Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 1 Abbreviations and Definitions
Section 1 - Common abbreviations used in the JM Central Question Bank ... ............................. . ............ 1-1 Section 2 - ICAO Definitions. .. .... ............................................... ... ......... ..... ........... 1-6
CHAPTER 2 The History of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944 Background ... ... ................. ................. ..... .................... ... ............ ..... .................... ............................ 2-1 Introduction ..................................... ..... ............................. .. ......................... ...................... .. ............... ....... 2-1 Safety .. ..................... .......... .. ....... ........................ .... .. ............ ... ...... .... .......... ...... ............. 2-1 International Law. . ...... ........ ........................... ......... .............................................. 2-1 Scheduled and Non Scheduled Air Services.. ...... .............. .......... ...... ...................... ..................... 2-2 1919 Aeronautical Commission of the Paris Peace Conference .......... ........ ... ... ........ ................................. 2-2 Convention of the Unification of Certain Rules to International Carriage by Ai r (Warsaw 1929) ................... 2-2 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (the Chicago Convention ) ... .. .... ....................................... 2-3 Part I - Air Navigation ............ ... ... .................... ............ ................. .................. ........................................... 2-4 .. .... .. ........... ......... 2-8 Part II - The International Civil Aviation Organisation.. ...... ..... ................ ....... .................... . ... ...... 2-8 The Organisation .............................. ........ ........................ .. ........ . Th e Assembly .... ...................... .................... .. ........................ .............. ........... .. ............................ 2-9 ............................ 2-9 Annexes to the Convention ....... ............................. .. .. ................. .... ......... ... .. ........ Other International Agreements made at Chicago ............................ ..... ............................................. 2-11 The International Air Transport Ag reement and the International Ai r Services Transit Agreement... .......... 2- 11 Supplementary Freedoms ..... ........... ....... ..... ......................... ... .......... .............. ........ 2-11 The Convention of Tokyo 1963 ................. ............ ............................. .................................. . ...... ...... 2-12 ....... ..................... .. ............................. ...... ................. ....... ........ 2-13 The Hague Convention of 1970 Th e Montreal Convention of 1971 ..... ... .. ..... ..... . ...... ....... .. .............. .. ............. ... ... 2-13 Addendum to Chapter 2.. ............ ....... .............. .... ... ............ .. .. .. ........ .. . ... .............. ............. ....... 2-14 Chapter IX - The Council ..... .......... ......... ........... ...... .... ... .................. ..... .... .. .................... .......... .......... 2-17 ............ ..... 2-19 Chapter X - The Air Navigation Commi ssion... .. ... ... .... ................ ... ... ........ .. ...................
CHAPTER 3 Other International and European Organisations
The International Air Transport Association (lATA) ...... .... ... ..... ................... " ....... .. . ............ ...... 3-1 The Convention of Rome 1933/1952 ................ .............. ............ , .. ........................ ... .. ........ .. .. ................. 3-1 Commercial Practices and Associated Ru les (Leasing) .................. , .............. ....... .. .................... , ..... 3-1 Leasing of Aeroplanes between JM Operators ......................... ...... ... .. .. ........ .......................................... 3-2 Leasing of Aeroplanes Between a JM Operator and Any Bod y Other Than a JM Operator ..................... 3-2 Leasing of Aeroplanes at Short Notice .. ............. .............. , .................... ..,3-3 European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) .... ...... .... , ".............. .. ............................. ..................... .. .... 3-3 .................................. ... ...................... .. .............. .... 3-3 ECAC Objectives ............... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ............................. .. . ...................... .. .. .............. .. 3-3 Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).. JM Organisation. , ........ ".... .... ........ ... ............ ........ .. .3-3 Functions of JAA.. .. ..... , .. ....................... ................... .. .. .................... . .......... 3-4 Organisation and Procedures .. , ................ .......... ......... .. ......................................... ............ .......... 3-4 JANFM Harmonisation . .. ..................... .. ............................... ................ , ............. .. ...... 3-5 Eurocontrol .......... ,"""" .... ,""""""""""" ,.. " ....... " .. ,""""""""""""" ,... ,"""",.,"""""'" ,3-5
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Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 4 Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes) Introduction ... ... ................. .................................................................. 4-1 JAR-FCL.. .............................................................. ................ 4-1 Licensing Requirements and Regulations ................. ... .... _ ____________ ...... __ .. _. .. ________ ........... _......... _______ 4-2 __ 4-3 Specific Requirements for Licence Issue PPL(A) ___________ .......................... ___________ ATPL(A) Experience. ............... ___ ._._______________ __________________________ ........ _______________ 4-5 CPL(A) Experience. ._.......... _ ..... __ .________________________________________ .. ______ ... _. ___________________ 4-5 Instructor Ratings .............................. _. _.. ___ ........... ___ .__ _______________ __________________ _________ 4-6 _____________________________________________ .. __ . ___ . ___ . __ .. ______________ .......... _____ ___________ 4-6 Examiners (Aeroplane) ____________________________ _____ ._._... ____________________ 4-7 Class and Type Ratings .... ______ ._. _._________ Instrument Rating (IR(A)) .. _______________________________ ______________________________ . ______________________ .______ ____ 4-8 Recent Experience.. ......... _____ .______ .____________________________________ _____ . _... __ .... ___________________ _____ 4-9 Curtailment of Privileges of Licence Holders Aged 60 Years or More _.____ ...................... _________ _ __________ 4-9 Medical Requirements _....... ________ .. ._______________ .. ______________________________________ . _______ . ______ ..... _.......... ____ _ ________ 4-10 ... ......... __ ... _ ___________ 4-12 JAA Th eoretical Kn owledge Exam inations for ATPL (A) ____________________
CHAPTER 5 Registration of Aircraft and Aircraft Markings ______ ____ ____ ____ _ __________ 5-1 Nationality, Common , and Registration Marks .. _____ .. ___ _ .. _. ___ ._________ ___________________________________________ 5-2 Location of Nationality, Common, and Registration Marks ___________________________________ .......... 5-3 Registration of Aircraf!.. ........... __ ._ ........................ __ .
CHAPTER 6 Airworthiness of Aircraft _______________________________ _________________ ... _.......... __________ 6-1 ............ ____ .____ 6-1
Introduction.
Certificate of Airworthiness.
CHAPTER 7 Rules of the Air Introduction __ ... ______________ ..... ___________________ ____________________________________ . ___ . ___ . ___ . ______ . ____ ... _____ _____________________ General Rules.. ...... _______________ .______________________ .. _____________________ .......... _..... _.__________________________ Negligent or Reckless Operation of Aircraft _ ..... ____ ._. __________________________ ._.. __ . __ ................. ___ .___________ ____________ ________ ______________________________________________ ._. __ ........................ ___________________________ Minimum Heights Cruising Levels ____________________________________________________________________ _____________ . ___ .___ ............. .____________________________ Prohibited and Restricted Areas______________________________ ............... _ ______ __________________ ............................. _____ ________________________ Avoidance of Collisions ____________________________ Simulated Instrument Flight (SIF) ______________________________________________ . ____ ._.. . ........ .... ___________________ .. __ .. ___ ..................... _____ _________ ___ ._._ ... Flight Plans ________________________________________________________ Communications.
. .. .... .........
. ............................................................. ......... 7- 10
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) ___________________ . __ .. _._ .. ............. _ _____________ ...... Instrument Flight Rules _________________________________________________ ................................. _ _________________ . __ ....... . _._ ..... ____________________ .. __ .. __________________ Rules Applicable to IFR Flights within Controlled Airspace.. IFR Flight Levels _____ ___________________ ___ .. _.. ... .... ............. _. _______ .______________ ............... Rules Applicable to IFR Flights Outside Controlled Airspace ......... _._ _____ _ ____________________________________________ ................ _____ Communications. .................... _._. __ ._________________________ .. __ .. Position Reports _._____ _________ ... .................. _ .... ____________________ .___ Special VFR (SVFR) .. ._........................... _______________________________________________ ___ ._........... _.......... _ .__,__ _________________ ............... ___________ Cruising Levels.. Table of Cruising Levels .. .................. _ ... __._____________________ ............ __.________ .............................. _.. _________________________________________________ ._............. ___________ Appendix 1 to Chapter 7. Signals for Use in the Event of Interception . .._ .. ____________________________________________ .......... _......... _____ ___
VJ II
7-1 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-7 7-7
7-12 7-14 7- 15 7-15 7- 15 7-16 7-16 7-16 7-1 7 7-20 7-22 7-22
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Table ojCol11el7/s
CHAPTER 8 Signals Introduction .......... ........ .................. ..... ..... ........ ............ ........................................................... ... 8-1 Emergency Signals .................... ...............................................................................................................8-1 Aerodrome Signals ........ ..... ......... ................................................................................................................8-2 Acknowledgemenl ................ .. ..................... ................................................. ~.................................. 8-2 Visual Ground Signals...... ... ....... ............ .......................................................................................... 8-3 Signals from the Pilot of an Aircraft to a Marshaller ......................................... ........... ................... ...... .8-8
CHAPTER 9 Altimeter Setting Procedures Expression of Vertical Position ............ ......................... ...... ..... .. ................. ........................ 9-1 Transition ........................ ...... ............................. .............................................. ................. 9-2 Use of QN H or QFE .... ................ .............................................................. .. ... ...................... 9-3 Flight Planning ....... ......... .... .......................................................................... ............ .. .. ............................ 9-4
CHAPTER 10 Instrument Procedures
Introduction ....................................................................... ............................... .... ................................ 10-1 Publ ications.. ...................... ............ .... ........ ...... ............. .... ..... .......................................... .... 10-1 Obslacle Clearance .......................... ..... ... ........ ...... ...................... ...... 10-2 Abbreviations ......................... .............. .. ... .... ............. ...... ........ ........ .... ...................... ........... 10-2 Departure Procedures .......... ...... .......... ......... .... ..................... ..... . ...................................... 10-2 The Instrument Departure Procedure ............................. ...... .......................... .......... 10-3 Establishment of a Departure Procedure ........... ........... ..................... ... .... .... .... ................ ...... 10-3 Standard Instrument Depa rtures.. ................................... ........................ .............. ..................... ....... 10-5 Contingency Procedures.. .................................................................................................... ......... . 10-6 Published Information ..................................................... .............. .. ........ ..... ....... . ... ..... 10-8 Airways Departure Routes (SID Charts) ............... ..................................................................... 10-8 The Instrument Approach Proced ure .. ........ ....... ........................................... .10-1 3 Obstacle Clearance ......................................... .. ............. ..... ................................................................ 10-15 Accuracy of Fixes ................................................ .......................................... ........................ 10-21 Descent Gradient ............................ .................... ................................................................... 10-24 Approach Segments ..... ..... ................. ........................... .................................................. 10-24 Standard Arriva ls Routes (STARS) ........ .......... ...................................................................................... 10-24 Missed Approach .................................................................................................................................... 10-28 Visua l Manoeuvring (Circl ing) VM(C)A in the Vicinity of the Aerodrome ........................................ 10-30 Published Information .................. .................................................................. ..................... ............. 10-31 Holding Procedures ....................................................... .... .......... ... .... ................................ 10-36 Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near Parallel Instrument Runways .... ....................................... 10-42
CHAPTER 11 Aeronautical Information Service
Introduction ......................................... .................................................................................... 11-1 Responsibilities and Function. ...... .... . . ....... ...................................................................................... 11-1 The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package (IAIP) ........................................................................... 11 -1 Prohibited, Restricted, and Danger Areas ................................................................................................ 11-2 NOTAM (Notice to Ai rmen) .............................................................................................. . ...................... 11-3 Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) .................... ............................ 11-6 Aero nautical Information Circulars (AIC) ..................................... ............................. ..... .. ............ ..... 11-7 Pre-Flight and Post Flight Inform ation.. ............................. . ........... ......................................... 11 -8 Aeronautica l Information Publication (AlP)................... . ............ ................. ....... .................... .... 11 -8 Contents of Aeronautical Information Publication (AI P) ................ ........................... ........... ... ............ 11 -9 Air Law
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Table of CantenlS
CHAPTER 12 Air Traffic Services and Airspace
Introd uction ........................................................ Objective of the Air Traffic Services (ATS) .. Divisions of the Air Traffi c S ervices..
....................................... ...... ...... ............................. 12-1 . .. .... ........ .............................. 12-1
.. .. .......... ................. .... ... .................
. ........................ .... 12-2
Determination of the need for Ai r Traffic Services ...... .. ......................................................................... . 12-2 Classes of Airspace. .................................................... 12-2 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) ...... .. .... .. ... ........................ .... .... .... .... . ...................................... 12-5 Units Prov iding Ai r T raffic Services. . ............... . ................ ..... ...... ............... ................... .
. ... ... ..... ... 12-5
Flight Informati on Regions (FIRs ) .. .... .............................. .. ..... .. ... .. ........................................................ 12-6 Control Areas ............... ....................... .......... ..... ............................ .............. .... ....... .. ................. 12-6 Flight Information Regions or Control Areas in the Upper Airspace ................... ..... . ... .... ... .. ...... . 12-7 Control Zones ......... .............................. .... .......... ...... .. ...... ..... ....... .... ........................................................ 12-7 Service to Aircraft in the event of Emergency ...................................................... ..... ........... 12-10 Time in Air Traffic Services........................... .... ............................................... .. ................ ... .......... 12-1 0 ATS Route Designators. ...... .. ..... ..... .. .. .. . ............... 12-10 Air Traffic Incident Report (ATI R) ........................... ............... ................. 12-1 4 Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS - Airborne; TCAS - Traffic). ..... .. .. .. ... .... ......... .... 12-1 5 Use of ACAS/TCAS Indications . .. ........................ .... .... .... ................... ..... . .... 12-1 5
CHAPTER 13 Air Traffic Con trol Services
Introd uction.
......................................
Ai r Traffic Control Service .................. ......
...................... .......................... 13-1
...................... ... ..................... .. ........
. ... .. ...... ... .... 13-1
Operation of Air Traffic Control Service... .................... ................................... ...................... .... 13-3 Emergency and Communication Failure .................................. ........................................... .... .. ............. .... 13-8
CHAPTER 14 Flight Information Service (FIS) Appl ication ............. .. .......................... .... ........... ... ... .. .... .... ............................................................ ..... 14-1 What is provided bya FI S.. ............................. ..................................... . .................... ... . 14-1 Operational Flight Information Service Broadcasts (OFI S). ..... ................ .... .... .... .................. ........ 14-2
CHAPTER 15 Ae rod rome Control Serv ice
Introduction . ....... ...... ... ........................................................... Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ) . .... ........ ................... ................ ...... Functions of Aerodrome Control Towers..... ....... .... .... ...................... ............. .... ................... ... ....... Traffic and Taxi Circuits.. ......................... .... ..... ... .... ... ... .. ............... Information to Aircraft by Aerodrome Control Towers ........................................................... .................... Contro l of Aerodrome Traffic ........................ ... ..................... ..... ......... ... .. ..... .. .. ...... ... ... Control of oth e r tha n Aircraft Traffic on the Manoeu vring Area ..... ... ............................. ................
Control of Traffic in the Traffic Circu i!...... ... ...... .. .. .... .. .. ..
15-1 15-1 15-2 15-2 15-5 15-6
. 15-7
........................ ........ .. ...................... ... 15-7
Wake T urbu lence Categorization of Aircraft and Increased Longitudina l Sepa ration Minima .................. . 15-9
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CHAPTER 16 Approach Controt Service Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................16-1 Departures. ............. .. .......... ..... ....... .. ....... ............................................................ ................. 16-1 Arrivals ...................................................................................................................................................... 16-2 Approach Sequence (Stacking ) ...................................... ................ ..................... ................ 16-4 Information for Arriving Aircraft ................................................................................................................. 16-6
CHAPTER 17 Area Controt Service Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................17-1 Separation ....... ....................................................... ...................... ..................................... 17-2 Vertical Separation ...... .... ............. ................................................. ............................................. 17-2 Horizontal Separation ............................... .............................. .... ....... ....................................... 17-3 Lateral Separation ..... ... ..... ... ...... .............................................................................................. 17-4 Longitudinal Separation ................ ......... .. ... ..................................... ........ .... 17-6 Reduced Separation Minima ............................... ....... ............................................................................ 17-14
CHAPTER 18 Air Traffic Advisory Service
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 18-1 Objective and Basic Princi ples.. .. ............... ................................ ............................ ............. ...... 18-1 Operation ...... ........................... ...................... .......... ...... ....................................................... 18-1 Ai rcraft Using the Air Traffic Advisory Service ......................................................................................... 18-2 Aircraft Not Using the Air Traffi c Advisory Service.. ..................... ................ .18-2 Air Traffi c Services Units .......... ... .............. .......... ... ................ ..................................... ............... 18-2
CHAPTER 19
.
.
Radar in Air Traffic Control Introduction ..................................................................... ................................... ..................................... 19-1 Radar Coverage.. ................................... ... ... ...... .... ........... ........... .................. ............... ...... 19-1 Identification of Aircraft ...................................... .................................... .................. .................................. 19-3 SSR Identification Procedures ....... ........................................................................ .............................. ...... 19-3 PSR Identification Procedures ............................................................................... ..... ............................. 19-3 Position Inform ation ............ .................... ...................................... .......................................... 19-4 Radar Vectoring ......... ................................... ................................... ................. .................... 19-4 Use of Radar in the Air Traffic Control Service ................................................... ............................... 19-7 Radar Separation Minima ................ . ...... .. .................... .......................................... ........ 19-7 Emergencies, Hazards , and Equipment Failures ............................................................................. ....... 19-9 Use of Radar in th e Approach Control Service................. ... ................................................. ... . 19-9 Radar Approaches ............ ............. ................. ....................................................................... .... 19-11 Use of Radar in Aerodrome ControL ..... ........... ......... ... .... ................................................ ................ 19-1 2
CHAPTER 20 Secondary Surveillance Radar Introduction ....................................... ................... .......... .... ................................... 20-1 Operation of Tran sponders ............................ .......................... ............ 20-2 Emergency Procedures. . . ........................ ................................................... 20-3 Communication Failure Procedures ..................... ...... .................................. ....................................... 20-3 Unlawful Interference with Aircraft in Flight... .. ............................................................................. .. 20-3 Phraseology.... .... .. ... ..... ......... .. ....... ..... . ................................................................. ................... 20-3
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Table ofContt:nts
CHAPTER 21 The Alerting Service Alerting Service ......................................................................... .............................................................. 21-1 Phases of the Alerting Procedure .............................................................................................................. 21-2 Format of Notification of Declaration .......................................................................................................... 21-3 Additional Information for the RCC .......................................................................... :.................................. 21 -3 Information to Aircraft Operating In the Vici nity of an Aircraft in a State of Emergency .............................. 21-3 Unlawful Interference ............................................................................................................................... 21-3
CHAPTER 22 Search and Rescue Introduction ............ .................................................... . ................. ................................................... 22-1 Organisation ............................................................................................................................................. 22-1 Operating Proced ures ....... .. .......... .......... ........................ ........................................... 22-2 Search and Rescue Signals ...................................................................................................................... 22-4 Ground/Air Signals used by Rescue Units ................................................................................................. 22-6 Air-To-Ground Signals ........................................................................................................ 22-6
CHAPTER 23 Aerodromes
Annex 14 ......................................................................................... ........... .............................. 23-1 Types of Aerodrome........................ .. .. ......... ........................................ ....... ... .. .. .. ........... ............. .. 23-1 Parts of an Aerodrome ........................................................ ........... ............................................. 23-1 Aerodrome Reference Code ................... ...................... ...... .... ........................ ........................... 23-1 Aeronautical Data ............ ... ...................................................................... ............. ...... ............................. 23-2 Run ways ........................................................................................... ..... ........ ......... ................................ . 23-5 Taxiways .............................................................................................................................................. 23-7 Taxiway Curve ........................................................................................................................................ 23-9 Holding Bays, Taxi Holding Positions ...................................................................................................... 23-9 Aprons .................................................................................................................................................. 23-10 Visual Aids for Navigation ...................... .................. ........................................................... .. ... 23-10 Markings .................... ........ ........ .. ................................... ..................................... 23-11 Runway Markings..................................................... ................................................ .. .. 23-11 Runway Centre line Marking .............................. ............................................................................. . 23-12 Threshold Markings .............................. ............... .. .................................................................. 23-12 Displaced Threshold Marking.. .. ................................................................................. 23-13 ... 23-14 Aiming Point Marking ......... ................ ........... ............. ................ ................... Touchdown Zone Marking.. .................. .............. .. ....................................................................... 23-14 .............. ...................... .. ... 23-16 Runway Side Stripe.. Taxiway Markings ....... .................................................................................. ... .. ..... ................... 23- 16 Taxiway Centre Line Marking .......... .............................. ... ............................................ .. .......... 23-16 Runway Holding Position Marking............. ......................... .. ................................. .. .... ....... ................ 23- 16 Taxiway Intersection Marking..... ..... ................................................ .. .................. ......................... 23-17 VO R Aerodrome Check-Point Marking ............................ .. ..................................... 23-18 Aircraft Stand Markings ..................................................... .. ...... .............. ........ ............................... . 23-19 Apron Safety lines ............................ ...................................... .... ........................ .. 23-19 Information Markings .................. ......................................................................................................... 23-19 Signs ...................................................................... . ............................................................... 23-1 9 Markers ............................................ .................... ..................................................................... 23-23 Aerodrome lighting ................................ .... ........................................................................................... 23-24 Approach lighting Systems .................. .. ............................................................................................ 23-25 Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI and Abbreviated PAPI ) .......................................................... 23-32 Minimum Eye Height (MEHT)....................... .... ... .. ..................................... ..... ......................... ... ........ 23-33
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Table o/Colllenls
Runway Lights ...................................................................................................................................... 23-34 Taxiway Lighting ..................................................................................................................................... 23-34 Obstacles ...............................................................................................................................................23-38 Malking of Vehicles ................................................................................................................................. 23-40 Emergency Vehicles ..................................... ....... .......... ...................... ............................. ............. 23-40 Emergency Services .. ... ...... ................................................................................................................... 23-40 Bird Hazard ................................... ....................................................................................... 23-40
CHAPTER 24 Aviation Security
General.. ...................................... ............. .............................. ...................... .................... 24-1 Aims and Objectives .............................. ................................. .. .. ................... .............. 24-1 National Organisation ......................................................... ......................................... ......... 24-1 International Co-Operation.... . .................. . ........................................ 24-1 Preve ntative Security Measures ......... ........................ ............................... ............ 24-2 Carriage of Legal Weapons . ................ .. .............................................. .......... 24-2 Pre-Flight Checks. ......... ... .................... ............ .. ........... ............................................. ...... 24-2 Measures Related to Passengers and their Cabin Baggage ........................ .................. 24-2 Missing Passengers ............................ ...................... ......... .... ...................................................... 24-2 Measures Relating to Access Control ................. ................................. .......................... 24-2 Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference .................................. ................................. 24-3 Flight Deck Door ............. ... ..................... .................................................... . ................................. 24-3 Training Programmes ........................ .............................. .......................... ..24-3 Isolated Aircraft Parking Position .................................................. ........................................................... 24-3
CHAPTER 25 Aircraft Accident Investigation ......................................................................................... ............................... 25-1 Introduction Definitions ......... ............ .......................................... .......................................................... 25-1 Objective of the Investigation.. ...... ... ........... ..... ................................................................ .......... 25-2 Protection of Evidence, Custody, and Remova l of Ai rcraft. .............................................. .. ................ 25-2 Request from State of Registry or State of Operator ...............................................................................25-2 Request from State of Design or State of Manufacturer ..... .................. .. . ........... .. ........ 25-3 Notification for Accidents or Serious Incidents ........................................... .......... .. ...... .......... . .. ... 25-3 Reports ...................................................................................................................................................25-4
CHAPTER 26 Facilitation
. .................. ................. ...... 26-1 Introduction ......................................................................... . .. .................... .26-1 Entry and Departure of Aircraft .............................................. .... . ................. ............................... 26-3 Entry and Departure of Persons and their Baggage .............. .. ............... .26-4 Departure Requirements and Procedures ............................... .. .................................................. ........ 26-4 Inadmissible Passengers, Deportees and Persons in Custody .. CHAPTER 27 National Law Introduction .... ... .......... ............ ...... ......... ...... ........ ............................................ .. ............. 27-1 The Law of the UK ............................ ......................................................................................................27-1 Major UK Differences ............ .. .. ......................................................................... .................. 27-1 Roya l Flights................ ...... ........... .. ...............................................................................................27-3 Military Aerodrome Traffic Zones (MATZ)..................... ........................... .. ............. 27-3 Air Law
XIII
INTRODUCTION This chapter of Aviation Law contains two sections and is intended fo r use with all the course material provided: SECTION 1 -
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE JAA CENTRAL QUESTION BANK
A A ABM ABN AC AC ACAS ACFT ACT AD ADC ADDN ADF ADI AEO AFIS AFM AGL AlP
Aeronautical Information Publication
BKN
Broken
'c
Degrees Celsius
CAS CAT CB CC CD CDI CDU
Calibrated air speed
cg
Centre of gravity
ALT ALTN APCH APT APU ARR AS ASDA AMS L ATA ATC ATIS ATO ATS AUX AVG AWY AZM
Ampere Abeam Aerodrome beacon
Alternating current Altocumulus Airborne collision avoidance system
Aircraft Active Aerodrome
Air data computer Additional
Automatic direction finding Attitude director indicator
All engines operating Aerod rome flight information service
Aircraft flight manual Above ground level
Altitude Alternate Approach
Airport Auxiliary power unit Arrival
Altostratus Accelerate stop distance available
Above mean sea level Actual time of arrival
Air traffic control
Automatic terminal information service Actual time overhead Ai r traffic services
Auxiliary
Average Airway Azimuth
B BRG
Bea ring
CI CL Cm CO ep CRM es eTR eu eWY
Cirrus
C
Air Law
Clear air turbulence Cumulonimbus Cirrocumulus Drag coefficient Course direction indicator Control display unit
lift coefficient Centimetre Communications Critical point Crew resource management Cirrostratus Control zone Cumulus Clearway
I-I
Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
D DA DC DEG DEP DES DEST DEV DfF
Decision altitude Direct current
Degrees Departure Descent
Destination Deviation
DG DH DIST DME DP DR DVOR
Directional gyroscope Decision height Distance Distance measuring equipment Dew point Dead reckoning Doppler VOR
Direction finding
E E
East
EICAS
Engine indicator and crew alerting system
EAS EAT ECAM EFIS EGT
Equivalent airspeed
EOBT EPR EST ETA ETO
Estimated off blocks time
'F FAF FCST FD FIS FIS
Degrees Fahrenheit
FL FLT FMS FT FTfMIN
Flight level
G GAL GND
Gramme
HDG HF hPa HR
Heading
Expected approach time
Engine condition aircraft monitoring Electronic flight instrument system Exhaust gas temperature
Engine pressure ratio Estimated
Estimated time of arrival Estimated time overhead
F Final approach fix Forecast
Flight director Flight information system
Flight Flight management system Feet
Feet per minute
Flight Information Service
G Gallons Ground
GP GPWS GS
Glide path
HSI HT Hz
Horizontal situation indicator
INT ISA ISOL ITCZ IVSI
Intersection
Ground proximity warning system Ground speed
H High frequency Hectopascal
Height
Hertz
Hours
lAS ILS IMC IMP GAL INS
Indicated airspeed
J
Joule
Instrument landing system Instrument meteorological conditions Imperial gallons Inertial navigation systems
International standard atmosphere Isolated Inter-tropical convergence zone Instantaneous vertical speed indicator
J
1-2
Air Law
Chapler J
Abbreviations and Definitions
K
kg kHz km
kt kW
Kilog ramme Kilohertz
Knot Kilowatt
Kilometre
L Pounds
LMT LONG
Longitude
Landing
LT
Local time
Landing decision point
LTD LVL LYR
Limited
MLS MM MNM MNPS
Microwave landing system
LAT LB LOG LOP LEN LLZ LMC
Latitude
m M M MAC MAP MAPt max MOH MOHIA MEA MET MIN
Metre
N NGT N NAT NAV
Newton
OAT aBS OCA(H) OCl OEI
Outside air temperature
Length Localiser (Localizer)
Local mean time
Level Layer
Last minute change M
Mass Mach Number Mean aerodynam ic chord Manifold pressure
Middle marker Minimum Minimum navigation performance specification
Missed approach po int
MOCA
Minimum obstruction clearance altitu de
Maximum
MORA
Minimum off route altitude
Minimum descent height
MPH
Miles per hour
Minimum descent heighUaltitude
MPS, mps
Metres per second
Minimum en route altitude
MSA MSl MSU
Mean sea level
Meteorological Minutes
Minimum sector altitude Mode selector unit
N
NDB NM NOTAM NS
Night North North Atla ntic track
Non-directional beacon Nautical miles Notice to airmen Nimbostratus
Navigation
a OM OM OPS OIR OVC
Omni bearing selector Obstacle clearance altitude (height) Obstacle clearance limit One eng ine inoperative
Operating mass Outer marker Operations On request Overcast
p
P PAX PET PIC PlN PNR Air Law
Pressure Passenger Point of, equal ti me Pilot in command Flight plan
POS PSI PSR PTS ' PWR
Position Pounds per square inch Point of Safe Return Polar track structure Power
Point of no return
1-3
Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
R RNAV ROC ROD RVR RWY
Area Navigation
SR SS SSR ST STAR STD STN STNR STS SVFR SWY
Sunrise
Threshold
Transition altitude
THR TL
True airspeed
TtO
Take-off
Total air temperature
TOC TORA TS TWY
Radius
RAC RAS REP RMI RMK
Rules of the air and air traffic services Rectified airspeed
Reporting point Remote magnetic indicator
Rate of climb Rate of descent Runway visual range Runway
Remark
S
S SAR SARPs SC SCT SDBY SEC SEV SFC SID SIM SKC
South Search and rescue Standards and Recommended Practices Stratocumulus
Scattered
Standby Seconds Severe
Surface Standard instrument departure
Simulator
Sunset Secondary surveillance radar Stratus Standard arrival route Standard Station
Stationary Status
Special VFR
Stop way
Sky clear
T T TA TAS TAT TC TCAS TDP
Temperature
Tropical cyclone Traffic collision avoidance system Take-off decision point
Transition level
Top of climb
Take off run available Thunderstorm Taxiway
U UTC
Co-ordinated universal time
U/S
Unserviceable
US-GAL
US gallons
V VAR VDF VG VHF VIS VLF VMC VOLMET
Volt
VSI
Vertical speed indicator
Magnetic variation
W
Vertical visibility
VHF direction finding station
VA V, VdMc VD V,
Design manoeuvring speed
V
Vertical gyro Very high frequency Visibility Very low frequency Visual meteorological conditions Meteorological information for aircraft in
flight VOR vrb 1-4
VHF omni directional range Variable
Design speed for max gust intensity Design cruise speed I Mach number Design dive speed Oesign flap speed
V" V'D
Flap extended speed
Vee Veo
Landing gear extended speed
Flap operating speed
Maximum landing gear operating speed
Air Law
Abbreviations and Definitions
V LOF
Chapter /
Lift off speed
VR
Rotating speed
VMAXTYRE
Maximum tyre speed
VREF
Landing reference speed
V MBE
Maximum break energy speed
Vs
Stalling speed or minimum stead y flight speed at which the aeroplane is controllable
VMC
Min im um control speed
Vso
Stalling speed oJ minimum steady flight speed in landing configuration
VMCA
Air minimum control speed
V"
Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed obtained in best configuration
V MCG
Ground minimum control speed
VMoIMMo
V, V,
Speed for best angle of climb
Maximum operating limit speed! Maximum Mach number
V, V,
Critical engine failure speed
V MU
Minimum un-stick speed
V"
Never exceed speed
V NO
Normal operating speed
W
Watt
Speed for best rate of climb
Take-off safety speed for piston engine aircraft
W W
West
WC
Wind component
WCA
Wind correction ang le
WN WPT WS WX
Wind velocity
XX
Heavy
Way point Wind shear Weather
X
X XTK
Cross Cross track
y
YD
Yard
Z
Air Law
1-5
Chapter I
Abbre.iaIions and Definitions
SECTION 2 - ICAO DEFINITIONS The following definitions are from the ICAO Annexes . The learning objectives for 010 Air Law require that the student is able to recall definitions from a given list. Do not memorise this list. By the time you complete the course , you will be able to define all the definitions necessary to pass the examination. Accepting Unit -
ATCU next to take control of an aircraft.
Accident - An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight, until such time as all such persons have disembarked , in which a person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of: ~ ~ ~
being in the aircraft, or direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts which have become detached from the aircraft, or direct exposure to jet blast
except when the injuries are from natural causes, self-inflicted or inflicted by other persons , or when the injuries are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally available to the passengers and crew, or the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which: ~ ~
adversely affects the stru ctural strength , performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft, and would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component
except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the engine, its cowl ings or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers , wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small dents or puncture holes in the aircraft skin , or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible . Note: An injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the accident is classified as a fatal injury by ICAO. Note: An aircraft is considered to be missing when the official search has been terminated and the wreckage has not been located. Advisory Airspace - Airspace of defined dimensions , or designated route, within which ai r traffic advisory service is available. Advisory Route -
A designated route along which air traffic advisory service is available.
Aerodrome - A defined area of land or water (including any buildings , installations, and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival , departure, and surface movement of aircraft. Aerodrome Beacon the air.
1-6
Aeronautical beacon used to indicate the location of an aerodrome from
Air Law
Chapter /
Abbreviations and Definitions
Aerodrome Control Service -
Air traffic control service for aerodrome traffic.
Aerodrome Control Tower - A unit established to provide air traffic control service . Aerodrome Elevation - The elevation of the highest point of the landing area . Aerodrome Identification Sign aerodrome from the air.
A sign placed on an aerodrome to· aid in identifying the
Aerodrome Operating Minima - The limits of usability of an aerodrome for: ~
~ ~
Take-off, expressed in terms of RVR and/or visibility and, if necessary , cloud conditions Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or RVR and DNDH , as appropriate to the category of the operation , and Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or RVR, MDNMDH and , if necessary, cloud conditions.
Aerodrome Reference Field Length - The minimum field length required for take-off at maximum certificated take-off mass , sea level, standard atmospheric conditions , still air, and zero runway slope, as shown in the appropriate aeroplane flight manual prescribed by the certificating authority or equivalent data from the aeroplane manufacturer. Field length means balanced field length for aeroplanes, if applicable , or take-off distance in other cases. Aerodrome Reference Point - The designated geographical location of the aerodrome. Aerodrome Taxi Circuit specific wind conditions.
The specified path of aircraft on the manoeuvring area during
Aerodrome Traffic - All traffic on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome and all traffic flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome. Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it is in , entering, or leaving an aerodrome traffic circuit. Aerodrome Traffic Zone - Airspace of defined dimensions established around an aerodrome for the protection of aerodrome traffic. Aeronautical Beacon - An aeronautical ground light visible at all azimuths, either continuously or intermittently, to designate a particular point on the surface of the earth. Aeronautical Ground Light - Any light specifically provided as an aid to air navigation , other than a light displayed on an aircraft. Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) - A notice containing information that does not qualify for the origination of a NOTAM or for inclusion in the AlP, but which relates to flight safety, air navigation , technical, administrative or legislative matters. Aeronautical Information Publication (AlP) - A publication issued by or with the authority of a state and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation.
Air Law
1-7
Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitiom
Aeronautical Mobile Service - A mobile service between aeronautical stations and aircraft stations, or between aircraft stations, in which survival craft stations may participate; emergency position-indicating radio beacon stations may also participate in this service on designated distress and emergency frequencies . Aeronautical Station - A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain instances, an aeronautical station may be located, for example, on board ship or on a platform at sea . Aeronautical Telecommunication Station service.
A station in the aeronautical telecommunication
Aeroplane - A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefl y from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight. AlP Amendment -
Permanent changes to the information contained in the AlP .
AlP Supplement - Temporary changes to the information contained in the AlP that are published by means of special pages.
AIRAC - An acronym (Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control) signifying a system aimed at advance notification based on common dates, of circumstances that necessitate significant changes in operating practices Air-Ground Communication - Two-way communication between aircraft and stations, or locations, on the surface of the earth. Air Report - A report from an aircraft in flight prepared in conformity with requirements for position, and operational and/or meteorological reporting. Air Traffic - All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome . Air Traffic Advisory Service - A service provided within advisory airspace to ensure separation, in so far as practical between aircraft which are operating on IFR flight plans. Air Traffic Control Clearance - Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions specified by an air traffic control unit. Note: For convenience the term "Ai r Traffic Control Clearance" is frequentl y abbreviated to "Clearance" when used in appropriate contexts. Note: The abbreviated term "Clearance" may be prefixed by the words "Taxi", "Take-off', "Departure", "Enroute", "Approach", or "Landing" to indicate the particular portion of flight to which the Air Traffic Control Clearance relates. Air Traffic Control Instruction take a specific action.
1-8
Directives issued by ATC for the purpose of requiring a pilot to
A ir Law
Abbreviations and Definitions
Air Traffic Control Service ~ ~
~
Chapter/
A service provided for the purpose of:
Preventing collisions between aircraft, and , On the manoeuvring area between aircraft and obstructions. Expediling and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic.
Air Traffic Control Unit - A generic lerm meaning variously, area control centre , approach control office , or aerodrome control tower. Air Traffic Service - A generic term meaning variously, flight information service , alerting service, air traffic advisory service, or air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service, or aerodrome control service). Air Traffic Services Airspaces - Airspaces of defined dimensions, alphabetically designated, wi thin which specific types of flights may operate and for which air traffic services and rules of operation are specified . Note: ATS airspaces are classified as Class A to G Air Traffic Services Reporting Office - A unit established for the purpose of receiving reports concerning air traffic services and flight plans submitted before departure. Note: An Air Traffic Services reporting office may be established as a separate unit or combined with an existing unit, such as another Air Traffic Services Unit, or a unit of the Aeronautical Information Service. Air Traffic Services Unit - A generic term meaning variously, air traffic control unit, flight information centre, or air traffic services reporting office. Aircraft - Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth's surface . Aircraft Category - Classification of aircraft according to specified basic characteristics (e.g. aeroplane, helicopter, glider, free balloon). Aircraft Certified For Single-Pilot Operation - A type of aircraft that the State of Registry has determined, during the certification process, can be operated safely wi th a minimum crew of one pilot. Aircraft Equipment - Articles, other than stores and spare parts of a removable nature, for use on board an aircraft during flight, including first aid and survival equipment. Aircraft Identification - A group of letters, fig ures, or a combination thereof which is either identical to, or the coded equivalent of, the aircraft callsign to be used in air-ground communications, and which is used to identify the aircraft in ground-ground ATS communications. Aircraft Observation aircraft in flight.
Air Law
The evaluation of one or more meteorological elements made from an
1-9
Chapter I
Abbreviations and Definitions
Aircraft Proximity - A situation in which, in the opinion of a pilot or ATS personnel, the distance between aircraft, as well as their relative positions and speed , have been such that the safety of the aircraft involved may have been compromised. Aircraft proximity is classified as follows: Risk Of Collision - The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which serious risk of collision has existed. Safety Not Assured - The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which the safety of the aircraft may have been compromised. No Risk Of Collision collision has existed.
The risk classification of aircraft proxi mity, in wh ich no ri sk of
Risk Not Determined - The risk classification of aircraft proximity in which insufficient information was available to determine the risk in vo lved, or inconclusive or confiicting evidence precluded such determination. Aircraft Stand -
A designated area on an apron intended for parking aircraft.
Aircraft Type - All aircraft of the same basic design, including all modifications thereto, except those modifications which result in a change in handling or flight characteristics. AIRMET Information - Information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified enroute weather phenomena that may affect the safety of low-level aircraft operations and which was not already included in the forecast issued for low-level flights in the FIR concerned or sub-area thereof. Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) - An aircraft system based on SSR transponder signals that operates independently of ground based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential confiicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders. Airline - As provided in Article 96 of the Convention , any air transport enterprise offering or operating a scheduled international air service. AIRPROX -
The code word used in an air traffic incident report to designate aircraft proximity.
Airway - A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor equipped with radio navigation aids. ALERFA -
The code word used to designate an alert phase.
Alert Phase occupants.
A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
Alerting Service - A service provided to notify appropriate organisations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid , and assist such organisations as required.
1-1 0
Air Law
Abbreviations and Definitions
Chapter I
Alternate Aerodrome - An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include the following: Take-off Alternate - An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land should this become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to .use the aerodrome of departure. Enroute Alternate - An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while enroute. Destination Alternate - An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed should it become impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Note: The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an enroute or a destination alternate aerodrome for that fiight. Altitude - The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point measured from mean sea level (MSL). Approach Control Office - A unit established to provide ATC service to controlled flights arriving at, or departing from, one or more aerodromes. Approach Control Service -
ATC service for arriving or departing controlled fiights.
Appropriate ATS Authority - The relevant authority deSignated by the state responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned. Appropriate Authority ;.. ;..
Regarding flight over the high seas - The relevant authority of the state of registry. Regarding flight other than over the high seas - The relevant authority of the state having sovereignty over the territory being over fiown.
Apron - A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for the purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail , or cargo, fuelling , parking , or maintenance. Apron Management Service - A service provided to regulate the activities and the movement of aircraft and vehicles on an apron. Area Control Centre - A unit established to provide Air Traffic Control Service to controlled flights in control areas under its jurisdiction. Area Control Service -
Air Traffic Control Service for controlled flight in Control Areas.
Area Navigation (RNAV) - A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired fiight path within the coverage of the station referenced navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of self contained aids, or a combinatidn of these.
Air Law
1-11
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Chapter 1
- - - - - - --
Abbreviations and Definitions
Area Navigation Route - An ATS route established for the use of aircraft capable of employing area navigation. A TIS - The symbol used to designate automatic terminal information service. ATS Route - A specified route designed for channelling the flow of traffic as necessary fo r the provision of air traffic services. Note: The term "ATS route" is used to mean variously, airway, advisory route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, etc. Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) - A surveillance technique in which aircraft automatically provide, via a data link, data derived from on board navigation and position fixing systems, including aircraft identification, four dimensional position , and additional data as appropriate. Automatic Terminal Information Service - The provision of current, routine information to arriving and departing aircraft by means of a continuous and repetitive broadcast throughout the day, or a specified portion of the day. Baggage - Personal property of passengers or crew carried on an aircraft by agreement with the operator. Barrette - Three or more aeronautical ground lights closely spaced in a traverse line so that from a distance they appear as a short bar of light. Base Turn - A turn executed by the aircraft during the initial approach between the end of the outbound track and the beginning of the intermediate or final approach track. The tracks are not reciprocal. Note: Base turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure. Blind Transmission - A transmission from one station to another station in circumstances where two-way communication cannot be established, but where it is believed the called station is able to receive the transmission . Broadcast - A transmission of information relating to air navigation that is not addressed to a specific station or stations. Cargo - Any property carried on an aircraft other than mail, stores, and accompanied or mishandled baggage. Ceiling - The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6000 metres (20 000 ft) covering more than half the sky. Certify as Airworthy (to) - To certify that an aircraft or parts thereof comply with current airworthiness requirements after maintenance has been performed on the aircraft or parts thereof.
1-12
Air Law
Abbreviations and Definitions
Chapler I
Change-over Point - The point at which an aircraft navigating over an ATS route segment, defined by referen ce to very high frequency omni directional radio ranges, is expected to transfer its primary navigational reference from the faci lity behind the aircraft to the next facility ahead of the aircraft. Note: Change-over points are established to provide the optimum balance in respect of signal strength and quality between facilities at all levels to be used and to ensure a common source of azimuth guidance for all aircraft operating along the same portion of a route segment. Circling Approach - An extension of an instrument approach procedure which provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing. Clearance Limit - The point to which an aircraft is granted an Air Traffic Control Clearance. Clearway - A defined re ctangular area on the ground or water under the control of the appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. Code (SSR) - The number assigned to a particular multiple pulse repl y signal transmitted by a transponder in Mode A or Mode C. Commercial Air Transport Operation - An aircraft operation involvi ng the transport of passengers, cargo, or mail for remun eration or hire. Configuration (as applied to the aeroplane) - A particular combination of the positions of the moveable elements, such as wing fiaps, landing gear etc, which affect the aerodynamic characteristics of the aeroplane . Control Area - A controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified lim it above the earth. Controlled Aerodrome aerodrome traffic.
An aerodrome at which Air Traffic Control Service is provided to
Note: The term "Controlled Aerodrome" indicates that Air Traffic Control Service is provided to Aerodrome Traffic, but does not necessarily imply that a Control Zone exists. Controlled Airspace - An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR fiights in accordance with the airspace classifi cation. Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which covers ATS airspace Class A, S, C, D, and E. Controlled Flight -
Any fiight which is subject to an Air Traffi c Control Clearance.
Control Zone - A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a specified upper limit.
Air Law
1-1 3
Chapter 1
A bbrevialions and Definitions
Co-Pilot - A licensed pilot serving in any piloting capacity other than as PIC , but excluding a pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole purpose of receiving flight instruction. Crew Member -
A person assigned by an operator to duty on an aircraft during flight time .
Critical Power Unit(s) - The power unit(s) failure of which gives the most adverse effect on the aircraft characteristics relative to the case under consideration . Cruise Climb - An aeroplane cruising technique resulting in a net increase in altitude as the aeroplane mass decreases. Cruising Level -
A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Current Flight Plan clearances.
The flight plan , including changes, if any, brought about by subsequent
Danger Area - An airspace of defined dimensions within wh ich activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. Dead Reckoning (DR) Navigation - The estimating or determining of position by advancing an earlier known position by the application of direction, time, and speed data . Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) - A specified altitude or height in the precision approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established. Note: DA is referenced to mean sea level, DH is referenced to threshold elevation Note: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to have made an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position , in relation to the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a DH the required visual reference is that specified for the particular procedure and operation. Declared Distances Take-Off Run Available (TORA) - The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft. Take-Off Distance Available (TODA) the length of the clearway, if provided.
The length of the take-off run available, plus
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
The length of the take-off run available,
Landing Distance Available (LDA) - The length of the run way that is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing .
1-14
Air Law
Abbreviations and Definitions
Chap ter I
Dependent Parallel Approaches - Simultaneous approaches to parallel or near parallel instrument runways where radar separation minima between aircraft on adjacent extended runway centre lines are prescribed . Design Landing Mass - The maximum mass of the aircraft at which , for structural design purposes, it is assumed that it will be planned to land. Design Take-off Mass - The maximum mass at which the aircraft, for structural design purposes, is assumed to be planned to be at the start of the take-off run . Design Taxiing Mass - The maximum mass of the aircraft at which structural provision is made for load liable to occur during use of the aircraft on the ground prior to the start of take-off. DETRESFA -
The code word used to designate a distress phase.
Displaced Threshold - A threshold not located at the extremity of the runway. Distress Phase - A situation wherein there is a re asonable certainty that an aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger or require immediate assistance. DME Distance - The line of sight distance (slant range) from the source of a DME signal to the receiving antenna. Dual Instruction Time - Flight time, during which a person is receiving flight instruction from a properly authorised pilot on board the aircraft. Elevation - The vertical distance of a point on or affixed to the surface of the earth , measured from mean sea level. Emergency Phase - A generic term meaning, as the case may be , uncertainty phase, alert phase , or distress phase. Estimated Elapsed Time -
The estimated time to fly from one significant point to another.
Estimated Off-Blocks Time - The estimated time at which the aircraft will commence movement associated with departure. Estimated Time of Arrival - For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive over the designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced , or, if no navigation aid is associated with the aerodrome, the time at which the aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome . For VFR flights , the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome. Expected Approach Time - The time at which ATe expects that an arriving aircraft, following a delay, will leave the holding point to complete its approach for a landing. Note: The actual time of leaving the holding point will depend upon the approach clearance.
Air Law
1- 15
Chapter I
Abbreviations and Definitions
Filed Flight Plan - The flight plan , as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or a desig nated representative, without any subsequent changes. Final Approach - That part of an instrument approach procedure which commences at the specified final approach fix or point, or where such a fix or point is not specified:
:>:>-
At the end of the last procedure turn , base turn or inbound turn of a racetra ck procedure, if specified , or At the point of interception of the last track specified in the approach procedure, and ends at a point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from which:
:>:>-
A landing can be made, or A missed approach procedure is initiated
Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO) - A defined area over which the final phase of the approach manoeuvre to landing is completed and from which the take-off manoeuvre is commenced. Final Approach Segment - The segment of an instrument runway procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are accomplished. Fixed Light -
A light having constant luminous intensity when observed from a fixed point.
Flight Crew Member - A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during flight time. Flight Information Centre service.
A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting
Flight Information Region - An airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information service and alerting service are provided. Flight Information Service - A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful to the safe and effective conduct of flights. Flight Level - A surface of constant atmospheric pressure , which is related to a specific pressure datum, (1013.2 Hectopascals (hPa)) and is separated from other surfaces by specific pressure intervals. Note: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere:
:>:>:>-
When set to a QNH - altimeter setting indicates altitude When set to a QFE - altimeter setting indicates height above the QFE referen ce datum When set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa - altimeter can be used to indicate flight levels.
