Vocal Technique

Extended Vocal Techniques: The New Bel Canto?

educated opinions may hold, unsafe, radical usage of the voice, or in other words, inhuman. They are non-conventional in terms of the traditional bel canto method, but are, more often than not, sounds we experience in everyday life or at least know we are capable of producing. Daniel Albright notes in Modernism and Music that the “extended” performer is a relatively new concept, and it is logical that in addition to experimenting with the performance of a work visually, aurally, and physically, a composer should want to extend the use of the voice into speech to balance the performance aesthetic. The result was that singers such as Cathy Berberian, Roy Hart, Phyllis Bryn-Julson, Jan DeGaetani, and Joan La Barbara, in collaboration with composers like Luciano Berio, Morton Feldman, Peter Maxwell Davies, John Cage, and Morton Subotnick, experimented with all aspects of vocal production and discovered exactly how far the human voice could go. Through a more detailed exploration of some of the more common techniques they established, we will observe that they are nothing more than the result of a desire to explore the full range of the human instrument and the creative possibilities of contemporary expression. For convenience, I have categorized the techniques into classes of graduated difficulty and remoteness. Some of the pieces I have chosen to exemplify each class include techniques from other classes, but I have tried to discuss each piece in terms of how I think it is most striking. We begin with the most accessible of classes – the vocal hybrids and speech-sounds. These include but are not limited to Sprechstimme, recitation, speech, shouts, laughter, crying, and whispering. Recitation is simply the declamation of a text over music, which may be pitched indeterminately or not. The most obvious instance of this is Sprechstimme. Schoenberg's piece, Pierrot Lunaire, is the first and best example of this technique. Composed in 1912 near the end of his atonal period, the piece explores the

By Danielle Buonaiuto Students and scholars of voice and vocal literature have a veritable wealth of music at their fingertips, spanning 500 years and developing what we now refer to as bel canto technique. This music is part of the canon of music literature for the voice from which we draw for recitals, auditions, and performances. However, at its introduction, this music was revolutionary and previously uncharted territory- at one time, audiences would not have recognized the melodies so familiar to us now, and indeed would have been shocked and excited to hear the developments that were unfolding before their eyes. Our bel canto school is so well established that we have long since accepted these works and techniques as standards, tried and true. It is very easy to forget that aside from this familiar repertoire there is an evergrowing literature of new music, complete with intriguing compositional techniques and vocal productions. We refer to these productions as extended vocal techniques. Schoenberg’s experimentation with Sprechstimme in Pierrot Lunaire opened doors for composers and vocalists alike. Suddenly, it seemed, there were no holds barred, and we now have music such as Ligeti’s Aventures, Berio’s Sequenza III and Circles, and Joan La Barbara’s countless experimental sound paintings. Extended techniques appearing in these works and others, include, besides Sprechstimme, laughter, crying, shouts, whispers, glottal and tongue clicks and stops, inverse phonation, speech, extremities of range, timbral variations, deletion of vibrato, vowel morphing and muting, whistling, microtones, reinforced harmonics, and multiphonics.1 They are not, as some less 1Sharon

Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music

(New York: Oxford University, 2002), Part II. 1

possibilities of the German melodrama (a piece with a declaimed text over music).2 Since the voice is not restricted to certain pitches and productions, it has expressive freedom and more accurate depiction of emotions. Unfortunately for us, Schoenberg does not specify in his foreword to the piece how exactly one is to produce the desired effect, only what that effect is. He notes:

It can be argued that without the ability to move freely between notes and use the voice to inflect the text so creatively, the poetry would not bear as much weight. Occasionally, a composer will insert a section of truly spoken text, as is the case in I Hate Music by Leonard Bernstein, or Recital I for Cathy by Luciano Berio, which is a monologue with interspersed sung sections.5 This technique allows the singer to extend his or her performance into more intimate relations with the audience -- being spoken to is an entirely different feeling than being sung to. In addition, it brings the performance into the realm of acting, in the spirit of the move toward theatricality so popular with postWorld War II composers.6 Other speech-sounds appear frequently in works of varying degrees of experimentation. Cathy Berberian’s Stripsody and Luciano Berio’s Sequenza III for voice are two pieces whose meaning rests on the understanding of the listener of the “humanness” of the subject matter and character. Stripsody is intended to be performed as though the singer is a radio announcer who needs to communicate without props the happenings of a series of well-known comic strips. To do this, Berberian created a graphic score in collaboration with Roberto Zamarin, which leaves time and pitch somewhat open to interpretation and notes, “Whenever possible, gestures and body movements should be simultaneous with the vocal gestures”.7 The result is that the performer creates a world of onomatopoeia and pantomime that if done effectively, is humourous and really quite fascinating. The exclamations (“BLAM!”, growls, declaimed text, animal sounds, for example) are all produced at a relatively low, medium, or high pitch, depending on the stave on which they appear, and in the performer’s comfortable

To emphasize fully the contrast between the sung note and the spoken note, whereas the sung note preserves the pitch, the spoken note gives it at first, but abandons it either by rising or falling immediately after... The difference between ordinary speech and a manner of speech that may be embodied in musical form is to be clearly maintained. But again, it must not be reminiscent of song.3 This implies that Schoenberg desired each spoken pitch to be connected by a glissando in the direction of its following pitch, so that the note is iterated on the correct pitch but immediately leaves it and leads into the next. The only way to do this and to achieve a “spoken” sound at the same time is to delete vibrato. (We will discuss straight-tone singing in more detail later.) In addition to a straight tone, vowels with more “speech-like” formations- that is, less space in the mouth and more relaxed pronunciation of diphthongsand registral integration will contribute to the declamatory quality essential to the production of Sprechstimme. As previously noted, the ability of the singer to explore the territory between the notes is what makes this particular technique so exciting. Although some singers choose to disregard the instructions completely and sing it how they please, performances like that of Christine Schafer, that are accurate musically and technically, convey the unfolding drama in such a manner that the listener understands the dark, chilling undertones of Pierrot's words.4 2Sharon

78.

Grammophon, 1998). Luciano Berio, Recital I For Cathy, Weill, Berio and Niles, (RCA,1995). 6Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004), 145. 7 Cathy Berberian, Stripsody (New York: C.F. Peters, 1966), Foreword.

Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music,

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3Arnold

Schoenberg, “Vorwort”, Pierrot Lunaire (Universal, 1914). 4 Arnold Schoenberg, Pierrot Lunaire, Christine Schafer, soprano, Pierre Boulez, conductor (Deutsche 2

speaking production. Events like a sneeze, a single sob, several shouted tones, and some laughter-like sounds also occur, making the communication of the graphics realistic, understandable, and expressively creative.8 It is a good time to discuss at this point that much freedom is given in a graphic score to the interpretation of the performer. It is interesting to observe, although Cathy Berberian created a performance practice for pieces like this, how the reading of the new generation of avant-garde singers will differ. Linda Hirst, herself a noted performer of avant-garde music, comments in her essay “Alternative Voices”, “… the individual sensibility and technical command which each new performer brings to its interpretation and the realisation of the vocal symbols means an enlargement of the original tradition.”9 Not every singer will produce these generic speechsounds in the same fashion; the beauty of these particular effects is that they are flexible, adaptable to the abilities and expressive concerns of each individual performer. Sequenza III for Voice differs in this regard in that it includes a 2-page glossary of Berio’s notation, indicating his desire for the piece to be performed in essentially the same fashion every time. I include this piece in the category of speech-sounds because although it includes virtually every other effect I will discuss, such as timbral variation, inverse and pressed phonation, vowel morphing and muting, and phonemes, the beauty of the piece is its human element- its communication of the emotional state and psychological nuances of its female character. The manner in which tones are whispered or spoken, shouted or sobbed at various points in the score emulates the way this woman might communicate the same things in a monologue. Voiced breathing (as in crying), laughter, actual sobs, and muttered and whispered segments are also utilised by Berio. In terms of the contrast between sung and spoken tones, the glossary

states, “Although the borderline between speaking and singing voice will often be blurred in performance, the vocal actions written on one line are “spoken” while those written on three or five lines are ‘sung.’”10 This implies Berio wishes there to be expressive freedom for the performer to utter a given line of sound at whatever point on the continuum she sees fit; this is an interesting example of creative license designed to expand the possibilities of communication, even in a piece where much of the notation dictates the execution, as speech can be expanded by singing as well as vice versa. It goes without saying that these techniques, given their flexibility and proximity to everyday human sounds, are safe for any singer to produce.11 They should be uttered within comfortable ranges, without affect such as vibrato or hard onset unless otherwise noted (in which case, care should be taken under the supervision of an experienced teacher), and inflected as they would be in another setting.12 The category of “vocal effects” I called thus because it includes sounds not normally heard in Western vocal production, such as glottal sounds and mouth clicks; sounds that are “unlunged” or “unvoiced” such as whistling; and sounds that do not correspond to the “normal” idea of that particular production, such as inverse and pressed phonation and audible (heavy) breathing.13 Pieces that include these are Ligeti’s Aventures, Vivier’s Love Songs, Cage’s Aria, and as previously mentioned, Sequenza III. In the case of Sequenza III and Love Songs in particular, these effects are used as communicative devices, whereas in the other pieces they function more as musical devices. It is not to say that Cage and Ligeti did not want a character or story to emerge (that would Luciano Berio, Sequenza III for Voice (London: Universal, 1968), Foreword. 11 John Large and Thomas Murry, “Studies of Extended Vocal Techniques: Safety.” (NATS Bulletin, May 1978), 32-34.s 10 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music, 83, 122-124. 13 Trevor Wishart, “Extended Vocal Techniques”, The Musical Times (Vol 121 May 1980), 313. 10

Ibid., Full Score, and Cathy Berberian, MagnifiCathy (Wergo, 1995). 9 Linda Hirst and David Wright, “Alternative Voices”, Cambridge Companion to Singing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 193. 8

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be inaccurate), but the effects in their pieces serve the music before the character; vocal extension in this case creates a new sonic world for the listener to become immersed in, as opposed to a character to get to know. Glottal stops and mouth clicks are things we are capable of doing, but may not have thought to experiment with. In uttering a word that begins with a vowel, most Anglophones and Germans will make a slight stop before iterating the initial sound. This is a glottal stop, and it is used with varying force in hard onsets leading to spoken or sung tones. It can also be carried through the sound to produce the “gravelly” tone as heard in singers like Louis Armstrong.14 Referred to at times as “glottal overpressure”, it is considered relatively dangerous if not performed with care and supervision, and awareness of its effect on the singer.15 Mouth clicks can be performed in any area of the mouth with the tongue or uvular area. When performed with the tongue near the alveolar ridge, it is the sound some people use to call animals. Farther back on the hard palette it begins to have a more hollow sound. A click in the uvular area involves dropping the tongue into the throat and has a darker connotation due to its sounding more “dangerous” (although in reality these sounds are easy to produce). They can be modified with the shape of the lips to lend brighter or darker qualities.16 Whistling is used in many folk and musical theatre songs, but is making more appearances in avant-garde repertoire with or without its usual jovial connotation; for instance, a single whistled tone at the end of a darker piece can impart an eerie quality. Most people can whistle; its production is as one would expect- pursed lips create the wind channel, and the tongue articulates pitch. It can be performed with or without vibrato but this is usually specified.

Inverse phonation requires more attention to production as it can be drying and sometimes dangerous if not performed correctly. The sound is chilling, and is used by Berio in Sequenza III and also notably by Peter Maxwell Davies in Eight Songs for a Mad King; usually it imparts the idea that the performer is communicating some sort of pain. It is created by allowing the folds to phonate as one inhales, with varying force. A similar sound is produced with the opposite mechanism, which is overly pressed phonation.17 This is similar to the sound one might make when attempting to speak while lifting a heavy object—very little air is passed over the folds, which do not vibrate but remain in almost constant approximation. Again, the sound imparts a feeling of duress or pain, and can be harmful if done improperly. Mabry suggests it is best to experiment with these techniques for short periods of time under supervision of an experienced teacher, and to keep the folds lubricated at all times when executing these effects.18 The last of these I intend to discuss is audible, or heavy, breathing. It is most effective when amplified, due to its lack of natural resonance. Sequenza III, Love Songs, Eight Songs for a Mad King, and Aventures all explore the possibilities of this effect. It can bring an emotionally charged, dark, eerie, or erotic quality to music, depending on how it is used. It is produced in the same manner as one would sigh heavily or gasp audibly, and can be extended or shortened. Again, this effect tends to be drying to the vocal folds and should be practiced sparingly and with water on hand.19 Although with this category we start to see sounds that require more consideration by the performer in terms of accurate execution, safety, and technique, they still remain in good favour with performers of avant-garde music, who have learned to find ways for their own voices to safely deliver the music. Therefore,

John Large and Thomas Murry, “Studies of Extended Vocal Techniques: Safety.” 31. 15 Ibid, 34. 16 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music, 136.

17

Joan Logue, “Extended Vocal Techniques.” NATS Journal (Nov-Dec 1988), 10. 18 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music, 132. 19 Ibid, 132.

