Volume 11

$20

Space Governance The Journal of United Societies in Space, Inc. d/b/a International Space Development Authority Corporation and Affiliates including: Lunar Economic Development Authority, Inc. World Space Bar Association, Space Orbital Development Authority, Inc. and a Special Interest Chapter of the National Space Society & the Mars Society Vol. 11

Space is a Place

2005

NASA image JSC2006-E-43519 (Oct. 2006) Computer-generated artist’s rendering of the completed International Space Station

IN THIS ISSUE: ■ Buzz Aldrin ■ Ray Arvidson ■ Jim Benson ■ Doug Cooke ■ Shana Dale ■ Steve Durst ■ Marianne Dyson ■ Edward Mike Finke ■ Jose Hernandez ■ Scott Horowitz ■ John Hovde ■ Brooks Jenkins ■ Stephen Hawking ■ Jack Lynne ■ Robert McCall ■ Ved Nanda ■ Dayton O’Donnell ■ Declan J. O’Donnell, J.D. ■ Gerard K. O’Neill ■ Thomas Reiter ■ Jesus Raygoza B. ■ William Henry Siegfried, PhD. ■ Steven Squyres ■ Konstantin Tsiolkovsky ■ Werner Von Braun ■ Asia Wakabayashi ■ Peggy Whitson

United Societies in Space and Affiliates Board of Directors for United Societies In Space and/or its Affiliates: Oleg Alifanov Greg H Allison Pahlaj Bajaj Greg Bennett Brad Blair Henry Cheung, PhD Bruce Cordell, PhD Ned Dodds Steve Durst William A Gaubatz William A Good, PhD Stewart Johnson, PhD Deepak Kapadia Ronnie M Lajoie Alex Lightman David Livingston Declan J. O’Donnell, JD Omar Pensado D Raphael Ponce John Reynolds, JD Gary “Rod” Rodriguez Carol Rosin, PhD David G Shrunk, MD John S Spencer Dennis Wakabayashi Kathleen Woody, JD Director Emeritus: Philip R Harris, PhD Regents, Advisors, Observers, and Committee Members: Josh Abend

Buzz Aldrin, PhD Nathan Goldman, PhD, JD Iqrar Ali Patricio Gonzalez-Quintanilla Robert E Becker Andrew Good Larry Bell Yvonne Goolsby-Spencer, Jim Benson MSN, RN Ryan Bird Paul Graham Karl "Bo" Bobka Allen K Grant Kathy P Bonham Michael P Groff, JD Michael Cerney Robert Grossman, JD Dennis Chamberlain Philip R Harris, PhD Ned Chapin Barbara Harris, MD Dingchang Cheng Albert A Harrison, PhD David Larry Clark Brian Harvey, HDE Mark Cohen John Helmick Karen Cramer Arthur Hingerty James A Cunningham Tanya D Holland Susan Dage-Ruby Alex Howerton John Davidson Diana Hoyt Frank P Davidson Nandasiri Jasentuliyana Dennis M Davidson Alan Jones, JD Pablo de Leon John J Karch Vladimir Doroshin Darla Kerkhoff Kerrie Dougherty Grigori Khozin Michael Duke, PhD Deyong Kong Brad Edwards Olivier Koslowski, JD Eric Epstein Sergey Krichevsky, PhD Bryan F Erickson Beatrice Lacoste Jonathan Ericson, PhD Charles J Lauer Judith Fielder Jeffrey G Liss Gary C Fisher Scott March, JD Marsha Freeman Thomas L Matula Michael Fulda, PhD Kevin McGee Dra Marta Gaggero Montaner John Carter McKnight Joseph Gillin David McLennan Peter Glaser, PhD Luis Miranda G J Henry Glazer, JD George Morgenthaler Richard Godwin

Michael Murphy Ved Nanda Michael Newbrough, PhD Elizabeth O'Donnell Declan J O'Donnell II James M Otto Ivan Pavlovets Miguel Perez T Dimitry Pieson Linda Plush, MSN John Powell Ignacio Quesada Jesus Raygoza B John B Regnell, PhD, MLS Suzzette A Roachette Justin Rodriguez Eligar Sadeh Marshall Savage George Schuh, CPA Paul R Seitz Milton "Skip" Smith Michael D Smith Guillermo Sohnlein Madhu Thangavelu, PhD Bill Trowbridge Elizabeth J Verdisco Don Wade Mary Lou Walen G Toe Washington Richard Westfall Harold White, JD Stewart B Whitney, PhD Harvey Wichman, PhD Dale R Winke Simon P Worden Robert Wyckoff Robert Zubrin, PhD

Mission Statement United Societies In Space, Inc. (USIS) is dedicated to the proposition that space beyond the Earth is the common heritage of mankind. It is to be settled, populated and enjoyed as the interplanetary commons of the human species, the new frontier of its reachable universe. USIS was created to encourage, foster and promote governance, legal, financial and industrialization systems for the high frontier of space. USIS aims to provide a global forum to represent, in freedom, the interests of worldwide organizations and private individuals concerned and interested with space, united for the common good of the human species. USIS communicates its message through its journal, Space Governance. To carry out the above objectives, USIS seeks to establish the International Space Development Authority Corporation, (ISDAC), and to create lunar authorities to promote development and settlement on the Moon. Under the auspices of its Council of Regents, USIS convenes national and international space governance conferences, having inaugurated the Regency for Space Governance. USIS promotes common law estates for private ownership in space and on space resources. It has extended the common law to space effective October 2000; tendered a model governance structure for space; and called for a new financing institution to pay for the development phase in space, all embodied in the ISDAC.

SPACE GOVERNANCE JOURNAL Table of Contents VOLUME 11 EDITORIAL: “Great People Contributed” By Declan J. O’Donnell .........................

1

USIS 2005 Space Humanitarian Award to William Siegfried ..................................

3

Lunar Economic Development Authority: Ten Year Report....................................

4

Fly Me to the Moon and Much, Much Farther ........................................................... Living in Outer-Space Time: NASA’s Projected Timetable .............................. What On Earth is Space Money? ........................................................................

11 18 19

The International Space Station By Marianne Dyson (with pictures courtesy of NASA)......................................................................................................................

21

Astro Law as Common Law Extended Into the Outer Space Territory ..................

28

The First Wonder of the Off-World Contest and Follow On ...................................

36

International Lunar Observatory Envisioned............................................................

37

USIS Report 2005 ........................................................................................................

38

VOLUME 12/13 EDITORIAL: “Just Do It” By Declan J. O'Donnell .........................................................

1

USIS Space Humanitarian Award to Maggie Zubrin ....................................................

2

Finally, a Moon Base: A Report from NASA and National Space Society ...................

3

The United Nations Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.........................

4

What Way Forward? By Cynda Collins Arsenault, Secure World Foundation ..............

5

The Committee for a Positive Future By Barbara Marx Hubbard..................................

10

The International Space Station (Continued from Vol. 11) By Marianne Dyson (with pictures courtesy of NASA) .....................................................................................

12

A Space Policy Proposal Regulating Martian Water Resources By Dr. J.J. Hurtak, AFFS Corporation & Dr. Matthew Egan, UC, Berkeley ...........................................

16

First Wonder of the Off-World: First Follow-On Design Contest ...................................

22

USIS Report 2006 .........................................................................................................

23

Volume 13 EDITORIAL: “Space Colonization and Commercialization – An Alternative to the Moon and Mars” By Richard M. Westfall .......................................................................

26

The Heinlein Model for Lunar Habitats, Modified and Updated.....................................

27

Life Support Systems in the Mars Cycler Orbiter .........................................................

33

Space Barter Bank – Groundbreaking Developments By Declan J. O’Donnell ............

38

Russia Started the Space Age ......................................................................................

40

New Board Members Named .......................................................................................

40

JOURNAL CREDITS Publisher. ........................................................................... Declan Joseph O’Donnell, PC Editor ......................................................................................... Declan J. O’Donnell, JD Managing Editor ......................................................................................Renee Gorman Assistant Editor ....................................... Gary Rodriguez, Brad Blair & Richard Westfall Website Master ...................................................................................... Richard Westfall Founding Editor Emeritus .............................................................. Philip R. Harris, Ph.D.

United Societies in Space, Inc. 777 Fifth Street Castle Rock, Colorado 80104 USA Telephone: (800) 632-2828 or (303) 688-1193 Fax: (303) 663-8595 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.angelfire.com/space/usis and www.space-law.org Subscription Rates: $20/yr and USIS membership is $120/yr which includes this journal and all mailings and conferences and co-membership in the National Space Society of which USIS is a Special Interest Chapter. Library Edition available for $50.

10th International Mars Society Convention The 2007 convention was held 30 Aug - 2 Sep 2007 at the University of California, Los Angeles. The International Mars Society convention presented a unique opportunity for those interested in Mars to come together and discuss the technology, science, social implications.

Visit their Website at www.marssociety.org for details. Plenary Speakers included an exceptional line-up: Loretta Hidalgo discussing the Spaceward Bound Program and other outreach endeavors Dr. Penelope Boston on Earth Analogs for Martian Microbes Dr. Fuk Li on the Jet Propulsion Lab Mars Exploration Program Carolyn Porco presenting the latest Cassini discoveries with striking images returned form the most capable scientific probe ever sent to the outer solar system. Elon Musk, founder and CEO of SpaceX, an entrepreneurial rocket development company that just made history by reaching an altitude of 200 miles with its privately developed Falcon 1 launch vehicle. Dr. Scott Horowitz, Associate Administrator for Exploration Systems at NASA. And of course, we will have a full report on the four month mission currently underway at FMARS, including Crewmember First Person accounts and a report on the results of the scientific survey by the remote science team.

EDITORIAL

Great People Contributed Freely By Declan J. O’Donnell The common thread among truly great people in space activist circles is open contribution. Our organization has hosted many such exemplary guests, members, and observers. It is richer for the dialogue, better off than before, and more confident about the future.

Philip R. Harris Philip R. Harris, Ph.D., discovered a bar association article I wrote in 1992: “A Basis for Government in Outer Space.” He circulated it, sponsored me at the International Astronautical Congress in Washington, DC, and partnered with me to create United Societies in Space that year. He was the first Editor in Chief of this Space Governance Journal. Phil is an outspoken advocate of humans in space.

Brad Blair & Rashmi Mayur Board members Brad Blair and Rashmi Mayur promoted our young organization internationally and at the United Nations. Rashmi liked our philosophy of advocating one rule of law and policy

internationally during the upcoming space development phase. Part of his legacy was to sponsor me for the Indira Ghandi Award of India. We did that in Mumbai, India, in October, 1998. Rashmi suffered a stroke in 2004 in Africa at the UN Summit on Environmentalism and passed away in New York, New York, USA, in 2005. He began his space advocacy with the legendary Gerard K. O’Neill of Princeton, remained on the Board of the Space Studies Institute, and ended with our group. Henry Cheung, Ph.D., of Lawrence Livermore Laboratories followed, editing my first book, “Cosmic Man Coming.” He seemed to know everything and was quick to let me know. His critique was so good that I held up publication. Next came David Schrunk, M.D., Greg Allison, Ronnie Lajoie, and Kathleen Woody, Esq. My contemporaries were way ahead of me, but they slowed down to help United Societies in Space. Dr. Schrunk pitched in on LEDA to provide most of its advanced thinking for creating a permanent base on the Moon. Greg Allison and Ronnie Lajoie, both members of the Board of Directors of the National Space Society, joined our group, contributed openly, and were elected to the USIS Board of Directors. 1

Ronnie Lajoie & Kathleen Woody Kathleen Woody, Esq., found us by reading a copy of this journal in her dentist’s office in 1995. She called to say “here I am.” Kate recently left the teaching faculty of Harvard Law School and an assignment in Kazakhstan, Russia for our U.S. State Department. She also taught at other law schools such as Columbia and Georgetown. She pitched in with free and open debate, organized LEDA with Brad Blair, consulted to our World Space Bar Association as a member, and has now assumed the appointed position of Chief Judge of the Supreme Court of the USIS Regency component of its International Space Development Authority Corporation, ISDAC.

Buzz Aldrin, Robert Zubrin, and Maggie Zubrin,

(pictured above), called on me to assist as a lawyer in forming the Mars Society in 1997. I remain on its Board of Directors and USIS has become a chapter. I was totally surprised to learn from Buzz that Mars is his preferred destination in space and that he promotes the concept of a large Mars cycler orbiter space vessel. Robert Zubrin, of course, created the “Mars Direct” program while working at Martin Marrietta and is well known as a leading authority on Mars. Maggie won our space Humanitarian Award for 2006. Perhaps our most important event was the International Space Governance Convention

of 2000 A.D., ending one year later in 2001 Professor Ved Nanda, Esq., head of the University of Denver International Legal Studies Program sponsored us at the University of Denver Law School. All Nations were appropriately invited, as well as all then known space industry relevant offices. The 100++ delegates created and adopted a regency style constitution for our space authorities. Fifty Ph.D. level regents were then appointed. Significantly, this convention extended the common law into outer space, defined it as the Black Letter Rules asserted in Corpus Juris Secundum, and

tendered a space court with a dozen qualified jurists on board. Gary “Rod” Rodriguez, Rafael Ponce, William Good, Yvonne Goolsby-Spencer, Brad Blair, Alex Lightman, and Renee Gorman provided leadership, energy, and acumen. The event is cited now as important by way of defining how astro law should develop. In 1850 the U.S. Congress extended American common law to all extra territorial courts. This convention by USIS has amended that to include “astro law” in space courts as the extension of common law at the year 2000 A.D.

Cycler Orbiter Design Winners Brooks Jenkins, also a freshman in Castle Rock, is a basketball team regular starter, and a true space activist.

More recently, in 2004 and 2005, this journal sponsored a Mars Cycler Orbiter design contest. Let me introduce the winning team:

Dayton O’Donnell

Asia Wakabayashi Asia Wakabayashi of Virgina Beach, Virginia, chairperson of the committee, now a freshman in college, an award winning debater, and an A-plus student. Dayton O’Donnell of Castle Rock, Colorado, is now a freshman in high school, a basketball team natural, a President’s Award Scholar, a member of the Colorado Honor Band, and youngest son of Declan J. O'Donnell’s family.

John Hovde, now a freshman in High School in Castle Rock, Colorado, a member of its freshman football team, a member of the Colorado Honor Band, and active with Habitats for Humanity.

Their work and its results are set forth later in this journal. Space artist David Robinson is credited with portraying this teams ideas into a viable space vessel. Saucer image. (See, the cover of volume 12.) Buzz Aldrin sat on the advisory committee as chaired by Gary Rodriguez.

Brooks Jenkins

John Hovde 2

Thank you all for these memories. Thanks for being open, contributory, and great, each one of you.