Note: The terms "height" and "altitude" used in the above note , indicate altimetric rather than geometric heights and altitudes. '
1-16
Air Law
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abbreviations and Definitions
Chapter I
Flight Plan -- Specified information provided to Air Traffic Services Units, relati ve to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft. Flight Procedures Trainer -- See Synthetic Flight Trainer. Flight Recorder -- Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing accident/incident investigation. Flight Simulator -- See Synthetic Flight Trainer. Flight Time -- The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of taking-off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight. Note: Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term "block to block" time or "chock to chock" time in general usage which is measured from the time an aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point. Flight Manual -- A manual associated with the certificate of airworthiness , containing limitations within which the aircraft is to be considered airworthy, and instructions and inform ation necessary to the flight crew members for the safe operation of the aircraft. Flight Visibility -- The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. Flow Control -- Measures designed to adjust the flow of traffic into a given airspace, along a given route, or bound for a given aerodrome, so as to ensure the most effective utilization of the airspace. Forecast -- A statement of expected meteorological conditions for a specified time or period, and for a specified area or portion of airspace. Frangible Object -- An object of low mass designed to break, distort, or yield on impact so as to present the minimum hazard to aircraft. Glide Path -- A descent profile determined for vertical guidance during a final approach. Ground Equipment -- Articles of a specialised nature for use in the maintenance , repair, and servicing of an aircraft on the ground , including testing equipment and cargo/passenger-handling equipment. Ground Visibility -- The visibility at an aerodrome , as reported by an accredited observer. Hazard Beacon -- An aeronautical beacon used to designate a danger to air navigation . Heading -- The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is pointed, usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic, compass, or grid). Heavier-than-air Aircraft -- Any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynam ic forces .
Air Law
1-1 7
Chapter I
Abbreviations and Definitions
Height - The vertical distance of a level , a point, or an object considered as a point, measured from a specified datum , other than mean sea level (MSL). Heliport - An aerodrome, or a defined area on a structure , intended to be used wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of helicopters . Holding Bay - A defined area where aircraft can be held , or bypassed , to facilitate efficient surface movement of aircraft. Holding Point - A specified location , identified by visual or other means, in the vicinity of which the position of an aircraft in flight is maintained in accordance with ATC clearances. Holding Procedure - A pre-determined manoeuvre that keeps an aircraft within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance. Identification Beacon - An aeronautical beacon emitting a coded signal by means of wh ich a particular point of reference can be identified. IFR -
The symbol used to designate the instrument fright rules .
IFR Flight IMC -
A flight conducted in accordance with instrument flight rules .
The symbol used to designate instrument meteorological conditions.
INCERFA -
The code word used to designate an uncertainty phase .
Incident - An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects, or could affect, the safety of operation Initial Approach Segment - That segment of an instrument approach proced ure between the initial approach fix and the intermediate approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix or point, Instrument Approach Procedure - A series of pre-determined manoeuvres by referen ce to fright instruments with specified protection from obstacles from the initial approach fix, or where applicable, from the beginning of a defined arrival route to a point from which a landing can be completed and thereafter, if a landing is not completed to a position at which holding or enroute obstacle clearance criteria apply. Instrument Flight Time - Time during which a pilot is piloting an aircraft solely by reference to instruments and without external reference points, Instrument Ground Time - Time during which a pilot is practising, on the ground , simulated instrument flight in a synthetic flight trainer approved by the licensing authority, Instrument Meteorological Conditions - Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions. Note: The specified minima for VMC are contained within the Aviation Law Notes. 1-1 8
Air Law
Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
Instrument Runway - One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures: Non-Precision Approach Runway - An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in approach. Precision Approach Runway, Category I - An instrument run way served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft) and either a visibility not less than 800 m, or a runway visual range not less than 550 m. Precision Approach Runway, Category II - An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and with visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not less than 350 m. Precision Approach Runway, Category III - An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS to and along the surface of the runway and: CAT iliA - Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m. CAT IIIB - Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m (JAR-OPS: 75 m). CAT IIiC - Intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations. Instrument Time -
Instrument flight time or instrument ground time.
Integrated Aeronautical Information Package elements: ;.. ;.. ;.. ;.. ;..
AlP , including the AlP Amendment service. Supplements to the AlP. NOTAM and pre-flight information bulletins (PI B). AIC. Checklists and summaries.
Intermediate Approach Segment between either: ;.. ;..
A package which consists of the following
That segment of an instrument approach procedure
The intermediate approach fix and the final approach fix or point, or Between the end of a reversal, racetrack or DR track procedure and the final approach fix or point.
Air Law
1-19
Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
International Airport - Any airport designated by the Contracting State in whose territory it is situated as an airport of entry and departure for international air traffic, where the formalities incident to customs, immigration , public health , animal and plant quarantine, and simila r procedures are carried out. International NOTAM Office internationally.
An office designated by a State for the exchange of NOTAM
Investigation - A process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention that includes the gathering and analysis of information for the drawing of conclusions, including the determination of causes, and when appropriate, the making of safety recommendations. Landing Area -
That part of a movement area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft.
Landing Direction Indicator for landing and for take-off.
A device to indicate visually the direction currentl y designated
Landing Surface - That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft landing in a particular direction. Level - A generic term relating to the vertical position of an aircraft in flight, and meaning variously, height, altitude, or flight level. Location Indicator - A four letter code group formulated in accordance with rules prescribed by ICAO and assigned to the location of an aeronautical fixed station. Maintenance - Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any one or combination of: overhaul, repair, inspection , replacement, modification , or defect rectification. Manoeuvring Area - That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing , and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons. Marker - An object displayed above ground level in order to indicate an obstacle or delineate a boundary. Marking - A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the movement area in order to convey aeronautical information. Maximum Mass -
Maximum certificated take-off mass.
Medical Assessment - The evidence issued by a Contracting State that the licence holder meets specific requirements of medical fitness. It is issued following an evaluation by the licensing authority of the report submitted by the designated medical examiner who conducted the examination of the applicant for the licence. Meteorological Office international air navigation.
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An office designated to provide a meteorological service for
Air Law
Abbreviations and D efinitions
Chapter I
Meteorological Information - A meteorological report, analysis , fore cast, and any other statement relating to existing or expected meteorological conditions. Meteorological Report specified time and location.
A statement of observed meteorological conditions related to a
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or Minimum Descent Height (MDH) - A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference. Note: MDA is referenced to mean sea level and MDH is referenced to the aerodrome elevation or to the threshold elevation if that is more than 2 m (7 ft) below the aerodrome elevation. A MDH for a circling approach is referenced to the aerodrome elevation. Note: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area that should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to make an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position , in relation to the desired flight path. In the case of a circling approach the required visual reference is the runway environment. Minimum Sector Altitude - The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 nm) radius centred on a radio aid to navigation. Missed Approach Point (MAPt) - That point in an instrument approach procedure at or before which the prescribed missed approach procedure must be initiated in order to ensure that the minimum obstacle clearance is not infringed. Missed Approach Procedure continued.
The procedure to be followed if the approach cannot be
Mode (SSR) - The conventional identifier related to specific functions of the interrogation signals transmitted by an SSR interrogator. Movement Area - That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area and the aprons. Non-Instrument Runway approach procedures.
A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
Normal Operating Zone (NOZ) - Airspace of defined dimensions extending either side of an ILS localizer course and/or MLS final approach track. Only the inner half of the normal operating zone is taken into account in independent parallel approaches. NOTAM A notice distributed by means of telecommunication containing information concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any aeronautical facility, service , procedure, or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
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Chapter I
Abbreviations and Definitions
No-transgression Zone (NTZ) - In the context of independent parallel approaches, a corridor of airspace of defined dimensions located centrally between the two extended runway centre lines, where a penetration by an aircraft requires a controller intervention to manoeuvre any threatened aircraft on the adjacent approach . Obstacle - All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile objects, or parts thereof that are located on an area intended for the surface movement of aircraft or that extend above a defined surface intended to protect aircraft in flight. Obstacle Assessment Surface (OAS) - A defined surface intended for the purpose of determining those obstacles to be considered for the calculation of obstacle clearance altitude/height for a specific ILS facility and procedure. Obstacle Clearance Altitude (OCA) or Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH) - The lowest altitude or the lowest height above the elevation of the releva nt runway threshold or the aerodrome elevation as applicable , used in establishing compliance wi th appropriate obstacle clearance criteria. Note: OCA is referenced to mean sea level and OCH is referenced to the aerodrome elevation or to the threshold elevation if that is more than 2 m (7 ft) below the aerodrome elevation. An OCH for a circling approach is referenced to the aerodrome eleva tion. Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ) - The airspace above the inner approach surface , inner transitional surfaces , and balked landing surface and that portion of the strip bounded by these surfaces , which is not penetrated by any fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and frangible mounted one required for air navigation purposes. Operational Control - The exercise of authority over the initiation , continuation , diversion , or termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and effi ciency of the flight. Operator operation.
A person, organisation , or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in ai rcraft
Pavement Classification Number (PCN) pavement for unrestricted operation. Pilot (to) -
A number expressing the bearing strength of a
To manipulate the flight controls of an aircraft during flight time.
Pilot in Command flight.
The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during
Power Unit - A system of one or more engines and ancillary parts that are together necessary to provide thrust, independently of the continued operation of any other power-unit(s), but not including short period thrust producing devices. Precision Approach Procedure - An instrument approach procedure utilizing azimuth and glide path information provided by ILS, MLS, or PAR.
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abbre viations and Definitions
Chapter J
Precision Approach Runway -- See Instrument Runway. Pre-flight Information Bulletin (PI B) -- A presentation of current NOTAM information of operational significance prepared pri or to flight. Pressure Altitude -- An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude that corresponds to that pressure in the standard atmosphere. Primary Area -- A defined area symmetrically disposed about the nominal flight track in which full obstacle clearance is provided. Primary Radar -- A radar system that uses reflected radio signals. Primary Runway(s) -- Runway(s) used in preference to others whenever conditions permit. Procedure Turn -- A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from a designated track foll owed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit the aircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the designated track. Note: Procedure turns are designated "left" or "right" according to the direction of the initial turn. Note: Procedure turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while descending , according to the circumstances of each individ ual procedure. Prohibited Area -- An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters of a state, within which the flight cif aircraft is prohibited. Racetrack Procedure -- A procedure designed to enable the aircraft to reduce altitude during the initial approach segment and/or establish the aircraft inbound when the entry into a reversal procedure is not practical. Radar Approach -- An approach in which the final approach phase is executed under the direction of a radar controller. Radar Clutter -- The visual indication on a radar display of unwanted signals . Radar Contact -- The situation which exists when the radar position of a particular aircraft is seen and identified on a radar display. Radar Control -- Term used to indicate that rada r derived information is employed directly in the provision of ATC service Radio Direction Finding Station -- A radio station intended to determine only the direction of other stations by means of transmissions from the latter. Radar Identification -- The situation that exists when the radar position of a particular aircraft is seen on a radar display and positively identified by the ATC controller.
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Chapter!
Abbreviations and Definitions
Radar Monitoring - The use of radar for the purpose of providing aircraft with information and advice relative to significant deviations from nominal flight path , including deviations from the terms of their ATC clearances. Radar Position Indication (RPI) - The visual indication , in non symbolic and/or symbolic form, on a radar display, of the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic .processing of positional data derived from primary and/or SSR. Radar Position Symbol (RIPS) - The visual indication , in symbolic form , on a radar display, of the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic processing of positional data derived from primary and/or SSR. Radar Separation radar sources.
The separation used when aircraft position information is derived from
Radar Service - The term used to indicate a service provided directly by means of radar. Radar Vectoring - Provision of navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of specific headings, based on the use of radar. Rating - An authorisation entered on or associated with a licence and forming part thereof stating special conditions, privileges, or limitations pertaining to such a licence. Receiving Unit/Controller - ATS unit/ATC controller to which a message is sent. Rendering (a Licence) Valid - The action taken by a Contracting State, as an alternative to issuing its own licence , in accepting a licence issued by any other Contracting State as the equivalent of its own licence. Repetitive Flight Plan - A fiight plan related to a series of frequentl y recurring, regularly operated individual flights with identical basic features, submitted by an operator for retention and repetitive use by ATS units. Reporting Point - A specified geographical location in relation to wh ich the position of an aircraft can be reported . Required Navigation Performance (RNP) - A statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace. Rescue Co-ordination Centre - A unit responsible for promoting efficient organization of search and rescue services and for coordinating the conduct of search and rescue operations within a search and rescue region . Restricted Area - An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters of a state , within which the fiight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions.
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Abbreviations and Definitions
Chapter I
Reversal Procedure - A procedure designed to enable aircraft to reverse direction during the initial approach segment of an instrument approach procedure. The sequence may include procedure turns or base turns. Runway - A defined rectangul ar area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft. Runway End Safety Area (RESA) - An area symmetrical about the extended runway centre line and adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the ri sk of damage to an aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the aerodrome. Runway Guard Lights - A light system intended to caution pilots or vehicle drivers that they are about to enter an active runway. Runway Strip ~ ~
A defined area including the run way and stop way, if provided , intended:
To reduce the risk of damage to aircraft run ning off the runway, and To protect aircraft fl ying over it during take-off and landing operations.
Runway Visual Range (RVR) - The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line. Secondary Area - A defined area on each side of the primary area located along the nominal flight track in which decreasing obstacle clearance is provided. Secondary Radar - A radar system wherein a radio signal transmitted from the radar station initiates the transmission of a radio signal from another station. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) - A surveillance radar system that uses a transmitter recei ver system of interrogators and transponders . Serious Incident occurred.
An incident involving circumstances indicating that an accident nearly
Note: The difference between an accident and a serious incident lies only in the result. Serious Injury - An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which: ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours , commencing within 7 days from the date the injury was received, or Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose), or Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage, or Involves injury to any internal organ, or Involves second or third degree burns , or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface, or Involves verified exposure to infectious substance;s or injurious radiation.
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Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
Shoulder - An area adjacent to the edge of a pavement so prepared as to provide a transition between the pavement and the adjacent surface. SIGMET Information - Information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified enroute weather phenomena which may affect the safety of aircraft operations. Signal Area -
An area of an aerodrome used for the display of ground signals.
Significant Point - A specified geographical location used in defining an ATS route or the fiight path of an aircraft, and for other navigation and ATS purposes. Slush - Water-saturated snow, which with a heel-and-toe slap down motion against the ground will be displaced with a splatter; Specific Gravity: 0.5 up to O.B. Snow (On the ground) Dry Snow - Snow that can be blown if loose or, if compacted by hand , will fall apart again upon release: Specific Gravity is up to but not including 0.35. Wet Snow - Snow which, if compacted by hand, will stick together and tend to form a snowball: Specific Gravity is 0.35 up to but not including 0.45. Compacted Snow - Snow that has been compressed into a solid mass that resists further compression and will hold together or break up into lumps if picked up: Specific Gravity is 0.45 and over. SNOWTAM - A special series NOTAM notifying the presence or removal of hazardous conditions due to snow, slush, and ice on the movement area , by means of a special format. Special VFR Flight - A VFR fiight cleared by air traffic control to operate within a control zone in meteorological conditions below VMC. Standard Instrument Arrival (STAR) - A designated IFR arrival route linking a significant point, normally on an ATS route, with a point from which a published instrument approach procedure can be commenced. Standard Instrument Departure (SID) - A designated IFR departure route linking the aerodrome or a specified runway of the aerodrome with a specified significant point, normally on a designated ATS route, at which the enroute phase of a fiight commences. State of Design design.
The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the type
State of Manufacture - The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the final assembly of the aircraft. State of Occurrence -
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The State in the territory of which an accident or incident occurs.
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Abbreviations and Definitions
Chapter I
State of the Operator - The State in which the operator's principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place of business, the operator's permanent residence . State of Registry -
The State on whose register the aircraft is entered .
Stopway - A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of TORA -prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off. Synthetic Flight Trainer - Anyone of the following three types of apparatus in which fiight conditions are simulated on the ground: Flight Simulator - A flight simulator, wh ich provides an accurate representation of the fiight deck of a particular aircraft type to the extent that the mechanica l and electrical systems control functions, the normal environment of fiight crew members , and the performance and flight characteristics of that type of aircraft are realistically simulated . Flight Procedures Trainer - A fiight procedures trainer, which provides a realistic fl ight deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of mechan ical and electrical systems, and the performance and fiight characteristics of aircraft of a particular class. Basic Instrument Flight Trainer - A basic instrument fiight trainer, which is equipped with appropriate instruments, and which simulates the fiight deck environment of an aircraft in flight in instrument fiight conditions. Take-off Runway -
A runway intended for take-off only.
Take-off Surface - That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft taking off in a particular direction. Taxi-Holding Position - A deSignated position at which taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall stop and hold position, unless otherwise authorised by the aerodrome control tower. Taxiing - The movement of an aircraft on the surface of an aerodrome under its own power, excl uding ta ke-off and landing , but including, in the case of helicopters, operation over the surface of an aerodrome within a height band associated with ground effect and at speeds associated with taxiing (e.g. air-taxiing).
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Chapter 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
Taxiway - A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another, including: Aircraft Stand Taxi Lane - A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft stands only. Apron Taxiway - A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron. Rapid Exit Taxiway - A taxiway connected to a ru nway at an acute angle and designated to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby minimizing runway occupancy times. Taxiway Intersection -
A junction of two or more taxiways.
Taxiway Strip - An area including ta xiway inlended to protect an aircraft operating on the taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft accidentally running off the taxiway. Terminal Control Area - A control area normally established at the confluence of ATS routes in the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes. Threshold (THR) -
The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing .
Total Estimated Elapsed Time - For IFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids , from wh ich it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced , or, if no navigation aid is associated with the destination aerodrome, to arrive over the destination aerod rome . For VFR flights , the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over the destination aerodrome. Touchdown -
The point where the nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
Touchdown Zone - The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold , where it is intended la nding aeroplanes first contact the runway. Track - The projection on the earth's surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of which path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from North (true , magnetic, or grid ). Traffic Avoidance Advice - Advice provided by Air Traffic Services Unit specifying manoeuvres to assist a pilot to avoid a collision. Traffic Information - Information issued by an air traffic services unit to alert a pilot to other known or observed air traffic, which may be in proximity to the position or intended route of fli ght, and to help the pilot avoid a collision. Transfer of Control Point - A defined point located along the flight path of an aircraft, at which the responsibility for providing ATe service to the aircraft is transferred from one control unit or control position to the next.
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AbbreviaNons and Definitions
Chapter I
Transferring Unit - ATCU in the process of transferring the responsibil ity for providing ATC service to an aircraft to the next ATCU along the route of fiight. Transition Altitude - The altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is controlled by reference to altitudes. Transition Layer -
The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
Transition Level -
The lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude.
Uncertainty Phase occupants. VFR -
A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
The symbol used to designate the visual flight rules.
VFR Flight -
A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules.
Visibility - The ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent objects by night. Visual Approach - An approach by an IFR aircraft when either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is not completed and the approach is executed in visual reference to terrain. Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area - The area in which obstacle clearance should be taken into consideration for aircraft carrying out a circling approach . Visual Meteorological Conditions - Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than the specified minima. Note: The specified minima are contained within these notes. VMC -
The symbol used to designate visual meteorological conditions.
Way-Point - A specified geographical location used to define an area navigation route or the flight path of an aircraft employing area navigation.
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BACKGROUND Today, decisions concerning international civil aviation are taken by the member states of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The JAR Aviation Law exam follows the Annexes and other documents of ICAO. These notes are designed to follow the JAR syllabus and are a summary of the reference material. Some of the language is difficult to follow because of the use of the words SHALL and SHOULD. SHALL refers to Standards; SHOULD refers to recommended practices.
INTRODUCTION For commercial aviation to operate, it is necessary for states to afford the airlines of other states the right to fly into and across their territory for both traffic and non-traffic purposes. Agreements are necessary to achieve this:
» »
Multilateral Agreements or conventions are entered into by a number of different states. The most obvious one to the aviator is the Chicago Convention, from which ICAO was established. Bilateral Agreements are agreements between two states. The two most important of these are the International Air Transport Agreement and the International Air Services Transit Agreement, discussed later in this chapter.
SAFETY International air transport is not just about navigation. The competitive nature of the business could create the obvious temptation to 'cut corners' and increase profit, so strict regulation is required to maintain safety. Over the years, the philosophy of 'a safe airline is a profitable airline' has evolved . Both Authorities and Operators have embraced safety through a system of international agreements, which have been translated into law in the contracting states.
INTERNATIONAL LAW Just as no state has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of another state , no convention has the right to impose rules and regulations. Only the legislative body of a state can make and impose law in that state. So the agreements reached at international conventions have to be translated into national law. If a state accepts the agreement without modification, or after agreed modification, and it becomes national law, the process is known as 'ratification'. Because the text of the agreement is accepted by all states that ratify the agreement, the agreement is then 'international' in nature, and the ensuing law is also 'international'. The principal sources of International Air Law are treaties. They are the international agreements entered into between states. Such treaties or conventions may be multilateral or bilateral.
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Chapter 2
The His/Oly of Aviation Law and Ihe Chicago Convention 1944
SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED AIR SERVICES Since the Paris conference in 191 9, the need has been re cognised for international air services to be organised. Scheduling of flights by route and timing is essential for a successful commercial operation by giving the revenue paying users a reliable timetable and route structure. Within a state, scheduled operations are a matter for the authority of that state , whereas international scheduled operations require the compliance of the authorities of tlTe states concerned. A scheduled air service requires international agreement negotiated at government level. A schedule implies that, once scheduled , the flight will be fl own. An operator is not permitted to cancel a flight at short notice due to insufficient passengers. However, persistent low passenger numbers may force a revision or cancellation of the schedule or the combination of schedules (code sharing). Non-scheduled or charter operations are not generally open to the public. Charter operations are subject to international agreement for repetitive operations, whereas nonscheduled operations are 'one-off and each flight is individually approved.
1919 AERONAUTICAL COMMISSION OF THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE At the time of the Paris Conference in 1919, the first international scheduled air service began between Croydon and Paris. This convention recognized that every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory, and provided for the innocent passage of civil aircraft of other contracting states over that state's territory. The conferen ce recommended the creation of an international body to regulate civil aviation , which led to the formation of the International Commission for Air Naviga tion (ICAN ). The conference also decided that each state should keep a register of aircraft used for commercial purposes.
CONVENTION OF THE UNIFICATION OF CERTAIN RULES TO INTERNATIONAL CARRIAGE BY AIR (WARSAW 1929) This convention, to which 108 states are party, is one of the most widely accepted unifications of private law. It unifies legislation on: ~ ~
~
Documentation on the carriage of passengers, baggage , and carg o. The financial liability of airlines (operators). The question of jurisdiction , by defining the courts before which any action may be brought.
This convention was amended and simplified by the 1955 Hague Protocol. The Montreal Agreement of 1966 further amended the finan cial liability of operators. The convention lays down uniform rules governing the air carrier's liabilities in re spect of passengers and goods. The Warsaw Convention deals only with rights and obligations of contracting ca rriers and applies to the international carriage of persons, baggage, or cargo performed by aircraft for reward .
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Chapter 2
PASSENGER TICKET A passenger ticket shall be issued for each flight containing: ~
~ ~
~ ~
The place and date of issue. An indica tion of the place of departure and destination. The agreed stopping places, provided that the carrier may reserve the right to alter the stopping places, and that if he exercises that right, the alteration shall not have the effect of depriving the carriage of its international character. The name and address of the carrier or carriers. A statement that the carriage is subjecl to the rules relating to the liability established by this convention usually printed on the ticket jacket.
The absence, irregularity, or loss of the passenger ticket does not affect the validity of the contract of carriage, wh ich shall be subject to the rules of the convention . If a carrier accepts a passenger without a ticket, the carrier will not be able to fall back on the provisions of the convention that limit liability. If a carrier issues an 'electronic' ticket, then the provisions of the Warsaw Convention must be communicated by other means.
BAGGAGE CHECK For luggage , other than small personal objects that the passengers take themselves , the carrier must issue a luggage ticket. The luggage ticket is made out in duplicate, one for the passenger and the other for the carrier.
LIABILITY OF THE CARRIER The Treaty also imposed limitations on the liability of the operator. However, where gross negligence can be proved, the limit of liability is removed. Currently, the limit of liability for death of a passenger is $100 000.
1944 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL CIVil AVIATION (THE CHICAGO CONVENTION) During the Second World War, the United States Government convened a con ference at Chicago in 1944 to determine the future of commercial aviation when the war ended . Such importance was attached to the subject matter that 55 allied and neutral states sent representatives to Chicago . The outcome was the Convention on Intern ational Civil Aviation , which is now the fundamental basis for agreement upon which the industry is founded. The 'agreement' is in two parts. The first covers International Air Navigation, and the second covers the organisation that administers the terms and conditions of the agreement. In common with other international conferences , the agreement is laid out in article form , where each individual article stands alone as a definitive statement. You are not required to recall the content of articles by number, but to have a broad understanding of what the agreement contains.
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Chapter 2
The History of Aviation Law and Ihe Ch icago Con vention 1944
PART 1- AIR NAVIGATION Article 1 - Sovereignty The Contracting States recognise that every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory. Article 2 - Territory For the purposes of this convention, the territory of a State shall be deemed to be the land areas and territorial waters adjacent thereto under the sovereignty, suzerainty, protection , or mandate of such a State. Suzerainty Is the acceptance by one state of the protection of another state. It has origins in feudal relationships. In aviation, it relates to the acceptance by one state of the regulation of its airspace by another state (e.g. the relationship between France and Monaco. Monaco has no aerodromes and no ATC system and has asked France to administer the control of air traffic over the territory of the State. French law is applied to Monegasque [Monaco] airspace). Article 3 - Civil and State Aircraft This convention shall be applicable only to civil aircraft, and not to State aircraft: ~ ~ ~
Aircraft used in military, customs, and police services shall be deemed to be State aircraft. No State aircraft of a Contracting State shall fly over the territory of another State or land without authorization by special agreement or otherwise. The Contracting States undertake, when issuing regulations for their State aircraft, that they will have due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.
Article 4 - Misuse of Civil Aircraft Each Contracting State agrees not to use civil aviation for any purpose inconsistent with the aims of this convention. Article 5 - Right of Non-Scheduled Aircraft Each Contracting State agrees that all aircraft of other Contracting States, not engaged in scheduled international air services, shall have the right to make flights into or transit non-stop across its territory and to make stops for non-traffic purposes without the necessity of obtaining prior permission. This is subject to the right of the state flown over, which may require the aircraft to land. Each Contracting State reserves the right, for reasons of safety of flight, to require aircraft desiring to proceed over regions which are inaccessible or without adequate air navigation facilities to follow prescribed routes, or to obtain special permission for such flights. Such aircraft, if engaged on the carriage of passengers , cargo, or mail for remuneration or hire on other than scheduled international air services, shall also subject to the provisions of Article 7, have the right to take on or discharge passengers, cargo , or mail. This is subject to the right of any State, where such embarkation or discharge takes place, to impose such regulations, conditions, or limitations as it may consider desirable. Article 6 - Scheduled Air Services No operation of scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a Contracting State , except with the special permission or other authorization of that State, and in accordance with the terms of such permission or authorization . 2-4
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Chapter 2
Article 7 - Cabotage Each Contracting State shall have the right to refuse permission to the aircraft of other Contracting States to take on in its territory passengers , mail , and cargo carried for remuneration or hire and destined for another point within its territory. Each Contracting State undertakes not to enter into any arrangements that specifically grant any such privilege on an exclusive basis to any other State or an airline of any other State, and not to obtain any such e ~clusive privilege from any other State. Article 10 - Landing At Customs Airport Except in a case where, under the terms of this Convention or a special authorization , aircraft are permitted to cross the territory of a Contracting State without landing , every aircraft which enters the territory of a Contracting State shall, if the regulations of that State so require , land at an airport for the purpose of customs and other examination. On departure from the territory of a Contracting State, aircraft shall also depart from a designated customs airport. Particulars of all designated customs airports shall be published by the State and transmitted to the ICAO established under Part II of this Convention for communication to all other Contracting States . Customs Airports are frequently called 'International' airports. Article 11 - Applicability of Air Regulations Subject to the provisions of this Convention, the laws and regulations of a Contracting State relating to the admission to or departure from its territory of aircraft engaged in international air navigation, or to the operation and navigation of such aircraft while within its territory, shall be applied to the aircraft of all Contracting States without distinction as to nationality, and shall be complied with by aircraft upon entering or departing from or while within the territory of that State. Article 12 - Rules of the Air Each Contracting State agrees to adopt measures to ensure that all aircraft fiying over or manoeuvring within its territory and that every aircraft carrying its nationality mark shall comply with the rules and regulations relating to the fiight and manoeuvres of aircraft there in force. Each Contracting State undertakes to keep its own regulations uniform, to the greatest possible extent, with those rules established under the Convention . Over the high seas , the rules in force shall be those established under the Convention . Each Contracting State undertakes to ensure the protection of all persons violating the regulations applicable. Article 13 - Entry and Clearance Regulations The laws and regulations of a Contracting State as to the admission to or departure from its territory of passengers , crew, or cargo of aircraft, such as entry clearance, immigration , passports, customs, and quarantine, shall be complied with by or on behalf of passengers , crew or cargo upon entrance into or departure from , or while within the territory of that State. Article 17 - Nationality of Aircraft Aircraft have the nationality of the State in which they are registered. Article 18 - Dual Registration An aircraft cannot be validly registered in more than one State, but its registration may be changed from one State to another.
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The Hist01Y of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
Article 19 - National Laws Governing Registration The registration or transfer of registration of aircraft in any Contracting State shall be made in accordance with its laws and regulations. Article 20 - Display of Marks Every aircraft engaged in international air navigation shall bear its appropriate nationality and registration marks. Article 22 - Facilitation of Formalities Each Contracting State agrees to adopt all practicable measures to facilitate and expedite navigation by aircraft between the territories of Contracting States. This incl udes the prevention of unnecessary delays to aircraft, crews, passengers, and cargo, especially in the administration of the laws relating to immigration , quarantine, customs, and clearance. Article 24 ~
~
Customs Duty Aircraft on a flight to, from , or across the territory of another Contracting State shall be admitted temporarily free of duty, subject to the customs regulations of the State. Fuel, lubricating oils, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft spares on board an aircraft of a Contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another Contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges. This exemption shall not apply to any quantities or articles unloaded, except in accordance with the customs regulations of the State , which may require that they shall be kept under customs supervision. Spare parts and equipment imported into the territory of a Contracting State for incorporation in or use on an aircraft of another Contracting State engaged in international air navigation shall be admitted free of customs duty, subject to compliance with the regulations of the State concerned , which may provide that the articles shall be kept under customs supervision and control.
Article 25 - Aircraft In Distress Each Contracting State undertakes to provide such measures of assistance to aircraft in distress in its territory as is practicable , and to permit, subject to control by its own authorities, the owners of the aircraft or authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered to provide assistance as may be necessitated by the circumstances. Each Contracting State, when undertaking a search for missing aircraft, will collaborate in co-ordinated measures which may be recommended from time to time by the convention. Article 26 - Investigation of Accidents In the event of an accident to an aircraft of a Contracting State occurring in the territory of another Contracting State, and involving death or serious injury, or indicating serious technical defect in the aircraft or air navigation facilities, the State in which the incident occurs will institute an inquiry into the circumstances of the accident, in accordance, so far as its laws permit, with the procedure which may be recommended by the ICAO. The State holding the inqui ry shall communicate the report and findings in the matter to the other State.
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Article 31 - Certificates of Airworthiness All aircraft engaged in international air navigation shall be provided with a certifica te of airworthiness issued or rendered valid by the State in which it is registered. Article 32 - Licences of Personnel The pilot of every aircraft and the other members of the operating crew of "all aircraft engaged in international navigation shall be provided with:
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Certificates of competency, and Licences issued or rendered valid by the State in which the aircraft is registered .
Each Contracting State reserves the right to refuse to recognize , for the purposes of fiight above its own territory, certificates of competency and licences granted to any of its nationals by other Contracting States. Article 33 - Recognition of Certificates And Licences Certificates of airworthiness and certificates of competency and licences issued or rendered valid by the Contracting State in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognized as valid by other Contracting States, provided that the requirements under which certificates or licences were issued or rendered valid are equal to or above the minimum standards established by the Convention. Article 36 - Photographic Apparatus Each Contracting State may prohibit or regulate the use of photographic apparatus in aircraft over its territory. Article 37 - Adoption of International Standards And Procedures Each Contracting State undertakes to collaborate in securing the highest practicable degree of uniformity in regulations, standards, procedures and organization in relation to aircraft, personnel , airways and auxiliary services in all matters in which such uniformity will facilitate and improve air navigation. To this end the ICAO shall adopt and amend , as may be necessary, international standards and recommended practices and procedures dealing wilh:
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Communications systems and air navigation aids, including ground marking Characteristics of airports and landing areas Rules of the air and air traffic control practices Licensing of operating and mechanical personnel Airworthiness of aircraft Registration and identification of aircraft Collection and exchange of meteorological information Log books Aeronautical maps and charts Customs and immigration procedures Aircraft in distress and investigation of accidents
and other such matters concerned with the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation as may from time to time appear appropriate.
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The History of Aviation Law and (he Chicago Convention 1944
Article 38 - Departures From International Standards and Procedures Any State which finds it impracticable to comply in all respects with the Standards and Recommended Practices adopted by ICAO may give notice of such to the Council. Many states adopt the ICAO SARPS without reservation whilst others (the UK, the USA and Russia in particular) have notified extensive 'differences ' in their procedures. The list of 'differences' is recorded in GEN section 7 of the Al P of the state.
PART 11- THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION An organization to be named the International Civil Aviation Organization is formed by the Convention . It is made up of an Assembly, a Council , and such other bodies as may be necessary.
THE ORGANISATION
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Air Navigation Commission 15 members appointed by the Council. Air Transport Committee Appointed by the Council. Legal Committee Committee on Joint Support of Air Navigation Services Not more than 11 members, with not less than 9 members , appointed by the Council. Finance Committee Not more than 13 members, wi th not less than 9 members, appointed by the Council. Committee on Unlawful Interference 15 members appointed by the Council.
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Objectives The aims and objectives of the organization are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to: ~ ~
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Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world. Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes. Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities fo r international civil aviation. Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe , regular, efficient and economical air transport. Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition. Ensure that the rights of Contracting States are fully respected and that every Contracting State has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines. Avoid discrimination between Contracting States. Promote safety of flight in international air navigation. Promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics.
THE ASSEMBLY The Assembly shall meet not less than once every three years and shall be convened by the Council at a suitable time and place. An extraordinary meeting of the Assembly may be held at any time upon the call of the Councilor at the request of not less than 1/5th of the total number of Contracting States. All Contracting States shall have an equal right to be represented at the meetings of the Assembly and each Contracting State shall be entitled to one vote. A majority of the Contracting States is required to constitute a quorum for the meetings of the Assembl y. Unless otherwise provided in this Convention , decisions of the Assembly shall be taken by a majority of the votes cast.
ANNEXES TO THE CONVENTION The annexes are the basis of the ICAO procedures and practices: Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Air Law
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Personnel Licensing . Rules of the Air. Meteorological Services. Aeronautical Charts. Dimension Units. Operation of Aircraft. Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks. Airworthiness of Aircraft. Facilitation. Aeronautical Telecommunications. Air Traffic Services. Search and Rescue. Aircraft Accident Investigation. Aerodromes. Aeronautical Information Service., Environmental Protection. Security. Transport of Dangerous Goods. 2-9
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The HistolY of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
ICAO regulations are not automatically the law of a contracting state . All regulations have to be enacted as part of the law of that state. Status of Annex Components All Annexes are made up of the following components , not all of which are necessarily found in every Annex: Standards and Recommended Practices Standards and Recommended Practices (generally known as SARPs) are adopted by the ICAO Council under the provisions of the Chicago Convention. They are defined as follows: Standard Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration , material, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of International Navigation and to which Contracting States will conform in accordance with the conven tion. In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is compulsory. The word 'SHALL' defines a standard. Recommended Practice Any specification for physical cha racteristics, configuration , material , performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is recognized as desirable for the safety or regularity of International Navigation and to which Contracting States will endeavour to conform in accordance with the convention. In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is not compulsory. The word 'SHOULD' defines a recomm ended practice . Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS) These are procedures that have been adopted by the council for worldwide use. They can contain : ~ ~
New procedures, or those which are too complicated or detailed for inclusion in an An nex. Operating procedures that have not attained a status for adoption as International Standards and Recommended Practices.
Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUPPS) These procedures are similar in status to the PANS but are for application in their respective regions . Technical Manuals These documents amplify the SARPs and PANS . They are designed to assist in the use of the relevant document. Air Navigation Plans Air Navigation Plans detail the req uirements for facil ities and services for international air navigation in the respective ICAO Air Navigation Regions.
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ICAO Circulars Any information that is of specific interest to contracting states is transmitted by these documents.
OTHER INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS MADE AT CHICAGO By the nature of the assembled national delegations at Chicago in 1944, j t was not possible to reach unanimous agreement on all the matters discussed. Individual states demanded to reta in territorial rights over their airspace , and in general this was respected. In order to make the agreements work, a system of bilateral agreements was established wh ich permitted states to be selective in which other states they entered into the agreements with. In essence , if state A did not want the aircraft of state B fiying unrestricted over its airspace, then it did not enter into an agreement with that state.
THE INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT AGREEMENT AND THE INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES TRANSIT AGREEMENT These bilateral agreements established what are known as the "The Five Freedoms of the Air". These freedoms are: One
The freedom of innocent passage. The right to fiy across the territory of a state without landing.
Two
Freedom of Facilities . The right to use (land in) foreign territory to refuel or carry out maintenance. This does not give any traffic rights.
Three The right to carry revenue traffic(1) from the operator state (A) to a treaty partner state (B). Four
The right to carry revenue traffic from a treaty partner state (B) to the operator state (A).
Five
The right to carry revenue traffic between any points of landing on fiights between 3 or more treaty partner nations (A to B to C). This is the most important 'freedom' as it effectively facilitates international traffic operations. The term 'a fifth freedom fiight' is used extensively. (Do not get this freedom mixed up with Cabotage)
Note 1: Revenue traffic is defined as the ca rriage of passengers , mail , or cargo. Freedoms one and two are known as technical freedoms , and freedoms three , four, and five are the commercial freedoms.
SUPPLEMENTARY FREEDOMS Since 1944, evolution of international air transport has led to situations not envisioned at Chicago. These are now embodied in 'new' freedoms. (These are outside the learning objectives for 010 Air Law). Six
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A combination of Freedoms 3 and 4. Revenue traffic fiown between two treaty partner states (A to C) through the carrier state (B).
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Seven Revenue traffic fl own between two nations (A and 8) by carrier of a third nation (C) without the flight originating, terminating , or landing in state C. Eight
Cabotage (within the EEC) The right to carry revenue traffic between two points within a treaty (EEC) nation by the carrier of another EEC nation, whilst allowing the treaty organisation (EEC) to apply cabotage to non-treaty nations.
Nine
Code Sharing. The combin ing of two or more scheduled flights under one operation. This preserves the schedules but economises on aircraft and effectively increases passenger loading. Technically, this is a breach of the schedule agreement between states. However, reduced pollution, redu ced noise nuisance, increased profits, and reduced aerodrome loading all make code sharing attractive to both aviation authoriti es and operators alike.
THE CONVENTION OF TOKYO 1963 Following concern about unlawful seizure of aircraft in the ea rly 1960s, the Japanese Government convened a meeting to tackle the problem. Unfortunately, there was no mechanism for the imposition of authority over flights outside the territory of a state as there was for shipping , so the convention was mainly concerned with establishing jurisdiction rather than addressing the problem of air piracy. The agreements made at this convention cover offences and certain other acts committed on board aircraft including unlawful seizure . The convention covers the jurisdiction of the pilot in command and national jurisdiction. National Jurisdiction The convention states that the State of Registry of an aircraft is responsible for exercising jurisdiction over offences and acts committed on board , with the stipulation that the authority of any other state does not apply (see Jurisdiction of Other States). The State of Registry should take all legal steps necessary to ensure this. Jurisdiction of Other States A contracting state, which is not the State of Registry, may interfere with an aircraft in flight in order to exercise legal control over any offence committed on board when: ~ ~ ~
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An offence has been committed on board in the territorial airspace of that state . An offence committed on board has an effect on the territory of the state. An offence has been committed on board against a national , or permanent resident, of that state. An offence has been committed on board against the security of that state. The offence committed is a breach of the rules or regulations relating to the fli ght of ai rcraft in that state. The exercise of jurisdiction is necessary to ensure the observance of any multinational agreements between states .
Pilot in Command If a person commits, or is about to commit, an unlawful act on board an aircraft, the aircraft commander may impose reasonable measures, including restraint, considered necessary: ~ ~
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To protect the safety of the aircraft, persons or property on board . To maintain good order and discipline.
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To enable handing a person over to the competent authorities. This can include removal of a passenger from an aircraft, or refusal of permission for a person to board an aircraft.
To carry out his task the aircraft commander may require the assistance of other crew members. Passengers may also be asked to assist, if necessary.
THE HAGUE CONVENTION OF 1970 Following the Tokyo Convention , and after a spate of politically motivated terrorists hijackings , ICAO called a convention hosted by the Dutch government to address this problem . The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft defines the act of unlawful seizure and the measures to be taken by contracting states to enforce severe punishment upon perpetrators. This agreement specifies extradition of offenders and obliges contracting states to extradite offenders.
THE MONTREAL CONVENTION OF 1971 The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the safety of Civil Aviation compliments the Hague Convention by making it an offence to: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Commit acts of violence on board aircraft that endanger people and property and the safety of the aircraft. Destroy an aircraft in service or cause damage which renders the aircraft incapable of fiight or which is likely to endanger the safety of fiight. Place a device on board an aircraft that is likely to destroy the aircraft, damage it, or render it unfit for fiight. Destroy or damage any navigation facility or interference with its correct operation. Interfere with aircraft communications or transmit information known to be false that endangers the safety of an aeroplane in fiight.
THE PROTOCOL TO THE MONTREAL CONVENTION OF 1971 This extended the Montreal Convention to include offences committed at aerodromes serving international civil aviation, including the intentional use of any device, substance or weapon: ~
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Likely to cause serious injury or death. To destroy or seriously damage the facilities of an airport. To destroy or damage aircraft not in service at the airport. To disrupt the services at an airport.
Note: In this context, a protocol is a diplomatic method whereby the content of an agreement can be amended without the need to re-convene the entire convention.
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ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER 2 The LOs for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of defined parts of the Chicago Convention. For completeness , the remaining Articles of the Convention (those not covered in the body of Chapter 2) are reproduced below. The Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention) Article 8 - Pilotless Aircraft No aircraft capable of being flown without a pilot shall be flown without a pilot over the territory of a Contracting State without special authorization by that State and in accordance with the terms of such authorization. Each Contracting State undertakes to ensure that the fiight of such aircraft without a pilot in regions open to civil aircraft shall be controlled as to obviate danger to ci vil aircraft. Article 9 ~
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Prohibited Areas Each Contracting State may, for reasons of military necessity or public safety, restrict or prohibit the aircraft of other States from flying over certain areas of its territory. This is provided that no distinction in this respect is made between the aircraft of the State whose territory is involved. Prohibited areas shall be of reasonable extent and location so as not to interfere unnecessarily with air navigation. Descriptions of prohibited areas in the territory of a Contracting State, as well as any subsequent alterations , shall be communicated as soon as possible to other Contracting States and to the ICAO. Each Contracting State reserves the right, in exceptional circumstances or during a period of emergency, or in the interests of public safety, and with immediate effect, to restrict or prohibit flying over the whole or any part of its territory temporaril y. Such a restriction or prohibition shall be applicable without distinction of nationality to aircraft of all other States. Each Contracting State , under any regulations as it may prescribe may require any aircraft entering the areas in the paragraphs above to effect a landing as soon as practicable thereafter at a designated airport within its territory.
Article 14 - Prevention of Spread of Disease Each Contracting State agrees to take effective measures to prevent the spread by means of air navigation of cholera, typhus (epidemic) , smallpox, yellow fever, plague , and such other communicable disease as the Contracting States shall from time to time decide to designate. To that end Contracting States will keep in close consultation with the agencies concerned with international regulations relating to sanitary measures applicable to aircraft. Consultation shall be without prejudice to the application of any existing international convention on this subject to which the Contracting States may be parties. Article 16 - Search of Aircraft The appropriate authorities of each of the Contracting States shall have the right without unreasonable delay, to search aircraft of the other Contracting States on landing or departure, and to inspect the certificates and other documents prescribed by this Convention .
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Article 21 - Report of Registrations Each Contracting State undertakes to supply to any other Contracting State or to the ICAO, on demand, information concerning the registration and ownership of any particular aircraft registered in that State. Each Contracting State shall furnish reports to the ICAO, under any regulations as the latter may decide upon, pertinent data concerning the ownership and control of aircraft registered in that State and engaged in international air navigation .• The data obtai ned by the ICAO shall be made available to the other Contracting States. Article 23 - Customs and Immigration Procedures Each Contracting State undertakes, so far as practicable, to establish customs and immigration procedures affecting international air navigation in accordance with the practices which may be established or recommended by the Convention . Nothing in this Convention shall be construed as preventing the establishment of customs free airports. Article 28 - Air Navigation Facilities and Standard Systems Each Contracting State undertakes, so far as it may be practicable , to: ~
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Provide , in its territory, airports , radio services, meteorological services and other air navigation facilities to facilitate international air navigation , in accordance with the standards and practices recommended or established by the Convention . Adopt and put into operation the appropriate standard systems of communications procedures, codes, markings , signals , lighting and other operational practices and rules which may be recommended or established by the Convention. Collaborate in international measures to secure the publication of aeronautical maps and charts in accordance with standards that may be recommended or established by the Convention.
Article 29 - Documents Carried in Aircraft An aircraft of a Contracting State, engaged in international air navigation , shall carry the following documents in order to conform with the Convention: ~ ~
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A certificate of registration A certificate of airworthiness The appropriate licences for each member of the crew A journey log book If equipped with radio apparatus , the aircraft radio station licence If passengers are carried , a list of their names and places of embarkation and destination If cargo is carried, a manifest and detailed declarations of the cargo
Article 30 - Aircraft Radio Equipment ~
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Aircraft of a Contracting State may, in or over the territory of other Contracting States, carry radio-transmitting apparatus if a licence to install and operate the radio has been issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered. The use of radio transmitting apparatus in the territory of the Contracting State whose territory is flown over shall be in accordance with the regulations prescribed by that State. Radio transmitting apparatus can only be used by members of the flight crew who are provided with a radio licence issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered . 2- 15
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Article 34 - Journey Log Books All aircraft engaged in international navigation shall have a journey log book in which shall be entered particulars of the aircraft, its crew and of each journey. Article 35 - Cargo Restrictions No munitions of war or implements of war may be carried in or above the territory of a State by aircraft engaged in international navigation , except by permission of that State. Each State shall determine what constitutes munitions of war for the purposes of this article , giving due consideration , for the purposes of uniformity, to the recommendations made by ICAO. Each Contracting State reserves the right, for reasons of public order and safety, to regulate or prohibit the carriage in or above its territory of articles other than those listed in the paragraph above, provided that: ~ ~
Article 39 ~
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No distinction is made in this respect between its national aircraft engaged in international navigation and the aircraft of the other States, and No restriction shall be imposed which may interfere with the carriage and use on aircraft of apparatus necessary for the operation or navigation of the aircraft or the safety of the personnel or passengers. Endorsement of Certificates and Licences Any aircraft or part thereof with respe ct to which there exists an international standard of airworthiness or performance, and which failed in any respect to satisfy the standard at the time of its certification , shall have endorsed on or attached to its airworthiness certificate a complete list of the details in respect of which it failed . Any person holding a licence who does not satisfy in full the conditions laid down in the international standard relating to the class of licence or certificate which he holds shall have endorsed on or attached to his licence the details of the particulars in which he does not satisfy such condilions.
