D

The present publication on Visual Soil Assessment is a practical guide to carry out a quantitative soil analysis with reproduceable results using only very simple tools. Besides soil parameters, also crop parameters for assessing soil conditions are presented for some selected crops. The Visual Soil Assessment manuals consist of a series of separate booklets for specific crop groups, collected in a binder. The publication addresses scientists as well as field technicians and even farmers who want to analyse their soil condition and observe changes over time.

G U I D E

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Annual Crops

G U I D E

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Annual Crops Graham Shepherd, soil scientist,

F I E L D

BioAgriNomics.com, New Zealand

Fabio Stagnari, assistant researcher, University of Teramo, Italy

Michele Pisante, professor, University of Teramo, Italy

José Benites, technical officer, Land and Water Development Division, FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2008

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specic companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. ISBN 978-92-5-105937-1 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Communication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: [email protected] © FAO 2008

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Contents Acknowledgements

v

List of acronyms

v

Visual Soil Assessment

vi

SOIL TEXTURE

2

SOIL STRUCTURE

4

SOIL POROSITY

6

SOIL COLOUR

8

NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES

10

EARTHWORMS

12

POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH Identifying the presence of a hardpan

14 16

SURFACE PONDING

18

SURFACE CRUSTING AND SURFACE COVER

20

SOIL EROSION

22

SOIL MANAGEMENT OF ANNUAL CROPS

24

iii

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

List of tables 1. 2. 3. 4.

How to score soil texture Visual scores for earthworms Visual scores for potential rooting depth Visual scores for surface ponding

3 13 15 19

List of figures 1. Soil scorecard – visual indicators for assessing soil quality in annual crops 2. Soil texture classes and groups

1 3

List of plates 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

The VSA tool kit How to score soil structure How to score soil porosity How to score soil colour How to score soil mottles (a): earthworms casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm Sample for assessing earthworms Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan Identifying the presence of a hardpan Surface ponding in a field How to score surface crusting and surface cover How to score soil erosion No-till drilling an annual crop into an erosion-prone field protected by good residue cover 15. Strip-tillage planting of an annual crop protected by good residue cover 16. Harvesting an annual grain crop, followed immediately by no-till seeding the next crop into stubble

iv

vii 5 7 9 11 13 13 15 16 17 19 21 23 25 25 25

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Acknowledgements This publication is adapted from the methodology developed in: Shepherd, T.G. 2008. Visual Soil Assessment. Volume 1. Field guide for pastoral grazing and cropping on flat to rolling country. 2nd edition. Palmerston North, New Zealand, Horizons Regional Council. 106 pp. This publication is funded by FAO in collaboration with the Agronomy and Crop Science Research and Education Center of the University of Teramo.

List of acronyms AEC

Adenylate energy charge

Al

Aluminium

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate

B

Boron

Ca

Calcium

CO2

Carbon dioxide

Cu

Copper

Fe

Iron

K

Potassium

Mg

Magnesium

Mn

Manganese

Mo

Molybdenum

N

Nitrogen

P

Phosphorus

RSG

Restricted spring growth

S

Sulphur

VS

Visual score

VSA

Visual Soil Assessment

Zn

Zinc

v

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Visual Soil Assessment Introduction The maintenance of good soil quality is vital for the environmental and economic sustainability of annual cropping. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on plant growth and yield, grain quality, production costs and the increased risk of soil erosion. Therefore, it can have significant consequences on society and the environment. A decline in soil physical properties in particular takes considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future generations and minimizing the ecological footprint of annual cropping are important tasks for land managers. Often, not enough attention is given to: < the basic role of soil quality in efficient and sustained production; < the effect of the condition of the soil on the gross profit margin; < the long-term planning needed to sustain good soil quality; < the effect of land management decisions on soil quality. Soil type and the effect of management on the condition of the soil are important determinants of the character and quality of annual cropping and have profound effects on long-term profits. Land managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help them assess the condition of their soils and their suitability for growing crops, and to make informed decisions that will lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, Visual Soil Assessment (VSA) provides a quick and simple method to assess soil condition and plant performance. It can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for annual crops. Soils with good VSA scores will usually give the best production with the lowest establishment and operational costs.

The VSA method Visual Soil Assessment is based on the visual assessment of key soil ‘state’ and plant performance indicators of soil quality, presented on a scorecard. With the exception of soil texture, the soil indicators are dynamic indicators, i.e. capable of changing under different management regimes and land-use pressures. Being sensitive to change, they are useful early warning indicators of changes in soil condition and as such provide an effective monitoring tool.

Visual scoring Each indicator is given a visual score (VS) of 0 (poor), 1 (moderate), or 2 (good), based on the soil quality observed when comparing the soil sample with three photographs in the field guide manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you are assessing does not align clearly with any one of the photographs but sits between two, an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5. Because some soil indicators are relatively more important in the assessment of soil quality than others, VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil Quality Index score for the sample you are evaluating. Compare this with the rating scale at the bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil is in good, moderate or poor condition. vi

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The VSA tool kit

PLATE 1 The VSA tool kit

The VSA tool kit (Plate 1) comprises: < a spade – to dig a soil pit and to take a 200-mm cube of soil for the drop shatter soil structure test; < a plastic basin (about 450 mm long x 350 mm wide x 250 mm deep) – to contain the soil during the drop shatter test; < a hard square board (about 260x260 x20 mm) – to fit in the bottom of the plastic basin on to which the soil cube is dropped for the shatter test; < a heavy-duty plastic bag (about 750x 500 mm) – on which to spread the soil, after the drop shatter test has been carried out; < a knife (preferably 200 mm long) to investigate the soil pit and potential rooting depth; < a water bottle – to assess the field soil textural class; < a tape measure – to measure the potential rooting depth; < a VSA field guide – to make the photographic comparisons; < a pad of scorecards – to record the VS for each indicator.

The procedure When it should be carried out The test should be carried out when the soils are moist and suitable for cultivation. If you are not sure, apply the ‘worm test’. Roll a worm of soil on the palm of one hand with the fingers of the other until it is 50 mm long and 4 mm thick. If the soil cracks before the worm is made, or if you cannot form a worm (for example, if the soil is sandy), the soil is suitable for testing. If you can make the worm, the soil is too wet to test.

Setting up Time Allow 25 minutes per site. For a representative assessment of soil quality, sample 4 sites over a 5-ha area. Reference sample Take a small sample of soil (about 100x50x150 mm deep) from under a nearby fence or a similar protected area. This provides an undisturbed sample required in order to assign the correct score for the soil colour indicator. The sample also provides a reference point for comparing soil structure and porosity.

vii

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Sites Select sites that are representative of the field. The condition of the soil in fields is site specific. Avoid areas that may have had heavier traffic than the rest of the field and sample between wheel traffic lanes. However, VSA can also be used to assess the effects of high traffic on soil quality by selecting to sample along wheel traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites for future monitoring if required.

Site information Complete the site information section at the top of the scorecard. Then record any special aspects you think relevant in the notes section at the bottom of the plant indicator scorecard.

Carrying out the test Initial observation Dig a small hole about 200x200 mm square by 300 mm deep with a spade and observe the topsoil (and upper subsoil if present) in terms of its uniformity, including whether it is soft and friable or hard and firm. A knife is useful to help you assess this. Take the test sample If the topsoil appears uniform, dig out a 200-mm cube with the spade. You can sample whatever depth of soil you wish, but ensure that you sample the equivalent of a 200-mm cube of soil. If for example, the top 100 mm of the soil is compacted and you wish to assess its condition, dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm with a spade. If the 100–200mm depth is dominated by a tillage pan and you wish to assess its condition, remove the top 100 mm of soil and dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm. Note that taking a 200-mm cube sample below the topsoil can also give valuable information about the condition of the subsoil and its implications for plant growth and farm management practices. The drop shatter test Drop the test sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the wooden square in the plastic basin. The number of times the sample is dropped and the height it is dropped from, is dependent on the texture of the soil and the degree to which the soil breaks up, as described in the section on soil structure. Systematically work through the scorecard, assigning a VS to each indicator by comparing it with the photographs (or table) and description reported in the field guide.

Format of the booklet The soil scorecard is given in Figure 1 and lists the ten key soil ‘state’ indicators required in order to assess soil quality. Each indicator is described on the following pages, with a section on how to assess each indicator and an explanation of its importance and what it reveals about the condition of the soil.

viii

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1

soil texture

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Take a small sample of soil (half the size of your thumb) from the topsoil and a sample (or samples) that is (or are) representative of the subsoil. ç Wet the soil with water, kneading and working it thoroughly on the palm of your hand with your thumb and forefinger to the point of maximum stickiness. é Assess the texture of the soil according to the criteria given in Table 1 by attempting to mould the soil into a ball. With experience, a person can assess the texture directly by estimating the percentages of sand, silt and clay by feel, and the textural class obtained by reference to the textural diagram (Figure 2). There are occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified because of the nature of a textural qualifier. For example, if the soil has a reasonably high content of organic matter, i.e. is humic with 15–30 percent organic matter, raise the textural score by one (e.g. from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 2). If the soil has a significant gravelly or stony component, reduce the textural score by 0.5. There are also occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified because of the specific preference of a crop for a particular textural class. For example, asparagus prefers a soil with a sandy loam texture and so the textural score is raised by 0.5 from a score of 1 to 1.5 based on the specific textural preference of the plant.

I Importance SOIL TEXTURE defines the size of the mineral particles. Specifically, it refers to the relative proportion of the various size-groups in the soil, i.e. sand, silt and clay. Sand is that fraction that has a particle size >0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle size of clay is 50%) medium and coarse orange and particularly grey mottles.

11

earthworms

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure (Plate 7) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.