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these effects remain in the vocabulary of avantgarde composers and performers, and serve to expand the sonorities composers imagine would most accurately depict characters, moods, or scenarios. Timbral variations include everything from falsetto, white tone, and other vocal coloration to vowel muting and use of phonemes. Timbral variation is something easily experimented with and utilized by composers; we are constantly playing with the timbre of our voices, be it through imitating the sound of another person or an animal or through attempts to accurately communicate our mood or meaning. It is used in virtually every piece of music from this repertoire. Joan La Barbara, a noted avant-garde performer, is renowned for her ability to imitate musical instruments accurately, and this has been put to use extensively in her sound paintings and her work early on in her career for Philip Glass.20 John Cage frequently asks singers to delete vibrato for his works, notably Aria and A Flower. Works such as Phonemes pour Cathy by Henri Pousseur use only sounds built from combinations of IPA characters, making the possibilities of sound endless. Vowel morphing and muting create continuums between pure vowels, so that there is infinite freedom to experiment at the discretion of the performer. The effect of deleting vibrato is useful in pieces where tuning is essential (such as Stimmung by Stockhauesen, which asks singers to produce the overtone series of the B flat below the bass clef) or where the composer requires a certain aesthetic to be unobstructed by “bel canto” (the case with the aforementioned Cage pieces, which are for voice and closed piano).21 The main concern with deletion of vibrato is a tendency to engage in pressed phonation or physical tension while attempting to execute straight tone; the idea is not to try to sing without vibrato but to let oneself. Isolating head tone is also somewhat of

a tension management problem for some singers; attempting this without visual feedback from a mirror or the help of a teacher is not recommended, as is logical. However, when done correctly, these techniques are not difficult and can be executed for longer periods of time with no more vocal strain than production with normal vibrato. The possibilities a voice offers a composer by being versatile in this manner are indispensable in some cases. Composers’ work with non-textual vocal works has opened an entirely new world of expression, compositionally, sonically, and vocally. Without text, music is not required to have programmatic meaning- but beyond that, the voice is no longer restricted to dictated phonetic shapes and can create any experience possible from infinite combinations of possible sounds. The use of phonemes is selfexplanatory- the singer makes the shapes required with normal production unless asked to do otherwise. Vowel morphing and muting is more interpretive. The singer is given a certain length of time to travel from one pure vowel shape to the other seamlessly, or to go from a closed mouth position to a pure vowel shape or vice versa. The effect is exciting; it is amazing to the uninitiated that the human voice is capable of such resonance and variety. These productions are definitely safe and serve to extend the sonic possibilities of both the voice and the composition in which they occur. The fascination that avant-garde composers have with timbre makes it essential for a singer wanting to perform this repertoire to be able to manipulate his or her voice in these fashions, due to the abundance of timbral effects required for any given composition. The last category I will discuss is one I consider an exception to the rules I have so far exemplified in the realm of extended vocal techniques. The virtuosity required to perform Eight Songs for a Mad King by Peter Maxwell Davies and Versüch über Schwiene by Hans Werner Henze is definitely in the realm of the “extended voice”, but not in the same league at all. These pieces were written for Roy Hart,

Joan La Barbara, “Voice is the Original Instrument.” Contemporary Music Review (Vol 21, No 1, 2002), 36-37. 21 Linda Hirst and David Wright, “Alternative Voices”, Cambridge Companion to Singing, 195. 20

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and extraordinary reciter with an alleged 8 octaves to his name and formidable versatility. He indeed produced actual chords with his voice, a technique we call multiphonics. Other singers capable of this are Joan La Barbara and Julius Eastman. The fact that we can name just two or three people capable of this type of production (La Barbara does not perform works as Hart and Eastman do) should stand to explain why these pieces, and these vocalists, should not be considered within the reasonable realm of compositional and vocal possibility. Once in a while there will be a singer capable of performing Eight Songs, but the work is by no means in the canon of baritone literature. Roy Hart, able to carry off extremity of range and multiphonics in addition to his zealous use of inverse and pressed phonation, glissando, audible breathing, and many of the other effects we have discussed, at extreme levels, could not have created the mad world of King George III without the full use of his vocal prowess.22 This, the most striking and provocative example of extended expression, truly stands alone. Other techniques, perhaps less extreme but just as interesting, include reinforced harmonics (that is, manipulation of formants by channeling air and sound through different resonant cavities), the circular breathing La Barbara uses in her pieces, and her work with microtones.23 These techniques are more accessible to other singers, and indeed are utilized in some standard repertoire, but due to their selective nature (not everyone can breathe circularly) are worth mentioning but not considered within the standard pedagogy. With the avant-garde repertoire for voice only growing, the possibilities for vocal productions remain undefined. It is only logical to include these new techniques in the standard pedagogy, along with traditional bel canto method, because of their pervasiveness in the important literature of the twentieth and

twenty-first centuries. A well-rounded vocalist cannot ignore the repertoire of new music, and indeed should be aware of the possibilities of his or her own voice, as cultural interest turns more and more to new music. Aside from safety considerations that are simply pedagogical factors to take into consideration, as any method of production has, extended vocal techniques are not far off from accessible and already-familiar sounds and productions, and their usage has so expanded the potential of composition for the voice that it is a travesty to ignore them. It is my hope that as a new generation of singers grows into its own, this music will enter the canon of vocal literature and the techniques of which it consists, the standard pedagogy of the modern vocal studio.

The Essential Role of Interpretation in Singing By Karla Dickieson To achieve flawless technical proficiency and agility in singing is one important quality of an artist. If one desires to be a truly successful singer, however, she must aspire to the highest level of artistry which comes only from a true understanding of both the score and text, and a personal interpretation of the song expressed in a sincere and honest manner. A song presented in this way results in magnetism onstage; a performer who has the attention of all audience members focused on her at all times during a performance. A true artist gives more than just a technically flawless performance. For this reason, it is possible that an audience can be moved more by a less advanced singer who sings with intent, sincerity and a true

Paul Griffiths, “Peter Maxwell Davies, The Contemporary Composers. (London: Robson Books, 1981), 74. 23 Joan La Barbara, “Voice is the Original Instrument”, 42. 22

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understanding of what they are singing, than by a further advanced and technically flawless performance by a singer who exhibits no emotional attachment to their repertoire. Singing with perfected technique alone is not enough; personal interpretation and expression of vocal music is not an option, but a necessity if one hopes to enjoy a successful career as a singer. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1964) defines the word interpret as “[to] expound the meaning of (abstruse words, writings, dreams, etc.); make out the meaning of; bring out the meaning of, render, by artistic representation of performance…”.24 Harry Plunket Greene opens his book, Interpretation in Song, by stating that “[i]nterpretation is the highest branch of the singer’s art”.25 Van A. Christy (1974), defines interpretation as simply “the act of musical expression or reproduction”.26 Clifton Ware (1998), in his book, Basics of Vocal Pedagogy goes further to define interpretation as “the act of explaining or clarifying an art work’s meaning (what it is about) according to the artistic intentions of the composer, the textual source, and the performer, in that order”.27 In his book, Singing & Imagination, Thomas Hemsley adds that “[s]ingers are not free to give an individual interpretation of a poem, while ignoring what the composer has done; nor free to sing the composer’s music, while ignoring the words which make clear the thoughts and feelings of which that music is an expression”.28 All of

the definitions come to the same conclusion, though some look deeper than others: interpretation involves studying the poetry and music, and then relating to them in a way which dictates how the song will be expressed. The elevated and desired level of artistry which comes with the interpretation and expression of vocal music is accomplished in many ways. A singer should already have a good foundation with regards to technical ability before attempting to add a level of interpretation to the music. Plunket Greene (1919), suggests that “[t]echnique must be the singer’s servant, not his master”.29 In other words, a singer’s technique should be sufficient in terms of breathing, support, and equalization of registers to allow for the imagination to take over the song. Hemsley (1998), suggests that one “should not begin to sing, until there is a clear picture in their mind of what they intend to communicate through singing”.30 Before the first note of the accompaniment has been played, the singer should already possess intent towards what she is about to communicate. Even the initial breath should be guided by a visualization of the phrase which is to be sung and what is to be communicated to the audience through it. Hemsley (1998) adds that “it is the impulse to sing which determines how we breathe – which stimulates us to take a breath appropriate to what is to be sung”.31 For example, when one is singing a very tragic song, the breathing might be gasp-like, reflecting the emotional state which the character expressing the poetry is feeling at that moment. Imagination can also help singers with technical issues such as poor breath management. If a singer is having trouble getting through a phrase because she is running out of breath, imagining the phrase and delivering it with intent may eliminate the problem. Peterson (1966) agrees that “many problems of breathing disappear when the singer’s attention is focused upon interpretation and musicianship”.32 In these

Fowler, H.W., & F.G. Fowler. (ed.) The concise oxford dictionary of current english (1964). London, England: Oxford University Press. p. 637 25 Plunket, Harry G. Interpretation in song. (1919). Toronto: The McMillan Co. of Canada, Ltd. p.1 26 Christy, Van A. Expressive singing: Volume 1. (1974). Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown Company Publishers. p.189 27 Ware, Clifton. Basics of vocal pedagogy: the foundations and process of singing. (1998). U.S.A.: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. p.1 28 Hemsley, Thomas. Singing & imagination: A human approach to a great musical tradition. (1998). New York: Oxford University Press Inc. p.114 24

Plunket, p.5 Hemsley, p.47 31 Hemsley, p.100 32 Peterson, Paul W. Natural singing and expressive conducting. (1966). North Carolina: John F. Blair. p.19 29 30

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ways, it is clear that the breath is being used for expressive purposes, guided by the singer’s interpretation of the song. So how does one go about developing effective interpretive skills for singing? The easiest way to begin the interpretation process is by studying the poetry to which the song is set. The presence of text helps to make the intent of both the poet and the composer more obvious to the singer. The text becomes a springboard from which the singer can launch herself into the interpretation of the song. Clifton Ware suggests “a thorough understanding of poetry, including denotation/connotation, imagery, figurative language, allusion, meter, tone, and pattern, can help singers to better understand and express not only the sound but the meaning of words in songs”.33 Peterson (1966) seems to agree when he states,

what the poet is saying, they cannot be in a position to make their singing appropriate to the sentiments being expressed. They cannot interpret the music in anything but the most generalized and superficial way”.35 He goes on to say that “singers must, in effect, in the moment of performing, be able to love the audience, and must genuinely wish to share with them the experience, through singing, of the poet’s and composer’s inspiration”.36 It is necessary that singers’ first attempt to fully understand the intent of both the composer and poet before adding a personal interpretation of a song. Peterson (1966) offers, “to become a true artist, the singer must study the text and music so thoroughly that he thinks and interprets with the same sensitivity as the poet and composer who inspired the song”.37 Only after both the text and the music of the score have been studied in detail can one respond sensitively and accordingly communicate sensitively with an audience in performance. First, one must strive to find the story in the song. By reading the poetry and translations, much is revealed with regards to the characters, setting, situation, and emotions. Robert Caldwell and Joan Wall (2001) explore this concept and suggest this:

Just as the composer is inspired to set the text to music, the singer should be equally as inspired to convey the message through song. Imagination provides the singer with the ability to visualize the actions, characters, setting, and similar details. The inflections of the voice, tonal colors, changes of dynamics, and all the various factors of vocal artistry evolve from poetic sensitivity. The voice is the reflector of the imagination.34 When singing songs in languages other than the singer’s native tongue, one should always do a word-for-word translation as well as a poetic translation. Word-for-word translations are of great importance, as they provide the singer with a true understanding of the words which she is singing. This allows for appropriate word emphasis and phrase structure, as well as proper flow of the phrase. The composer’s interpretation of the poetry generally emphasizes these previously mentioned elements, but it is not enough for a singer to rely strictly on the composer’s intent. Hemsley suggests that “until singers know

We want our student to find the story in her song, even if the story is merely suggested. When she works to render a story from the song’s text and music, the student gives herself a conceptual and emotional structure she can use to sequence and pace her inner activity. When she begins to sense the story within or surrounding the song, she starts to sharpen the complex details of the human condition – the very ideas we want her to express through the song. She awakens her own deep currents of emotions, ideas, relationships, and struggles, which release from within her and play out in her interior life, ultimately forming the visible and audible distinctions of the score. And when the audience members sense a story or even its raw outlines in those distinctions, they ready themselves to experience meaningful details of the human condition, and they

Ware, Clifton. Basics of vocal pedagogy: the foundations and process of singing. (1998). U.S.A.: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. p.2 33

Hemsley, p.113 ibid, p.190 37 Peterson, p.50 35 36

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Peterson, p.54-55 8

perceive deeper meaning in the song.38

be required to sing many songs, each projecting very different mood. This requires significant concentration, and a mental switch must occur between songs which is obvious to the audience. These changes in mood will result in changes in the vocal colours and qualities displayed by the singer. Christy notes that “all songs require an appropriate tone color to best express their general mood” and goes on to suggest that,

Caldwell and Wall, go further to suggest a twostep method for interpreting the text of a song in their book, Excellence in Singing: 1. Have your student read the text for its content and develop her own interpretation of its meaning. a.) Ask her to think about who is singing to whom. Have her decide whether she is singing to a specific person, to a group, or to herself. b.) Ask her to explore the intent of the singer – what prompts the singer to say these words? 2. Then ask her to read the words aloud with a meaningful dramatic interpretation.39

It is as important a resource for a singer to use various shades of tone in interpreting songs as it is for a painter to have at his command the full range of the color chart. It is not enough for the singer or painter to have all shades of color available, however: they must have the even more important artistic sensitivity to select just the right shade at the right place. When the singer is able on a phrase, even on a single note, to express any divergent sentiment such as joy-sorrow, passion-apathy, love-hatred, dignity-frivolity, longing-indifference, tragedy-humor, he truly can move the listener to the core of his being. Then and only then is the singer a real artist.42

A very important step in the interpretation of song is an understanding of the character who is singing. One must look at who the character is, what their motivation for singing is, who they are singing to, and what their emotional state is at the time the song is sung.40 These elements may not always be overt within the score. This then allows for singers’ to imagine their own character qualities and motivations, adding a deeper level to the song which they are singing. Some of the most moving performances are given by singers who look deeper into the poetry and identify intimately with the character who is singing by drawing upon their own life experiences and emotions, thus adding depth to the interpretation. Christy (1975), concurs that “since finest details of expression are beyond the capacity of the composer to notate in the score, they are the result of the singer’s projecting his own personality, his own individual thoughts, emotions, and understandings of the song”.41 When singing a full recital program, or within the framework of an opera, a singer may

Once a singer has explored the intent of both the composer and poet of a song, she is free to add her own interpretation and emotions. When a singer gives a sincere, honest performance of a song which has been prepared in this way, the audience will be transfixed on the performer and moved by the performance. Plunket Greene (1919) calls this phenomenon magnetism, and suggests that it is a special gift. He goes on to suggest “magnetism is the indefinable something which passes from singer to audience and audience to singer alike; for the audience which the singer holds in the hollow of his hand, holds him as surely in its own”.43 Hemsley (1998), believes that a magnetic singer is “mentally drawing the audience, or their partners to the stage, to themselves rather than trying to importune”44. Magnetism could also be seen as effective storytelling on the part of the singer. Christy concurs that “the singer must be essentially a

Caldwell, Robert, & Joan Wall. Excellence in singing: multilevel learning and multilevel teaching. Volume 4: becoming an artist. (2001). Redmond, WA: Caldwell Publishing Company. p.78

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ibid, p.60 ibid, p.81 41 Christy, Van A. Expressive singing: Volume 2. (1975). Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown Company Publishers. p.111 39 40

ibid, p.122 Plunket, p.9 44 Hemsley, p.33 42 43

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good storyteller. Telling the story must be so vivid and interesting that attention is held continuously from beginning to end”.45 Sincere, appropriate gestures, facial expressions and other physical details combined with details of vocal effect help to make a performer magnetic. Peterson (1966) discusses the importance of these physical details when he writes, “the face must always portray the mood of the song. The eyes, especially, are effective means for artistic interpretation”.46 These effects combined with sufficient technique and sincere interpretation lead to an enjoyable and memorable performance. Fields (1977) summed up the idea of total expression when he said, “expression in song, therefore, demands more than technical competence. It requires growth of character, reinforced by a mature understanding that can interpret and communicate the thrilling dramatic, philosophical, and esthetic content of a musical composition to the audience”.47 It is not sufficient to sing with perfected technique alone; a personal interpretation and expression of vocal music is not an option, but is extremely necessary if one hopes to enjoy a successful career as a singer. Interpreting a song involves exploring the intent of both the poet and composer, then adding an interpretation which draws on personal experiences and emotions and combining these things to create a mood and atmosphere for the piece. This results in appropriate dynamic changes, structure of phrases and differences in tonal colour which lead to a performance which is certain to move an audience more deeply than the most technically impressive performer ever could.