Article 40 - Validity of Endorsed Certificates and Licences No aircraft or personnel having certificates or licences so endorsed shall participate in international navigation, except wi th the permission of the State or States whose territory is entered. The registration or use of any such aircraft, or of any certificated aircraft part, in any State other than that in which it was originally certificated shall be at the discretion of the State into which the aircraft or part is imported. Article 47 - Legal Capacity The organization shall enjoy in the territory of each Contracting State such legal capacity as may be necessary for the performance of its functions . Article 49 - Powers and Duties of the Assembly The powers and duties of the Assembly shall be to: ~ ~ ~ ~
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Elect at each meeting its president and other officers Elect the Contracting States to be represented on the Council , in accordance with the , provisions of Chapter IX Examine and take appropriate action on the reports of the Council and decide on any matter referred to it by the Council Determine its own rules of procedure and establish such subsidiary commissions as it may consider to be necessary or desirable Air Law
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Vote annual budgets and determine the financial arrangements of the organ ization , in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII Review expenditures and approve the accounts of the organization Refer, at its discretion , to the Council, to subsidiary commissions, or to any other body any matter within its sphere of action Delegate to the Council the powers and authority necessary or desirable for the discharge of the duties of the organization and revoke or modify the delegations of authority at any time Carry out the appropriate provisions of Chapter XIII Consider proposals for the modification or amendment of the provisions of this Convention and, if it approves of the proposals , recommend them to the Contracting States in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XXI Deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the Organization not specifically aSSigned to the Council
CHAPTER IX -
THE COUNCil
Article 50 - Composition and Election of the Council ~
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The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It is composed of 33 Contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every 3 years . Elected members of the Council hold office until the following election In electing the members of the Council, the Assembly shall give adequate representation to: • The States of chief importance in air transport • The States not otherwise included which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities for international civil air navigation , and •
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The States not otherwise included whose designation will insure that all the major geographic areas of the world are represented • The Assembly shall fill any vacancy on the Council as soon as possible; any Contracting State so elected to the Council shall hold office for the unexpired portion of its predecessor's office No representative of a Contracting State on the Council shall be actively associated with the operation of an international air service or financially interested in such a service
Article 51 - President of Council The Council shall elect its president for a term of 3 years. He may be re-elected. He shall have no vote. The Council shall elect from its members one or more vice presidents who shall retain their right to vote when serving as acting president. The president need not be selected from among the representatives of the members of the Council but, if a representative is elected, his seat shall be deemed vacant and it shall be filled by the State that he represented . The duties of the president shall be to: ~
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Convene meetings of ~ The Council ~ The Air Transport Committee ~ The Air Navigation Commission Serve as representative of the Council Carry out on behalf of the Council the functions which the Council assigns to him 2-1 7
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Article 54 - Mandatory Functions of the Council The Council shall: ~
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Submit annual reports to the Assembly Carry out the directions of the Assembly and discharge the duties and obligations which are laid on it by this Convention Determine its organization and rules of procedure Appoint and define the duties of an Air Transport Committee , which shall be chosen from among the representatives of the members of the Council , and which shall be responsible to it Establish an Air Navigation Commission , in accordance with the provisions of Chapter X Administer the finances of the Organization in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII and XV Determine the emoluments of the president of the Council Appoint a chief executive officer who shall be called the secretary-general, and make provision for the appointment of such other personnel as may be necessary, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XI Request, collect, examine and publish information relating to the advancement of air navigation and the operation of international air services including information about the costs of operation and particulars of subsidies paid to airlines from public funds Report to Contracting States any infraction of this Convention , as well as any failure to carry out recommendations or determinations of the Council Report to the Assembly any infraction of this Convention where a Contracting State has failed to take appropriate action within a reasonable time after notice of the infraction Adopt, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter VI of this Convention, international standards and recommended practices; for convenience designate them as Annexes to this Convention ; and notify all Contracting States of the action taken Consider recommendations of the Air Navigation Commission for amendment of the Annexes and take action in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XX Consider any matter relating to the Convention to which any Contracting State refers
Article 55 - Permissive Function of the Council The Council may: ~
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Where appropriate and as experience may show to be desirable , create subordinate air transport commissions on a regional or other basis and define groups of States or airlines with or through which it may deal to facilitate the carrying out of the aims of this Convention Delegate to the Air Navigation Commission duties additional to those in the Convention and revoke or modify such delegations of authority at any time Conduct research into all aspects of air transport and air navigation which are of international importance, communicate the results of its research to the Contracting States , and facilitate the exchange of information between Contracting States on air transport and air navigation matters Study any matters affecting the organization and operation of international air transport, including the international ownership and operation of international air services on trunk routes, and submit to the Assembly plans in relation thereto Investigate, at the request of any Contracting State, any situation which may appear to present avoidable obstacles to the development of international air navigation ; and after such investigation, issue such reports as may appear to be desirable Air Law
The Histmy of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
CHAPTER X -
Chapler 2
THE AIR NAVIGATION COMMISSION
Article 56 - Nomination and Appointment of the Commission The Air Navigation Commission is composed of 15 members appointed by the Council from among the persons nominated by Contracting States; these persons shall have suitable qualifications and experience in the science and practice of aeronautics. The Council shall request all Contracting States to submit nominations. The Council shall appoint the president of the Air Navigation Commission. Article 57 - Duties of the Commission The Air Navigation Commission shall: ~
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Consider and recommend to the Council for adoption, modifications of the Annexes to this Convention Establish technical sub-commissions on which any Contracting State may be represented, if it so desires Advise the Council concerning the collection and communication to the Contracting States of all information which it considers necessary and useful for the advancement of air navigation
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THE INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (lATA) lATA is a body whose members are composed of airlines. The functions of lATA include the establishment of uniform fares , uniform ticketing arrangements, and other proced ures. The lATA interlining agreements led to carriers accepting other carriers' tickets and waybills. This not only allows 'consortium' operations (One World , etc.) but also makes regional feeder services viable. lATA acts as the fare distribution agent, paying the small feeder/regional airline , then recovers the cost from the primary (international) carrier.
THE CONVENTION OF ROME 1933/1952 This convention produced uniformity in place of the differing national laws covering the liability of the owner or operator of an aircraft that causes damage to persons or property on the ground. In simple terms, the operator is liable for any damage, but the liability is limited to a sum that is proportionate to the weight of the aircraft. The Convention makes it compulsory to insure against this liability. A later Rome Convention looked at the problems of damage caused by foreign aircraft to third parties on the surface of the earth. The amount of compensation is limited , but carriers are liable for damage caused to third parties. The convention does accept compulsory recognition and execution of any foreign judgement on damage to third parties. The 1933 convention also regulated the right of arrest where an aircraft is seized in the case of debt.
COMMERCIAL PRACTICES AND ASSOCIATED RULES (LEASING) The learning objectives require the student to have knowledge of the practice and terminology of leasing aeroplanes. The reference for Leasing is JAR-OPS. Terms used in JAR-OPS 1.165 have the following meaning: Air Operators Certificate, a document issued by the Authority of a State allowing an Operator to conduct public transport flights. The aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee (the company Dry lease leasing the aeroplane). The aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessor (the company Wet lease who let the aircraft out) . JAA operator An operator certificated under JAR-OPS Part 1 by one of the JAA Member States. The process of 'borrowing' an aeroplane. Lease In The process of 'lending' an aeroplane. Lease Out AOC
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Other international and European Organisations
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN JAA OPERATORS Wet lease-out. If a JAA operator retains all functions and responsibilities prescribed in Subpart C of JAROPS when providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another JAA Operator, then that operator remains the operator of the aeroplane. All leases except wet lease-out. Any leasing activity other than the wet lease out described above requires approval of the appropriate JAA authority.
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN A JAA OPERATOR AND ANY BODY OTHER THAN A JAA OPERATOR Dry lease-in A JAA operator may not dry lease-in an aeroplane from any entity other than a JAA operator, unless approved by the Authority. Any conditions that are part of this approval must be included in the lease agreement. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with regard to aeroplanes that are dry leased-in, any differences from the prescribed instrument, navigation , communication , and safety equipment are notified to, and are acceptable to , the Authority. Wet lease-in A JAA operator shall not wet lease-in an aeroplane from a body other than a JAA operator without the approval of the Authority. The JAA operator shall ensure that, wi th regard to aeroplanes that are wet leased-in: ~ The safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are equivalent to the JAR regulations ~ The lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State wh ich is a signatory to the Chicago Convention ~ The aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA Member State other than the State responsible for issue the AOC will be accepted without further showing when issued in accordance with JAR, and ~ Any JAA requirements are complied with by the lessee's Authority.
Dry lease-out A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air transportation to any operator of a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention. In this case, the JAA Authority will exempt the JAA operator from the relevant provisions of JAR-OPS Part 1. Further, after the foreign regulatory authority has accepted responsibility in writing for surveillance of the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane(s), the aeroplane(s) will be removed from the JAA operator's AOC. Part of the leasing agreement is that the aeroplane(s) will be maintained according to an approved maintenance programme. Wet lease-out A JAA operator providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another entity and retaining all the prescribed functions and responsibilities shall remain the operator of the aeroplane.
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Other International and European Organisations
Chapter 3
LEASING OF AEROPLANES AT SHORT NOTICE In circumstances where a JAA operator is faced with an immediate, urgent, and unforeseen need for a replacement aeroplane, the required approval may be deemed to have been given, provided that the lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State which is a signatory to the Chicago Convention, the lease-in period does not exceed 5 consecutive days, and the Authority is immediately notified of the use of this provision.
EUROPEAN CIVIL AVIATION CONFERENCE (ECAC) INTRODUCTION In 1953 a European conference convened on Co-ordination of Air Transport in Europe (CATE), to discuss methods of improving commercial and technical co-operation between the airlines of the European countries participating in the conference, as well as the possibility of securing closer co-operation by the exchange of commercial rights between the European countries. In ord er to follow up on the recommendations adopted at the meeting , CATE proposed the establishment of a permanent organisation of the European aeronautical authorities. This organisation was called the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) and held its inaugural session in 1955.
ECAC OBJECTIVES :.:.:.-
Continuing the work of the CATE conference. Reviewing the development of intra-European air transport with the object of improvement. Considering any special problem that might arise from the above.
ECAC membership, which includes all EC countries, needed to institute procedures consistent with those resulting from the EC treaty and the Single European Act. The recommendation s made by the European Parliament and the Council of Europe needed a co-ordinated approach to ensure air safety within Europe. In 1970, some European civil aviation authorities started to cooperate with a view to producing common Joint Airworthiness Requirements so as to fa cilitate certification of products built jOintly in Europe. This led to the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) Board becoming an associated body to ECAC in 1989. The JAA Board oversees arrangements between a number of ECAC states providing for co-operation in developing and implementing common safety standards and procedures.
JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES (JAA) JAA ORGANISATION The JAA has developed since the 1970s and the members are bound by the "Arrangements" signed in Cyprus by the then member states in 1990. The main JAA objectives are: :.:.:.-
Air Law
To ensure through co-operation common high levels of safety within the member states. Through the application of uniform safety standards, to contribute to fair and eq ual competition within the member states. To aim for cost effective safety and minimum regulatory burden so as to contribute to the European industries' international competitiveness.
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Chap!er 3
Olher international and Europ ean Organisations
The JAA operates in a manner that is as close as possible to a single authority, without yet formally or legally becoming a single international body where each individual state gives up its ultimate responsibilities. JAA membersh ip is open to the civil aviation authorities of the ECAC member States . Each National Aviation Authority (NAA) continues to exist and ca rry out specific delegated roles within the JAA. The NAA issues licences and regulates the operators of that state.
FUNCTIONS OF JAA The authorities use the JAA to perform the following functions: ~
~ ~
~
~
~ ~
~
To develop, adopt, and publish Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs) for the use of the Authorities in the field of design , manufacture, maintenance and operations , and the licensing of aviation personnel. To develop administrative and technical procedures for the implementation of JARs. To implement JARs and related administrative and technical procedures in a coordinated and uniform manner. To adopt measures to ensure, whe~ever possible, that pursuance of the JAA safety objective does not unreasonably distort competition between the aviation industries of member states or place companies of member states at a competitive disadvantage with those of non-member states. To provide the principal centre of professional expertise in Europe on the harmonisation of aviation safety regulations. To establish procedures for joint certification of products and services and where it is considered appropriate to perform joint certification. To co-operate on the harmonisation of requirements and procedures with other safety regulatory authorities , especially the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Where feasible, to co-operate with foreign safety regulatory authorities , especially the FAA, on the certification of products and services.
ORGANISATION AND PROCEDURES The JAA is controlled by a committee that works under the authority of the Plenary Conference of the ECAC and reports to the JAA Board of Directors General (better known as the JAA Board ). The JAA Board considers and reviews the general policies and long term objectives of the JAA.
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Air Law
Chapter 3
Other International and European Organisations
JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES JAA Board
JAA Committee Executive Board Foundation Board
I JAAIFAA Harmonisation
r-1
Joint Steering Committee
I
Secretary General I
I
Regulation
I I Certification I I Maintenance II
Operations
II
Licensing
I IAdministration I
JAAlFAA HARMONISATION The two major aircraft producers in the world are the United States and Europe. In the USA the FAA regulates the industry, whereas in Europe the disparate national authorities were uncoordinated. In order to overcome this, the JAA acts as the regulatory body to bring the European procedures into line with the FAA. The effect of this has been to make European products acceptable to the North American market and also to give European manufacturers a market in Europe for spares for aircraft made in North America. It is no coincidence that the regulations concerning large aeroplanes are contained in JAR 25, whereas the FAA equivalent is FAR 25. Likewise , commuter category aircraft regulations are contained in JAR 23 and FAR 23 .
INTENTION It is the intention to eventually form the European Aviation Authority. This is in keeping with the aims of the EU and the Council of Europe. Once established , the EAA will be the regulatory body responsible for civil aviation in Europe. Until then, the NAAs will provide the regulatory framework and the necessary manpower.
EUROCONTROL Eurocontrol was formed in 1965, and its membership encompasses most of Europe and some non-European adjacent states. The stated objectives of Eurocontrol are : ~ ~
To plan European air traffic management to meet future needs. To optimise the use of airspace by matching capacity to demand to carry out the above.
From its origins as the Maastricht (Holland) ACC, providing a centralised ATC service for the Benelux countries and Northern Germany, Eurocontrol now provides ATC services for most European flight information regions (FIRs). It actually controls operations in the upper airspace from two ATCC (Maastricht and Vienna) and has R&D facilities in Luxembourg, Maastricht, and Bretigny near Paris. Eurocontrol also provides a very efficient centralised enroute charge recovery service on behalf of the states, which even non-Eurocontrol states use.
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Chapter 3
Other International and European Organisations
FLOW MANAGEMENT Since 1988, Eurocontrol has provided the centralised flow management unit (CFMU) fo r European airspace. Virtually all flights within Europe are subject to flow management and the process is expanding to cover 'gate to gate' operations , including operations on the ground at airports. The R&D operations of Eurocontrol are involved in the use of PRNAV to eliminate airways and also the elimination of voice communications by the use of data link systems .
ATC HARMONISATION Eurocontrol is also at the heart of the ATC harmonisation process in Europe and the surrounding states, which will lead to the development of a data processing and handling system capable of taking inputs from any ATC system in the world. The first link in this network is the new ATCC at Swanwick, near Southampton, providing area control for the London FIR and UIR.
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Air Law
INTRODUCTION For this particular subject, the Learning Objectives require the student to have knowledge of ICAO Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing) and JAR Flight Crew Licensing, commonly referred to as JAR-FCL. However, the majority of the questions in the COB are drawn from ICAO. Unfortunately, there are areas where JAR FCL differs from Annex 1. As these notes are intended only to provide the references to pass the examinations, they must not be used as a reference for matters relating to your licence . In such cases, consu lt JAR FC L or your national Civil Aviation Au thority. In the U. K., the U.K. CAA publ ishes LASORS as guidance.
JAR-FCL JAR-FCL is published in four parts: .. .. .. ..
JAR-FCL 1 JAR-FCL 2 JAR-FCL 3 JAR-FCL 4
Aeroplanes Helicopters Medical Requirements Flight Engineers
The LOs require knowledge of JAR-FCL 1 and JAR-FCL 3. In addition to the general requirements, JAR-FCL 1 contains JARs for the licensing of: .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Student pilots Private Pilots - PPL(A) Commercial pilots - CPL(A) Instrument Rating (Aeroplane) - IR(A) Class and Type Rating (Aeroplane) Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Aeroplane) - ATPL (A) Instructor ratings Examiners Theoretical knowledge requirements for examinations (1)
Note 1: Because knowledge of the requirements for examinations is required by the LOs for 010 Air Law, the JAA FCL Committee have determined that the knowledge requirements for all subjects are examinable under subject 010 Air'Law. For this rea son , there are questions in the Air Law exam relating to Met, Mass and Balance , Communications etc.
Air Law
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Chapter 4
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Annex 1 Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) have been established for licensing the following personnel: ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
~
Private pilot (aeroplane and helicopter) Commercial pilot (aeroplane and helicopter) Airline transport pilot (aeroplane and helicopter) Glider pilot Balloon pilot Flight navigator Flight engineer
LICENSING REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS Authority to Act as a Flight-crew Member A person shall not act as a flight-crew member of an aircraft unless a valid licence is held. ICAO To be valid, the licence must have been issued by the State of Registry of that aircraft or by any other contracting state and rendered valid by the State of Registry. JAR-FCL A person shall not act as a flight-crew member of a civil aeroplane registered in a JAA Member State unless that person holds a valid licence and rating complying with the requirements of JAR-FCL. The licence shall have been issued by: ~
~
A JAA Member State, or Another ICAO Contracting State and rendered valid in accordance with JAR-FCL
Validity of Licence In order to exercise the privileges of the licence, the licence must remain valid by maintaining competency; maintaining necessary ratings; meeting recent experience requirements , and holding a valid medical assessment. Period of Licence Issue Providing the requirements for a valid licence are maintained, a licence issued will remain in force for a period determined by the State of Licence Issue (ICAO). JAR-FCL A licence holder shall not exercise the privileges granted by any licence or rating issued by a JAA Member State unless the holder maintains competency by meeting the relevant requirements of JAR-FCL. The validity of the licence is determined by the validity of the ratings contained therein and the medical certificate . The licence will be issued for a maximum period of 5 years. Within this period of 5 years the licence may be re-issued by the authority: ~
~ ~
~
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After initial issue or renewal of a rating; When the licence is fu ll (no space available'for a renewal certificate); For any administrative reason ; or At the discretion of the authority when a rating is revalidated.
Air Law
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
The licence holder must apply for the re-issue of the licence. This application must include all necessary documentation. Valid ratings will be transferred to a new licence document by the authority. State of Licence Issue An applicant shall demonstrate the satisfactory completion of all requirements for licence issue to the authority of the State under whose authority the training and testing for the licence were carried out. Following licence issue , this State shall thereafter be referred to as the "State of licence issue". Further ratings may be obtained under JAR-FCL requirements in any JAA Member State and will be entered into the licence by the State of Licence issue. Normal Residency Normal residency means the place where a person usually lives for at least 185 days in each calendar year because of personal and occupational ties or, in the case of a person with no occupational ties, because of personal ties wh ich show close links between that person and the place where they are living . Exercising the Privileges of the Licence The holder of a licence or rating shall not exercise pri vi leges other than those granted by that licence or rating . Licences, Ratings, Authorisations , Approvals or Certificates Issued by JAA Member States Where a person , organization, or a service has been licenced , issued with a rating , authorisation , approval , or certificate by the authority of a JAA member state in accord ance with the requirements of JAR-FCL and associated procedures, such licences, ratin gs, authorisations , approvals or certificates shall be accepted without formality by other JAA member states. Licences Issued by Non-JAA States A licence issued by a non-JAA State may be rendered valid for use on aircraft registered in a JAA member state, at the discretion of the authority of that JAA member state . Validation of a professional pilot's licence shall not exceed one year from the date of validation , provided that the basic licence remains valid. Any further validation for use on aircraft registered in any JAA member state is subject to agreement by the JAA member states and to any conditions seen fit within the JAA. The user of a licence validated by a JAA member state shall comply with the requirements stated in JAR-FCL . If the val idation of a non-JAA licence is revoked for any reason , the State of Licence Issue will be informed by the JAA state.
SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR LICENCE ISSUE PPL(A) Minimum Age
17 Medical Fitness Class 1 or Class 2 Privileges and Conditions To act as PIC or co-pi lot of an aeroplane engaged in non-revenue fiights.
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Chapler 4
Flight Crew Licensing (A eroplanes)
Experience and Crediting An applicant must have completed 45 hours fiight time as a pilot of aeroplanes . Five hours may have been completed in an FNPT or a fiight simulator. Where an applicant is the holder of one of the following licences then 10% of their total fiight time up to a maximum of 10 hours may be credited towards the issue of the PPL(A):
:>:>:>:>-
Helicopter Microlight helicopters Gyroplanes Microlights with fixed wings and moveable aerodynamic control surfaces
Flight Instruction The applicant for a PPL(A) must have completed 25 hours dual instruction and 10 hours supervised solo, including 5 hours of cross-country fiight time. One cross-country fiight must be of at least 150 nm , and include full stop landings at two aerodromes different from the original departure aerodrome. Where previous credit for PIC time is granted the dual instruction may be reduced to not less than 20 hours. Commercial Pilot (Aeroplane) CPL(A)
Licence
Airline Transport Aeroplane (ATPL)
Licence
Minimum Age
18
21
Medical Fitness Privileges and Conditions
Class 1 medical certificate
Class 1 medical certificate
Subject to any other cond itions speCified in JARs, the privileges of the holder of a CPL(A) are to:
Subject to any other cond itions specified in JARs, the pri vileges of the holder of a ATPL(A) are to:
:>- Exercise all the privileges of the holder of a PPL(A) :>- Act as PIC or co-pilot of any aeroplane engaged in operations other than commercial aviation :>- Act as PIC in commercial air transportation of any single pilot aeroplane :>- Act as co-pilot in commercial air transportation
:>- Exercise all the privileges of the holder of a PPL(A), CPL(A) and an IR(A) :>- Act as PIC or co-pilot in aeroplanes engaged in air transportation An applicant for an ATPL(A) shall have fulfilled the requirements for the issue of an ATPL(A) containing a type rating for the aeroplane type used on the skill test
An applicant for a CPL(A) shall have fulfilled the requirements for the issue of at least a CPL(A) containing the class/type rating for the aeroplane type used on the skill test and , if an instrument rating course and test are included , the instrument rating Experience and Crediting
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See CPL Experience below
See A TPL experience below
A ir Law
-
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
ATPL(A) EXPERIENCE An applicant for an ATPL(A) shall have completed as a pilot of aeroplanes at least 1500 hou rs of flight time. A maximum of 100 hours flight simulator time may be included in th is figu re. Specific qualifications required within the 1500 hours flight time are : ~
~
~
~ ~
500 hours in multi-pilot operations on aeroplanes type certificafed in accordance wi th JAR/FAR 25 (Transport Category) or JAR/FAR 23 (Commuter Category) or equivalent codes; 250 hours as PIC or at least 100 hours PIC and 150 hours as co-pilot performing under the supervision of the PIC the duties and functions of a PIC (the method of supervision must be acceptable to the authority); 200 hours cross country flight of which at least 100 hours shall be as PIC or as co-pilot performing under the supervision of the PIC the duties and functions of a PIC (the method of supervision must be acceptable to the authority) ; 75 hours instrument flight time of which not more than 30 hours may be instrument ground time ; and 100 hours of night flight as PIC or co-pilot.
CREDIT TIME FOR ATPL: ~ Helicopter flight time will be credited up to 50% of the flight time requirements; and ~ Flight engineers will be credited wi th up to 50% of the flight time to a maximum of 250 hours flight engineer time
CPL(A) EXPERIENCE Integrated Course 150 hours of flight time Modular Course 200 hours of flight time The applicant must have completed: ~ 100 hours as PIC, 70 hours if completed during a course of integrated train ing ; ~ 20 hours of cross country flight time as PIC. This must include a cross-country flight of at least 300 nm during which include full stop landings at two aerodromes different from the original departure aerodrome; ~ 10 hours of instrument instruction time of which not more than 5 hours is to be instrument ground time ; and ~ 5 hours of night flight time. CREDITING OF FLIGHT TIME Unless otherwise specified, the following apply: Pilot in Command or Under Instruction ~ Credited in full with all solo, dual instruction or pilot in command (PIC ) flight time towards the total flight time required for the licence or rating ; ~ An ATPLlCPL graduate of an integrated CPLIATPL course is entitled to be credited with up to 50 hours student pilot in command (S PIC) instrument time towards the pilot in command time required for the issue of the ATPL, CPL and a multi engine type or class rating .
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Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
Co-Pilot ;.. Credited in full with all co-pilot time towards the total fiight time req uired for a higher grade of pilot licence; ;.. The holder of a pilot licence when acting as co-pilot performing under the supervision of the PIC the functions and duties of a PIC shall be entitled to be cred ited in full wi th this fiight time required for a higher grade of licence . The method of supervision must be approved by the authority.
INSTRUCTOR RATINGS An instructor rating is valid for 3 years. To be allowed to begin a Flight Instructor (FI (A» course the pilot must have 200 hours of fiight time of which 100 hours must be PIC if the pilot is the holder of an ATPL(A) or CPL(A); 150 hours PIC if the holder of a PPL(A) and be the holder of the knowledge requirements for CPL(A). The following must also have been carried out: ;..
;.. ;..
;..
Completed at least 30 hours on single engine piston aeroplanes of which 5 hours shall have been completed during the 6 months preceding the pre-fiight entry fiight test Received at least 10 hours instrument instruction of which not more than 5 hours may be instrument ground time in an FNPT or fiight simulator Completed at least 20 hours of cross country as PIC including a fiight totalling not less than 300 nm in the course of which full stop landings at two different aerodromes must have been made Passed a pre-entry fiight test
The minimum applicant age is 18 years old. INSTRUCTOR RATINGS - PRIVILEGES AND REQUIREMENTS To Instruct for the Issue of a PPL Completion of 15 hours on the relevant type in the preceding 12 months To Instruct for the Issue of a CPL 500 hours of flight time including at least 200 hours of fiight instruction To Instruct for the Issue of an IR 200 hours flight time in accordance with IFR, 50 hours of which may be instru ment ground time and have completed an approved course of at least 5 hours of flight instruction in an aeroplane, fiight simulator or FNPT II
EXAMINERS (AEROPLANE) The following examiner roles are recognised: ;.. ;.. ;.. ;.. ;.. ;..
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Flight examiner (FE(A» Type rating examiner (TRE(A)) Class rating examiner (CRE(A» Instrument rating examiner (IRE(A» Synthetic fiight examiner (SFE(A» Flight instructor examiner (FIE(A))
Air Law
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
Qualification An applicant for authorisation as an examiner is to hold a licence and rating at least equal to the licence or rating for which they are applying to be authorised to examine . Validity of Authorisation An examiner's authorisation is valid for a period of not more than- 3 years. Examiner's authorisation is renewed at the discretion of the Authority. FE(A) An FE(A) is permitted to conduct skill tests and proficiency checks for the issue of PPl(A) and CPl(A) licences provided he/she has not less than 2000 hours (1000 hours for PPl(A) only) flight experience including not less than 250 hours flight instruction.
CLASS AND TYPE RATINGS The holder of a licence is not permitted to act in any capacity as a pilot (except when undergoing skill testing or receiving flight instruction) unless he/she holds a valid class or type rating for the type or class of aircraft to be flown . Any rating issued may limit the holder to operating as co-pilot only, in which case, the rating will be annotated accordingly. Presently, there is no limit to the number of class/type ratings a pilot may hold at anyone time, however, the need to remain current on each type/class will be limiting. JAR OPS suggests that a pilot should not hold more class/type ratings than he/she can maintain . Type rating requires attendance at and successful completion of an approved type rating course. To successfully complete a TR course the candidate must pass an aircraft specific practical knowledge test that can be written , oral , or a combination of both . The flying practice element of a TR course may be flown in the specific type of aircraft or an approved flight simulator. Class and type ratings are valid for one year (JAR-FCl). ICAO does not set a validation period but leaves this to the individual contracting state to determine.
CLASS RATINGS Class ratings are established for single pilot aeroplanes not requiring a type rating as follows: ICAO:
» » » »
Single engine land Single engine sea Multi engine land Multi engine sea
JAR-FCL: » All single engine piston aeroplanes (land and sea) » All touring motor gliders » Each manufacturer of single engined turbo-prop aeroplanes (land and sea ) » All multi engined piston aeroplanes (land and sea)
Air Law
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Chapter 4
Flight Crew Licens ing (Aeroplanes)
TYPE RATINGS Other than those aeroplanes included in the class ratings above , the following aeroplanes require type ratings: ~
~ ~ ~
Each type of multi-pilot aeroplane Each type of single pilot multi engine aeroplane fitted with turbo-prop or turbojet engines Each type of single pilot single engine aeroplane fitted with a turbojet engine Any other type of aeroplane the authority considers necessary
REVALIDATION OF TYPE/CLASS RATINGS Type ratings and multi engine class ratings are revalidated by successful completion of skill tests or proficiency checks, which may be carried out in a flight simulator. If a type rating has expired , refresher training may be required prior to the pilot taking a re-validating test. ICAO Annex 6 (Operation of Aircraft) requires a pilot to demonstrate competency at two skill tests during any 12 month period with the proviso that the period between the tests is not less than 4 months.
JAR-FCL Requires the pilot to pass a proficiency check once in every period of 12 months. The revalidation check taken is not more than 3 months before the expiry of the current rating . The new period of validation begins at the date of expiry of the old period. JAR-FCL also requires the pilot fly at least 10 sectors as pilot of the relevant type of aircraft, or one sector as pilot of the relevant type of aircraft with an examiner, during the period of the rating. Note: It is usual to revalidate the type rating at the same time as the renewal of the IR(A).
INSTRUMENT RATING (IR(A)) In order to fly an aircraft under IFR, a pilot requires a valid instrument rating (IR). JAR-FCL generally requires a pilot to hold a valid IR for any flight under IFR but accepts national variations in law. Privileges To pilot a multi- or single-engined aeroplane under IFR to a minimum decision height of 200 ft. Experience The pilot must hold a PPL(A) with a night qualification or a CPL(A) and have completed at least 50 hours of cross country flight time as PIC in aeroplanes or helicopters of which at least 10 hours shall be in aeroplanes. Application to ATPL(A) An instrument rating is an integral part of an ATPL (A), and a separate rating added to a CPL(A) to give the holder a CPLlIR. Without a valid IR the holder of an ATPL(A) is only permitted to exercise the privileges of a CPL licence.
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Air Law
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Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
Rating and Re-validation An IR(A) is gained by successful completion of an instrument rating test (I RT) carried out by an approved Instrument Rating Examiner (IRE). The IRT may be carried out in an approved flight simulator. An IR(A) is valid for a period of 1 year. Revalidation is achieved by successful completion of another full IRT conducted by an IRE. No period of extension is permitted for an IR(A). The revalidation IRT may be carried out during the last 3 months 0.1 validity of the current IR. If successful, the new IR will be valid from the original date of expiry of the previous IR. If unsuccessful, the current IR is then invalid and the pilot is not permitted to exercise the privileges of the IR until successful completion of another IRT. In the latter case, the period of va lidity of the new IR will be from the date of successful completion of the IRT.
RECENT EXPERIENCE A pilot shall not operate an aeroplane carrying passengers as the pilot in command or co-pilot unless he has carried out: ~ ~
At least 3 take-ofts and 3 landings as pilot fiying in the same type/class or fiight simulator in the preceding 90 days, and If the flight is at night, and the holder does not hold a valid Instrument Rating , one of the take-ofts and one of the landings must be carried out at night.
Operators who apply more stringent requirements may apply limiting criteria to pilots (in terms of Decision Height and prevailing RVR) who nevertheless meet the general recent experience criteria.
CURTAILMENT OF PRIVILEGES OF LICENCE HOLDERS AGED 60 YEARS OR MORE Generally, a commercial pilot may not exercise the privileges of his/her licence unrestricted after attaining the age of 60 . France and Italy prohibit commercial fiying totally by pilots when they reach the age of 60, and the Czech Republic, at the age of 62. Age 60 - 64 The holder of a pilot licence who has reached the age of 60 years shall not act as a pilot of an aeroplane engaged in commercial air transport operations except: ~ ~
As a member of a multi-pilot crew and, provided that The holder is the only pilot in the fiight crew who has reached age 60.
Age 65 The holder of a pilot licence who has reached the age of 65 years shall not act as a pilot of an aeroplane engaged in commercial air transport operations. Note: Age 60 means the first day of the pilot's 61" year of life. In other words, the day after he/she is 59 years and 364 days old. Generally, a pilot may exercise the privileges of an ATPL(A) licence throughout the inclusive ages of 21 - 59.
Air Law
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Chap/er4
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS Fitness The holder of a medical certificate shall be mentally and physically fit to exercise safely the privileges of the applicable licence. Medical Fitness An applicant for a licence must hold a medical assessment applicable for the type of licence being applied for. An initial issue medical assessment in accordance with Annex 1 pt 6 or JARFCl 3 is required for fiight-crew members. Re-validation of assessment is achieved by periodic examination accordance with Annex 1 part 6 or JAR-FCl 3, which is generally less demanding than the initial assessment. Only an approved aeromedical examiner (AME) may issue a medical assessment. Flight-crew members shall not exercise the privileges of their licence unless their medical assessment is in date. ICAO Each contracting state designates medical examiners that are authorized to issue the medical assessment. ICAO has established 3 classes of medical assessment (Classes 1, 2, and 3). The class 3 medical is applicable to Air Traffic Controllers only. JAR-FCl In order to apply for or to exercise the privileges of a licence, the applicant or holder shall hold a medical certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of JAR-FCl Part 3 (Medical) and appropriate to the privileges of the licence. The JAA has established 2 classes of medical assessment (Classes 1 and 2). Periods of Validity of Medical Assessment A medical assessment has a period of validity after which re-validation (by medical examination) is required. Upon expiry of validation, a class 1 medical assessment is automatically reduced to class 2. Therefore the holder of an ATPl(A) or CPl(A) will then not be permitted to exercise the privileges of their licence. ATPl(A) A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is 12 months. This reduces to 6 months after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday. CPl(A) A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certifi cate is 12 months. This reduces (JAR-FCl) to 6 months (is recommended to reduce to 6 months - ICAO) after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday. PPl(A) A minimum of class 2 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is 24 months. ICAO recommends that this is reduced to 12 months after the licence holder has reached their 40th birthday. Deferment ICAO permits the deferment of the required med ical examination to revalidate a medical assessment under certain circumstances. JAR-FCl does not. According to ICAO, a licence holder engaged in commercial operations in a remote area where an aeromedical examiner is not resident, may, upon receipt of a favourable report by a physician, extend the period of validity of the medical assessment for two consecutive periods of three months. The report of the physician is to be sent to the authority issuing the licence. Air Law 4-10
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Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Chapter 4
Failure to Re-Validate the Medical Assessment After the expiry of a medical assessment, an examination , meeting the requirements of the initial issue assessment, will be required. At the discretion of the licence issuing authority, this may be waived and the medical assessment revalidated with a periodic assessment only. Students engaged on an approved course of training are not required to maintain their class 1 assessment throughout the course. The class 1 assessment will be revalidated on the .successful completion of the course by periodic assessment to enable the licence holder to fiy commercially. Decrease in Medical Fitness Licence holders or student pilots shall not exercise the privileges of their licences , related ratings or authorizations at any time when they are aware of any decrease in their medical fitne ss which might render them unable to safely exercise those privileges, and they shall, without undue delay, seek the advice of the authority or an AME when becoming aware of: ~ Hospital or clinic admission for more than 12 hours ~ Surgical operation or invasive procedure ~ The regular use of medication ~ The need for regular use of correcting lenses Notification Every holder of a medical certificate issued in accordance with JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical) who is aware of any significant personal injury involving incapacity to function as a member of a flight crew, or any illness involving incapacity to function as a member of a fiight crew throughout a period of 21 days or more, or being pregnant, is to inform the authority in writing immediately of injury or pregnancy, and as soon as the period of 21 days has elapsed in the case of illness . Suspension of Certificate After notification, the medical certificate shall be suspended and in the case of injury or illness , the suspension will be lifted after the holder has been subsequently medically examined and pronounced fit to function as a member of the fiighl crew, or the authority lifts the suspension. In the case of pregnancy, the suspension may be lifted by the authority after the pregnancy has ended and the licence holder pronounced fit to resume her functions as a member of the fiight crew. The suspension may be temporarily lifted during the initial pregnancy period until the pilot is unable to continue her duties. Note: The suspension of a certificate is not the same as cancellation. A suspended certificate is in 'suspended animation'. Once the suspension is lifted , the certificate will still be valid, providing the validity expiry date has not passed. If the expiry date has passed , the examination required to lift the suspension will also re-validate the certificate for a further year.
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Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
JAA THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE EXAMINATIONS FOR ATPL(A) ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE FOR STUDENTS (JAR-FCL 1.490A) There are 14 subject examinations which you must achieve 75% or more in each to pass. You are permitted to attend 6 examination sittings. If after you have attended 6 sittings and you have not attained 14 passes, you must sit all 14 examinations over again . If any subject exam ination is failed on four occasions, all the examinations must be retaken. Any candidate who has failed to obtain a pass in the ATPL(A) examinations within the permitted sittings, attempts or time limits, will be required to complete the minimum approved theoreti cal knowledge training specified below, prior to re-entering the examinations. For the integrated or modular ATPL theory course, this is a minimum of 60 hours theoretical knowledge instruction. 18 Month Rule (JAR-FCL 1.490b) You must pass all the examinations within a period of 18 months starting from the last day of the month in which you sat the first examination. For instance: If you sat the first examination in June 2004, you would have until the end of December 2005 to pass all the remaining examinations . 36 Month Rule (JAR-FCL 1.495a) After you have passed all 14 examinations, you then have 36 months from the date of passing the last examination to attain an IR(A). If you fail to attain an IR(A) within 36 months, you will have to start the examinations all over again.
7 Year Rule (JAR-FCL 1.495b) Having attained an IR(A) as above, the pass in the theoretical knowledge examinations will remain valid for a period of 7 years from the last validity date of the IR(A).
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The Conference of Paris in 1919 required all contracting states to establish registers of all aircraft in that state other than military. When establishing the register for that state, the state becomes the State of Registration for all the aircraft in the register. Annex 7 of the Convention of International Civil Aviation contains the Standards adopted by the ICAO for the marking of aircraft.
NATIONALITY, COMMON, AND REGISTRATION MARKS A 'registration' marking on an aircraft consists of two parts: ~
~
The nationality mark or common mark, and The registration mark (as entered in the register of that state)
Composition Apart from Switzerland and Liechtenstein where the national symbols of the States are part of the markings, the nationality and registration marks consist of a group of characters (Letters or letters and numbers). Common Mark In order to meet the requirements of an international organisation, aircraft operated by such an organisation may be required to be registered in more than one state. As no aircraft is permitted to display nationality markings of more than one state, a common marking is used instead of the nationality mark. ICAO maintains the list of aircraft registered under any common mark, but allocates responsibility to a contracting state (usually a state involved in the operation) to act as the State of Registration for the purpose of determining the airworthiness of the aircraft concerned. The common mark is assigned by ICAO (the Common Mark Agency) from an available list produced by the International Telecommunications Agency. Nationality Mark The nationality mark is selected from the nationality symbols included in the radio call signs allocated to the State of Registry by the International Telecommunication Union.
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Chapfer 5
Regis/ration oj A ircraft and A ircrafi Markings
Combination The nationality or common mark precedes the registration mark. When the first character of the regi stration mark is a letter it is preceded by a hyphen.
G '\ Nationality Mark
-
\
ABeD '\ Registration Mark
Hyphen
Acceptable Combinations The normal combination is one character for the nationality mark and four characters for the registration mark. Where the nationality mark consists of two characters (i.e. Eire - EI ) the registration mark consists of only 3 characters (i.e. EI - ABC). Where the nationality mark consists of three characters (i.e. Oman - A40) the registration mark consists of only two characters (i.e. A40 - AB). Prohibited Combinations When letters are used for the reg istration mark, combinations containing (in seq uence) the following are not used:
» » »
The five letter combinations used in the International Code of Signals ( 1) ;and The three letter combinations beginning with Q used in the Q code (ie QUG - 'I am ditching'); and SOS , XXX, PAN and TTT (2)
Note 1: These are the arrangement of sig nal flags, each of which ind icates a particular letter or number, used at sea to pass messages visually. Certain arrangements of 5 flags (hence 5 letters) indicate specific meanings. Note 2: SOS = distress; XXX and PAN = urgency; TTT = safety (a third level of emergency communication alert now only used in maritime operations).
LOCATION OF NATIONALITY, COMMON, AND REGISTRATION MARKS GENERAL The nationality or common mark and registration mark is painted on the aircraft or affi xed by any other means ensuring a similar deg ree of permanence. The marks must be kept clean and visible at all times.
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Registration of Aircraft and Aircraft Markings
Chapter 5
HEAVIER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT Wings On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks shall appear once on the lower surfa ce of the wing and shall be at least 50 cm in normally viewed vertical size. Fuselage and Vertical Tail Surfaces On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks shall appear on each side of the fusel age between the wings and the tail surface and shall be at least 30 cm in normally viewed vertical size.
TYPE OF CHARACTERS FOR NATIONALITY, COMMON AND REGISTRATION MARKS The letters shall be in capital letters in Roman characters without ornamentation . Numbers shall be Arabic numbers without ornamentation.
REGISTRATION OF AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION The certificate of registration shall be carried in the aircraft at all times. The certificate of registration, in wording and arrangement, shall be a replica of the form shown below.
Registration Certificate State or Common Mark Registering Authority Ministry Department or Senvice CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
1. Nationality or Common Mark and Registration Mark
2. Manufacture and Manufacturer's Designation of Aircraft
3. Aircraft Serial No
4. Name of Owner .. . ...... .. .. . ....... ....... ... ... .............. ................ ... ....... 5. Address of Owner .......................................................................... 6. It is hereby certified that the above described aircraft has been duly entered on the (Name of Register) in accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation dated 7th December 1944 and with the ..................... ...... .... Signature . ................... Date of Issue ....... .. . ... ...
* For use by the State of Registry or common mark registering authority
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Chapter 5
Registration of Aircraft and Aircraft Markings
IDENTIFICATION PLATE All aircraft must carry an identification plate, secured to the aircraft in a prominent position near the main entrance plate , made of fireproof metal , or fireproof material inscribed with: ,.. ,..
Nationality or common mark Registration mark
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT
I Heavier-than-air
Ughter-than-air
Non-Power driven
Free Balloon
Captive 8alloon
Power driven
Airship
Non-Power driven
Glider Kite
Power driven
Gyroplane
Spherical free balloon Non spherical free balloon
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Spherical captive Rigid ai rshi p balloon Semi-rigid airship Non spherical Non-rigid airship ca ptive balloon
Ornithopter
Rotorcraft
Aeroplane
Landplane
Land gyroplane
Seaplane Amphibian
Sea gyroplane Amphibian Qyroplanes
Helicopter
Land helicopter Sea helicopter Amphibian helicopter
Land ornithopler Sea ornithopter Amphibian ornilhopler
Air Law
INTRODUCTION Annex 8 contains the standards for airworthiness required for aircraft to meet the performance and operational requirements of Annex 6 (Operation of Aircraft). States should not attempt to impose operational requirements on visiting aeroplanes other than those established by the State of Registry, providing they comply with Annex 6. Annex 8 is published in three parts; with part 3 applicable to aircraft engaged in commercial air transport with a MTOM greater than 5700 Kg. The standards are applicable to the entire aircraft and in order for the standards to be applicable the aircraft must have at least 2 engines.
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS (C OF A) The C of A for an aircraft is issued by the State of Registration (or approved representatives). A state can withhold a C of A if the aircraft is known, or suspected , to have dangerous features not specifically covered by the airworthiness requirements. An aircraft is not permitted to fiy without a valid C of A. For the initial C of A to be issued the following are required:
:» :» :» :» :»
An approved design to show that the aircraft complies with the airworthiness requirements; Records kept to establish the identification of the aircraft with its approved design; An inspection of the aircraft during the course of construction to determine that it conforms to the approved design; An inspection of the aircraft to establish that its construction and assembly are satisfactory; Flight tests as deemed necessary to show compliance with the airworthiness requirements.
Flight Crew The minimum number of flight crew personnel necessary to operate the aeroplane should be listed on the C of A. Transfer of Registration When an aircraft which has a valid C of A is entered on the register of another state, the new State of.Registry may accept the C of A as satisfactory evidence that the aircraft is airworthy. Continuing Airworthiness of Aircraft The continuing airworthiness of an aircraft shall be determined by the State of Registry in relation to the requirements in force for that aircraft. The St?te of Registry shall also develop or adopt requirements to ensure the continuing airworthiness of an aircraft throughout its life.
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Chapter 6
A invorthiness ofA ircrajt
Validity of Certificate of Airworthiness A Certificate of Airworthiness shall be renewed , or shall remain valid, subject to the laws of the State of Registry. The State of Registry shall require that the continuing airworthiness of the aircraft shall be determined by periodical inspections at appropriate intervals. Method of Rendering a Certificate of Airworthiness Valid A State of Registry can validate the Certificate of Airworthiness issued by another state, as an alternative to issuing its own certificate. This validation shall not extend beyond the period of validation of the original Certificate of Airworthiness . Temporary Loss of Airworthiness Any failure to maintain an aircraft in an airworthy condition , will result in the suspension of the C of A until the aircraft is restored to an airworthy condition . Damage To Aircraft When an aircraft has sustained damage , the State of Registry shall judge whether the damage renders the aircraft un-airworthy. If the damage is sustained when the aircraft is in anotner state, the authorities of that state have the right to prevent the aircraft from flyfii"g.That state is to inform the State of Registry immediately. Aircraft Limitations and Information Each aircraft shall be provided with a flight manual, or other documents , stating the approved limitations within which the aircraft is considered airworthy. Instruments and Equipment The aeroplane has to be provided with approved instruments and equipment necessary for the safe operation of the aeroplane. These shall include the instruments and equipment necessary to enable the crew to operate the aeroplane within its operating limitations. Safety and Survival Equipment The specified safety and survival equipment is to be reliable, readily accessible and easily identified, and its method of operation plainly marked. Least-risk Bomb Location A least-risk location on the aeroplane shall be identified where a bomb or other explosive device may be placed to minimize the effects on the aeroplane in the case of detonation.
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Chapter 6
Airworthiness of Aircraft
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS *
*
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State of Registry Issuing Authority
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS 1. Nationality or Common Mark and Registration Mark
2. Manufacture and Manufacturer's Designation of Aircraft
4. Categories ......... ................................... ......
3. Aircraft Serial No
.............. . ..........
This Certificate of Airworthiness is issued pursuant to the Convention on International Civil Aviation dated 7th December 1944 and ................ .. ........ in respect of the above-mentioned aircraft which is considered to be airworthy when maintained and operated in accordance with the foregoing and the pertinent operating limitations. Oate of Issue .. ................
Signature
. . ..............................
* For use by the State of Registry or common mark registering authority
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INTRODUCTION From the early days of flying, rules were established to prevent accidents. Many of the basic rules now in force have their origins in the days before the use of radios in aircraft and are based on visual observation of activity in the air and on the ground. Whilst these may seem somewhat quaint or unnecessary in the age of digital data and radar systems , when the new technology fails, the 'mark one eyeball' still functions. These rules are now known as the Rules of the Air (RoA). The Rules are defined as general rules with additional rules for flight under VFR and flight under IFR. Together the general rules and rules for flight under VFR are known as the Visual Flight Rules. The general rules and rules for flight under IFR are known as the Instrument Flight Rules. Reference:
Annex 2- Ru/es of the Air
Territorial Application of the RoA Wherever an aircraft is flying in the world, the rules of the air of the State of Registry of that aircraft apply to that aircraft. When flying over the territory of another state, the rules of the air of that state have priority over the rules of the air of the State of Registry. When an aircraft is flying outside of the airspace of the State of Registry and outside of the airspace of any other state, the rules of the air as defined in ICAO Annex 1 apply, without exception. Compliance with the Rules of the Air When an aircraft is in flight or on the movement area of an aerodrome it must comply with a set of rules known as the Rules of the Air. When in flight it must comply with either the Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), or the Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Responsibility for Compliance with the Rules of the Air The PIC, whether at the controls or not, is responsible for the operation of the aircraft in accordance with the rules of the air. The PIC may depart from the rules of the air in the interests of safety. Note: 'PIC' should not be confused with 'Commander'. The JAA recently revised the definitions of PIC and Commander to cover the situation where a 'cruise crew' is employed on long haul operations. PIC is the pilot who, for the time being , is responsible for piloting the aeroplane. The Commander is the pilot (he/she must be a pilot) responsible for the conduct of the flight. It could be that the Commander is absent from the flight deck resting , whilst another designated pilot is the PIC . ICAO Annex 1 retains the original definition of Commander which is synonymous with PIC.
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Chapter 7
Rilles of the Air
Pre-Flight Action The PIC of an aircraft must plan the fiight after having pre-briefed himself with all available information appropriate to the fiight. Flights away from the vicinity of an aerodrome, and all IFR fiights shall include a meteorological brief; a consideration of the fuel requirements and alternative actions if the flight cannot be completed as planned . Authority of the Pilot in Command (PIC) of an Aircraft The PIC of an aircraft shall have final authority over the disposition of an aircraft while in command. If for safety reasons the PIC decides to ignore the rules of the air or not comply with an ATC clearance , helshe must report the non-compliance as soon as possible. In any event, a report is to be submitted to the authority within 10 days. Use of Intoxicating Liquor, Narcotics, or Drugs No person is permitted to pilot an aircraft, or act as flight crew while under the influence of intoxicating liquor, or any narcotic or drug , by reason of which that person's capacity to act is impaired.
GENERAL RULES NEGLIGENT OR RECKLESS OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT An aircraft shall not be operated in a manner so as to endanger life or property of others.
MINIMUM HEIGHTS An aircraft is not to be flown over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an open air assembly of persons, unless at a height that will permit, in the event of an emergency (the failure of the critical power unit), a landing to be made without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface. Exceptions to this rule are during take-off and landing , or with specific permission from the appropriate authority. Minimum heights for VFR and IFR fiights are covered in the later sections.