I Importance EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 3–7 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plant-available Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving: < soil porosity; < aeration; < soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates; < water retention; < water infiltration; < drainage. They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can deposit about 25–30 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in cropping soils and can increase growth rates, crop yield and protein levels significantly. Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes increase 6–7 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their 12

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PLATE 6 (a): earthworm casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm (Octolasion cyaneum)

biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes can increase crop production markedly while at the same time reducing fertilizer requirements. Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and soil microbes, as determined by the crops grown, the amount and quality of surface residues (Plate 6a), the use of cover crops and the method of tillage. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher under no-tillage than conventional cultivation. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammoniabased products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers. Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoil-dwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200–300 mm of soil; PLATE 7 Sample for assessing earthworms and (iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth. Earthworms species can further indicate the overall condition of the soil. For example, significant numbers of yellow-tail earthworms (Octolasion cyaneum – Plate 6b) can indicate adverse soil conditions. TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms Visual score (VS)

Earthworm numbers (per 200-mm cube of soil)

2 [Good]

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1 [Moderate]

15–30 (with preferably 2 or more species)

0 [Poor]

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

13

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plate 8), and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend. Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a high penetration resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally, otherwise known as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp 16–17). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting or an open drain.

I Importance The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of non-irrigated crops. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the crop. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash. The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by: < an abrupt textural change; < pH; < aluminium (Al) toxicity; < nutrient deficiencies; < salinity; < sodicity; < a high or fluctuating water table; < low oxygen levels.

14

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Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions. Crops with a deep, vigorous root system help to raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce, promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. A deep, dense root system provides huge scope for raising production while at the same time having significant environmental benefits. Crops are less reliant on frequent and high application rates of fertilizer and N to generate growth, and available nutrients are more likely to be taken up, so reducing losses by leaching into the environment.

PLATE 8 Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth

The potential rooting depth extends to the bottom of the arrow, below which the soil is extremely firm and very tight with no roots or old root channels, no worm channels and no cracks and fissures down which roots can extend.

TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth VSA score (VS)

Potential rooting depth (m)

2.0 [Good]

> 0.8

1.5 [Moderately good]

0.6–0.8

1.0 [Moderate]

0.4–0.6

0.5 [Moderately poor]

0.2–0.4

0 [Poor]

< 0.2

15

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Identifying the presence of a hardpan Assessment å Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) with a knife, starting at the top and progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 9). Note how easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 10). ç Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the photographs and criteria given in Plate 10.

PLATE 9 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan

16

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PLATE 10 Identifying the presence of a hardpan

NO HARDPAN The soil has a low penetration resistance to the knife. Roots, old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures may be common. Topsoils are friable with a readily apparent structure and have a soil porosity score of ≥1.5.

MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a moderate penetration resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard) with a weakly apparent soil structure and has a soil porosity score of 0.5–1. There are few roots and old root channels, few worm channels, and few cracks and fissures. The pan may have few to common orange and grey mottles. Note the moderately developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a high penetration resistance to the knife. It is very tight, extremely firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no apparent soil structure) and has a soil porosity score of 0. There are no roots or old root channels, no worm channels or cracks or fissures. The pan may have many orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

17

surface ponding

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 11) based on your observation or general recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.

I Importance SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil remains saturated. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth of roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the crop is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and the plant to wilt. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of pests and diseases, including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, and reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Plant stress induced by poor aeration and prolonged soil saturation can render crops less resistant to insect pest attack such as aphids, armyworm, cutworm and wireworm. Crops decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, become discoloured and die. Waterlogging and deoxygenation also results in a series of undesirable chemical and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plantavailable nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plant-available N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.

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The tolerance of the root system to surface ponding and waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the time of year and the type of crop. Tolerance of waterlogging is also dependent on: soil and air temperatures; soil type; the condition of the soil; fluctuating water tables; and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the initial soil oxygen content and oxygen consumption rate. Prolonged surface ponding makes the soil more susceptible to damage under wheel traffic, so reducing vehicle access. As a consequence, waterlogging can delay ground preparation and sowing dates significantly. Sowing can further be delayed because the seed bed is below the crop-specific critical temperature. Increases in the temperature of saturated soils can be delayed as long as water is evaporating.

PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a field

TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding VSA score (VS)

Surface ponding due to soil saturation Number of days of ponding *

Description

2 [Good]

≤1

No surface ponding of water evident after 1 day following heavy rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.

1 [Moderate]

2–4

Moderate surface ponding occurs for 2–4 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.

0 [Poor]

>5

Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 5 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.

* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.

19

surface crusting and surface cover

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

20

C Assessment å Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare Plate 12 and the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of drying, and before cultivation.

I Importance SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions, and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy. SURFACE COVER after harvesting and prior to canopy closure of the next crop helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of conservation tillage can reduce soil erosion by up to 90 percent and water runoff by up to 40 percent. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while ≤30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 12 How to score surface crusting and surface cover

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no surface crusting is present; or surface cover is ≥70%.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Surface crusting is 2–3 mm thick and is broken by significant cracking; or surface cover is >30% and 5 mm thick and is virtually continuous with little cracking; or surface cover is ≤30%. Surface cover photos: courtesy of A. Leys

21

soil erosion

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and on your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.

I Importance SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of soils through nutrient losses, loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers. Overcultivation can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of soil can be water eroded by gullying, rilling and sheet wash. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive. The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including: < the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface; < the amount and intensity of rainfall; < the soil infiltration rate and permeability of water through the soil; < the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock. The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground.

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PLATE 13 How to score soil erosion

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no water erosion. Topsoil depths in the footslope areas are 0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle size of clay is 50%) medium and coarse orange and particularly grey mottles.

11

earthworms

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure (Plate 6) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.

I Importance EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 3–7 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plant-available Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving: < soil porosity; < aeration; < soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates; < water retention; < water infiltration; < drainage. They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can deposit about 25–30 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in olive orchards and can increase growth rates and production significantly. Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes increase 6–7 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in

12

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the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes reduce fertilizer requirements and improve trees and olive production. Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue, the use of cover crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammonia-based products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers. Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoildwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200–300 mm of soil; and (iii) deepburrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

PLATE 6 Sample for assessing earthworms

TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms Visual score (VS)

Earthworm numbers (per 200-mm cube of soil)

2 [Good]

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1 [Moderate]

15–30 (with preferably 2 or more species)

0 [Poor]

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

13

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present, and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots (Plates 7 and 8) and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend. Note also the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan. An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an open drain.

I Importance The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of nonirrigated olive orchards. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the olives. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases crop yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash. The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by: < an abrupt textural change; < pH; < aluminium (Al) toxicity; < nutrient deficiencies; < salinity; < sodicity; < a high or fluctuating water table; < low oxygen levels.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions. Olive trees with a deep, dense, vigorous root system raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. The soil depth should preferably not be less than 600 mm. Heavy clay soils are not recommended. Stony soils are acceptable under artificial irrigation. Furthermore, olive trees need a sufficient rooting depth to provide adequate anchorage for the trees at maturity.

PLATE 8 Generic drawing of an olive tree [L. DRAZETA and A. LANG]

PLATE 7 Root system of an olive tree

TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth VSA score (VS)

Potential rooting depth (m)

2.0 [Good]

> 0.8

1.5 [Moderately good]

0.6–0.8

1.0 [Moderate]

0.4–0.6

0.5 [Moderately poor]

0.2–0.4

0 [Poor]

< 0.2

15

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Identifying the presence of a hardpan Assessment å Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) with a knife, starting at the top and progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 9). Note how easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 10). ç Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the photographs and criteria given Plate 10.

PLATE 9 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 10 Identifying the presence of a hardpan

NO HARDPAN The soil has a low penetration resistance to the knife. Roots, old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures may be common. Topsoils are friable with a readily apparent structure and have a soil porosity score of ≥1.5.

MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a moderate penetration resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard) with a weakly apparent soil structure and has a soil porosity score of 0.5–1. There are few roots and old root channels, few worm channels, and few cracks and fissures. The pan may have few to common orange and grey mottles. Note the moderately developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a high penetration resistance to the knife. It is very tight, extremely firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no apparent soil structure) and has a soil porosity score of 0. There are no roots or old root channels, no worm channels or cracks or fissures. The pan may have many orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

17

surface ponding

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 11) based on your observation or general recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.

I Importance SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil remains saturated. Olive trees generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. While olive trees transpire all year round and do not have a dormant period, they are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are growing actively at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover, waterlogging cause the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the tree is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and tip-burn. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of infections and fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and crown rot, and reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Trees decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, have thin canopies, and eventually die. Waterlogging and deoxygenation also results in a series of undesirable chemical and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plantavailable nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plant-available N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

The tolerance of olive trees to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the time of year, the rootstock, soil and air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil, fluctuating water tables and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the amount of entrapped air and the oxygen consumption rate by plant roots. Prolonged surface ponding increases the susceptibility of soils to damage under wheel traffic, so reducing vehicle access.

PLATE 11 Surface ponding in an olive orchard [J. GOMEZ]

TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding VSA score (VS)

Surface ponding due to soil saturation Number of days of ponding *

Description

2 [Good]

≤1

No evidence of surface ponding after 1 day following heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

1 [Moderate]

2–4

Moderate surface ponding occurs for 1–3 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

0 [Poor]

>5

Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 3 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.

19

surface crusting and surface cover

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

20

C Assessment å Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare with Plate 12 and the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of drying, and before cultivation.

I Importance SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions, and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy. SURFACE COVER helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of managed cover crops has in some cases reduced sediment erosion rates from 70 tonnes/ha to 1.5 tonnes/ha during single large rainfall events. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while ≤30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 12 How to score surface crusting and surface cover

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no surface crusting is present; or surface cover is ≥70%.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Surface crusting is 2–3 mm thick and is broken by significant cracking; or surface cover is >30% and 5 mm thick and is virtually continuous with little cracking; or surface cover is ≤30%. Photos of surface cover: courtesy of A. Leys

21

soil erosion

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and, more importantly, on your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.