Aggiustamento in Male and Female Voices By Julie Grieve The skilled singer, trained in the bel canto technique, appears to have a single register. There are, however, several events which occur at various regions of this apparently uniform voice. While there are several different opinions regarding the registers of both the male and female voices, there is one generally accepted view of the twentieth century. This approach states that there are specific registral events that take place in every voice. With the male voice, he sings in the voce di petto (chest voice) until the primo passaggio. The primo passaggio and secondo passaggio are register transition points, with the zona di passaggio (the passage zone) between them.48 During the zona di passaggio, he sings in the voce mista (mixed voice), and he sings in the voce di testa (head voice) above the second passaggio.49 Likewise, in the female voice, she sings in the chest voice, which terminates with the lower passaggio (similar to the male’s primo passaggio), followed by the zona di passaggio ending with the upper passaggio (similar to the male’s secondo passaggio), followed by the female’s upper range.50 It is important to note that within the zona di passaggio in the female voice, there is the ‘lower middle’ voice and the ‘upper middle’ voice. The concept of vowel modification, or aggiustamento, which is the focus of this paper, is used to unify the registers of both the male and female voices. While there are several similarities between aggiustamento in male and female voices, there are distinct differences as well. There are several schools of vocal pedagogy which share, to some extent, the idea of vowel modification, yet the degrees and

Christy 1974, p.194 Peterson, p.58 47 Fields, Victor A. Foundations of the singer’s art. (1977). New York: Vantage Press Inc. p. 265 45

48Richard

Miller, The Structure of Singing- System and Art in Vocal Technique, (Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 1996), 115. 49Ibid., 118. 50Ibid., 134.

46

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voice.”55 This concept is not given much priority in the French school since the singer focuses less on matters of registration and instead appreciates his or her ‘natural’ sound. Therefore, this singer “finds little necessity to modify . . . [their] sound, and tends to apply the principles of vowel modification hardly at all.”56 It would appear that the French pedagogical approach to vowel modification is almost opposite to the Germanic approach. Singers from the English school use a technique that tends to fall somewhere between the French and the German approaches. Miller argues that the English school adopts somewhat Italianate pedagogies as their national aesthetic, and so in “the case of vowel modification, this means avoidance in general of the heavy alteration of the German school and the whiteness of the French school.”57 A singer using the English technique does have a “tendency toward vowel distortion as pitch mounts”58 because the brilliance of the upper register, which is heard in voices trained in the Italian school, is lost. The Italian school, with its focus on bel canto, uses the term aggiustamento for the technique of vowel modification. It is a much less drastic method of achieving register uniformity in comparison to deckung. As well, in most cases, “vowel modification is induced only near the secondo passaggio point.”59 In contrast to the German school, which advocates extreme muscular tensions in order to accomplish vowel modification, “the physiological alterations within the vocal tract [i.e. pharyngeal distention and laryngeal depression] which the German sees as concomitant to vowel modification are avoided in the Italian school.”60 D. Ralph Appelman offers an excellent description of the purpose of aggiustamento:

approaches at which they accomplish it vary. In the German school, the concept of vowel modification is termed deckung. The aim of deckung is relatively the same as that of aggiustamento: to achieve unity between the registers, while maintaining consistent resonance. Deckung occurs from “darkening the vowel by altering its acoustical shape through increased laryngeal depression and pharyngeal enlargement; the vocalis muscles are encouraged to greater activity as a result of escalated muscular antagonisms in the torso and neck.”51 Heavy deckung, where there is an extreme depression of the larynx, may be harmful for the voice. Dr. Richard Miller states that “in this pedagogy, the tendency may be marked so that an arpeggio (1-3-5-8-5-3-1) executed on (Α) . . . in the key of F will sound to an uninitiated ear as though it were (Α - o - u - o - - Α) . . . although the same vowel is indicated throughout.”52 Using this technique, if a soprano was to sing a C major scale beginning on middle C on the vowel [Α], upon reaching the zona di passaggio the vowel will have already reached a “high degree of neutralization, regardless of its actual phonetic shape.”53 Evidently, deckung, although it aims to achieve resonance and unity, vocal qualities all singers wish to have, it accomplishes these things by extreme and potentially hazardous methods. In the French school, there is less emphasis on the appoggio technique, which is one of the fundamentals of the Italian approach to singing and “as a result, the general weight of [the voice is] lighter.”54 There is, however, an historic parallel between the voce mista of the Italian school and the voix mixte of the French school: both look for “a gradual modification of the vowel . . . [to achieve an] even scale throughout the singing

55Richard

Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 137. 56Ibid. 57Ibid. 58Ibid., 138. 59Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 136. 60Ibid.

51Richard

Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 135. 52Ibid. 53Ibid. 54Ibid.,136. 11

embouchure.”63 Although it may sound complicated, the process of a gradual opening of the mouth in order to adjust the vowel is very natural. As the mouth opens to accommodate a rise in pitch, the vowel naturally moves towards a neighbouring, more neutral vowel: [i] to [I], [I] to [e], [e] to [Ε], [Ε] to [a], [a] to [ ], [ ] to [O], [O] to [U], [U] to [u].64 Sundberg states: “Some variability exists between singers using different singing techniques. In other words, some singers can be expected to be considerably easier to understand at high pitches than others.”65 This reflects the contrast between the several schools of singing that exist, particularly the differences between the Germanic and Italianate teachings. As it was stated earlier, severe vowel distortion may occur when using deckung, whereas a slight alteration of the vowel when employing aggiustamento achieves what deckung aims for, without the muscular strain and loss of vowel integrity. The male voice and the female voice share both similarities and differences when modifying vowels. In the male voice, vowel modification is used to maintain a consistent timbre throughout the range of the voice and thus avoid the feared “break” between registers. Although it is “chiefly the secondo passaggio point that often frustrates a tenor, the problem generally results from what has taken place below it”66 in the zona di passaggio. It is, therefore, necessary to begin a very slight degree of aggiustamento at the primo passaggio. This allows him to have the chiaroscuro quality in a relatively lower part of his range. As pitch ascends, and there is a continued, but not extreme, use of aggiustamento, the bright/dark timbre is carried into the zona di passaggio, the secondo passaggio, and the upper register. An indication of the effectiveness of vowel

One of the objectives of the singers of bel canto was the development of a vocal line that was pure, unbroken, and uninterrupted. The transition of registers- either up or down the scale- demanded a modification in the tonal colour of the topmost notes to prevent them from becoming disagreeable and harsh and to preserve the quality of the vocal sound as well as an even tonal line.61 As Appelman implies, a modification in the tonal colour in the upper register is a modification of the vowels. The vowel spectrum may be divided into two categories: front or closed vowels and back or open vowels. The closed vowels consist of [ι], [ε], [Ε], [Θ] and [α]. The open vowels are [υ], [U], [O], [ ], and [Α]. In the centre of these two groups are the neutral vowels: [℘] and [↔]. These types of vowels are significant because of the timbres they produce when sung at high pitches. When the singer is not making use of aggiustamento, it may be noted that as pitch rises the vocal timbre changes. In his or her upper register the closed and open vowels produce very different vocal sonorities. The close vowels are rather shrill sounding since they lack the chiaroscuro the Italian school advocates. To avoid this undesirable vocal quality, one must “minimize the conjoining of high harmonic partials [which are created naturally by the shape of the vocal tract when singing closed vowels,] and high pitch.”62 The singer achieves this by modifying the closed vowels in the direction of their neighbour that is closer to the neutral centre. Since the vocal tract does not produce as many highly-resonant partials for open vowels, the resulting timbre is often too dark when sung at high pitches. Aggiustamento corrects this problem by modifying the vowel slightly towards a more closed vowel, thus creating a balance of chiaroscuro. It is “most easily accomplished by retaining the same tongue position and moving the jaw. . . there is no need for [a] change of

63Arden

J. Hopkin, “Vowel Equalization,” Journal of Singing- the Official Journal of the National Association of Teachers of Singing 53, no. 3 (January-February 1997): 11. 64Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 124. 65Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), 117. 66Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices, (Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 1993), 48-49.

61D.

Ralph Appelman, The Science of Vocal Pedagogy, (Bloomington, ID: Indiana University Press, 1974), 90. 62Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 125. 12

modification is the quantity of performers who employ it. Jussi Björling, for instance: when listening to his recordings one is able to hear “how well-blended the upper registers are and how critically important this is in order to balance the male voice.”67 Enrico Caruso also understood the importance of “vowel modification in the Italian tradition”68 in order to maintain a healthy instrument. “Che Gelida Manina” from Puccini’s La Bohème is a prime example of the process of aggiustamento in the male, and in this case specifically, the tenor voice. When singing the “la speranza” phrase of this aria, the tenor continues to “differentiate the vowels [a] and [e], but the modification process shows a spectral change toward [ ] and [Ε], or even [Θ].”69 When comparing Roberto Alagna, Luciano Pavarotti, and Jose Carreras’ performances of this aria, one hears no vowel distortion. At the same time as the audience can understand the lyrics, the tenor maintains an even vocal timbre. Each performance exemplifies the necessity and beautiful results of vowel modification. The female voice also reflects the importance of aggiustamento. Before going into depth regarding the female voice and vowel modification, one must acknowledge that each voice is unique. Registral events do not occur in the exact same location for every singer, whether male or female. In the soprano voice, the lower passaggio point typically occurs around Eb4 and the upper passaggio point occurs around F#5. Within this zona di passaggio, “a mouth posture that is too narrow in [the] upper middle range will cause shrillness, [and] a mouth posture that is too open in [the] lower middle range will cause muddiness of timbre.”70 Although the

mouth opens wider as pitch ascends and the zygomatic area remains elevated, Miller admonishes that “grinning foolishly”71 is not the answer to migrating towards a more neutral vowel. An excellent example of a singer’s use of vowel modification is the phrase “ti vo’ la fronte incoronar” from Susanna’s aria “Deh, vieni, non tardar” from Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro. The first statement of “incoronar” begins at G4 and ascends to A5. At the beginning of this phrase, the mouth “remains only slightly more open than it would by in speech until the syllable -ro-, at which point a gradual aggiustamento of the vowel begins: a subtle increase in mouth aperture and jaw lowering.”72 Both Graziella Sciutti and Alison Hagley who performed the role of Susanna, have clear diction in their upper registers but their vocal timbres do not change when approaching or past the upper passaggio. It is apparent that they make use of vowel modification yet they do so subtly. The primary difference between aggiustamento in male and female voices is a result of vocal acoustics. The fundamentals exhibited in the female voice are different from those of the male voice. As pitch rises, “the number of prominent harmonic partials become . . . reduced [since] the fundamental is raised.”73 Because of this, the soprano “exhibits roughly only half the number of overtones when singing her high C (C6) as does the tenor when singing his high C (C5).”74 The soprano, then, may be forgiven for having slightly more distorted vowels in her upper register than the tenor voice has, since her voice has fewer upper partials which define vowels. Miller argues: “for that reason, vowel definition at high pitch levels will undergo more modification for her than for the male”75 in order for her voice to get more harmonic partials to define the vowel so the audience may better understand what is being sung.

67David

L. Jones, “Male Voice Protection: Understanding the ‘Cover’”, _ 2004, http://www.voiceteacher.com/male_voice.html (accessed February 1, 2004). 68Craig Timberlake, “Practica Musicae: On Becoming Caruso,” Journal of Singing- the Official Journal of the National Association of Teachers of Singing 52, no. 4 (March-April 1996): 35. 69Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices, (Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 1993), 48. 70Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 130.

71Ibid.,

134. Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 130. 73Ibid., 132. 74Ibid. 75Ibid. 72Richard

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Performance Anxiety: The Musician’s Struggle

In summation, aggiustamento is a valuable technique within the Italian school. In both the male and female voice, vowel modification produces a consistency in vocal colour: the chiaroscuro timbre. This consistent timbre is created by slightly turning the vowel that is being sung towards a more neutral neighbour. It allows for uniformity of the registers, creating the impression of an apparently seamless voice. In the female voice, however, the main difference is that there are fewer vowel-defining upper partials the higher the pitch. Understandably, the male voice, since it is lower, has more overtones and so his vowels (before applying vowel modification) are better-defined than in the female’s upper register. Therefore, he does not require the same degree of aggiustamento that the female singer does. Both male and female voices, however, when employing aggiustamento, epitomize the vocal quality the bel canto school advocates.