CRUISING LEVELS When established in the cruise, flights are conducted at flight levels (FLs) for flights above the lowest useable FL or where applicable, above the Transition Altitude; or at an altitude for fiights below the lowest usable FL, or where applicable, at or below the Transition Altitude.
PROHIBITED AND RESTRICTED AREAS Aircraft are not to be flown in Prohibited or Restricted Areas except in accordance with the conditions of the restrictions, or by the permission of the state, over whose territories the areas are established .
AVOIDANCE OF COLLISIONS Always maintain a good look-out to detect potential collisions, regardless of the type of flight, the flight conditions or the class of airspace in which the aircraft is operating, and wh ile operating on the movement area of an aerodrome. Note: The movement area of an aerodrome includes the apron and the manoeuvring area.
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Chapter 7
Rules of the Air
Proximity An aircraft is not to be operated so close to another aircraft so as to create a coll ision hazard. Right of Way Right of way means the right to proceed without alteration of course. The aircraft that has the right of way is required to maintain its heading and speed, and observe the other aircraft whilst the collision risk exists. Nothing in these rules relieves the PIC of an aircraft that has the right of way, from the responsibility of taking such action where necessary, including collision avoidance manoeuvres based on resolution advisories provided by ACAS equipment. Giving Way Any aircraft that is obliged to keep out of the way of another aircraft (give way), must not pass over, under, or in front of that aircraft, unless it is well clear and takes into account the effect of wake turbulence. Approaching Head-On When two aircraft are approaching head-on , or approximately so (+/- 10 of aircraft heading ), and there is a danger of collision, both are required to alter heading to the right. There is no priority of aircraft type in this case. ("Turn the RIGHT way". Why to the right? Because it is the RIGHT thing to do!) 0
Approaching Head-On
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Rules o/the Air
Chapter 7
Converging When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level , the aircraft that has the other on its right shall give way.
Old Pilots saying:
Green to Green, all serene. Red to Red, go ahead. Red to Green, you must be seen. Green to Red, you could end up dead.
Converging Exceptions The following exceptions apply to the general rule for converging aircraft: ~
~ ~ ~
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Power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft (aeroplanes) shall give way to airships , gliders, and balloons. Airships shall give way to gliders and balloons. Gliders shall give way to balloons. Power-driven aircraft shall give way to aircraft which are seen to be towing other aircraft or objects.
Air Law
Rules of the Air
Chapter 7
Overtaking An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right of way and the overtaking aircraft, whether climbing , descending , or in horizontal fiight, shall keep out of the way by altering its heading to the right. No change in the relative positions of the two aircraft absolves the overtakin g aircraft from this obligation until it is entirely past and clear. An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that approaches from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 700. The. pilot of an aircraft is to be alert at all times to the possibility of being overtaken, therefore before commencing a turn , a good visual scan is to be made to starboard and port as far as the view from the fli ght deck window will allow. Overtaking
Note: The overtaking aircraft is in a position where it is unable to see either the aircraft's left (red light) or right (green light) navigation lights. Landing An aircraft in fiight, or operating on the ground , shall give way to aircraft landing or in the final stages of an approach to land . Approaching to land When two or more heavier·than·air aircraft are approaching an aerodrome to land (straight in approach or final to land) , aircraft at the higher level shall give way to aircraft at the lower level. No aircraft shall take advantage of this rule by cutting in front of another aircraft that is on its final approach. Power·driven heavier·than·air aircraft shall give way to gliders. Emergency Landing An aircraft that is aware that another aircraft is compelled to land shall give way to that aircraft. Taking·off An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area of an ae\odrome shall give way to aircraft taking·off or about to take·off.
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Chapler 7
Rules of Ihe Air
Surface Movement of Aircraft When there is a danger of collision between two aircraft taxiing on the movement area of an aerodrome the following rules apply: Head-On Where two aircraft are approaching head-on, or approximatel;' so, each shall stop, or where practicable, alter its course to the right so as to keep well clear. Converging When two aircraft are on a converging course, the one that has the other on its right shall give way. Overtaking An aircraft that is being overtaken by another aircraft shall have the right of wa y. The overtaking aircraft shall keep well clear of the other aircraft. Stopping An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area shall stop and hold at all taxi-holding positions unless authorized by the aerodrome control tower to continue . This includes lighted stop bars. When the stop bar lights are switched off the aircraft may proceed . Lights to be Displayed by Aircraft The manner of lighting aircraft is covered in Operational Procedures. The law specifies the use of lights. When Lights must be Displayed From sunset to sunrise (or during any other period prescribed by the appropriate authority) , all aircraft in flight or on the movement area of an aerodrome must display: ~ ~
~
~
Anti collision lights intended to attract the attention of other aircraft. Navigation lights intended to indicate the rel ative path of the aircraft to an observer. No other lights shall be displayed if they are likely to be mistaken for the navigation lights. Unless stationary, and otherwise adequately illuminated, all aircraft on the movement area of an aerodrome shall display lights intended to indicate the extremities of their structure and to attract attention to the aircraft. (1 ) All aircraft operating on the movement area of an aerodrome whose engines are running shall display lights wh ich indicate that fact. (2)
Note 1: Lights such as landing lights and airframe fioodlights may be used in addition to the anti collision light to enhance aircraft conspicuity. Note 2: Red anti collision lights may meet the requirements above provided that they do not subject observers to harmful dazzle.
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Rules of the Air
Chapter 7
Failure of Lights When a pilot is aware that a navigation light has failed, A TC is to be informed and the aircraft is to land and have the light repaired before continuing the flight. Anti-Collision Lights All aircraft, in flight or operating on the movement area of an aerodrome , that are fitted with anticollision lights, shall display these lights at all times. If an anti-collision light fails in flight, the light is to be repaired prior to the next fiight. Harmful or Dazzling Lights Pilots are permitted to switch off, or reduce the intensity of, any fiashing lights if they adversely affect the satisfactory performance of duties , or subject an outside observer to harmful dazzle.
SIMULATED INSTRUMENT FLIGHT (SIF) In order to train pilots in instrument fiying, instrument meteorology conditions (IMC) have to be simulated. This requires some means of limiting the vision of the pilot fiying . Non-compliance with the Rules of the Air will be in effect during visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Therefore , an aircraft shall not be fiown under SIF conditions unless it has fully functioning dual controls and a qualified pilot (who does not need to be class/type rated on the aircraft) occupies a control seat to act as safety pilot for the person who is fiying under simulated instrument fiying conditions. The safety pilot should have adequate vision forward and to each side of the aircraft. Where the vision of the safety pilot is not adequate, a competent observer, in communication with the safety pilot, shall occupy a position in the aircraft from which the field of vision of the observer adequately supplements that of the safety pilot. Practice Instrument Approaches When a pilot is making an instrument approach for practice in VMC , ATC is to be informed and the aircraft landing lights are to be illuminated to draw the attention of other pilots to the aircraft. Operation on and In the Vicinity of an Aerodrome Pilots of aircraft operating on , or in the vicinity, of an aerodrome (inside or outside of an Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ» are to:
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Observe other aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding collision ; Conform with, or avoid, the pattern of traffic formed by other aircraft in operation ; Make all turns to the left, when approaching for landing or taking-off unless otherwise instructed; and Land and take-off into the wind unless safety, the runway configuration , or an air traffic consideration determines that a different direction should be used.
FLIGHT PLANS In this section, the term 'Flight Plan' refers to an ATC fiight plan (FPL). An ATC FPL is the method by which the authority is notified of the intention of a pilot to make a fiight where that flight is to be provided with an ATC service , or is to be conducted in airspace where the authority has determined that a FPL is to be submitted. The process of submitting a FPL is called 'filing ' a FPL. ATC authorities provide approved formats for the information required in filing a full FPL. The UK CM format is the form CA48 that follows the ICAO standard FPL filing form. The student should
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Rilles of the Air
note that a FPL is what the pilot intends to do , not the form upon which the plan is filed . Indeed, in some circumstances it is not practical to use a form , and the pilot's intention (his/her flight plan) may be communicated by radio to the ATC unit. FPLs are required to be filed before: ~ ~ ~
~
~
Any flight or portion of a flight requiring an ATC service; Any IFR flight in advisory airspace; Any flight into authority designated areas or along designated routes where the appropriate ATC service is required to provide a flight information service (FIS), alerting service, and search and rescue (SAR) service; Where the authority has determined that a FPL should be filed to facilitate coordination between civilian and military authorities or between the ATC services of adjacent states to avoid the need for interception for identification purposes; and Any flight across international borders.
Note: Flight across a Flight Information Region (FIR) boundary does not necessarily require the filing of a FPL. For instance, a flight across the English/Scottish border crosses the FIR boundary but does not cross an international boundary. Where and When to File a FPL When a FPL is necessary for a flight, file it to an Air Traffic Services (ATS) reporting office before departure. The method of delivering the completed FPL form may be by hand, mail, fa x, electronic media, or verbally (phone). If the FPL is filed directly to the ATC Centre (ATCC), it cannot be delivered by hand because the security staff will not let you in. A pilot can file an FPL in flight by radio to an ATS unit, or an Air/Ground radio station. In the case of scheduled operations or multiple repeats of a flight, a repetitive FPL (RPL) may be filed. To file an RPL, the flight must be repeated 10 times or more, or repeated over a period of not less than 10 days . 60 minutes For a flight to be provided with an ATC service or advisory ATe , the FPL is to be filed at least 60 minutes before departure. 10 minutes For the filing of a FPL in flight, the FPL is to be filed at least 10 minutes before the aircraft is estimated to reach : ~
~
The intended point of entry into an area where ATC or advisory ATC is to be provided; or The point of crossing an airway or advisory route.
Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) To comply with the requirements of ATFM , a FPL is to be filed not less than 3 hours before departure. This period is also required for filing FPLs for flight in Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). For flights subject to ATFM , the ATC authority issues an estimated off-blocks time (EOST), which becomes the defined departure time for that flight. Delays after Filing In the event of a delay of 30 minutes in excess of the estimated off-block time for a con trolled flight or a delay of one hour for an uncontrolled flight for which a flight plan has been submitted , the flight plan should be amended or a new flight plan submitted and the old flight plan cancelled.
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Rules of the Air
Chopter 7
Non-scheduled Non-commercial International Flights Annex 9 requires that non-scheduled , non-commercial fiights crossing an international boundary are to be filed at least 2 hours before the aircraft is planned to land in the destination state. Note: 'Departure' is not defined. It is generally accepted to be the time at which the fiight is intended to begin. Changing a FPL If it becomes necessary to change an IFR FPL, or a VFR FPL for a controlled VFR fiight, communicate the necessary changes to the ATCU as soon as practicable. For other VFR fiights , only significant changes need to be reported. Closing a FPL Until a FPL is closed, it remains active and subject to ATC action, including overdue action and costly SAR operations. At the completion of a fiight for which a FPL is filed , the pilot is to make a report to the ATCU at the arrival aerodrome in person, by radio, or by data link. At an uncontrolled aerodrome, make the report to the nearest ATCU. If the facilities at the destination aerodrome are inadequate and no other procedures are in force, the pilot is to make a report shortly before landing by RTF to the appropriate ATCU providing the ATC service. Such a report is to contain: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Aircraft identification; Departure aerodrome; Destination aerodrome in the case of a diversion to an alternate aerodrome; Arrival aerodrome; Time of arrival.
Time In all communications , time is to be expressed as Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) utilising the 24 hour clock. A time check is to be obtained before operating a controlled fiight. ATC Clearances Commencement of a controlled fiight may only be commenced after the receipt of an ATC clearance. An initial ATC clearance includes the words 'clear to ... .' It also includes ATC instructions to be complied with by the pilot. If an ATC clearance received is not satisfactory or cannot be complied with, the PIC may request an amended clearance. Before ta xiing at a controlled aerodrome a taxi clearance is to be obtained. Current Flight Plan (CPL) Flight in accordance with an ATC clearance and any subsequent re-clearance , is defined as fiight in accordance with the current FPL (CPL). Adherence to the FPL A pilot operating a controlled flight is required to adhere to the CPL. When flying along a defined ATS route, the aircraft is to be flown along the centre line of the route. If no defined ATS route exists, fly the aircraft directly between the navigation facilities used or the points that define the route.
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Rilles of the Air
Inadvertent Changes If a controlled flight deviates from the CPL, the following action is to be taken : ~ ~
~
Deviation from Track Adjust the heading to regain the desired track as soon as practicable. Variation in TAS If TAS at cruising level changes (or is expected to change) by 5% or more from that given in the FPL, inform the ATC. Change in ETA If the ETA changes by more than +1-3 minutes , the ETA is to be revised to ATC . In an Oceanic Control Area , report changes in ETA of +/- 3 mins or more.
Position Reports Unless specifically exempted by the ATC authority, a pilot of a controlled flight is to make position reports at the designated reporting points. If no reporting points are specified for a route, position reports are to be made at intervals determined by the ATC authority. Such reports are to be made 30 minutes after commencement of the flight, then at hourly intervals. A position report includes: aircraft identification, position , time at that position , and altitude or FL. Where automatic altitude reporting has been confirmed , omit the altitude report. Additional information may be requested by the ATC authority. For an airways report, the next position and ETA should be included and optionally the ensuing position . An example of a full airways position report is: "London Control this is Atlantic 123, Daventry at 33, FL 170, Bookman 's Park at 49, Midhurst next"
Termination of Control When a con trolled flight leaves controlled airspace (CAS), the pilot reports that the aircraft is 'clear of CAS' at which point the provision of an ATC service ceases.
COMMUNICATIONS A controlled flight is required to maintain two way RTF communications wi th the controlling ATCU . Where approved a SELCAL watch is an acceptable alternative. If Controller/Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC) has been established , the requirement to maintain voice RTF remains. Communication Failure (1 ) If an aircraft is unable to communicate (receive and acknowledge ATC instructions and indicate a state of emergency), in addition to squawking Mode A17600 and maintaining a visual wa tch for signals, if flying in VMC, maintain VMC and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome. ATC is to be informed as soon as possible once the aircraft lands. If flying in IMC (2 ): ~
~ ~
~ ~
7-10
Maintain the last assigned speed and/or level , for a period of 20 minutes after the failure to report over the last compulsory reporting point(3 ) ; then ; Proceed in accordance with the FPL to the navigation facility serving the destination aerodrome and hold on that facility; and Descend from the facility at the last received and acknowledged Expected Approach Time (EAT), or where no EAT has been issued , at the ETA from the FPL (4 ); then Fly a normal instrument approach ; and ' Land within 30 minutes of the ETA.
Air Law
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rules
~rthe
Air
Chapler 7
Note 1: An aircraft may have many different systems for commun ication . These may include VHF , HF, Data Link, SATCOM, satellite telephone , cel l phones, and SSR. ATC can also transmit voice RTF on the localiser channel of ILS. Total commu nications failure in a modern aircraft is a remote possibility. Note 2: Clearly, at any time during the procedure for failure in IMG, if the pilot fi nds VMC then the aircraft should attempt to land whilst maintaining VMC . Note 3: This would be the time when it can be assumed safely that the ATC authority is now aware of the communications failure situation . Note 4: If a communication failure occurs to an aircraft in a terminal holding pattern after the receipt of an ATC message indicating 'delay not determined' the descent at ETA would be dangerous as aircraft may still be in the holding pattern below. In this case, the advice is to leave the holding pattern in a safe direction maintaining the last assigned level , find VMC and land. Consideration should be given to squawking Al7700. Communications Failure During a Standard Instrument Departure in European Airspace A departing controlled IFR fiight operating in IMC, having acknowledged an initial intermediate clearance to climb to a level other than the one specified in the current fiight plan for the enroute phase of the fiight, and experiencing two-way radio communication failure should , if no time limit or geographical limit was included in the climb clearance, maintain the level to which it was cleared for a period of 7 minutes and then continue its fiight in accordance with the current fli ght plan . A departing controlled IFR fiight vectored by radar away from the route specified in its current fiight plan and experiencing two-way radio communication failure should proceed in the most direct manner to the route specified in the current fiight plan. Interception Each State has the right to protect its territory and to satisfy itself that any aircraft applying the freedoms of the air is bona-fide. If the authority of a state has suspicions that a fiight is not what is supposed to be, or has entered the airspace of a state without permission , it may invoke a process of interception. Interception Phraseology It is usual for military interceptor aircraft to be used for this purpose, and there is a strong likelihood that the military pilot may not speak English. ICAO has formulated standard phraseology (reproduced below) and signals to be used in this situation.
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Chapter 7
Rilles of the Air
Table: Interception Phraseology Phrases for use by INTERCEPTING Aircraft Phrase
Pronunc iation
Meaning
What is your call
Phrases for use by INTERCEPTED Aircraft Phrase
Pronunciation
Meaning
CALL SIGN
KOL SA-IN
My call sign is
CALL SIGN
KOL SA-IN
FOLLOW
FOL-LO
Follow me
WI LCO
VILL-CO
Understood , will comply
DESCEND
DEE-SEND
Descend for landing
CAN NOT
KANN-N OTT
Unable to comply
YOU LAND
YOU-LA ND
REPEAT
REE-PEET
Repeat your instruction
PROCEED
PRO-SEED
AM LOST
AM LOSST
Position unknown
MAYDAY
MAYDAY
I am in distress
HIJACK
ill-JACK
I have been hijacked
LAAND
I request to la nd at (Place name)
sign?
Land at this
aerodrome You may
proceed
LAND (Place name)
DESCEND
DEE-S END
r
require descent
International Interception Signal Tables The carriage of the International Interception Signal Tables is mandatory for international flights and as such , learning the tables is not required . Indeed, it is considered dangerous to do so. In an interception situation , the pilot is required to have the tables available and use them . It is recommended that an aircraft being intercepted squawks AJ7700. If interception occurs after communication with the ATC authority of a state by military aircraft of that state, then ATC will be aware of, and may have been instrumental in ordering the interception. The International Interception Signal Tables are reproduced at Appendix 1 at the end of this chapter. Unlawful Interference An aircraft subject to unlawful interference is to attempt to communicate the fact to the ATC authority together with details of any deviation from the CPL necessitated by the situation . The SSR system should be set to AJ7500 unless AJ7700 is more appropriate . Further advice on the management of situations of unlawful interference will be the subject of specific instruction by the operator during airline indoctrination.
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR) When permitted by the class of airspace and in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) a pilot may elect to fiy under the Visual Flight Rules (VFR). In conditions less than VMC in a control zone (CTR) a pilot may request an ATC clearance to fiy under modified VFR called Special VFR (SVFR). In determining the existence of VMC, the pilot is the sole arbiter. If a pilot is unsure as to the existence of VMC hel she should assume IMC and fiy under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). In any event, a pilot without authorisation to fi y under IFR is required to satisfy himl herself that before beginning a fiight under VFR, VMC exists along the entire route , or that alternate aerodromes are available for landing without fiight in IMC.
7-1 2
Air Law
Rules of the Air
Chapter i
VMC Minima VMC is determined by a required forward visibility from the flight deck (flight visibility) and required vertical and horizontal distances from cloud. As the reference for this section of the LOs is ICAO Annex 2, the VMC minima applicable to the RoA as defined in Annex 2 are stated in Annex 2; Chapter 3; and paragraph 3.9. These are graphically illustrated in table 3-1 which is reproduced below. The ICAO minima are different from those stated in .JAR OPS-1 and those applied by the UK CM. The major difference is in the VMC minima specified for class B airspace. Airspace Class
F
A, B, C, D& E
(Note 3)
Above 900 m (3000 It) AMSL or above 300 m (1000 It) above terrain,
At and below 900 m (3000 It) AMSL or 300 m (1000 It) above terrain,
whichever is higher
whichever is higher
From Cloud
1500 m horizontally 300 m (1000 It) vertically
Flight Visibility
8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 It) AMSL 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 It) AMSLA (Note 1)
Distance
G
Clear of cloud and
in sight of the surface
5 km (Note 2)
Notes: 1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 It) AMSL, FL 100 should be used in lieu of 10 000 It. 2. When the ATS authority prescribe: a. Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating: 1) At speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or 2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic would normally be [ow e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at [ow levels.
b. Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if manoeuvred at a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to
avoid collision. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in Class A 3. airspace.
Take-off and Landing Except when a clearance is given from an ATCU, VFR flights cannot take-off or land at an aerodrome in a CTR, or enter an aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern when:
:>:>-
The ceiling is less than 1500 It The visibility is less than 5 km
Night ATS authorities may impose conditions, or proscribe VFR flights between sunset and sunrise.
Limits Unless authorized by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights are not operated above FL200 or at transonic and supersonic speeds.
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Chapter 7
Rules oflhe Air
Minimum Heights Except when necessary for take-off and landing , or where permission has been granted from the appropriate authority, a VFR flight shall not be flown: ~
~
Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an open air assembly of persons, at a height less than 300 m (1000 ft) above the highest-obstacle within a ra dius of 600 m from the aircraft. Elsewhere , at a height less than 150 m (500 ft) above the ground or water.
VFR Flight Levels Except where indicated in ATC clearances or specified by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights in level cruising flight when operated above 900 m (3000 ft) from the ground or water, or a higher datum as specified by the appropriate ATS authority, are to be conducted at a flight level appropriate to the magnetic track as specified in the table of cruising levels . ATC Clearances VFR flights shall comply with the provisions laid out in ATC clearances when operated in Class B, C and D airspace, when forming part of aerodrome traffic at a controlled aerodrome, or when operated as special VFR flights . Radio Watch A VFR flight operating within ATS routes, or areas specified by the appropriate ATS authority, shall maintain a continuous listening watch on the appropriate radio frequency. The aircraft must report its position as necessary to the ATS unit providing the FIS. Weather Deterioration below VMC If it becomes evident that a controlled VFR flight will not remain in VMC, the pilot is to: ~ ~ ~ ~
Request an amended clearance to continue to the destination aerodrome by another route remaining in VMC; or Land at the nearest useable aerodrome; or If operating in a CTR, request a SVFR clearance ; or File an IFR FPL.
VFR Flight Plan When a flight plan for a VFR flight is filed using the ICAO standard form , the flight rules to be observed are indicated in field 8 of the form. For VFR, the entry in field 8 is "V". If it is intended that the flight will start under VFR and at some point change to IFR, the letter "z" is entered in field 8. Aide memoir: VFR requires good VIZ. V to I = Z. (VIZ)
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES Where VMC does not exist, IMC must exist. In IMC the ability to navigate with reference to the ground and to maintain a good look out for possible collision hazards is not always possible . In order for commercial aviation to meet the expectations of the travelling public, flight in IMC has to be made possible and safe. In order to fly in IMC a commercial pilot must elect to fly under the Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Before electing to fl'y under IFR, the commercial pilot must be satisfied that the aircraft is properly equipped for IFR flight and that any commercial pilot permitted to fly the aeroplane under IFR has an instrument rating (IR). 7- 14
Air Law
Rules of the Air
Chapter 7
Aircraft Equipment All aircraft fiying under IFR are required to be equipped with suitable in struments and navigation equipment appropriate to the route to be fiown. The exact requirements are detailed in JAR OPS1 and are covered in Operational Procedures. Minimum Levels Except when necessary for take-off and landing , or when specificall y authorized by the appropriate authority, an IFR fiight is to be fiown at a level which is not below the minimum fiight altitude established by the state whose territory is being over fiown. If a minimum altitude has not been established , an IFR flight shall be fiown at a level which is at least 300 m (1000 ft ) above the highest obstacle within 8 km (5 nm) of the estimated position of the aircraft. In mountainous terrain , this is increased to 600 m (2000 ft). Note: Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the prevailing wind of 37 kts produces significant downdraughts. Change from IFR Flight to VFR Flight An aircraft wishing to change from IFR to VFR in fi ight shall notify the appropriate ATS unit that the IFR fiight is cancelled and communicate the changes to be made to the current fiight plan to allow the fiight to continue under VFR. The phraseology used is: "Coventry Approach this is Atlantic 123, cancellFR, joining visually forrunway .... " The reply must be "Atlantic 123 roger, IFR cancelled at time .... " Note: It is the IFR fiight that is cancelled , not the IFR fii ght plan. Temporary Cancellation of IFR When an aircraft operating under IFR is fiown in, or encounters VMC , IFR shall not be cancelled unless it is anticipated, and intended , that the fiight will be continued for a reasonable period of time in uninterrupted VMC. Note: 'Reasonable period ' is interpreted as about 1/3'd of the total expected fiight time.
RULES APPLICABLE TO IFR FLIGHTS WITHIN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE IFR flights shall comply with the provisions of the rules laid out in ATC clearances.
IFR FLIGHT LEVELS An IFR flight operating in cruising flight shall be fiown at a cruising level , or if authorized to employ cruise climb techniques, between two levels or above a level , selected from the table of cruising levels found after this section . The correlation to track does not apply when indicated in ATC clearances or specified in the appropriate ATS authority AlP.
RULES APPLICABLE TO IFR FLIGHTS OUTSIDE CONTROLLED AIRSPACE An IFR flight operating in level cruising flight outside controlled airspace is fi own at a cruising level appropriate to the magnetic track as specified in the table of cruisin g levels.
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Chapler 7
Rules of the Air
COMMUNICATIONS All IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace but within or into areas, or along routes designated by the appropriate ATS authority shall maintain a listening watch on the appropriate radio frequency. Two-way communications must be established with the ATS unit providing the FIS.
POSITION REPORTS Position reports are to be made by all IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace, and by aircraft which are required by the appropriate ATS authority to submit a flight plan, maintain a listening watch on the appropriate frequency or establish two way communications with the appropriate ATS authority.
IFR FLIGHT PLAN When a flight plan for an IFR flight is filed using the ICAO standard form , the flight rules to be observed are indicated in field 8 of the form. For IFR, the entry in field 8 is "I". If it is intended that the flight will start under IFR and at some point change to VFR , the letter "Y" is entered in field 8.
Aide memoir: IFR to VFR
=Y. (IVY).
SPECIAL VFR (SVFR) SVFR is defined as a clearance to fly within a CTR in conditions less than VMC in which the pilot remains clear of cloud and in visual contact with the ground. Provision of SVFR Where a pilot cannot, or has good reason not to , comply with IFR in a CTR helshe may request a special VFR (SVFR) clearance to:
>>>-
Enter a CTR to land at an aerodrome within the CTR; Take off from an aerodrome within a CTR and depart from the CTR; or To fly between aerodromes within a CTR.
Procedure The clearance given permits flight in meteorological conditions less than VMC providing the pilot remains clear of cloud and in sight of the ground , and can navigate the aircraft by visual means . In class A airspace, a SVFR clearance overrides the requirement for mandatory compliance with IFR. A pilot must request SVFR . It will not be offered by ATC. SVFR is only applicable to CTRs. The limit of the clearance is to or from the CTR boundary and does not extend beyond the CTR. In busy CTRs , SVFR traffic lanes (SVFR corridors) are established as standard SVFR routes beginning at specified points on the CTR boundary and terminating at the aerodrome served by the route . Under certain circumstances , ATCOs will provide separation of IFR flights from SVFR flights. Take-off Conditions According to ICAO a SVFR flight may take off from an aerodrome in a CTR provid ing the ground visibility is not less than 1500 m. JAR OPS requires a ground visibility of not less than 3000 m. Both references require a minimum flight visibility of 1500 m to continue a SVFR flight.
7-16
Air Law
Rules a/the Air
Chap/er 7
CRUISING LEVELS Semi Circular Rule The table of fiight levels is based on VFR and IFR flight levels determined by reference to the magnetic track flown. In areas where RVSM is applied , the table is modified. The basic rule is that vertical separation between IFR FLs below FL290 is 1000 It, as is the separation between VFR FLs. Above FL290, the separation is increased to 2000 It to allow for the inaccuracies in barometric altimeters at altitudes where the baromelric lapse rate is high (see Met notes) .
.__---> 000· Mag
VFR Flight Levels
IFR Flight Levels
In non - RVSM Airspace
FLs ,Even FLs +500ft
45 65 85 etc ... up to
" 285
VFR Flight Levels
IFR Flight Levels In RVSM Airspace
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Chapter 7
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Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) The desired cruising levels for turbo-jet aircraft are adjacent to the tropopause (typically FL350 370). In the upper airspace (in UIRs and OCAs) these levels quickly become occupied and congestion arises. To overcome this (in part), a system of reduced vertical separation is applied whereby the 1000 ft separation between FLs is maintained up to FL410. Above FL4 10, the inaccuracy in the altimeter operation is too great for continuation of the reduced minima. This immediately doubles the available FLs between FL290 and the limit of the application , FL4 10. This standard is known as Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM ). Where RVSM is applied, VFR flight is not permitted under any circumstance above FL285. Domestic Airspace In the upper airspace where RVSM is applied , the RVSM levels are defined as FL300 - FL410 (implying that FL290 is not an RVSM level). Oceanic Airspace In the upper airspace of an OCA, from 24 Jan 2002 RVSM is applied between FL290 and FL410 inclusive (implying that FL290 is an RVSM level). Requirements To fly in airspace where RVSM is applied , an aircraft must be equipped with two independent altitude measuring systems; an altitude alerting system (activated by deviation from the selected altitude); an automatic altitude control system (height lock), and an SSR system with altitude reporting (mode C) connected to the system used for the automatic altitude control system . Additionally, the operator must be approved for RVSM operations.
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Air Law
Rules of the Air
Chaple,. 7
CRUISING LEVELS APPROPRIATE TO DIRECTION OF FLIGHT Track from 180 0 to 359 0
• • ~
• ~
• • •
Air Law
FL 430
Track from 000 0 to 179 0
(Outside of RVSM airsDacel
FL 410
•
FL 390
•
FL 370
•
FL 350
•
FL 330
•
FL 310
•
FL 290
•
FL 400
FL 380
FL 360
FL 340
FL 320
FL 300
FL 280
(Outside of RVSM airsDacel
7-1 9
Chapter 7
Rilles of the Air
TABLE OF CRUISING LEVELS Th e cruising levels to be observed w hen requi red by A nnex 2 a re listed in the two tables below. In areas where Reduced Vertical Separation Mi nimum (RVSM ) of 300 m (1000 tt) is applied between FL 290 and FL 410 inclusive ") TRACK'" From 0000 to 1790
From 1800 to 359013 )
(3 1
IFR Flights
.1Altitude FL
IFR Flights
VFR Flights
! Metres I Feet
FL
I A)titu de I Metres I Feet
FL
VFR Fli ghts
I Altitude I Metres I Feet
FL
I Altitude I Metres I Feet
10 30 50 70 90
300 900 1500 2150 2750
1000 3000 5000 7000 9000
35 55 75 95
1050 1700 2300 2900
3500 5500 7500 9500
20 40 60 80 100
600 1200 1850 2450 3050
2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000
45 65 85 105
1350 2000 2600 3200
4500 6500 8500 10500
110 130 150 170 190
3350 3950 4550 5200 5800
11 000 13000 15000 17000 19 000
11 5 135 155 175 195
3500 4 100 4700 5350 5950
11 500 13500 15 500 17 500 19 500
120 140 160 180 200
3650 4250 4900 5500 6100
12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
125 145 165 185 205
3800 4400 5050 5650 6250
12 500 14 500 16 500 18500 20500
210 230 250 270 290
6400 7000 7600 8250 8850
21000 23000 25000 27000 29000
215 235 255 275
6550 71 50 7750 8400
21500 23500 25500 27 500
220 240 260 280 300
6700 7300 7900 8550 9150
22000 24 000 26000 28000 30000
225 245 265 285
6850 74 50 8100 8700
22 500 24500 2650 0 28500
310 330 350 370 390
9450 10050 10650 11 300 11 900
31 000 33 000 35000 37000 39 000
320 340 360 380 400
9750 10 350 10950 11600 12 200
32000 34000 36000 38000 40000
410 450 490
12500 13700 14 950
4 1 000 45000 49 000
430 470 510
131 00 14350 15 550
43000 47000 51 000
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
Note 1: Except when, on the ba sis of regional air navigation agreements , a modified ta bl e of cruising levels based on a nominal verti cal separation minimum of 300 m (1000 ft) is prescribed for use, under specified conditions, by aircraft operating above FL 4 10 within designated portions of the airspace
Note 2: Magnetic track, or Polar areas at a latitude higher than 70' and within such extensions to those areas as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determined by a network of lines parallel to th e Greenwich Merid ian superim posed as a Polar Stereographic cha rt in which the direction towards th e North Pole is employed as Grid Nort h Note 3: Except whe re, on the basis of reg ional air navigation ag reements, from 090 0 to 269 0 and from 270 0
to 089 0 is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directions and appropriate transi tion procedures to be associated therewith are specified
7-20
Air Law
Rules of the Air
Chapter 7
In Other Areas TRACK(1) From 0000 to 1790 (2~
IFR Flights
I Altitude 10 30 50 70 90
_!. Metres 300 900 1500 2150 2750
11 0 130 150 170 190
FL
i From 180 0 to 3590 (2) VFR Flights
I Feet
I Altitude
FL
I Metres I Feet
I IFR Flights , I Altitu de i FL I Metres
VFR Flights
I Feet
FL
I I
i
Altitude
Metres
I
I 20 40 60 80 100
600 1200 1850 2450 3050
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
45 65 85 105
1350 2000 2600 3200
4500 6500 8500 10 500
11500 13500 15500 17 500 19500
120 140 160 180 200
3650 4250 4900 5500 6100
12000 14000 16000 18000 20 00 0
125 145 165 185 205
3800 4400 5050 5650 6250
14 500 16 500 18500 20 500
6550 71 50 7750 8400 9150
21 500 23500 25 500 27500 30000
220 240 260 280 310
6700 7300 7900 8550 9150
22 000 24 000 26000 28 000 31 000
225 245 265 285 320
6850 7450 8100 8700 9750
22500 24500 26 500 28500 32000
340 380
10 350 11 600
34000 38000
350 390
10650 11 900
35000 39000
360 400
10950 12200
36000 40 00 0
41 000 45 000 49 000
42 0 460 500
12800 14 000 15250
42 000 46000 50000
430 470 510
13 100 14 350 15 550
43000 47 000 51 000
44 0 480 520
13400 14 650 15850
44 000 48000 52 000
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
1000 3000 5000 7000 9000
35 55 75 95
1050 1700 2300 2900
3500 5500 7500 9500
3350 3950 4550 5200 5800
11 000 13 000 15000 17 000 19000
115 135 155 175 195
3500 4100 4700 5350 5950
210 230 250 270 290
6400 7000 7600 8250 8850
21 000 23000 25 000 27000 29 000
21 5 235 255 275 300
330 370
10 050 11 300
33 000 37000
41 0 450 490
12500 13700 14 950
etc
etc
,
12500
Note 1: Magneti c track, or Polar areas at a latitu de hig her tha n 70 0 and within such extensions to those areas as ma y be prescribed by th e appropri ate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determin ed by a network of lines parall el to the Greenwich Meridian superim posed as a Polar Stereographic chart in which th e directi on towards the North Pole is empl oyed as Grid North Note 2: Except whe re , on th e basis of regional a ir navigati on ag ree ments, from 090 0 to 269 0 and from 2700
to 089 0 is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directi on s and appropriate transition procedures to be associated th erewith are specified .
Air Law
Feet
7-21
I
Chapler 7
Rules o.llhe Ail'
APPENDIX 1 TO CHAPTER 7 SIGNALS FOR USE IN THE EVENT OF INTERCEPTION Air-to-Air Visual Signals Bolh inlercepting and intercepted aircraft must adhere strictly to the following signals. All signals must be given as per the tables below. The intercepting aircraft must pay particular attention to any signals given by the intercepted aircraft that indicate it is in a state of distress. Signals Initiated by Intercepting Aircraft and Responses by Intercepted Aircraft Intercepting Aircraft Signals
1
Meaning
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT
DAY or NIGHT Rocking aircraft and flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals (and landing lights in the case of a helicopter) from a position slightly above and ahead of, and normally to the left of, the intercepted aircraft (or to the right if the intercepted aircraft is a helicopter) and after acknowledgement, a slow level turn, normally to the left, (or to the right in the case of a helicopter) on the desired heading
Intercepted Aircraft Responds
You have been intercepted follow me
Rocking aircraft, flashing navigational lights at irregular intervals and following
Understood will comply
NOTE; Meteorological conditions or terrain may require the intercepting aircraft to reverse the positions and directions of the turn above. If the intercepted aircraft is not able to keep pace with the intercepting aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series of racetrack patterns and to rock the aircraft each time it passes the intercepted aircraft
7-22
Air Law
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Chapter 7
Intercepting Aircraft Signals
2
DAY or NIGHT An abrupt breakaway manoeuvre from the intercepted aircraft consisting of a climbing turn of 90' or more without crossing the line of fiight of the intercepted aircraft
3
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT You may proceed
Rocking the aircraft
Land at this aerodrome
Lowering landing gear (if fitted ), showing steady landing lights and following the intercepting aircraft and, if, after overflying the runway in use or helicopter landing area, landing is considered safe, proceeding to land
.
Understood will comply
DAY or NIGHT
DAY or NIGHT Lowering landing gear (if fitted), showing steady landing lights and overflying the runway in use or, if the aircraft is a helicopter, overflying the helicopter
Meaning
Intercepted Aircraft Responds
landing area. In the case of
helicopters, the intercepting helicopter makes a landing approach coming to hover near the landing area
Understood will comply
~
Signals Initiated by Intercepted Aircraft and Responses by Intercepting Aircraft Intercepted Aircraft Signals
4
DAY or NIGHT Raising landing gear (if fitted) and fiashing landing lights while passing over runway in use or helicopter landing area at a height exceeding 1000 ft but not exceeding 2000 ft (in the case of a helicopter, at a height exceeding 170 ft but not exceeding 330 ft) above the aerodrome level, and continue to circle runway in use or helicopter landing area. If unable to fiash landing lights, fiash any other lights available
5
Air Law
Meaning
If it is desired that the intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear (if fitted ) and uses Series 1 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft
Understood follow me
If it is decided to release the intercepted aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft
DAY or NIGHT Cannot comply
DAY or NIGHT Irregular fiashing of all available lights
Intercepting Aircraft Responds DAY or NIGHT
Aerodrome you have designated is inadequate
DAY or NIGHT Regular switching on and off of all available lights but in such a manner as to be distinct from fiashing lights
6
Meaning
Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting aircraft
Understood
DAY or NIGHT In distress
Use Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting , aircraft
Understood
7· 23
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Reference:
Annex 2 - Rules of the Air
INTRODUCTION When observing or receiving any of the following signals , the pilot of an aircraft shall take the actions required by the signal. The signals are to be used only for the purposes indicated. No other signals that are likely to be confused with the authorised signals shall be used.
EMERGENCY SIGNALS Distress and Urgency Signals These signals are used to indicate that an aircraft (or other vehicle) is in a state of emergency. However, an aircraft in distress may use any means at its disposal to attract attention , make known its position , and obtain help. ~
Distress Signals The state of DISTRESS means that an aircraft is in grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance. The following signals may be used separately or together: ~
Use of the Morse code group SOS (... - - - ••• )
~
The spoken word MAYDAY (repeated 3 times as an alerting signal) Rockets or shells showing red lights , fired one at a time or at intervals A parachute fiare showing a red light
~
~
Urgency Signals The state of URGENCY exists when an aircraft has an urgent message to transmit regarding the safety of persons or property on board or within sight. The following signals may be used separately, or together: ~
Use of the Morse code group XXX (- •• - - •• - - •• -)
~
The spoken words PAN PAN (repeated 3 times as an alerting signal )
Assistance not Required When used separately, or together, the following signals mean that an aircraft wishes to give notice of difficulties that compel it to land without requiring immediate assistance: ~
~
Air Law
The repeated switching on and off of the landing lights, or The repeated switching on and off of the navigation lights in a manner that is distinctive from fiashing navigation lights •
8- 1
Chapter 8
Signals
AERODROME SIGNALS Signals for Aerodrome Traffic Aircraft manoeuvring on or flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome are requ ired to look out for and comply with visual signals from the ground . If an aerodrome accepts non-radio traffic, a signal square is positioned on the aerodrome side of the control tower to give information to aircraft airborne. To complement this, a signals mast is positioned near the control tower to give information to aircraft taxiing or stationary on the ground . All visual control rooms (VCR) in control towers are required to be equipped with a signal lamp capable of being aimed at a parti cular aircraft; showing red , green , and white light; and capable of transmitting visual Morse code. VCRs and where situated, runway caravans , are also equipped with pyrotechnic (flare ) cartridges and a means of firing them. The following table contains the lamp and pyrotechnic signals from the VCR or a runway caravan . LIGHT
FROM AERODROME CONTROL TO AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT
AIRCRAFT ON THE GROUND
Steady Green
Cleared to land
Cleared for take-off
Steady Red
Give way to other aircraft and continue circling
Stop
Series of Green flashes
Return for landing'
Cleared to ta xi
Series of Red flashes
Aerodrome unsafe, do not land
Taxi clear of landing area in use
Series of White flashes
Land at this aerodrome and proceed to apron
Return to starting point on the aerodrome
Red Pyrotechnic
NotWithstanding any previous instructions, do not land for the time being , Clearances to land and taxi will be given in due course
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT When seen an acknowledgement is given by: ~
~
8-2
When in Flight ~ During the hours of daylight by rocking the aircraft's wings ; ~ During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircraft's landing lights on and off twice or, if not so equipped , by switching its navigation lights on and off twice. When on the Ground ~ During the hours of daylight by moving the aircraft's ailerons or rudder. ~ During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircraft's landing lights on and off twice or, if not so equipped, by switching its navigation lights on and off twice .
Air Law
Signals
ChapterS
VISUAL GROUND SIGNALS These signals are displayed in the signal square : Prohibition of Landing A horizontal red square with yellow diagonals when displayed in a signal area indicates that landings are prohibited and that prohibition is likely to be prolonged.
A horizontal red square with one yellow diagonal when displayed in a signal area indicates that owing to the bad state of the manoeuvring area, or for any other reason , special precautions must be observed in approaching to land or in landing . Use of Runways and Taxiways A horizontal white dumbbell (the name of the shape) when displayed in a signal area indicates that aircraft are required to land, take-off, and taxi on runways and taxiways only.
The same dumbbell but with black bars indicates that aircraft are required to land and take-off on runways only, but other manoeuvres need not be confined to runways and taxiways .
Direction for Take-off or Landing A horizontal white or orange landing T indicates the direction to be used by aircraft for landing and take-off. The same signal may be displayed on the surface of a grass aerodrome without defined runways, to indicate the landing direction. In the absence of a landing "T" pilots should observe the wind indicator (wind-sock) and land in the appropriate direction. LANDING D I R E C T I O N - - - - - _ .
LANO OR TAKE
Air Law
.,4
OFF--_,," , •
8-3
Chapter 8
Signals
Right Hand Traffic A right hand arrow of conspicuous colour (usually red and yellow stripes) indicates that turns are to be made to the right, before landing and after take-off. Turns are normally made to the left and the absence of this signal implies left turns.
Glider Flights in Operation A double white cross displayed horizontally in the signal area indicates that gliders are using the aerodrome.
QDM Boards Two digits displayed vertically at or near to the aerodrome control tower indicate the direction for take-off. These units are expressed in units of 10° to the nearest 10° of the magnetic compass.
26
Closed Runways or Taxiways A cross of a single contrasting colour, yellow or white , displayed horizontally on runways or taxiways indicate an area unfit for the movement of aircraft.
Runway
Taxiway
Air Traffic Services Reporting Office The letter C vertically in black against a yellow background indicates the location of the ATS reporting office.
c
Mandatory and Information Signs These signs are used on aerodromes. They are covered in detail in the aerodrome section of the notes. Marshalling Signals These signals are designed for use by the marshaller with hands illuminated as necessary to facilitate observation by the pilot, and facing the aircraft in a position: l' l'
8-4
For Fixed Wing Aircraft For Helicopters
Forwa.rd of the left wing tip within view of the pilot Where the marshaller can best be seen by the pilot Air Law
Chapter 8
Signals
The aircraft engines are numbered : 1 Port (left) outer 2 Port (left) inner 3 Starboard (right) inner 4 Starboard (right) outer To Proceed Under Guidance of another Marshaller Marshaller directs pilot if traffic conditions on aerodrome require this action. Right or left arm down , the other arm moved across the body and extended to indicate position of the other marshaller.
This Bay Arms above head in vertical position wi th palms facing forward.
Proceed to Next Marshaller Right or left arm down, other arm moved across the body and extended to indicate direction of next marshaller.
t' ~ .
,
c'l
TURN
,
." "': "q,-
r:-,
c'J
rs ..
Turn to Your Left Right arm downward , left arm repeatedl y moved upwardbackward . Speed of arm movement indicating rate of turn.
Turn to Your Right Left arm downward , right arm repeatedly moved upwardbackward . Speed of arm movement indicating rate of turn.
Move Ahead Arms a little aside, palms facing backward and repeatedly moved upward-backward from shoulder height.
Pfi"lff /1
Air Law
c--,
C)
c...
8-5
Chapter 8
Stop Arms repeatedly crossed above the head (the rapidity of the arm movement should be related to the urgency of the stop ie the faster the movement the quicker the stop).
Signals
T ~W S::¥';' c.....
c:'1
BRAKES Engage Brakes Raise arm, and hand with fingers extended , horizontally in front of the body, then clench the fingers.
Release Brakes Raise arm, with fist clenched, horizontally in front of body, then extend fingers.
CHOCKS Chocks Inserted Arms down , palms facing inwards , move arms from extended position inwards.
Chocks Removed Arms down , palms facing outwards, move arms outwards.
~
~~:_
_:-.:.=/i
raJW~ ~Wv~
c:::\
/.:?
c'J['::.,
Start Engine(s) Left hand overhead with appropriate number of fingers extended , to indicate the number of the engine to be started , and circular motion of right hand at head level.
/\f'>
~
~ ,..J]
Cut Engines Either arm and hand level with shoulder, hand across the throat, palm downward. The hand is moved sideways with the arm remaining bent. Slow Down Arms down with palms toward ground.
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.. ~ .. "~f "
lAP c.....
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8-6
[':..,
/)
,........
Air Law
Signals
Chapter 8
Slow Down Engine(s) on Indicated Side Arms down with palms towards ground , then either right or left hand waved up and down indicati ng the left or right side engine(s) respectively should be slowed down.
Move Back Arms by sides , palms facing forward, swept forward and upward repeatedly to shoulder height.
All Clear Right arm raised at elbow with thumb erect.
Air Law
8-7
Chapter 8
Signals
SIGNALS FROM THE PILOT OF AN AIRCRAFT TO A MARSHALLER These signals are designed for use by a pilot in the cockpit with hands plainly visible to the marshaller, and illuminated as necessary to facilitate observation by the marshaller.
(a) Ra ise arm and hand with fingers extended horizontally in front of face , then clench fist. Meaning Brakes engaged.
(b) Raise arm with fist clenched horizontally in front of face, then extend fingers.
Meaning Brakes released.
(c) Arms extended palms facing outwards, move hands inwards to cross in front of face.
Meaning Insert chocks.
(d) Hands crossed in front of face, palms facing outwards, move arms outward. Meaning
Remove chocks .
(e) Raise the number of fingers on one hand indicating the number of the engine to be started. For this purpose the aircraft engines shall be numbered as follows, NO.1 engine shall be port outer engine. No.2, the port inn er engine, No.3, the starboard inner engine and No. 4, the starboard outer engine. Meaning
8-8
Ready to start engine.
Air Law
..
References:
Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations (Document 8168Ops/611, Volume 1), Volume 1- Flight Procedures Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services (Document 4444 -RACI 501)
EXPRESSION OF VERTICAL POSITION Altitude The vertical position of an aircraft with reference to mean sea level is referred to as altitude. To display this on the aircraft altimeter, the mean sea level barometric pressure derived for a known location is set in the altimeter sub scale . This setti ng is referred to as ONH . Height The vertical position of an aircraft with reference to a defined position on the surface of the Earth is referred to as height. To display this on the aircraft altimeter, the barometric pressure observed at a known location is set in the altimeter sub scale . This setting is referred to as OFE . Unit of Measure Altitude and height are measured in metres (the SI unit defined in Annex 5) or by use of the alternative SI unit of measure, feet. The majority of altimeters in use in aircraft are calibrated in feet. The alternative unit of measure will continue to be used until the North American states decide to fully metricise units of measure used in those states. Flight Levels Cruising levels are usually defined as Flight Levels (FLs). A flight level (FL) is the vertical position of an aircraft above a constant plane of equal barometric pressure. The standard pressure setting (SPS) is 1013 hPa (or the more commonly used unit; mb. 1hPa = 1 mb). FLs are defined by thousands of feet with intervals of 500 ft. FLO (flight level zero) exists at the vertical position where the barometric pressure is (or would be) 1013 mb. Therefore FL50 is 5000 feet above the pressure level of 1013 mb , and FL55 is 5500 ft above the pressure level of 1013 mb. By using FLs all transiting aircraft in the vicinity of each other can be separated vertically without the need to reference to either local ONH or local OFE. QNE If the local ONH is below the limit of the altimeter subscale (usually about 930 mb), the altitude at touchdown will not be displayed. In order to overcome this, the pilot is instructed to set the SPS (1013 mb) and land with a reference altitude displayed on the altimeter. This reference altitude is referred to as ONE. Many pilots mistakenly think that ONE is the SPS . It is not. It is the altitude displayed at touchdown with 1013 mb set in the sub scale of the altimeter.