I Importance SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of an olive orchard through nutrient losses, loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers. Overcultivation of interrows can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of soil can be removed by slips, flows, gullying and rilling, or it can be relocated semi-intact by slumping. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive. The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including: < the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface; < the amount and intensity of rainfall; < the soil infiltration rate and permeability; < the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock. The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation between rows can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground where the tree spacing is quite large.

22

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 13 How to score soil erosion

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no evidence of soil erosion. Little difference in height between the mounded row and interrow. The root system is completely covered.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Moderate soil erosion with a significant difference in height between the interrow and the soil around the base of the tree trunk. Part of the upper root system is occasionally exposed.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Severe soil erosion with deeply incised gullies or other mass movement features between rows. There is a large difference in height between the interrow and the soil around the base of the tree trunk. The root system is often well exposed and sometimes undermined.

Photos: courtesy of J. Gomez (Proterra Project supported by Syngenta) and M. Pastor

23

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

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25

canopy volume

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess canopy volume in the late spring to early summer at flowering by comparing the olive tree with Plate 14 and the criteria given. In making the observation, consideration must be given to choosing a representative olive tree it terms of variety, pruning and age. In some cases, orchards are composed of trees of different age and cultivars. Corrections can be made on the basis of previously known annual growth rates as a function of age and cultivars, assigning a hypothetical common age for all trees and subtracting that part of the growth in the canopy volume. Canopy volume can be calculated approximately by applying the simple formula: canopy volume = w × b × h, where w is the width, b is the breadth and h is the height of the canopy.

I Importance CANOPY VOLUME at the flowering stage is dependent on: the age of the tree, cultivar, pruning, orchard management, disease, and climate factors (including frost damage). However, it can be a useful visual indicator of production and soil quality. Indeed, poor soil structure and soil aeration, limited movement and storage of water, and soil erosion as a result of structural degradation can reduce plant growth and vigour. Canopy volume is a particularly useful assessment of soil quality where climate factors have not limited crop development.

26

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 14 How to score canopy volume

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Canopy volume is greater than 100 m3 (varying from 4–5 m high by 5–6 m wide or more) for mature trees planted at spacings of 5x5 or 6x6 m. Trees have a good distribution of leaves.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Canopy volume is about 50 m3 (varying from 3–4 m high by 4 m wide) for mature trees planted at spacings of 5x5 or 6x6 m. Trees have a moderate distribution of leaves.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Canopy volume is less than 23 m3 (i.e. ≤2–2.5 m high by 3 m wide) for mature trees planted at spacings of 5x5 or 6x6 m. Trees have a poor distribution of leaves.

27

canopy density

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the canopy density by comparing with Plate 15 and the criteria given. ç The assessment can be made at any stage after the new growth in the spring and before harvest. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the pruning and variety of the tree, the presence of pests and diseases, and the weather conditions at bud break (i.e. whether warm and dry, or cold and wet). Poor weather during bud break will promote a high number of leaf buds rather than flowering buds and give rise to many shoots and leaves.

I Importance CANOPY DENSITY is a good indicator of the health and vigour of the tree as reflected by the number of shoots, the number of leaves per shoot and the age of the leaves. In addition to the weather, tree vigour is related strongly to the availability of water and nutrients, and the texture of the soil (e.g. whether clayey, silty, loamy, sandy or gravelly). Moreover, soils in good condition with good structure and porosity, and having a deep, well-aerated root zone, enable the unrestricted movement of air and water into and through the soil and the development and proliferation of superficial (feeder) roots. Furthermore, soils with good organic matter levels and soil life show an active biological and chemical process, favouring the release and uptake of water and nutrients and, consequently, the growth and vigour of the tree. The amount of photosynthate produced by the tree is proportional to the number of leaves and, therefore, influences strongly the growth of the tree and the production and quality of olives.

28

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 15 How to score canopy density

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Good canopy density with abundant shoots and leaves per shoot. Many of the leaves are more than two years old.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Moderate canopy density with a moderate number of shoots and leaves per shoot. Most leaves are less than two years old.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Poor canopy density with few shoots and few leaves per shoot. The canopy appears sparse and spindly. The tree sheds its older leaves prematurely, with only one-year-old leaves being present.

Photos: courtesy of M. Greven

29

shoot length

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Measure or visually assess shoot length (each month if possible starting from mid-spring to the end of summer) on the mature part of the aerial part of the plant and compare it with Plate 16 and the criteria given. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the pruning and variety of the tree, and to the weather conditions at bud break and during the spring.

I Importance SHOOT LENGTH determines the number of buds, some of which will bear flowers. It is also strongly related to the physical properties and chemical fertility of the soil, which in turn is influenced by soil management. Shoot length is an expression of plant vigour and general plant growth, which are regulated by the availability of water, nutrients and the aeration status of the soil. Soils in good condition with a deep vigorous root system, good structure, porosity, organic matter levels and soil life show an active chemical and biological process, favouring the release and uptake of nutrients and water, and consequently shoot growth.

30

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 16 How to score shoot length

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Shoots are at least 200 mm (depending on variety) on the external part of the plant.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Shoot length is moderately below maximum (depending on variety) on the external part of the plant.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Shoot length is significantly below maximum (depending on variety) on the external part of the plant.

31

flowering

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess by visual estimation the number and distribution of flowers at full flowering by comparing with Plate 17 and the criteria given. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the pruning management of the tree and the weather conditions at bud break and in spring (i.e. whether warm and dry, or cold and wet). Poor weather will promote a high number of leaf buds rather than flowering buds and give rise to lots of shoots and leaves rather than flowers.

I Importance The number and distribution of FLOWERS affects fruiting behaviour. The presence of a large number of flowers is also a good indicator of high yields. Flower induction starts in the preceding year of the olive production cycle. Its intensity depends on: weather conditions at the time (e.g. whether wet and cold, or dry and hot); the production of carbohydrate; and the presence of specific hormones necessary to drive the bud apex toward inflorescence production. Carbohydrate production depends on climate conditions, including: the amount of energy from the sun, the number of leaves on the tree, the cultivar, diseases, the availability of water and nutrients, and the physical status of the soil. Once again, soil fertility (physical, chemical and microbiological conditions) is crucial in determining high plant productivity.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 17 How to score flowering

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 High number of flowers per shoot and well distributed over the tree.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Moderate number of flowers occur.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Low number of flowers and poorly distributed over the tree.

Photos: courtesy of P. Fiorino

33

leaf colour

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the colour of the leaves by comparing with Plate 18 and the criteria given. The assessment must be made after the first flush of new growth at the end of the first annual growing period and on leaves exposed to the sunlight. Olive trees have leaves of different ages, varying from one to three years old. Assess only the young leaves, avoiding the deteriorating and immature leaves at the extremities of branches. Consideration must also be given to: the cultivar, the stage of growth, pests and diseases, and recent weather conditions. Prolonged cold and cloudy days with little sunlight can give rise to chlorosis (or yellowing of the leaf) owing to the inadequate formation or loss of chlorophyll.

I Importance LEAF COLOUR can provide a good indication of the nutrient status and condition of the soil. The higher the soil fertility, the greener the leaf colour. Leaf colour is related primarily to water and nutrient availability and especially N. Leaf colour can also be related to a deficiency or excess in phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and boron (B). Chlorosis can further occur as a result of low N, K, S, Fe, Mg and Cu levels in the soil, low soil and air temperatures, and poor soil aeration caused by compaction and waterlogging. Sulphur is an important element for plant growth and leaf colour and can only be utilized by plants in the sulphate (SO42-) form. Under poorly-aerated conditions caused by compaction or waterlogging, S will reduce to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphides (e.g. H2S, FeS). Sulphides and SO2 cannot be taken up by the plant, are toxic to plant roots and micro-organisms, and suppress the uptake of N. Plants can only utilize N where S is present in the oxygenated (sulphate) form. Nitrogen can also only be utilized by the plant in the nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) forms under aerobic conditions. Under poorly-aerated conditions, N will reduce to nitrite (NO2 -) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and become plant-unavailable.

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PLATE 18 How to score leaf colour

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Canopy has an intense green colour.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Leaves are a medium-green or yellowish-green colour.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Leaves are a distinct yellowish colour or turn opaque green.

35

yield

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess relative crop yield by visually estimating the yield per tree and by comparing fruit number and size with Plate 19 and the criteria given. Compare also the percentage of olive oil extracted with that from an ideal crop. ç In making your assessment, consideration must be given to the amount and type of fertilizer used, disease, and the cultivar, pruning and age of the olive tree. While olive trees can be rejuvenated by good pruning, the greatest yield potential of trees occurs from tree maturity to about 40 years of age on average. Olive trees generally mature in 10 years in humid temperate climates and 15 years in drier Mediterranean climates. é Consideration must also be given to the weather conditions (e.g. whether warm and dry, or cold and wet) at pollination, fertilization, flowering and fruit-set. Pollination and fertilization are best when the weather is dry and warm. Cold and wet weather during flowering can give rise to poor fruit-set. Warm weather at fruit-set will give good yields while cold wet weather will give poorer yields. Yield is also influenced by the amount of photosynthate produced by the tree, which is proportional to the number of leaves. Because olive trees are generally biennial bearing, consider the average yield over a 3-year or 4-year period.