By Beth Hörst On some level, all performers, including musicians, public speakers, magicians, dancers and actors, fear some aspect of performing. Instrumentalists may fear muscle spasms or shakes that would affect positioning and fingering, woodwind players and singers may fear trembling lips and jaws, and all artists fear loss of concentration or memory lapses. Most performers have anxieties over the factors they have little control of. An audience’s reaction and judgment are relevant sources of concern for performers, and the fear of making public mistakes is often overwhelming. A performer may dread the outcome of the performance, imagine failure, or go into the performance with a dread of inaccuracies or other shortcomings.76 The irony of the situation is that this fear of the future (the impending performance) affects the present performance and results in a more negative outcome than if the performer had had no, or less, initial fear. Although a certain amount of performance anxiety is normal, and perhaps even helpful, it is when anxiety begins to limit or affect the performance that it becomes a real point of concern. The following will examine the causes and effects of performance anxiety, as well as a variety of solutions and treatments of this common singer’s ailment. An age old dilemma, anxiety has been present in performance arguably since man began to perform, though research into the issues and effects of stage fright have only recently become a social science.77 Early Mark Ross Clark, Singing, Acting, and Movement in Opera: A Guide to Singer-getic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 105. 77 Elizabeth Valentine, “The Fear of Performance,” in Musical Performance: A Guide to Understanding, ed. John Rink. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 76

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studies surrounding general performance anxiety came out of the study of sports psychology. However, musical performance anxiety is unique, although related, to other forms of public appearance anxieties.78 Deemed “the musician’s number one enemy,” stage fright is an often debilitating effect on performance.79 Havas describes stage fright as “one of the most destructive elements in the performing arts, be it acting, dancing, singing, making a speech or playing an instrument.”80 Others define this condition as the fear experienced before and during a performance. Valentine’s analysis of the dilemma defines performance anxiety as “the experience of persisting, distressful apprehension about, and/or actual impairment of, performance skills in a public context, to a degree unwarranted, given the individual’s musical aptitude, training and level of preparation.”81 Performance anxiety, on its most basic level, is simply a physical, mental and emotional reaction to a stressful situation. It is often associated with the broader category of fear commonly referred to as social phobia, such as fear of people or public situations.82 Performance anxiety meets the criteria for being catigorised as a phobia since it is marked by “a persistent, unreasonable fear resulting in intense distress.”83 Performance anxiety is a conditioned, habitual response; the fear associated with performing is conditioned into the individual after onset, and continues or even worsens over time. Stage fright “occurs through thoughts and learned responses to performance situations,” and therefore is the result of a pattern of behaviour developed by

the performer and repeated in every performance situation.84 Like an addition, this pattern of behaviour must be undone to treat the habit. Fear must be disassociated with performing in order to reduce stage fright. The incidence of performance anxiety is extremely common. Famous performer’s who admittedly suffered from a significant amount of performance distress include Maria Callas, Caruso, Pablo Casals, Godowsky, Vladimir Horowitz, Rachmaninoff and Barbara Streisand.85 Professionals and amateurs are equally affected; in this instance, experience does not necessarily reduce stress. Although there is evidence that anxiety can decrease with time and additional experience, most performers report generally consistent levels of anxiety throughout their careers; even though experience is gained, the expectations are equally raised.86 A 1990s American study found that 21% of American students of music suffered from significant performance anxiety, while another 40% suffered from moderate anxiety and 30% reported “moderate distress and impairment in performance” due to anxiety. The remaining 9% reported that they avoided performance opportunities all together due to severe anxiety. A more recent American study of several thousand professional musicians reported 24% of musicians considered stage fright “a hazard to their health,” and 16% reporting it as a serious health problem.87 Another study of nearly all the professional orchestra members in the Netherlands found that 59% of instrumentalists were “affected professionally or personally by stage fright and that 10% suffered anticipatory anxiety for weeks before performances.”88 Some experience stage fright

2002), 168. Charlene Ryan, “Gender Differences in Children’s Experience of Musical Performance Anxiety,” Psychology of Music 32, no. 1 (2004): 90. 79 Kato Havas, Stage Fright: Its Causes and Cures (London: Bosworth & Co. Ltd., 1973), 2. 80 Ibid., 2. 81 Valentine, 168. 82 Clark, 105. 83 Deborah Caputo Rosen, R.N., Ph.D. and Robert Thayer Sataloff M.D., D.M.A., Psychology of Voice Disorders (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group), 141.

Clark, 104. Valentine, 158. 86 David Roland and Glenn D. Wilson, “Performance Anxiety,” in The Science and Psychology of Music Performance, ed. Richard Parncutt and Gary E. McPherson. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 9. 87 André-Francois Arcier, “Stage Fright,” in Medical Problems of the Instrumentalist Musician, ed. Raoul Tubiana and Peter Camadio. (London: Martin Dunitz Ltd., 2000), 507. 88 Roland., 48.

78

84 85

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only on stage, while others experience anxiety hours or even weeks before a performance. Others experience anxiety even after the performance is complete.89 Undeniably common in most performers, there is also evidence that performance anxiety is far more prevalent and severe in women.90 Critics of this theory speculate that women simply report or admit to having anxiety more often than men, not that they actually suffer from higher levels. In a Canadian study or child performers, findings showed that boys’ heart rates rose much less than girls’ pre-performance, but exceeded girls’ heart rates during performance. By adulthood however, men appear, in general, less physically and emotionally affected by stage fright than do women.91 Adult men and women also display different methods of dealing with anxiety in performance situations: women tend to rely on emotionally-focused strategies, whereas men tend to employ problem solving, mentally-focused strategies.92 Solo performance unanimously trumps group performance concerning a higher amount of performance anxiety.93 Stage fright has also been linked with particular personality types and traits. For example, a perfectionist or “type-A” personality (Myers-briggs J’s) will likely suffer from a greater amount of performance anxiety seeing as their standards may be higher; so is the case when comparing a professional and student performer. It is worthy to point out that self-prescribed perfectionism and socially-prescribed perfectionism (that which is imposed by others) result in differing, though both high, levels of performance anxiety. Those with high socially-prescribed perfectionism exhibit the highest levels of anxiety.94 Although obviously prevalent and common, performance anxiety remains a taboo subject, rarely addressed, by many musicians and teachers alike. Although some performers

may admit to having some degree of performance anxiety, this is particularly rare for musicians, in comparison with theatrical and dance performers.95 A genuine “hush-hush” subject in the music world, most musicians fail to admit they have any issue with nervousness, as this may brand them as a less capable performer, or make patrons or audiences uncomfortable. Many try to hide their anxiety from the public and other performers. There is a certain amount of shame attached to this most natural process. Singers may consider stage fright to be embarrassing and “a weakness” since visible signs of nervousness could greatly affect a performance. For example, a very gifted performer can be stifled by their anxiety and alternatively musicians with perhaps less actual skill or musicianship may advance faster or become more successful due to their extremely comfortable and easeful performance on stage.96 The management of performance anxiety is most certainly a “make or break factor” of success in the music industry.97 For singers in particular, high levels of anxiety can cause detrimental effects to productive singing. Symptoms of performance anxiety can be classified as physiological, behavioural or mental. Seeing as performance anxiety is a neuroendocrine response, physical effects include palpitations, hyperventilation, dry mouth, sweating, nausea, diarrhoea and dizziness.98 In hearing tests carried out at the University of Indiana by Dr. S. D. Curtis, subjects were unable to make fine distinctions in pitch when agitated, resulting in an out of tune performance.99 Other physical processes affected by anxiety are the subtle fine motor skills and muscular co-ordinations required to either sing or play. When suffering from anxiety, increased levels of adrenaline in the body elevate the heart rate and quicken breathing, resulting in overly rapid, ineffective breath management and hypoxia (low blood oxygen). Fluids are redirected to the blood

Arcier, 512. Roland, 48. 91 Ryan, 89. 92 Ibid., 91. 93 Arcier, 507. 94 Roland, 49. 89

Havas, 2. Clark, 105. 97 Ibid., 104. 98 Valentine, 158. 99 Clark, 101.

90

95 96

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stream, causing a dry mouth sensation and/or perspiration.100 Panic attacks or fainting can occur in extreme cases.101 Behavioural symptoms include trembling, shaking, stiffness, twitches, “dead-pan” expression, or other impairments of the performance itself.102 Mentally, anxiety can distract the performer from the task at hand, causing memory losses or other mistakes. A severe sense of dread, caused by negative thought processes and loss of self-esteem can result in extreme mental anxiety. One example of a mental process of performance anxiety is “catastrophising,” or irrationally exaggerating the likelihood of disaster and convincing one’s self that the performance will be a negative experience. Another common example is “selfhandicapping” whereby the performer prematurely fabricates excuses (hangovers, illness, lack of sleep) to justify any mistakes that might occur.103 Conversely, some degree of tension adds electricity to a performance; hence fear can be a good thing.104 The body’s innate physical response to anxiety transports oxygen and adrenalin into the blood stream, causing the heart to beat faster. This in turn causes a heightened sense of awareness and alertness. Unfortunately this alertness is often distorted into tension when muscles ready themselves to be used, thus breathing becomes shallow and rapid, and extremities may tingle or become numb.105 Still, a healthy level of performance anxiety can be classified as "good stress; a state of heightened physical and mental alertness [and the] type of emotional high that intensifies and can thus enhance the performance.”106 A variety of solutions to performance anxiety are currently available. Just as the anxiety itself can be classified as physiological, behavioural or mental (cognitive), therapeutic

solutions to performance anxiety are largely grouped under four categories: behavioural, cognitive, psycho-therapeutical or 107 pharmacological. Behavioural-wise, some schools advocate that musicians must simply learn to perform with the nerves. Is this a helpful scenario, a simple solution, or a ridiculous suggestion? As it is true that all public performers experience some degree of performance anxiety at one point or another, it is also possible to combat this anxiety by simple means. Certain aspects of cognitive processing, including self-assurance, selfcongratulating and positive self-talk are often employed. Other solutions include relaxation techniques, such as yoga, meditation, hypnotherapy and the ever-popular Alexander technique. Diet alterations and drug use are more prevalent than ever. The use of drugs such as Beta-blockers has risen significantly over the past several decades. Forms of mental processing, or cognitive re-constructing, can be used as effective tools for mild performance anxiety.108 Dr. S. D. Curtis offers that musicians “suffer from performance anxiety because they have failed to develop the mental and emotional strength that will allow for more positive thoughts and feelings.”109 Since performance anxiety is rooted in self-esteem issues, performers can benefit from recognising their musical strengths and desires before proceeding to the stage.110 A positive attitude can go further than one might think. Preperformance self-assurance and self-motivating comments can often boost a performer enough to take the edge off. However, Lieberman and others caution against the isolation of verbal self-assurance. According to sensory awareness studies, imagistic instructions are far more effective than verbal instructions.111 Therefore, it is suggested that visualizing a positive, successful performance, mentally

Roland, 48. Anne Petrovich, “How Teachers Can Help Performance Anxiety,” American Music Teacher 53, no. 3 (2003), 24. 102 Arcier, 513. 103 Valentine, 169. 104 Roland, 47. 105 Lucinda Bassett, Life Without Limits (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2001), 127. 106 Petrovich, 26. 100 101

Arcier, 515. Rosen, 140. 109 Clark, 105. 110 Ibid., 107. 111 Julie Lyonn Lieberman, You Are Your Instrument: A Definitive Musician’s Guide to Practise and Performance (New York: Huiksi Music, 1991), 79. 107 108

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rehearsing the performance, or auralizing the piece (using one’s inner ear) are more effective tools of mental processing than a simple “self pep-talk.”112 Others rely on a regimented preperformance routine, which may include a scheduled order of events throughout the entire day, such as napping, meditating, warming up, dressing, to the types of food they will eat pre-performance. Some performers are so set in these routines that any interruption to this schedule could greatly increase their anxiety.113 Other mental stabilizing techniques include methods of combating that which most vocalists are primary concerned with during public performances– memory loss. Some performers create and rely on “memory stations,” or designated measures throughout a composition where one can check in or jump to if a memory loss occurs. Using video- or audiotapes in practise sessions serves to aid performers in reviewing material and identifying possible problematic areas. This method may also create a mock audience (the camera), when one is rehearsing in lesson.114 Relaxation techniques and autogenic therapies implemented before performing have a profound calming affect on many musicians. Yoga, Zen, Tai Chi and Reiki are among some of the Eastern originating models that have been collaborated into Western music. Alexander Technique can serve to release tensions and focus the mind. As well as cultivating relaxation, this low impact technique fosters more effective co-ordinations and posture, balance and body awareness. A related school, Progressive Muscle Relaxation, involves tensing and relaxing muscle groups in sequence, in hopes of co-ordinating and relaxing muscles before proceeding to the stage. 115 Self-hypnotising or hypnotherapy can induce a state of calm and serenity.116 In this

form of treatment, positive verbal reinforcements can be delivered under hypnosis, reinforcing to the subconscious a sense of confidence and self worth.117 Proper warm-ups are necessary. Being physically prepared, as well as mentally prepared, is critical for all musicians. Aside from the aforementioned self-preparation and relaxation techniques, general musical preparation is often the key to an anxiety free (or low anxiety) performance; practice makes perfect. Knowing the music as well as humanly possible is a sure way to reduce at least some anxiety, whereas being under prepared can be detrimental to a successful performance, and heighten anxiety. Running the piece(s) or portion of the performance in front of some form of an audience prior to the public event can serve to reinforce a performer’s confidence. Regular performance opportunities, such as master-classes can serve in this purpose.118 Attending to non-musical matters, such as administrative or logistic issues, well in advance, can help reduce the stress of a performance, whereas a disorganized performance can contribute to stress and distract a performer.119 To reiterate, certain personality types and lifestyle choices contribute to the level of anxiety experienced by different musicians. Those with stressful lifestyle elements in general, such as family disharmony, other addictions or substantial financial stress, may suffer from greater anxiety in general, as well as higher performance anxiety. Having an organized, low- to moderate-stress lifestyle can obviously contribute to reducing performance and other anxieties. Valentine suggests creating a “performance-free” or “music-free” component to one’s life, such as a non-music related hobby, to balance the demands of a performing career with a happy nonperforming home life.120 Diet can also affect one’s performance, as well as one’s anxiety levels. High caffeine

Ibid., 80. Roland, 57. 114 Joann Kirchner, “Managing Musical Performance Anxiety,” American Music Teacher 54, no. 3 (2005), 31. 115 Ibid., 32. 116 Eloise Ristad, A Soprano on Her Head: Right-side-up Reflections on Life and Other Performances (Moab: Real People Press, 1982), 171. 112 113

Roland, 54. Kirchner, 32. 119 Kristy Meretta, “Clammy Hands and Inner Voice,” International Musician 102, no. 7 (2004), 11. 120 Valentine, 173. 117 118

18

diets dry the vocal folds, cause physical jitters and hinder concentration. Caffeine also inhibits sleep, which may contribute to illness, or affect one’s performance by reducing alertness. Eliminating or reducing caffeine can be a subtle but simple change to combat anxiety.121 Another popular dietary remedy is the humble banana. High in natural betablockers, a banana can be an effective natural sedative. Other herbal remedies, such as Bach Flower Sedatives, are mild, natural alternatives that can be taken prior to or during a performance.122To the more serious, various drugs promise to reduce or relieve anxiety all together. While it is true that drugs can be effective, it is equally true that their misuse can be highly dangerous. Anxiety-reducing drugs should never be taken unless medically prescribed. Introduced in the 1960s, Betablockers, such as Propranolol (Inderal), block the body's reaction to adrenaline. Beta receptors are found in the heart, lungs, arteries, brain and uterus, thus beta-blockers chemically ‘block’ these receptors and prevent norepinephrine for binding to these receptors. Mild side effects of most beta-blockers include: rash, fainting, dizziness, fatigues, headache, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, dry mouth, heartburn, bloating, cold extremities, sleep disturbances, impotence or decreased libido, coughing, joint pain and muscle cramps. Clearly most of these non-life threatening ailments would still affect a musician and their performance. Not all individuals would experience all or any of these side effects. However more serious effects of beta-blockers include an increase in frequency and severity of asthma attacks (bornchoconstrictions), dangerously low blood pressure and uterine contractions. They may also complicate the effects of Raynaud's syndrome, and diabetes. Allergic reaction and anaphylactic shock causing unconsciousness or death are rare but present concerns associated with this family of drugs. Beta-blockers are not considered addictive, however long term use can lead to a

physical, if not mental, dependence. This in turn will require an increase in dosage to remain effective. There is also some evidence of withdrawal upon discontinuing betablockers.123 Propranolol is considered a fairly safe and mild drug and is often prescribed for treatment of high blood pressure, angina pectoris, irregular heart rhythms, migraines and hyperthyroidism. Side effects of Propranolol are more specific, since it enters the brain faster than other blockers, and therefore results in more side effects of the nervous system, such as hallucinations, nightmares, depression and short term memory loss.124 All of the afore mentioned effects could and would have major effects on a musician’s performance. The irony of beta-blockers causing memory loss lies in the fact that most users take the drug primarily as a means by which to calm down and focus, so that memory loss will not occur. There are presently several types of beta-blockers available, including Beta-1 selective blockers, which target only the receptor-1 area; the heart, but not the uterus or lungs. Beta-blockers are not technically sedatives and can not ‘cure’ anxiety of a purely psychological nature. Since beta-blockers are chemicals used to treat physical imbalances or block normally functioning systems, these drugs will have little to no effect on emotional and mental symptoms of stage fright. They will not help treat sleep deprivation or negative feelings associated with performance, nor will they reverse negative thought patterns. They are simply inhibiters of norepinephrine, and will have a physically calming effect. Since most musicians admit that a certain level of adrenaline aids in their performance, betablockers would erase all traces of the chemical. Those considering drug use should consult a physician beforehand. It is also recommended that one try the drugs before a performance situation to gage their effectiveness, monitor the dosage and test the side effects.