Air Law
9- 1
Chapter 9
Altimeter Sellings Procedures
TRANSITION Changing from QNH to SPS and the Reverse In order to maintain ATC separation between arriving and departing IFR flights, the points at which the altimeter setting is changed from QNH to SPS for departing aircraft, and from SPS to QNH for arriving aircraft is defined by the authority. ICAO requires that the authorities of all states define a transition altitude either generally or for each individual aerodtome. At the transition altitude the QNH is replaced by SPS for departing aircraft. By use of defined tables, the ATC authority at an aerodrome calculates the transition level at which arriving aircraft reset the altimeter subscale from SPS to QNH. Transition Altitude (TA) ICAO requires the TA at an aerodrome to be not less than 3000 ft. States are permitted to specify a general TA as in the case of the USA and Canada. In these states the TA is 18 000 ft. In the UK the TA varies between 3000 ft as generally applied , and 6000 ft for the London CTR. It has been suggested that a general TA of 6000 ft be applied over the whole of the UK. Transition Level (TL) Approach control offices or aerodrome control towers are required to establish the TL to be used in the vicinity of the aerodrome(s) for the appropriate period of time, on the basis of QNH reports and forecast msl pressure if required. Adjacent aerodromes may define a common TL based on the lowest of the aerodromes QNH . The TL is defined as the first available FL above the TA. Example of Determining the TL If the TA at an aerodrome is 3000 ft and the QNH is 1012 mb, when a departing pilot reaches 3000 ft the altimeter is reset from QNH to 1013 mb. This requires 1 mb to be 'wound on ', increasing the displayed altitude by approx 27 ft. Thus the altimeter will read 3027 ft with 1013 set. The first FL above 3027 ft is FL35. This is then the TL. This assumes that FL35 is the first available FL. Some states specify a minimum depth to the Transition Layer (see below). For IFR traffic the first available FL would be FL40 (FL35 is a VFR FL). Transition Layer The airspace between the TA and TL is called the Transition Layer. Generally the maximum depth of the Transition Layer is 500 ft. However, some states (Norway for example) specify a minimum depth for the Transition Layer. In the case of Norway, it is 1000 ft. Note: In the above example of determining the TL, if the state specified a minimum depth of the Transition Layer of 1000 ft, the TL in that example would be 3027 + 1000 = 4027 ft. First available FL above 4027 is FL45.
Air Law
9·2
.
Altimeter Settings Procedures
Chapter 9
Climbing through transition level , 1013 set, report FL Altimeter reads 3230 ft
Descending through tran sition level, QNH set, report altitude Set QNH 1003
TL
t
Altimeter reads 3270 ft
Transition Layer 230 ft
Transition Level
____ J__________________F~3_5
____ _
TAil
-,-----------------------Set 1013 Transition Altitude 3000 ft
1003 mb
1013 mb
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Reporting Vertical Position in the Transition Layer While ascending through the transition layer, vertical position is reported as a flight level (SPS is set), and as altitude when descending (QNH is set).
USE OF QNH OR QFE Instrument Approach Pilots are normally instructed to set the QNH at the commencement of an instrument approach procedure even though the aircraft is above the TL. Use ofQFE A pilot may elect to use either QNH or QFE as the reference for verti cal position during an approach to land. When an aircraft is completing its approach using QFE, the datum reference for height will be the aerodrome elevation except where the elevation of a runway being used for an instrument approach is 2 m (7 ft) or more below the aerodrome elevation. Runway threshold elevation is always used as the reference for precision instrument approaches.
Air Law
9-3
Chapter 9
Altimeter Settings Procedures
FLIGHT PLANNING Enroute Where a transition altitude has not been established, for flights enroute the vertical position of aircraft is expressed in terms of: ~ ~
Flight levels at or above the lowest usable flight level Altitudes below the lowest usable flight level
Provision of Information Altimeter setting information is available from ATCUs and FICs to allow pilots to verify lowest enroute altitudes and lowest safe FLs and to calculate terrain clearance. The transition level should be included in an approach clearance when requested by the pilot or when the appropriate authority deems it necessary. QNH is included in approach clearances or clearances to enter the traffic circuit, and in taxi clearances for departing aircraft, except when it is known that the aircraft has already received the information. QFE is provided to aircraft on request or on a regular basis in accordance with local arrangements. Round Down Altimeter settings provided to aircraft are rounded down to the nearest lower whole hectopascal (mb). Pre-Flight Altimeter Operational Test The following test is carried out in an aircraft by flight crew members prior to commencement of a flight. With the aircraft at a known elevation on the aerodrome: ~ ~ ~
Set the altimeter pressure scale on the current QNH/QFE setting Vibrate the instrument by tapping unless mechanical vibration is provided A serviceable altimeter indicates the elevation of the point selected, plus the height of the altimeter above this point, within a tolerance of: ~
± 20 m (60 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 9000 m (0 to 30 000 ft)
~
± 25 m (80 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 15 000 m (0 to 50 000 ft)
Minimum Sector Altitude Within 25 nm of an aerodrome, the authority defines minimum sector altitudes (MSA) for each quadrant of the magnetic compass. The MSA is the lowest altitude to which an approaching aircraft (under approach control) is permitted to descend prior to commencing an instrument approach or before visual contact with the ground is established and maintained. The MSA is published on each approach plate for the aerodrome.
9-4
Air Law
.
Altimeter Settings Procedures
Chapter 9
LONDON HEATHROW
LONDON HEATHROW
SRA RTR 2NM RWY 27R
RADAR 125.625
,t Procedures. RAtlAR
llI!n minimum 4% climb gradienllo 4000' (Note climb g radients NOise Abalemenl req uirements. Report cal1sign, SIC deslgnalor, current allitude and cleared almode
l ZUOO.IIJ.7~ , I ' S. ' DO
,,,.nS,I 20AOO,1 34••n
T"CM'ER 1l5.1Z5.11UOO l1 f.roo,11 C1OO,nUn
(G/I'C1 11
mb above SIC level s untlllnstructed by ATC . TRANSITION AL T 5000'
,thef Jove ~TC.
MSA shown on arrival plate MSA shown on SID plate
Air Law
9-5
References: Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations (Document 8168OPS/611, Volume 1), Volume I - Flight Procedures
INTRODUCTION It is not always possible to operate in good visual met conditions. Modern aircraft and radio navigation facilities permit operations in poor weather and low visibility so that a scheduled commercial service can meet the commitment of the schedule and the expectation of the travelling public. In ATC the use of radar has revolutionised terminal control but there is still a need for the pilot to gain some sort of visual criteria (visual contact with the ground) during landing operation. To this end, highly technical systems and strictly imposed procedures have been devised to reduce reliance on visual contact to the minimum . This chapter of the notes explores the instrument procedures and associated systems which permit what is termed as 'low visibility' operations.
PUBLICATIONS ICAO details the SARPs for low visibility operations in Annex 6. Because the subject is large and technically complex, technical details, procedural amplification, and guidance to operators is contained in ICAO Document 8168 - Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations (This book is known as PANS-OPS). The document consists of two volumes: Volume I - Flight Procedures This volume describes the operational procedures recommended for the guidance of fiight operations personnel. It also outlines the various parameters on which the criteria in Volume II are based so as to illustrate the need for operational personnel including fiight crew to adhere strictly to the published procedures in order to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of safety in operations. Volume II - Construction of Visual and Instrument Procedures This volume is intended for the guidance of procedure specialists and describes the essential areas and obstacle clearance requirements for the achievement of safe, regular instrument fiight operations. It provides the basic guidelines to States, and those operators and organizations producing instrument fiight charts, that will result in uniform practices at all aerodromes where instrument flight procedures are carried out. The LOs do not require the student to study this part of Doc 8168.
Air Law
10-1
Chapter 10
i nstrument Procedures
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE The overrid ing concern with regard to low visibility operations is the unwanted occurrence of 'controlled flight into terrain'. Once above the transition level or whilst in the cruise, the procedures outlined in Chapter 9 provide the necessary elements of safety from terrain . However, in the process of taking-off and landing the aircraft must inevitably be flown below the defined safety altitude. During these phases of flights, strict adherence to the. procedures and the laid down minima is required ; complying with these minima will keep the aircraft on the specified flight path and, therefore , safe. However, the manl machine system, despite being highly trained and technically complex , is not perfect, and tolerances have to be applied to cover inadvertent deviation. This must inevitably lead to the introduction of risk. In compiling the procedures using the systems specified in PANS·OPS, an acceptable risk factor has been defined at 1: 10 000 000.
ABBREVIATIONS In Chapter 1, there is a comprehensive list of abbreviations used in the examinations. In this section, certain specific abbreviations are detailed as required knowledge . These are reproduced below. Abbreviations Used
ATIS CIL DAlH DER DR EFIS FAF FAP FMS HSI IAF IF
MAPt MDAlH MOC
Automatic terminal information service Centre line Decision altitude/height Departure end of the runwa y Dead reckoning Electronic flight instrument system Final approach fix Final approach point Flight management system Horizontal situation indicator Initial approach fix Intermediate fi x Missed approach point Minimum descent altitude/height Minimum obstacle clearance
NOZ NTZ OCAlH OIS OM PAR PDG RNAV RSR RSS SID SOC SPI STAR TAR TP
Normal operating zone No transgression zone Obstacle clearance altitude/height Obstacle identification surface Outer marker Precision approach radar Proced ure design gradient Area navigation En·route surveillance radar Root sum square Standard instrument departure Start of climb Special position indicator Standard instrument arrival Terminal area surveillance radar Turning pOint
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES The natural environment of an aircraft is in the air. On the ground or during the transition from ground tq air the machine is at its most vulnerable. Departure procedures ensure the safe take-off and initial climb to safe flying speed, and then concentrate on positioning the aircraft at the right pOint and altitude to commence the en-route portion of the flight. The criteria in part 1 of PANS· OPS are designed to provide flight crews and other flight operations personnel with an appreciation, from the operational point of view, of the parameters and criteria used in the design of instrument departure procedures which include, but are not limited to, standard instrument departure (SI D) routes and associated procedures. These assume that all engines are operating normally. The 'engine-out' case or other emergency situation is the subject of special instructions which the operator is required by law to define. Such procedures are outside the LOs for Air Law. In order to ensure acceptable clearance above obstacles during the departure phase , instrument departure procedures may be published as specific routes to be followed (SIDs), or omni· directional departures (which may specify sectors to be avoided), together with procedu re design gradients (PDGs) and details of significant obstacles. 10-2
Air Law
-------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
instrzlment Procedures
Chapter 10
THE INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE The design of an instrument departure procedure, including the positioning of navigation aids , is dictated by factors such as the terrain surrounding the aerodrome and ATC requirements. At many aerodromes, a defined departure route is not required for ATC purposes. However, there may be obstacles in the vicinity of the aerodrome that will have to be considered in determining whether restrictions to departures are to be applied. In these cases, departure procedures may be restricted to a given sector(s), or published with a PDG in the sector containing the obstacle. Noise Abatement The use of automatic take-off thrust control systems (ATTCS) and noise abatement procedures will need to be taken into consideration by the pilot and the operator. Lack of Navigation Aids Where no suitable navigation aid is available, the criteria for omni-directional departures are applied. Visual Minima Where obstacles cannot be cleared by the appropriate margin when the aeroplane is flown on instruments, aerodrome operating minima are established to permit visual flight clear of obstacles. Visual minima are defined as required ground visibility and cloud base prevailing at the departure aerodrome. Straight Departures Wherever possible , a straight departure will be specified which is aligned with the runway centre line. Turning Departures When a departure route requires a turn of more than 15° to avoid an obstacle , a turning departure is constructed. Wherever limiting speeds or flight speeds are promulgated, they must be complied with to remain within the appropriate areas. If an aeroplane operation requires a higher speed, then an alternative departure procedure must be requested.
ESTABLISHMENT OF A DEPARTURE PROCEDURE A departure procedure will be established for each runway where instrument departures are expected to be used. This will define a departure procedure for the various categories of aircraft based on all-engines running PDG of 3.3% or an increased PDG if required to achieve minimum obstacle clearance. Wind Effect The procedures will assume that pilots will not compensate for wind effects when being radar vectored, but will compensate for known or estimated wind effect when flying departure routes which are expressed as track to be made good. Procedure Design Gradient Obstacle clearance is a primary safety consideration in the development of instrument departure procedures. The criteria used and the detailed method of calculation are covered in the PANSOPS Volume II. The protected areas and obstacle clearance applicable to individual types of departure are discussed later in this chapter. Unless otherwise published, a PDG of 3.3% is assumed. Air Law
10-3
Chapler/O
InSfnlment Procedures
The PDG is made up of 2.5% gradient of obstacle identification surfaces or the gradient based on the most critical obstacle penetrating these surfaces, whichever is the higher gradient, plus 0.8% increasing obstacle clearance. Gradients published will be specified to an altitude/height after which the minimum gradient of 3.3% is used. The final PDG continues until obstacle clearance is ensured for the next phase of flight. At this point the departure procedure ends and is marked by a significant point. The minimum obstacle clearance equals zero at the DER and increases by 0.8% of the horizonta l distance in the direction of fli ght assuming a maximum turn of 15°. In the turn initiation area and turn area a minimum obstacle clea rance of 90 m (295 ft) is provided . Where mountainous terrain exists, consideration is given by the procedure designer to increasing the minimum obstacle clearance. Whenever a suitably located DME exists, additional specific height/distance information intended for obstacle avoidance may be published. RNAV way-points or other suitable fi xes may be used to provide a means of monitoring climb performance. Where obstacles exist affecting the departure route , PDGs greater than 3.3% are promulgated to an altitude/height after which the 3.3% gradient is considered to prevail. Gradients to a height of 60 m (200 ft) or less, caused by close-in obstacles, are not specified . Mountainous Terrain In areas where the terrain is described as 'mountainous' the minimum obstacle clearance (MOC) is increased from 1000 ft to 2000 ft. Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the prevailing wind of 37 km/h generates significant downdraughts .
POG = 3.3%
This altitude/height is to be published if - - - - - -, more than 200 ft :I = 0.8%
,
t_. -'
4.5%
., "
"
3.7%
. .. ."
"
015 2.5%
_.
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-. ,-
2.5% '
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.
- -.
.. -.-,- .- -.-
5m (16ft)
- - -....-...:.......:....--====::k!=::=..---- Aerodrome Elevation - - - -----=".1 Obstacle DER Procedure Design Gradient
10-4
Air Law
Instrztment Procedures
Chapter 10
Aircraft Categories In defining procedures where turns are required , the aircraft speed must be taken into account so that the aircraft remains in the protected zone, established by the procedure designer, during the turn . The following table defines the maximum speeds for the different categories of aircraft: Maximum Speeds For Turning Departures Aeroplane Category
Maximum Speed km/h (kts)
A B C D E
225(120) 305(165) 490(265) 540(290) 560(360)
.
Table: Max Speed for Turning Departures
STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES A SID is normally developed to accommodate as many aircraft categories as possible . Departures that are limited to specific aircraft categories are clearly annotated . The SID terminates at the first fixlfacility/way·point of the enroute phase following the departure procedure . There are two basic types of departure route , straight and turning. The design of instrument departure routes and the associated obstacle clearance criteria are based on the definition of tracks to be followed by the aeroplane. When fiying the published track, the pilot is expected to correct for known wind to remain within the protected airspace.
STRAIGHT DEPARTURES A straight departure is one in which the initial departure track is within 15" of the runway centre line. Track guidance may be provided by a suitably located facility (VOR or NDB) or by RNAV. By definition, track guidance for a straight departure must be attained from a navigation facility within 20 km (10 .8 nm) from DER.
VOR 7.S' /NDB 10.3'
Departure Tra ck
Area for a Straight Departure with Track Guidance
Air Law
10· 5
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
TURNING DEPARTURES When a turning departure requires a turn of rnore than 15°, a turning area is constructed and the turn required is commenced upon reaching a specified altitude/height, at a fix or at a facility (VOR/NDB). Straight fiight is assumed until reaching an altitude of 120 m (394 ft) above the elevation of DER. Track guidance must be obtained within 10 km (5.4 nm) after the completion of the turn .
Splay angle \, VOR 7.8°INOB 10.3°~
CIl
,,
VORI NOB 0
,: 15
3.7 km (2 nm) VOR 4.6 km (2.5nm) NOB
Fix Tolerance _. _.
OER
Turning Departure - Turn at a Fix
CONTINGENCY PROCEDURES Development of contingency procedures required covering the case of engine failure or an emergency in flight that occurs after V,. is the responsibility of the operator. When it is necessa ry to develop turning procedures to avoid an obstacle which would have become limiting , then the procedure should be detailed in the appropriate operator's manual. The point for a start of a turn in this procedure must be readily identifiable by the pilot when flying under instrument conditions. Omni-directional Departures Where no track guidance is provided in the design, the departure criteria are developed by using the omni-directional method. The departure procedure commences at the DER, which is the end of the area declared suitable for take-off, either the end of the runway or clearway as appropriate. Since the point of lift-off will vary, the departure is constructed on the assumption that a turn at 120 m (394 ft) above the elevation of the aerodrome will not be initiated sooner than 600 m from the beginning of the runway.
10-6
Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Unless otherwise specified , a 3.3% PDG is presumed . The basic procedure ensures that the aircraft will climb on the extended runway centre line to 120 m (394 ft) before turns can be specified, and at least 90 m (295 ft) of obstacle clearance will be provided before turns greater than 15 can be specified. Where obstacles do not permit the development of omni-directional procedures , it is necessary to fly a departure route , or ensure that the ceiling and visibility will permit obstacles to be avoided by visual means. The omni-directional departure procedure is designed using anyone of a combination of the following: 0
---"'T""-------------
Centre Line
Area 1 :
1 ~
~
3.5 km (1.9 nm) or less
d _ _ _ _ _~~:
d = distance where the aircraft climbing at the minimum gradient (3 .3% or the gradient specified in the procedure whichever is the higher) will have reached the specified turn height/altitude. If the turn height is 120m above the DER this distance is 3.5 km (1.9 nm) for a 3.3% gradient.
Turn Initiation Area for Omnidirectional Departure Standard Case Where no obstacles penetrate the 2.5% OIS and 90 m (295 ft) of obstacle prevails; a 3.3% clim b to 120 m (394 ft) will satisfy the obstacle clearance requirements. Specified Turn Altitude/Height Where obstacle(s) preclude omni-directional turns at 120 m (394 ft), the procedure will specify a 3.3% climb to an altitude/height where omni-directional turns ca n be made. Specified Procedure Design Gradient Where obstacle(s) exist, the procedure may define a minimum gradient of more than 3.3% to a specified altitude/height before turns are permitted. Sector Departures Where obstacle(s) exist, the procedure may identify sector(s) for which either a minimum gradient or a minimum turn altitude/height is specified. A clearance for such a procedure "Climb straight ahead to 1000 ft before commencing a turn to the South"
Air Law
10-7
Chapler 10
Instrument Procedures
PUBLISHED INFORMATION Departure routes and standard instrument departures (S IDs) are produced and published in accordance with Annex 11 and Annex 4. The information listed will be published for operational reasons. For departure routes, the following information is promulgated: .. ..
.. .. ..
Significant obstacles which penetrate the OIS ; The position and height of close-in obstacles penetrating the OIS . A note is included on the SID chart whenever close-in obstacles exist which were not considered for the published PDG ; The highest obstacle in the departure area, and any significant obstacle outside the area which dictates the design of the procedure; The altitude/height at which a gradient in excess of 3.3% is no longer used. A note is included whenever the published PDG is based only on airspace restri ction; All navigation fac ilities, fi xes or way points, ra dials and DME distances depicting route segments are clearly indicated on the SID chart.
RNAV Routes Departure routes are labelled as RNAV only when that is the primary means of navigation utilized. Omnidirectional Departures For omni-directional departures, the restrictions will be expressed as sectors in which minimum gradients and/or minimum altitudes are specified to enable an aeroplane to safely overfly obstacles. The published minimum gradient will be the highest in any sector that may be expected to be overflown . The altitude to which the minimum gradient is specified will permit the aircraft to continue at the 3.3% minimum gradient through that sector; a succeeding sector, or to an altitude authorized for another phase of flight eg en-route, holding or approach. A fix may also be designated to mark the point at which a gradient in excess of 3.3% is no longer required .
AIRWAYS DEPARTURE ROUTES (SID CHARTS) For aerodromes which are used for IFR flights for commercial aviation , SIDs are published to cater for the operator preferred departure directions. A SID will provide track and altitude information to place the departing aircraft in the most advantageous position to enter the appropriate airway at the commencement of the enroute phase. The SID will also specify limitations to altitude and specific track requirements to avoid arriving traffic, restricted, prohibited, and danger areas, and also other aerodromes and their specific departure and arrival routes. Typica lly, a SID will require more than one radio beacon (VOR/NDB) and will normally use DME information from VORIDME or VORTAC fa cilities. Due to the limited requirements for IFR navigation equipment in aircraft (1 ADF and 2 NAV receivers) , SIDS will not specify data to be obtained at anyone instant from more than 2 VORs and 1 NOB. SIDs will normally be restricted to 25 nm from DER, and ATC service will be provided by the approach controller responsible for traffic in the CTR.
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Air Law
InslrUll1enl Procedures
Chapter 10
Radar Where radar is used for approach control , once identified by SSR a pilot may be instructed to route directly to position . In such cases the aircraft will be navigated directly to that position without compliance with the SID.
Noise Abatement SIDs reflect the preferred noise abatement routes. Initially, the SID will require a climb to 120 m (394 ft) but in practice (and to make system management easier) a climb to 500 ft is specified. At 500 ft turns may be commenced , and the pilot is required to continue the climb as required by the SID with power, gear, flaps and lift enhancers in the noise abatement configuration , and to fly at the specified speed. In an emergency, or when the PIC considers that his aircraft would be hazarded by compliance with noise abatement procedures, any power or configuration may be used , however, the operator/pilot will have to justify the action subsequently. GNSS Procedures The use of GNSS is approved for departure procedures in many states and procedures are published in the form of GNSS/FMS/RNAV SIDS. Where a GNSS SID is used, the pilot must have available data from non GNSS sources (i.e. VORIDME) so that a cross check can be made to ensure the system is functioning correctly. GNSS SIDs are titled RNAV (PRNAV). SID Chart Publication Each state publishes SID charts in the AlP AD section as part of the entry for the appropri ate aerodrome. Charts are also commercially published by Jeppesen, Aeradio, and some operators print their own (e.g. Airtours). The SARPs specify the basic information to be displayed but the commercial charts are usually far more comprehensive. If a pilot is instructed to fl y a procedure for which he/she doesn't have the chart, ATC will, on request, detail the procedure by RTF .
The following SID charts are reproductions of aerodrome procedures from the UK AlP. The first chart depicts the Midhurst SIDs from Heathrow. These departure procedures would be used for flights to Northwest France, The Channel Islands and possibly Spain and Portugal. They place the departing aircraft in a position to join airway A34 and then into A1 at FL75 and above. The Manchester SIDs via Honiley depict the route flown by flights joining A 1 southbound . The final chart depicts a trial route for FMS/GNSS operations from Luton to the East and South East. Note the accuracy of the check positions for the waypoints (accurate to 1/100 of a second of longitude, approximately 30 cm). SID Designators SIDs are ATS routes (see Chapter regarding ATS and Airspace). Each SID is given a unique identifier called a designator. The chart below (London Heathrow - Midhurst SIDs) shows all the current SIDs from the departure runways at Heathrow terminating at the Midhurst VOR. The route from 27R is called MID4F. The full designator would be 'London Heathrow SID MID4F'. The number relates to the progressive series of routes. At some point in history there was MID1 , the current MID series is 3 and 4. The letter shows the 'amendment/change' status of the SID route. When the series reaches 9 and a new series is required, the number reverts to 1. An amendment to SID MID4F would be called MID4G.
Air Law
10-9
Chapter 10
Procedures
InSlrUme11l
MIDHURST SIDs
LONDON HEATHROW
GENERAL rNFORMA1l0N 1 SIDs relieet NoIse Preferenna! Acuteings. See EGLL AD 2.21 for Noise Abatement Procedures. 2 .lnlUal climb stralllht ahead 10 580' ONH (500' CFE). 3 Cross Noise Moniioring Polnls not below 1060' ONH (1000' OFE) !hereafter mair.tain minImum 4 '% cJlmb gracJent to 4000' (Nete cfImtI graClents
greater than 4% may be required lor ATC and airspace purposes) to complywllh Noise Abatement requirements. 4 Ca llslgn for RTF frequency use d when Instruct ed atter tak/KIf! 't.ondon
Conlrnr. Report caRsign. SIC designator, current altllude and dea:ed a/"Jtvde
on first contact wilh 'London Control'. S En-route cruiSing level wlll be Issued attar lake-olf by 'loMan ContrO!'. Do not climb above SID [BverS untlr Instructed by ATC. S Maximum lAS ZSOKT below FL100 unless otherwise alJlhorlsed. TRANsmON ALT 6000'
NOTTOS9AlE
L.ON 05\
MID 4F
__ --==~--+,: ",
L.ON 03·5
L.ON02
WARNING Due to Interaotron w ith other routes do NOT climb above SOOOFT unlit cleared by ATe ,
L.ON 08 I Above3000 '1
L.ONoI7 MIDol0 'Above 5000'1
MID 08
' AISOO')' I
AVERAG E
TRACK MIL.EAGE
--
TO M1D VOR
.. _..
MI04F MI03G MID3H MID3J M1D3K
51D311.N 0003i30W
SID
RWY
MI04F 133-17.5
27R
ROUTEING (Inol. Noise Prefe rential RoLllelng) StraIght ahead 10 Intercept LON VOR R259. At L.ON 051um left onlo BUR NOB ODR 164-, At L.ON 012 tum rlSlht onto MID VOR AOtS to MIOVOR.
MI03G 133·175
27L
StralSlht ahead to Intercept L.ON VOR R243 until L.ON 05·5, th en turn left onlo BUR NOB ODA 164'. At L ON 012 1um right onto MID VOR AOtS 10 M IDVOR.
MI03H 133-175
23
Straight ahead to Int,reep! BUR NOB OOR 164'. At L.ON 01 ~ I'Jm right onto MID VOR ROISlo MIDVOR.
M ID3J 133·175
09R
StraIght ahead to L.ON 02, than tum rlgh l onlo LON VOR RI:t:8 unW L.ON 03-5, then tum rightonlo MID VOR R029 to MID VOR .
MI03K 133·175
OSL
Straight ahead to L.ON 01·5, th an tum right onto L.ON VOR RI 29 until lON 03-5, then lum rIgh t onto MID VOR R029 10 MID VOR.
CHANG!!
ALTITUDES Cross LON cS above 3000' L ON 012 above 4000' L ON 01 7 (MID 010) above
5000' MID VOR aI6000'.
31
'"
28 29 29
AIRWAY ROUTE Via MID
.34
AI(via BOGNA· HARDY to Join M605) SolMbound.
Cross MID 019 at 3000' or above (09A 5%) (09l4.8%) M [D 0 15 a14000' or above MID 012 al 5000' or above MID oS al6000'.
RAOIA.l.SlTRACKS Ui"OATEO.
Standard Instrument Departures from Heathrow via Midhurst VOR Note that SIDs 3G; 3H and 4F use the Burn ham NOB as well as the London and Midhurst VORs with their associated DME. The 'S' bend on the westerly routes is to avoid the airspace associated with Farnborough.
10-10
Air Law
instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
MANCHESTER
HONILEY SIDs - RUNWAY 24U24R
GENERAL IN FORMATION 1 SIDs reflect Noise Preferential Roulaings. See EGCC AD 2.21 for Noise Abateme.11 Procedures. 2 No turns below 757' QNH (SOD' QFE). 3 CruIsing levels at FL190 and below will be allocated en· route by 'Manchester ConlTor, cruising levels above Fl., 90 will be alIoca1ed an-route by 'London Control'. Canslgn lor RTF frequency used when Instructed after take-off 'Manc.iester Control'. On first contact adVIse caUslgnlSlD designator current altillJde and cleared altitude. 5 Max lAS 250KT below FL 100 unless other-vise authorised. 6 WARNING: RUNWAY 24L. ln the event of a mIssed approach on runway 24R ATC may Instruct aIrcraft which have departed from runway 24L to make a LEFT tum In order to establish separation.
•
.
I
NOTTOSCALE 1 MANCHESTER ~ 1
MCT
r
HON1R -275 "U
03
_.M. _
MeT 113·55° ~
MCT oS
26 3,
X
M
@
TRANSmON ALT 5000'
SeeNote6
1Y MCT 03·2
HON 05 -28S'M
MCT
I
WARNING 00 not climb above SOOOFT until Instructed by ATC.
TABLY
531619N0022702W HaN 062 HON 058
L ,I -So:-s,
I:
3000'
or above
CLIMB GRADIENTS r Critical climb gradients required lor ATC or Airspace purposes are shown.
9;.~
-"t .. '>>>-
Air Law
Cat I fiown with pressure altimeter Cat II fiown with radio altimeter and flight director Aircraft wing span is not more than 60 m and the vertical distance between the night paths of the wheels and glide path antenna is po more than 6 m Missed approach climb gradient is 2.5%
10-27
Chapler 10
Instrument Procedures
MISSED APPROACH If at any time during a procedure the pilot wishes to abandon the procedure, or at DH/A for a precision approach and at the missed approach point (MAPt) for a non-precision approach , when the visual criteria as defined by the operator is not obtained , the pilot is to fiy a missed approach procedure . In commercial aviation this is commonly referred to as 'the Go Around' procedure, implying that the pilot is going around the pattern again . During the missed approach phase, the pilot is fa ced with the demanding task of changing the aircraft configuration, attitude, and altitude . For this reason the design of the missed approach is kept as simple as possible. A missed approach procedure consists of three phases : Initial Missed Approach; Intermediate Missed Approach , and Final Missed approach.
Turns greater than 15 0 permitted
Climb established
2.5%
can be 30m
"'1
MOC
"'7"".....--ttt--~
MDA(H)
maintained
No turns greater 0
""
I: : Runway
than 15
I
I
I~I~~----------------------~~I ~~____________ I I Initial Missed Approach Segment
Intermediate Missed Approach Segment
Final Missed Approach Segment
Missed Approach Segments
Obstacle Clearance A missed approach procedure is designed to provide protection from obstacles throughout the missed approach manoeuvre. The procedure is applicable to the landing runway but may be modified to cater for the instrument aid being used. The procedure specifies a point where the missed approach begins and a point or an altitude/height where it ends. The missed approach is to be initiated not lower than DN H in the precision approach or at a specified point (MAPt) in non-precision approach procedures where the aircraft is not lower than the MDNH. The MAPt in a procedure may be the point of intersection of an electronic glide path wi th the applicable DNH , a navigational facility, a fix , or a specified distance from the FAF .
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Air Law
instrument Procedures
Chapter/ a
When a navigational facility or a fix defines the MAPt, the distance from the FAF to the MAPt is normally published , and may be used for timing to the MAP!. In cases where timing is not authorised , the procedure is annotated "timing not authorized for defining the MAP!." Initiating the Procedure Pilots are expected to fiy the missed approach procedure as published. In the event that a missed approach is initiated prior to arriving at the MAPt, the pilot will normall y proceed to the MAPt and then follow the missed approach procedure in order to remain within the protected airspace. Climb Gradient Procedures are based on a nominal missed approach climb gradient of 2.5%. A gradient of 2% may be used in the procedure construction if the necessary survey and safeguarding can be provided with the approval of the appropriate authority. Gradients of 3,4, or 5% may be used for aircraft whose climb performance permits an operational advantage to be thu s obtained. If a gradient other than a 2.5% gradient is used, this is indicated on the instrument approach chart. A missed approach procedure wh ich is based on the nominal climb gradient of 2.5% cannot be used by all aeroplanes when operating at or near maximum certificated gross mass and engine out conditions. The operation of these aeroplanes needs special consideration at aerodromes where there are critical obstacles on the missed approach area . These obstacles may result in a special procedure being established with a possible increase in the DAlH or MDAlH. Initial Missed Approach The initial phase begins at the MAPt and ends at the point where the aircraft is established in the climb. In the initial segment, the pilot establishes the climb and changes aircraft configuration. The procedure will call for the climb to be started on the final approach track therefore no turns are specified in this phase. Intermediate Phase The intermediate phase is the phase within which the climb is continued , normally straight ahead . It extends to the first point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is obtained and can be maintained. Turns of no more than 15° may be specified . During this phase , it is assumed that the pilot will make track corrections. Final Phase The final phase begins at the point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is first obtained and can be maintained. It extends to the point where a new approach is started , the aircraft enters a holding pattern, or the aircraft returns to the enroute structure. Turns may be prescribed during this phase. Turning Missed Approach Turns in a missed approach procedure are only prescribed where terrain and other factors make a turn necessary. If a turn from the final approach track is made, a specially constru cted turning missed approach area is specified. The turning poi nt is specified in one of two ways: ~ ~
Air Law
At a designated facility or fix The turn is made upon arrival overhead the facility or fix, or At a designated altitude The turn is made upon reaching the designated altitude unless an additional fix or distance is specified to limit early turns 10-29
Chapter 10
Ins/rument Procedures
VISUAL MANOEUVRING (CIRCLING) (VM(C)A IN THE VICINITY OF THE AERODROME Visual manoeuvring (circling) is the term used to describe the visual phase of fiight after completing an instrument approach , to bring an aircraft into position for landing on a runwa y which is not suitably located for a straight in approach. For instance , the ILS to runway 27 may be totally unserviceable but the ILS to runwa y 09 perfectly good. A pilot could make an instrument approach to 09 and with the landing runway (27) or the aiming point on 27 always in sight, manoeuvre the aircraft to a point where a landing on 27 could be made . In this case, the ILS approach does not result in a landing but a visual circling manoeuvre. As such the ILS porti on of the approach is not considered to be precision and therefore the lowest altitude the aircraft is permitted to descend to is MDH/A for VM(C). This is a commonly used procedure. The advantage is that the instrument part of the procedure will result in a lower MDH/A that may be below the cloud base. The Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area (VM(C)A) The visual manoeuvring area for a circli ng approach is determined by drawing arcs centred on each runway threshold and joining those arcs with tangent lines. The radius of the arcs is related to: ~ ~
~ ~
Aircraft category Speed for each ca tegory Wind speed, 46 km/h (25 kt) throughout the turn , and Bank angle , 20° average or 3° per second , whichever requires less bank
(VM(C)A) Not Considered for Obstacle Clearance It is permissible to eliminate from consideration a particular sector where a prominent obstacle exists in the visua l manoeuvring (circling) area outside the final approach and missed approach area . The dimensions of the instrument approach surfaces bound this sector, within the circling area. When this option is exercised , the published procedure prohibits circling within the total sector in which the obstacle exists . Obstacle Clearance When the (VM(C)A) has been established the OCAtH is determined for each category of aircraft. The OCAtH for VM(C) is applicable to the aerodrome, not the run way used for the instrument procedure. ICAO publishes the following table of minima for VM(C). It should be noted that the criteria for minimum visibility are advisory whereas the criteria published in JAR OPS-1.430 are mandatory (also required knowledge for Operationa l Procedures).
Aircraft Category
Minimum Obstacle Clearance m (tt)
Lowest OCH above aerodrome elevation m (tt)
Minimum
A
90 (295 )
120 (394)
1.9 (1.0)
B
90 (295)
150 (492)
2.8 (1.5)
C
120 (394)
180 (591)
3.7 (2.0)
D
120 (394)
210 (689)
4.6 (2. 5)
E
150 (492)
240 (787)
6.5 (3.5)
Vis ibility km (nm)
OCA/H for Vi sual Manoeuvre (Circling) Approach
10-30
Air Law
Instnlment Procedures
Chapter 10
Minimum Descent Altitude/Height An additional margin is added to the OCAlH for operational considerations, and a MDAlH is specified. Descent below MDAlH should not be made until visual reference has been established and can be maintained , the pilot has the landing threshold in sight, and the required obstacle clearance can be maintained and the aircraft is in a position to carry out a landing. Visual Flight Manoeuvre A circling approach is a visual flight manoeuvre. Each circling situation is different because of variables such as runway layout, final approach track, wind velocity, and meteorological conditions. There is no single procedure that caters for conducting a circling approach in every situation. After initial visual contact, the basic assumption is that the runway environment (the runway threshold, approach lighting aids , or other markings identifiable with the runwa y), should be kept in sight while at MDAlH for circling. Missed Approach While Circling If visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instrument approach, the missed approach for the instrument procedure , must be followed. Other aircraft may be attempting the same manoeuvre therefore the missed approach procedure must take the aircraft away from subsequent instrument aircraft. It is expected that the pilot will make an initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and overhead the aerodrome. Then, the pilot will establish the aircraft climbing on the missed approach track. Because the circling manoeuvre may be accomplished in more than one direction, different patterns will be required to establish the aircraft on the prescribed missed approach course depending on its position at the time visua l referen ce is lost.
PUBLISHED INFORMATION The VM(C) OCA for the aerodrome is published on the chart for the instrument part of the approach. The fixed margin is added to OCA for each category of aircraft.
8
Highest obstacle in area
.... . ... . . . ,,
t.,~~
. . . ... . . ,, ,
end of Runway The radius is based on aircraft category/s peed
Visual Manoeuvre (Circling) Area
Air Law
10-31
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Area Navigation (RNAV) Approach Procedures Based On VOR/DME RNAV approach procedures based on VORIDM E are assumed to be based on one reference facility composed of a VOR and co-located DME . Aircraft equipped with RNAV systems which have been approved, may use these systems to carry out VORlDME RNAV approaches providing that before conducting any flight it is ensured that the RNAV equipment is serviceable, the pilot has a current knowledge of how to operate the equipment so a? to achieve the optimum level of navigation accuracy and the published VO R/DM E facility upon which the procedure is based is serviceable. The main disadvantage of using RNAV is that it relies on a navigational database to support the computer interpretation of the received information. If this database contains errors computed positions will be in error. Use of FMS/RNAV Equipment to Follow Conventional Non-Precision Approach Procedures When FMS/RNAV equipment is available, it may be used when flying a conventional nonprecision approach procedure, provided the procedure is monitored using the basic display normally associated with the procedure, and the tolerances for flight using raw data on the basic display are complied with. Track Reversal and Racetrack Procedures At large aerodromes serving international commercial aviation , radar vectoring to the ILS or self positioning to the ILS is the standard method of commencing an instrument approach. Even in conditions of good visibility and high cloud ceiling , to ensure separation from departing aircraft, IFR is made mandatory by the imposition of Class A airspace and ILS approaches are required. At low intensity and remote aerodromes, with limited availability of 'off aerodrome' navigation aids, a procedure known as the 'single beacon reversing turn procedure' is a standard type of procedure. The chart below shows the ILS DME procedure for runway 08 at Luton .
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Air Law
Chapter 10
InsfrIlmenf Procedures
MSA
Holding Pattern
FAP (there is no defined FAF)
~~~---H/ IAF
IF
Procedure Turn
Missed Approach Procedure
Glidepath 7---+--=.~ interception
OCA(OCH)
:-~~;ii~~~;~~12~~~~~~~~~~~==-
Glidepath information
VM(C) OCA
MO
'" '" Aircraft ean notmally exp~ to be
PROCEDURE An arriving aircraft would usually enter the holding pattern above the LUT NDB(L), the IAF for the procedure, at an altitude above the lowest holding altitude (LHA) and wait for clearance to begin the procedure. When cleared to the LHA in the hold , the aircraft speed will be adjusted and aircraft configuration adjusted. The ATC clearance would be U(eal/sign) ... cleared ILS runway 08 advising turning inbound at 2000 ft" The aircraft leaves the hold on a track of 258°mag to a point on the reciprocal of the ILS localiser at DME range 5 nm. The pilot would advise ATC U(eal/sign) turning inbound at 2000 ft". The controller will then clear the aircraft U(eal/sign) report established ILS 08". The aircraft is then fiown through a procedure turn that places the aircraft in a position to intercept the localiser beam i~bound. Once established on the localiser and reported so, the controller will instruct the pilot to report glidepath descending to the aerodrome controller. The aircraft is fiown along the localiser beam until the glidepath is intercepted, and descent is commenced. If at DH the visual criteria is not obtained , the u go around" (missed approach) procedure is fiown as published on the chart. Air Law 10-33
Chapter 10
Instrumenl Procedures
Track Reversals There are several different track reversal methods. The diagram below shows: ~ ~ ~
Procedure turns; Base turn ; and Racetrack.
Note: In all the procedures , tracks are flown. Therefore pilots must make allowa nce for the wind . 45'/180' Procedure Tum Start of tum de"ned by fix
80' /260' Procedure Tum (TIMING)
. Base Turns
\
End of otltbound leg
IlmHed by a radial or DME distance
, Racetrack Procedures
~
End of outbound leg
limited by a radial orDMEdlstOlirtce
_ _ _ _ _ _ Track gUIdance
- - - - - - No IDele gUidance
Track Reversal Procedures 45' /180' Procedure Turn This is the most common track reversal procedure. At a defined point the aircraft is turned through 45' and then flown straight and level. From the start of the turn , after for 1 min for Cat A and B aircraft or 1 min 15 sec for C, 0 and E, the aircraft is turned in the opposite direction through 180' . All turns are made at rate 1 (3' /sec) or 25' bank angle whichever is less. This places the aircraft in a position to intercept the required inbound track at 45' (the optimum con verging angle). In still air the turn takes in excess of 2 minutes to reverse the track.
10-34
Air Law
instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
80°/260° Procedure Turn This procedure is used where airspace is lim ited. The aircraft is turned through 80° and the bank angle is immediately reversed to turn through 260° in the opposite direction. The turns are made at rate 1 or 25° bank angle whichever is less. In still air, at the completion of the turn the aircraft will be tracking inbound on the reciprocal of the outbound track. In still air, this procedure takes exactly 2 minutes and is often called a 2 minute procedure. Note: For either procedure , the tracks flown are reciprocal. Note: The outbound leg is usually flown with reference to the ILS localiser (if the procedure is part of an ILS approach) . Flying the reciprocal of the localiser course is not flying the back beam , which is not approved in Europe. The pilot must remember that indications are reversed when fl ying the localiser in the wrong direction! Base Turn Where accurate track guidance is available other than the ILS localiser, for instance VOR information, a base turn can be flown . From on top of the facility the aircraft is established on a defined track wh ich diverges from the reciprocal of the desired inbound track. At a point defined by time, DME distance or interception of information from another aid , the aircraft is established in a turn at rate 1 or 25° bank angle until the inbound track is intercepted. Racetrack It is not always convenient for the holding pattern associated with a single beacon procedure to be oriented so that the inbound holding track ca n be extended directly into the outbound procedure track as in the case of Luton . The picture below shows part of the procedure for Edinburgh including a racetrack shown by the dotted line.
Normal .~ ~ procedure ~ /" without holding
8.90 0
Racetrack
Racetrack Reversing Turn Procedure From the above picture it is clear that there is no way that the pilot can track outbound on 065° directly from the holding pattern . In this case, when cleared to commence the approach the aircraft is flown outbound in the holding pattern and the outbound track is maintained to a defined point (in this case DME range 9 nm) at which a rale 1 turn through 180° is initiated to bring the aircraft on to the desired inbound track. On the approach chart this would be specified as an 'alternative procedure'. Air Law 10-35
Chapler 10
Instrument Procedures
Note: The student must not confuse a racetrack with a holding pattern. The racetrack is only used for track reversal ; similarly, a holding pattern is only used for holding . Dead Reckoning Segment Where an operational advantage can be obtained, an ILS procedure may include a dead reckoning segment from a fix (usually the IAF) to the localiser. The DB track will intercept the localiser at 45 and will not be more than 19 km (10 nm) in length. The point of intersection of the localiser is the beginning of the intermediate segment and will allow time for establishing on the localiser before descent is required. 0
ILS Localiser OM
DR segment 10 nm max
~ .====================:!jP~~--------------~~ ,) I
VORfDME
DME range Dead Reckoning Segment
HOLDING PROCEDURES Inevitably aircraft will not be able to make a straight in approach and will need to temporaril y 'park' whilst awaiting clearance to commence the approach procedure. The process of 'pa rking ' is known as holding. We have already seen that the single beacon reversing turn procedure usually starts at a holding point and it is usual for the missed approach procedure to end at a holding point. Holding is achieved by the pilot flying the aircraft around a holding pattern. The process of flying around the pattern is called 'shuttling'. As part of the IRT the student will be required to fly holding patterns to a precise degree, and this will be achieved after a lot of practice. In the Chapters concerned with Approach Control, the student will be introduced to the process known as 'stacking', but first the holding pattern needs to be described and the procedures for joining and flying the pattern discussed. Deviation Warning Deviations from the procedures for holding may incur the risk of excursions beyond the perimeter of the holding area into airspace used for other purposes. As such pilots must adhere to the published procedures modified where necessary by ATC instructions or local instructions published on STAR and instrument approach charts , and enroute charts.
10-36
Air Law
instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Standard Pattern A holding pattern normally involves a right turn at the holding point. Left hand patterns may be specified where airspace considerations warrant. A left hand pattern and the associated joining procedures are a mirror image of a right hand pattern . ABEAM Rate I Il1rn
(3°/sec) or 25° bank angle
1 minute
.~'1t--~
(1.& OO()f1 lind b(1011)
1'11 minu tes
----Ib~:~.
..
(lIbm :>:>:>:>-
:>:>-
SIGMET and AIRMET information; Information concerning pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruptions , and volcanic ash cloud; Information concerning the release into the atmosphere of radioactive materials or toxic chemicals; Information on change in the serviceability of navigation aids; Information on changes in condition of aerodromes and associated facilities, including information on the state of the aerodrome movement areas when they are affected by snow, ice, or significant depth of water; Information on unmanned free balloons ; and Any other information likely to affect safety.
Additional Information FIS provided to flights includes , in addition to the information already outlined , the provision of information concerning weather conditions reported or forecast at departure, destination and alternate aerodromes, and collision hazards to aircraft flying in airspace Classes C, D, E, F and G. For flight over water areas, in so far as practicable and when requested by a pilot, any available information such as radio call sign , position , true track, speed , etc. , of vessels in the area.
Air Law
14- 1
Chapter 14
Flight Information Sen-.crs IFIS)
FIS to VFR Traffic FIS provided to VFR flights includes all the information above plus the provision of available information concerning traffic and weather conditions along the route that are likely to make operation under VFR impracticable .
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE BROADCASTS (OFIS) The meteorological information and operational information concerning navigation aids and aerodromes included in the FIS is provided in an operationally integrated form. It is passed to aircraft by the following means: Information Broadcasts When a Regional Air Navigation Agreement determines that a requirement for a broadcast exists then the following formats are fo llowed: ,. ,. ,.
HF OFIS broadcast VHF OFIS broadcast Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
ATIS ATIS broadcasts are provided at aerodromes where there is a requirement to reduce the communication load on the ATS VHF air-ground communication channels. ATIS is established as Voice ATIS (V-ATIS) which can be supplemented with Data ATIS (D-ATIS). V-ATIS A discrete VHF frequency is used for ATIS broadcasts. If a discrete frequency is not available , the transmission may be made on the voice channel of the most appropriate terminal navigation aid , preferably a VOR, provided the range and readability are adequate and the identification of the navigation aid is sequenced wi th the broadcast so that the latter is not obliterated. ATIS broadcasts are not to be transmitted on the voice channel of ILS. When provided V-ATIS comprises: ,. ,. ,. ,.
One broadcast serving arriving aircraft, or One broadcast serving departing aircraft, or One broadcast serving both arriving and departing aircraft, or Two broadcasts serving arriving and departing aircraft respectively at those aerodromes where the length of a broadcast serving both arriving and departing aircraft would be excessively long
O-ATIS D-ATIS is transmitted continuously on the data link system from an ACC. Because it is transmitted continuously and consists of data rather than voice information , it can be updated virtually instantaneously. In anyone data transmission information concerning multiple aerodromes can be included together with appropriate administrative information. D-ATIS is displayed on the flight deck through the EFIS system. VOLMET Meteorological information (TAFS and Metars) is broadcast on both HF and VHF where there is a need . The term VOLMET is taken from 'meteorologie de vol'. A VOLMET broadcast is transmitted by the FIS of a FIR (VHF) or an OCA (HF). It typically covers many aerodromes either within the FI R or adjacent FI Rs. 14-2
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j b
Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services, Doc 4444 - RA e/so 1
INTRODUCTION There is no regulatory requirement for an aerodrome that is outside CAS and used only for VFR flying to have an aerodrome controller. However, where an aerodrome is used for commercial operations under IFR the aerodrome must be licensed and under the licensing requirements the provision of an aerodrome controller will be required . The aerodrome controller must be a licensed ATCO. Such an aerodrome is defined by ICAO as a controlled aerodrome. The aerodrome controller usually uses the aerodrome name plus the word 'tower' as an RTF callsign e.g. Coventry Tower. Alternatively, the word 'local' refers to the aerodrome controller also. The aerodrome controller may be assisted by a ground movements controller whose function would be to advise pilots of collision risks and to pass other aeronautical information. If the ground controller is required to provide ATC to aircraft on the ground, he/she must be a licenced ATCO. An alternative to a licensed ATCO is to use a Flight Information Service Officer (FISO) who is licensed to provide FIS . Where a FISO is appointed his/her RTF callsign will have the suffix "Information", for example: Redhill Information. At busy aerodromes e.g. Heathrow, there is an arrivals controller and a departures controller, both of whom share the responsibility of the aerodrome controller.
AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONE (ATZ) Every aerodrome regardless of ATC status has an ATZ. The ATZ extends from ground level up to 2000 ft AGL. It is circular, wi th the radius , as defined by ICAO, "of sufficient distance to provide protection for circuit traffic." In the UK the radius of the ATZ is dependent upon the length of the longest runway and is either 2 nm or 2.5 nm, centred on the longest runway. At a controlled aerodrome, the ATZ is controlled airspace with ATC provided by the aerodrome controller. The ATZ reduces to uncontrolled airspace outside of the notified hours of watch of the aerodrome controller (as per the AD entry in the AlP for the state). Clearances for traffic taking off and remaining in the visual circuit, or landing from the visual circuit are given by the aerodrome controller. Outside of the hours of ATC watch, pilots may use the aerodrome if required (with permission of the land owner to avoid trespass) but may only do so in VMC , during which the rules of the air apply.
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Aerodrome Control Service
FUNCTIONS OF AERODROME CONTROL TOWERS Aerodrome control towers issue information and clearances to aircraft under their control in order to achieve a safe, orderly, and expeditious fl ow of air traffic on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome with the object of preventing collisions between :
» » » » »
Aircraft Aircraft Aircraft Aircraft Aircraft
flying in the aerodrome traffic circuits around an aerodrome; operating on the manoeuvring area ; landing and taking off; and veh icles operating on the manoeuvring area ; on the manoeuvring area and obstructions on that area.
ALERTING SERVICE PROVIDED BY AERODROME CONTROL TOWERS Aerodrome control towers are also responsible for alerting the safety services and will immediately report any failure or irregularity of operation in any apparatus, light or other device established at an aerodrome for the guidance of aerodrome traffic. Aircraft will be reported to the ACC or FIC which fail to rep ort after having been handed over to an aerodrome control tower, or having once reported, cease radio contact, and , in either case, fail to land 5 minutes after the expected landing time.
SUSPENSION OF VFR OPERATIONS BY AERODROME CONTROL TOWERS Any or all VFR operations on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome may be suspended by notification to the aerodrome control tower by the area control cen tre within whose CTA the aerodrome is located , the aerodrome controller on duty, or the appropri ate ATS authority. Procedures The following proced ures are observed by Ihe aerodrome control tower whenever VFR operations are suspended :
» » » »
The holding of all departures other than those which file an IFR fiight plan and obtain approval from the area control cen tre ; The recall of all local flights operating under VFR or special VFR; The notification of the area control centre of the action taken; and The notification of all operators, or their designated representatives, of the reason fo r taking such action if necessary or requested .
TRAFFIC AND TAXI CIRCUITS SELECTION OF RUNWAY IN USE The term 'runway in use' means the runway that the aerodrome control service deems to be the most suitable for use by the types of aircraft expected to land or take-off at the aerodrome. If the runway in use is not considered suitable, the PIC may requ est permission to use another run way. Normally, an aircraft will land and take-off into wind unless safety, the runway configuration , or air traffic conditions make another runway preferable. In selecting the runway, the aerodrome control service takes into consideration surface wind speed and direction and other relevant factors, such as the aerodrome traffic circuits, the length of runways, and the approach and landing aids available.
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A erodrome Control Service
Chapter /5
CRITICAL POSITIONS OF AIRCRAFT IN THE AERODROME TRAFFIC AND TAXI CIRCUITS Aerodrome controllers maintain a continuous watch on all visible flight operations on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome, including aircraft, vehicles and personnel on the manoeuvring area , and control this traffic in accordance with the procedures and traffic rules. If there are other aerodromes with in a CTR, traffi c at all aerodromes within such a zone are co-ordinated so that traffic ci rcuits do not conflict.
-Final
Downwind Leg
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Chapter /5
Aerodrome Control Service
Circuit Positions The following positions of aircraft in the traffic and ta xi circu its are the positions where the aircraft normally receive aerodrome control tower clea rances, whether these are given by light signals or radio. Aircraft should be watched closely as they approach these positions so that proper clearances may be issued wi thout delay. Where practicable, all clearances are issued without waiting for the aircraft to initiate the call.
4
,,,---------------------------.-
...
3
5
t
t
••
1 ----
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, •
-- 6
~
Position 1 Aircraft initiates call to taxi for departing flight, runway in use information and taxi clearances given.
~
Position 2 If there is conflicting traffic, the departing aircraft is held at this point. Engines of the aircraft would normally be run-up here.
~
Position 3 Take-off clearance is issued here if not practicable at position 2.
~
Position 4 Clearance to land is issued here.
>-
Position 5 Clearance to taxi to hangar line or parking area is issued here.
~
Position 6 Parking inform ation issued here if necessary.
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Aerodrome Control Service
Chap,er 15
INFORMATION TO AIRCRAFT BY AERODROME CONTROL TOWERS PRIOR TO TAXIING FOR TAKE-OFF Aircraft are advised of the following information, in the order listed, with the exception of those elements that the aircraft is known to have already received : ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
The runway to be used ; The current surface wind direction and speed , including significant variations; The ONH and, either on a regular basis in accordance with loca l arrangements or if so requested by the aircraft, the OFE; The air temperature for the runway to be used, in the case of turbine engine aircraft; The current visibility representative of the direction of take-off and initial climb, if less than 10 km , or, when provided , the current RVR value(s) for the runway to be used ; The correct time.
PRIOR TO TAKE-OFF Aircraft are advised of any significant changes in the surface wind direction and speed, the air temperature, and the visibility or RVR value(s) given , and significant meteorological conditions in the take-off and climb out area , except when it is known that the information has already been received by the aircraft.
PRIOR TO JOINING THE CIRCUIT An aircraft is provided with the following elements of information, in the order listed , with the exception of those elements that it is known the aircraft has already recei ved: the runway to be used, the mean surface wind direction and speed and significant variations, and the ONH and , either on a regular basis in accordance with local arrangements or, if so requested by aircraft, the OFE.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE When operating under VMC, it is the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision with other aircraft. However, due to the restricted space on and around manoeuvring areas, it is often essential that traffic information be issued to aid the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision. Essential local traffic is considered to consist of any aircraft, vehicle, or personnel on or near the manoeuvring area , or traffic operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome , which may constitute a hazard to the aircraft concerned. Information on essential local traffic is issued either directly or through the unit providing approach control service when , in the judgement of the aerodrome controller the information is necessary in the interests of safety, or when requested by aircraft.
WAKE TURBULENCE WARNING Aerodrome controllers shall , whenever practicable, advise aircraft of the expected occurrence of hazards caused by wake turbulence.
OTHER HAZARDS In issuing clearances or instructions, air traffic controllers should take into account the hazards caused by jet blast and propeller slipstream to taxiing aircraft, to aircraft taking-off or landing , particularly when intersecting runways are being used: and to vehicles and personnel operating on the aerodrome.
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Chapter 15
Aerodrome Control Sen/ice
INFORMATION ON AERODROME CONDITIONS Essential information on aerodrome conditions is information necessary to the safety of the operation of aircraft that pertains to the movement area or any facilities associated with the movement area. The essential information on aerodrome conditions includes information relating to the following : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Construction or maintenance work on, or immediately adjacent to the movement area ; Rough or broken surfaces on a runway, a taxiway or an apron , whether marked or not; Snow, slush or ice on a runway, a taxiway or an apron ; Water on a runway, a taxiway or an apron ; Snow banks or drifts adjacent to a runway, a taxiway or an apron; Other temporary hazards, including parked aircraft and birds on the ground and in the air; Failure or irregular operation of part or all of the aerodrome lighting system ; Any other pertinent information.
Note: The movement area of an aerodrome consists of the apron and the manoeuvring area .
CONTROL OF AERODROME TRAFFIC ORDER OF PRIORITY FOR ARRIVING AND DEPARTING AIRCRAFT An aircraft landing or in the final stages of an approach to land normally has priority over an aircraft intending to depart. Departures are normally cleared in the order in which they are ready for take-off, except that deviations may be made from this order of priority to facilitate the maximum number of departures with the least average delay. CONTROL OF TAXIING AIRCRAFT When taxiing, a pilot's vision is limited. It is important therefore for aerodrome control units to issue concise instructions and adequate information to the pilot to assist him in determining the correct taxi routes and to avoid collision with other aircraft or objects . TAXIING ON THE RUNWAY For the purpose of expediting air traffic, aircraft may be permitted to taxi on the runway in use , provided no delay or risk to other aircraft will result. Aircraft will not be held closer than at a taxi holding position for the runway in use. Aircraft are not permitted to hold on the approach end of the runway in use whenever another aircraft is landing or, until the landing aircraft has passed the point of intended holding.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE An aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference or which for other reasons needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities shall be cleared to the designated isolated parking position . Where such an isolated parking position has not been designated , or if the designated position is not available, the aircraft shall be cleared to a position within the area or areas selected by prior agreement with the aerodrome authority. The taxi clearance shall specify the taxi route to be followed to the parking position. This route shall be selected with a view to minimizing any security risks to the public, other aircraft and installations at the aerodrome .
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Aerodrome Control Sen-ice
CONTROL OF OTHER THAN AIRCRAFT TRAFFIC ON THE MANOEUVRI NG AREA PEDESTRIANS AND VEHICLES The movement of pedestrians or vehicles on the manoeuvring area are subject to authorization by the aerodrome control tower. Persons, including drivers of all vehicles, are required to obtain authorisation from the aerodrome control tower before entry to the manoeuvring area. Entry to a runway or runway strip or change in the operation authorised is subject to a further specific authorisation by the aerodrome control tower. TWO-WAY RADIO At controlled aerodromes all vehicles employed on the manoeuvring area must be capable of maintaining two-way radi o communication with the aerodrome control tower. Vehicles without radios are to be accompanied by vehicles with radios.
CONTROL OF TRAFFIC IN THE TRAFFIC CIRCUIT CIRCUIT SEPARATION Aircraft in the circuit are controlled to provide the separation minima required. Sufficient separation is to be applied between aircraft in the traffic circuit to allow the spacing of arriving and departing aircraft. JOINING THE CIRCUIT A clearance to join the circuit will be given to an aircraft approaching to land when a straight in approach is not possible. With the clearance , the landing direction or runway in use is passed . UNAUTHORISED INCURSION If an aircraft enters an aerodrome traffic circuit without proper authorisation, it shall be permitted to land if its actions indicate that that is the pilot's intention. If necessary, aircraft in the circuit wi ll be asked to give way so as to negate any hazard created . Other than in accordance with normal procedure , landing clearance will not be withheld . SPECIAL AUTHORIZATION Special authorisation for use of the manoeuvring area may be given to an aircraft which anticipates being compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft, as well as hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured persons requiring urgent med ical attention. CONTROL OF DEPARTING AIRCRAFT Unless the ATS authority has agreed alternative acceptable procedures , a departing aircraft will not normall y be permitted to commence take-off until:
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The preceding departing aircraft has crossed the end of the runway in use; or The preceding departing aircraft has started a turn away from the runway centreline ; or All preced ing landing aircraft are clear of the runway in use.
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Chap ter 15
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Where the ATS authority has agreed alternative procedures , they will not be perm itted : ~ ~
~ ~
Between a departing aircraft and a preceding landing aircraft; Between sunset and sunrise, or such other period between sunset and sunrise as may be prescribed; When braking action may be adversely affected by runway contaminants; In weather conditions preventing the pilot from making an early assessment of traffic conditions on the runway.
TAKE-OFF CLEARANCE Take-off clearance may be issued to an aircraft when there is reasonable assurance that the separation prescribed will exist when the aircraft starts its take-off run . In the interest of exped iting traffic, a clearance for immediate take-off may be issued to an aircraft before it enters the runway. On receipt of such a clearance the aircraft shall taxi onto the runwa y and start the take-off run in one continuous movement. CONTROL OF ARRIVING AIRCRAFT Unless other procedures have been approved and are in force , landing aircraft will not normally be permitted to cross the beginning of the runway on its final approach until: ~
~ ~
A preceding departing aircraft has crossed the upwind end of the runway, or A preceding departing aircraft has turned away from the runway centreline , or A preceding landing aircraft has moved off the runway.
AERODROMES WITHIN A CTR If the aerodrome is within a CTR, the approach controller will pass a conditional take-off clearance to the aerodrome controller for IFR and controlled VFR traffic departing the ATZ. When the ATZ is "IMC", all departing traffic will receive a take-off clearance from the approach controller via the aerodrome controller before entering the runway. In instrument conditions landing clearance will be requested by the approach controller (or approach radar controller) from the aerodrome controller when the aircraft is at 8 nm from touchdown . In any event, a landing clearance must be given by the aerodrome controller before the arriving aircraft passes 2 nm from touchdown unless an alternative clearance has been given .
LAND AFTER PROCEDURE To facilitate the expeditious arrival of aircraft, an aircraft may be cleared to land with another aircraft on the runway providing there is reasonable assurance that the required separation will exist when the landing aircraft crosses the runway threshold. In this case , the phrase "Clear to land after the ...... ahead" is used. For this procedure to be used: ~ ~
~ ~ ~
15-8
The landing aircraft must be able to keep the preceding aircraft in sight; It must be during day time; The braking action must not be adversely affected by runway contaminants ; The pilot of the landing aircraft must agree to the procedure being used ; The operators of the aircraft concerned agree to the procedure being used.
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Aerodrome Control Service
Chapter 15
WAKE TURBULENCE CATEGORIZATION OF AIRCRAFT AND INCREASED LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION MINIMA WAKE TURBULENCE CATEGORIZATION OF AIRCRAFT Wake turbulence separation minima is based on the grouping of aircraft types into three categories according to the maximum certificated take-off mass (MTOM ) as follows: ~ ~ ~
HEAVY (H) MTOM equal to or greater than 136 000 kg MEDIUM (M) MTOM less than 136 000 kg but greater than 7000 kg LIGHT (L) MTOM equal to or less than 7000 kg
PROCEDURAL WAKE TURBULENCE SEPARATION MINIMA The procedural wake turbulence separation minima (non-radar separation minima) applied are : For Arriving Aircraft For timed approaches , the following minima are applied to aircraft landing : ~ ~
2 minutes longitudinal separation between a MEDIUM landing behind a HEAVY 3 minutes longitudinal separation between a LIGHT landing behind a MEDIUM or HEAVY
For Departing Aircraft The minimum is 2 minutes for any lighter category aircraft taking off behind a heavier category. However, the minimum is increased to 3 minutes when the lighter aircraft takes-off from: ~ ~
An intermediate part of the same runway, or An intermediate part of a parallel runway separated by less than 760 m
Displaced Landing Threshold Separation minimum of 2 minutes is applied between a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft and a HEAVY aircraft, or between a LIGHT aircraft and MEDIUM aircraft, when operating on a runway with a displaced landing threshold: ~ ~ ~ ~
When a departing LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft follows a HEAVY aircraft arrival ; or When a departing LIGHT aircraft follows a MEDIUM aircraft arrival , or When an arriving LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft follows a HEAVY departure; or When an arriving LIGHT aircraft follows a MEDIUM aircraft departure and the projected flight paths are expected to cross.
Opposite Direction Separation of 2 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft and a HEAVY aircraft and between a LIGHT aircraft and a MEDIUM aircraft when the heavier aircraft is making a low missed approach , and the lighter aircraft is: ~ ~
~
Air Law
Utilizing an opposite direction runway for take-off; or Landing on the same runway in the opposite direction ; or On a parallel opposite direction runway sepa rated by less than 760 m. 15-9
Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services, Doc 4444 -RAG/50t
INTRODUCTION Approach Control is the interface between the Aerodrome Controller and the Area Controller. Normally Approach control is provided out to a range of 25 nm from a controlled aerodrome situated within a CTR. It is normal to use radar to supplement the procedural service . Approach control is mandatory for alllFR traffic and all controlled VFR flights within a CTR.
DEPARTURES Departing Aircraft Approach Control is provided to all IFR departing flights and departing VFR controlled flights. IFR flights normally follow a Standard Instrument Departure (SID) profile to a convenient point at which control is transferred to an area controller for insertion into the adjacent airways system. General Procedures for Departing Aircraft The approach controller will, in consultation with the relevant airspace controller of an adjacent CTA, give ATC clearances for departing controlled flights. Such clearances are to specify:
:» :» :» :» :»
Direction of take-off, and turn after take-off; Track to be made good before proceeding on desired heading ; Level to maintain before continuing climb to assigned cruising level; Time, point andlor rate at which level change shall be made; and Any other necessary manoeuvre consistent with safe operation of the aircraft.
Note: To minimise RTF transmission and to standardise procedures , the above information is delivered by instructing the pilot to comply with a published SID . Also to ensure an orderly flow of air traffic, ATCUs should attempt to permit aircraft departing on long distance flights to proceed on heading with as few turns or other manoeuvres as possible, and to climb to cruising level without restrictions. Expeditious Flow Departing aircraft may be expedited by suggesting a take-off direction that is not into wind. It is the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to decide between making such a take-off, and waiting for normal take-off in a preferred direction.
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Chapler 16
Approach Control Service
Delays It is normal ATFM practice to delay take off rather than incur excessive holding at destination. If departures are delayed, delayed fli ghts shall normally be cleared in an order based on their ETD, however, deviations from th is may be made to facilitate the maximum number of departures with the least average delay. ATCUs should advise aircraft operators or their designated representatives when anticipated delays due to traffic condi tions are likely to be substantial and in any event, when they are expected to exceed 30 minutes. Minimum Separation Between Departing Aircraft The foll owing minimum proced ural separations are used : ~
~ ~
0
One minute if the departing tracks diverge by at least 45 immediately after take-off. This may be reduced for parallel runway or diverging runway operations. The latter need specific ATS approval. Two minutes where the first aircraft has filed a cruising speed that is 40 knots faster than the second, and both aircraft intend to follow the same track. Five minutes while vertical separation does not exist.
Clearances for Departing Aircraft to Climb Maintaining Own Separation in VMC When requested by the aircraft and if permitted by the appropriate ATS authority, a departin g aircraft may be cleared to climb , subject to maintaining own separation and remaining in VMC until a specified time or to a specified location. Information for Departing Aircraft Information regarding significant changes in the meteorologica l conditions in the take-off or climb out area, information regarding changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual aids essential for take-off and climb , and inform ation regarding essential local traffic known to the controller are transmitted to departing aircraft without delay.
ARRIVALS Arriving Aircraft Arriving flights are normally 'handed over' from the area controller or the CTA controller, to the approach controller at a convenient point usually located in the vicin ity of a rad io navigation facility. Flights under approach control will normally be handed over to the aerodrome controller when the pilot has reported 'field in sight' or has passed a specific point on an in strument approach. General Procedures for Arriving Aircraft When it becomes evident that delays in holding will be encountered by arriving aircraft, the operator or a designated representative is notified and kept informed of any changes in the expected delays , in order that diversionary action can be planned as far in advance as possible. Arriving aircraft may be required to report when leaving or passing a reporting point, when starting a procedure turn or base turn , or to provide other information required by the controller to expedite departi ng aircraft.
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Approach Control Service
Chapter 16
Descent Below MSA An arriving IFR flight is not to be cleared for an initial approach below Ihe appropriate minimum sector altitude as specified by the State, nor to descend below that altitude unless: ~ ~ ~ ~
The The The The
pilot has reported passing an appropriate point defined by a radio aid; or pilot reports that the aerodrome is and can be maintained in sight; or aircraft is conducting a visual approach; or aircraft's position has been positively determined by the use of radar.
Clearance to Descend Subject to Maintaining Own Separation in VMC When requested by the aircraft and if permitted by the ATS authority, an arriving aircraft may be cleared to descend , subject to maintain ing its own separation and remaining in VMC. Visual Approach An approach flown with visual reference by an aircraft flying under IFR is not a VFR approach. An IFR flight may be cleared to execute a visual approach provided that the pilot can maintain visual reference to the terrain and the reported ceiling is at or above the approved initial approach level for the aircraft so cleared , or the pilot reports at the initial approach level or at any time during the approach that the meteorological conditions are such that a visual approach and landing can be completed. Separation Separation is to be provided between an aircraft cleared to execute a visual approach and other arriving and departing aircraft. Maintenance of Separation For successive visual approaches, radar or non-radar separation is to be maintained until the pilot of a following aircraft reports having the preceding aircraft in sight. The aircraft is to be instructed to follow and mai ntain separation from the preceding aircraft. Transfers of commu nications are made at a point or time so that a clearance to land or alternative instructions can be issued to the aircraft in a timely manner. Instrument Approach If it is clearly apparent to the ATC un it, or the pilot reports that hel she is not familiar with an instrument approach procedure, then approach control will pass the following details: ~
~ ~
The initial approach level The point (in minutes from the appropriate reporting point) at which a procedure turn shal l be carried out, and The final approach track
Straight-in Approach If the aircraft is to be cleared for a straight-in approach then only the last item of the above list need be specified. Missed Approach Procedure The missed approach procedure will be specified when deemed necessary.
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Approach Control Service
Full Procedure If visual reference to terrain is established before completion of the approach procedure, the entire procedure must be flown unless the pilot requests , and is cleared for, a visual approach .
Specific Procedure A particular approach procedure may be specified to expedite traffic. The omission of a specified approach procedure will indicate that any authorised approach may be used at the discretion of the pilot. Speed Control In the clearance to commence the instrument procedure, the pilot will be instructed to fly at a defined speed to facilitate separation. Where radar is used to apply separation , speed adjustment instructions will be given to the pilot to maintain separation. Holding Holding and holding pattern entry has to be accomplished in accordance with procedures established by the appropriate ATS authority and published in Aeronautical Information Publications (AlP).
If entry and holding procedures have not been published or if the procedures are not known to the PIC of an aircraft, the appropriate ATCU will describe the procedures to be followed . Aircraft must be held at a designated holding point. The required minimum vertical , lateral or longitud inal separation from other aircraft, according to the system in use at that holding point, will be provided. When aircraft are being held in flight, the appropriate vertical separation minima shall continue to be provided between holding aircraft and enroute aircraft while such aircraft are within 5 minutes flying time of the holding area, unless the correct lateral separation exists. Levels at holding points are assigned in a manner that facilitates the clearance of each aircraft to approach in its proper priority. Normally, the first aircraft to arrive over a holding point should be at the lowest level, with following aircraft at successively higher levels. Aircraft particularly sensitive to high fuel consumption at low levels, such as supersonic aircraft, are permitted to hold at higher levels than their order in the approach sequence indicates, without losing their order in the sequence. This is allowed whenever the availability of discrete descent paths and/or radar makes it possible to clear the aircraft for descent through the levels occupied by other aircraft. If a PIC of an aircraft advises of an inability to comply with the approach control holding or communication procedures, the alternative procedure(s) requested by the PIC should be approved if known traffic conditions permit.
APPROACH SEQUENCE (STACKING) General Approach Procedures Inevitably, there will be delays as the economic factors of commercial operations favour certain times of the day for arrival. Typically the arrival peaks at Heathrow are between 7 am and 10 am, and again between 4 pm and 7 pm. In order to accommodate all the arriving aircraft during a peak flow period , dedicated holding areas are established on radio navigation beacons in the vicinity of the terminal aerodrome. These are known as stacks. The following procedures are applied whenever sequenced approaches are in progress.
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Approach Control Service
Chapter 16
Priority The stack is established in a manner that will permit arrival of the maximum number of aircraft with the least average delay. A special priority may be given to an aircraft which anticipates bei ng compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft; or hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured person requiring urgent medical attention. Flow Succeeding aircraft are cleared for approach when the preceding aircraft: ~
~ ~
Has reported that it is able to complete its approach without encountering IMC; or Is in communication with and sighted by the aerodrome control tower and rea sonable assurance exists that a normal landing can be accomplished ; or Radar separation has been applied between the aircraft and the preceding aircraft.
Remaining Holding If the pilot of an aircraft in a stack has indicated an intention to hold for weather improvement, or for other reasons, such action shall be approved . When other holding aircraft indicate thei r intention to continue the approach to land , and alternative procedures are not available, the pilot desiring to hold will be cleared to an adjacent fi x for holding. Alternatively, the aircraft should be given a clearance to place it at the top of the stack so that other hold ing aircraft may be permitted to land. The aircraft operator, or a designated representative , shall be advised of the action taken immediately after the clearance is issued , if practicable. Credit Time An aircraft which has been deliberately delayed by ATC enroute to minimise terminal holding, and is still required to enter the stack, will be given credit for the time lost due to delay and placed in the stack at an appropriate position. Timed Approach Procedures When approved by the appropriate ATS authority, the following procedure can be used to expedite the approaches of a number of arriving aircraft: ~
~
A suitable point on the approach path , which shall be capable of being accurately determined by the pilot, is specified to serve as a check point in timing successive approaches; Aircraft shall be given a time at which to pass the specified point inbound . This time will allow the desired interval between successive landings on the runway to be achieved while respecting the applicable separation minima at all times, including the periods of runway occupancy.
Parallel Runway Operations Parallel runways may be used for simultaneous instrument approaches involving: ~ ~ ~
Air Law
Independent parallel approaches (Mode 1) Dependent parallel approaches (Mode 2) Segregated parallel operations
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Chapter 16
Approach Control Service
Missed Approach Requirements for Parallel Runway Operations For Mode 1 and 2 operations, the missed approach track for one runway must diverge by at least 30 from the missed approach track of the adjacent runway. With segregated operations the nominal departure track must diverge immediately after take-off by at least 30 from the missed approach track of the adjacent runway. 0
0
Expected Approach Time (EAT) An EAT is to be transmitted to an aircraft by the most expeditious means whenever it is anticipated that the aircraft will be required to hold for 30 minutes or more. The EAT is to be transmitted to the aircraft as soon as practicable and preferably not later than at the commencement of its initial descent from cruising level. In the case of aircraft particularly sensitive to high fuel consumption at low levels , an EAT should , whenever possible, be transmitted to the aircraft early enough before its intended descent time to enable the pilot to choose the method of absorbing the delay and to request a change in the fl ig ht plan if the choice is to reduce speed enroute. A revised EAT is transmitted to the aircraft without delay whenever it differs from that previously transmitted by 5 minutes or more. If a delay of more than 30 minutes is expected and it is not possible to determine the EAT, the pilot is to be informed "delay not determined".
INFORMATION FOR ARRIVING AIRCRAFT As early as practicable after an aircraft has established communication with the unit providing approach control service, the following elements of information , in the order listed, should be transmitted to the aircraft, unless it is known that the aircraft has already received the information. }> }> }>
>-
Runway in use Current meteorological information Current runwa y surface conditions, in case of precipitants or other temporary hazards Changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual aids essential for approach and landing
At the Commencement of Final Approach The following information is transmitted to aircraft:
>-
Significant changes in the mean surface wind direction and speed; Note: If the controller possesses wind information in the form of components , the significant changes are: Mean head wind component 19 km/h (10 kt) Mean tail wind component 4 km/h (2 kt) Mean crosswind component 9 km/h (5 kt)
}>
16-6
The latest information, if any, on wind shear and/or turbulence in the final approach area including the current visibility representative of the direction of approach and landing or, when provided, the current RVR value(s) and the trend , if practicable, supplemented by slant visual range value(s) if provided.
Air Law
Approach Control Service
Chapter 16
During Final Approach The following information is transmitted without delay: ~
~ ~ ~
~
The sudden occurrence of hazards; Significant variations in the current surface wind , expressed in terms of minimum and maximum values; Significant changes in runway surface conditions; Changes in the operational status of required visual or non-visual aids ; Changes in observed RVR value(s), in accordance with the reported scale in use, or changes in the visibility representative of the direction of approach and landing.
Separation of Departing from Arriving Aircraft During IFR operations , take off clearance will be granted by the approach controller when sepa ration from arriving aircraft exists . Two situations are considered: Complete Procedure Where an arriving aircraft is making a complete instrument approach , a departing aircraft may take off in any direction until the arriving aircraft has started the procedure turn or base turn leading to final approach, or take off in a direction at least 45 from the reciprocal of the approach direction providing there will be at least 3 minutes until the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over the threshold of the landing runway. 0
Straight in Approach When an arriving aircraft is making a straight in approach , a departing aircraft may take off in any direction until 5 minutes before the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over the threshold of the landing runway. A take off may also be cleared in a direction at least 45 from the reciprocal of the approach direction providing there will be at least 3 minutes until the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over the threshold of the landing runway, or before the arriving aircraft crosses a designated fix on the approach track. 0
Take-offs permitted in this area up to 3 minutes before estimated time aircraft A or B is over the threshold of the tanding runway, or in the case of aircraft A, until it crosses a designated fix on the approach track A Straight in Approach
B Start of Procedure Turn
No take-offs in this area after procedure turn is started or within the last 5 minutes of a straight in approach
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Reference: Annex 11 - Air Traffic Control; Document 4444 PANS A TC
INTRODUCTION The provision of an ATC service to aircraft flying along airways or transiting through control areas is called area control. Area control is only provided in CAS and only provided to IFR traffic or controlled VFR traffic where the class of airspace permits such traffic. Whilst the complexity of the operation may appear less than that of approach control, the numbers of aircraft involved , especially over continental Europe and North America , make area con trol a specifically demanding aspect of the ATC service. Generally area con trol is applied above the levels used for terminal manoeuvring and outside of CTAs, at the normal cruising levels for the activity of the traffic concerned . The unit providing an area control service is an Area Control Centre (ACC) . Procedural Control The system underpinning area control is procedural ATC. In order for this to function, pilots are required to make position reports at mandatory reporting points enroute. On enroute charts such points are noted by a black triangle (.). Unless ordered to cease position reporting , pilots are to make the necessary reports. In any event, a pilot is to make a report when at the FIR boundary. Adjacent FIRs In order to allow international commercial operati ons to operate, the area controller in one FIR must co-ordinate the movement of aircraft into adjacent FIRs. To do th is, pilots may be asked to adjust the route to be flown or to accept lower levels than flight planned. Instructions such as "route via (position)" or "maintain FL 190 until (position)" or "request level change enroute" are used for revisions or interim clearances. At the point of transfer of control to a succeeding FIR , the controllers concerned will 'co-ordinate' a handover such that there is a positive handover of control. Where radar is used , this will involve radar identification by the assuming controller based on information from the relieving controller and SSR information. Flight Levels As flights progress aircraft are able to cruise at higher flight levels (or altitudes). Area controllers will attempt to accommodate all requests for higher levels within operational constraints. Instructions such as "request higher after (position)" or "advise when able higher" are used when level adjustment is not practical at that time.
Air Law
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Chapter 17
Area Control Sen'icr
Airways When flying along ATS corridor routes (airways), pilots are responsible for their own navigation. Area controllers expect aircraft to navigate along the centre line of airways and route via the defining radio navigation aids. When cleared to climb and descend , such action should be commenced immediately and completed as expeditiously as possible . Instructions such as "from (position) route via (position)" or "from present position proceed directly to (position)" will be used to expedite the flow of traffic along routes or through areas by missing intermediate points on the flight planned route.
SEPARATION General Provisions for Separation The LO's for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of the separation standards as applied in area control. These are complex but follow a definite pattern. It is not unusual for several questions to appear in a paper concerning the separation standards. In general , the provision of vertical separation will take precedent over horizontal separation. The philosophy is that 'two aircraft at different altitudes cannot hit each other!' Application of Separation In area control , vertical or horizontal separation is provided between: ~ ~
~
All flights in Class A and B airspace IFR flights in Class C, D and E airspace IFR flights and VFR flights in Class C airspace
Clearance to Climb or Descend Maintaining own Separation in VMC During the hours of daylight, flights can be cleared to climb or descend subject to maintaining their own separation and remaining in VMC. No clearance is given that would reduce the spacing between two aircraft to less than the separation minimum applicable in the circumstances. Implication of Wake Turbulence Greater separations than the specified minima are applied whenever wake turbulence or other exceptional circumstances such as unlawful interference call for extra provisions.
VERTICAL SEPARATION Vertical Separation Application Vertical separation is obtained by requiring aircraft to use prescribed altimeter setting procedures to operate at different levels expressed in terms of flight levels or altitudes . Vertical Separation Minimum The vertical separation minimum shall be: ~
~
17-2
Within designated airspace, subject to regional air navigation agreement, a nominal 300 m (1000 tt) below FL410 or a higher level where so prescribed for use under special conditions , and a nominal 600 m (2000 tt) at or above this level , and Within other airspace, a nominal 300 m (1000 tt) below FL 290 and a nominal 600 m (2000 tt) at or above this level.
Air Law
Area Control Service
Chapter 17
Minimum Cruising Level Except where authorized by the appropriate authority, cruIsing levels below a minimum flight altitude established by a State shall not be assigned. Area control centres shall determine the lowest usable flight level or levels for the whole or parts of the CTA for which they are responsible. Assignment of Cruising Levels Except where cruise climb is permitted , an area control centre normally authorises only one cruising level for an aircraft beyond its CTA. Normally this would be the cruising level at which the aircraft will enter the next CTA. Aircraft are advised to request changes enroute to any subsequent cruising level desired once control has been transferred . Whilst under area control , where necessary, an aircraft may be cleared to change cruising level at a specified time, place or rate. Changes of allocated level will normally take effect at a radio navigation aid . Approach Sequence Cruising levels of aircraft fl ying to the same destination are assigned so that they are correct for the approach sequence at the destination. This may require level adjustment at a considerable distance from destination. Priority in Allocation of Cruising Level An aircraft at a cruising level normally has priority over other aircraft that request that cruising level. When two or more aircraft are at the same cruising level , the lead aircraft shall normally have priority. Allocation of a Previously Occupied Level An aircraft may be assigned a level previously occupied by another aircraft once the latter has reported that it is vacating. However, if severe turbulence is known to exist the clearance is delayed until the aircraft vacating the level has reported at another level separated by the required minimum.
Example: Aircraft A is cleared to descend from FL 140 to FL 100. Aircraft B would be cleared to descend to FL 140 when aircraft A reports that it has left FL 140 and is descending to FL 100. In severe turbulence conditions the area controller would instruct aircraft A to report passing FL 130 in the descent before issuing a clearance to aircraft B to descend to the level previously occupied. Vertical Separation During Ascent or Descent Pilots in direct communication with each other may be cleared to maintain a specified vertical separation between their aircraft during ascent or descent.
HORIZONTAL SEPARATION Horizontal Separation Definition There are two types of horizontal separation: lateral and longitudinal. Broadly, lateral separation requires aircraft to fl y on different tracks separated by the required minima in terms of distance, whereas longitudinal separation involves arranging fligh ts along the same track to be separated by time (or in certain circumstances, by distance).
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Chapter 17
Area Control Selilice
LATERAL SEPARATION Application Lateral separation is applied so that the distance between aircraft that are to be laterally separated is never less than an established distance (the minima) taking into account navigational inaccuracies plus a specified buffer. This buffer is determin ed by the appropriate authority and is included in the lateral separation minima. Buffer - A contrivance to lessen the shock of concussion. In this con text, the word buffer means distance or time which is added into a situation that allows more space to ensure that the risk of two aircraft colliding is minimised . Means of Achieving Lateral Separation Lateral separation of aircraft at the same level is obtained by: ~ ~
~
Requiring operation on different routes, or In different geographical locations as determined by visual observation, or By use of navigation aids or by use of area navigation equipment.
Lateral Separation Criteria and Minima The means by which lateral separation may be achieved include the following: Geographical Separation The aircraft reports over a different geographical location determined visually or by reference to a navigation aid.
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Track Separation Between Aircraft Using the Same Navigation Aid or Method Aircraft fiy on specified tracks which are separated by a minimum amount appropriate to the navigation aid or method employed. By doing so, separation would be deemed to exist when one or both aircraft are: VOR: Flying tracks separated by least 15', and one or both aircraft have reported at a distance of 28 km (15 nm ) or more from the facility.
28 km (15NM)
I
VOR~\:',*===----:-;:-r----!.+
17-4
Air Law
Area Control Service
Chap,er 17
NOB: Flying tracks separated by least 30', and one or both aircraft have reported at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the facility
~~___2_8_k~ m (1_5_N_M_)___'~I~~
Dead Reckoning (DR) Flying tracks diverging by at least 45' and one or both aircraft have reported at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the point of intersection of the tracks, this point being determined either visually or by reference to a navigation aid.
~___2_8~k_m__(1_5_N_M_)___'~I
45)
__ ~ 'T
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Radar vectoring of arriving traffic to a point at which a pilot interpreted instrument approach can be commenced ; a PAR procedure starts , or a visual approach can be made; Radar monitoring of parallel run way operations; To provide surveillance radar approaches (SRA); To provide PAR procedures; To provide separation between arriving and departing aircraft; To provide radar vectoring of departing aircraft where necessary.
Approach Radar Procedure Procedures are to be established to ensure that the aerodrome controller is kept informed of the arrival sequence as well as instructions given to aircraft to mainta in separation after transfer of control to the aerodrome controller. Before commencing radar vectoring the pilot is to be advised of the type of approach in operation and the runway in use (i.e. "Atlantic 123 radar vectors for ILS runway 27 left"). Before commencing the final approach, the radar controller advises the pilot of the aircraft position at least once during radar vectoring (i.e. "Atlantic 123, 10 miles from touchdown turn left heading 315 report localiser established") . Vectoring to Final Approach An aircraft vectored for final approach should be given a heading or series of headings, calculated to close to the final approach track. The final vector will enable the aircraft to be established in level fiight on the final approach track (Iocaliser established) prior to intercepting the glide path on a precision approach. The intercept angle should be 45" or less. For independent parallel approaches the intercept angle should not be greater than 30". The fin al vector should also provide at least 1 nm straight and level fiight prior to localiser intercept. The vector must also ensure that at least 2 nm straight and level flight occurs before glide path intercept.
Air Law
19-9
Chapter 19
Radar in A ir Traffic Contro l
Closing intercept angle 45' or less (or wi th parallel runway ops 3~' or less)
Final Approach Track
Descent Point
Final Vector Vectoring to Intercept the Final Approach Track
Separation A minimum of 3 nm separation is given to aircraft on the same localiser cou rse. Vectoring to the Visual Vectoring for a visual approach may be in itiated provided the reported ceiling is above the minimum altitude applicable to rad ar vectori ng and meteorological condi tions are such that, with reasonable assurance, a visual approach and landing can be carried out. Clearance for a visual approach will only be issued after the pilot has reported the aerodrome, or the preceding aircraft, is in sight. At that time rad ar vectoring would be terminated , and the pilot instructed to con tact tower. Transfer of Control to the Aerodrome Controller Transfer of communication and control to the aerodrome con troller should be carried out at such a point or time to permit cleara nce to land or alternative instructions to be issued. It is normal ATC practice to transfer control once the pilot has reported established on the localiser (or final approach track for non ILS approaches). Landing Clearance Clearance to land should be passed to an aircraft before it reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If no clearance to land has been received at that range and no other instructions issued , then the published missed approach procedure must be carried out.
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Air Law
Radar in Air Traffic Control
Chapter 19
RADAR APPROACHES Before Commencement Before a rad ar approach is started , the pilot is to be informed of: ~ ~ ~ ~
The runway in use; The applicable OCAlH ; The angle of the glide path (or the virtual glide path) and/or the approximate rate of descent to be maintained ; The 'Loss of RTF' procedure (unless the procedure is published in the AlP and on the approach plates).
RTF During a radar approach, the pilot will maintain communication with the radar approach controller. The radar controller will liaise with the aerodrome controller by intercom and relay any essential traffic information to the pilot. On completion of the radar approach, commu nication may be transferred directly to the ground movement controller when the pilot reports to the radar controller that the aircraft is clear of the active runway. Discontinuation If for any reason the radar approach has to be discontinued , the pilot will be informed immediately. If possible, the approach is to be continued utilising another aid or visually if the pilot reports accordingly. If continuation is not possible, the pilot will be given alternative instructions. Undercarriage At a point on final approach , the pilot of an ai rcraft making a radar approach is to be asked to confirm that the landing gear is down and locked . Landing Clearance The aerodrome controller is to be advised when an aircraft making a radar approach is 8 nm from touchdown. At this point the aerodrome controller may either issue a landing clearance or state that the clearance will be issued subsequently. If landing clearance has not been issued at 8 nm , the radar con troller will advise the aerodrome controller again when the aircraft is at 4 nm from touchdown and request landing clearance on behalf of the pilot. In busy circuit situations, the aerodrome controller may delay the landing clearance providing it is issued before the aircraft reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If the clearance has not been issued by 2 nm , the radar controller will instruct the pilot to carry out the missed approach procedure without further delay. Missed Approach An aircraft making a radar approach shou ld be instructed to execute the missed approach procedu re when the aircraft appears to be dangerously positioned on final approach, for reasons of confiicting traffic, if no land ing clearance has been received by 2 nm , or on instructions from the aerod rome controller. If at any time during the radar approach radar contact is lost for any significant interval of time, the pilot will be instructed to make a missed approach . Unless required by exceptional circumstances , instructions issued by the radar controller concerning missed approach are to be in accordance with the published procedure .
Air Law
19- 11
Chapter 19
Radar in A ir Traffic Control
PAR During a precision approach radar procedure, the pilot is 'talked' down the glide path and along the centre line. This is achieved by radar vectoring using very accurate radar information relating to the aircraft position in azimuth and elevation with reference to the centre line and the defined glide path. At the start of the procedure the pilot will be instructed not to acknowledge any further instructions unless requested. Range information is passed and the pilot will be instructed to commence descent at the appropriate point. The radar controller then transmits continuousl y passing range, heading and adjustments to heading , and adjustments to the rate of descent to maintain the centre line and the glide path. At 4 nm from touchdown, whilst keeping up the 'talkdown', the radar controller will ask the aerodrome controller for clearance to land. If given, this is relayed to the pilot together with a request for landing gear confirmation and instruction to acknowledge. The talkdown will continue until the aircraft reaches the decision height or is seen on radar to be making a missed approach. Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA) If PAR is available then a final approach using SRA should not be carried out unless meteorological conditions are such that there is a reasonable certainty that the SRA can be completed successfully. When conducting an SRA the radar controller must comply with the following:
:>:>:>:>:>:>-
At or before the commencement of the final approach the aircraft shall be informed of the point at where the SRA will be terminated (1 nm or 2 nm from touchdown); The aircraft shall be informed when the aircraft is approaching the point at where the descent should begin ; Before reaching the computed descent point, the aircraft shall be informed of the OCNH and instructed to descend and check the appropriate minima; At the descent point the aircraft will be instructed to begin descent as for a 300 ft per mile glide path; Distance to touchdown is normally passed at every 2 km (1 nm ) with the precomputed level the aircraft should be passing ; The approach shall be terminated at the earliest of:
:>:>:>-
A distance of 4 km (2nm) from touchdown where range determination allows ranges to be passed every mile, or at 1 nm if ranges are passed every 0.5 nm, or Before the aircraft enters an area of continuous radar clutter, or When the pilot reports that a visual approach can be completed.
USE OF RADAR IN AERODROME CONTROL Surveillance Radar Surveillance radar can be used by the aerodrome controller to monitor the aircraft on final approach, monitor the movements of other aircraft in the vicinity of the aerodrome , establishing separation between succeeding departing aircraft, and providing navigation assistance to VFR flights . SVFR flights are not to be vectored unless special circumstances (emergencies) dictate otherwise. When offering navigation assistance to VFR flights the aerodrome controller should be aware of the proximity of IMC. It is of overriding importance that the use of radar by the aerodrome controller does not detract from the visual observation of aerodrome traffic.
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Air Law
Radar in A ir Traffic Control
Chapter 19
Surface Movement Radar (SMR) The use of SMR enhances the service to aerodrome traffic in low visibility operations, and may be used to augment visual observation of the aerodrome. It may also be used to provide surveillance of areas of the manoeuvring area which cannot be observed visually. Specific uses are: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
monitoring aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area for compliance with clearances; determining that the runway is clear before aircraft land or take off; providing essential local traffic informalion on or near the manoeuvring area; determining the location of aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area; providing directional assistance to aircraft taxiing when requested by the pilot; providing assistance and advice to emergency response vehicles.
Radar in the Flight Information Service The use of radar in the provision of FIS does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility for collision avoidance, or the final decision regarding alteration of the flight plan . The information displayed on the radar display may be used to provide identified aircraft with information concerning conflicting aircraft and advice regarding avoiding action; information about the position of significant weather and advice on how best to circumnavigate the weather, and information to assist the navigation of the aircraft. In the UK this service is known as RIS and is provided by radar units as part of the LARS . Radar in the Air Traffic Advisory Service When radar is used in the provision of the air traffic advisory service, the general procedures for the use of radar in ATe are to be applied subject to the limitations of the advisory service and the airspace in which it is conducted.
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Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Aircraft Operations (Document 8168OPS161 1, Volume 1), Volume 1- Flight Procedures
INTRODUCTION The use of Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) has radically affected the provision of ATC especially in the en route (Area) and terminal (Approach) phases of flight. Modern ATC systems use SSR not just to identify aircraft but to give information regarding aircraft callsign , altitude or level, and destination. The system can also be used to identify a particular airframe and is a fundamental part of the ACASfTCAS systems. SSR has its origins in WWII with the invention of a system known as Identification Friend or Foe (IFF). The equipment fitted to aircraft that performed the task was given the code name 'parrot' and this is evident in some of the phraseology we still use. System The technology and the equipment used are discussed in detail in Radio Navigation, but simplistically, a ground station transmits a signal that is received by the aircraft equipment and retransmitted back to the ground station . The aircraft equipment is called a 'transponder': a transmitter that responds. The signal from the aircraft is coded with the identifica tion code allocated to the aircraft by the controller, which when received, permits access to the details of the aircraft's flight plan held in the ATC data system . The transmitted signal operates in diffe rent modes, with mode A used fo r ident codes and mode C used for automatic altitude reporting. Special Codes Under certain circumstances, pilots are required to set special codes on the SSR system to indicate aircraft situation to the controller. These are: Mode Mode Mode Mode
A A A A
code 7700 code 7600 code 7500 code 2000
Mode A code 7000 Mode A code 0000
Emergency Radio failure Unlawful interference Entering an area where radar services are available and will be requesting such a service Operating in an area where radar service is available but not in receipt of a radar service Unserviceable transponder
ModeS Pilots of aircraft equipped with Mode S having an aircraft identification feature shall set the aircraft identification in the transponder. Th is setting shall correspond to the aircraft identification specified in item 7 of the ICAO flight plan , or, if no flight plan has been filed , the aircraft registrati on. Air Law
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Chapter 20
SecondOlY Surveillance Radar
OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS In commercial aviation an aircraft is not permitted to commence a flight with an unserviceable transponder. Unless advised by the ATC authority, the transponder is to be operated at all times during flight, regardless of whether the aircraft is inside or outside airspace where SSR is used for ATS purposes. If a transponder fails in flight and cannot be repaired at an intermediate stop enroute, approval may be given for the flight to continue to planned destination with the unserviceable transponder. In such circumstance, item 10 of the FPL (information concerning the carriage of SSR) is to be annotated "N" for nil. In the absence of any ATC directions (code instructions) or regional air navigation agreements (specific code requirements), the transponder should be set to mode A code 2000. Setting a Code The approved procedure for setting a code is designed to prevent inadvertent squawking of a special code . Before changing a code character, set the transponder control to standby. Change the code and then reselect ON . Alternatively, where the aircraft system includes twin SSR controllers , select the new code on the control unit not being used and then operate the changeover switch to activate the controller that has the desired code set. Confirm Squawk When requested by ATC to "Confirm Squawk" the pilot shall:
>>>-
Verify the Mode A code setting on the transponder Reselect the assigned code if necessary, and Confirm to ATC the setting displayed on the controls of the transponder
Ident Feature The system includes a facility which graphically draws the attention of the radar controller to the symbol relating to the aircraft on the radar display. It is usual for the symbol to 'flash ' when the pilot operates the "ident feature". Pilots are not to squawk IDENT unless requested by ATC . Use of Mode C Whenever Mode C is in use , level (or altitude) is to be reported to the nearest full 30 m or 100 ft as indicated on the pilot's altimeter, in communication with ATC. The tolerance value used by ATC to determine that Mode C derived level information displayed to the controller is accurate , is the reported altitude/level ± 300 ft (JAR OPS requires a tolerance of ± 200 ft). Level Occupancy An aircraft is considered to be maintaining its assigned level as long as the Mode C indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level. Climbing or Descending An aircraft is deemed to have crossed a level when the Mode C indicates it has passed this level by more than 300 ft in the requi red direction. Passing a Level An aircraft is deemed to be passing through a level when the Mode C indicates it is within 300 ft of the stated level ascending or descending in the required direction.
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Air Law
SecondGlY Surveillance Radar
Chapter 20
Departing a Level An aircraft is considered to have left its previously assigned level when the Mode C indicates that it is more than 300 ft from the previously assigned level. Reaching a Level An aircraft is considered to have reached its newly assigned level when the Mode C indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES If the pilot thinks necessary, when in an emergency the mode A code 7700 should be squawked . This will activate alarm signs and sounds in the radar control room and alert all concerned to the identity of the aircraft suffering the emergency. If the pilot is already in communication with the radar controller and the emergency is declared on the radar controller's frequency after the aircraft has been radar identified, the 7700 squawk may be superfuous. Note: Military automatic emergency squawk is mode A code 7777.