I Importance YIELD can be a good visual indicator of the properties and condition of the soil. Olive trees can come under stress from drought (especially during the crucial flowering stage) and from a decline in soil quality caused by reduced water storage and plant-available water, nutrient deficiencies, poor aeration, and restricted root development as a result of soil compaction, a hardpan, a fluctuating water table, etc. This results in disease attack, shorter bud length, a lower number of flowers and poor yield production. Plant stress induced by soil structure degradation during harvesting time also affects the quality of the fruit by changing the amount and type of organic acids and polyphenols. Appropriate soil management, including the adoption of a managed cover crop between rows and avoiding wheel traffic when the soil is wet, helps to promote the physical condition and overall fertility of the soil, minimize soil erosion, and promote sustainable long-term production.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 19 How to score yield

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Average yield is >0.5 kg of olives/m3 of mature trees (10–15 years old).

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Average yield is 0.3–0.5 kg of olives/m3 of mature trees (10–15 years old).

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Average yield is 0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle size of clay is 50%) medium and coarse orange and particularly grey mottles.

11

earthworms

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure (Plate 6) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.

I Importance EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 3–7 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plant-available Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving: < soil porosity; < aeration; < soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates; < water retention; < water infiltration; < drainage. They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can deposit about 25–30 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in orchards and can increase growth rates and production significantly. Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes increase 6–7 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in

12

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes reduce fertilizer requirements and improve the health of the trees and fruit production. Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue, the use of cover crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammonia-based products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers. Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoil-dwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200–300 mm of soil; and (iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

PLATE 6 Sample for assessing earthworms

TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms Visual score (VS)

Earthworm numbers (per 200-mm cube of soil)

2 [Good]

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1 [Moderate]

15–30 (with preferably 2 or more species)

0 [Poor]

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

13

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plate 7), and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend. Note also the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a humaninduced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp 16–17). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an open drain.

I Importance The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of non-irrigated orchards. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the fruit. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash. The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by: < an abrupt textural change; < pH; < aluminium (Al) toxicity; < nutrient deficiencies; < salinity; < sodicity; < a high or fluctuating water table; < low oxygen levels.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions. Trees with a deep, dense vigorous root system raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. Soil depth should preferably not be less than 600 mm. Heavy clay soils are not recommended. Stony soils are acceptable under irrigation systems, particularly if the depth of the soil is less than 1 m. An adequate rooting depth is also needed to provide adequate anchorage of the tree at maturity.

PLATE 7 Generic drawing of the root system of a tree [L. DRAZETA and A. LANG]

TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth VSA score (VS)

Potential rooting depth (m)

2.0 [Good]

> 0.8

1.5 [Moderately good]

0.6–0.8

1.0 [Moderate]

0.4–0.6

0.5 [Moderately poor]

0.2–0.4

0 [Poor]

< 0.2

15

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Identifying the presence of a hardpan Assessment å Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) with a knife, starting at the top and progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 8). Note how easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 9). ç Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the photographs and criteria given Plate 9.

PLATE 8 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan

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PLATE 9 Identifying the presence of a hardpan

NO HARDPAN The soil has a low penetration resistance to the knife. Roots, old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures may be common. Topsoils are friable with a readily apparent structure and have a soil porosity score of ≥1.5.

MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a moderate penetration resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard) with a weakly apparent soil structure and has a soil porosity score of 0.5–1. There are few roots and old root channels, few worm channels, and few cracks and fissures. The pan may have few to common orange and grey mottles. Note the moderately developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a high penetration resistance to the knife. It is very tight, extremely firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no apparent soil structure) and has a soil porosity score of 0. There are no roots or old root channels, no worm channels or cracks or fissures. The pan may have many orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

17

surface ponding

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 10) based on your observation or general recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.

I Importance SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil remains saturated. Orchard crops generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration and are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the tree is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and tip-burn, particularly in the outer canopy. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of infections and fungal disease such as Phytophthora root rot and foot rot, and reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Trees decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, have thin canopies, and can eventually die. Waterlogging and deoxygenation also results in a series of undesirable chemical and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plantavailable nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O). a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and manganese to manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plant-available N, S and Zn. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

The tolerance of trees to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the time of year, the rootstock and type of tree crop, e.g. pear trees are generally more tolerant than apple trees of saturated soils. Tolerance of waterlogging is also dependent on soil and air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil, fluctuating water tables, and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the initial soil oxygen content and oxygen consumption rate by plant roots. Prolonged surface ponding increases the susceptibility of soils to damage under wheel traffic, reducing vehicle access.

PLATE 10 Surface ponding in an orchard [A. TOPP]

TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding VSA score (VS)

Surface ponding due to soil saturation Number of days of ponding *

Description

2 [Good]

≤1

No evidence of surface ponding after 1 day following heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

1 [Moderate]

2–4

Moderate surface ponding occurs for 2–4 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

0 [Poor]

>5

Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 5 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.

19

surface crusting and surface cover

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

20

C Assessment å Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare with Plate 11 and the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of drying, and before cultivation.

I Importance SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions, and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy. SURFACE COVER helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of managed cover crops has in some cases reduced sediment erosion rates from 70 tonnes/ha to 1.5 tonnes/ha during single large rainfall events. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while ≤30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 11 How to score surface crusting and surface cover

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no surface crusting is present; or surface cover is ≥70%.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Surface crusting is 2–3 mm thick and is broken by significant cracking; or surface cover is >30% and 5 mm thick and is virtually continuous with little cracking; or surface cover is ≤30%. Surface cover photos: courtesy of A. Leys

21

soil erosion

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and, more importantly, on your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 12.

I Importance SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of an orchard through nutrient losses, loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers. Overcultivation of interrows can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of soil can be removed by slips, flows, gullying and rilling, or it can be relocated semi-intact by slumping. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive. The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including: < the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface; < the amount and intensity of rainfall; < the soil infiltration rate and permeability; < the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock. The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation between rows can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground where the tree spacing is quite large.

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 12 How to score soil erosion

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no evidence of soil erosion. Little difference in height between the mounded row and interrow. The root system is completely covered.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Moderate soil erosion with a significant difference in height between the interrow and the soil around the base of the tree trunk. Part of the upper root system is occasionally exposed.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Severe soil erosion with deeply incised gullies or other mass movement features between rows. There is a large difference in height between the interrow and the soil around the base of the tree trunk. The root system is often well exposed and sometimes undermined.

Photos: courtesy of J. Gomez (Proterra Project supported by Syngenta) and M. Pastor

23

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Soil management in orchards Trees with satisfactory production develop buds of optimal length, promote flower-bud induction, give good percentage fruiting, and stimulate fruit development. Therefore, it is essential to maintain the availability of water, nutrients and carbohydrates during the crop cycle, avoiding any shortages. Good soil management practices are needed in order to maintain good growth conditions and productivity to safeguard the functionality of the tree, especially during the crucial periods of plant development and fructification. To achieve this, management practices need to maintain and promote the condition and, therefore, functionality of the soil, particularly in regard to its aeration status and the supply of nutrients and water to the plant. To this end, the soil needs to have a good rooting environment, including an adequate soil structure, to allow an effective root system to develop and so maximize the utilization of water and nutrients, and also provide sufficient anchorage for the plant. Good soil structure also promotes infiltration and movement of water through the soil, minimizing surface ponding, runoff and soil erosion. Where rainfall is not a limiting factor for plant growth, the establishment of cover crops is the most suitable soil management practice to protect the soil surface from erosion, to preserve the environment, to reduce production costs, and to enhance the quality of the fruit. Cover cropping not only helps in reducing water runoff and soil erosion but also improves soil physical characteristics, enriches soil organic matter content and soil life (including earthworm numbers), and suppresses soil-borne diseases by increasing micro-organism biodiversity. However, cover crops compete for minerals, water and fertilizer where they are not well managed. In the absence of irrigation during the hottest months, competition for water could occur during flowering, fruit formation and development, thereby limiting the final yield. To avoid this competition, a temporary cover crop or natural vegetation can be grown from early autumn to mid-spring (often the wettest period), and it can be controlled during the hottest period by herbicide application or mowing 2–3 times during the period of major nutrient demand. Different mixes of cover crops, including leguminous species that supply N, should be evaluated in different areas. In addition to legumes, the mix could include annual or perennial species, grasses and other broadleaf plants. Winter annuals can be grown to protect the soil from erosion during the winter and to improve the ability of the soil to resist compaction when wet. With their fibrous root system, grasses are also more effective at improving soil structure, and generally add more organic matter to the soil than do legumes. Where allowed to seed in early summer, a seed bank for subsequent regeneration is built up. Where possible, the grass in the interrows and within rows could be kept short by grazing sheep, provided the tree trunks have protective plastic screens to shield them from strip and ring barking. The advantages of managing a grass cover crop using sheep compared with mowing and herbicide strips include: lower use of synthetic (herbicide) chemicals; reduced fossil fuel use; and lower carbon dioxide emissions and, therefore, greater market acceptance. Other advantages include: lower labour and material costs; less compaction along wheel traffic lanes; improved soil nutrient

24

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

status; and greater soil life (including earthworm numbers), as a result of the dung and urine applied. Stock tend to rest, urinate and defecate most within the tree row, translocating and concentrating nutrients to where the tree roots are greatest. Sheep can also graze grass very short, reducing not only the competition for water and nutrients but also reducing insect and bird numbers and the possibility of fungal diseases. The traditional management of the interrow is based on one or two cultivations with discs and tine harrows during the hot period following natural weed cover and it could be satisfactory in limiting, principally, competition for water. The cultivation should be shallower than 100 mm so as to de-vigorate the cover crop but not to modify the canopy/root ratio of the trees by damaging the root system. The cultivation operations can also be useful for incorporating organic and mineral fertilizers as well as controlling diseases caused by fungi and bacteria in the soil. The application of mulches along the row in the form of compost, bark chips, cereal straw and grass clippings (spread during mowing) shades the soil, so reducing temperature and soil evaporation in summer. Mulches also encourage biological activity, especially earthworms. They suppress weeds and prevent the breakdown of the soil structure under the impact of rain, thereby enhancing water infiltration.