Clark, 110. 122 Brian Finn, M.D. and Laura Musselmann, M.D., telephone interviews, January 19, 2005.

John Kunz, M.D., ed., The American Medical Association Family Medical Guide (New York: Random House, 1982), 778-9. 124 Finn, 2005 123

121

19

Throughout recent decades, a growing majority of professional and amateur musicians, not the least of which included Glenn Gould and others, were and are avid users of medical sedatives. Interestingly, in several studies, the vast majority of occasional users took the drug only before auditions. Others used these drugs much more regularly, predominantly for solo performances rather than group performances.125 A recent study estimates that up to 40% of North American musicians use beta-blockers on a semi-regular to regular basis.126 It is also curious to point out that the taking of any for the afore mentioned substances would be banned by any national or even minor sports association, but that for musicians and other performers, some self-medication is actually regularly encouraged.127 Other drugs associated with reducing stage fright include valium, buspirone, benzodiazepines and alcohol or cannabis. Although these drugs may temporarily aid the performer, they are ultimately destructive to the voice and performer in general.128 They may also impair function and judgment, leading performers to believe their performance was better than it actually was.129 Others may attribute a successful performance only to the drug, reducing one’s own sense of self-efficacy for managing anxiety.130 Regardless of the method(s) employed to combat this anxiety, stage fright is an extremely common, natural process of performing experienced by all musicians at one point or another. Many performers try desperately to suppress performance anxiety, with varying levels of success. Others give up performing all together due to the strains of stage fright.131 Hence performance anxiety can not only negatively affect your performance, but can damage you quality of life. A variety of coping

methods can be employed or even combined to help combat this anxiety. Still, performance anxiety remains a problem of some magnitude, not easily explained or cured. Modern musicians will hopefully mature to the point that we can recognise anxiety, admit to having anxiety, and cope with this anxiety, with the aid of strategies employed and offered by colleagues. Hopefully this issue, so common in all sectors of the performing world, can be addressed sufficiently by musicians in the near future.

Issues of the Tenor Voice By Jason Kehler There are many issues that the tenor voice needs to deal with when developing proper singing technique. In order to achieve this goal, a singer must balance vocal elements such as breath management, register integration, and tonal imagery.132 While this may sound simple in theory, many other vocal issues come into play in the achievements of

Valentine, 175. Arcier, 515. 127 Ibid., 519. 128 Roland, 51. 129 Valentine, 175. 130 Petrovich, 26. 131 Lieberman, 79. 125 126

132.

20

Robert Carter Barefield, “The Passaggio in the Tenor Voice” (Ph.D. diss., University of Cincinnati, 1991), p. 20.

these goals. Various vocal issues must be overcome in order to find the balance of the vocal elements mentioned above. This paper will look specifically at vocal issues that are characteristic of the tenor voice and different approaches to these vocal obstacles, which are tenor registration, agguistamento, high notes, and appoggio. All these issues are connected to the desired aesthetic of the tenor voice, specifically the “opening-up” of the whole tenor register.

Tenore leggiero (light tenor) is quite similar to the tenorino tenor, but has enough size and quality to pursue a professional singing career.136 The passaggi points of this tenor are often found to be a semitone lower than the tenorino tenor (primo at Eb and secondo at Ab). The vocal quality of this category of tenor is described by Miller as having an air of “sweetness” about it, and is able to demonstrate “considerable control over musical dynamics”.137 Most likely, this tenor would specialize in early Baroque music or similarly suited repetoire. The Spieltenor tenor is quite similar to the tenore leggiero, but able to sing a wider range of repertoire that includes pieces and works that are a bit more weightier than what the leggiero could manage. The passaggio point of the spieltenor varies somewhat, depending on whether or not he is closer to the leggiero or lyric vocal qualities.138 The tenore buffo tends to have a very distinct timbre to the voice.139 The voice tends to sound quite “throaty”, due to the voice being pushed to create a larger sound. Often this type of tenor performs secondary roles that are character in nature - minor villian, the buffoon, or the lower-class friend of the hero.140 The operetta tenor has a “voice of romantic character” and specializes in singing repertoire of the operetta genre.141 In Miller’s opinion, the operetta tenor is not sturdy enough for lyric operatic roles, but for operetta it is well-suited (as long as it is of good size and quality).142 Because of the close relation of this tenor type to the tenore lirico, the primo and secondo passaggi would be in a similar vocal location (D4 and G4 respectfully). The next category of tenor is the lyric tenor (tenore lirico). This is the category into which much of the standard tenor opera repertoire falls and is the most useful category

Tenor Types In order to be able to discuss the tenor issues outlined in the introduction above, it is important to describe the various types of tenors that exist and how they differ in there vocal quality, approach to registration and repertoire. Richard Miller has provided a clear and descriptive outlines of the various tenor voices in his book, Training Tenor Voices, describing both the quality of tone, timbre, passaggi points, repertoire, and other vocal characteristics133. These categories of the various tenor types are based upon the information found in the book mentioned above. There are four categories of light tenor that are mentioned by Miller: tenorino, tenore leggiero (tenore di grazia), spieltenor, and tenore buffo. They all have similar vocal qualities and tone, but vary in subtle ways which affect the repertoire that they perform. Some of these dividing lines seem so subjective that it would be difficult to discern one of these four tenor types from the next. Tenorino is the lightest of all the tenor voices, which can sing through the first passaggio point without any registration modification. The primo passaggi is often found at E4 and the secondo passaggi at A4.134 The speaking voice is very light and high and when singing, this tenor may or may not find adequate chest voice resonance (voce di testa). Miller goes on to mention that professional performance opportunities are quite limited.135

136. 137. 138.

133.

Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York: Schirmer Books, 1993), pp. 9-13. 134. Ibid, p.9. 135. Ibid., p.9.

139. 140. 141. 142.

21

Ibid., p.9. Ibid., p.9. Ibid., p.10. Ibid., p.10. Ibid., p.10. Ibid., p.11. Ibid., p.11.

for a tenor to be a part of, due to the wide range of repertoire that is available to this voice type.143 The passaggi points of the lyric tenor are at D4 and G4.144 The vocal timbre of the lyric tenor is warm and romantic, and must be able to sustain a high tessitura while negotiating the upper range with ease and beauty.145 The tenore lirico spinto is very similar to the tenore lirico, differing only in vocal weight and adaptability of a specific tenor to specific roles.146 Miller goes on to say that, “The lirico spinto has all the advantages of the tenore lirico, but in addition he has the power and vocal impact to deliver the dramatic aspects of the Verdian and verismo repertoires.”147 The tenore robusto (also known as tenore drammatico), Miller describes as, “the heaviest of all non-Wagnerian tenors.”148 As a heavier voice type, in comparison to the lyric tenor, the passaggi points are found to be lower and situated at C4 and F4.149 Even though specific opera roles are outlined for this type of tenor, the tenore robusto may sing some of the spinto roles.150 The final tenor voice type is the heldentenor. He sings primarily the music of Wagner, which requires a heavily weighted timbre and often pushing up the “chest voice” into the upper reaches of the vocal range.151 The heldentenor must be able to sing the tenore robusto repetoire, but is not this is not the primary focus of their voice type. In summary of these various voice types, the characteristics of the tenor voice can be described in many ways. The type of repertoire, passaggi, and timbre quality varies from one category to the next, with repertoire suited to each specific tenor type. But at the same time, the differences between certain categories of tenors can be quite subtle and 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151.

hard to discern; especially when there is overlap between specific categories with regards to repertoire or some tenors being able to sing repertoire from two different tenor categories. This simply adds to the complexity of figuring-out the tenor voice and properly aligning the voice and knowing how to approach issues of tension and registration. Registration There are many different theories, or models of registration and approaches to unifying the tenor voice with the goal of creating an equal scale from the lowest to the highest note. The ultimate goal being able to sing any note in the vocal range with the same ease and unified timbre. In surveying many different books on the subject of registration, the most popular theory encountered is the 3-register theory (chest, middle, and head registers). Although there are two distinct registers (chest and head), with the third register being a mixture of the prior two (middle), the blending of these various registers to create a balanced vocal tone throughout the vocal range is the ultimate goal. As stated by Viktor Fuchs, “One register is not a starting point, but a goal”.152 A constant issue that plagues many tenors is the balance, or mixture of chest and head register. In my opinion, it is the mixed voice that brings colour and uniqueness to the character and resonance of the voice. Otto Iro compares registration and resonance by calling chest resonance ‘earth’ and head resonance ‘water’.153 By mixing the two together, clay is formed. But by adding more water, the clay is thinner; and by adding more earth, the clay is thicker.154 The ability to control the various registration of the tenor voice in a connected and blended manner, allows the voice to freely express and colour the music and text in an artistic and interpretive manner. Too often, the chest voice is carried into the upper range of the tenor voice without

Ibid., p.11. Ibid., p.11. Ibid., p.11. Ibid., p.12. Ibid., p.12. Ibid., p.12. Ibid., p.12. Ibid., p.12. Ibid., p.12-13.

152.

Viktor Fuchs, The Art of Singing and Voice Technique (London: Calder and Boyars Ltd, 1967), p.64. 153. Ibid., p.67. 154. Ibid., p.67. 22

mixing in the head register, causing tension that restricts an easy and lyrical-sounding upper range. The head register is the “oil” that is able to unite the sounds of the notes for the entire vocal range.155 A tenor should experiment with bringing the head register down into the middle and chest register in order to find a balance and blended tone throughout the entire vocal range. Douglas Stanley says that the upper register of most men needs to be developed out of the falsetto voice because most men initially have lost their upper range.156 When properly developed, the falsetto range doesn’t sound ‘false’ but rather is heard as a mere vocal adjustment.157 Stanley goes on to say that the muscular system that activates this adjustment needs to be strengthened by singing a pure falsetto tone as loud as possible moving up and down the vocal scale.158 It is through the use of this mixed register that tenors are able negotiate the zona di passaggio and the secondo passaggio and bring the full voice and registers into alignment.159 I believe that a tenor should first move down the scale in falsetto across the primo passaggi and secondo passaggi in an effort to blend the chest and head registers at the vocal break and continue to carry the head register/resonance down as far as possible into the lower part of the voice. By practising this exercise, a young tenor is able to feel the sensations and placement of a free and light blended sound (resonance) that can then grow over time in a relaxed and balanced vocal position. There is a lot less possibility of unwanted tension being created by the downward descent, opposed to the tenor trying to force his way up into the high extremes of the vocal range. As the falsetto develops and grows the chest register will also, without adding tension and muscle, develop in flexibility, resonance, and freedom and

continue the overall development of the voice.160 Cornelius Reid (1950), in his book BelCanto: Principles and Practices, states five categories of register balance: 1. A state of perfection co-ordination where each register has been fully developed and smoothly joined. 2. A desirable, but not ideal, condition where both registers are used with an audible gap separating them. 3. A less desirable condition where the falsetto is used alone and the chest register is excluded. 4. An equally undesirable condition where the chest register is used alone while the falsetto is excluded. 5. The last possible arrangement is the most undesirable by far and finds both registers joined together, seemingly as one, before each register has been fully developed, purified, and properly joined together.161 These categories are useful in analysing what state a tenor’s vocal development is at and identifying what needs to be worked on in correcting register issues that may exist. These descriptions are a tool that can create a starting point from which to work at register balance. They also help in creating a vision and the ideal goal for which to strive in order to develop the ‘one-register’ goal (Viktor Fuchs). The main registration concept that I have found in reading various books is not to have a balance of head and chest voice, but rather I’ve been struck by the emphasis on developing the falsetto voice. I’ve been experimenting over the past few weeks with descending down through the primo passaggio and secondo passaggio and I have found that I’m able to negotiate the vocal breaks better and keep a more freedom in the upper register. And through the development of a more flexible and free upper register I’ve been able to carry the head register down into the middle and chest voice for a more unified and balanced tone up and down the entire vocal range.

155.

Ibid., p.66. Douglas Stanley, The... Science of ... Voice (New York: Carl Fischer Inc., 1958), p.16. 157. Ibid., p. 16. 158. Ibid., p.17. 159. Miller, p.3. 156.

160.