COMMUNICATION FAILURE PROCEDURES The pilot of an aircraft losing two-way communications should set the transponder to mode A code 7600. Note: A controller observing a response on the communications failure code will ascertain the extent of the failure by instructing the pilot to "Squawk IDENT" to change code. Where it is determined that the aircraft receiver is functioning , further control of the aircraft will be continued using code changes or IDENT transmissions to acknowledge receipt of clearances issued. Different procedures may be applied to Mode S equipped aircraft in areas of Mode S coverage.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE WITH AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT Should an aircraft in flight be subjected to unlawful interference, the PIC shall endeavour to set the transponder to mode A code 7500 unless circumstances warrant the use of mode A code 7700. A pilot having selected mode A code 7500 and subsequently requested to confirm this code by ATC shall , according to circumstances, either confirm this or not repl y at all. Note: Specific indoctrination concerning the handling of acts of unlawful interference will be conducted by individual operators.
PHRASEOLOGY When acknowledging mode/code setting instructions, pilots shall read back the mode and code to be set. ATC System In accordance with the Regional Air Navigation agreement (RAN ), ATCUs utilising SSR are allocated a block of codes for the unit to use. There are 4096 individual codes encompassing all the possible combinations of the digits 0 - 7 in 4 digit sets. So a code containing the digits 8 or 9 is invalid. A particular ATCU is usually identified by the first two digits of a code. The third digit indicates the control console and the last digit the alrocated track number for that console. For example the code 4321 would indicate a radar approach unit at a specific location, console number 2, track 1. Air Law
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Chapter 20
SecondOfY Surveillance Radar
Gate-to-Gate Operations With in the 'gate to gate' concept of Eu ropean ATC being pioneered by Eurocontrol, each flight will be allocated a specific SSR code during the pre-tactical phase of the ATF M procedure, and that code will remain with the aircraft until the aircraft lands at the final destination.
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Air Law
References: Annex 11 - Air Traffic Services
ALERTING SERVICE It is essential that an aircraft experiencing an emergency or any other form of difficulty is able to commun icate the fact and get assistance . Underpinn ing the ATS is a system of communication , liaison , co-operation and information interchange that is utilised to assist aircraft. This system is ca lled the Alerting Service and is the third part of the ATS system. Application The Alerting Service is provided for all aircraft provided with air traffic control service; in so far as is practicable, all aircraft having filed a fiight plan or otherwise known to the ATS , and any aircraft known or bel ieved to be the subject of unlawful interference. Collection and Dissemination of Information Flight information centres or area control centres shall serve as the central point for collecting all information relevant to a state of emergency of an aircraft operating within the FIR or CTA concerned and for forwarding such information to the appropriate Rescue Co-ordination Centre (RCC). Notification In the event of a state of emergency arising to an aircraft while it is under the control of an aerodrome control towe r or approach control offi ce, such unit shall notify immediately the fiight information centre or area control centre responsible which shall in turn notify the RCC. Notification of the area control centre, flight information centre or RCC shall not be requ ired when the nature of the emergency is one that can be dealt with by the service concerned. Local Response Whenever the urgency of the situation so requires, the aerodrome control tower or approach control office respon sible shall first alert and take other necessary steps to set in motion all appropriate local rescue and emergency organizations which ca n give the immed iate assistance required. Notification of Rescue Co-Ordination Centres Without prejudice to any other circumstances that may render such notification advisable, ATS units shall notify RCCs immediately an aircraft is considered to be in a state of emergency in accord ance with the following phases:
Air Law
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Chapter 21
The Alerring Service
PHASES OF THE ALERTING PROCEDURE There are three states of alert, escalating in level of concern as to the safety of an aircraft. These are : Uncertainty Phase (INCERFA) Except when no doubt exists as to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants, the uncertainty phase would be declared to exist when: ~
~
No communication has been re ceived from an aircraft within a period of thirty minutes after the time a communication should have been received , or from the time an unsuccessful attempt to establish communication with the aircraft was first made, whichever is earlier, or when An aircraft fails to arrive within thirty minutes of the ETA last notified to, or estimated by, ATS units.
Alert Phase (ALERFA) Except when evidence exists that would allay apprehension as to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants, the alert phase would be declared: ~
~
~
~
Following the uncertainty phase , subsequent attempts to establish communication with the aircraft or inquiries to other relevant sources have failed to reveal any news of the aircraft, or when An aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within 5 minutes of the established time of landing and communication has not been re-established with the aircraft, or when Information has been received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the aircraft has been impa ired but not to the extent that a forced landing is likely, or when An aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference.
Distress Phase (DETRESFA) Except when there is reasonable certainty that the aircraft and its occupants are not threatened by grave and im minent danger and do not requ ire immediate assistance the distress phase would be declared: ~
~
~ ~
2 1-2
Following the alert phase, further unsuccessful attempts to establish communication wi th the aircraft and more widespread unsuccessful inquiries point to the probability that the aircraft is in distress, or when The fuel on board is considered to be exhausted, or to be insufficient to enable the aircraft to reach safety, or when Information is received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the aircraft has been impaired to the extent that a forced landing is likely, or when Information is received or it is reasonably certain that the aircraft is about to make or has made a forced landing.
Air Law
The Alerring Service
Chaprer 21
FORMAT OF NOTIFICATION OF DECLARATION The notification shall contain such of the following information as is available in the order listed: ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~
INCERFA, ALERFA or DETRESFA as appropriate to the phase of emergency; Agency and person calling; Nature of the emergency; Significant information from the fiight plan ; Unit which made last contact, time and frequency used ; Last position report and how determined; Colour and distinctive marks of aircraft; Any action taken by reporting office; or Other pertinent remarks.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR THE RCC In addition to the above the RCC is given the following information: ~ ~
Any useful additional information, especially on the development of the state of emergency through subsequent phases, or Information that the emergency situation no longer exists.
INFORMATION TO AIRCRAFT OPERATING IN THE VICINITY OF AN AIRCRAFT IN A STATE OF EMERGENCY When it has been established by an ATS unit that an aircraft is in a state of emergency, other aircraft known to be in the vicinity of the aircraft involved shall be informed of the nature of the emerg ency as soon as practicable.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE When an ATS unit knows or believes that an aircraft is being subjected to unlawful interference, no reference shall be made in ATS air-ground communications to the nature of the emergency unless it has been referred to in communications from the aircraft involved and it is certain that such reference will not aggravate the situation .
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INTRODUCTION Article 25 of the Chicago Convention obliges all contracting states to provide search and rescue (SAR) assistance to aircraft in a state of emergency in the territory of a state and adjacent areas of responsibility. Annex 12 contains the SARPs for SAR and ICAO also publishes Doc 7333 which provides guida nce to setting up a SAR service. The level of service provided depends much upon the abil ity of the state (financial and expertise) but it is an obligation that is taken very seriou sly and states will co-operate even where there is animosity between the co-operating states. Some smaller states with lim ited GNP have entered into arrangements with larger neighbours or treaty states where the SAR service is provided by the other state. Typically, the RAF provides the SAR service for Cyprus whereas the USN provides SAR cover for the surroundi ng sea areas of Iceland. The United Kingdom and Eire share the responsibility for the provision of SAR in the 3 FI Rs and also fo r the Shanwick OCA. In other ocean areas, or areas of undetermined sovereignty, where SAR services have to be established , such services are organised on the basis of regional air naviga tion agreements. A Contracting State having accepted the responsibility to provide a SAR service in such areas is to arrange for the service to be established and provided in accordance with Annex 12. Note: The phrase "regional air navigation agreements" refers to the agreements approved by the Council of ICAO normally on the advice of Regional Air Navigation Meetings.
ORGANISATION Establishment and Provision of Search and Rescue Service SAR services are to be available on a 24 hour basis. In providing assistance to ai rcraft in distress and to survivors of aircraft accidents, contracting states are required to do so regardless of the nationality of such aircraft or survivors. Establishment of Search and Rescue Regions Contracting states shall publish the SAR areas (regions) within which they will provide SAR services. Such regions shall not overlap. Boundaries of SAR regions should, in so far as practicable, be coi ncident with the boundari es of corresponding FIR. Establishment and Designation of Search and Rescue Service Units Contracting States shall establish a rescue co-ordin ation centre (RCC) in each SAR region. Contracting States should establ ish rescue sub-centres whenever this would improve the efficiency of SAR services. In areas where public telecommunications would not permit persons observing an aircraft in emergency to notify the RCC concerned directly and promptly, states shou ld designate suitable units of public or private services as alerting posts.
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Communications for Search and Rescue Services Units Each RCC is required to have a sophisticated communications system with ATSUs, other RCCs , other services on whose skills and assistance the RCC can call, and associated service providers (i.e the meteorological service, police, military units, etc.). Equipment of Rescue Units Rescue units shall be provided with facilities and equipment for locating promptly, and for providing adequate assistance at, the scene of an accident including, where possible SARSAT and COSPAS. Co-Operation Between States Contracting states shall co-ordinate their SAR organizations with those of neighbouring contracting states, and in so far as is practicable, develop common SAR procedures to facilitate co-ordination of SAR operations. Subject to conditions, a state should permit immediate entry into its territory of rescue units of other states for the purpose of searching for the site of aircraft accidents and rescuing survivors of such accidents. The authorities of a state wh ich wishes its rescue units to enter the territory of another state for SAR purposes shall transmit a request to the RCC of the state concerned or to such other authority as has been designated by that state. Each state should authorise its RCC to provide, when requested assistance to other RCCs, including assistance in the form of aircraft, vessels, personnel or equipment. Co-Operation with Other Services States will arrange for all aircraft, vessels and local services and facilities which do not form part of the SAR organisation to co-operate fully wi th the latter in SAR and to extend any possible assistance to the survivors of aircraft accidents.
OPERATING PROCEDURES Information Concerning Emergencies Any authority or any element of the SAR organization having reason to believe that an aircraft is in an emergency shall give all available information to the RCC concerned immediately. RCCs shall , immediately upon receipt of information concerning aircraft in emergency, evaluate such information and determine the extent of operation required. When information concerning aircraft in emergency is received from other sources than ATS units, the RCC shall determine to which emergency phase the situation corresponds and shall apply the procedures applicable to that phase. Uncertainty Phase During the uncertainty phase, the RCC shall co-operate to the utmost wi th ATS units and other appropriate agencies and services in order that incoming reports may be speedily evaluated. Alert Phase Upon the occurrence of an alert phase the RCC shall immediately alert appropriate SAR services units and rescue units and initiate any necessary action.
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Distress Phase When an aircraft is believed to be in distress, or when a distress phase exists, the RCC shall: l> l>
l> l> l> l>
Initiate action by appropriate SAR services units and rescue units in accordance with the detailed plan of operation ; Ascertain the position of the aircraft, estimate the degree of uncertainty of this position, and, on the basis of this information and the circumstances, determine the extent of the area to be searched; Notify the operator, where possible, and keep him informed of developments; Notify adjacent RCCs, the help of which seems likely to be required , or which may be concerned in the operation; Notify the associated ATS unit, when the information on the emergency has been received from another source; Request at an early stage such aircraft, vessels, coastal stations, or other services not specifically included in SAR services or rescue units as are in a position to do so to: l>
Maintain a listening watch for transmission from the aircraft in distress or from an emergency locator transmitter; Note: The frequencies used by emergency locator beacons are 121 .500 MHz and 406 MHz.
l> l>
Assist the aircraft in distress as far as practicable; Inform the RCC of any developments; l>
l> l> l>
From the information available, draw up a plan for the conduct of the search andl or rescue operation required and communicate such plan for the guidance of the authorities immediately directing the conduct of such an operation ; Amend as necessary, in the light of circumstances, the guidance already given above ; Notify the State of Registry of the aircraft; Notify the appropriate accident investigation authorities.
Procedures for Pilots-in-Command at the Scene of an Accident When a PIC observes that an aircraft or a surface vessel is in distress, hel she shall , unless unable or it is unreasonable or unnecessary, keep the craft in distress in sight until such time as such presence is no longer necessary. If position is not known with certainty, the pilot should take such action as will fa ci litate the determination of it. The pilot should also report to the RCC or ATS unit as much of the following information as possible: l> l> l> l> l> l>
Air Law
Type of craft in distress, its identification and condition; Its position expressed in Geographical co-ordinates ; or a distance and true bearing from a distinctive landmark; or from a radio navigation aid ; Time of observation expressed in hours and minutes UTC; Number of persons observed and whether persons have been seen to abandon the craft in distress; Number of persons observed to be afloat; Apparent physical condition of survivors. 22-3
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First Aircraft on the Scene If the first aircraft to reach the scene of an accident is not a SAR aircraft, the pilot of that aircraft shall take charge of on-scene activities of all other aircraft subsequently arriving until the first dedicated SAR aircraft reaches the scene. The pilot of any aircraft involved in SAR should calculate the endurance of the aircraft considering diversion to a nearby aerodrome to extend endurance if necessary. If, in the meantime, such aircraft is unable to establish communication with the appropriate RCC or ATS unit, it shall, by mutual agreement, hand over to an aircraft capable of establishing and maintaining such communications until the arrival of the first SAR aircraft. If it is necessary for an aircraft to direct a surface craft to the scene of distress, the aircraft shall do so by transmitting its precise instructions by any means at its disposal. If no radio communications can be established the aircraft shall use the appropriate signal from those defined at the end of this section. When it is necessary for an aircraft to convey information to survivors or surface rescue units, and two-way communication is not available , it shall , if practicable , drop communication equipment that would enable direct contact to be established , or convey the information by dropping a message. When a ground signal has been displayed , the aircraft shall indicate whether the signal has been understood or not by use of the appropriate signal given at the end of this section. Procedures for Pilots-In-Command Intercepting a Distress Transmission Whenever a distress signal and/or message or equivalent transmission is intercepted on radiotelegraphy or radiotelephony by a PIC of an aircraft, he shall record the position of the craft in distress if given. If possible, he should take a bearing on the transmission and inform the appropriate RCC or ATS unit of the distress transmission , giving all available information. At his discretion, while awaiting instructions, proceed to the position given in the transmission .
SEARCH AND RESCUE SIGNALS The signals shown below shall , when used , have the meaning indicated. They shall be used only for the purpose indicated and no other signals likely to be confused with them shall be used. Upon observing any of the signals given below, aircraft shall take such action as may be required by the interpretation of the signal given. Signals with Surface Craft The following manoeuvres performed in sequence by an aircraft mean that the aircraft wishes to direct a surface craft towards an aircraft or a surface craft in distress: ~ ~ ~
Circling the surface craft at least once; Crossing the projected course of the surface craft close ahead at low altitude and rocking the wings, or opening and closing the throttle , or changing the propeller pitch ; Heading in the direction in which the surface craft is to be directed. Repetition of the above manoeuvres has the same meaning .
Cancelling Request for Assistance When the assistance of a surface craft is no longer required the pilot should manoeuvre the aircraft so as to cross the wake of the surface craft close astern at a low altitude and rock the wings, or open and close the throttle, or change the propeller pitch.
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Marking of Droppable Equipment The following supplies can be dropped from aircraft which have the capability to air-drop. Where such equipment is dropped , a streamer (flag/pennant) is to be attached , the colour of which will indicate to the survivors wha t is in the package. Where supplies are mixed a combination of the colour codes should be used. Table: Colour of streamers attached to supplies Streamer Colour
Supply
Red
Medical supplies and first aid equipment
Blue
Food and water
Yellow
Blankets and protective clothing
Black
Miscellaneous equipment such as stoves , axes, compasses etc
Ground-Air Visual Signal Code In order to com municate basic messages and instructions from ground parties to aircraft, an internationally agreed system of signals has been established . There are two sets of signals: Ground/Air Signals from Survivors The fo llowing signals may be set out in some form (marked in snow; oil on sand; burned grass in open areas etc.) Symbols shall be at least 2.5 metres long and shall be made as conspicuous as possible. Table: Ground/Air Signals from Survivors
Air Law
No.
Message
Symbol
1
Require assistance
V
2
Require medical assistance
X
3
No or negative
4
Yes or affirm
N y
5
Proceed in this direction
E-
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GROUND/AIR SIGNALS USED BY RESCUE UNITS Where search parties do not have two-way radi o contact with the RCC or where they are cooperating with aircraft without two-way RTF, the following signals can be used . Table: Ground/Air Signals used by Rescue Units No.
Message
Symbol
1
Operation completed
2
Have found all survivors
LLL LL
3
Have only found some survivors
++
4
Not able to continue, returning to base
XX
5
Have divided into 2 groups proceeding as indicated
:#
6
Information received that survivors/aircraft is in this direction
-+-+
7
Nothing found, will continue to search
NN
AIR-TO-GROUND SIGNALS To indicate that the ground signals have been understood, an aircraft will, during the hours of daylight rock the aircraft's wings, or during the hours of darkness, flash on and off twice the aircraft's landing lights or, if not so equipped, switch on and off twice its navigation lights. Lack of the above signals indicates that the ground signal is not understood. SAR Communications Perhaps the most important role a civilian aircraft can perform in the SAR scenario is to act as a communications link. By remaining at high altitude the aircraft can relay messages from SAR units on the surface or at low level to ATCUs or directly to the RGG using VHF or HF. The aircraft at high level can also relay messages between SAR units on the surface which are not in direct line of sight communication with each other. The following radio frequencies are used for SAR :
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Frequency
Applicati on
Modulation
Silence Period
500 KHz
MF Internationa l distress safety and ca lling
CW (Morse)
H+15; H+45
Aircraft can receive using ADF
21 82 KHz
HF International distress safety and calling
AM (voice)
H+OO ; H+30
Silence periods last 5 minutes
4 125 KHz
Air to Ship SAR
AM (voice)
None
3023 KHz 5680 KHz
SAR scene of search HF
AM (voice)
None
8364 KHz
lifeboa t HF
AM (voice)
None
121.500 MHz
International Aeronautical Distress VHF
AM (voice)
None
Note
Used for comms with RGG Use as directed Military ships can monitor
156.8 MHz
VHF Maritime Distress (GhanneI 16)
FM (voice)
None
Ship/shore VHF
123. 100 MHz
Aeronautical SAR scene of search VHF
AM (voice)
None
Military ships can monitor
243.000 MHz
International Aeronautical Distress UHF
AM (voice)
None
Military ships and aircraft guard
Emergency Locator Beacon
AM Sweeping tone repeated may have voice
None
Simulta neous transmissions on 121.500 MHz
406. 000 MHz
Table : SAR Frequencies
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Reference: Annex 14 - Aerodromes
ANNEX 14 This is the Annex to the Chicago Convention that specifies the SARPs for the constru ction of and services required for aerodromes. An nex 14 is only concerned with aerodromes that are open to the public, in other words , aerodromes which conduct commercial operations. This does not limit the application of the SARPs to state owned or authority operated aerodromes, but implies that an aerodrome licensed for commercial operations must comply with the SARPs in order for the licence to be granted. This Annex contains SARPs that detail the physical characteristics and obstacle limitation surfaces to be provided for at aerodromes , and certain facilities and technical services normally provided at an aerodrome . It is not intended that these specifications limit or regulate the operation of an aircraft. At certain types of aerodrome used occasionally for commercial air transport, differences under article 38 can be notified (i.e. military aerodromes). TYPES OF AERODROME ICAO does not categorise aerodromes as does, for instance, the CM of the UK. ICAO does however, specify different SARPs to aerodromes used only for VFR operations compared to those for aerodromes used for instrument procedures. PARTS OF AN AERODROME All licensed aerodromes have an apron , a manoeuvring area, and a movement area (see definitions Chapter 1). Where necessary, or commercial interests prevail, an aerodrome may have a technical area. Where established , a technical area , except for the entrance to and exit from , are not under ATC control. On some very busy international aerodromes the control of surface traffic and operation s on the apron is delegated to an apron management service operated by the aerodrome operator. AERODROME REFERENCE CODE (ARC) For the benefit of aerodrome designers and constructors, ICAO specifies an Aerodrome Reference Code. Operators are required to ascertain that any aerodromes they intend to use for commercial operations are fit for that purpose. Where an operator has established schedules using aerodromes and the necessary aerodrome operating minima , it is not necessary for the pilot to confirm tha t the aerodrome is suitable for operations. Knowledge of the ARC is only required for examination purposes. The ARC consists of a code number and letter based on the requirements of the largest aeroplane for which the aerodrome is intended to be used .
Code Element 1 The code number for element 1 is determined by selecting the code number corresponding to the highest value for the aeroplane reference field lengths of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. Aeroplane reference fie ld length is the Air Law
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minimum take-off distance required at maximum certificated take-off mass under still air and ISA conditions. Code Element 2 The code letter for element 2 is determined by selecting the code letter which corresponds to the greatest wing span, or the greatest outer main gear wheel span, whichever gives the more demanding code letter of the aeroplanes for which the use of the aerodrome is intended. Note: Outer main gear wheel span is the distance between the outermost wheels of the main undercarriage. The runways and taxiways have to be at least as wide as this. Aerodrome Reference Code Code Element 1 Code Number
Aeroplane Reference Field Length
Code Element 2 Code
Letter
Wing Span
Outer Main Gear Wheel Span
1
Less than 800 m
A
Up to but not including 15 m
Up to but not including 4.5 m
2
800 m up to but not including 1200 m
B
15 m up to but not including 24 m
4.5 m up to but not including 6 m
3
1200 m up to but not including 1800 m
C
24 m up to but not including 36 m
6 m up to but not includi ng 9 m
4
1800 m and over
D
36 m up to but not including 52 m
9 m up to but not includ ing 14 m
E
52 m up to but not including 65 m
9 m up to but not including 14 m
F (2)
65 m up to but not including 80 m ( 1)
14 m up to but not including 16 m
Notes: 1. Planning considerations for aeroplanes with wing span greater than 80 m are contained in the ICAO aerodrome design manual. 2. The Air Law cas was written before the introduction of code F.
Table : Aerodrome Reference Code Note: For convenience the code letters and numbers are not used in the text of these notes. The data within the table is given instead. However, the table is examined in the JAR Air Law examination.
AERONAUTICAL DATA GEOGRAPHICAL CO-ORDINATES Geographical co-ordinates indicating latitude and longitude are determined and reported in terms of the World Geodetic System - 1984 (WGS-84). AERODROME REFERENCE POINT (ARP) An ARP is established for each aerodrome. The ARP is typically located near the initial or planned centre of the aerodrome. The position is measured and reported to the aeronautical information services in degrees , minutes , and seconds. The ARP is usually the centre of the longest runway. •
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Chapler 23
AERODROME AND RUNWAY ELEVATIONS
The aerodrome elevation is measured to the accuracy of 0.5 m or one foot. For aerodromes used by international civil aviation involving precision 01 non-precision approaches , the accuracy is measured to 0.25 m or one foot. PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECK LOCATION One or more pre-flight altimeter check locations are established for an aerodrome. A pre-flight check location is typically located on an apron so that an altimeter check is made prior to obtaining taxi clearance thus eliminating the need for stopping after leaving the apron. Norm ally an entire apron can serve as a satisfactory altimeter check location. The elevation of a pre-flight altimeter check location is given as the average elevation , rounded to the nearest metre or foot, of the area on which it is located. The elevation of any portion of a pre-flight altimeter check location is to be within 3 m (10ft) of the average for that location. CONDITION OF THE MOVEMENT AREA AND RELATED FACILITIES
Information on the condition of the movement area and the operational status of related facilities is to be provided to the appropriate AIS units, and similar information of operational significance to the ATS units. This enables those units to provide the necessary information required by arriving and departing aircraft. The information must be kept up to date and changes in conditions reported withou t delay. The condition of the movement area and operational status of related facilities is to be monitored and reports made concerning:
» » » » »
» »
» »
Construction or maintenance work Rough or broken surfaces on a runway, a taxiway, or an apron Snow, slush or ice on a runway, a taxiway, or an apron Water on a runway, a ta xiway, or an apron Snow banks or drifts adjacent to a runway, a taxiway or an apron Anti-icing or de-icing liquid chemicals on a runway or taxiway Other temporary hazards, including parked aircraft Failure or irregular operation of part or all of the aerodrome visual aids Failure of the normal or secondary power supply
DECLARED DISTANCES
The following distances shall be calculated to the nearest metre or foot for a runway intended for use by international commercial air transport:
»
» » »
Air Law
Take-off Run Available (TaRA) Take-off Distance Available (TODA) Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) Landing Distance Available (LOA)
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RUNWAYS USABILITY
For an aerodrome to be used for co mercial transport, the schedules agreed must be able to be operated . This means that the runways are not only long enough and strong enough for the aeroplanes to use, but also sited to take into account prevailing meteorological conditions , air traffic requirements, and obstacle clearance. Wind is probably the most important meteorological consideration and runway direction must be biased towards the prevailing wind. It is a requirement of ICAO that an aerodrome must be useable for not less than 95% of the notified hours of operation. CROSS WIND COMPONENTS
Operations are to be suspended when the crosswind component exceeds: ~ ~
~
20 kts for aeroplanes requiring referen ce field length 1500 m or more. 13 kts for field length less than 1500 m but not less than 1200 m. 10 kts for field length less than 1200 m.
TYPES OF RUNWAY Runways are described by the types of operations that can be conducted on the runway: ~
Non Instrument (Visual) Runway The take-off and landing criteria are determined visually with reference to ground visibility, RVR cloud ceiling, and day/night conditions.
~
Instrument Runway A runway to which instrument arrival and departure procedures are applied. There are two types of instrument runways: ~ ~
~
Precision runways, and Non-precision runways.
Take-off Runway A runway used only for take-off operations usually due to excessive obstacles precluding a useful approach.
LOCATION OF THRESHOLD
The beginning of the landing runway is defined as the threshold of the landing runway. It normally starts at the beginning of a paved runway or the beginning of the marked area for a grass runway. The marked threshold may be displaced from the start of the paved area where there is a requirement for the landing aircraft to avoid the first part of the paved area, or there is a need for the aircraft to cross the beginning of the paved area at a height greater than would be ach ieved for the normal positioning of the threshold marking .
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LENGTH OF RUNWAYS The actual length of a runway should be sufficient to permit normal operations to be carried out by the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. It should take into account local conditions (elevation , temperatu re, slope, humidity, surface type), but not abnormal aircraft operating conditions. RUNWAY WIDTH The width of a runway should be: Table: Runway Width Code Letter
Code Number
A
B
C
1
18 m
18 m
23m
2
23 m
23m
30m
3
30 m
30m
30 m
45 m
45m
45m
4
o
E
F
45 m
60 m
For a precision approach runway the width should not be less than 30 m when the Aerodrome Code Number is 1 or 2.
RUNWAY STRIP A Runway Strip is defined as an area including the runway and stopway, if provided , intended to reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off the runway, and to protect aircraft flying over it during take-off and land ing operations. Runway Strip - Co'de 4
" Le!,uth = 80m beyond
Aerodrome boundary I
30\,)"
+-)f
/ "'
';".
-l--~----
--+
60m
..Om
150m
..
\ \
Rad Alt Op Area. Reqd for precision app to extend
300m from threshold. WIdth 80m (but may be 30m)
+
,.
--
.
~
I
I
-t - L
------
,.
.. ..
s~pw.y-~- --
I\
Clearway - 75m althe !sIde of r/w centre line. No longer than 0 .5 x
TORA
cJ1
t
T45t60.... ~:' .
\
:\
.
,.
.-
\
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~.nWay o~. ~opway
(under control of the aId authority)
~
Runway Strip - obstacles t o be kept to minimum (only pennltted if no threat to aircraft (must be frangible
width -150m
r·_·_ · _·_·
. ..::-
f Runway End Saf.ty Area (RESA)asymmetrical about the ell (not necessarily under control of auth). Width => 2 x rlw width Length => 90m (Code 4 rae = 240m)
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Length of Runway Strip A strip should extend from before the threshold, to beyond the end of the runwa y or stopway for a distance of at least 60 m where the aeroplane reference field length is greater than 800 m; 60 m where the aeroplane reference field length is less than 800 m and the runway is an instrument runway, and 30 m where the aeroplane reference field length is less than 800 m and the runway is a non-instrument runway. Width of Runway Strips A strip including a precision approach runway shall , wherever practicable, have a lateral width of at least 150 m where the aeroplane reference field length is greater than 1200 m, and 75 m for aeroplane reference field length less than 1200 m. RUNWAY END SAFETY AREA (RESA) The RESA is an area symmetrical about the extended runway centre line and adjacent to the end of the strip, primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the aerodrome. A RESA should be provided at each end of a runway strip where the aeroplane reference field length is greater than 1200 m or where the aeroplane reference field length is less than 1200 m and the runway is an instrument runway. A RESA should extend from the end of a runway strip for as great a distance as practicable , but at least 90 m. The width of a RESA should be at least twice that of the associated runway. CLEARWAY A clearway is defined as a rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. The length of a clearway should not exceed half the length of the TORA. Clearway width should be at least 75 m on each side of the extended centre line of the runway. STOPWAYS A stopway is defined as a rectangular area on the ground at the end of the TORA prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off. A stopway shall have the same width as the runway with which it is associated . RADIO ALTIMETER OPERATING AREA For CATII and CATIII instrument operations, the use of a radio altimeter is required for the vertical input into the autopilot. The radio altimeter reads the vertical position of the aircraft directly above the ground. If the ground is undulating, false height information is input. This is a particular problem during descent below 100 ft for CAT III operations. In order to overcome this, a radi o altimeter operating area is defined where undulations are smoothed out. A radio altimeter operating area should be established in the pre-threshold area of a precision approach runway. It should extend before the threshold for a distance of at least 300 m, and extend 60 m laterally, on each side of the extended centre line of the runway.
TAXIWAYS In planning the layout of ta xiways , the designer must consider the need for taxiways to move aircraft to and from the runwa ys to the apron(s) in the most expeditious and uncomplicated manner. Consideration has to be given to the manoeuvrability of aircraft on the ground , poor visibility from the flight deck, and the density of traffic. The physical construction of taxiways must take into account the ability of an aircraft to turn through the angle required with the wheels turning , wing span and jet efflux. Ta xiways must be of equal load bearing to the runway, and marked or otherwise delineated so as not to be confused with runways. Runwa y entrances and exits need to be planned to permit rapid egress to and from the runway and to meet the obstacle Air Law
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clearance requirements for precision operations. In some cases, the runway may be used for taxiing . Where this is the case , additional areas at the end of the runway may be necessary to provide turning space or a turning loop. TAXIWAY DIMENSIONS The most important consideration in taxiway design is width . The designer must make sure that the aircraft has enough room on the taxiway. The design of a taxiway should be such that, when the flight deck of the aeroplane remains over the ta xiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main gear wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should be not less than : Table: Wheel to Taxiway Edge Clearance Code Letter
Clearance
A
1.5 m
B
2.25 m
C
3 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a wheel base less than 18 m, otherwise 4.5 m
D
4.5 m
E
4.5 m
F
4.5 m
WIDTH OF TAXIWAY The width of the straight portion of a taxiway should not be less than : Table : Taxiway Width
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Code Letter
Taxiway Width
A
7.5 m
B
10.5 m
C
15 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a wheel base less than 18 m, otherwise 18 m
D
18 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes with an outer main gear wheel span of less than 9 m, otherwise 23 m
E
23 m
F
25m
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TAXIWAY CURVES Changes in direction along taxiways should be as few as possible and the radius of the curve must be compatible with the manoeuvrability of the aircraft using the taxiway at normal taxi speeds. Where necessary, widening fillets are used to increase the width of a taxiway. This provides additional space to cope with 'main gear wander'. The pilot should attempt to keep the nosewheel on the centre line. Pilots should also be aware of 'swept wing growth ' during turns .
Pilot is required to keep the nose wheel on the centre line
Taxiway widening to achieve minimum wheel to edge clearance
Taxiway Curve
HOLDING BAYS, TAXI HOLDING POSITIONS At busy international aerodromes queues of departing aircraft build up at peak traffic times. If not controlled, these lines may exceed the capacity of taxiways to cope with the waiting traffic. If held at the parking stand , the situation is compounded by denying arriving aircraft the use of the stand . Taxi holding positions should be established at an intersection of a taxiway with a runway, and at an intersection of a runway with another runway when the former runway is part of a standard taxi route . A road holding position shall be established at an intersection of a road with a runway to allow vehicular traffic to remain clear of the runway during aircraft operations . The minimum distance for a runway holding point to be from the centreline of the runwa y is as fo llows:
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Table: Position of Holding Points Type of Runway
Code Number
1
2
3
4
Non Instrument
30m
40 m
75m
75m
Non Precision Approach
40m
40 m
75 m
75 m
Precision Cat I
60 m(2)
60 m(2)
90 mll .2)
Precision Cat 111111
-
-
90 m(1.2)
90 mll .2.3) 90 mll .2.3)
Take-off
30 m
40m
75 m
75m
Notes: 1. may be increased if holding elevalion lower than runway 2. may be increased to avoid interference with radio nav aids 3. for code F this should be 107.5 m
APRONS REQUIREMENT
Aprons are defined as the places on an aerodrome where passengers , mail and cargo are loaded and unloaded, as well as minor servicing of aircraft, such that aerodrome traffic is not disrupted. The total apron areas should be sufficient to allow the expeditious handling of traffic at maximum anticipated density. Aprons are constructed to handle slow moving traffic and to withstand higher stresses than runways. ISOLATED PARKING AREA
A special parking area is to be designated for the parking of aircraft that have been subjected to unlawful interference. This is to be not less than 100 m from any other parking area , building , public area , or over underground utilities (gas, aviation fuel, electrical, or communications cables).
VISUAL AIDS FOR NAVIGATION INDICATORS AND SIGNALLING DEVICES
The rules of the air (Annex 2) require information to be displayed so that pilots of non radio traffic may use the aerodrome . All aerodromes used by commercial traffic under IFR are required to have an ATC tower and 2-way RTF. For non radio traffic the information is displayed in the signals square. An aerodrome that does not accept non radio traffic does not need to have a signals square. All ATC towers are required to be equipped with a signalling lamp.
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WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS (WIND SOCK) An aerodrome is to be equipped with at least one wind direction indicator. It should be located so as to be visible from aircraft in fiight and on the movement area, and positioned so as to be free from the effects of air disturbance from nearby objects . The wi nd direction indica tor should be in the form of a truncated cone made of fabric. It should be constructed so that it gives a clear direction of the surface wind and a general indication of wind speed . The colour should be selected so as to make the wind direction indicator clearly visible and understandable from a height of at least 300 m. Where practicable , a single colour, preferably white or orange should be used. Provision should be made for illuminating at least one wind indicator at an aerodrome intended for use at night. Where two or more wind indicators are positioned on an aerodrome , the 'master' indicator is marked with a white circle around the base of the pole.
LANDING DIRECTION INDICATOR Where provided , a landing direction indicator shall be located in a conspicuous place on the aerodrome. The landing direction indicator should be in the form of a 'T'. The colour of the landing "T" is either white or orange. Where required for use at night, the landing "T" is illuminated or outlined by w hite lights.
SIGNALLING LAMP A signalling lamp is to be provided at a controlled aerodrome in the aerodrome control tower and should be capable of producing red , green and white signals. The lamp should also be capable of: l' l' l'
being aimed at any target as required . giving a signal in anyone colour followed by a signal in either of the two other colours, and transmitting a message in Morse code up to a speed of at least 4 words per minute .
SIGNAL PANELS AND SIGNAL AREAS Where required , the signal area should be located so as to be visible from all angles of azimuth above an angle of 10° above the horizontal when viewed from a height of 300 m. The signal area shall be an even horizontal surface at least 9 m square. It should be surrounded by a white border not less than 0.3 m w ide.
MARKINGS Markings are symbols, designs or characters painted on the surface of a runway, taxiway or apron. The colour of a marking usually indicates w here the marking is, for instance all runway markings are white whereas all taxiway markings are yellow.
RUNWAY MARKINGS Runway Designation Marking A runway designation marking shall be provided at the thresholds of a paved runway. The runway designation marking shall be located at the threshold as shown in the diagram below.
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Runway Designator showing magnetic azimuth (QDM) of the runway direction
Examples of Runway Designator Positions Characteristics A runway designation marking shall consist of a two-digit number and on parallel runways shall be supplemented with a letter (L for the left hand runway and R for the right hand runway) . The two-digit number shall be the whole number nearest the one-tenth of the magnetic north when viewed from the direction of approach . Where there are three parallel runways the centre runway is supplemented with C. If there are four parallel runways, one pair of adjacent runways are designated, for instance 27L and 27R and the next pair are 28L and 28R. When the above rule would give a single digit number it will be proceeded by a zero. RUNWAY CENTRE LINE MARKINGS A runway centre line marking is required for a paved (concrete) runway. The markings are located along the centre line between the runway designation markings. Characteristics Centre line markings shall consist of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps . The length of a stripe plus a gap shall not be less than 50 m or more than 75 m. The length of each stripe shall be at least equal to the length of the gap or 30 m, whichever is greater. THRESHOLD MARKINGS
A threshold marking shall be provided at the threshold of a paved instrument runway, and a paved non-instrument runway that is intended for use by international commercial air transport. A threshold marking should be provided at the thresholds of an unpaved runwa y. The stripes of the threshold marking shall commence 6 m from the runway edge. Characteristics A runway threshold marking shall consist of a pattern of longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about,the centre line . They may be placed either side of the runway designator. The number of stripes is a function of the runway width.
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Runway Width
Number of Stripes
18 m 23m 30m 45m 60 m
4 6 8 12 16
DISPLACED THRESHOLD MARKING
Where a threshold is displaced from the end of a runway or where the end of a runwa y is not square with the runway centre line, a transverse stripe should be added.
Permanently displaced (pre threshold area fit for aircraft movement)
Air Law
Temporarily displaced for 6 months or less (runway designator is not moved)
Pre threshold area not fit for aircraft movement
Pre threshold area fit for use by aircraft as a stopway only
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AIMING POINT MARKING An aiming point marking shall be provided at the approach end of a paved instrument runway greater than 800 m in length. It is recommended that they are placed at each approach end of a paved non-instrument runway greater than 1200 m in length and a paved instrument runway where the runway length is less than 800 m when additional conspicuity of the aiming point is desirable. Location The aiming point marking shall commence no closer to the threshold than the distance indicated in the table below, except that on a runway equipped with a visual approach slope indicator system, the beginning of the marking shall be coincident with the visual approach slope origin. Where a touchdown zone marking is provided , the lateral spacing shall be the same as that of the aiming point marking . Table: Location of Aiming Point Marking Landing Distance Available Location and dimensions Distance from threshold to beginning of marking
Less than 800m
800 m up to but not including 1200 m
1200 m up to but not including 2400 m
2400 m and above
150 m
250 m
300 m
400 m
TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKING A touchdown zone marking is to be provided in the touchdown zone of a paved precIsion approach runway of greater than 800 m length, and recommended for the touchdown zone of a paved non-precision approach or non-instrument runway where the runway is greater than 1200 m length. The markings required are of either Pattern A (no distance coding) or Pattern B (distance coded). Location A touchdown zone marking shall consist of pairs of rectangular markings as shown in the diagram below. These markings shall be symmetrically disposed about the runwa y centre line with the number of such pairs related to the landing distance available . Where the marking is to be displayed at both the approach directions of a runway, the distance between the thresholds as follows:
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Landing distance available or the distance between thresholds
Pair(s) of markings
Less than 900 m 900 m up to but not including 1200 m 1200 m up to but not including 1500 m 1500 m up to but not including 2400 m 2400 m or more
1 2 3 4 5
Spacing of Markings The pairs of markings shall be provided at longitudinal spacing of 150 m beginning from the threshold, except that pairs of touchdown zone markings coinciden t with or loca ted within 50 m of an aiming point marking shall be deleted from the pattern. Aiming point marking
Runway side stripes
1+-150 m__+ ,
1+150 m+.... 150 m+;+-150 m+.+-150
1
1
1~
300
m~
m---+~ 1
1
, 4 1 - - - - - - - - - - 9 0 0 m --------__+~. ... Touchdown Zone Markings (Pattern A) on a runway less than 2400 m (aiming point 300 m from threshold)
, .4------4400
m----_~ 1
Aiming point marking
I
,
,
,
:+-150 m +;.150 m _,+-150 m ~ 1 1
,. 4 - - - - - - - - - - 9 0 0 m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___+~ 1 1
Touchdown Zone Markings (distance coded - Pattern B) on a runway 2400 m or more (aiming point 400 m from threshold)
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RUNWAY SIDE STRIPE A white runway side stripe marking shall be provided between the runway edges and the shoulders of the surrounding terrain where there is a lack of contrast between the runway and the surrounding terrain . A runway side stripe marking should be provided on a precision approach runway irrespective of the contrast between the runway edges and the shoulders of the surrounding terrain. TAXIWAY MARKINGS Colour Taxiway markings and (in general) aircraft parking stand markings are yellow. Apron safety lines are to be painted in a conspicuous contrasting colour to the concrete and the colour used for stand markings. TAXIWAY CENTRE LINE MARKING Ta xiway centre line markings shall be provided where the runway length is 1200 m or greater. These markings provide guidance from the runway centre line to the point on the apron where aircraft stand markings commence . Taxiway centre line markings shall be provided on a paved runwa y when the runway is part of a standard taxi route and there is no runway centre line marking or where the taxiway centre line is not co-incident with the runway cen tre line. At the intersection of a taxiway with a runway where the taxiway serves as an exit from the runway, the taxiway cen tre line marking should be curved into the runway centre line marking . RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKING
A runway holding position marking is placed at runway holding position . The holding point itself is indicated by the mandatory sign (s) at the side of the taxiway. There are two types of run way holding marking : pattern A and pattern B. The holding point closest to the runway is always pattern A. A second holding point further from the runway is marked with pattern B. Other holdi ng points further from the runway are additional pattern B type . A holding position for a runway not served by the taxiway is pattern B.
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Runway Holding Point Marking Pattern HAil
•
Runway
Runway Holding Point Marking Pattern uB"
•
Runway
TAXIWAY INTERSECTION MARKING
A taxiway intersection marking should be displayed at an intersection of two paved taxiways where a specific holding position is needed. A ta xiway intersection marking consists of a single broken line.
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This taxiway has priority
Intermediate Holding Position
VOR AERODROME CHECK·POINT MARKING When a VOR aerodrome check·point is established, it shall be indicated by a check·point marking and sign. The check-point sign shall be located as near as possible to the check·point so that the sign is clearly visible from the cockpit of an aircraft properly positioned on the VO R aerodrome check-point marking . The marking shall be centred on the spot at which an aircraft is to be parked to receive the correct signal. The marking may have an arrow indicating the direction the aircraft should be pointed to receive the best signal. A VOR aerodrome check-point marking should preferably be white in colour but should differ from the colour used for ta xiway markings.
VOR
116.3 Sign at VOR Check Location
VOR
116.3
4.3nm
Sign at VOR Check Location with co· located DME
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AIRCRAFT STAND MARKINGS
Aircraft stand markings should be provided for designated parking positions on a paved apron. The markings should be positioned so as to give safe clearance when the nose wheel follows the line. Stand markings should include stand identification, lead in line , turn bar, turning line, and alignment bar, stop line and lead out line. Stand identifica tion (letter and/or number) should be included in the lead in line a short distance after the beg inning of the lead in line. The height of the identification should be adequate to be readable from the cockpit of aircraft using the stand. APRON SAFETY LINES
Apron safety lines shall be loca ted so as to define the areas intended for use by ground vehicles and other aircraft servicing equipment. This is to ensure safe separati on from aircraft. Apron safety lines should include wing tip clearance and service road boundary lines. INFORMATION MARKINGS
Where an information sign would normally be installed and it is physically impossible to install a sign, an information marking shall be displayed on the paved surface. An information marking consists of an inscription in yellow, when it supplements or replaces a loca tion sign, and an inscription in black, when it repla ces or supplements a direction or destination sign . Where there is insufficient contrast between the marking and the pavement surfa ce, the marking will include a black background where the inscriptions are in yellow and a yellow background where the inscriptions are in black.
SIGNS Signs are provided on aerodromes to convey mandatory instructions, information on a specific loca tion , or information on surface movement guidance. CHARACTERISTICS
Signs shall be frangible (not rigidly constructed so as to damage aircraft if hit), and when near a runway or taxiway, they must be sufficiently low to allow clearance for engines and propellers. Signs are to be illuminated for use in RVR conditions less than a value of 800 m, or at night in association with instrument runways, or at night in association with non-instrument runways where the runway length is 1200 m or greater. MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS
Mandatory sig ns have a red background wi th white characters. Mandatory instruction signs may identify a location beyond which an aircraft taxiing or vehicle shall not proceed unless authorized by the aerodrome con trol tower. Mandatory signs include runway designation signs, category I, II , or III runway holding position signs, taxi-holding position signs, road holding position signs and NO ENTRY signs. A runway designation sign at a taxiway/run way intersection shall be located on the left side of a taxiway or if practicable both sides , facin g the direction of approach to the runway. A NO ENTRY sign shall be located at the beginning of the area to which entrance is prohibited on the left side or if practicable both sides , of the taxiway. A category I, II or III holding position sign shall be located on either side of the holding position marking facing the direction of the approach to the critical area . RUNWAY TAXI HOLDING SIGNS
A taxi-holding position sign must be located on the left side of the taxiway (facing the direction from which aircraft approach the runway) , but ideally, on, both sides.
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Visual Runway Holding Point for Runway 27
Instrument Runway Holding Point for CATil operations for Runway 27 on taxiway "0 "
Position A1
Multiple Holding points on ta xiway
~ Position A2
I
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1. Visual Runway Taxi-Holding Position Sign - denotes the Visual Taxi-Holding Position and also the ILS CAT I holding position where these positions are co-located.
2. CAT I Runway Taxi -Holding Position Sign - denotes the ILS CAT I Taxi-Holding Position only where a Visual holding position is established closer to the runway.
3. CAT II Runway Taxi-Holding Position Sign - denotes the ILS CAT II Taxi-Holding PositiOn . A Visual holding pos ition may be established close r to the runway to expedite traffic flow.
4. CAT 111 Runway Taxi-Holding Position Sign - denotes the ILS CAT III Taxi-Holdin g Position. A CAT II holding position and a Visual holding position may be established closer to the runway to expedite traffic flow.
5. Combined Runway Taxi-Holding Position Sign - denoles the Taxi-Holding Position where the ILS holdi ng positions are co-incident. A Visual holding position may be established closer to the runway to expedite traffic flow.
6. Intermediate Holding Position Sign - marks a holding position established to protect a priority route.
7. NO ENTRY Sign - marks a position beyond which aircraft are not to be ta xied .
8. Taxiway Holding Position Sign - marks a holdi ng posilion on a taxiway that passes under the approach to a runway.
27 - APPCH
Table: Mandatory Signs INFORMATION SIGNS Information signs are provided where there is an operational need to identify a specific location, or routing (direction or destination) information. Information signs include direction signs, location signs , destination signs , runway exit signs, and runway vacated signs. Information signs are contrasting yellow and black. Location signs have yellow characters on a black background, whereas direction signs have black characters on a yellow background . The signs may be illuminated at aerodromes used by night or in low visibility. Information signs may be combined to form a location and direction sign, and be combined with mandatory signs as in the case of the holding point signs above . Where a location sign is combined with a runway vacated sign , the yellow border is omitted .
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1m
m '~ ~ A~
Taxiway Location Signs
Runway Location Sign
Taxiway Ending Sign
Direction Sign
27
~ Runway Destination Sign
27-
09~
27·31
Runway Destination Sign for
~ different runways
MIL-IAPRON .... m= - - -
~I.L4
23-22
Runway Destination Sign for reciprocal runway (the same length of concrete)
Inbound Destination Signs (Military traffic this way) (Apron this way)
Runway Vacated Sign (left side of taxiway)
End ofTaxiwaySign
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RUNWAY 'DISTANCE TO GO' SIGNS Signs may be erecled at the side of the runway to indicate the distance remaining to the end of the runway. These are usually in whole 1000s of feet and the sign has white numbers on a black background. In the example below, the sign indicates that there is 5000 It of runway remaining .
APRON SIGNS Signs on aprons conveying information to pilots (stand numbers etc.) consist of white characters on a blue background . The sign below indicates that Ihis is stand number 83.
83 MARKERS A marker is an object that is positioned to indicate an obstacle or to mark a boundary. Markers are used where there are no lights or where lighting is inadequate. Markers must be frangible or capable of being trampled. Those located near a runway or taxiway shall be sufficiently low to preserve clearance for propellers and engines. UNPAVED RUNWAY EDGE MARKERS Markers should be provided when the extent of an unpaved runway is not clearly indicated. Where runway lights are provided the markers should be incorporated in the light fixtures. Where there are no lights, markers of flat rectangular or conical shape should be placed so as to identify the runway clearly. STOPWAY EDGE MARKERS The stopway edge markers shall be sufficiently different from any runway edge markers used to ensure that the two types of markers cannot be confused . TAXIWAY EDGE MARKERS A taxiway edge marker shall be reflective blue and be frangible. Their height shall be sufficiently low to ensure clearance for propellers and engines.