25

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

References Shepherd, T. G., Stagnari, F., Pisante, M. and Benites, J. 2008. Visual Soil Assessment – Field guide for orchards. FAO, Rome, Italy.

26

ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8

9

789251 059418 TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000

F I E L D

The present publication on Visual Soil Assessment is a practical guide to carry out a quantitative soil analysis with reproduceable results using only very simple tools. Besides soil parameters, also crop parameters for assessing soil conditions are presented for some selected crops. The Visual Soil Assessment manuals consist of a series of separate booklets for specific crop groups, collected in a binder. The publication addresses scientists as well as field technicians and even farmers who want to analyse their soil condition and observe changes over time.

G U I D E

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Orchards

ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8

9

789251 059418 TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000

F I E L D

The present publication on Visual Soil Assessment is a practical guide to carry out a quantitative soil analysis with reproduceable results using only very simple tools. Besides soil parameters, also crop parameters for assessing soil conditions are presented for some selected crops. The Visual Soil Assessment manuals consist of a series of separate booklets for specific crop groups, collected in a binder. The publication addresses scientists as well as field technicians and even farmers who want to analyse their soil condition and observe changes over time.

G U I D E

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Vineyards

G U I D E

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Vineyards Graham Shepherd, soil scientist,

F I E L D

BioAgriNomics.com, New Zealand

Fabio Stagnari, assistant researcher, University of Teramo, Italy

Michele Pisante, professor, University of Teramo, Italy

José Benites, technical officer, Land and Water Development Division, FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2008

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specic companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. ISBN 978-92-5-105940-1 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Communication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: [email protected] © FAO 2008

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Contents Acknowledgements

v

List of acronyms

v

Visual Soil Assessment

vi

SOIL TEXTURE

2

SOIL STRUCTURE

4

SOIL POROSITY

6

SOIL COLOUR

8

NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES

10

EARTHWORMS

12

POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH Identifying the presence of a hardpan

14 16

SURFACE PONDING

18

SURFACE CRUSTING AND SURFACE COVER

20

SOIL EROSION

22

WOOD PRODUCTION

26

SHOOT LENGTH

28

LEAF COLOUR

30

YIELD

34

VARIABILITY IN VINE PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW

36

PRODUCTION COSTS

38

SOIL MANAGEMENT IN VINEYARDS

40

iii

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

List of tables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

How to score soil texture Visual scores for earthworms Visual scores for potential rooting depth Visual scores for surface ponding Visual scores for variability in vine performance along the row Visual scores for production costs

3 13 15 19 37 38

List of figures 1. 2. 3. 4.

Soil scorecard – visual indicators for assessing soil quality in vineyards Soil texture classes and groups Plant scorecard – visual indicators for assessing plant performance in vineyards Assessment of production costs

1 3 25 39

List of plates 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

iv

The VSA tool kit How to score soil structure How to score soil porosity How to score soil colour How to score soil mottles Sample for assessing earthworms Potential rooting depth Restricted root penetration through plough pan at 25 cm Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan Identifying the presence of a hardpan Surface ponding in a vineyard How to score surface crusting and surface cover How to score soil erosion How to score wood production How to score shoot length How to score leaf colour Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency in vines How to score yield Effect of soil texture, organic matter and mycorrhizae on vine performance Effect of soil aeration and drainage on vine performance Effect of soil-borne pathogens on vine performance Variable crop vigour and leaf colour along the row

vii 5 7 9 11 13 15 15 16 17 19 21 23 27 29 31 32 35 36 37 37 37

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Acknowledgements This publication is adapted from the methodology developed in: Shepherd, T.G. 2008. Visual Soil Assessment. Volume 1. Field guide for pastoral grazing and cropping on flat to rolling country. 2nd edition. Palmerston North, New Zealand, Horizons Regional Council. 106 pp. The valuable assistance and input provided by C. Llewellyn and the review of the manuscript by Professor C. Intrieri (University of Bologna) and Dr A. Lang are also gratefully acknowledged. This publication is funded by FAO in collaboration with the Agronomy and Crop Science Research and Education Center of the University of Teramo.

List of acronyms AEC

Adenylate energy charge

Al

Aluminium

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate

B

Boron

Ca

Calcium

Cu

Copper

Fe

Iron

K

Potassium

Mg

Magnesium

Mn

Manganese

Mo

Molybdenum

N

Nitrogen

P

Phosphorus

RSG

Restricted spring growth

S

Sulphur

VS

Visual score

VSA

Visual Soil Assessment

Zn

Zinc

v

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Visual Soil Assessment Introduction The maintenance of good soil quality is vital for the environmental and economic sustainability of vineyards. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on vine growth, grape quality, production costs and the risk of soil erosion. Therefore, it can have significant consequences on society and the environment. A decline in soil physical properties in particular takes considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future generations and minimizing the ecological footprint of viticulture are important tasks for land managers. Often, not enough attention is given to: < the basic role of soil quality in efficient and sustained production; < the effect of the condition of the soil on the gross profit margin; < the long-term planning needed to sustain good soil quality; < the effect of land management decisions on soil quality. Soil type and the effect of management on the condition of the soil are important determinants of the character and quality of wine, and have profound effects on long-term profits. Land managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help them assess the condition of their soils and their suitability for growing grapes, and to make informed decisions that lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, the Visual Soil Assessment (VSA) provides a quick and simple method to assess soil condition and plant performance. It can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for viticulture. Soils with good VSA scores will usually give the best production with the lowest establishment and operational costs.

The VSA method Visual Soil Assessment is based on the visual assessment of key soil ‘state’ and plant performance indicators of soil quality, presented on a scorecard. Soil quality is ranked by assessment of the soil indicators alone. Plant indicators require knowledge of the growing history of the crop. This knowledge will facilitate the satisfactory and rapid completion of the plant scorecard. With the exception of soil texture, the soil and plant indicators are dynamic indicators, i.e. capable of changing under different management regimes and land-use pressures. Being sensitive to change, they are useful early warning indicators of changes in soil condition and plant performance and as such provide an effective monitoring tool. Plant indicators allow you to make cause-and-effect links between management practices and soil characteristics. By looking at both the soil and plant indicators, VSA links the natural resource (soil) with plant performance and farm enterprise profitability. Because of this, the soil quality assessment is not a combination of the ‘soil’ and ‘plant’ scores. Rather, the scores should be looked at separately, and compared.

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Visual scoring Each indicator is given a visual score (VS) of 0 (poor), 1 (moderate), or 2 (good), based on the soil quality and plant performance observed when comparing the soil and plant with three photographs in the field guide manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you are assessing does not align clearly with any one of the photographs but sits between two, an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5. Because some soil and plant indicators are relatively more important in the assessment of soil quality and plant performance than others, VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil Quality Index and Plant Performance Index for the site. Compare these with the rating scale at the bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil and plants are in good, moderate or poor condition. Placing the soil and plant assessments side by side at the bottom of the plant indicator scorecard should prompt you to look for reasons if there is a significant discrepancy between the soil and plant indicators.

The VSA tool kit

PLATE 1 The VSA tool kit

The VSA tool kit (Plate 1) comprises: < a spade – to dig a soil pit and to take a 200-mm cube of soil for the drop shatter soil structure test; < a plastic basin (about 450 mm long x 350 mm wide x 250 mm deep) – to contain the soil during the drop shatter test; < a hard square board (about 260x260 x20 mm) – to fit in the bottom of the plastic basin on to which the soil cube is dropped for the shatter test; < a heavy-duty plastic bag (about 750x 500 mm) – on which to spread the soil, after the drop shatter test has been carried out; < a knife (preferably 200 mm long) to investigate the soil pit and potential rooting depth; < a water bottle – to assess the field soil textural class; < a tape measure – to measure the potential rooting depth; < a VSA field guide – to make the photographic comparisons; < a pad of scorecards – to record the VS for each indicator.

vii

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

The procedure When it should be carried out The test should be carried out when the soils are moist and suitable for cultivation. If you are not sure, apply the ‘worm test’. Roll a worm of soil on the palm of one hand with the fingers of the other until it is 50 mm long and 4 mm thick. If the soil cracks before the worm is made, or if you cannot form a worm (for example, if the soil is sandy), the soil is suitable for testing. If you can make the worm, the soil is too wet to test.

Setting up Time Allow 25 minutes per site. For a representative assessment of soil quality, sample 4 sites over a 5-ha area. Reference sample Take a small sample of soil (about 100x50x150 mm deep) from under a nearby fence or a similar protected area. This provides an undisturbed sample required in order to assign the correct score for the soil colour indicator. The sample also provides a reference point for comparing soil structure and porosity. Sites Select sites that are representative of the vineyard. The condition of the soil in vineyards is site specific. Sample sites that have had little or no wheel traffic (e.g. near the vine). The VSA method can also be used to assess compacted areas by selecting to sample along wheel traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites for future monitoring if required.

Site information Complete the site information section at the top of the scorecard. Then record any special aspects you think relevant in the notes section at the bottom of the plant indicator scorecard.

Carrying out the test Initial observation Dig a small hole about 200x200 mm square by 300 mm deep with a spade and observe the topsoil (and upper subsoil if present) in terms of its uniformity, including whether it is soft and friable or hard and firm. A knife is useful to help you assess this. Take the test sample If the topsoil appears uniform, dig out a 200-mm cube with the spade. You can sample whatever depth of soil you wish, but ensure that you sample the equivalent of a 200-mm cube of soil. If for example, the top 100 mm of the soil is compacted and you wish to assess its condition, dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm with a spade. If the 100– 200-mm depth is dominated by a tillage pan and you wish to assess its condition, remove the top 100 mm of soil and dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm. Note that taking a 200-mm cube sample below the topsoil can also give valuable information about the condition of the subsoil and its implications for plant growth and farm management practices.