SPACE HUMANITARIAN AWARD

AWARD FOR 2005 A.D. PRESENTED TO WILLIAM HENRY SIEGFRIED, PHD By Declan J. O’Donnell This gentle giant of the aerospace industry has a dedicated career of 55 years in leadership. His retirement as head of the Humans in Space program at Boeing in 2004 gave him even more time to volunteer. His pet projects are publishing and speaking at the International Astronautical Congresses, AIAA meetings, and almost anywhere space activists congregate worldwide. In 1952 he earned both a bachelor and masters of science degrees from Ohio State University. He also played tackle on the University’s legendary football team. From there he spent three years in the US Navy at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, (somehow assigned to its aeronautical engineering activities). During his spare time he attended the University of Pennsylvania business school. Later he matriculated to the University of California-Los Angeles. Again he concentrated in the field of aeronautical engineering. From this educational platform he dove into the industry with early work on NASA projects such as the crew transfer vehicles, the crew return vehicles, space and defense projects, space systems, and lectured at the Armed Forces Management School. By 1992 he was program manager and director of the McDonnell Douglas Space Exploration Initiative group that involved a seven-company team and all NASA centers. Then to Boeing. By 1998 he served as chief project engineer for Space Platforms and Exploration in Advanced Engineering in the Boeing Space & Communications Group. By 2002 he contributed to that company’s Phantom Works as an advanced designer. Dr. Siegfried also worked on the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s Mars Sample Return Mission. His volunteer work continued, also, as he assumed chairmanship of the International Academy of Astronautics, (IAA), Human Exploration and Development of the Moon and Earth’s neighborhood. Following that he assumed chairmanship of the IAA study on Development for Infrastructure for the International Human Exploration of Space. His run with the UN affiliated International Astronautical Federation matured during these years. He became the perennial chair of its sessions on Strategies for Lunar and Mars Colonization and Infrastructure for Human Exploration of Space. Positions of responsibility include member of the NASA RASC-AL steering committee for the USRA; IAA committee chair; AIAA co-chair for Space Colonization Committee; Board of Directors of the Lunar Economic Development Authority, per NASA; and a member of United Societies in Space, Inc. ab initio. What a career! What a guy!

Local Chapters Needed Both National Space Society, NSS, (www.nss.org) and the MARS SOCIETY, (www.marssociety.org), welcome and encourage space enthusiasts to form local chapters nationally and internationally. Each have international chapters and wish to grow both venues.

3

LUNAR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY: TEN YEAR REPORT BY DECLAN J. O'DONNELL, J.D.;BUZZ ALRDIN, PH.D.; BRAD BLAIR, M.E.; GARY RODRIGUEZ, P.E.; DAVID SCHRUNK, M.D. ABSTRACT The establishment of an interim municipal government for the Moon is proposed. The task of planning and sponsoring resource utilization and utility development on the Moon for the use of all developers, visitors, and settlers, for a fee, should be accomplished before these activities commence. This is the province of the Lunar Economic Development Authority, Inc., (LEDA). Its 10-year history will be disclosed. Municipal projects that would come under the jurisdiction of LEDA include water treatment and delivery; waste disposal; a building code; a railroad; certain monument areas for preservation; a telescope park; and electric power grids. Fees are earned to repay bond holders who provide funds for these facilities. There are plenty of investors for such basic space development projects worldwide. If LEDA is successful on the Moon, then its form of interim governance may be transported to Mars.

support, and test out the plan for feasibility and consensus. The industry has been supportive of the general concept of an authority for transition purposes. However, most leaders worldwide wished to await some detailed plan. This may be the first public statement by the LEDA staff and it will await leadership comment.

Because all of its principal projects are non profit and designed for the use and benefit of all countries and humankind, it is clearly treaty compliant and not subject to the benefit sharing burden of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967.

ESTABLISHMENT By United Societies in Space, Inc. Ten years ago the Lunar Economic Development Authority, Inc., (LEDA), a proposed interim government for the Moon was established and filed. The organic charter was issued by the Secretary of State of Colorado in August 1996. The plan was seminared at the National Space Society’s International Space Development Conference in June 1996 in San Diego, California. The authors were the protagonists and many well known space activists supported it over that decade. See, View Graph No. 1. The concept was to prepare an overall municipal development plan for the Moon, opine on the likely sources of economic

View Graph 1

United Societies in Space, Inc., (USIS), was started in 1992, International Space Year, with Declan O’Donnell, Esq., George S. Robinson III, Esq., and Philip R. Harris, Ph.D., in Washington, D.C. It was incorporated as a non-profit Colorado corporation in 1993. The World Bar Association designed and sponsored it as a space governance entity and co-sponsored with USIS the Space Governance Journal in 1993. It then reformed into the World Space Bar Association in 1994 and filed as a Colorado non-profit corporation affiliated with USIS.

LEDA The Lunar Economic Development Authority, Inc, was the first substantial

4

expression of USIS space governance philosophy. Apollo astronauts Edgar Mitchell and Buzz Aldrin lent support as board of director members and leading participants of the LEDA advisory committee, respectively. The first principle it announced was that it was a 100-year maximum and clearly temporary governance unit. The mission was to assist with the transition to space habitats for humans, opine on economic development of the Moon, and, as soon as practicable within that 100 year span, sponsor a political convention for a more permanent lunar governance model.

View Graph 2

Buzz Aldrin as NBC News commentator following the Columbia shuttle tragedy

Because of Buzz Aldrin’s early work on cycler orbiters and likely orbits for such very large and important vessels, USIS then formed the Space Orbital Development Authority, Inc. (SODA). This was filed as a Colorado nonprofit corporation during 1995. It asserts authority over likely orbits for cycler orbiters, has sponsored four international design contests for the orbiter, has opined on a winning design as likely, and plans to push for its construction on the Moon. To that end, it has delegated to LEDA the leading role in preparing the Moon for such a large project and governing its ultimate creation at a lunar base.

Management The original LEDA management structure was published in 1998. It featured a strong executive branch, a modest court system, and a consortia legislative branch that sat delegates from governments, industry, and space activist organizations. See, View Graph No. 2.

Emphasis was placed on the need for venue-wide standards for development, construction, and building maintenance on the Moon, and property rights issues. Leadership expressed reservation regarding “zoning” on the Moon. The World Space Bar Association and LEDA felt that libertarian values would predominate and LEDA’s program could be hurt by such an assertion as “zoning.” However, some sort of cooperative planning was approved so it was decided to leave the word “zoning” in the chart with the understanding it is not by fiat, but by consensus. The management technique for space governance of affiliates was created by USIS in 2000 A.D. by International Convention. This was co-sponsored by USIS and Professor Ved Nanda of the Professor Ved Law Nanda, University of International Department of the Denver, College of Law University of Denver Law School. The Regency of USIS appointed 50 Ph.D. level and

5

equivalent space activists and arranged them into executive, legislative, and judicial departments. In 2004, the USIS board of directors meeting at a Mars Society Convention in Chicago, Illinois, voted to do business as the “International Space Development Authority Corporation” and caused papers to be filed in more detail in 2006. This is viewed as the lead space governance federation with LEDA, SODA, and the Mars Society focused on their respective municipal governance agendas. ISDAC would raise senior capital, issue bonds, coordinate banking and space development efforts, and run the century out by sponsoring a convention for a more permanent space governance unit, hopefully comprised of space settlers on the Moon, at Mars, and in the cycler orbiter space vessel and other orbiting facilities. Moon Architecture In order to support this and attendant mining and adjunct activities on the Moon, LEDA proposes to sponsor or otherwise cause a relevant architecture. The centerpiece is predicted to be the large shipyard, catapult, and company town. However, adjunct facilities are contemplated at the lunar poles, in the Sea of Tranquillity, and along the circumference of the Moon as viewed from Earth. The following important lunar architecture support facilities are disclosed in publications by our LEDA leadership. 1 A. Security and Administration. LEDA will have the consensus power to create rules, maintain inspections and standards and safety rules for all, and resolve disputes and sanction outlaws in a court system. To assure that the rules serve the best interests of all involved parties, quality standards for the design and follow up evaluation of rules will be observed. 2 B. Coordinate Competing Interests. LEDA will facilitate or mediate competing interests of international projects on or near the Moon by national space agencies, scientific organizations, universities, and private corporations or consortia. C. Economic Assistance. LEDA will control an authority bank that sponsors a fiscal and monetary system on the Moon. It will arrange relevant financing out of bond revenues for developers who care to

participate in construction of these facilities and utilize the Authority’s bank. D. Property Management. LEDA may conveniently maintain a property leasing system and site permitting activity as municipalities are constitutionally expected to do. This would serve as a facilitator for those who care to build habitats, mines, ports, factories, and, of course, a large ship, catapult, and company town. E. Environment. LEDA will oversee protection of the lunar environment. Venuewide rules must be tendered before the settlers, developers, tourists, and workers arrive on the Moon. These lunar activities are viewed as traditional, if not actually classical. 3

PROJECT-DRIVEN ARCHITECTURE I. Near Term Projects A. Circumferential Lunar Railroad and Utilities. Rather than tolerate trespass to all of the lunar surface needlessly, LEDA endorsed the circumferential lunar railroad as its first project. The railroad will help restrict travel to pre-selected areas on the Moon. The lunar railroad will play a major role in facilitating global lunar development with Title: The Moon. environmental Resources, Future Devel- protection for the vast opment and Colonization, lunar surface. 4 (May 1999), Authors: David Schrunk, Burton Sharpe, Bonnie Cooper, Madhu Thangavelu.

B. Management of Utility Infrastructures. Utility systems such as electric power, communications, and pipeline networks will be located in the same easements as the circumferential railroad. LEDA will set standards for safety, construction, and right of way, and assume a regulatory-by-consensus role for all. Investorfunded commercial enterprises are expected to be the principal designers, owners, and operators of utility networks. If projections for the growth of the lunar power system are correct, the Moon will become the major

6

source of clean electric power for the Earth in the mid-decades of the 21st century. C. Electronic Catapult. Prior to construction of the large cycler orbiter vessel, LEDA calls for the design and construction of an electronic catapult near the company Cislunar space (alternatively, cis-lunar town and the titanium mine. Capacity must space) is the volume include the ability to within the Moon's orbit, or a sphere place components into formed by rotating cislunar orbit for that orbit. Volumes assembly. It would be within that such ... managed by LEDA for [Wikapedia] the benefit of all countries and humanity. The fee structure is costs plus debt amortization without profit. II. Long Term Project Cycler Orbiter. A major project for LEDA is predicted to be construction of at least one very large cycler orbiter space vessel, a bevy of support systems, and a fleet of smaller and faster tender vessels for personnel, tourists, and cargo. This may become a ship yard and company town on the far side of the Moon near the solar systems largest proven deposit of titanium. Mining for other metals, such as iron ore, may be conducted elsewhere, perhaps in the Sea of Tranquillity. The cycler orbiter as promoted by astronaut Buzz Aldrin5 has compelling merit, especially as the eventual capital for space governance and headquarters for all space development industries. The likely design of this saucershaped vessel measuring a mile in diameter is presented at View Graph No. 3: The first place award design in our three year hunt for the “The First Wonder of the Off-World.”

View Graph No. 3: The First Wonder of the Off-World It has five levels with three circumferences on each level. It rotates while cruising to and from Mars so each level experiences, g, 2/3g,

and 1/3g, respectively (from the outer edges inward). Ice water is stored deep at the circumference and deep enough for adequate radiation protection elsewhere. The entire center from top to bottom is a cylindrical storage area for cargo and experiments and some industry. Level one located at the top is command center for managing the vessel. Second level is permanent residents and the ship’s crew. Third level is farming and ranching with hydroponics technology. Fourth level is accommodations for tourists and settlers in transit. Level five is ingress and egress, port of entry, and landing and docking technologies. Throughout the vessel are games, telescopes, and sports facilities galore. International cooperation is expected with condominium-style financing for participating nations and commercial entities. LEDA proposes to name this vessel the “Buzz Aldrin” cycler orbiter. Buzz has published and promoted this concept for 20 years. He caused several universities to chart out likely orbits and opine on feasibility. These universities include Purdue University and the University of Colorado at Boulder, Colorado. III. Ancillary Activities This rendition of lunar development relies on extensive work by many qualified commentators. NASA’s 2006 plan for using the Moon to prepare for development of Mars is central to the theme. Implied in this report are many ancillary and preparatory activities recommended to bring it all together, some of which are expressed as follows; A. Mars Exploration should be undertaken immediately and not deferred until the cycler orbiter is commissioned. Dr. Robert Zubrin’s, the Mars Society’s, and the Mars Direct program’s principles may be funded for human exploration so there will be a suitable base on Mars to connect with the Buzz Aldrin Mars Cycler Orbiter, the First Wonder of the Off World, when it arrives. 6 B. A ‘Space Governance’ consensus should be groomed for international cooperation and wide national participation in conjunction with the use of citizen supported authorities. Nations, Corporations and Individuals would participate by contract rather than by treaty. 7

7

C. Underground Cities, factories, and public parks with rivers should be built and tested before construction on the Moon and/or on Mars, especially for long term food supply, pollution solutions, and human life enhancements. 8

Nations, corporations, and individuals are free to pool their interests by contract with the Authority. No treaty is necessary. 10

NO BENEFIT SHARING

F. An International Citizen Astronaut Corps must be selected, trained, and maintained to meet the call for the thousands of managers, engineers, and worker families required.

The principal projects, such as construction of a large cycler orbiter for Moon and Mars attendance by all, are not sponsored for profit taking. Instead they are for the benefit of all countries and all of humanity. A pooling of interests of countries and corporations is managed by contracts. For example, any and all countries may contract for condominium style ownership of quarters in the large cycler orbiter. Periodic homeowner fees would be assessed to cover the actual costs of operation of this vessel. Therefore, no treaty burden of benefit sharing will apply to LEDA’s support activities nor to those relevant activities of its contractor and subcontractors. This applies to all of its projects and activities as described in this report.

IMPRIMATUR BY CONTRACT

CONCLUSION

This Authority has not relied upon any treaty or United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution or national mandate. Instead it has proceeded from humble beginnings 10 years ago in reliance on contracts and memberships and bond revenues. Each of these adds up to the only imprimatur currently available, that of popular support in the relevant marketplace.

For these reasons LEDA recommends progressing to formal approval of these concepts by the industry and the space community, with amendments as may be deemed appropriate. Its projects are treaty compliant as non profit and for the benefit of all humankind. 11

D. Caverns sunk to bedrock below the regolith may host lunar cities in a developed county dedicated to building the large Buzz Aldrin Cycler Orbiter. Three surrounding cities could be staggered among three consecutive eight hour work cycles, for example. 9 E. An Electronic Catapult suitable for use on the Moon needs to be designed, constructed, and tested to see if cislunar orbits can be achieved.

ENDNOTES 1

The only model of UN treaty sponsorship for imprimatur has been supplemented recently. Now developers and industry leaders rely more on contracts for the sign of approval. As we move towards implementing the concepts contained in this 10 year anniversary report, LEDA will ask for proposals and award contracts accordingly. At the end of the day most of the lunar industries in the world may be contracted in some way. That will lead to success and be imprimatur enough. Many attorneys have encouraged the use of such authority for essentially space governance purposes. Outer space has no senior in situ government. The UN is very helpful but it acts on behalf of its members, was formed a decade prior to the existence of the space age, and does not assert jurisdiction in space, either in rem or in persona.

Schrunk, David; Sharpe, Burton; Cooper, Bonnie; and Thangavalu, Madhu, The Moon, Resources, Future Development, copyright 1999, Praxis Publishing, Ltd. See, chapter 5, Mining and Manufacturing; chapter 6, Circumferential Lunar Utilities; chapter 7, Governance of the Moon and the LEDA model; and appendix F: “Facilitating Space Commerce through a Lunar Economic Development Authority,” by Harris, P.R.; and O’Donnell, D.J., World Space Bar Association.

2

Schrunk, David G., THE END OF CHAOS: Quality Laws and the Ascendancy of Democracy. Quality of Laws Press, Poway, CA, 2005

3

Heinlein, Robert A., The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, Copyright 1966 by Robert A. Heinlein. Renewed 1994 by Virginia Heinlein. An Orb Edition published by Tom Doherty Associates, Inc.