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TAXIWAY CENTRE LINE MARKERS Where taxiway centreline lighting is not provided, taxiway centre line markers are used which act like 'cats eyes' in the road . They are reflective green. The markers are designed and fitted to withstand being run over by the wheels of an aircraft without damage either to the aircraft or to the markers . BOUNDARY MARKERS Boundary markers are used to mark the extremity of the landing area on a grass aerodrome. The markers should be coloured to contrast with the background against which they will be seen. A single colour - orange or red ; or two contrasting colours - orange and white, or red and white, should be used .
Type A
i
••- - - 1 m - - -__
60 cm Min
60 em Min
'"
-+
1
Type C
Not less than 3 m
Type B
AERODROME LIGHTING An aerodrome at night is a profusion of lights. Apart from the main stadium lighting around the apron and passenger areas, the runways are lit as are the taxiways ; buildings and vehicles have lights on them as do aircraft. All the coloured lights have a purpose and the arrangements of lights also have meanings. The design aspects of lighting systems are beyond the LOs for this course and the syllabus is quite explicit in stating that spacing of lights apart from the essential elements of approach systems are not examinable. Where included in the description of lighting systems, dimensions are stated to assist the student to appreciate the appearance of the systems.
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LIGHTS WHICH MAY ENDANGER THE SAFETY OF AIRCRAFT A non-aeronautical ground light near an aerodrome, which might endanger the safety of aircraft or cause confusion to pilots, is to be exting uished , screened , or otherwise modified so as to eliminate the sou rce of danger. ELEVATED LIGHTS Elevated runway, stopway, and ta xiway lights and their supporting structures are to be fran gible , When an approach light fi xture or supporting structure is not sufficiently conspicuous, it shall be suitably marked , Elevated lights on the movement area shall be sufficiently low to ensure clearance for propellers and for the engine pods of jet aircraft INTENSITY The intensity (brilliance) of the fol lowing lights is to be variable : l' l' l' l' l' l'
Approach lighting systems Runway edge lights Runway threshold lights Runway end lights Runway centre line lights Runway touchdown zone lig hts
EMERGENCY LIGHTING It is normal for an aerodrome to have a back up power supply in the event of main supply failure (power outage), At an aerodrome without a secondary power supply, sufficient emergency lights should be available, AERONAUTICAL BEACONS An aerodrome beacon or an identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome intended for night operations, Aerodrome Beacon An aerod rome beacon is usually situated on top of the con trol tower or at an elevated position elsewhere on the aerodrome, It will be either a fl ashing green (yellow at a wa ter aerodrome) and white light, or flashing white only. Identification Beacon An identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome that is intended fo r use at night where the aerodrome cannot be easily identified from the air by other means . At a land aerodrome the identification beacon shall show fl ashing green characters (red at a military aerodrome), flashing published Morse code identification letters.
APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEMS Approach lighting systems are provided to enhance the ability of a pilot to visually acquire the runway at night or in low visibility. For an instrument runway the approach lighting is an essential part of the instrument system and can vary in complexity from a simple system consisti ng of a centre line and a cross bar, to the more modern 5 bar and centreline Calvert systems (named after the designer) and the highly complex CATII/III systems associated with precision instrument approaches.
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BARRETTES
ICAO specifies standards for approach lighting based on the use of barrettes (or small bars). A barrette consists of a line of 4 or 5 closely spaced lights forming a small bar. SIMPLE APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM The system consists of a single light source centre line extending from the threshold of the runway along the approach path for 420 m. A single crossbar min 18 m wide and max 30 m wide is placed at a point 300 m from the threshold . The lights are fixed (not fia shing ) variable intensity white, showing towards an approaching aircraft. The centreline may be made up of barrettes not more than 3 m wide . Where physically practicable, a simple approach lighting system as shown below should be provided. The system may be used for a non precision instrument runway .
Simple Approach Lighting System
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PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAY CATEGORY I The figure below shows a CAT I Calvert Approach Lighting system . It is similar to a NATO Cat I system differing only in the fact that the centre line is distance coded . This makes the system a Calvert system . It is otherwise known as 5 bar and centreline. The centreline must be exactly 900 m long. The system minima for CAT I is 200 ft which equates, on a 300 ftlnm glide path (5%), to a distance of Y, nm from the threshold (assuming the aircraft crosses the threshold at 50 ft) . If the pilot is on glidepath and centreline, at system minima (the lowest possible DH ) the aircraft will be over the approach lighting and the visual criteria to land should be obta ined. The spacing between the crossbars is 150 m. The length of the crossbars reduces as the distance to the threshold decreases , but the pilot should see a constan t width if the aircraft is on the glidepath. This gives the visual illusion of leading in to the aiming point. If the centreline is not 900 m long, CAT I operations may be limited.
CAT I Calvert Lighting lj'ystem
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Chapter 23
Aerodromes
ICAO CAT I Barrette Centreline Approach Lighting System
• •
•
• • • • • • • •• •••• AMI •
"'M ..... ..... .....
300m
--
- --
•
•
• •
• • • • • ••••
..... ..... •••••• 4.IR······· ..... ..... ..... " "to"" "
II II
to to II
""to ,, ,, ,, , ,, ,, •• •• ,, •,, ••• •
'"
.. ../
Crossbar
II
900 m
" ,"", ••,•• , ••• ••• ,,, ••• ,,,• • • • ••
· ··
Centreline Barrettes
ICAO CAT I Approach Lighting System
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PRECISION APPROACH RUNWAY CATEGORIES II AND III The approach lighting systems for CAT 11/111 operations are modification of the CAT I Calvert system and the CAT I ICAO system. The major difference is the addition of the supplementary lighting in the inner segment. CAT 111111 operations are designed to give the pilot the best possible chance of landing the aeroplane. If after a high precision approach flown by the autopilot, the approach lighting is no better than CAT I, the investment in the upgraded ILS has been wasted . At system minima for CAT 11 (100 ftl the aircraft will be 300 m from the threshold and for CAT III where DH is specified, it will be less than 100 ft which will mean the aircraft is less than 300 m from the threshold . So the area where the lighting needs to be enhanced is the last 300 m, which is the inner segment. Effectively the standard system is the Calvert 5 bar and centreline with 150 m between bars, and the alternative system is the ICAO barrette system. The CAT 111111 approach lighting is further supplemented with touchdown zone flood lighting. The diagrams below show both systems.
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CAT 111111 Calvert Approach Lighting System
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CAT 1I11111CAO Approach Lighting System
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Aerodromes
PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI AND ABBREVIATED PAPI) PAPl s are the latest generation of visual approach slope indicators which are used to give the pilot a visual indication of the verti cal deviation from the nominal glide path . They are precision engineered optical devices which use narrow light beams and combinations of beams to indicate above, on or below the glide path. On auxiliary runways an abbreviated PAPI system may be used which gives basic inform ation only. The indications from a PAPI system are shown below:
1. Above the glide path
2. Slightly above the glide path
3. On the glide path
4. Slightly below the glide path
5. Below the glide path
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APAPI The APAPI uses only two light sources and gives indication : ;;. ;;. ;;.
Two white - above the gl ide path One white one red - on the glide path Two red - below the glide path
MINIMUM EYE HEIGHT (MEHT) The aerodrome designer has to ensure that when an aircraft crosses the threshold of the runway that the wheels are not already on the grou nd . The indication that the pilot gets from the PAPI is the position of his eyes with respect to the glide path , not the rest of the aeroplane. Some aeroplanes have a considerable distance between the pilot eye height and the lowest extremity of the undercarriage and this must be catered for. On the ICAO aerodrome chart (published in the individual aerodrome section of the AD part of the AlP), beside the position of the PAPI will be a number called the MEHT. This is the distance between the lowest on glide path indication and the ground, when the pilot's eye is over the threshold of the runway.
Lowest 'On GP ' indication Minimum Eye Height (MEHT) Gear to ground height less than MEHT Fig: Minimum Eye Height MEHT SPECIFICATION The normal MEHT is 50 ft. On a 300 ftl nm glide path this equates to 300 m distance, therefore the aiming point and the origin of the PAP I beams must be not less than 300 m from the threshold. Where large aeroplanes (8 777; 8747 and A380 etc.) use the aerodrome the MEHT is increased because of the greater distance between the pilot's eye and the bottom of the main gear. At Heathrow, the MEHT is 70 ft. This requires the aiming point to be 400 m from the threshold. An alternative to moving the aiming point along the run way is to increase the glide path angle. The maximum permitted GP angle is 3.5".
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RUNWAY LIGHTS RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS Edge lights are used on runways used at night or in low visibility operations (RVR less than 800 m). They are fixed (not fl ashing), white , variable in intensity and unidirectional (facing the approach direction) except where the runway is used for circling approaches in wh ich case, they are omni-directional. For a CAT I runway, the last 600 m or 1/3 of the ru nway length, the edge lights are possibly yellow, indicating the proximity of the end of the run way. Th is is called a caution zone. RUNWAY THRESHOLD AND WING BARS
Threshold lights are provided for runways with edge lights and additional wing bars where there is a displaced threshold. They are fixed, green, variable intensity, and unidirectional facing up the approach. RUNWAY END LIGHTS
End lights are fitted to runways with edge lights. They are fixed , red , vari able intensity, and are unidirectional fa ci ng along the runway. Where a stopway is created at the end of the runway all four sides of the stopway are outlined in red lights. RUNWAY CENTRELINE LIGHTS Centreline lights are required on CAT II/III runways. They are fixed, white, and vari able in intensity, and are unidirectional showing towa rds the approach end of the runway. The last 300 m of the cen treline may be red , and preceding 600 m alternating red/white. This acts as a caution zone indicating the proximity of the end of the runway. CIRCLING GUIDANCE LIGHTS These are for use where the existing runway or approach lights are inadequate and the runway is to be used for circling approaches. They consist of lights indicating the approach direction , the threshold and the orientation of the landing runway. They are fixed or flashing , wi th the only proviso that if they are flashing , they are to be white. RUNWAY LEAD IN LIGHTS
Where it is felt necessary to give visual track guidance to a position where the pilot should be able to see the approach lighting , lead in lights are used. They consist of groups of not less than three flashing white lights (which may be augmented by fixed wh ite lights). Automa tically, the groups are illuminated sequentially; giving the impression of the lights 'runnin g' towards the runway. This effect is known as a 'ru nning rabbit.'
TAXIWAY LIGHTING Taxiway lights are provided to give pilots guidance and information during taxiing to and from the runways at night or during low visibility operations (RVR less than 800 m). They consist of cen treline lights , edge lights, guard lights, and stop lights at holding points. EDGE LIGHTS
Taxiway edge lights are provided at the edges of holding bays, de/anti-icing faci lities, aprons , and on taxiways without centreline lighting. In areas where add itional lighting (stadium lighting on aprons) is adequate, edge lights may be dispensed with. Edge lights are fixed , va riable intensity, blue, and omnidirectional.
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CENTRELINE LIGHTS
These are provided on taxiways for use in RVR conditions less than 350 m. They are fixed, variable intensity, green , and are designed to be visible only from aeroplanes in the vicinity of the light. On exit taxiways from instrument runways, the lights may be alternating green/yellow from the centreline of the runway to a point where interference with radio navigation aids (ILS) is no longer a hazard. This point may be marked with a 'runway vaca ted' sign and is usually coincident with the runway holding point for aircraft taxiing in the opposite direction. STOP BARS
Stop bars shou ld be provided at ta xiway intersections and holding pOints when it is necessary to supplement the markings and signs . They are to be provided where operations in RVR less than 350 m are conducted. They consist of a row of lights spaced at 3 m across the taxiway, fixed , variable intensity, and showing red in the direction of approaching traffic. The bar may be augmented by two additional elevated lights at each end of the bar (off of the ta xiway) where snow may be a hazard.
D 27 CAT II
27 CAT II D
•••••••
Air Law
TT
Stop Bar with elevated extensions
23-35
Chapler 23
Aerodromes
RUNWAY GUARD LIGHTS Runway guard lights are used to warn pilots of the proximity of a runway. They are used where operations in RVR less than 550 m are conducted and stop bars are not provided. There are two configurations: Configuration A and Configuration B. In both configurations, the lights are fla shing yellow. In Configuration A, the lights of each pair flash alternately like the lig hts at a railway crossing. In Configuration B, adjacent lights flash alternately.
B
Guard Lights
23-36
Air Law
Chapter 23
Aerodromes
Taxiway and Runway Lighting
Air Law
23 -37
Chapter 23
Aerodromes
OBSTACLES Clearly anything that is constructed on or near an aerodrome is a potential hazard to aeroplanes. For that reason , SIDs and STARs route aircraft away from high ground and large man made obstacles . Closer to the aerodrome normal buildings , power lines, chimneys, and radio antennas become obstacles to aircraft as they descend for landing. Where these cannot be removed , they must be marked and lit to make their presence obvious to pilots. CLEARED STRIP As previously discussed, the cleared strip is created either side of the runwa y extend ing at least the width of the runway on either side. In this area no obstacles are permitted. The ILS glide path aerial and the localiser aerial are the only exceptions. Aeroplanes and vehicles are required to enter the cleared strip and these are also treated as obstacles , and are lit (or marked in the case of vehicles) to show that they are there. OBSTACLE IDENTIFICATION SURFACE (DIS) Extending from the extremity of the cleared strip at ground level , out to a radius of 15 km from the aerodrome reference point and up to a height of 150 m, is a complex surface known as the OIS . Any obstacle that penetrates the OIS is considered to be an aerodrome obstacle and is required to be lit and where necessary, marked . The OIS is referenced vertically to the aerodrome elevation , therefore on rising ground obstacles with less vertical extent may require marking when compared with obstacles on ground which is falling away from the datum height. Within the OIS , approach lanes and climb out lanes are defined by the aerodrome designer and the instrument procedure designer, where additional information about obstacles is required , for the determination of OCNH and MOC. The OIS consists of four planes : the inner transition surface, the inner horizontal surface , the outer transition surface , and the outer horizontal surface. The inner horizontal surface extends to a radius of 3000 m from the thresholds of the runway which is less than 1800 m long, and 4000 m if the runway is 1800 m or more long.
, :,... ~----------- Outer Horizontal Surface "'~f----- Outer Transition Surface _ _ _ _---j~..: Inner Horizontal I Surface -----11--'
I
'.......--
I
Inner Transition
:..
Surface
,
: Strip:
,
I
III:
,+--+-,, ,,,
Datum Elevation
Obstacle Identification Surface (DIS)
23-38
Air Law
Aerodromes
Chapter 23
OBSTACLES OUTSIDE THE OIS Any significant obstacle (over 150 m) which is considered to be a hazard to aviation outside of the OIS may be marked and lit to draw pilots' attention to its presence . Such obstacles need to be unusual (hig h TV masts and very tall buildings) or be close to low level helicopter routes. Environmental issues are also considered when lighting and marking obstacles away from aerodromes. LIGHTING OF OBSTACLES Obstacles which are required to be lit because they penetrate the OIS are lit by one of three options: low, medium , or high intensity lights . Low intensity lights are steady (fixed ) lights, whereas medium and high intensity are flashing . Low and medium intensity lig hts are either red or white (but the colour is never mixed on the same aerodrome obstacle) whereas high intensity are always white. The exception to mixed colour nule is where an obstacle is an aerodrome obstacle to two aerodromes, requiring high intensity for one aerodrome and medium for the other. In that case, when required the obstacle is lit as high intensity, and at other times wi th medium intensity. For obstacles 45 m or less that need to be lit, they are lit by one low intensity light at the top. Obstacles over 45 m are lit by one medium intensity light at the top and one low intensity light at 45 m above the datum. Other obstacles are lit at the top and then at 45 m intervals below. Where high intensity lights are fitted , they flash sequentially. Aerodrome obstacle lights are controlled by the aerodrome controller and either come on automatically, or are swi tched on wi th the normal runway/taxiway lighting .
:¢:.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
150m .... ............
135m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
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gOm ----! -------
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.
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Datum ____
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____
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~~
---- , __
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----------------
____~__- L L -__~L-Li__~~~~___
Medium Intensity
•
o
Low Intensity
Obstacle lights
Air Law
23-39
Chapter 23
Aerodromes
MARKING OF VEHICLES Vehicles that are permitted on the movemen t area of an aerodrome are to be in two-way RTF communication with the aerodrome controller. They are also required to be either lit or marked . Normally, maintenance vehicles are painted a distinctive colour (yellow) and carry flashing yellow lights. Where a trailer is towed, the trailer has a low intensity obstacle light fitted . Vehicles that use the aerodrome infrequently may carry a red/white chequered flag .
EMERGENCY VEHICLES Paint of a distinctive colour is required for crash/rescue vehicles. It is recommended that they are painted 'day-glo' yellowish green , or red. They carry flashing blue lights for use in an emergency and also the normal yellow lights for non emergency movement on the aerod rome. When responding to an emergency, emergency vehicles from outside civilian agencies show blue fl ashing lights.
EMERGENCY SERVICES More than 80% of aircraft accidents occur on or within close proximity to an aerodrome . Aerodromes serving international commercial aviation are required to maintain facilities for the provision of a crash/rescue service. The inherent nature of aircraft operations makes fire the greatest hazard to loss of life and crash/rescue teams are trained to fight fires. The objective of the provision of a crash/rescue service is to save life. Once all the passengers of a crashed aircraft have been rescued, the fire will be allowed to burn itself out unless other aircraft and facilities are threatened . LEVEL OF PROTECTION The number of fire vehicles and crews are determined from a table of categories , based on the . size of the biggest aircraft norm ally using the aerodrome. The categories are based on a. the . length of the aircraft and b. the width of the fuse lage . If the fuselage width is greater than the maximum for a category, the category is increased by 1. RESPONSE TIME It is imperative that the crash/rescue service responds promptly to incidents on the aerodrome. The required standard aims to achieve 2 minutes but not more than 3 minutes is required to the extremities of the aerod rom e. The response time is decided when the first fire vehicle arrives at the scene and is capable of delivering fire retardant foam at half the rate required for the fire. In order to enhance response time, special route s may be provided on aerodromes to and from the fire stations.
BIRD HAZARD Birds and aeroplanes share the air but birds are a constant hazard to aeroplanes at low level especially where aircraft are at the most vulnerable, take-off, and landing. Aerod romes are attractive to birds, especially migratory species . The short grass gives the birds excellent visibility and the maximum warning of the approach of predators. Birds which have flocked together present special hazards to aircraft as multiple bird strikes can obscure windows and block air intakes. Aerodromes are required to maintain a bird control unit and also to publish inform ation on known migratory patterns of birds that frequent the aerodrome and su rrounding areas. ICAO operates the ICAO Bird Strike Information System (I BIS ) designed to collect and disseminate inform ation concerning bird strikes.
23-40
Air Law
GENERAL It is an unfortunate fact that international commercial aviation is now a target for terrorism and other political malcontents. In order to try and prevent, or at least make it too difficult, for terrorists to plant explosive devices on aircraft, or to smuggle on board weapons wi th which to take hostages or overpower the crew, aviation security measures have been developed and enforced. You have been subjected to security measures involvi ng search , scanning , and inspection all of which are effective methods of ensuring that unwanted objects or explosives are not permitted anywhere near the aircraft. Each ICAO state is required to develop, implement, and maintain a national civil aviation security program.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of aviation security is to safeguard international civil aviation operations against acts of unlawful interference. The safety of passengers, crew, ground personnel, and the general public are the primary objective of aviation security policy.
NATIONAL ORGANISATION ICAO contracting states are required to establish a national civil aviation secu rity programme to keep under constant review the level of threat within its territory taking into account the international situation, and adjust relevant elements of its national civil aviation security programme accordingly. It is also to ensure the establishment of an airport security programme, adequate to the needs of international traffic, for each airport serving international civil aviation , and require operators providing service from that state to implement a security programme appropriate to meet the requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of that state.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION Each state is required to co-operate with other states in order to adapt their respe ctive national civil aviation security programmes as necessary. The states should make available to other states, on request, a written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security programme; include in its bilateral agreements on air transport a clause related to aviation security; and ensure that requests from other states for special security measures in respect of a specific flight or specified flights by operators, as far as practicable, are met.
Air Law
24-1
Chapter 24
A via /ion Security
PREVENTATIVE SECURITY MEASURES Each state must establish measures to prevent weapons, explosives or any other dangerous devices which may be used to commit an act of unlawful interference, the carriage or bearing of which is not authorized, from being introduced, by any means whatsoever, on board an aircraft engaged in international civil aviation. In applying this standard, special attention must be paid to the threat posed by explosive devices concealed in , or using electric, electronic or batteryoperated items carried as hand baggage and/or in checked baggage.
CARRIAGE OF LEGAL WEAPONS States should ensure that the carriage of weapons on board aircraft, by law enforcement officers and other authorized persons acting in the performance of their duties, requires special authorisation in accordance with the laws of the state involved. States should also ensure that the carriage of weapons in other cases is allowed only when an authorised and duly qualified person has determined that they are not loaded , if applicable, and then only if stowed in a place inaccessible to any person during flight time. States must ensure that the commander is notified as to the number of armed persons on board , and their seat locations.
PRE-FLIGHT CHECKS States must ensure that pre-flight checks of aircraft assigned to international flights include measures to discover suspicious objects or anomalies that could conceal weapons , explosives , or any other dangerous devices.
MEASURES RELATED TO PASSENGERS AND THEIR CABIN BAGGAGE Each state must ensure that adequate measures are taken to control transfer of transit passengers and their cabin baggage to prevent unauthorized articles from being taken on board aircraft engaged in international civil aviation operations. Once the passenger passes through the security screen into the departure lounge area, contact with other people who have not been subjected to the security screening process needs to be prevented. If mixing or contact does take place, the passengers who have already been screened together with their cabin (hand) baggage , must be re-screened before boarding an aircraft. It is assumed that those who have not been screened will be screened before subsequently entering the departure area.
MISSING PASSENGERS The state must establish measures to ensure that operators, when providing service from that state , do not transport the baggage of passengers who are not on board the aircraft.
MEASURES RELATING TO ACCESS CONTROL States are required to establish procedures and identification systems to prevent unauthorized access by persons or vehicles to the air side of an airport serving international civil aviation , and other areas important to the security of the airport.
24-2
Air Law
Aviation Security
Chapter 24
MANAGEMENT OF RESPONSE TO ACTS OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE Each state must take adequate measures for the safety of passengers and crew of an aircraft that is subjected to an act of unlawful interference until their journey ca n continue . The state shall provide assistance to an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference, includ ing the provision of navigation aids, ATS , and permission to land as necessitated by the circumstances. An aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful seizure which has landed, is to be detained on the ground unless its departure is necessitated by the overriding duty to protect human life. The authority of a state in which an aircraft subjected to an act of un lawful interference has landed , is to notify the State of Registry of the aircraft and the State of the operator of the landing. Other relevant information is transmitted to:
» » » » »
The State of Registry and the State of the operator Each state whose citizens suffered fatalities or injuries Each state whose citizens were detained as hostages Each Contracting State whose citizens are known to be on board the aircraft The ICAO
FLIGHT DECK DOOR In all aeroplanes the flight crew compartment door must be capable of being locked from within the compartment.
TRAINING PROGRAMMES Operators are to establish and maintain a training programme that enables crewmembers to act in the most appropriate manner to minimize the consequences of acts of unlawful interference.
ISOLATED AIRCRAFT PARKING POSITION An isolated aircraft parking position shall be designated as suitable for the parking of an aircraft which is known, or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference , or which for other reasons needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities. The isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance practicable and in any case never less than 100 m from other parking positions , buildings or public areas. Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over underground utilities such as gas and aviation fuel and , to the extent feasible , electrical , or communication cables.
Air Law
24-3
INTRODUCTION Annex 13 to the Chicago Convention covers accident and incident investigation. The onus for beginning an investigation rests with the authority of the state in which the accident or incident occurred , the State of Occurrence. Unless otherwise stated , the specifications of Annex 13 apply to activities following accidents and incidents wherever they occurred . Where required , reference to the State of the Operator applies only in the case of leased aircraft where the State of Registry is not the state in which the operator has the primary place of business. The applicability of the State of the Operator only applies if that State discharges any of the duties of the State of Registry ,,:,ith respect to accident or incident investigation.
DEFINITIONS Accident - An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of fiight and the time when all such persons have disembarked, resulting in any of the following situations :
1.
A person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of being in the aircraft; or in direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts which have become detached from the aircraft; or direct exposure to jet blast. Except when the injuries are from natural causes; self-infiicted or infiicted by other persons, or are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally available to the passengers and crew.
2.
The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which adversely affects the structural strength , performance or fiight characteristics of the aircraft and would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component. Except for engine failure or damage , when the damage is limited to the engine, cowlings, or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers , wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes , fairings , small dents, or puncture holes in the aircraft skin.
3. The aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible. (An aircraft is considered to be missing when the official search has been terminated and the wreckage has not been located). Note: ICAO classes an injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the accident as a fatal injury.
Air Law
25-1
Chapter 25
Aircraji Accident in vestigation
Serious Incident - An incident involving circumstances indica ting that an accident nearly occurred. The difference between an accident and a serious incident lies only in the result. Serious Injury ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~
An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:
Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing wi thin 7 days from the date the injury was received , or Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers , toes, or nose), or Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage , nerve , muscle, or tendon damage, or Involves injury to any internal organ , or Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface, or Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation .
OBJECTIVE OF THE INVESTIGATION The sole objective of the investigation of an accident or incident shall be the prevention of accidents and incidents. It is not the purpose of an investigation to apportion blame or liability.
PROTECTION OF EVIDENCE, CUSTODY, AND REMOVAL OF AIRCRAFT The State of Occurrence shall take all reasonable measures to protect the evidence and to protect the aircraft and its contents for such a period as may be necessary for the period of an investigation . Protection of evidence shall include the preservation by photographic evidence , or other means of evidence which might be removed , effaced , lost or destroyed. Safe custody shall include protection against further damage; access by unauthorized personnel; pilfering and deterioration. Flight Recorder Protection of flight recorder evidence requires that the recovery and handling of the recorder and its recordings be assigned only to qualified personnel.
REQUEST FROM STATE OF REGISTRY OR STATE OF OPERATOR If a request is received from the State of Registry, or the State of the Operator that the aircraft, its contents, and any other evidence remain undisturbed pending inspection by an accredited representative of the requesting state, the State of Occurrence shall take all necessary steps to comply with this. Providing that the aircraft may be moved to extricate persons, animals and valuables; to prevent destruction by fire or other causes, and to eliminate any danger or obstruction to air navigation , to transport, or to the public.
25-2
Air Law
Aircraft Accident Investigation
Chapter 25
REQUEST FROM THE STATE OF DESIGN OR STATE OF MANUFACTURER If a request is made that the aircraft remain undisturbed pending investigation by an accredited representative of the requesting state then the State of Occurrence shall take all reasonable steps to comply. This must be in accord with the proper conduct of the investigation and does not result in undue delay in returning the aircraft into service where this is practicable .
NOTIFICATION FOR ACCIDENTS OR SERIOUS INCIDENTS The State of Occurrence shall forward a notification of an accident or serious incident with a minimum of delay and by the most suitable and quickest means to :
>>>>>-
The State of Registry; The State of the Operator; The State of Design ; The State of Manufacture; and ICAO, if the aircraft involved is of a maximum take off mass greater than 2250 kg.
Responsibility of the State of Registry and the State of the Operator Upon receipt of the notification, the State of Registry and the State of the Operator shall, as soon as possible , provide the State of Occurrence with any relevant information regarding the aircraft and flight crew involved. Responsibility of the State of Design/Manufacture If requested by the State of Registry, the State of Design or Manufacture will provide relevant details of the aircraft involved. Note: The State of Design may be different from the State of Manufacture. The State of Design of Concorde was the UK whereas France was the State of Manufacture because the final assembly took place at Toulouse in France. Responsibility for Instituting and Conducting the Investigation The State of Occurrence shall institute an investigation into the circumstances of the accident. Such State shall also be responsible for the conduct of the investigation. It may delegate the whole or any part of the investigation to the State of Registry or the State of the Operator. In this case the State of Occurrence shall use every means to facilitate the investigation. Participation in the Investigation The State of Registry, the State of the Operator, the State of Design , and the State of Manufacture are entitled to appoint an accredited representative to participate in the investigation. When neither the State of Registry, nor the Slate of the Operator, appoints an accredited representative, the State conducting the investigation should invite the operator to participate. Where the citizens of a state have suffered fatalities or serious injuries, that state will, if a request has been made , be permitted to send an expert to attend the investigation.
Air Law
25-3
Chapter 25
Aircraft Accidel1linvesligarion
REPORTS When the aircraft involved has a maximum take off mass greater than 2250 kg the state conducting the investigation is to send a copy of the preliminary and final reports to : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~
~
The State of Registry or the State of Occurrence; The State of the Operator; The State of Design ; The State of Manufacture; Any State which provided relevant information, significant facilities or expertise; ICAO(1); and The State having suffered fatalities or serious injuries to its citizens (2).
Note 1: Preliminary report only and in code. Note 2: Final report only.
25-4
AiT Law
INTRODUCTION Facilitation is the word used by ICAO to describe the rules and regulations designed to make international commercial aviation work. The intention is to get all contracting states to apply uniform rules and regulations concerning the handling of international traffic, application of Customs and Excise rules, taxation , passenger documentation, and immigration controls . As each state is a sovereign power the necessities of each state to safeguard borders, control entry, and prevent abuse by way of smuggling, illegal immigration, and trafficking in banned goods , the rules of the state are often more restrictive than the recommendations of ICAO. The SARPs on Facilitation are the outcome of Article 37 of the Convention and embodied in Annex 9 (Facilitation) to the Convention. AIM The aim of the SARPs relating to Facilitation is to try and ensure that travel and cargo handling by international commercial aviation is not disadvantaged with respect to other methods of travel. For instance , it is probably quicker now to travel from the centre of London to the centre of Paris by train than by air. This is due to technological advances rather than bureaucracy. If, however, a state arbitrarily applied pedantic rules and regulations that only applied to tra vel by air which created delays, thus encouraging people to travel by train , this would be contrary to article 37 .
ENTRY AND DEPARTURE OF AIRCRAFT Contracting States are required to make procedures for the clearance of aircraft, including those applied for aviation security purposes, as well as narcotics control, so as to retain the advantage of speed inherent in air transport. General Declaration For ships engaged in international maritime trading and passenger carrying , a form known as the General Declaration of Shipping has to be carried when the ship is outside of the territorial waters of the state of registry. In the early days of international commercial aviation , a similar form was required to be carried in aircraft. The form includes details of the aircraft (owner, registration, insurance, etc.), a statement that it is engaged in operations complying with the requirements of the International Air Services Agreement and details of the crew. It also states the number of passengers carried , quantity of freight, together with a statement that the aircraft is not carrying any passenger or animal suffering from a notifiable disease. Passenger Manifest Another form carried on ships is the passenger manifest. This contains details of all passengers (name , place of birth and destination). A similar form is required for aircraft.
Air Law
26- 1
Chapter 26
Facilitation
Cargo Manifest This is similar to the Passenger Manifest but relates to cargo carried . The details include the details of the shipper, the recipient, description of the cargo, and a declaration that the cargo does not contravene any international agreements to proscribe or restrict trading in such goods (i.e. the trade in ivory). This also includes unaccompanied baggage . Stores List Ships are required to declare all goods remaining on board the ship at the destination that were intended for sale to passengers enroute, consumption by the crew, and passengers enroute , or for use in the running and maintenance of the ship while enroute. These are typically alcohol and tobacco products and dutiable fuel products. Aircraft are required to have a simple stores list mainly concerning alcohol and tobacco products sold to the passengers enroute. Description, Purpose and Use of Aircraft Documents Contracting States do not requ ire the presentation of the General Declaration when the information can be readily obtained in an alternative and acceptable manner. An attestation (statement by the commander) is acceptable . A Contracting State , which con tinues to require the presentation of the General Declaration, is required to accept it when signed by either the authorised agent or the commander. When necessary, a crewmember can sign the health section. Where Contracting States require the presentation of information relating to crewmembers on entry and departure of aircraft, such information shall be limited to the number of crew on board . Where the General Declaration is still required, this information shall be provided in the col umn headed "Total number of crew". Contracting States shall not normally req uire the presentation of a Passenger Manifest, but when this type of information is required , it is possible to provide this in an alternative and acceptable manner, such as a computer printout. Contracting States shall not require the presentation of a written declaration of stores rem ain ing on board aircraft. In respect of stores loaded on to, or unloaded from an aircraft, Contracting States, which continue to require the presentation of a written declaration, shall limit the information required to an absolute minimum . Outbound Procedures The following procedures relate to situations where the above forms are still required . Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the public authorities concerned, before departure of the aircraft, not more than : ~
~ ~
Two copies of the General Declaration; Two copies of the Cargo Manifest; and Two copies of a simple stores list.
Inbound Procedures Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the public authorities concerned , on arrival of the aircraft, not more than: ~
>>-
26-2
Three copies of the General Declaration ; Three copies of the Cargo Manifest; Two copies of a simple stores list.
Air Law
Facilitation
Chapter 26
Completion of Documents Documents may be typewritten , produced by electronic media, or handwritten providing they are legible.
ENTRY AND DEPARTURE OF PERSONS AND THEIR BAGGAGE No documents other than those detailed above, passports, and visas (where necessary) are required by Contracting States for the entry into and departure from their territories of visitors. Contracting States do not require visitors by air to have any other document of identity, other than a valid passport. In cases where a Contracting State continues to require entrance visas from visitors, the practice of issuing such visas without charge through reciprocal or other acceptable arrangements is encouraged. Where supplementary information from visitors travelling by air is required, this is accomplished by the use of Embarkation/Disembarkation Cards . Medical Requirements In cases where evidence of protection against yellow fever is required, Contracting States shall accept the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination issued by the World Health Organisation. Medical examination of persons arri ving by air should normally be limited to those disembarking and coming within the incubation period of the disease concerned from an area infected with one of the three diseases requiring quarantine: plague , cholera , and yellow fever. Clearance Procedures Contracting States shall accept an oral declaration of the content and ownership of baggage from passengers and crew. Unaccompanied baggage shall be inspected on a sampling or selective basis . Crew and Other Operators Personnel Contracting States shall ensure that when inspection of crewmembers and their baggage is required on arrival or departure, such inspection shall be carried out as quickly as possible. Contracting states shall provide facilities that will enable crewmembers of airlines, which are not required to be licensed , to obtain a crewmember's certificate. In the case of airline flight crewmembers who retain their licence in their possession when embarking and disembarking , and remain at the airport where the aircraft has stopped or within the confines of cities adjacent to the airport, and departs on the same aircraft or on his next regular scheduled flight, the licence is sufficient for temporary admission to the State without a passport or visa . In order for this to be permitted , the licence must contain the specifications laid out in Annex 1, a certificate that the holder may at all times re-enter the State of Licence Issue upon production of the licence ; a photograph of the holder, and details of the place and date of birth of the holder. Note: The licence is recognised as a satisfactory identity document even if the holder is not a national of the State of Reg istry of the aircraft on which he serves. Non-Scheduled Services Each Contracting State is to extend privileges of temporary admission to those crewmembers on aircraft engaged in non-scheduled international air services, providing that such crewmembers depart on the aircraft on its first flight out of the territory of the state.
Air Law
26-3
Chapter 26
Facilitation
Relief Crew When it is necessary for airline crewmembers, in the exercise of their duties, to travel to another state as a passenger by any means of transportation in order to join an aircraft, each Contracting State shall accept from that crewmember, in lieu of passport and visa for temporary admission either a licence or crewmember's certificate. A document from the crewmember's employer certifying the purpose of the journey may be required. Crewmember Certificate To comply with rules for the admission of crewmembers and to stop the flight crew licence being used for purposes for which it was not intended , ICAO recommend s the adoption of an operator issued crewmember certificate. The certificates generally used are credit card sized and state the name of the operator, the name and a photograph of the crewmember, and a statement that the holder is bona fide crew engaged in international commercial aviation . The card serves as acceptable means of identity where required . The card usually has a magnetic strip or bar code that can be automatically read by machines where access control is applied or entry authorisation to restricted areas is applied.
DEPARTURE REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES Contracting States shall not require exit visas from their own nationals or residents wishing to tour abroad nor from visitors at the end of their stay. Contracting States shall not require inspection of baggage of passengers departing from their territory, except for aviation security measures, or in special circumstances.
26-4
Air Law
Facilitation
Chapter 26
INADMISSIBLE PASSENGERS, DEPORTEES AND PERSONS IN CUSTODY Each state is requi red to have proced ures in force fo r the handling of deportees and persons in custody. JAR-OPS req uires the operator to have procedures for the carriage of inadmissible persons in addition to deportees and persons in custody. Inadmissible Persons A state may refuse entry to any person found inadmissible for any reason , such as a fa lse declaration, false passport, criminal record , record of deportation, no visa etc. The state will inform the operator that a person has been declared inadmissible and it then becomes the responsibil ity of the operator to return the person to the point of departure. It therefore beholds the operator to ensure before departure that all passengers are adm issible or accept the financial penalty of having to return the passenger to the departure aerodrome. The operator may seek to recover any direct costs and expenses incurred in the return passage , through the process of law, but the operator is not perm itted to charge the inadmissible passenger for the return flight before departure. Deportees A state has the ri ght to deport or extradite foreign national citizens, usually after due process of law, to the state of domicile, state requesting extradi tion, or any other state willing to offer shelter. The cost of the transportation will be borne by the deporting state or the state requesting extradi tion. The deporting state is required to inform the operator when a deportee is being placed aboard an aircraft. The operator is required to inform the commander of the passenger being deported, and the crew are to be aware of the location of the deportee in the aircraft. Persons in Custody Where a person in judicial custody, escorted by a law enforcement officer, is carried on an aircraft, the commander is to be informed of the location of the person and informed of any restraint applied to the person. In an aircraft emergency the person is to be released from restraint.
Air Law
26-5
INTRODUCTION The Learning Objectives (LOs) for 010 Air Law include reference to National Law. It was the intention that the differences from ICAO SARPs and PANS permitted by Article 38 of the Chicago convention would be examinable in examinations conducted in the state that had notified the differences. However, JAR FCL committee decided that implementation of the requirement for national law examined was suspended and that is still the case . Clearly, it is not fair for Dutch students taking a course in the UK to be examined on UK law. The LO remains and this chapter meets the requirement for the inclusion of the differen ces of UK law from the ICAO SARPs and PANS .
THE LAW OF THE UK The regulation of aviation in the UK is through the enacted Air Navigation Order wh ich establishes the UK CAA and recognises the JAA as a regulatory body of which the UK CAA is a participating authority. The UK has recognised the validity of JARs including JAR FCL under which this course and the licensing examinations are conducted. The UK is a contracted state of ICAO and has notified ICAO of a considerable number of differences in accordance wi th Article 38 . Only the United States and Russia have notified more differences. It is interesting to note that the UK complies with JAR-OPS and JAR FCL and these are at variance with Annex 1, Annex 6, and Annex 8. However, these differences are not notified to ICAO as the regulatory body, the JAA, is not a contracting state of ICAO. The most obvious differences notified by the UK are in respect of Annex 2, the Rules of the Air.
MAJOR UK DIFFERENCES VMC Criteria In the UK, there is no VMC criteria defined for class A airspace. Also, the VMC criteria for class B airspace is 8 km fiight visibility at or above FL 100 (10 000 ft) and 5 km below and clear of cloud. ICAO defines flight visibility and vertical and horizontal distance from cloud, for both classes A and B.
Quadrantal Rule For IFR flight outside of CAS and above the transition level up to FL245 , pilots are required to fly at a FL dependent upon the magnetic track of the aircraft with respect to the quadrant of the compass which contains the magnetic track. Above FL245 all flights comply with the semi-circular rule for IFR fiights in accordance with the table in Annex 2 for IFR fiight in 'other airspace'. The quadrants and applicable FLs are: 000 090 180 270 Air Law
089 179 269 359
Odd FLs i.e. FL 50 ; FL70; FL90 etc ... Odd FLs plus 500 ft i.e. FL55 ; FL75; FL95 etc ... Even FLs i.e FL60; FL80 ; FL 100 etc ... Even FLs plus 500 ft i.e. F165 ; FL85 ; FL 105 etc ...
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Xar.ional Lint-
Chapter 27
VFR Flight Levels Because of the application of the quadrantal rule, the UK does not recognise VFR FLs. In CAS controlled VFR flights will be allocated FLs from the table of FLs applicable to IFR traffic. Limits of CAS In the UK all airspace above FL245 is the Upper Information Region (UIR) and is classified as class B. All flights in the UIR are con trolled flights with the exception of gliders when flying in the, now very limited, designated gliding areas. Upper Limit of CAS The upper limit of CAS (the upper limit of the UIR) is FL660. Where defined as FLs, the limits of CAS (CTRs, CTAs etc .. :) comply with the ICAO requirement for these as the equivalent of VFR FLs (i.e. FL245 is the upper limit of the FIR and the lower limit of the UIR). FL660 is also the equivalent of a VFR FL. VFR at Night Flight under VFR at night is not permitted in the UK. Licensing In the UK a pilot may fly in CAS (except in class A) in IMC without an IR providing he/she holds an IMC rating additional to the basic licence. Pilots may fly at night in VMC if they hold a night rating in addition to the basic licence. SVFR In the UK the definition of SVFR is: "a flight made at any time in a CTR which is class A airspace or is in any other CTR in IMC or at night, in respect of which the appropriate ATCU has given permission for the flight to be made in accordance with special instructions instead of in accordance with IFR providing the aircraft compl ies wi th any instructions given by the ATCU and remains clear of cloud and in sight of the surface." RTF in Class F and G Airspace There is no requirement for continuous mo-way RTF in class F and G airspace . Departure Separation The UK procedural separation standard for departure is 2 minutes . Radar Separation Where SSR is used alone, the radar separation standard is increased to 10nm. Wake Turbulence Categories The UK adds a category of SMALL. Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ) The size of a UK ATZ is a factor in the length of the longest runway. If the runway is not longer than 1 nm the radius of the ATZ is 2 nm. If the runway is longer than 1 nm the radius is 2.5 nm. The longest runway in the UK is 09L127R at Heathrow, at 3902 m (12 800 ft). Controlled Aerodrome The UK does not define a controlled aerodrome.
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Air Law
Chapter 2i
Na tional Law
Low Flying In the UK the following restrictions to low flying are enforced:
a.
b.
c.
No aircraft is permitted to fly over towns or built-up areas (habitation) below 1 500 ft above the highest obstacle within 600 m of the aircraft track. (ICAO permits as low as 1000 ft). Aircraft are not to fl y closer than 500 ft to any person , vehicle , vessel, or structure . Over clear areas or over the sea , flight below 500 ft is permitted. (Annex 2 prohibits flight below 500 ft except for take off and landing). Aircraft are not to fly closer than 1000 m (3280 ft) to gatherin gs of 1000 persons or more (ICAO does not specify the number of persons).
ROYAL FLIGHTS A Royal Flight is a flight made by Her Majesty the Queen or certain other members of the Royal Family. Royal Flight procedures are often implemented for flights made within UK airspace by other Monarchs, Heads of State, or foreign dignitaries. Special ATC procedures are implemented to provide additional separation between Royal Flight aircraft and other aircraft. RNOTAM The occu rrence of a Royal Flight is notified in a Royal Flight NOTAM (RNOTAM). Purple Airspace Within and outside of CAS , the enhanced separation standards are applied in 'Purple Airspace' which is defined between reporting points and exists as detailed in the RNOTAM. Purple Airspace is class A. For Royal Flights operating into or out of aerodromes not within a CTR, a temporary CTR and temporary airways to link the CTR to the airways structure wi ll be established as published in the RNOTAM. Temporary Purple Airspace will exist from 15 minutes prior to and 30 minutes after the ETA Royal Flight at the aerodrome . Established CTRs may be upgraded to class A airspace during Royal flight operations in the CTR. Purple Airspace is not normally established for Royal Flight helicopters.
Restrictions During the notified period of a Royal Flight in the UK FIRs, practice PAN procedures on 121 .500 MHz are suspended. Clearances to climb or descend whilst maintai ning own separation in VMC will not be granted in the vici nity of a Royal Flight. Gliders are not to be flown in Purple Airspace.
MILITARY AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONES (MATZ) Military aerodromes in the UK, including DERA aerodromes (Farnborough , West Freugh , Lianbedr, Bedford , Boscombe Down) have an extension to the aerodrome traffic zone to provide additional protection to pilots of small, fast aircraft with limited navigation facilities and less than normal ability to maintain a good look out. The extension to the ATZ is called the Military ATZ or MATZ. The ATZ at a military aerodrome has the same status as that at any other aerodrome and is to be respected by all civilian pilots . The MATZ extension is not CAS and is only mandatory for military (and MoD civilian pilots). However, a civilian pilot who ignores the existence of a MATZ is fool hardy. The military and the CAA have established RTF procedures for entering and crossing a MATZ. The procedures are required knowledge for the issue of a UK CAA RTF licence. The diagram below is a 3-D representation of a MATZ.
Air Law
- - - - - - -
27-3
National Low
Chapter 27
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Military Aerodrome Traffic Zone Dimensions The ATZ is either 2 nm or 2.5 nm radius dependent upon the length of the longest runway. The MATZ is superimposed on the ATZ and has a radius of 5 nm regardless of the length of the longest runway. The MATZ is extended in the direction from which instrument approaches are made to the main instrument runway. This extension is 5 nm long and exists between 1000 It and 3000 It above aerodrome elevation. The extension is known at the MATZ "panhandle".
MATZ With 2 panhandles
MATZ
COMBINED MATZ
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Ai r Law
National Low
Chapter 27
Multiple or Combined MATZ Multiple or combined MATZ are where two or more MATZ overlap (CMATZ) the upper limit of the CMATZ is measured from the elevation of the highest aerodrome. It is usual fo r one aerodrome ATCU to be designated as the controlling ATCU for the CMATZ providing approach control and MATZ penetration service for the entire CMATZ. The lowest aerodrome ONH is the CMATZ ON H. MATZ Penetration by Civil Pilots At aerod romes listed in the UK AlP a service will be provided by military ATCOs to assist civil pilots cross through the MATZ by providing traffic information and navigational assistance. Radar may be used in the provision of this service . A civilian pilot wishing to cross through a MATZ should call the controlling authority (usually the military approach or zone controller) on the published VHF frequency not less than 15 nm or 5 minutes before entering the MATZ. As an example , " Boscombe Down this is G-ABCD request MA TZ penetration ". The civilian pilot could wait for a reply as the controller may be working military aircraft on military UH F frequencies. When answered , the pilot will be asked " G-CD pass your message". The pilot then gives details of the flight (type of aircraft, position , heading , altitude, and intentions).The pilot should then comply with any instructions given by the military ATCO , continue to maintain a listening watch on the military VH F frequency, and fi nally advise the military ATCO when departing the MATZ. Altimeter Setting Military approa ch and aerodrome operations are usually carried out with reference to aerodrome elevation with OFE set. The MATZ crosser will , where necessary for sepa ration from military ai rcraft, be instructed to set the aerodrome OFE until departing the MATZ. Availability of the Service Some military aerodromes operate H24, others during the notified hours of ATC watch . However, by the nature of military operations the aerodrome hou rs may not be restricted to normal office hours and civilian pilots fiying in the vicinity of military aerodromes should anticipate military activity at all times. Whilst the MATZ is not CAS defined in the ANO, it can still be a dangerous place where the likelihood of a close encounter with a fast jet aircraft is a distinct possibility. Pilots should exercise the utmost care and make use of the military assistance at all time.
Air Law
27-5
Air Law A sound knowledge of Air Law is fundamental for all pilots. This volume covers the origins of aviation law before covering the practical elements of the rules of the air, personnel licensing, and the operational aspects of Air Law as they affect the Airline Transport Pilot. Air Law is often a daunting subject to many students. This volume is designed to be as "friendly" as possible whilst ensuring that you are fully prepared for the JAR Air Law examination. A number of procedures are described in detail which take you from the flight planning phase through the departure phase, radar procedures, holding procedures, and the approach phase of flight. You will also gain knowledge of aerodrome facilities, the specific requirements of the Search and Rescue Alerting Service, the notification and investigation of aircraft accidents, and acts of unlawful interference.
Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training (AFf) have teamed to produce these ATPL training volumes. The philosophy of both Jeppesen and AFT is to train pilots to fly, not to simply pass the exams. Jeppesen was founded in 1934 by barnstormer and pioneer airmail pilot Elrey B. Jeppesen to provide accurate airport and airway information to the growing aviation industry. Since then, the company has become the world leader in navigation information and flight planning products. In the 1960s, Jeppesen emerged as the foremost creator of state·of-the-art flight training materials using the latest technologies. With offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Gennany, Australia, China, and Russia, Jeppesen is committed to introducing a fully integrated line of JAA training products. Atlantic Flight Training, based at Coventry Airport U.K., is an independent Joint Aviation Authority approved Flight Training Organisation for professional training from a Private Pilots Licence to an Airline Transport Pilots Licence, including Multi Crew Co-operation and Crew Resource Management. AFf has over twenty years experience in training Commercial Pilots, including the conversion of ICAO to JAA Licences, and specialises in full time and distance learning ground school (Aeroplane and Helicopter). We at Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training wish you the best in your flying career, and hope that our materials contribute to your understanding, safety, and succeSS.
:: -IEPPESEN"
, Atlantic Flight Training Ltd
Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Str. 233 63263 Neu-Isenburg, Germany +4961025070
www.jeppesen.com
ISBN 0-88487-362-5
JA310112-000