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The drop shatter test Drop the test sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the wooden square in the plastic basin. The number of times the sample is dropped and the height it is dropped from, is dependent on the texture of the soil and the degree to which the soil breaks up, as described in the section on soil structure. Systematically work through the scorecard, assigning a VS to each indicator by comparing it with the photographs (or table) and description reported in the field guide.

The plant indicators Many plant indicators cannot be assessed at the same time as the soil indicators. Ideally, the plant performance indicators should be observed at the appropriate time during the season. The plant indicators are scored and ranked in the same way as soil indicators: a weighting factor is used to indicate the relative importance of each indicator, with each contributing to the final determination of plant performance. The Plant Performance Index is the total of the individual VS rankings in the right-hand column.

Format of the booklet The soil and plant scorecards are given in Figures 1 and 3, respectively, and list the key indicators required in order to assess soil quality and plant performance. Each indicator is described on the following pages, with a section on how to assess the indicator and an explanation of its importance and what it reveals about the condition of the soil and about plant performance.

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1

soil texture

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Take a small sample of soil (half the size of your thumb) from the topsoil and a sample (or samples) that is (or are) representative of the subsoil. ç Wet the soil with water, kneading and working it thoroughly on the palm of your hand with your thumb and forefinger to the point of maximum stickiness. é Assess the texture of the soil according to the criteria given in Table 1 by attempting to mould the soil into a ball. With experience, a person can assess the texture directly by estimating the percentages of sand, silt and clay by feel, and the textural class obtained by reference to the textural diagram (Figure 2). There are occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified because of the nature of a textural qualifier. For example, if the soil has a reasonably high content of organic matter, i.e. is humic with 15–30 percent organic matter, raise the textural score by one (e.g. from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 2). If the soil has a significant gravelly or stony component, reduce the textural score by 0.5. There are also occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified because of the specific preference of a crop for a particular textural class. For example, asparagus prefers a soil with a sandy loam texture and so the textural score is raised by 0.5 from a score of 1 to 1.5 based on the specific textural preference of the plant.

I Importance SOIL TEXTURE defines the size of the mineral particles. Specifically, it refers to the relative proportion of the various size-groups in the soil, i.e. sand, silt and clay. Sand is that fraction that has a particle size > 0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle size of clay is < 0.002 mm. Texture influences soil behaviour in several ways, notably through its effect on: water retention and availability; soil structure; aeration; drainage; soil trafficability; soil life; and the supply and retention of nutrients. A knowledge of both the textural class and the potential rooting depth enables an approximate assessment of the total water-holding capacity of the soil, one of the major drivers of crop production.

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FIGURE 2 Soil texture classes and groups

Textural classes.

Textural groups.

TABLE 1 How to score soil texture Visual score (VS)

Textural class

Description

2 [Good]

Silt loam

Smooth soapy feel, slightly sticky, no grittiness. Moulds into a cohesive ball that fissures when pressed flat.

1.5 [Moderately good]

Clay loam

Very smooth, sticky and plastic. Moulds into a cohesive ball that deforms without fissuring.

1 [Moderate]

Sandy loam

Slightly gritty, faint rasping sound. Moulds into a cohesive ball that fissures when pressed flat.

0.5 [Moderately poor]

Loamy sand Silty clay Clay

Loamy sand: Gritty and rasping sound. Will almost mould into a ball but disintegrates when pressed flat. Silty clay, clay: Very smooth, very sticky, very plastic. Moulds into a cohesive ball that deforms without fissuring.

0 [Poor]

Sand

Gritty and rasping sound. Cannot be moulded into a ball.

3

soil structure

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Remove a 200-mm cube of topsoil with a spade (between or along wheel tracks). ç Drop the soil sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the firm base in the plastic basin. If large clods break away after the first or second drop, drop them individually again once or twice. If a clod shatters into small (primary structural) units after the first or second drop, it does not need dropping again. Do not drop any piece of soil more than three times. For soils with a sandy loam texture (Table 1), drop the cube of soil just once only from a height of 0.5 m. é Transfer the soil onto the large plastic bag. è For soils with a loamy sand or sand texture, drop the cube of soil still sitting on the spade (once) from a height of just 50 mm, and then roll the spade over, spilling the soil onto the plastic bag. ê Applying only very gently pressure, attempt to part each clod by hand along any exposed cracks or fissures. If the clod does not part easily, do not apply further pressure (because the cracks and fissures are probably not continuous and, therefore, are unable to readily conduct oxygen, air and water). ë Move the coarsest fractions to one end and the finest to the other end. Arrange the distribution of aggregates on the plastic bag so that the height of the soil is roughly the same over the whole surface area of the bag. This provides a measure of the aggregate-size distribution. Compare the resulting distribution of aggregates with the three photographs in Plate 2 and the criteria given. The method is valid for a wide range of moisture conditions but is best carried out when the soil is moist to slightly moist; avoid dry and wet conditions.

I Importance SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for vineyards. It regulates: < soil aeration and gaseous exchange rates; < soil temperature; < soil infiltration and erosion; < the movement and storage of water; < nutrient supply; < root penetration and development; < soil workability; < soil trafficability; < the resistance of soils to structural degradation. Good soil structure reduces the susceptibility to compaction under wheel traffic and increases the window of opportunity for vehicle access and for carrying out no-till, minimum-till or conventional cultivation between rows under optimal soil conditions. Soil structure is ranked on the size, shape, firmness, porosity and relative abundance of soil aggregates and clods. Soils with good structure have friable, fine, porous, subangular and subrounded (nutty) aggregates. Those with poor structure have large, dense, very firm, angular or subangular blocky clods that fit and pack closely together and have a high tensile strength. 4

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 2 How to score soil structure

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Soil dominated by friable, fine aggregates with no significant clodding. Aggregates are generally subrounded (nutty) and often quite porous.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Soil contains significant proportions (50%) of both coarse clods and friable fine aggregates. The coarse clods are firm, subangular or angular in shape and have few or no pores.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Soil dominated by coarse clods with very few finer aggregates. The coarse clods are very firm, angular or subangular in shape and have very few or no pores.

5

soil porosity

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Remove a spade slice of soil (about 100 mm wide, 150 mm long and 200 mm deep) from the side of the hole and break it in half. ç Examine the exposed fresh face of the sample for soil porosity by comparing against the three photographs in Plate 3. Look for the spaces, gaps, holes, cracks and fissures between and within soil aggregates and clods. é Examine also the porosity of a number of the large clods from the soil structure test. This provides important additional information as to the porosity of the individual clods (the intra-aggregate porosity).

I Importance It is important to assess SOIL POROSITY along with the structure of the soil. Soil porosity, and particularly macroporosity (or large pores), influences the movement of air and water in the soil. Soils with good structure have a high porosity between and within aggregates, but soils with poor structure may not have macropores and coarse micropores within the large clods, restricting their drainage and aeration. Poor aeration leads to the build up of carbon dioxide, methane and sulphide gases, and reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S). Plants can only utilize S and N in the oxygenated sulphate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) forms. Therefore, plants require aerated soils for the efficient uptake and utilization of S and N. The number, activity and biodiversity of micro-organisms and earthworms are also greatest in wellaerated soils and they are able to decompose and cycle organic matter and nutrients more efficiently. The presence of soil pores enables the development and proliferation of the superficial (or feeder) roots throughout the soil. Vine roots are unable to penetrate and grow through firm, tight, compacted soils, severely restricting the ability of the plant to utilize the available water and nutrients in the soil. A high penetration resistance not only limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, it also reduces fertilizer efficiency considerably and increases the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Soils with good porosity will also tend to produce lower amounts of greenhouse gases. The greater the porosity, the better the drainage, and, therefore, the less likely it is that the soil pores will be water-filled to the critical levels required to accelerate the production of greenhouse gases. Aim to keep the soil porosity score above 1.

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PLATE 3 How to score soil porosity

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Soils have many macropores and coarse micropores between and within aggregates associated with good soil structure.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Soil macropores and coarse micropores between and within aggregates have declined significantly but are present on close examination in parts of the soil. The soil shows a moderate amount of consolidation.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 No soil macropores and coarse micropores are visually apparent within compact, massive structureless clods. The clod surface is smooth with few or no cracks or holes, and can have sharp angles.

7

soil colour

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Compare the colour of a handful of soil from the field site with soil taken from under the nearest fenceline or a similar protected area. ç Using the three photographs and criteria given (Plate 4), compare the relative change in soil colour that has occurred. As topsoil colour can vary markedly between soil types, the photographs illustrate the degree of change in colour rather than the absolute colour of the soil.

I Importance SOIL COLOUR is a very useful indicator of soil quality because it can provide an indirect measure of other more useful properties of the soil that are not assessed so easily and accurately. In general, the darker the colour is, the greater is the amount of organic matter in the soil. A change in colour can give a general indication of a change in organic matter under a particular land use or management. Soil organic matter plays an important role in regulating most biological, chemical and physical processes in soil, which collectively determine soil health. It promotes infiltration and retention of water, helps to develop and stabilize soil structure, cushions the impact of wheel traffic and cultivators, reduces the potential for wind and water erosion, and maintains the soil carbon ‘sink’. Organic matter also provides an important food resource for soil organisms and is an important source of, and major reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and nutrientsupplying potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of vines increase markedly, and other major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an increased dependency on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status. Soil colour can also be a useful indicator of soil drainage and the degree of soil aeration. In addition to organic matter, soil colour is influenced markedly by the chemical form (or oxidation state) of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Brown, yellow-brown, reddish-brown and red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe and Mn occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue colours can indicate that the soil is poorly drained or waterlogged and poorly aerated for long periods, conditions that reduce Fe and Mn to ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) oxides. Poor aeration and prolonged waterlogging give rise to a further series of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions that produce toxins, such as hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, that damage the root system. This reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, causing poor vigour and ill-thrift. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of the Phylloxera aphid and fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and black foot rot in soils prone to waterlogging. In general, dark-coloured soils are more favourable for red wine quality (owing to an increase in polyphenol and terpens). 8

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 4 How to score soil colour

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Dark coloured topsoil that is not too dissimilar to that under the fenceline.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 The colour of the topsoil is somewhat paler than that under the fenceline, but not markedly so.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Soil colour has become significantly paler compared with that under the fenceline.