4

Schrunk, David G., et al., Physical Transportation on the Moon: The Lunar Railroad. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Space

8

’98, pp 347-53, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 1998. 5

Aldrin, Buzz, cycler orbiter, may be found through his website at www.buzzaldrin.com and multiple sites feature the Buzz Aldrin Cycler Orbiter information by searching.

6

Zubrin, R., The Case For Mars, Freedom Press, 1998, in passim.

7

O’Donnell, D.J., “ISDAC Imprimatur by Contract,” 9th Annual Mars Society Convention, University of California, August 30 – September 4, 2007.

8

Rodriguez, G., and Good, Wm., “Silicon Moon; The Foundation of a Cislunar Economy,” AIAA 2001-4662, Space 2001, August 28-30, 2001, Albuquerque, NM.

9

O’Donnell, D.J., Buzz Aldrin, Brad Blair, Deepak Kapadia, Gary Rodriguez, Richard Westfall, “The Heinlein Model For Lunar Habitats,

Modified and Updated,” IAC.07.C2.1.07, IAF, Hyderabad, India, 2007. 10

Smith, Milton, “Compliance with International Space Law of the LEDA Proposal,” Space Governance Journal, Jan. 1997, p. 16; Goldman, Nathan, “Lawyer’s Perspective on the USIS Strategies for Meta Nations and LEDA,” Space Governance Journal, July 1996, p. 16; O’Donnell, D.J., and Harris, P.R., “Facilitating a New Space Market Through LEDA,” Space Governance Journal, July 1977, p. 122; O’Donnell, D.J., “ISDAC: Financing Capacity for In-Space Projects,” Space Governance Journal, Vol. 9, 2003, p. 23; and Robinson, G.S. IV, “Do the Space Treaties Need a Lawsuit,” Space Governance Journal, July 1997, p. 116.

11

This Ten Year Report includes all of the report delivered to the UN affiliate IAF, 2006, IAC.06.A5.1 in Valencia, Spain by Mr. Declan J. O’Donnell, Esq..

About the Authors Declan J. O'Donnell is an attorney practicing general trial law in Colorado; President of the World Space Bar Association; President of United Societies in Space, Inc., and of its Regency of United Societies in Space, Inc. (ROUSIS); Board of Directors, Mars Society; Board of Directors, Lunar Economic Development Authority Corporation, Inc.; Board of Directors, Space Orbital Development Authority Corporation; Publisher, Space Governance Journal; and member, AIAA Subcommittee on Space Colonization and the International Institute of Space Law, American Astronautical Society, and the National Space Society. Buzz Aldrin, Ph.D. is President of Starcraft Enterprise, Laguna Beach, California. In addition, he lectures throughout the world on his unique perspective of America's future in space. He authored a book about the Apollo Program titled "Men from Earth". He is a regent of USIS and sits on the LEDA advisory committee. Brad Blair, M.A., is on the Board of Directors of LEDA. Gary “RoD” Rodriguez, P.E., is head of the Space Orbital Development Authority, Inc.; President of sysRAND Corporation; and a member of the LEDA Board of Directors. David G. Schrunk is an aerospace engineer and medical doctor, and independent investigator. He is a regent of USIS and the author of two books: THE MOON: Resources, Future Development, and Colonization, 1999, and THE END OF CHAOS: Quality Laws and the Ascendancy of Democracy, 2005.

"It is conceivable that some great unexpected mass of matter should presently rush upon us out of space, whirl sun and planets aside like dead leaves before the breeze, and collide with and utterly destroy every spark of life upon this earth... It is conceivable, too, that some pestilence may presently appear, some new disease, that will destroy not 10 or 15 or 20 per cent of the earth's inhabitants as pestilences have done in the past, but 100 per cent, and so end our race... And finally there is the reasonable certainty that this sun of ours must some day radiate itself toward extinction... There surely man must end. That of all such nightmares is the most insistently convincing. And yet one doesn't believe it. At least I do not. And I do not believe in these things because I have come to believe in certain other things--in the coherency and purpose in the world and in the greatness of human destiny. Worlds may freeze and suns may perish, but there stirs something within us now that can never die again." H. G. Wells, lecture at Royal Institution of London, 1902 9

PLEASE SHOW YOUR SUPPORT for the day when we can live and work in space by SUBSCRIBING to SPACE GOVERNANCE: A journal on space governance and related topics. We hope you have enjoyed our journal in the past. WITH YOUR PAID SUBSCRIPTION of only $20 each, you can continue to enjoy this informative journal. You will also be eligible to publish your work in the journal.

Space Governance Journal SUBSCRIPTION FORM YES, please subscribe me to the SPACE GOVERNANCE JOURNAL at $20 per year. NAME:

ADDRESS:

CITY –STATE- ZIP

PHONE- E-MAIL

SPACE GOVERNANCE JOURNAL is the oldest continuously published journal on space law and policy of international character and distribution. It is sponsored by United Societies in Space: Our mission is to advance the day when we are a space-faring society. SPACE GOVERNANCE JOURNAL is affiliated with the Lunar Economic Development Authority and the Space Orbital Development Authority. The web site is www.angelfire.com/space/usis. The publisher is Declan Joseph O’Donnell, P.C. of Colorado, Attorneys at Law. TOTAL NUMBER JOURNAL SUBSCRIPTIONS _______ X $20 USD = _______ PER YEAR

* ALSO, I will contact you for an article to be published in the Journal, subject to approval of the journal editor. PAYMENT: Check No.Enclosed ______________ Card Type _____________________ Name on Card___________________________ Card No ________________________ EXPIRATION ____/____ Zip Code____Signature_______________________________ 10

Fly Me to the Moon and Much, Much Farther NASA AIMING FOR PERMANENT MOON, MARS BASES It's NASA's most ambitious move ever. But how will the outer- space future evolve in businesscentric areas like profit- making, site selection and infrastructure? A long- time advocate of lunar economic development weighs in. From Earth ... really.

by JACK LYNE, Site Selection Executive Editor of Interactive Publishing [email protected]

"This article was first published on SiteSelection.com, the official website of Site Selection magazine, in January 2007. SiteSelection.com is a property of Conway Data Inc. in Atlanta, Georgia."The U.S. is opening up a brand-new permanent location that will have eager job applicants lining up. But there could be one substantial disincentive: the commute. It's going to be a real bear, almost 240,000 miles (384,000 km.) – one way. Yep, NASA's going back to the moon for the first time since 1972 – and it's planning to stay. What's more, the agency plans to expand well beyond its lunar base, setting up another permanent operation on Mars (see accompanying "Living in Outer- Space Time" chart). That marks a major shift. NASA's six Apollo moon missions between 1969 and 1972 were there-and-back ventures. "A base on the moon doesn't sound like a big deal, but it is a very, very big decision," NASA Deputy Administrator for Space Exploration Scott Horowitz said at the project's Dec. 4th announcement in Houston. NASA weighed a permanent operation against the option of flying a series of individual sorties. A fixed outer- space presence, it decided, offers compelling advantages. "A lunar outpost," explained NASA Deputy Administrator Shana Dale, "results in a much quicker path in terms of future exploration, allows for maturation of in situ resource utilization, accomplishes many science objectives, and enables global partnerships." Literally, it's a very far- out project. But Declan O'Donnell, founder of the nonprofit Lunar Economic Development Authority (LEDA), is thinking beyond that. Way beyond. "The mission is NASA's next logical step – just for this decade, to establish a base on the moon," O'Donnell told The SiteNet Dispatch.

But the long- time supporter of outer- space development says there's a veritable Milky Way's worth of thorny lunar issues looming. O'Donnell, for example, foresees "the need for venue- wide lunar standards for development, construction, building maintenance and property rights." A moon economy will also need a "space bank" with "space money," he added. (See accompanying "What on Earth Is Space Money?") Notions like that may prompt some observers to dismiss O'Donnell's ideas as science- fiction fantasy. But, then, it hasn't been all that long since the notion of a permanent moon base was considered fanciful fiction. And O'Donnell provides a point of view that, however unconventional, illuminates some major questions that may – and quite possibly will – emerge in outer- space development. Corporate site selection is one of them.

Searching for a Site on the Moon For the moment, though, NASA is the only Earth entity that's looking for a lunar site. The agency is now concentrating on two areas in which humankind has never set foot. While the Apollo missions all landed on the moon's equator, the current site search is centered on the polar regions. "We know very little about the moon's poles," said Dale. "In fact, we know more about Mars than the poles."

11

Even so, one south pole area is the strong early frontrunner for the base site.

That lode would be the LEDA site's principal economic driver. "The titanium would be mined and used to build spaceships to go to Mars," said O'Donnell, a Denver- metro attorney who specializes in tax and securities law, with a strong interest in space law. "The lunar architecture's predicted centerpiece would be a large shipyard, a company town and an electronic catapult to propel materials into cislunar orbit" (where the moon and Earth's gravitational pulls balance). The LEDA's idea for a moon base, he added, includes operations at the lunar poles, but only as "adjunct facilities."

The current frontrunner as the moon- base site is the satellite's south pole, pictured in this mosaic composed of 1,500 images taken by NASA's Clementine lunar orbiter.

While strikingly dissimilar, those two moonbase visions may not be mutually exclusive. O'Donnell thinks that Earth's satellite over time could conceivably be home to both a "NASA town" and a "company town" dedicated to private-sector ventures.

Choosing to establish a moon base was "a very, very big decision" for NASA, said Scott Horowitz, the agency's deputy administrator for space exploration

"There is an area on the edge of Shackleton Crater that is almost permanently sunlit a very high percentage of the time, 75 to 80 percent," NASA Deputy Associate Administrator Doug Cooke explained. Nearby, he continued, sits a 300- acre (120- hectare) flat tract that could serve as a natural landing pad. "There could even be cometary ices that have lain there for billions of years," Cooke added. That area, he noted, could hold helium- 3, a rare element that could be suitable for producing nuclear fuel to power return moon missions. The south pole locale may also contain volatile gases that could prove useful in commercial ventures, NASA believes. In contrast, the LEDA envisions an altogether different base site. "What LEDA has been proposing to sponsor or otherwise cause is a permanent base on the far side of the moon (that's always turned away from Earth), not at the poles," O'Donnell explained. "That location is near the solar system's largest proven deposit of titanium, as NASA knows."

The current frontrunner as the moon- base site is the satellite's south pole, pictured in this mosaic composed of 1,500 images taken by NASA's Clementine lunar orbiter

Funding Issues Could Cloud Mission's Future NASA’s lunar base location is still far from being a done deal. "That's not to say that [the south pole site] is the final choice or anything," said Cooke. "But it

12

is one that we probably know most about at this point until we fly a lunar robotic orbiter." NASA isn't projecting that it will land at the base site until 2018. In the interim, the agency will fly a series of unmanned moon intelligence missions. The first is the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), which is scheduled to launch next year. The LRO will circle the poles searching for natural resources that could support the moon base. The robotic craft will also carry a smaller satellite that will be deliberately crash- landed in the Shackleton Crater in 2009. Onboard sensing equipment will analyze dust from the crash's impact for evidence of water.

This painting by NASA artist Robert McCall pictures what a lunar mining operation might look like.

Funding issues, however, could crash the entire moon- base mission. NASA hasn't yet provided a price tag. President George H. W. Bush, however, led a 1989 study that estimated that establishing a permanent moon presence would cost at least $500 billion. That outlay was so sizable that the study was largely ignored and soon faded from view.

NASA hopes to learn much more about the lunar poles through the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (pictured above in a NASA rendering) which has a planned launch date of 2008.

Many of the NASA ventures that have successfully secured funding have been roundly criticized for recurrent cost overruns and delays. The International Space Station (ISS) is often cited as Exhibit A. Initially projected as a $17billion project, the ISS has already cost almost $50 billion. Such exponential inflation has drawn considerable criticism from the likes of Taxpayers for Common Sense (TCS), a watchdog group that targets wasteful U.S. government spending. TCS advocates major cutbacks in NASA's budget. Critics of recurrent cost overruns on spacerelated projects often cite the International Space Station as a prime example.

"While the space program yielded many successes in years past, taxpayers are no longer getting their money's worth from a program that focuses on repeating the deeds of 13

yesterday," the group asserts. Much of that funding, TCS contends, should be redirected into "high- priority scientific research such as astrophysics, Earth remote sensing and aeronautics." As for NASA, TCS says that it "should use new technologies to build a better space program at less cost." "Without a price [on the moon- base mission], you'll end up wasting money," said TCS Vice President Steve Ellis.

NASA: No Additional Funding Needed NASA, though, insists that the moon- Mars outposts that President Bush first championed in 2004 will be pay- asyou-go projects. "The Vision for Space Exploration laid out a program that is supposed to be sustainable and affordable," Dale said in Houston. "It is not an increase above our Government watchdog baseline budget."

group Taxpayers for Common Sense is backing major cutbacks in NASA's budget. (Pictured: NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C.)

NASA's current annual allocation is $16.8 billion. The agency anticipates significant additional revenues for the moonbase program from international project participation, and from the 2010 completion of the ISS and the subsequent retirement of the space shuttle. But what if NASA finds at some point that it doesn't have sufficient funds for the moonbase mission? "We go as we can afford to pay," said Dale. Until funds are in place, the project timetable will have to move back, she explained.

NASA's new plan for space exploration "is not an increase above our baseline said Deputy budget," Director Shana Dale.

"Funding could end up being problematic," O'Donnell observed. "But if they make it an international project, it would have a chance." NASA seems to be counting heavily on other nations' involvement – and private industry's as well. "It is critical that we have international participation and commercial participation along the way," Dale noted. The project's "open architecture," she added, "welcomes the participation of other countries around the world as well as commercial entities." The ISS experience, however, could dim some nations' eagerness to take part in the moon- base mission. A number of the space station's 14 partner countries have complained that U.S. priorities have dominated the project. The U.S. conceived and designed the ISS. But NASA has involved other nations much earlier in the moon- base project. The agency has already met with the European Space Agency, as well as space agencies from Australia, Great Britain, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the Ukraine. NASA says that it has also solicited input from experts, nongovernmental organizations and commercial interests in many other countries. "I think one of the points that has really resonated when we have talked to other countries is bringing them in so early in the process," Dale noted. "They really were here in terms of the ground floor in the development of the themes and objectives." “We have all learned through our past experiences," added Cooke. "[The moon- base mission] is not one integral vehicle like the space station. So there are a lot more options to work with, we feel [including] parallel developments."

Current Treaty Could Curtail Profit-Making in the Cosmos The moon- base initiative faces a very different problem when it comes to securing long- term private- sector involvement: Existing laws, O'Donnell says, could end up taking a very big bite out of space-made profits. The key private- sector issue centers on one particular section of the Outer Space Treaty of 14

1967, widely regarded as the legal structure governing outer space: "The exploration and use of outer space," the treaty states, "should be carried on for the benefit of all peoples, irrespective of the degree of their economic or scientific development."

Work on redesigning the Outer Space Treaty should've already begun, O'Donnell contends. "The treaty calls for a new government as soon as space development becomes feasible – which is now," he noted. "But nobody's come up with a new government."

Building a Railroad and a ‘Cycler Orbiter’ NASA has said little about what might be built on the moon. NASA says that other nations have been involved in depth much earlier in the moon- base project than in the often criticized International Space Station. (Pictured: A NASA rendering of a lunar outpost.)