Fuchs, p. 84. Reid, Cornelius L., Bel Canto: Principles and Practices, New York: Coleman-Ross Company Inc., 1950: p.30. 23

Agguistamento (“Cover”) Agguistamento tends to be one of the most difficult and later aspects of vocal technique for a tenor to develop. This may be due to the various terms and approaches that are and/or have been taught in developing the technique of agguistamento. Various terms are attached to the technique of agguistamento, such as Richard Miller’s preference for the term vowel modification162 and Marilee David’s use of the term cover, which she says includes vowel modification.163 It becomes difficult for a tenor to know how to use the terminology with a proper understanding of meaning and how his teacher defines each term. But only after a balanced registration has been established and proper breath control is being used can a tenor focus attention adequately on the meaning and proper technique of agguistamento. There are certain aspects of agguistamento that are characteristically common of most descriptions of this vocal adjustment. Marilee David (1995) quotes Hertegard, Gauffin and Sundberg as defining the vocal art of covering as:

An important comment that David makes is that the lowering and tilting of the larynx causes the vocal folds to lengthen, preventing the chest register from becoming involved in descending passages and engaging the head register on ascending passages.165 Overall, there is a correlation among all the various descriptions of agguistamento that a lowering of the larynx and widening of the pharynx are integral to this vocal technique and adjustment. Various approaches describe and use terminology to create modifications of the same end goal. James Stark refers to Richard

Miller’s use and division of terminology in discussing the approach of cover and agguistamento. Miller describes the ‘covered’ sound of the upper range as being created by a stable laryngeal position (relatively low) and a somewhat widened pharynx. Along with these physical characteristics is the need for proper vowel modification, which Miller refers to as agguistamento, in creating the complete ‘covered’ sound.166 Miller creates a division between the meaning of these two terms that refers to agguistamento specifically as vowel modification, with the understanding that it is part of creating the ‘covered’ sound. This separation of meanings allows the teacher and student to be more specific in reference to particular vocal adjustments and which segment of the vocal action of ‘cover’ is being referred to. A tenor needs to be clear in their understanding of how to accomplish vocal cover when singing into the extreme range of their voice in a healthy manner. In specific reference to agguistamento, Miller expresses the need to modify the tonal color of the upper range in order to preserve the quality of vowel sound and maintain an even tonal line.167 He also goes on to say that cover creates fundamental changes in the mechanical function of the larynx and alters the shape of resonators, along with a lowered larynx and tongue, a high velum, and additional spaciousness in the pharynx, thereby increasing “depth” in the tone.168 At times, it still seems confusing as to how Miller uses the terms cover and agguistamento, but it seems that it is through the action of cover that agguistamento is accomplished. Through the lowering of the larynx and all the other mechanical functions that have been previously discussed with regards to cover, the action of agguistamento (vowel modification) naturally occurs due to physical state of the mouth and throat regions. An interesting point that Miller makes is his observation that a popular opinion

162.

166.

“An elevation of the soft palate, a lowering and forward tilting of the larynx. Also a widening of the supraglottal tract as well as of the hypopharynx and laryngeal ventricles...”164

Miller, p.38. Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy (Maryland: Scarecrow Press Inc., 1995), p.75. 164 David, Marilee, The New Voice Pedagogy, London: The Scarecrow Press Inc., 1995: p.75 165. Ibid., p.75.

James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), p.45. 167. Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (Belmont: Wadsworth Group, 1996), p. 150. 168. Miller, The Structure of Singing, p.150.

163.

24

among many voice teachers today is that pharyngeal expansion and a low larynx position is accomplished through proper breath inhalation and remains stable during a wellmanaged breath cycle.169 Many various elements of cover seem to align themselves with proper breath intake. Various muscles are expanded or stretched open and only need to be “suspended” in order to maintain a lowered or widened position. Miller goes on to say that all these various vocal technique issues need to be accomplished in a more unconcious and relaxed manner.170 It would seem quite natural then that this could be accomplished through proper use and focus on the control of the breathing mechanism in order to align other aspects of the art of singing.

1. The quantity has to be in creased by using the abdominal cavities, which are generally neglected in daily life. 2. The outgoing breath has to be controlled by the abdominal muscles, so that it will be adequate for any note or phrase. 3. All the available breath must be transformed into tone. 4. An emergency reserve must be allowed for, just as in diving it is unwise to use the last drop of petrol! Otherwise the voice may be overstrained. 5. The chest should never be moved, either in inhalation or exhalation. By standing erect before and during inhalation, the chest cavities can receive no more air; it then goes to the abdominal cavities, which supply the breath used in singing. By constant inward pressure on the abdominal wall (or exhalation) all the air there can be used without using the breath in the chest cavities. 6. The abdominal cavities should not be filled to capacity, otherwise a phrase cannot be attacked well, with smooth, clear tone. 7. The breath must be prepared by a moment of suspension. 8. Regular exercises must be practised, and the teacher must check constantly that they are being done correctly, so that they can become quite automatic.171

Appoggio There is so much imagery and various descriptions of breathing that are used to develop an understanding of even and supported breath control. By developing the breathing mechanism, a tenor can align or aid other vocal challenges such as agguistamento, balanced registration, tension, and high notes. Every singer has different strengths and abilities, and breathing in itself is an art-form that needs to be strengthened and internalized in a manner that connects with both the mind and the body of the singer. Breathing is the foundation of singing and needs to be treated with great importance. Some approaches speak primarily of the mechanical action and explain what needs to happen inside the body. The description of such an internal and mechanical function cannot and does not always translate into a smooth working of the art of breathing, even though the concept is logically understood. Stating the facts of proper breath support does not explain to a singer how to attain that desired goal. An example of such a logical approach is found in Viktor Fuchs book, The Art of Singing and Voice Technique. Fuchs lists eight main principles in breathing for singing:

All the principles stated above by Fuchs speak of certain truths in the art of breathing for singing, but they give no “how to” insight. As an example, in response to the third principle, how does a singer transform breath into tone? A more detailed description is needed, through various images and explanations, in relating a well-rounded response that gives a singer a variety of ways of approaching the concept of transforming breath into tone. It would be like a professional figure skater verbally explaining to someone how to perform a specific jump and Fuchs, Viktor, The Art of Singing and Voice Technique, London: Calder and Boyars Ltd, 1967: pp.75-76 171

169.

Miller, The Structure of Singing, p. 150. 170. Miller, The Structure of Singing, p.155. 25

expecting them to be able to execute the jump perfectly. The logical approach must be accompanied by various other approaches to teaching in order to allow the singer to experience all the eight principles that are listed above by Fuchs. One such alternative approach, by Perley Dunn Aldrich, takes a more imaginative and simplistic perspective. Imagery can be a very powerful tool in aiding the mind to accomplish involuntary or unconscious physical actions. Sometimes logic can get in the way of letting the body accomplish what it naturally is designed to do and imagery is great at “tricking” the body into accomplishing the desired objective. The most important element in appoggio is to inhale without disturbing the posture of the body.172 In the action of inhalation there are two distinct forces opposing each other – 1) atmospheric pressure and 2) muscular pressure from inside the body.173 Aldrich explains that by simply flattening the diaphragm and “letting” the air come in of its own accord, we can breathe with more relaxation.174 Aldrich (1895) goes on to say:

naturally designed to do and avoid tension in breathing and other elements associated with the act of singing. Analogies and images are needed for every singer in accomplishing good appoggio technique, and the more images and facts that a singer has at their disposal to achieve proper breath control the better. High Notes One tenor issue that I wanted to research and address was the topic of “high notes” for the tenor voice. The tenor voice is referred to by various authors as the most ‘unnatural’ singing voice. Richard Miller says, “For no other Fach is ‘the high note’ surrounded with such expectation as it is in tenor literature”(p.139). The high note is as much about the psychological state as it is about the physical ability. A tenor needs to develop strong and secure technique in order to create a confidence in knowing that the high notes are at their disposal. Too often, a young tenor, who is in the process of learning proper technique (cover, agguistamento, etc.), will focus too much on the high notes in a piece and create unwanted anxiety. Fuchs says that until high notes are automatic, a young tenor should not focus on the high notes, but rather only how to prepare for them.175 Barefield (1991) more clearly states that, “... the success of a given note is dependent upon ‘the note before the note’ ”(p.37). In preparing for any high note, a tenor needs to prepare for the high note by making sure that there is a balanced registration of head and chest, a full breath is supporting the vocal sound, soft palate is raised, and other elements of proper vocal technique are being implemented leading up to the vocal climax. If this preparation is not done, there is little hope of a mixed and free register (and tone) being successfully accomplished. The concepts of cover and agguistamento (in singing in the upper range of the tenor voice) has already been discussed at length, but the reason for wanting to discuss ‘high notes’ is rather the psychological aspect for the tenor to overcome. Fuchs says that high notes call

“This thought – that the breath comes in of itself – is a great help towards repose of the chest, for many of the movements of the chest which are made by the thoughtless singer are quite useless and not only do not assist in the process of singing but they retard it and embarrass the muscles that ought to do the work easily. So, whether it be entirely scientific or not, we shall find it helpful to think that the air pressure does most of the work” (p.38). This imagery of the breath coming in by itself as a vacuum allows the body to stay more relaxed and able to accomplish the desired goal of an even and full breath; which is then able to create a well-supported tone. By not overthinking the breath, the singer is able to get out of the way and allow the body to do what it is 172.

Perley Dunn Aldrich, Vocal Economy and Expressiveness (New York: The Vocalist, 1895), p.37. 173. Aldrich, p.37. 174. Ibid, p.38.

175.

26

Fuchs, p.83.

forth two types of singers: 1) a singer that looks forward to them with pleasure, 2) a singer who is afraid of them.176 The tenor is singing on the ‘edge’ of the vocal range and has to develop a confidence in his ability to sing on that vocal ‘edge’ of his range in a relaxed state (physically and mentally). For a young tenor this is a mental challenge to be stretched in both the physical ability of the voice (with proper technique) and in the mental maturity to trust the voice, and at the same time, allow the voice to fail in finding ‘the high notes’ . To focus and try too hard in attaining the upper range of the voice (forgetting technique) causes unwanted tension and quickly leads to a failed attempt and questioning of one’s ability to attain ‘the high notes’. In my studies this year, I have had to learn to calm my mind in approaching high notes and get out of my own way – preparing for the high note upon ‘the note before the note’.177 By distracting myself with proper technique and preparation on the notes in a more relaxed placement of the voice I’m able to prepare by placing the lower notes in the “place” that I want to sing the high note. This is a “rite of passage” that every tenor must navigate themselves through over many countless hours of practise and experimentation.

The variety of tenor types only complicates this issue due to the various registrations and characteristics that are found within the tenor voice. The different possibilities of colour, texture, timbre, and vocal quality that are found within the tenor voice seem to have a wider spectrum than other voice types due to the transition from a more comfortable and natural low chest register into the high extremes of the unnatural head register. For this reason, weaknesses in the young tenor voice are often quite obvious and take time to resolve. The approach that two tenors take in developing their voices can differ dramatically because the voice type is so different and could be almost categorized as a completely different voice type. The technique that a heldentenor uses and needs to focus on will be completely different than that of a tenorino tenor. The range of tenor types seems more varied than any other voice type and thus, is filled with added challenges that are not as common in other voice types. The topics discussed in this paper are common challenges to the tenor and through the discussion, analysis and vocal experimentation of these issues a tenor can develop and refine their voice. There is no one answer to these issues for the tenor, but rather options by which to apply general principles of vocal technique that are needed in discovering a free and open tone.

Summary Many of the comments and references made in this paper apply not only to tenors, but singers in general. Nevertheless, some of these vocal issues may be termed as being more characteristically found in the tenor voice. The challenge for any tenor is to create a natural and even tone throughout the vocal range by studying the different aspects mentioned and discussed in this paper. The aim being to create a natural sound out of a more ‘unnatural’ instrument (especially in the high register) that needs to be trained and developed through dedication and determination.

176. 177.

Ibid, p.83. Barefield, p.37. 27

Alexander Technique and Traditional Vocal Pedagogy:

career. In his book, The Use of the Self, Alexander begins by stating two guiding principles of his technique: (1) That the so-called “mental” and “physical” are not separate entities.

Conceptual Connections and Their Implications in the Process of Voice Teaching By Christopher Mayell

(2) For this reason, human ills and shortcomings cannot be classified as “mental” or “physical and dealt with specifically as such, but that all training, whether it be educative or otherwise… must be based upon the indivisible unity of the human organism.178 These principles describe the use of “the self” as a whole, in all that we do. The basic force behind the use of the self in this manner is called the Primary Control. It refers to the orientation of the head in relation to the neck, and the back in relation to the neck and head. Alexander argues that every localized action that takes place (the singer’s movement of the tongue, for example) should be executed in harmony with the co-ordination of the head, neck and back179. So, by attaining and continuing one’s Primary Control, one can eliminate secondary “shortcomings” such as postural problems when singing (what Alexander would refer to as effects of bad use, not a cause of bad singing). The voice problems that Alexander encountered in his stage career were the result of three tendencies – or bad habits – that did not allow for optimal use of his self. One tendency was for him to pull his neck back and down as he recited a passage in performance. He was shocked to find that, upon “telling his body” to keep the neck straight and erect – and, while trying to correct the habit, feeling that he was successful – he continued to pull his neck down and back. This was an example of what is now called faulty sensory awareness. It is the gap that exists between what you do and what you think or

Imagine a voice student who is unable to apply the idea of the singer’s posture, or proper breath support. What is it that keeps the student from acquiring these skills? On one level, the student perfectly understands the concepts being communicated. Yet, there is a gap between concept and execution. A different method of learning and teaching could greatly benefit the student and teacher. The principles of Alexander Technique can be applied to traditional approaches of vocal pedagogy, thereby enhancing the student’s understanding of singing technique, by learning different, but related, concepts. Traditional vocal pedagogy, in this case, refers to the writings of historic and contemporary pedagogues including Giovanni and Francesco Lamperti, Pierfrancesco Tosi, and Richard Miller. By making comparison to some major concepts of vocal pedagogy such as breath support, breath management and phonation, it will become clear that the Alexander Technique can be a useful tool in the enhancement of the student’s learning, both in terms of quality and quantity. It will be of some use, before discussing the similarities between the Alexander technique and concepts of traditional pedagogy, to outline the main terms and concepts of the Technique as described by its founder, F. Matthias Alexander. Alexander created and refined his technique as a result of extensive analysis of the factors leading to vocal-health problems in his professional stage

Alexander, F. M. The Use of The Self. Integral Press, Kent. 1946, p.2 178

Alcantara, P. Indirect Procedures: A Musician’s Guide to the Alexander Technique. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1997: p.26. 179