9

number and colour of soil mottles

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Take a sample of soil (about 100 mm wide × 150 mm long × 200 mm deep) from the side of the hole and compare with the three photographs (Plate 5) and the percentage chart to determine the percentage of the soil occupied by mottles. Mottles are spots or blotches of different colour interspersed with the dominant soil colour.

I Importance The NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES provide a good indication of how well the soil is drained and how well it is aerated. They are also an early warning of a decline in soil structure caused by compaction under wheel traffic and overcultivation. The loss of soil structure decreases and blocks the number of channels and pores that conduct water and air and, as a consequence, can result in waterlogging and a deficiency of oxygen for a prolonged period. The development of anaerobic (deoxygenated) conditions reduces Fe and Mn from their brown/orange oxidized ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) form to grey ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) oxides. Mottles develop as various shades of orange and grey owing to varying degrees of oxidation and reduction of Fe and Mn. As oxygen depletion increases, orange, and ultimately grey, mottles predominate. An abundance of grey mottles indicates the soil is poorly drained and poorly aerated for a significant part of the year. The presence of only common orange and grey mottles (10–25 percent) indicates the soil is imperfectly drained with only periodic waterlogging. Soil with only few to common orange mottles indicates the soil is moderately well drained, and the absence of mottles indicates good drainage. Poor aeration reduces the uptake of water by plants and can induce wilting. It can also reduce the uptake of plant nutrients, particularly N, P, K and S. Moreover, poor aeration retards the breakdown of organic residues, and can cause chemical and biochemical reduction reactions that produce sulphide gases, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of the Phylloxera aphid and fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and black foot rot in strongly mottled, poorly aerated soils. Root rot and reduced nutrient and water uptake give rise to poor plant vigour and ill-thrift. If your visual score for mottles is ≤1, you need to aerate the soil.

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PLATE 5 How to score soil mottles

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Mottles are generally absent.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Soil has common (10–25%) fine and medium orange and grey mottles.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Soil has abundant to profuse (> 50%) medium and coarse orange and particularly grey mottles.

11

earthworms

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure (Plate 6) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Pay particular attention to the turf mat. Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.

I Importance EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 3–7 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plant-available Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving: < soil porosity; < aeration; < soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates; < water retention; < water infiltration; < drainage. They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can deposit about 25–30 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in vineyards and can increase growth rates and production significantly. Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes increase 6–7 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in

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VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes reduce fertilizer requirements and improve vine and grape quality. Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue, the use of cover crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammonia-based products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers. Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoildwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200–300 mm of soil; and (iii) deepburrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

PLATE 6 Sample for assessing earthworms

TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms Visual score (VS)

Earthworm numbers (per 200-mm cube of soil)

2 [Good]

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1 [Moderate]

15–30 (with preferably 2 or more species)

0 [Poor]

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

13

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plates 7 and 8), and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend. Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a high penetration resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally, otherwise know as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan (Plate 8), or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan. An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an open drain.

I Importance The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of nonirrigated vineyards. Under irrigation, the majority of roots are in the top 1 m of soil. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the grapes. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash. The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by: < an abrupt textural change; < pH; < aluminium (Al) toxicity; < nutrient deficiencies; < salinity; < sodicity; < a high or fluctuating water table; < low oxygen levels.

14

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions. Grapevines with a deep, dense, vigorous root system raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. For rainfed vineyards, the depth of a restricting layer should ideally be deeper than 2.5 m, with a soil depth of preferably not less than 600 mm. Stony soils are acceptable under irrigation systems, particularly where the depth of the soil is less than 1 m. Furthermore, grapevines need a sufficient rooting depth to provide adequate anchorage for the vines at maturity.

PLATE 7 Potential rooting depth [L. VAN HUYSSTEEN in VAN ZYL 1988]

PLATE 8 Restricted root penetration through plough pan at 25 cm [L. VAN HUYSSTEEN]

TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth VSA score (VS)

Potential rooting depth (m)

2.0 [Good]

> 0.8

1.5 [Moderately good]

0.6–0.8

1.0 [Moderate]

0.4–0.6

0.5 [Moderately poor]

0.2–0.4

0 [Poor]

< 0.2

15

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Identifying the presence of a hardpan Assessment å Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) rapidly with a knife, starting at the top and progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 9). Note how easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 10). ç Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the photographs and criteria given in Plate 10.

PLATE 9 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan

16

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 10 Identifying the presence of a hardpan

NO HARDPAN The soil has a low penetration resistance to the knife. Roots, old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures may be common. Topsoils are friable with a readily apparent structure and have a soil porosity score of ≥1.5.

MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a moderate penetration resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard) with a weakly apparent soil structure and has a soil porosity score of 0.5–1. There are few roots and old root channels, few worm channels, and few cracks and fissures. The pan may have few to common orange and grey mottles. Note the moderately developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a high penetration resistance to the knife. It is very tight, extremely firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no apparent soil structure) and has a soil porosity score of 0. There are no roots or old root channels, no worm channels or cracks or fissures. The pan may have many orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

17

surface ponding

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 11) based on your observation or general recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.

I Importance SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil remains saturated. Grapevines generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are growing actively at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the vine is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and tip-burn. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of pests and diseases, including the Phylloxera aphid and Phytophthora fungal root rot, and reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Vines decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, and eventually die. Waterlogging and deoxygenation also result in a series of undesirable chemical and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plant-available nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plantavailable N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.

18

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

The tolerance of vine roots to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the time of year, the rootstock, soil and air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil, fluctuating water tables and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the amount of entrapped air and the oxygen consumption rate by plant roots. Prolonged surface ponding increases the susceptibility of soils to damage under wheel traffic, so reducing vehicle access.

PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a vineyard [CWi Technical Ltd]

TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding VSA score (VS)

Surface ponding due to soil saturation Number of days of ponding *

Description

2 [Good]

≤1

No evidence of surface ponding after 1 day following heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

1 [Moderate]

2–3

Moderate surface ponding occurs for 2–3 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

0 [Poor]

>4

Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 4 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.

19

surface crusting and surface cover

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

20

C Assessment å Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare with Plate 12 and the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of drying, and before cultivation.

I Importance SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions, and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy. SURFACE COVER helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of managed cover crops has in some cases reduced sediment erosion rates from 70 tonnes/ha to 1.5 tonnes/ha during single large rainfall events. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while ≤30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 12 How to score surface crusting and surface cover

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no surface crusting is present; or surface cover is ≥70%.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Surface crusting is 2–3 mm thick and is broken by significant cracking; or surface cover is >30% and 5 mm thick and is virtually continuous with little cracking; or surface cover is ≤30%. Photos of surface cover: courtesy of A. Leys; Photo of severe crusting: courtesy of M. Speyer

21

soil erosion

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and, more importantly, on your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.

I Importance SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of a vineyard through nutrient losses, loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers. Overcultivation of interrows can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of soil can be removed by slips, flows, gullying and rilling, or it can be relocated semi-intact by slumping. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive. The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including: < the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface; < the amount and intensity of rainfall; < the soil infiltration rate and permeability; < the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock.

22

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 13 How to score soil erosion

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no evidence of soil erosion. Little difference in height between the mounded row and interrow. The root system is completely covered.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Moderate soil erosion with a significant difference in height between the mounded row and interrow. Part of the upper root system is occasionally exposed.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Severe soil erosion with deeply incised gullies or other mass movement features between rows. The root system is often well exposed and the vine trunk totally undermined in places.

Photos: courtesy of C. Llewellyn and M. Greener

23

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

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25

wood production

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Estimate wood production per metre cord by assessing fresh wood weight at pruning (Plate 14). In making the observation, consideration must be given to the cultivar, pruning and age of the vine.

I Importance While climate factors, cultivar and agricultural practices all influence WOOD PRODUCTION, wood production at flowering is a good indicator of plant vigour and the fertility and physical condition of the soil (including its nutrient and water status). Therefore, it is a useful indicator of soil quality. Soil degradation resulting from the loss of organic matter, soil compaction, poor aeration or soil erosion restricts root growth and limits the movement and storage of water, the cycling of nutrients and the efficient uptake of fertilizers. Plant roots either cannot reach the fertilizer, or the applied nutrients remain unavailable in the compacted soil because of impaired water movement or preferential flow through the soil, by-passing much of the soil volume. As a result, plant growth and vigour are poor.

26

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 14 How to score wood production

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Depending on the cultivar, vineyards of seven years of age have 0.8 kg of vine-shoots per metre cord at pruning.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Depending on the cultivar, vineyards of seven years of age have 0.6–0.8 kg of vine-shoots per metre cord at pruning.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Depending on the cultivar, vineyards of seven years of age have 0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle size of clay is 50%) medium and coarse orange and particularly grey mottles.

11

earthworms

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure (Plate 7) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Pay particular attention to the turf mat. Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.