"That's the riddle," explained O'Donnell, who's also president of the World Space Bar Association. "In international treaties, that clause means profit- sharing. Any profit you make you'd have to divide in some fashion with the 200- odd nations and territories on Earth." Individual countries could unilaterally skirt that provision by opting out of the Outer Space Treaty. The pact provides that any of the accord's 124 signatory nations can withdraw by giving notice. A withdrawal would become official a year after notification. But bailing out isn't a realistic alternative, O'Donnell feels. "A permanent outer- space base isn't going to become part of America," he contended. "There are too many people who have an interest. And if you divide the moon between nations, you're just looking at more wars, only now in space. It's got to be an international thing." The Outer Space Treaty echoes that point. Space, it states, "including the moon and other celestial bodies is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty." "Redefining the treaty's definition of benefitsharing would be a better solution than withdrawing," O'Donnell continued. "It needs to be defined as something other than a handcuff on anyone who would go to space to make a profit. If that's changed so that people can make a decent profit, it will significantly help with moon mission funding."

Characteristi cally, the LEDA already has several initial The signing of the 1967 Lunar developments in Space Treaty (pictured left) mind. came six years after Alan "You've got Shepard became the first to create an NASA astronaut to blast off infrastructure so for outer space (below). Treatysigning Saskatoon Public Division

the people who

photo: come later don't School

trample the hell out of the lunar surface," O'Donnell said. "The first project should be a circumferential lunar railroad, which will limit needless trespass. Much of the railroad would be underground to protect it from asteroids." NASA's plan calls for a "mature transportation infrastructure" to be in place on the moon by 2025. The LEDA is supporting another major construction project that wouldn't really be on the moon. It would be a "cycler orbiter," originally championed by Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, a member of the LEDA board of advisers and the Apollo 11 astronaut who joined Neil Armstrong in 1969 in first setting foot on the moon. "The orbiter would be a saucer- shaped vessel, a mile (1.6 km.) in diameter and three miles (4.8 km.) in circumference," O'Donnell explained. “All of the nations participating in development would have operations Eventually, it might become the capital for governance and the headquarters for all 15

moon there. space space

development industries." Orbiter- based operations, he contended, "can escape benefitsharing." The LEDA's orbiter design features five different levels. Separate planes would be dedicated to the ship's managerial operations; living quarters for permanent residents and crew members; farming and ranching operations (using hydroponic technology); and tourists and traveling moon "settlers." The fifth level would include ingress and egress operations, as well as landing fields.

"Leasing property on the moon shouldn't be a legal problem," he said. "A lease wouldn't violate the treaty's sovereignty provision and operations on leased land wouldn't use up the moon's resources."

Packing for Mars All of this information, of course, boggles the human mind – at least at this point in Earth's knowledge of space.

For the private sector, some of the most promising lunar locations could lie beneath the satellite's surface. Underground moon areas could provide quality sites for industrial operations and housing, O'Donnell contends. Those human settlements could receive oxygen seeping up from plants growing immediately below them, he explained.

Although NASA hasn't said what it might build on the moon, one of the agency's concepts is the inflatable dome pictured in the rendering above. Spanning a diameter of about 53 feet (16 meters), the habitat could house as many as 12 people, with facilities for exercise, operations control, clean up, lab work, hydroponic gardening, private crew quarters, dust- removing devices for lunar surface work, an airlock, and lunar rover and lander vehicles.

On the other hand, humans' cosmos- related IQ could grow substantially over the next few decades, given NASA's ambitious strategy. Are the moon's most promising sites located beneath its pockmarked surface?

"Most of the safe living will be underground," said O'Donnell. "If you go down six feet (1.8 meters) into the moon's surface, it's 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 degrees Celsius) 24 hours a day. And it's 70 degrees for a long way down. "From a site selection perspective," he continued, "businesses are going to have to plan on digging a lot deeper than normal to access sufficient space for below-ground operations." O'Donnell contends that current outer- space treaties would allow businesses to lease their lunar sites.

The agency plans to make its first Mars launch from the permanent moon base. When, though, no one is sure. The earliest estimates are 2030. "This is a living document," Horowitz said of the open- endedness of NASA's moon and Mars blueprint. "We are going to learn a lot from these [unmanned robotic] missions . . . that will advise and be fed into decisions." NASA currently has two rovers, Opportunity and Spirit, that have been exploring Mars' surface for almost four years (initially, they were expected to survive for only 90 days). The agency is also getting substantial Martian 16

information from the Mars Global Surveyor that's circling the planet. The Surveyor craft sent back images in midDecember that suggested that liquid water was present on the planet's surface. That, in turn, intimated that Mars at some point possibly accommodated some sort of life form. That information reinforced some scientists' contention that Mars offers a bigger payoff than the moon. "You have to realize we haven't left low Earth orbit in the last 30 years," said Steven Squyres, a Cornell University professor and NASA researcher. "We need some place to flex our space deepmuscles again before we go zooming off to Mars."

"It would just be unfortunate to lose momentum with all these very exciting Mars discoveries toward the middle part of the next decade," said Ray Arvidson, a Washington University professor and the deputy principal investigator for the Mars rovers program. "Those become very difficult to do in the constrained financial environment because of the restraints noted at the American Geophysical Union's (AGU) conference in San Francisco on Dec. 15th. In contrast, Steven Squyres, a Cornell University professor and the principal scientific investigator for the Mars rovers, continues to support the lunar base. "I'm a big fan of sending robots to Mars," Squyres said during an AGU conference panel discussion that also included Arvidson. "But I firmly believe that the best way to explore Mars is going to be with humans. "You have to realize we haven't left low Earth orbit in the last 30 years," he continued. "We need some place to flex our deep- space muscles again before we go zooming off to Mars, and the moon is the obvious choice to do that."

Is Outer-Space Living Essential for Human Survival? O'Donnell also favors that moonfirst, Mars- second progression. But the bigger issue, he feels, lies in exploring much farther afield. In that, Prominent scientist Hawking O'Donnell concurs Stephen successful with renowed equates scientist Stephen space exploration with Hawking's contention the continued existence the human race. that space of Photo: British Council exploration is United States imperative for humanities continued existence. "It is important . . . to spread out into space for the survival of the species," Hawking said at a Hong Kong lecture in June of 2006. "Life on Earth is at the everincreasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster, such as sudden global warming, nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus or engineered other dangers we other have not yet thought of."

NASA's Mars Global Surveyor sent back images like the one above that suggested the presence of liquid water on the planet's Finding a suitable surface. living site, however,

may require an astonishing number of frequent flyer miles, he added. "We won't find anywhere as nice as Earth unless we go to another star system," said Hawking. "The ultimate thinking," O'Donnell said, "is to set up a base on Mars for the singular purpose of building a fleet of tough ships to get beyond

17

the Oort Cloud, the egg shell containing billions of comets that surrounds our solar system." Those ships will need to be tough indeed, since they'll be traveling a long, long way. The Oort Cloud is an estimated eight billion miles (12.8 billion km.) from Earth. That's about 2,000 times the distance from the Sun to Pluto. (The spherical envelope of comets is so far away, in fact, that no one yet has been able to actually see it.) Those long- distance craft would also need to be strong and roomy enough to carry heavy payloads. O'Donnell envisions that some of the

ships would carry "thousands of people." Others would ferry a payload that's quite different, but essential for survival. "To leave our solar system to go elsewhere," said O'Donnell, "we need a fleet that can also take asteroids with it to provide food and water as the ships fly."

But to fly to where, you say? An excellent question. That destination, though, is one more big thing about outer space that the human race remains a long way from knowing. Much, much farther, in fact, than from here to the moon.

LIVING IN OUTER-SPACE TIME: NASA'S PROJECTED TIMETABLE 2007: NASA begins what Deputy Administrator Shana Dale calls "extensive dialogue with other countries about the ways in which they want to participate" in the U.S. agency's new space exploration plan. 2008: NASA launches the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), initiating a new series of robotic intelligence missions to the moon. 2009: A smaller satellite carried aboard the LRO is deliberately crash- landed in the moon's Shackleton Crater, near NASA's favored south pole site. The smaller craft is equipped with sensing equipment that will analyze dust from the landing's impact for evidence of water. 2014: NASA begins a series of manned spacecraft missions. The missions will orbit the moon's polar regions, working to identify possible landing sites, natural resources and hazards to the lunar This NASA rendering depicts how a moon vehicles that the agency is designing. landing might look. 2018: NASA starts sending fourastronaut crews to land on the moon (see rendering at right). Initially, crew members will stay on the satellite for about a week before rotating back to Earth. 2024: Permanent moon base will be completed. Astronauts will begin living on the moon continually, with crew members staying for longer periods of time – as long as six months. 2030: This is space industry analysts' earliest estimate of when NASA might make its first launch for Mars. The agency hasn't yet projected the year in which it thinks Mars flights will begin.

Source, 2007- 24 dates: NASA

18

WHAT ON EARTH IS SPACE MONEY? Unsurprisingly, the location of the first ATM on the moon isn't included in NASA's new outer-space blueprint. But make no mistake. Eventually, the moon's economy will have to have some hard cash in order to function, argues Declan O'Donnell. And that lunar legal tender won't be similar to any of the currencies now in use on Earth, contends the founder of the nonprofit Lunar Economic Development Authority (LEDA).

Going (way) up: The Space Elevator (shown above in a rendering) is one of the major space- related projects now underway. Stretching 32 million stories high, topping out at about 62,000 miles (99,200 kilometers), the mechanism would reduce orbital freight costs by 98 percent, according to project supporters.

"People in a lunar settlement at some point will have to barter with something, just as Christopher Columbus did when he first arrived in America," said O'Donnell. "And they'll have to use a totally new kind of currency: space money. It would be created specifically for use on the moon and recognized by all space-faring nations."

Earthlings are already spending huge sums of money to get to outer space. Governments around the world are pouring an estimated $50 billion a year into spacerelated ventures – a 25- percent upsurge from the 2000 tally. Moreover, since 1998, the private sector annually has been outspending the world's governments in the quest for outer space.

WHY MOON MONEY? But once they get there, what will lunar settlers need money for in space? "It would be a lot of different things involving small fees," O'Donnell explained. "Sort of like the fee list that a real estate developer provides when he or she is constructing a condominium." But why create a new currency for space? After all, Earth's global economy seems to function pretty well using multiple currencies and exchanges. "It wouldn't work," O'Donnell said of using existing currencies. "Eventually there would end up being one dominant currency in space, perhaps the U.S. dollar, and everything would be pegged to that. In the long run, that wouldn't be equitable. "It's just logical that there will be some disasters in outer- space development," he continued. "When that happens, if there's one leading currency, it would suffer tremendously and unduly. It's sort of like a new version of an

Got change for a one? Here's the design that United Societies in Space came up with for a bill denoting one unit of space money. Pictured on the bill is an illustration of a space habitat.

19

old saying: 'You cough on the moon, you catch a cold down here. Creating a separate space currency would also ensure completion of outer- space projects, O'Donnell contends “It would be a real blight on humanity to have unfinished structures dangling around on the moon, Mars and other places in space,” he said. “But if you had a lunar development authority that had its own bank and issued its own money, you could make sure that people followed through with their outer- space commitments. And if someone didn't follow through, the authority would find somebody else who would."

TAXES IN SPACE? The notion of using space money isn't all that futuristic, O'Donnell insists. Legally, most of the world's governments (including the U.S.) already treat barter- club capital the same as their own legal currencies. "That means that there's good news in that most of the world would recognize the space currency used for barter as normal money," he said. "But there's bad news, too, because they'll want to tax it like all the other money spent on Earth." O'Donnell, though, has another idea on that front: a tax- free state in space. He advocates that user fees, not taxes, fund space government services And that's an idea that could make space look even more like the land of opportunity.

WHAT’S UP... ‹ Want to see water on the Moon? If so, look up there through your favorite telescope in early 2009. This ice/water/vapor should be visible after NASA crashes an SUV sized cannonball into a frozen lunar crater (expected to harbor lots of ice beneath its surface) at about 5600 miles per hour. The crash will churn up dust, dirt, and ice from an impact crater one-third the size of a football field and very deep. According to Mr. Butler Hine, robotics deputy program manager at Ames Research Center northern California, “These resources (identified by the impact) can make future human returns to the Moon and future human occupation of the Moon much more cost-effective.” This project will cost $80 million US dollars. ‹ Water is the key ingredient for supporting human life on the Moon and is needed to support NASA’s plan to build a permanent human lunar base by 2018. It will probably be located near the South Pole (on Malapert Mountain as recommended by SGJ in vol. 7, page 16, entitled “Malapert Mountain Revisited” by Burton L. Sharpe and David G. Schrunk). The several advance robotic missions and the lunar base construction and astronaut injection is estimated to cost $600 million to NASA between 2008 and 2018. ‹ Site selection for the NASA Moon Base will be scientifically selected after data is gathered from a lunar orbiter. It will circle the Moon during 2008 for about a year with special viewing apparatus and the large cannonball to impact the frozen crater. Olaf Stapledon, address to the British Interplanetary Society, 1948: "Sooner or later for good or ill, a united mankind, equipped with science and power, will probably turn its attention to the other planets, not only for economic exploitation, but also as possible homes for man... The goal for the solar system would seem to be that it should become an interplanetary community of very diverse worlds ... each contributing to the common experience its characteristic view of the universe. Through the pooling of this wealth of experience, through this "commonwealth of worlds," new levels of mental and spiritual development should become possible, levels at present quite inconceivable to man."

20

International Space Station: Uses and Benefits By Marianne Dyson this plan and provides background and context for understanding how the ISS supports the Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) and the eventual human settlement of space.

Costs and Benefits

Caption: This is a computer-generated view of what the ISS will look like from the top port side upon its completion in 2010. NASA image JSC2006-E-25650.

In November of 1998 during the first International Space Station (ISS) assembly mission, fourteen-year old Ryan Jeckel of Manheim, Pennsylvania asked Commander Bob Cabana, “How do you respond to those that say the space station is too costly? What's the most profitable advantage that will come from the space station, and what area of science will the space station benefit most?” Cabana answered, “We're building a space station to learn, and it's our destiny to explore in space. … With the space station, we can constantly monitor the Earth and its changes. We're gonna learn all about the human body and the effects of long duration space flight …All kinds of areas in material science. There's going to be new drugs developed. … with the space station we'll have a world class microgravity laboratory up there 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, changing the experiments and learning.” Eight years and billions of dollars later, repeats of young Ryan’s questions about cost and benefits of a space station continue to be asked, with members of Congress using the NASA Authorization Act of 2005 to request detailed answers. Those answers were provided in The NASA Research and Utilization Plan for the International Space Station (see Further Reading #7) that was released to the public in June 2006. This article examines and describes

With the assembly of the station delayed first by Russian economic problems, and then by the loss of Columbia, much of the utilization of the station has been delayed--or at least the use of it for scientific research. The delays may have actually facilitated the learning that Cabana cited as the primary purpose of a space station. The need to test procedures, equipment, and gain experience in supporting crew and spacecraft for long periods in space were foreseen by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), Werner von Braun (1912-77) and Gerard O’Neill (192792) as a logical and necessary part of the human expansion into space. Constructing large orbital habitats around the Earth is step ten of Tsiolkolvsky’s “Plan of Space Exploration” (see Tsiolkovsky sidebar). Von Braun promoted the use of low Earth orbit as a staging area for missions to the Moon and Mars. O’Neill proposed construction of orbiting cities powered by solar energy. Advocates of these plans have remained skeptical that the ISS will facilitate their fulfillment or meet the long-term objective of the Vision for Space Exploration “to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system.” And of those who see its integral connection, the cost versus benefit argument remains.