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feel that you are doing. It is caused by psychological factors of familiarity and habit. Alexander was so willing to succeed at remedying his tendencies that he saw past the necessary process to achieve his goal, and instead sought a feeling of “correctness” and comfort. The problem in this process is that what felt correct to Alexander was the familiar tendencies (the bad habits) that he’d been doing for years, and had become used to. Alexander called this desire to obtain results at the cost of meaningful process end-gaining, and considered it the ultimate cause of all difficulties.180 Alexander concluded that the key to overcoming end-gaining is what he called inhibition. To inhibit is not to consent to a habitual reaction which causes a misuse of the self. Now that a basic knowledge of the principles of the Alexander technique have been discussed, it is possible to point to links between the technique, and those of traditional vocal pedagogy. While it is possible to see connections between the technique and almost every facet of vocal use (since the technique is “whole self” based), it will be useful for the scope of this discussion to focus on some of the more direct and easily illustrated relationships that exist. The most direct relationship is arguably with breathing and breath support. Early in his study of the self, he noticed that he had the debilitating tendency to audibly gasp for air before reciting a phrase on stage. After considerable speculation, observation and refinement, he would later argue that “breathing is a function of use” (this being, the use of the self, with the Primary Control), and may be best dealt with indirectly.181 It may be beneficial to outline some ideals put forth in vocal pedagogy literature, and then to illustrate possible improvements – or at very least, new and alternative corroborating points of view – on

the original. It has been said that, as a teacher of singing, it is important to be able to explain concepts in a variety of different ways since each student learns and thinks differently. We begin then, with breath support and the writings of Giovanni and Franceso Lamperti. They spoke of the lutte vocale, saying: “…the respiratory muscles, by continuing their action, strive to retain the air in the lungs, and oppose their action to that of the expiratory muscles, which at the same time, drive it out for the production of the note.”182 This opposition of respiratory (“inspiratory”) and expiratory forces is referred to literally as a “vocal struggle”. He went on to describe the sensations of and, in part, the results of, use of the lutte vocale. Singing is accomplished by opposing motions and the measured balance between them. This causes the delusive appearance of rest and fixity – even of relaxation. The singing voice in reality is born of the clash of opposing principles, the tension of conflicting forces, brought to equilibrium.183 Both of these concepts merge well with that of opposition in the Alexander Technique. In his book, Indirect Procedures: A Musician’s Guide to Alexander Technique, Pedro de Alcantara describes opposition as “…the ability of the body to move in one direction while tending towards another direction”. He goes on to say that opposition “…allows bodily positions to be stable and dynamic, and movement to be fluid and efficient”.184 According to the technique, opposition is an important element of bodily integration and stabilization. It need not be considered a negative force, just as the lutte vocale need not be considered undue tension in the abdominal region. 182 Lamperti, F. The Art of Singing. Translated by J.C. Griffith. G. Schirmer, New York. 1916. p.25

Alcantara, P. The Alexander Technique: A Practical Lesson. Online article. Viewed January 31, 2005. http://www.pedrodealcantara.com/practical_lesson.htm l. p.1 180

181

Brown, W. E. Vocal Wisdom: Maxims Transcribed and Edited by William Earl Brown. Taplinger Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1931 p.29,63 184 Alcantara, 1997: p.66 183

Alcantara, 1997: p.91 29

Let us leave the concept of this struggle for a moment and examine the messa di voce. Tosi said that messa di voce, “… consists of letting the voice come out softly from the least piano, so that it goes little by little to the greatest forte, and then returns”185. The important link, in this case, is the idea of letting or allowing the voice to come out. The Alexander Technique has been describe as a non-doing technique since its method involves the inhibition of habits in order to allow natural use of the self (in this case, to easily sing messa di voce). Giovanni Lamperti wrote the following about messa di voce:

of messa di voce can instead be expressed as directed inhibition of tendencies which would otherwise not allow the voice to easily bloom from a soft piano to a great forte. The notable difference is that, according to Alexander, “given the perfect co-ordination of parts as require by my system, breathing is a subordinate operation which will perform itself”. So, while traditional vocal pedagogy would have the pupil concentrate on breath control, Alexander would have the pupil concentration on proper use of the self, and the inhibition of bad habits, which will allow for free and proper use of the breath in order to achieve messa di voce. Neither of these methods is necessarily correct or incorrect, and it is not necessary to make this distinction. Each of idea expressed above is simply a different means to the same end. A discussion of breath support would not be complete without a look at the technique of appoggio. One of the most recent authors and pedagogues to write about appoggio is Richard Miller. In his 1986 book, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique. Miller says:

The messa di voce is produced solely by breath-control. The spinning-out technique (filare la voce) is very difficult; it must be managed with the utmost circumspection. Singing loudly is releasing; singing softly is restraining the pent-up energy in compressed air filling the lungs, co-ordinately gauged in doing so.”186 It is interesting then, to note the similarities and difference between these writings and those of Alcantara (a student of Patrick Macdonald who himself studied with Alexander in the 1930’s). Alcanatra writes:

Appoggio includes resonance factors as well as breath management. The historical Italian school did not separate the motor and resonance facets of phonation. It is a system for combining and balancing muscles and organs of the trunk and neck, controlling their relationship to the supra-glottal resonators, so that no exaggerated function of any one of them upsets the whole.188 [emphasis added]

You do nothing to alter breathing directly in an Alexander lesson. There are no exercises in which you are asked to change the mechanics or the speed of your breathing, to count while you breath in or out… Instead you must first clear your mind of all preconceived ideas you may have about breathing. With the help of a teacher, accept that your sensory awareness may be faulty. Become aware of your habitual misuses, stop misusing yourself – and let your breathing right itself. (1) Stop constricting your breathing; (2) Stop forcing your breathing. Stated otherwise, inhibit overbreathing and inhibit other breathing.187

Here it is easy to see the connection between the “full system” approach of appoggio and the unity of self described in the Alexander Technique. In both cases, there is emphasis on combination and balance (integration, if you will) of the elements of the self. Miller himself hints at the Primary Control when he speaks of “the trunk and the neck”. It is arguable that, in the same way appoggio builds on the concept of lutte vocale in concert

The technique, as describe here, works nicely with the writings of Lamperti and Tosi. In the Alexander Technique, then, the concept Stark, J. Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. 1999: p.95. 186 ibid. p. 104 187 Alcantara, 1997: pp. 97, 98

185

Miller, R. The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique. G. Schirmer, Belmont. 1986: p.23 188

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with full-system use, The Alexander Technique can improve upon appoggio by using it to not only work on support and resonance system, but indeed, all aspects of singing. Alexander writes,

sound is most likely causes by either misalignment of the neck, or tension in the larynx or throat (misuse of the self). By successfully employing the Alexander Technique, one not only succeeds in using appoggio, but also prevents the misuse of any part of the self that may not be considered relevant to appoggio. This could include misuse of seemingly unrelated or extreme parts of the self. After a great deal of self discovery, Alexander wrote:

There is a close connection between use and functioning. The functioning of organs of speech are influenced by the manner of using the whole torso, and that the pulling back of the neck is not merely a misuse of the specific parts concerned, but one that was inseparably bound up with misuse of all other mechanisms.189

I found that a certain control of the use of my neck and head in relation to my back brought about a more satisfactory working of the musculature, and not only relieved my specific difficulties, but improved conditions generally.As soon as you can establish the primary control, a satisfactory control of the rest of the workings of the organism can be expected to follow in due time.192

Let us examine some specific aspects of appoggio as describe my Richard Miller. One of the first things he says is about the sternum. He tells the pupil that, “…the sternum must initially find a moderately high position. This position is then retained throughout the inspiration-expiration cycle.”190 Alexander’s writings say nothing that conflicts with this statement. However, Alexander is careful to avoid words such as “position” or “posture”. He would instead make use of a term like direction, which implies the same intent on consistency of the raised sternum, while emphasizing the dynamic, flexibility of the sternum as the part of an integrated whole self. Martha Munro and Maren Larson, in their article The Influence of Body Integration on Voice Production, write that, “There needs to be constantly adjusting relationship between the head, the spine, and the limbs in response to even the most subtle shift of weight. Such atunement and mobility is an essential aspect of effect voice production”.191 Another important characteristic (and what Miller calls the hallmark) of appoggio is silent inspiration. Unfortunately, Miller gives very little specific and direct advice on how to achieve this. The Alexander Technique, which tells the student to allow the breath to enter the body of the properly used self, should aid in producing silent inhalation, since a gasping

A final note on breathing and breath support is necessary, relating to breath exercises. Since the Alexander Technique is centered around the idea of the unity of the self (the “mental” and “physical” as one), it is important that if a teacher or student insists on the use of breath exercises that they be used intelligently. Alcantara, admits that, “some people have benefited from working on their breathing consciously and conscientiously. All the same, they might have learned more, better, and faster by working on their use instead, and leaving breathing alone.” In his paper An Alexander Teacher Reads The Free Voice, His Mouth Agape, Alcantara reiterates this point nicely, saying: How many thousands of students have faithfully practiced Marchesi exercises, and how few have derived benefit from them! They key to vocal development is not to be found in the exercise but in the manner in which it is performed!193 It is not enough, then, to simply go through the breathing exercise mechanically, just as it is no use for a pianist to practice scales without full use of self. One’s entire self

Alexander, pp. 7, 8 Miller, p. 24 191 Munro, Martha and Larson, Maren. The Influence of Body Integration on Voice Production. Journal of Singing. 53:2, 1996: p.21 189 190

192 193

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Alexander, p. 48 Alcantara… p.3

must be part of the process. Through whole use of the self, the student becomes fully aware of the exercise he is doing. By making use of mental, physical and perhaps even emotional faculties, he is able to be truly absorb the experience, and derive something from it. Another facet of vocal pedagogy that has strong direct links with Alexander Technique is phonation (or use of the larynx). As has been stated, the technique is dependant on the Primary Control, which considers the relationship between the back, and the neck and the head. Since the larynx is located in the neck, the centre of these three elements, it is not surprising that there is so much conceptual overlap. In The Use of the Self, Alexander speaks of the neck saying, “Since [everything is connected], neck tension can cause any number of problems”.194 In her thesis on the Alexander Technique, Lori Lovell Laux writes,

Again it is shown that the same end can be achieved either indirectly, by use of inhibition and Primary Control, or by directly telling the student to lower his or her larynx slightly, or even worse, to resort to subjective instructions such as “picture a big ball in your throat”. Finally, it is important to discuss ways of integrating the Alexander method into a voice lesson, and using it to help the student learn. Alexander gives advice on lesson structure in The Use of the Self. There, he spoke about Alexander lessons, but the principles he outlines can be easily transferred to music lessons without any need for revision. In his attempts to inhibit the detrimental movement of his neck during recital, Alexander discovered a seemingly successful new method of good use. In the beginning he found there to be three steps involved:

When the neck muscles tighten, the pharynx is shortened, narrowed, and distorted. Because the pharynx rests in front of the cervical spine, when the neck is tense, these cervical vertebrae are jammed. This distortion also causes the tongue to bunch and invade the front of the mouth. This very change in the alignment of the spine and neck directly affects the resonance space in the pharynx.195

(1) Conception – The brain decides what it is that it wants to do. (For example, sing a high note). (2) Inhibition – Before the action is carried out, there is conscious projection of direction not to do any bad habits that will impede the natural use of the self. (For example, conscious direction not to stick the head outward and up and tense the neck while singing a high note). When there are multiple bad habits that must be inhibited, it is important that when the student directs not to engage in the second bad habit, that he not forget about inhibiting the first. Alexander noted that, “to [continue the first inhibition while adding a second and third] and to continue all three going as we proceed to gain the end, has proved to be the pons asinorum of every pupil I have so far known.”

This sentiment is echoed in the views of Giovanni Lamperti. He advised the singer to seek a dark tone associated with an expanded pharynx as a starting point to be brightened sufficiently to create chiaroscuro.196 In the same light, Richard Miller argues: There can be little doubt that in desirable “closed voice”… there is a stabilized laryngeal position – relatively low – and a somewhat widened pharynx. These conditions together with proper vowel modification (aggiustamento) produce the so-called “covered” sound of the upper range.197

(3) Direction – The actual singing of the high note.

Alexander, p. 48 Laux, L. The Alexander Technique: Its Purpose and Validity in Singing and in the Teaching of Singing. Thesis excerpt. Viewed January 31, 2005. http://lauxweb.com/lori/thesis.html. p.4 196 Stark, p. 45 197 Miller, p. 151 194 195

Still, however, Alexander found himself – at the last moment – falling into his bad habits, despite conscious and logical direction 32

of inhibition. He then realized that an intermediate step was needed between the second and third. He argued that, before the third step, the pupil must choose a direction. At the last moment before step 3, the pupil chooses between singing, not singing, or doing something different (like raising a hand). The choice belongs entirely the student. Alexander posited that, “As long as reasoned direction was maintained… it would result in an activity different from the old habitual activity”.198 He realized that he had been trying to employ a new use of his self which was bound to feel wrong to him (since it was unfamiliar), while at the same time trusting to his feeling of what felt right to tell him if he was successful. This leads back to the idea of faulty sensory awareness. By subjecting his processes to an entirely new experience – one dominated by reasoning instead of feeling (choice to sing, instead of feeling whether the singing was “correctly executed”) – he was able to overcome his bad habits by skipping over faulty sensory awareness completely. This seemingly long tangent is necessary to illustrate an important psychological component of the learning process which can often be skipped in vocal pedagogy, as teachers become focused on particular vocal technique issues in the pupil. The whole self must always be considered – physical and mental (emotional). Alexander further illustrates the importance of psychology and emotion in learning by telling the story of the end-gaining golfer who, after being told by his teacher to “keep his eye on the ball”, finds himself unable to do so:

out of the game, the worse this emotional condition becomes. The immediate effect is that he tries harder than ever to make a good stroke and falls into the old wrong [familiar, habitual] ways… and again takes his eyes off the ball.”.199 There is, indeed, a strong link between many of the concepts of traditional vocal pedagogy, as written by figures such as Richard Miller, Pierfrancesco Tosi, and Giovanni and Francesco Lamperti. Alexander Technique can easily be related to ideas of appoggio, messa di voce, la lutte vocale, and laryngeal use. In all of these cases, it is possible for the Alexander Technique to achieve the same ends as the exercises and methods put forth by these vocal pedagogues in their writings, through use of the Primary Control. It is also possible that, as Alexander states, learning proper use of the self will see to the proper functioning of all of these parts of the self, indirectly and simultaneously. Perhaps by learning the Alexander Technique, the student can indeed learn more, faster. Furthermore, Alexander believed that to effect a change in the use of the self would bring about changes in aspects of one’s life other than singing.200 However, it would be foolish to assume that to learn the Alexander Technique is to learn to sing. It is important to remember that the Alexander Technique can never serve as a replacement to traditional vocal pedagogy. It should act as a new and fresh point of view which can allow student and teacher to consider aspects of singing in a different way. Clearly, there are limitations to the Alexander Technique, since it cannot be of much help to the understanding and achievement of unification of registers in the male voice, for example. It can, however, ensure the proper use of the body, which will inhibit bad habits, and allow the student to learn and acquire principles of singing with greater ease than otherwise.