I Importance EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 3–7 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plantavailable Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving: < soil porosity; < aeration; < soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates; < water retention; < water infiltration; < drainage. They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can deposit about 25–30 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in arable cropping and can increase growth rates and production significantly. Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes increase 6–7 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that 12

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 6 (a): earthworm casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm (Octolasion cyaneum)

stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases, and promote a more rapid breakdown of organic herbicides. The collective benefits of microbes can increase crop production markedly while at the same time reducing fertilizer requirements. Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue (Plate 6a), the use of cover crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammonia-based products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers. Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoil-dwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200–300 mm of soil; and PLATE 7 Sample for assessing earthworms (iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth. Earthworms species can further indicate the overall condition of the soil. For example, significant numbers of yellow-tail earthworms (Octolasion cyaneum – Plate 6b) can indicate adverse soil conditions. TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms Visual score (VS)

Earthworm numbers (per 200-mm cube of soil)

2 [Good]

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1 [Moderate]

15–30 (with preferably 2 or more species)

0 [Poor]

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

13

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plate 8), and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend. Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a high penetration resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally, otherwise known as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp 16–17). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting or an open drain.

I Importance The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of non-irrigated crops. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the crop. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash. The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by: < an abrupt textural change; < pH; < aluminium (Al) toxicity; < nutrient deficiencies; < salinity; < sodicity; < a high or fluctuating water table; < low oxygen levels.

14

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions. Crops with a deep, vigorous root system help to raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce, promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. A deep, dense root system provides huge scope for raising production while at the same time having significant environmental benefits. Crops are less reliant on frequent and high application rates of fertilizer and N to generate growth, and available nutrients are more likely to be taken up, so reducing losses by leaching into the environment.

PLATE 8 Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth

The potential rooting depth extends to the bottom of the arrow, below which the soil is extremely firm and very tight with no roots or old root channels, no worm channels and no cracks and fissures down which roots can extend.

TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth VSA score (VS)

Potential rooting depth (m)

2.0 [Good]

> 0.8

1.5 [Moderately good]

0.6–0.8

1.0 [Moderate]

0.4–0.6

0.5 [Moderately poor]

0.2–0.4

0 [Poor]

< 0.2

15

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Identifying the presence of a hardpan Assessment å Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) with a knife, starting at the top and progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 9). Note how easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 10). ç Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the photographs and criteria given in Plate 10.

PLATE 9 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan

16

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 10 Identifying the presence of a hardpan

NO HARDPAN The soil has a low penetration resistance to the knife. Roots, old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures may be common. Topsoils are friable with a readily apparent structure and have a soil porosity score of ≥1.5.

MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a moderate penetration resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard) with a weakly apparent soil structure and has a soil porosity score of 0.5–1. There are few roots and old root channels, few worm channels, and few cracks and fissures. The pan may have few to common orange and grey mottles. Note the moderately developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN The soil has a high penetration resistance to the knife. It is very tight, extremely firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no apparent soil structure) and has a soil porosity score of 0. There are no roots or old root channels, no worm channels or cracks or fissures. The pan may have many orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly developed tillage pan in the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).

17

surface ponding

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 11) based on your observation or general recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.

I Importance SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil remains saturated. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth of roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the crop is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and the plant to wilt. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of pests and diseases, including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, and reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Plant stress induced by poor aeration and prolonged soil saturation can render crops less resistant to insect pest attack such as aphids, armyworm, cutworm and wireworm. Crops decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, become discoloured and die. Waterlogging and deoxygenation also results in a series of undesirable chemical and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plantavailable nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plant-available N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.

18

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

The tolerance of the root system to surface ponding and waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the time of year and the type of crop. Tolerance of waterlogging is also dependent on: soil and air temperatures; soil type; the condition of the soil; fluctuating water tables; and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the initial soil oxygen content and oxygen consumption rate. Prolonged surface ponding makes the soil more susceptible to damage under wheel traffic, so reducing vehicle access. As a consequence, waterlogging can delay ground preparation and sowing dates significantly. Sowing can further be delayed because the seed bed is below the crop-specific critical temperature. Increases in the temperature of saturated soils can be delayed as long as water is evaporating.

PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a wheat field

TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding VSA score (VS)

Surface ponding due to soil saturation Number of days of ponding *

Description

2 [Good]

≤1

No evidence of surface ponding after 1 day following heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

1 [Moderate]

2–3

Moderate surface ponding occurs for 2–3 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

0 [Poor]

>5

Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 5 days after heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.

* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.

19

surface crusting and surface cover

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

20

C Assessment å Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare Plate 12 and the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of drying, and before cultivation.

I Importance SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions, and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy. SURFACE COVER after harvesting and prior to canopy closure of the next crop helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of conservation tillage can reduce soil erosion by up to 90 percent and water runoff by up to 40 percent. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while ≤30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 12 How to score surface crusting and surface cover

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no surface crusting is present; or surface cover is ≥70%.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Surface crusting is 2–3 mm thick and is broken by significant cracking; or surface cover is >30% and 5 mm thick and is virtually continuous with little cracking; or surface cover is ≤30%. Surface cover photos: courtesy of A. Leys

21

soil erosion

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and on your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.

I Importance SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of soils through nutrient losses, loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers. Overcultivation can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of soil can be water eroded by gullying, rilling and sheet wash. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive. The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including: < the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface; < the amount and intensity of rainfall; < the soil infiltration rate and permeability of water through the soil; < the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock. The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground.

22

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 13 How to score soil erosion

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Little or no water erosion. Topsoil depths in the footslope areas are 1000 mm

1 [Moderate]

Crop growth is moderate. Crops show moderate variability in height at maturity and are significantly below maximum (700–900 mm)

0 [Poor]

Crop growth is poor and plants can appear sickly. Crop height is uneven and patchy and well below maximum at maturity (400–600 mm)

41

kernel size

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Measure the size of the kernels just before harvesting and compare them with the photographs and criteria given (Plate 28). While there is a strong association between kernel number and yield, kernel size and dry weight are also strong determinants of the final yield. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the plant population, tiller density and weather conditions and in particular the rainfall and sunlight hours. High plant populations and tiller densities will reduce the size of the kernel, and dry conditions and prolonged cloudy weather will reduce photosynthesis and subsequently the formation of carbohydrates and starch.

I Importance KERNEL development starts immediately after floret fertilization with cellular division during which the endosperm cell and amyloplasts are formed. This period is known as the lag phase and lasts for about 20 to 30 percent of the grain filling period. This is followed by a phase of cell growth, differentiation and starch deposition in the endosperm which takes 50 to 70 percent of the grain filling period. Good availability of carbohydrate is essential to be maintained during the crop cycle avoiding any shortage especially during the grain filling period. Soils in good condition with good structure, porosity, organic matter levels, soil life, soil fertility and rooting depth help ensure the supply and availability of water and nutrients. The grain filling period is prolonged as a result and an increase in kernel size is achieved. Good crop management practices including the adoption of widely spaced rows and good residue cover between rows to conserve water in dry zones also help to maximise the size of the kernel. KERNEL SIZE is a useful determinant of grain quality by measuring the weight of unscreened grain, the screening loss and the weight of 1000 grains of clean seed.

42

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 28 How to score kernel size

GOOD CONDITION VS = 2 Depending on the variety, kernels are large, completely filled and well shaped with few or no moisture stress features apparent.

MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1 Kernels are of moderate size, may show occasional incomplete grain filling and stress features are often apparent.

POOR CONDITION VS = 0 Kernels are generally very small with an irregular shape and stress features are very common.

43

crop yield

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

C Assessment å Assess relative crop yield based on the class limits in Table 9. Assessments can be made for all varieties of crops by counting or estimating the number and size of ears (spikes) per square metre, the number of kernels (grains) per ear, and the degree of grain filling. Harvested yield monitors could also be employed. Compare these with an ‘ideal’ crop (Plates 29). In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the variety of wheat, the number of plants per square metre, the soil moisture, air temperature and sunshine hours during the growing season, and pests and diseases not associated with the condition of the soil.

I Importance WITH A DECLINE IN SOIL QUALITY, crops can come under stress as a result of poor soil aeration, water-logging, moisture stress (due to either soil saturation or a reduced available water-holding capacity), a lack of available nutrients (Plates 30–31), and adverse temperatures. Toxic chemicals can also build up and root growth be impeded owing to chemical reduction reactions and a high penetration resistance to root development. This results in poor germination and emergence, poor plant growth and vigour, the need for redrilling, delays in drilling, root diseases, pest attack, and consequently lower crop yields. Plant stress induced by structural degradation can further affect the quality of grain by changing the amount and type of protein and starch formed, and the enzymic potential. These affect the amount of fermentable carbohydrate, the baking quality of wheat and the malting potential of barley. Under good soil conditions with adequate water and nutrients, the ripening period is prolonged and the starch accumulation inside the kernel is delayed and more gradual. This increases yield with a higher starch and protein percentage and quality.

PLATE 29 Crop yield

Good crop yield with large ear development and complete grain filling.

44

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 30 Effect of boron deficiency on crop yield

Small ear development on the left due to boron deficiency.

PLATE 31 Effect of copper deficiency on crop yield

White tipping and incomplete ear development due to copper deficiency.

TABLE 9 Visual scores for crop yield Visual score (VS)

Crop yield

2 [Good]

Crops have >500 ears per square metre. The ears are large with a spike length >90% of maximum for the variety. Ears have >50 kernels (grains) per ear and show complete grain filling with few signs of stress, pests or diseases. Harvested yield is greater than 8 tonnes per hectare

1 [Moderate]

Crops have 300–400 ears per square metre. The ears are of medium size with the spike length varying from 60–80% of maximum for the variety. Ears have 30–40 kernels (grains) per ear and show moderate and occasional uneven grain filling. Stress, pest and disease evidence is moderately common. Harvested yield is 6–7 tonnes per hectare

0 [Poor]

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