Tsiolkovsky’s Plan of Space Exploration 1) Creation of rocket airplanes with wings. 2) Progressively increasing the speed and altitude of these airplanes. 3) Production of real rockets--without wings. 4) Ability to land on the surface of the sea. 5) Reaching escape velocity and the first flight into Earth orbit. 6) Lengthening rocket flight times in space.

21

7) Experimental use of plants to make an artificial atmosphere in spaceships. 8) Using pressurized space suits for activity outside of spaceships. 9) Making orbiting greenhouses for plants. 10) Constructing around the Earth.

large

orbital

habitats

11) Using solar radiation to grow food, to heat space quarters, and for transport throughout the Solar System. 12) Colonization of the asteroid belt. 13) Colonization of the entire solar system and beyond. 14) Achievement of individual and social perfection. 15) Overcrowding of the solar system and the colonization of the Milky Way (the Galaxy). 16) The Sun begins to die and the people remaining in the solar system's population go to other suns. “Affordable” is defined by how much politicians are willing to assign to space exploration via the annual NASA budget. According to the 2007 budget request (see Further Reading #6), NASA has spent $25.6 billion on ISS from 1994-2005. For 2005 and 2006, the ISS was allocated $1.7 and $1.8 billion respectively. This annual cost is expected to rise to about $2.4 billion a year by 2010, with the accumulated cost at ISS completion being about $35 billion. This number does not include launch costs or international partner contributions. Those can be estimated and added in a number of ways to push the ISS cost up to $100 billion by the end of its lifetime in 2016. Yet the ISS and Space Shuttle budgets added together are only about a third of NASA’s total budget, and NASA’s budget of $16 to $18 billion is less than 1 percent of the budget of the United States. It will be up to future generations to decide whether or not the benefits of the ISS were worth this “affordable” amount. The second part of Ryan’s question regarding what area of science benefits most is much easier to address. The NASA Research and Utilization Plan (see Further Reading #7)

answers that ISS research is being prioritized and focused to support the VSE, and has in fact already provided much of the data and experience necessary for its success. To better focus the research, NASA is moving away from individual investigator-driven research to an outcome-oriented approach, with all research still subject to peer review. ISS research has been divided into three program categories: the Human Research Program, Technology Development, and Operations Demonstrations and Development. In addition to these categories, the ISS is also being used for Earth observations, educational outreach, to build experience in international cooperation, some military research, and as a destination for spaceflight participants (i.e., tourists).

Human Research Program From the fall of 2004 to early 2005, a review was conducted to align the existing human systems research and technology content to support the VSE, emphasizing near-term needs for a return to the Moon. The report stated that “these reviews indicate that much of NASA’s pre-VSE utilization of the ISS was already serving to implement the Agency’s new priorities.” Human research program requirements are developed and controlled by the Office of the Chief Health and Medical Officer (CHMO). CHMO develops the Space Flight Health Human Performance Standards that establish what is considered acceptable medical risk for spaceflight (see Further Reading #2). These standards drive operational and vehicle requirements, decisions during missions, and development of countermeasures, interventions, and procedures to amend and prevent negative effects. An initial set of standards are currently in development and undergoing approval based on OSHA standards and research from previous space missions and analog environments. Ongoing research includes ground-based analog head-down bed-rest studies and collection of orbit data to define space flight “normal” for body systems. Human research programs are reviewed by the International Life Sciences Working Group (See Further Reading

22

#9) to avoid duplication of equipment and encourage collaboration among investigations. A current priority is the development of drugs, diets, exercise programs and procedures to counteract negative health effects from the microgravity environment—collectively called countermeasures. One current example is a study headed by Expedition 5 and 16 astronaut Peggy Whitson into the prevention of kidney stones. Approximately 10 percent of Americans will develop a renal (kidney) stone at some point during their lives. Reduced fluid volume, altered renal function, and reduced bone mass place astronauts at even greater risk of renal stones while they are in space and immediately after landing. The Renal Stone experiment will determine if the risk of developing renal stones, especially calcium-based stones, increases with the duration of the space flight. It will also assess the effectiveness as a countermeasure of potassium citrate, a proven Earth-based therapy for reducing calcium-based stones. Renal stone formation can have severe health consequences for crewmembers and compromise a mission. Similar studies were conducted on the Shuttle and Mir, and so far have been performed on Expeditions 3-6, 8, and 11-15 (see Expeditions sidebar). Decreased urine volume and urinary citrate, and increased urinary concentrations of calcium and sodium have been observed. Understanding how the disease may form in otherwise healthy crewmembers under varying environmental conditions will also provide insight into stone forming diseases on Earth. The experiment design calls for the

combination and comparative analysis of data from all ISS increments. Therefore final results are not yet available.

Caption: Expedition 5 flight engineer Peggy Whitson, shown here exercising in the Destiny laboratory, now leads the investigation into the formation of renal stones as a result of longduration space flight. NASA photo.

Caption: ISS Expedition 13 Flight Engineer Thomas Reiter of ESA processes samples for the Renal Stone investigation. NASA photo.

International Space Station Expeditions (visitors in parentheses) Prior to occupancy, the ISS was visited by the STS-88 crew in 1998, STS-96 crew in 1999, and STS-101, STS-106 and STS-92 in 2000. 1. November 2000-March 2001, Shepherd, Gidzenko, Krikalev (Soyuz TM-31 this crew, STS-97 and STS98 crews) 2. March-August 2001, Usachev, Voss, Helms (STS-102, STS-100, Soyuz TM-32 (Tito) and STS-104 crews) 3. August-December 2001, Culbertson, Dezhurov, Tyurin (STS-105 and Soyuz TM-33 crews) 4. December 2001-June 2002, Onufrienko, Bursch, Walz (STS-108, STS-110, and Soyuz TM-34 (Shuttleworth) crews)

23

5. June 2002-December 2002, Korzun, Whitson, Treschev (STS-111, STS-112 and Soyuz TMA-1 crews) 6. November 2002-May 2003, Bowersox, Pettit, Budarin (STS-113 crew) 7. April-October 2003, Malenchenko, Lu (just these two in Soyuz TMA-2 8. October 2003-April 2004, Foale, Kaleri, (Soyuz TMA-3, Duque-ESA) 9. April-October 2004, Padalka, Fincke, (Soyuz TMA-4, Kuipers-ESA) 10. October 2004-April 2005, Chiao, Sharipov, (Soyuz TMA-5, Shagin) 11. April 2005-October 2005, Krikalev (2nd tour), Phillips, (Soyuz TMA-6, Vittori-ESA and STS-114 crew) 12. October 2005-April 2006, McArthur, Tokarev, (Soyuz TMA-7, Olsen) 13. April 2006-September 2006, Vinogradov, Jeff Williams, (Soyuz TMA-8, Pontes-Brazil) Reiter-ESA (up on STS-121 July 2006), (STS-121, STS-115 crews) 14. September 2006-April 2007, Lopez-Alegria, Tyurin (2nd tour), Reiter (until STS-116 Dec. 2006), then Sunni Williams (Soyuz TMA-9 (Ansari), STS-116 crew) 15. April 2007-October 2007, Yurchikhim, Kotov, Sunni Williams (until STS-117 June 2007), then Anderson (TMA-10 (Simonyi) STS-117, STS-118 crews) Upcoming: 16. October 2007-Spring 2008, Whitson (2nd tour), Malenchenko (2nd tour), Anderson (until STS-120 October 2007) then Tani ( up on STS-120), then Eyharts (ESA, up on STS-122 in Dec. 2008), then Reisman (up on STS-123 in Feb. 2008) (TMA-11, STS-122, STS-123 crews) 17. Spring 2008-Fall 2008, Volkov, Kononenko, Reisman, then Magnus (up on STS-119 in July 2008) (TMA12, STS-124, STS-119 crews) 18. Fall 2008-Spring 2009, Fincke (2nd tour), Sharipov (2nd tour), Magnus, then Wakata (JAXA) (up on STS126 in October 2008), then Chamitoff (up on STS-127 in January 2009) (TMA-13, STS126, STS-127 crews)

Technology Development Perhaps the most often overlooked benefit of the International Space Station is its use as a technology testbed that will enable human trips to Mars. Using current spacecraft technology, a one-way trip to Mars takes about six months and coasts to Mars using a freefall trajectory. This subjects the crewmembers and systems to a weightless environment for about six months, the same duration as a tour of duty on the ISS. (Artificial gravity produced via spinning has been proposed to avoid the effects of freefall. The now-cancelled centrifuge would have tested the utility of this approach.) NASA’s Exploration Technology Development Program will focus on the development of enabling technologies for the Orion crew exploration vehicle (CEV) and lunar missions. New technologies such as carbon dioxide removal, potable water, and air and water quality monitoring are therefore a priority for testing on the ISS. Current plans involve the

development of a suite of miniaturized sensors that will require minimal crew intervention. Sensors in development include vehicle cabin air monitor, electronic nose, colorimetric solid phase extraction water monitor (measures silver and iodide in water), and lab-on-a-chip, a portable system to monitor surfaces for bacteria. STS-121 in July 2006 carried a new system to generate oxygen from condensate water and urine. A water recovery system is planned for launch in 2008. The new systems will provide enough oxygen for six crewmembers and recover up to 80 percent of wastewater. Reducing spacecraft mass allows more room for scientific equipment and supplies. A twophase (liquid-vapor) energy transport system may significantly reduce the size, and thus the mass, of spacecraft radiators. Boiling is an effective means of cooling because most of the heat transfer is from the latent heat of vaporization as opposed to heating and pumping a single-phase fluid. Two experiments are 24

planned for testing on the ISS, the Micro-heater Array Boiling Experiment (MABE) and the Nucleate Pool Boiling Experiment (NPBX).

Caption: An exploded view of the CEV/Orion vehicle. Photo credit: Lockheed Martin Corp.

Propellant systems for extended stays on the Moon and for transport to and from Mars will require propellant storage tanks about ten times larger than current spacecraft tanks. Stored propellants may include methane, oxygen or hydrogen. Current tanks are overly heavy because of uncertainty in how the materials and fuels perform in the space environment. Lighterweight cryogenic tanks and new propellant transfer technologies are planned to be tested on the ISS. Structural engineering tests on ISS will have direct impact on exploration vehicle and habitat designs. The space environment poses many hazards to exposed surfaces including ultraviolet radiation, corrosive atomic oxygen, radical temperature swings, and micrometeoroid and debris strikes. The Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE) has two passive experiment carriers with approximately 900 specimens that were mounted outside the ISS airlock in August 2001 and returned in August 2005 (see Further Reading #3). A new unit was mounted in August 2005, and two more went up on STS-121. Two more are planned for later shuttle flights along with strain gauges and accelerometers that will be mounted on ISS trusses and modules to provide verification of structural loads during docking and other events.

MISSE will also test new lightweight materials ability to shield the crew from cosmic rays, and the effects of impacts on inflatable solar sails. As the tragic Apollo 1 fire proved, the lower overall pressures and greater oxygen percentages present in the closed environments of spacecraft increase the risk of fire. NASA continues to develop new technologies to detect fire, quantify material flammability and fire signatures in reduced gravity and monitor air and water for contamination. David Urban of NASA Glenn conducted an experiment on ISS Expedition 13 that will aid in the development of improved spacecraft smoke detectors. Currently little is known about the size distribution of soot particles from fires in space. Accurate fire detection requires the ability to distinguish dust particles from soot particles, and being able to detect smoke particles of the appropriate size. The Dust and Aerosol Measurement Feasibility Test (DAFT) was designed to test the effectiveness of a device that counts ultra-fine dust particles.

Caption: One tray of the MISSE experiment, shown here in an STS-112 photo taken in 2002, was mounted outside the Quest airlock for four years. NASA photo.

Preliminary results based on two DAFT sessions performed on ISS in 2005 and presented at the Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Systems indicate very low levels of particles in the ISS environment. This low particulate level may be a result of the two-person crew and/or the filtration system on ISS. The particulate level is expected to increase now that the number of crewmembers has returned to three after STS121. It is also possible that DAFT is not 25

measuring the particulates. Most particle counters work by using a light beam to record instances when the beam is interrupted. This method will not record ultra-fine particles that are much smaller than the wavelength of the light. The handheld P-Trak device works by passing dust-laden air through a chamber of vaporous isopropyl alcohol. When a droplet of alcohol condenses over an ultra-fine dust particle, the particle becomes large enough to

“Today was a very nice success,” Expedition 9 science officer Mike Fincke told ground controllers after completing the first in-orbit space suit repair. Rather than return the suit to the ground, a new pump was sent up via a Progress supply ship. Fincke spent 4.5 hours replacing the part that pumps cooling water through miles of tubing inside the suit undergarment. The repair made maintenance on the U.S. segment of the ISS easier because the Russian Orlan suits are not designed to interface with U.S. equipment.

The DAFT Dust Trak unit tested on several ISS expeditions uses a sensor to read the percentage of light being blocked by particles. NASA photo.

break the light beam and be counted. (The alcohol is recycled as it condenses on the sidewalls.) Upcoming runs of the experiment will use known dust sources to confirm that the equipment is functioning accurately on orbit. Sampling will also be done at more locations throughout ISS. Once the average particulate level is known, it can be used to design smoke detectors that accurately distinguish normal dust from the presence of dangerous smoke particles. If the results are satisfactory, the PTrak will be used in the Smoke and Aerosol Measuring Experiment (SAME) during Expedition 15. SAME requires counts of particles ranging from 0.2 microns to 1 micron. Smoke detectors developed from the results of DAFT and SAME (see Further Reading #10) may also be useful in submarines or underwater laboratories where accurate detection of smoke can save lives.

Operations Demonstrations and Development

Caption: Astronaut Edward M. (Mike) Fincke, shown here in the Quest airlock during Expedition 9, performed the first on-orbit repair of a spacesuit. NASA photo.

The ISS utilization plan (see Further Reading #7) cites this kind of repair operation as an example of new skills learned by spending time in orbit. The report states that “ISS is demonstrating new capabilities to sustain spacecraft operations over long time periods which will be critical for lunar/planetary habitats and Mars transit vehicles. Periodic photographic surveys of the outside of the ISS are performed and compared with previous pictures to understand the degradation of the vehicle over time. …The team is also demonstrating the repair of systems in space that were previously thought to be not repairable. The Expedition crews recently successfully repaired a malfunctioning space suit, replaced treadmill 26

bearings, and replaced an Elektron subassembly. These repairs were thought not feasible in space and are a testimony to both ground and flight teams that developed procedures and training for these events.” The report also notes that “ISS provides valuable lessons for current and future engineers and managers—real-world examples of what works and what does not work in space. The international collaboration provides valuable insights into how our Partner countries approach building, operating, and maintaining spacecraft. As such, the ISS is a cornerstone in advancing knowledge about how to live and work in space for long continuous periods of time and will remain critical to our future exploratory journeys.” One ESA experiment conducted surveys of expedition 13 and 14 crews to uncover potential problems in leadership styles. Other demonstration activities include autonomous rendezvous and docking; robotics and human systems displays and controls, and the testing of in-flight inspection and repair capabilities such as those demonstrated on STS-121. Not only are recycling systems critical, but also the reduction of trash and inventory management. Virtual training for EVA and robotic tasks enables safer and more efficient use of crew time. “High performing crews are critical to successful long-duration missions,” the report states.

these power systems perform over time is key in moving toward longer stays and building satellites to power future O’Neill cities in space.

……ARTICLE CONTINUED IN VOLUME 12 OF THE SPACE GOVERNANCE JOURNAL

Caption: Shown here during STS-116 in December 2006, the ISS has the largest solar arrays ever deployed. NASA Photo

Author Marianne Dyson shares her passion for space through writing and presentations for all ages at schools, libraries and conferences. She also is available as a technical editor and research consultant on space and astronomy topics.

ISS has the largest solar arrays ever deployed, and uses a distributed power system instead of the “mobile home/self-contained” Russian-style modules. Understanding how

JOBS IN SPACE Looking for a way to work in the space industry? Here’s a place to contact for a job as an engineering, operations, science, quality, administration, public relations, and/or education. At HE Space Operations it’s all about people: “We provide highly educated support and technical expertise.” Check it out at URL: http://www.hespace.com and/or send your resume to [email protected]

BUZZ ALDRIN SPACE LIBRARY SELECTION This year we added another 100+ books into the Buzz Aldrin Space Library Selection. The library receives books and videos on humans in space from all over the world and from personnel in all industries. Members of the space community may borrow books by contacting United Societies in Space or this journal. Your selection will be mailed to you and you must return it within the time allotted.

27

Astro Law as Common Law Extended Into the Outer Space Territory* BY DECLAN J. O’DONNELL, ESQ. ABSTRACT International space treaties haven’t been amended or supplemented for 25 years. As “space development” becomes feasible, (per the Moon Treaty, article 11, paragraph 5), a new legal regime is called for by the United Nations applicable to outer space. This regime should clarify that civil, criminal, domestic relations, administrative, and environmental laws applicable to individuals who settle in space are also part of the legal mosaic covered in that new regime. Perhaps that call for a new regime should include common law as extended into space to be known as astro law. If so, it is very relevant and material to define astro law as that part of the new regime that exists as a common law, a body of precedent that grows and adjusts in this new venue of space law according to the needs of settlers. The common law is approaching a thousand years of tradition. It was extended from England to America during the 1700s and extended to all extraterritorial courts effective in 1850 A.D. and by convention to outer space in 2000 A.D. Its prognosis as astro law in space is discussed in detail. systems were based be superceded by new ones that are more holistic, more ecumenical, and more widely accepted.”(2)

INTRODUCTION Astro Law Historically Professor George S. Robinson III and Harold M. White, Jr., introduced us to the term “astro law.” This appears frequently in their seminal book, ‘The Envoys of Mankind.’ “The concept of planetary or human citizenship must of necessity be embodied in what some space lawyers are beginning to refer to as astrolaw, the body of law that governs human relations in space, principles of social order flowing from the unique natural requirements of human space existence.” (1) This definition is refined by these authors recognizing the need and likelihood that astro law would take generations of evolution to represent truly space-oriented law. It would begin as some sort of Earth-made rule of law. This character of the genera is described prophetically: “For these reasons, legal systems are subject to the same evolutionary tendencies we have been discussing— resistance to change, long periods of stability, then acceleration, perturbation, and either dissolution or complexification and transformation. Such transformation, however, requires that the very paradigms upon which the previous

The common law is marked from 1066 AD when the Norman Conquest of the British Isle was recognized as completed. It featured not only the King’s Bench in London and lower courts in stately manors around the island, but, also, the tolerance of people’s courts. These mimicked the King’s court in procedures but focused on equitable relief not permitted in the legal system that was headed by the King, (or Queen). Both systems rested on solving “cases in controversy” where one person disagreed with another person over genuine problems. Solutions were recorded and precedent developed. The system evolved into a comprehensive and effective set of rules. Some rules were not at all logical and others did not appear to be fair. However, evaluation of the law of the commoners in England was clearly the result of experience whether or not logical or fair. (3) In space settlements on the Moon, on Mars, and in cycler orbits, more will be involved than the experience of settlers. As reflected below under the title, “Laws that Impact Space,” it is clear that competing nations will maintain a legal hold on space policy and future rules of law. Added to that will be the interests of investors, workers, tourists, and developers. Therefore,

28

the evolution of astro law will be more complex than that encountered 900 years ago in England. Nevertheless, a similar sort of case by case experience will be the bottom of this process. Dr. Philip R. Harris predicts a widespread cooperation, and he sees it as necessary. The common law in outer space will be evolved by many interests: “The high frontier prospects in the twenty first century are only dimly perceived, as humankind struggles like infants to leave our cradle, Earth. For human enterprise in space to succeed and flourish, synergy or cooperation becomes the key ingredient between public and private sectors, between planners and policy makers, between professionals and the technicians, as well as among organizations and nations.” (4)

LAWS THAT IMPACT SPACE LAW

Direct Impact There are five outer space treaties that directly impact space law and policy. These were all sponsored by the United Nations and they obtained the prior approval of the UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, (COPUOS). Of these, the Outer Space Treaty, (OST), of 1967 is respected as our constitution for outer space. On the other hand, the Moon Treaty of 1979 is least respected because only France signed it of all the space-oriented nations. America and Russia and the spacefaring community passed on signing it because

the concept of common heritage of mankind was introduced. As a group, however, these five treaties represent the starting point for space law and policy. (5) The “common heritage of mankind” and the treaty provision of “benefit sharing” represent the most controversial legal issues that haunt space lawyers. The “common heritage” wording reappears in the Law of the Sea Treaty of 1989. It is defined as requiring an actual sharing of proceeds generated by commercial activity at the public property site, all nations to manage the site, all to have access, and for peaceful purposes only. The term has been applied to activities of the Deep Seabed Authority successfully because America manages it. However common heritage principles in outer space development are not acceptable, unless they are modified. (6) The problem of benefit sharing has a similar set of legal problems, all focused on sharing profits with developing nations. The sharing program was adopted unanimously by UN General Assembly resolution in 1966 and was mentioned in the Outer Space Treaty, 1967. In contrast, a more recent UN General Assembly resolution was adopted to recast benefit sharing as just another way to effect international cooperation, the primary directive of that 1967 constitution level treaty. (7) This highlights another and larger consequence of ambiguity in space regulation: “soft law proliferation”: Space lawyers and policy makers have conflicting ambiguities. In this case the burden of benefit sharing was deemed a good idea in 1967 and a bad idea in 1996. In situ benefit sharing may be a good idea in the future, (where nations must appear in space to participate), but there is no legal system in place to ever sort this out. (8) As summarized by a leading space law litigator in 2005: “Both the OST and the Moon Treaty have Proven to be an unworkable foundation for the creation of a usable property rights regime in space given their ambiguity and lack of support…” (9)

Indirect Impact In 2002, Professor Ved Nanda of the University of Denver Law School, Department of

29

International Law, spoke at the National Space Society Convention as an advocate of establishing property rights in space resources. His thesis was that this void could be solved by borrowing policies from other international treaties, organizations, and practices. This same thesis was advocated by space law litigator Rosanna Sattler at the University of Chicago Law School Symposium: Issues in Space Law, 2005. (10) These scholars and others have referred us to the following five kinds of sources for building a legal regime for space, particularly in reference to the creation of property rights for settlers in space and on space resources:

which furnishes the framework for design, development, operation, and utilization of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes. Here the country that owns a portion of ISS retains legal control of it, and of the crew. For example, an invention made in the Japanese quadrant is subject to Japan’s patent law. Because ISS is 100 percent space object, (a manmade structure in space), its rules may not impact the space resources problem, (natural and indigenous resources in space).

1. ITU (International Telecommunications Union). It has the important task of Radio frequencies and orbital positions of satellites. This procedure has international consensus. Some lessons may be learned on how international procedures result in awarding such substantial rights by license. 2. The Antarctic Treaty System consists of four complex agreements commencing in 1959 and ending in 1980. The paradigm is to declare no private property in real estate, but to feature use and research rights to admitted nations. Research must be the principle activity. The system is now managed by 26 “consultative parties” who vote annually and continue to demonstrate their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity. Observer nations are permitted to attend its session but cannot vote. 3. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was created by the UN in 1982 and signed by the USA in 1994, but never ratified by the senate. It is a common heritage of mankind legal structure, but it utilizes a system of licensing rights to mine sectors of the seabed, a public property, (but not a monument). 4. International Space Station (ISS). The ISS is governed by an international treaty signed January 29, 1988, between the United States, Russia, Canada, Japan, and Europe known as the ISS Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA),

NASA Photo Gallery: International Space Station

5. IGA (Intergovernmental Agreement). NASA respects the rights and obligations of all who utilize the ISS by a complex system of agreements and Memorandum of Understanding. Each participating country controls up to 100 percent its own user elements, a.k.a. components. These treaty level subject matters are not treated as treaties and do not have any treaty level enabling act on the subject of space resources or space objects, except Article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty as to space objects only. This model has been cited as having future property rights administered in space vessels and on space resources. (11)

COMMON LAW EXTENDED The “Void” Problem There has been no effort, except one (see below), to create any venue-wide rule of law or

30

space venue governance paradigm for settlers, workers, and developers. Space has been viewed as not a territory and, therefore, not capable of in rem governance. No reason has been sited for this except the admonitions of the Outer Space Treaty: “Article II: Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.” The scope, meaning, and legal enforceability of this has been questioned as not capable of literal construction. For example, if settlers ordain a town council on Mars, there would be no national appropriation of anything and Article II would not be deemed to sabotage the town.

held at the University of Denver Law School and hosted by Professor Ved Nanda of the International Law Center of that school. The organic documents produced at that Convention were published August 4, 2000, their effective date: This was called the Regency of United Societies in Space and its Constitution, all now known as the International Space Development Authority Corporation, (ISDAC). (13)(14) Article III, Section 4, was crafted by the designers over a five-year series of committee meetings and conferences, along with the rest of the documents. It extended the common law from the United States of America into outer space at a cutoff date of August 4, 2000 A.D. Here is that official wording:

“Section 4. RULE OF LAW. The Common Law shall be utilized by the The treaty cannot mean to force a void of all Courts as extended by the Convention to legal structures in space and thereby force outer space. The rule chaos in the premises. of law shall therefore That would cause conflict A space governance structure include treaty and lead to star wars. A that is not a national provisions, space governance law, appropriation, based on a citizen international structure that is not a of the Council national appropriation, movement alone, and structured Statutes of Regents, and the based on a citizen as a trusteeship for the benefit of Common Law to be fit movement alone, and where all of the others all humankind, should be structured as a trusteeship are silent, in conflict, or welcomed by all nations and all for the benefit of all referred to in fact or by humankind, should be competing interests. implication by those welcomed by all nations direct legislative and all competing regimes. The Common Law is defined interests. At common law, the trust estate can as the Corpus Juris Secundum as it be impressed on the king’s title and in astro law, reads on August 4, 2000, having as we will see, it is available to be maintained on developed in England for 1,000 years, space resources. (12) having been extended to America The common law commencing circa 1100 effective [during the 1700s], and having A.D. in England, as then extended to America been extended by Congress to all and each of its states during the 1700s, and as extraterritorial Courts in 1850. [The extended to its extraterritorial courts by Regency and ISDAC] shall be guided Congress in 1850 A.D., represents a cable of exclusively by this Rule of Law as so citizen level justice. The next practical step is to determined and not otherwise. have that system in outer space for individuals “Section 5. SETTLERS RIGHTS. who live and work in outer space. That the Supreme Court of the Regency The Denver Convention shall apply the foregoing standards of law and equity with full balance and legal Commencing in August of 2000 and ending concern for the individual free person as on August 4, 2001, United Societies in Space memorialized in the UNITED NATIONS conducted the internationally noticed Count UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF Down Conference No. 1, also billed as the HUMAN RIGHTS, dated 12/10/1948, “Denver Space Governance Convention.” It was

31

which is incorporated herein as Exhibit B. The first 20 paragraphs are deemed inalienable rights of settlers.” With this basic legal structure asserted by the 50 Regents and hearing no objection from the UN nor any member nation, these are basic building blocks in place. The following legal and equitable tenants are applicable in outer space as a result. (15)

PROPERTY AT COMMON LAW What Estates Don’t Work In outer space it is clear that title by fee simple absolute will not work in space resources. By treaty all such resources offEarth are the common heritage of mankind and treated legally as public property, (but not the same as monuments). The fee simple absolute is excluded from consideration because for 900 plus years it has been defined as: “Fee Simple: (a). Definition. A fee simple estate is one by which a tenant holds lands, tenements, or heriditaments to himself and his heirs, forever. (b) A fee simple estate is the greatest estate a person can possess in landed property: an absolute estate in perpetuity. (16)

estates. During the development of common law from 1100 AD in England and since 1776 in America and since 1850 in America’s extraterritorial courts, these estates were recognized as the law of the land unless modified specifically by Parliament in England or Congress/state legislation in America. Since August 4, 2000, they also extend to outer space governance. (17) These estates are denominated inferior estates at common law because they are temporary, terminable, limited, and equitable only. The underlying legal title, either to the king, another person, or to the UN as beneficiary of public property in space, is not legally diminished by these titles according to 900 years of common law rulings. Notwithstanding their legal sufficiency as inferior, they are in common use worldwide, particularly the lease.

COMMON LAW TORTS What Law Governs The general rule is expressed in Corpus Juris Secundum: 24: “In General: As to transitory torts, the law of the place where the injury is occasioned or inflicted governs in respect of the right of action, and the law of the forum as to matters pertaining to remedies.

An acre on the Moon is public property so it cannot be converted unilaterally to private property and be held as an absolute estate in perpetuity.

LAND FOR SALE

25: “Existence and Extent of Liability: The law of the place where the act or omission, claimed as the basis of tort, occurs determines the existence of a tort; and generally the locus delecti is the place where the last event necessary to make the actor liable occurs.” (18)

Common Law Estates Do Work

Because of this 900-year-old rule of law regarding torts, outer space venue torts need to be litigated in space and near the venue of occurrence. However, without any law of torts existent in space venues outside of a nations space vessel, and without a local court system in and for space, redress of wrongs is practically impossible.

The history of the common law reveal that at least four common law estates rest on top of superior titles of the king without derogating from those legal estates. These four are the lease, the easement, the mortgage, and the trust

Tort law covers a very wide range of conduct. It may be called assault, battery, trespass, interference with contract, libel, slander, slander and/or derogation of title, negligence, malpractice, false ‘imprisonment,

32

wrongful death, money had and received, theft, and more. As new cases and new circumstances come forward in space settlements, this category of common law will adjust to astro law most readily.

Torts Defined The textbook definitions of tort law are broad enough to encompass these new circumstances: The elemental definitions of TORT are set forth in Corpus Juris Secundum as follows: 6. “Necessity for Existence. An essential element of tort liability is the existence of a duty imposed in favor of the person injured and against the person whose conduct produces the injury.” (19)

performed, unless the contract changes this plus the international rules of comity. (21) As development of outer space progresses over a thousand year estimated time to completion, millions of contracts will be made here on Earth and at various venues in outer space. If on Earth, then the usual rules will apply and dictate which state or federal court has venue and what laws will apply. If made on the Moon, then venue is on the Moon and outer space law applies because the common law of contract was extended to outer space. This occurred at the cutoff date of August 4, 2000 A.D. (22) The formal requirements of a contract on the Moon are now the same as in America on that cutoff date. Here they are:

“(a) Contract. A contract is an agreeThe novel types of new duties and the wide ment which creates an obligation. Its range of ways to breach essentials are comthose new duties in outer As development of outer space petent parties, subject space settlements must matter, legal considerprogresses over a thousand year be sorted out, case by ations, mutuality of case. The ISDAC court is estimated time to completion, agreement, and mutuexpected to deal with such ality of obligation…. millions of contracts will be made lawsuits among settlers. It here on Earth and at various “(c) Agreement. In will also handle tort suits the contract sense, against governments, venues in outer space. “Agreement” is the corporations, and the expression of the Parties of a common individuals. In these cases the defense of intention to affect their legal relations. It governmental immunity will become at issue is synonymous with “compact” and because all corporations and individuals “understanding” and distinguishable from currently in space are agents of a government. “arrangement.” (23) Effective after the cutoff date, entire common The whole world knows and understands law was extended from America to space. The this. Common law contracts are used regularly cutoff date was August 4, 2000 A.D., per the in America and England and its colonies, Denver Convention on Space Governance. This including India and Australia. Countries who do document is reported in the ISDAC official business there or with citizens of those countries record: Space Governance Journal. (20) have a degree of familiarity with this law of Torts are now cognizable in outer space on a contract. It is not unlikely that this paradigm venue-wide basis. The law of contracts grew would end up as the law of the land on the Moon out of tort law as a trespass on the case. regardless of the efforts of USIS. Contract law then grew much more quickly and it Criminal Procedures and Crimes is said to have eaten its mother, trespass on the case, which went extinct. The common law has grafted many rules onto the substance of crimes. It has evolved CONTRACTS into a respected body of criminal procedures. What Law Governs These are far beyond the scope of this paper except to identify that astro law now has a The general rule is that a contract is definable set of crimes and procedures enforceable where it is made or intended to be applicable thereto.

33

distribution of all revenues back to all nations. A reference to “equitable sharing is provided but is not defined. See, O’Donnell, Declan J. and Harris, Philip R.: “Is it Time to Replace the Moon Agreement,” American Bar Association Air & Space Lawyer, 1994, p. 3.

CONCLUSION Astrolaw as common law extended into outer space allows for a continued cable of citizenlevel laws, remedies, and punishments. A judicial tradition is enabled with precedent, commentary, and experience. Evolution is anticipated. The other legal documents that affect space law directly or indirectly are therefore segregated into their own special circumstance. These may or may not be drawn upon as persuasive precedents during that evolution of citizen law in outer space, common law, now known as astro law.

ENDNOTES 1.

Robinson, George S., and White Jr., H.M., Envoys of Mankind: A Declaration of First Principles for the Governance of Space Societies, prologue by Gene Roddenbury at p. xx, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986.

7. UN General Assembly resolution 51/122: Declaration on International Co-operation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interests of All States, Taking Into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries, par. 3, 1996. 8. O’Donnell, Declan J.,: “Benefit Sharing: The Municipal Model,” Proceedings of the 47th IAF Congress, (IISL), Beijing, China, 1996. 9. Sattler, Rosanna, “Transporting a Legal System for Property Rights: From the Earth to the Stars,” Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2005, p. 30. 10. Ibid, pp. 31-43.

2. Ibid, p. 30.

11. Ibid, p. 39

3. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, The Common Law, 1881.

12. O’Donnell, Declan J., “Astrolaw: The First Thousand Years, circa 1100 A.D. to 2100 A.D., Space Governance Journal, 2003, Vol. 9, p. 11.

4. Harris, Dr. Philip R., Living and Working in Space: Human Behavior, Culture, and Organization, Ellis Horwood, Ltd., England, 1991, p. 282.

13. Space Governance Journal, Vol. 6, pp. 11-31, 1999-2000, re the Regency.

5. The five space treaties are: (1) The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, January 27, 1967, by the United Nations, a.k.a. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967; (2) The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, April 22, 1968, by the United Nations, a.k.a. The Rescue and Return Treaty; (3) The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, March 29, 1972, by the United Nations, a.k.a. The Liability Treaty; (4) The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, January 14, 1975, by the United Nations, a.k.a. The Registration Treaty; (5) The Treaty Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1979, by the United Nations, a.k.a., The Moon Treaty of 1979. 6. Benefit sharing as a treaty burden appears to be restated as the common heritage of mankind in the UN Treaty on the Law of the Sea, signed by U.S. President Clinton in 1994. This is a technical term that requires all nations to actively participate in asset management and pro rata

14. The Regency was voted upon as also known as the “International Space Development Authority Corporation”: see, Space Governance Journal, 2003, Vol. 9, p. 4, regarding its meeting in Chicago, Illinois, during the International Mars Society Convention. A trade name affidavit was so authorized. 15. The 50 Regents are private citizens and none are employed by any nation. 16. Corpus Juris Secundum 88 (a) and (b), regarding estates in real property. 17. Space Governance Journal, Vol. 9, p. 11 et seq. 18. 86 C.J.S. Section 24 and 25. 19. 86 C.J.S. Section 6, Torts Defined. 20. Space Governance Journal, Vol. 6, p. 11, is deemed the official reporter for the Regency of USIS [and ISDAC]. 21. 17 C.J.S. Section 1, Contracts. 22. Space Governance Journal, Vol. 9, p. 11 et seq. 23. 17 C.J.S. Section 1, Contracts Defined. *

34

Mr. O’Donnell delivered this paper to the IISL meeting in Japan in 2005. It was selected for U.N. Publication.

First Wonder of the Off-World: Follow on Design Contests… 1. DEADLINE DECEMBER 31, 2007: Cargo transports, tourists tenders, and “space yachts.” 2. DEADLINE DECEMBER 31, 2008: Interior living, working, and farming areas for the Mars cycler orbiter. 3. DEADLINE DECEMBER 31, 2009: Space Bank, and Space Money designs. 4. DEADLINE DECEMBER 31, 2010: Final design/architecture for the space governance authorities to execute all of the above. Our cover for volume 12 features the artist’s image of the very large Mars cycler orbiter. This design won our yearend 2005 design project for the First Wonder of the Off-World. The winning team consisted of Asia Wakabayashi, age 16; Dayton O’Donnell, age 13; John Hovde, age 14; and Brooks Jenkins, age 14. The given premise was to design a large space ship to cycle from Earth orbit to a larger Moon orbit and, then, regularly scheduled trips to Mars orbit and return, never to land here or there. The ship is to be headquarters for all participating nations and space development companies, as well as for our space governance authorities.

Mars Cycler Orbiter Access Portals (Image by David Robinson)

A circular center from top to bottom consists of cargo storage for delivery to Moon, Mars, and Earth projects. Water storage is placed along the circumference where it will consist of ice at the outer edges and a river on the inner sides. As the vessel engages in long term travel it is made to rotate, thus creating a gravity effect. The outer most interior is similar to Earth gravity (1-G), the next level inward is comparable to Mars, and the inner most is analogous to the Moon. The cylindrical storage area at the center is low to zero gravity, making it convenient for moving cargo.

The approximate plan for economical construction and management is built on the home owners association model for condominium apartments. Each cubic meter is priced Preliminary planning “ …headquarters for all for condo marketing to features include vessel nations, developers, and participating nations and captain’s quarters, cominvestors. Management is plete with staff, conducted by the space space development companies, communications, and authority that built the technical advisors on level as well as for our space vessel and governs it. one: staff living quarters The periodic fees paid by governance authorities.” and space governance participants (like offices on the second homeowner association level; farming, ranching, fees) pay for running the and hydroponics on the middle or third level; ship, maintaining common areas, and providing guest quarters, space development crews, essential services. The purpose of this grand explorers quarters, and commercial areas on vessel, one mile in diameter and 3.14 miles in level four; and transportation portals, light vessel circumference, is to assist humankind in parking, heavy manufacturing on the bottom or exploration, research, development and fifth level, along with ingress and egress bays for settlement of the solar system. cargo transports, tourist tenders, and space yachts. A smooth and circular deck with magnetically controlled docking grids line the bays. 35

By converting all competing national currencies into space money, (or you assert the better technique), we may eliminate or cushion outside economic influences from or to nations and provide a stable and fluid and level playing field for the space development phase.

How These Contests Work

Landing Bay Designs (Images by David Robinson)

The Space Bank Contest is our way of finalizing our 10-year debate on how to create a relevant economic, financial, fiscal, second monetary system for the space development phase, the next 100 years in space. The continued competitive use of yen, rubles, francs, pounds, and dollars in situ is not tolerable. Dynamically fluid exchange rates of the currencies lend instability to business arrangements in space. Furthermore, a single venue governance is recommended so all participants in space development play on a level field. On the reverse side of this on Earth, a catastrophe in space at a USA facility may adversely affect the value of the dollar on Earth, rather unnecessarily if dollars are perceived as lost in that space development catastrophe.

The Orbiter Contest was won on March 31, 2006, because we granted an extension for the Lockheed Martin team, (from the December 31, 2005, deadline). Only one other acceptable entry was timely received before the yearend deadline. This kind of extension is clearly extraordinary. The timely team won and that is described above and pictured on our cover. The prize of $2,000, ($500 each for the four member team), is supplemented by $100,000 each in Space Bank Money of ISDAC, for an additional $400,000 award to the team. Each year the prize per team member (up to five) is increased so, pretty soon, we’ll be talking about real money here. Space Governance Journal then supplements all of that with international promotion and publicity for each team, (or individual), and the project. Obviously we will not release the space money component until that 2009 contest is won and done. However, a plaque and bank certificate and an interest bearing note issue immediately. CALL US TO ENTER!

International Lunar Observatory

SGJ Staff Report

Thanks to Steve Durst and his Space Age Publishing Company affiliates, the world may soon have a powerful telescope permanently located on the Moon. Jim Benson of Benson Space Company, (formerly active in SpaceDev, Inc.), supports this project with technical assistance: the project is feasible as structured. Space Governance Journal is proud to support the effort and has nominated United Societies in Space vice president Brad Blair to its steering committee. The International Lunar Observatory is managed from stations on Earth and at international sites, probably at relevant universities. Funding is about to commence. Contact Mr. Durst at 808-885-3473 in Hawaii or by e-mail to his California offices at [email protected]. The project is detailed on the company Website at www.spaceagepub.com. These three space advocacy leaders will deliver if funding is committed at modest levels. ISDAC, has amended its Lunar Economic Development Authority directive to include an International Lunar Observatory in its Moon development plan. 36

2005 ANNUAL REPORT OF UNITED SOCIETIES IN SPACE, INC, a Colorado Non-Profit Corporation By: Declan J. O'Donnell, President This will report on club activities for 2005 and follow-up on several unfinished matters at year-end 2004. United Societies in Space is financially and spiritually alive and well, but it is less visible and more serene than previously. Our readers have all deferred to their day jobs and family requirements, as it should be, but the wind shall break the reed. Every volunteer organization must endure these kinds of hiatus from time-to-time. Here are the important highlights: 1. ISDAC: Our Board of Directors voted unanimously in 2004 in Chicago to formalize the Regency into a committee of USIS and permit USIS and its affiliates to do business as ISDAC, i.e., "THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY CORPORATION." The purpose is to provide a corporate sponsor to the otherwise non-corporate association. Not only did that provide a degree of insulation from debt and possible liabilities, it also made it more conveniently identifiable as an advisory group for USIS. Since no commerce has been prosecuted to date, there is no debt and no known liabilities. USIS filed its ISDAC papers in 2006, with the Secretary of State of Colorado. This allows USIS and its affiliates to be the International Space Development Authority Corporation. During 2005 and 2006 the authority model has been published domestically and internationally. Since no business has been accomplished, those papers were considered proposals. The proposal has never been criticized and many have praised its theoretic value. For example, we have a waiting list of purchasers for our bonds when they are available after October 6, 2006. 2. Rashmi Mayur, deceased. The 50 Ph.D. level regents are all in place with no resignations and only one death: Rashmi Mayur of India. He has been replaced by Deepak Kapadia, also of Mumbai, India. Rashmi suffered a stroke at the UN Summit on World Environmental Status in 2004 in Africa. He entered rehabilitation in New York while staying with his sister in New Jersey. He died unexpectedly in 2005 amidst an otherwise progressive recovery. We honor Rashmi Mayur for his devotion and energy for outer space development as part of the human agenda, as well as for his respect for International Law and Policy. Rashmi nominated Declan for the Indira Gandhi Award of India for International Law, which he received in October 1998 in Mumbai, India. Space Governance Journal was the reason for this award because it called for a level playing field of one law in and for all space venues. India as a newer space participant was fearful of discrimination in that endeavor. 3. The Boulder Meeting, 2005: During the Mars Society Meeting in Boulder, Colorado, USIS conducted its annual meeting. Among the several topics covered the following are noteworthy: A. Space Governance Journal would continue with a double tenth year anniversary issue. This is available for $20 as Volumes 9 & 10 combined. To order, please call 800-632-2828. B. USIS resolved to assist other organizations by offering affiliation agreements and relevant services. The first of these was made with the National Space Society (NSS), which features USIS as one of its chapters. We hope to bridge into formal recognition as a chapter of the Mars Society also. C. Mike Duke was nominated and approved as the 2003 winner of our SPACE HUMANITARIAN AWARD. That appears in Vol. 9 of SGJ. D. David Livingston was nominated and approved as the 2004 winner of the 2004 SPACE HUMANITARIAN AWARD. That appears in Vol. 10 of SGJ. E. Additional applications and interlocking director agreements were resolved for affiliates as follows: i) Lunar Economic Development Authority Inc., a Colorado non-profit corporation, a.k.a. LEDA..

37

ii) iii) iv) v)

SPACE Orbital Development Authority (SODA), a Colorado non-profit corporation. World Space Bar Association, Inc., (WSBA), a Colorado non-profit corporation. The Committee on the Buzz Aldrin Space Library. Space Governance Journal.

4. Committee Meetings at Headquarters have produced the following: A. Webmaster Richard Westfall has marked a trail for us to recover our original website name: USIS.org. This has been referred to Corporate Counsel, Mr. Andrew Quiat. B. The Buzz Aldrin Space Library Collection has been disassociated from Douglas County Public Library. It is now a USIS project with public endorsement by NSS. C. Brad Blair has passed on his CEO position with LEDA over to Dr. Bill Good. (See below for LEDA agenda.) D. Recommendation that ISDAC as a Regency Authority merge into USIS or incorporate itself as an affiliate. The idea is to achieve IRS 501(c)(3) status, retain corporate status, issue bonds, and offer 100% tax deductible gift status to bond holders, (because repayment in 30 years of $100,000 per each $5,000 invested is so speculative). This is on the agenda for our annual meeting at UCLA on August 12, 2007. E. Meetings in Las Vegas, Nevada and elsewhere with IRS Counsel leads us to believe that bond revenues may be unrecognized income to USIS and deductible to the donor. Reliance is made on Zaninovich vs. Commissioner, US Tax Court, 1978, and other cases. F. The ISDAC structure for Space architecture should be an USIS proposal. Declan to co-author with Dr. Buzz Aldrin and Dr. Thomas Matula on this subject at NSS-ISDC and is in SGJ and at IAF in Van Coover, Canada and in Fukuoka, Japan, (which was done). G. The Mexican Space Agency project was discussed as feasible at this time. Ms. Calzada from Mexico City reports that the President of Mexico has declined to accept the proposal but did establish a Space Agency with no appropriations. Mr. Pablo DeLeon will remain our monitor at the Mexican Congress in Mexico City, thanks to our VP Jesus Raygoza B., has begun hearings on this timely and critically important subject. A budget with realistic projects will be considered. H. Ms. Ann Deering has died and left her copyright property in her articles to USIS: Thank you. I. The Aerospace Xchange Magazine proposal was dropped by USIS because the Committee elected to promote it as a stand alone "For Profit Corporation." Mr. Gary Rodriquez will report on its progress in 2006. J. In 2002 the Space Bank was put on deferral by the Board of Directors, but not by LEDA, SGJ, or the Regency. This status must be reviewed this year. K. USIS member Nicole McGee has coordinated with USIS to design and launch the newly incorporated "Aerospace Exchange" enterprise in Colorado. 5. The 2006 Annual Meeting will be in Valencia, Spain on October 6, 2006, during the IAF convention: it will cover: A. Acceptance of new Board of Directors member Deepak Kapadia and David Livingston. B. Cycler Orbiter spaceship award winners' presentation: Asia Wakabayashi, age 16; Dayton O'Donnell, age 13; John Hovde, age 14; and Brooks Jenkins, age 14. C. Approval of several Space Development Corporation Treaty agreements with LEDA, SODA, WB Bar Association, and Space Governance Journal. D. Chapter Status with the Mars Society, Inc. E. Bond issuance procedures and uses of proceeds for ISDAC. F. Acceptance of Nomination of Jefferey Liss, Esq. as the 2007, SPACE HUMANITARIAN AWARD WINNER. G. Workshop on LEDA Presentation at the UN-IAC in October 2006, at Valencia, Spain, and Bond Distribution Proposal. H. SJG Vol. II distribution at Valencia, Spain.

38

Index by Author for Volumes 1-13 A Abend, C. Joshua Innovation, Space & Opportunity: An Inseparable Triad, July 1997 p.106 Alifanov, Oleg M. Space is the Future of Mankind, Dec. 1995 p.26 USIS Russia Progress Report, July 1997 p.154 Arsenault, Cynda Collins What Way Forward?, Secure World Foundation, Vol. 12 B Barrett, Elizabeth Ann Manhart Space Nursing, July 1998 P. 126 Becker, Sarah Bode Insights From the Space Innovation Workshop, Jan. 1998 p.28 NEWS Focus: Solar Power from Luna & Space, June 1994 p.32 Benaroya, Haym Economically Viable Lunar Development, July 1998 p.158 Benson, Jim Near Earth Asteroid Prospector, Jan. 1998 p.86 Bernard, Michael M. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, July 1997 p.156 Blair, Brad Economic Development of Lunar Mineral Resources, The, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.89 ISDAC: Financing Capacity for In-Space Projects, Vo. 9/10, 2003-2004 Bode, Sarah See Becker, Sarah Bode Brachet, Gerard, UNCOPOUS Chairperson The United Nations Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPOUS), Vol. 12 C Corbett, Katie Space Nursing Society, July 1996 p.22 Criswell, David C. Rationale and Plans for a Lunar Solar Power System, Jan. 1997 p.35 D Davidson, Dennis M. Astronomical Art and the Internet: A New Paradigm for Creativity, Dec. 1995 p.49 Davidson, John Reconstitution: A Space Governance Philosophy, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.19 Deering, Ann Space Insurance: Don’t Leave Earth Without It! Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 de Leon, Pablo South American Copmpetitor in the Ansari X Prize, A, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Dodds, Ned

Position on SettlingEarth’s Solar System, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Dore, Roland Living and Working in Space -A Foreword, July 1996 p.20 Doyle, Stephen E. Military Assistance Program, Vol. 6 1999 p.4 Durst, Steve For Sale Live From the Moon,” Jan. 1997 p.42 Dyson, Marianne The International Space Station (with pictures courtesy of NASA), two part article in Vol’s 11 & 12 E Egan, Matthew A Space Policy Proposal Regulating Martian Water Resources, Vol. 12 F Finney, Ben Tsiolkovsky’s Vision for Humanity’s Future in Space, Jan. 1998 p.44 Foulkes, Roland A. Why Space? An Anthropologist’s Response, Dec. 1994 p.22 Freeman, Marsha Herman Oberth: The Father of Spaceflight, Jan. 1998 p.48 It is Time for Krafft Ehricke’s Moon! Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Krafft Ehricke’s Extraterrestrial Imperative, Dec. 1995 p.16 G Glaser, Peter Solar Energy—The Global Energy Source Need for a Global Space Based Power Transmission (WPT) Consortium, Dec. 1994 p.32 Goldman, Nathan C. Lawyer’s Perspective on the USIS Strategies for Metanation and LEDA, July 1996 p.16 Metanation, Metaworld, Jan. 1998 p.5 Policy Considerations for the Utilization of Space Resources, July 1997 p.112 H Harris, Philip R. Case for Practical Visionaries, The, Dec. 1994 p. 14 Challenges in the Space Environment: Personnel Deployment Systems: Part 1, Jan. 1998 p.58 Challenges in the Space Environment: Personnel Deployment Systems: Part 2, July 1998 p.146 Conference Proceedings: First Space Interdependence Day a Success, Dec. 1994 p. 6

39

Facilitating a New Space Market Through a Lunar Economic Development Authority, July 1997 p.l22 How Space Helps the Earth to Be Sustainable, Jan. 1998 p.6 Legal Space Frontier Challenges, Jan. 1997 p.48 Macrothinking in Global Space Planning: Minicases of ESA, USIS, & FMF, Dec. 1995 p.36 NEWS Focus: Solar Power from Luna & Space, June 1994 p.32 Renewing the Aerospace Industry Through Lunar Development, Jan. 1997 p.33 Space Book Reviews, July 1997 p.172, July. 1998 p.196 Space Law: Book Review, July 1996 p. 31 Strategies for Lunar Development and Port Authority, June 1995 p. 6 Why USIS Seeks NGO Status at the United Nations, July 1997 p.97 Harrison, Albert A. Humanizing Outer Space: Some Suggestions for Metanation, Dec. 1994 p.11 Selling Visionary Ideas to Realistic People, Dec. 1995 p.16 Harvey, Brian New Russian Space Program, July 1996 p. 10 Space Book Review, Jan. 1997 p.88 Space Societies in Britain and Ireland, July 1998 p.184 Hingerty, Arthur M Exploration Advocacy and the Concepts of Human Freedom and Destiny, July 1998 P.132 Howerton, B. Alexander Space Enterprise: Children’s Space, July 1997 p.170 Space Enterprise: Space Stock Surfers Blasting Off, Jan. 1998 p.112 Space Enterprise: The Slow Steady Rise of Commercial Space, June 1995 p.38 Space Enterprise: Three Enemies of Space Development, Dec. 1995 p.49 Hoyt, Diana The NASA budget Dilemma, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.29 Hubbard, Barbara Marx The Committee for a Positive Future, Vol. 12 Huntress, Wesley Testimony of Dr. Huntreess at Senate Committee Hearings Oct. 2003, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Hurtak, J.J. A Space Policy Proposal Regulating Martian Water Resources, Vol. 12 J Johnson, Anis Civil Engineer in Lunar Industrialization, The, Jan. 1997 p.26 Johnson, Stewart W. Civil Engineer in Lunar Industrialization, The,

Jan. 1997 p.26 Koelle, H. H. Steps Toward a Lunar Settlement, Jan. 1997 p.20 Survey - Objectives of a Lunar Base: Reevaluation 1997, July 1997 p.142 K Kong, Deyong Chinese Perspective on Space Development, A, June 1995 p.18 Kozlowski, Olivier Space Law Exchange, Jan. 1998 p.104 Krichevsky, Sergey Cosmonautics and Civilian Society, Jan. 1998 p.34 L Lightman, Alex Star Scores: Comparing the US vs. UN Cases for Space Authority, July 1998 p.166 Getting NASA out of the Business of Space Business, Dec. 1994 p.19 To Mars and Back Safely, Jan. 1997 p.54 Natural Law and a Declaration of Humankind Interdependence - Part 1, June 1995 p.14 Natural Law and a Declaration of Humankind Interdependence - Part 2, Dec. 1995 p.32 Working Definition of Space law” and “Astrolaw,” July 1997 p.169 Livingston, David M. A Code of Ethics for Off-Earth Commerce and Space Development, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Lyne, Jack Fly Me to the Moon and Much, Much Farther, Vol. 11 M Maniatis, Dimitri McGill Univ’s Institute of Air & Space Law Recently Honored by ICAO, Jan. 1998 p.87 Matte, Nicolas Mateesco W-SBAAwards the First “George S. Robinson Ill Astrolaw Award”: Acceptance Address, Jan. 1998 p.10 Mayur, Rashmi Space is the Place for Synergy, Dec. 1995 p.24 The Space Preservation Treaty: How to Transform the War Industry into a Space Industry, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.61 Mercer-Fike, Jeri USIS Director met with Leaders of ISU in Strasbourg, France, Jan. 1998 p.94 Montaner, Marta Gaggero 1996 Space Essay Contest Winner: Establishment of an International Space Organization, Jan. 1997 p.78 O O’Donnell, Declan J.

40

Astro Law as Common Law Extended into the Outer Space Territory, Vol. 11 Astro Law: The First Thousand Years, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 A Ten Year Plan, Vol. 6, 1999 p.2 Benefit Sharing: The Municipal Model, Jan. 1998 p.66 Buzz Aldrin Space Collection for Public Libraries, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.100 Commercialization by Evolution in the Jurisdiction of Outer Space, July 1997 p.144 Facilitating a New Space Market Through a Lunar Economic Development Authority, July 1997 p.122 Fifth Force Editorial, June 1995 p.4 Fifth Force Editorial: A Mir Gift to the World, July 1998 P.120 Heinlein Model for Lunar Habitats, Modified and Updated, Vol. 13 International Diplomacy and Outer Space Policy, July. 1998 p.136 International Space Development Authority Corporation: Financing Capacity for In-Space Projects, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 International Space Development Authority Corporation: Why, What, How, When, Where, and How Much, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Just Do It, an editorial, Vol. 12 Life Support Systems in the Mars Cycler Orbiter, Vol. 13 “Mars Bucks” are Legal, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.52 Meaning of Space Interdependence Day, The, Dec. 1994 p.4 Metaspace: A Design for Governance in Outer Space, June 1994 p.8 Out of the Box Ideas for NASA, July 1997 p.143 Private Property in Space Resources, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.71 Property Law in Outer Space, July 1996 p.14 Property Law in Outer Space [Revised], Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.37 Property Rights and Space Resources Development, Vol. 6, 1999 p.22 Reconstitution: A Space Governance Philosophy, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.19 Renewing the Aerospace Industry Through Lunar Development, Jan. 1997 p.33 Space Barter Bank – Groundbreaking Developmenets, Vol. 13 Space Governance, (w/Constitution for the Regency of USIS), Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.76 Strategies for Lunar Development and Port Authority, June 1995 p.6 Survey of the Top Ten Space Policy Problems at 1995, Dec. 1995 p.40 Terrorism in Space, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Two-Page Book Review: Origins of Int’l Space Law and the IISL of the IAF By Stephen Doyle,

Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Two-Page Book Review: Tomorrow’s Standing Today: How Equitable Jurisdiction Clause of Article III, Section 2 Confers Standing Upon Future Generations By John Davidson, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 1995 USIS Conference Report, Dec. 1995 p.5 1996 USIS Space Conference Proceedings, The, Jan. 1997 p.6 O’Donnell II, D.J. Terrorism in Space, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 P Peterson, M.N.A. Rationale and Plans for a Lunar Solar Power System, Jan. 1997 p.35 Pieson, Dmitry International Branch Report: USIS-Russia, Jan. 1998 p.32 Plush, Linda Space Nursing Society, July 1996 p.22 Q Quiat, Andrew L Financing Infrastructure for Space Stations and Related Business Developments, July 1998 p.176 R Raygoza B., Jesus International Branch Report: USIS-Mexico, Jan. 1998 p.31 Space Continuing Public Education, Jan. 1998 p.80 Mexico Needs a Space Agency, Vol. 9/10, 20032004 Mex-LunarHab: A Hispanic-Mexican Habitat for Settlement on the Moon, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.94 Robinson, George S. Drafting Competition for the Metanation Constitution, July 1996 p.18 Robinson, IV, George S. Do the Space Treaties need a Lawsuit?, July 1997 p.116 Rosenberg, Sanders D. Lunar Resource Utilization & The Lunar Economic Development Authority, Jan. 1998 p.12 Mars 1996 Russian Launch Fails, July 1997 p.150 Return to the Moon Conferences Report, Jan. 1997 p.30 Gary “Rod” Rodriguez USIS Receives “Hands-On” Experience Through the Space Orbital Development Authority, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.57 Rosin, Carol Military Assistance Program, 6, 1999 p.4 The Space Preservation Treaty: How to Transform the War Industry into a Space Industry, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.61

41

S Savage, Marshall T. Colonizing the Galaxy: Mars Prospectus, Jan. 1997 p.82 Millennial Project Strategy, The, June 1995 p.26 Schmitt, Harrison Case for Establishing a Human Presence on the Moon and Mars, July 1997 p.118 Schrunk, David G. Concept for a Permanent Lunar Utilities System, Jan. 1998 p.74 Lawmaking Standards for Space Governance, Jan. 1997 p.44 Malapert Mountain Revisited, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.16 Physical transportation on the Moon: The Lunar Railroad, July 1998 p.162 Sharpe, Burt L. Malapert Mountain Revisited, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.16 Shneour, Elie A. Out of Our Backyard? Jan. 1998 p.40 Siegfried, William H. Return to the Moon: A Commercial Program to Benefit Earth, July 1997 p.132 Simon, Michael C. International Space Enterprise Now, June 1994 p.28 Sloan, James H. How Will Humanity Create a Spacefaring Civilization?, June 1995 p.21 Smith, Donald O. Plans and Strategies for a California Spaceport Authority, July 1996 p.24 Smith, Milton L. Compliance with International Space Law of the LEDA Proposal, Jan. 1997 p.16 Reflections on the Outer Space Treaty, Dec. 1994 p.17 Space Governance Journal Staff Greater Debater, The, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.51 How Has Space Governance Journal Outlived so Many Publications on the Subject of Space, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Military Assistance Program, Vol. 6, 1999 p.4 Peter Diamandis X Prize Founder, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Stuster, Jack W. Bold Endeavors: Lessons From Polar & Space Exploration, Jan. 1998 p.22 U USIS Documents The Constitution of the Regency of United Societies in Space, Vol. 6, 1999 p.11 V von Puttkamer, Jesco 1992 Winning Essay: Space Humanization: Always a Mission to Planet Earth, June 1994

p.18 W Wasser, Alan Law That Could Make Privately Funded Space Settlement Profitable, Jan. 1998 p.55 Webber, Derek Privatizing Challenges of Station Mir, July 1997 p.151 Why Develop Space Resources, Jan. 1997 p.14 Webre, Alfred The Space Preservation Treaty: How to Transform the War Industry into a Space Industry, Vol. 7/8, 2000-2002 p.61 Westfall, Richard ISDAC: Financing Capacity for In-Space Projects, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004 Space Colonization & Commercialization – An Alternative to the Moon and Mars, Vol. 13 Historic Assessment of Water on Mars, Vol. 13 Wyckoff, Robert A. Plans and Strategies for a California Spaceport Authority, July 1996 p.24 Z Zubrin, Robert Significance of the Martian Frontier, Jan. 1997 p.60 Testimony of Dr. Zubrin at Senate Committee Hearings Oct. 2003, Vol. 9/10, 2003-2004

Introducing Richard Westfall, Galactic Mining Industries, Inc., our Webmaster and Assistant Editor

42