The process is repeated every time he tries to make a good stroke, with the result that his failures far outnumber his successes, and he becomes more or less disturbed emotionally, as always happens when people find themselves more often wrong than not, without knowing the reason why. And the more he finds himself unable to carry out his teacher’s instructions with anything like the necessary degree of certainty for him to get any pleasure

198

Alexander, pp. 33, 34 Hudson, Barbara. The Effects of The Alexander Technique on the Respiratory System of the Singer/Actor Part II: Implications for Training Respiration in the Singers/Actors Based on Concepts of the Alexander Technique. Journal of Singing – The Offical Journal of the National Association of Teachers of Singing. 59:2, 2002. p.9 199 200

Alexander, p. 33 33

Keys to Divadom:

unexpected, but each is equally necessary, it seems, for the evolution of a highly successful and effective female operatic performer. For almost all of the singers studied, from Kiri Te Kanawa, to Maria Callas, Renée Fleming, Maureen Forrester and many in between, the following statements were found to be true: the singer possessed vocal talent from a young age; an adult noticed her talent and took a keen interest in her musical development while she was still young; she possessed an insatiable desire to learn; she worked hard and sacrificed much for her musical development and career; she was able to reconcile the lifestyle demands of an opera career in her own life; she was able to accept criticism; she had a uniquely identifiable voice; she knew the strengths and weaknesses of her instrument and assessed the roles she would be suited for accordingly; and she communicated with her audience at all times while performing. Certainly, there are exceptions to each of these rules but, upon close scrutiny of the lives and careers of the world’s most recent highly successful prima donne, it can be observed that most of them ring true for the biggest female names in singing throughout the past half-century. Students of singing would do well to consider whether or not these truths apply to their own lives and singing, before attempting to pursue performing careers. Likewise, teachers of singing would be wise to attempt to identify these traits and experiences in their students. From the viewpoint of the student or teacher, therefore, it cannot be denied that those who wish to sing professionally now stand to learn much from the experiences of those who have gone before them. That the female singers who have become successful on the operatic stage had vocal talent as children is perhaps expected; still, the extent of their interest in singing as children is worth confirming, using the singers’ words. Maureen Forrester, for example, can recount the story of her performance in a veterans’ hospital at age three (Forrester & McDonald) and confesses "I don't remeber a

Nine Truths About Highly Effective Female Opera Singers 1950-2000 By Jackie Nelson

Each year, thousands of young women find themselves being trained as classical singers at post-secondary institutions all over the world.201 A much greater number of female highschool-age students take classical singing lessons each year, and many more individuals than have vocal talent have dreamed of captivating an audience with a wonderful singing voice. Regardless of the number of young female students of singing or of the number of individuals who may wish to have “divadom” befall them, however, the fact remains that world-class opera singers are not born every day. In reality, many very talented singers choose not to make their careers out of classical singing and many others are simply unable, despite their desire, to do so. Certainly, making a living from opera singing, as with making a career in any performing art, can depend heavily on the specific timing of auditions and vocal development of a singer, personal connections an individual artist may possess, and mere chance. There are, however, several character traits and experiences that are common to almost all highly effective female opera singers. By considering the lives and careers of female opera singers whose careers flourished between 1950 and 2000, nine important truths about highly effective female opera singers can be gleaned. These truths range from the seemingly mudane to the rather Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets the best apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 16-19.

201

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time when I didn't sing".202 Kiri Te Kanawa admits to “always singing” as a child203 and Maria Callas, perhaps the supreme example of a child prodigy in singing, was engaged by the Greek National Theatre as a soloist by the time she was thirteen.204 Barbara Frittoli’s voice was excellent enough for her school choirmaster to single her out of a group of six hundred by the time she was twelve, and Angela Gheorghiu remembers both having a good voice and trying to imitate the opera singers that she heard on the radio during her childhood.205 Galina Gorchakova apparently recalls, as a small child, “often locking herself in the bathroom and not emerging until she had sung every song and aria she knew”.206 Catherine Malfitano remembers performing as early as the age of six207 and Cecilia Bartoli’s mother maintains that “when she was small, she liked to sing as much as talk”.208 Christina Ludwig remarks, “I always had a voice. I sang when I was three or four years old. I sang always in school”209 and Barbara Bonney had perfect pitch by age three.210 In short, the seeds of interest in singing for most female opera singers were sown at a young age. Mere interest in singing, however, could not be enough for these women to make careers as professionals. Each of the successful singers studied also required the energy and interest of an adult who noticed her talent and became committed to her young vocal development. For both Callas and Te Kanawa, this adult came first in the form of an

over-bearing mother who strove to make her daughter into an opera singer. Te Kanawa’s mother went so far as to move the family to a different city and then beg “the best teacher in New Zealand” to teach her daughter, at the time too young by that teacher’s standards.211 Maureen Forrester recalls her mother forcing her into the local church choir “as soon as I could open my mouth”212 and later pleading with Maureen’s teacher Bernard Diamant to continue working with the young contralto, who had gone against Diamant’s wishes by entering a popular voice competition.213 Christina Ludwig recounts her years of training with her own mother, who continued to critique her daughter’s singing for decades afterward.214 After this initial push to study singing, which often came from a family member, the female singers who became highly successful were also given attention by at least one dedicated coach or teacher. For Callas, her teacher de Hildalgo filled this role; for Te Kanawa, a nun singing teaching by the name of “Sister Mary Leo.” Each singer had her own teacher who not only recognized her talent but understood how to develop it. As Callas suggested, "a singer's career is essentially built on youth; wisdom comes later... the earlier we receive our training, the better, so that we have the basis to acquire wisdom sooner".215 The attention and display of belief in their talents by an adult, which these singers received as youths, spurred many of them on to further study and, thus, is an inextricable part of the path to success for these female opera singers. Next to raw talent and adults dedicated to helping singers hone their skills, highly effective female opera singers also share an unquenchable thirst to learn their craft. Maria Callas exemplifies this thirst for knowledge. Even as a child, she would stay all day at the Greek conservatory where her teacher de Hidalgo worked because she felt was always

202 Forrester, M. & McDonald, M. (1986). Maureen Forrester - Out of character: A memoir. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. p. 34

Fingleton, D. (1983). Kiri Te Kanawa: A biography. New York: Atheneum. p.17 204 Ardoin, J. (1987). Introduction to Callas at Juilliard: The master classes. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. 205 Matheopoulos, H. (1998). Diva: The new generation. Boston: Northeastern University Press. 206 ibid, p.93 207 ibid. 208 Hoelterhoff, M. (1998). Cinderella and company: Backstage at the opera with Cecilia Bartoli. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.14 209 Newman, E. (2000). High times, hard times. Opera News 64(9). p.43 210 Matheopoulos 203

211 Fingleton, D. (1983). Kiri Te Kanawa: A biography. New York: Atheneum. p.17

Forrester & McDonald, p. 11 ibid. 214 Newman 215 Ardoin, p. 3 212 213

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learning something.216 Conductor Rescigno bore witness to the way in which Callas was "always the first to arrive at rehearsals and the last to leave, because of her eagerness to learn".217 Callas herself maintained that “When it comes to music, we are all students, all our lives”218 and her suggestion that “the more you learn, the more you realize how little you know,” confirms her fascination with the learning of her art form. Both Te Kanawa and Forrester demonstrated their devotion to the vocal learning process by working many hours at non-musical jobs in order to be able to pay for their own singing lessons as youths. When they began their professional careers, these two women joined all singers with international careers in having regular sessions with language specialists, dramatic coaches, and specialists in various specific singing techniques, which also attests to the commitment of opera singers in general to continued learning. Outside of individual coachings, female opera singers must take opportunities to learn from those around them. Isola Jones, for example, found that just singing at the Metropolitan Opera House provided her with an incredible occasion to soak up knowledge about good singing merely by listening. Natalie Dessay asserts a similar desire to continually learn with the following statement: ''After ten years of my career, I have done all the [standard] roles I can do in this repertoire. I don't want to repeat. I have to progress, to work on the voice, and to move on to something else, something that's more interesting, acting-wise''.219 Many have echoed her sentiments and have continued to expand their role repertory and their understanding of particular opera characters in order to expand their knowledge base. Matheopoulos maintains that today’s top singers are smart and no wonder, when the learning process never stops for them.

As in the cases of Te Kanawa and Forrester, a commitment to learning means, in its early stages, much hard work and sacrifice on the part of all successful opera singers. Forrester recalls having to give up many friendships when she began to study with Diamant, simply because she did not have time after daily work and vocal practice to spend time with friends. Forrester also remembers that her life was not that of a normal girl once she began serious voice study.220 For Te Kanawa, sacrifice was especially great upon leaving her homeland of New Zealand for England to study at the London Opera Centre in her early twenties. Leaving the country where she was a celebrity to study in a new place where her teachers were less tolerant and she had few friends was definitely a sacrifice for this singer, and one which caused her to, eventually, work hard. For Dessay, singing has meant working “like a dog, really”.221 Yet, as Matheopoulos reminds, contemporary operatic singers have “an infinite capacity for hard work”.222 Rescigno extends this infinite capacity back several decades when he reinforces the ambitious work ethic of Maria Callas by stating, "I do not doubt that the natural talent of Callas was immense, but she perfected this gift with a great deal of study, discipline, and humility".223 All of the singers studied invested in numerous lessons and studied and performed overseas frequently. Thus, it is obvious that many other interests had to be laid aside in order for highly effective female opera singers to pursue their musical careers. A logical step after making some of these sacrifices is dealing with their repercussions and the general lifestyle of an opera singer. To some, this lifestyle was too strenuous. In the words of Janet Baker, "If someone asked me if my career has been ‘worth it,’ in other words worth the sacrifices made by me and members of my family, worth the separations, the agony of performing...the strains and pitfalls of being a public figure, my

ibid. Rescigno, N. (1987). Foreword to Callas at Juilliard: The master classes. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. p. xii 218 Ardoin, p. xvii 219 Kellow, B. (2001). Femme du monde. Opera News 65(10), p.33 216 217

Forrester & McDonald Kellow, 2001, p. 33 222 Matheopoulos, p. xxiii 223 Rescigno, p.xxi 220 221

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honest answer would have to be "No”.224. She continues by saying that she found "in the life [of a singer] itself and the principles which guide it . . . there is a terrible kind of ruthlessness".225 These statements prove that successful singers do not necessarily have to be enamoured of every aspect of their career, but they must, nevertheless, come to terms with the way opera singers must live. For Renée Fleming, this meant toting her pre-school-aged children and their nanny along on many international engagements.226 For Forrester, adjusting to operatic life has meant separating herself from “The Voice” inside her. Luckily for Forrester, her constitution and high level of energy have enabled her to avoid the constant pampering and “palpitations over every breeze” that she knows many of her colleagues must endure in order to be able to do their jobs.227 Matheopoulos aptly describes operasinger life in the following paragraph: For, away from the electricity, excitement and high tension of the operatic stage, a diva’s life boils down to a peripatetic existence in hotel rooms and rented flats; on top of this a daily routine requiring discipline, training, careful living and the stamina of an athlete. Moreover, divas live in a state of permanent preoccupation with their health, the slightest variation in which can affect The Voice, this volatile and unpredicatble instrument, so bound up with their physical and emotional state.228 Undoubtedly, this lifestyle is not for everyone. Singers such as Marie Collier proved to be unable to truly tolerate this kind of life, always detesting traveling to new places and being alone in hotel rooms. However, despite the drawbacks, which also often include shortlived marriages, short tempers among opera divas, and the demand for singers to perform even when they are not feeling their best229,

many singers have found ways to balance the stress of their jobs with an active family and extra-curricular life.230 Finding the balance between the need to perform and the need to lead a well-rounded life is an achievment that has been credited to such singers as Kiri Te Kanawa and Felicity Lott, who “have beautiful voices, but . . . are still real women”.231 After all, not every singer can develop Callas’ motto of "What is there in life if you do not work?...You can only live on work, by work, through work... I work, therefore I am".232 Certainly, “the lights, fame, or the drug of audience acclaim,” which Baker says are part of the job233 as well as the frequent traveling and difficulty that in itself can present while raising a family, should be aspects of opera singing that students consider before they attempt to launch their full-time careers. Priorities must be evaluated and goals set before a student commits to a life professional opera work. In addition to accepting the lifestyle requirements of opera, another skill which effective female opera singers share is the ability to accept criticism and disappointment. This quality is essential to survival among directors, colleagues, audiences and critics, and requires the singer to have enough selfconfidence to not doubt her talent after a failure or criticism is encountered, but not to have so much confidence that she is no longer flexible and open-minded in a rehearsal situation. Certainly, among highly effective female singers, examples of both attitudes exist, but the former is certainly more favourable to contemporary conductors and colleagues. One example of a singer who has her own artistic ideas but who has never thought of them as singularly valid, is Te Kanawa. Perhaps this is a result of numerous competitions as a young singer, where she encountered many failures before winning large prizes in her early twenties. Similarly, if

Baker, J. (1982). Full circle: An autobiographical journal. New York: F. Watts. p. 52 225 ibid. p.53 226 Matheopoulos 227 Forrester & McDonald, p.9 228 Matheopoulos, p. xxvi 229 Kellow, B. (2002). On the beat: Diva stories. Opera News 67(5), 8, 10. 224

Fingleton Bambarger, B. (1999). Global classical pulse. The International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment 111(36), 54-55. 232 Lowe, D. (Ed). (1986). Callas as they saw her. New York: Ungar, 1986. p.177 233 Baker, p.140 230 231

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Renée Fleming had not learned how to cope with criticism before her opening night of Donizetti’s Lucrezia Borgia at La Scala in 1998, she learned at that performance, where she was loudly booed by the audience.234 Maria Callas even admits to not being well-liked when she first began to sing because she “took the public away from the tradition they knew”.235 In a world fraught with critics’ opinions in reviews of each performance executed, female professional opera singers must certainly be able to accept criticism, learn from their mistakes, and develop the ability to discern honest, valid, constructive criticism from uninformed, ignorant gossip. Yet another quality shared among most highly successful and effective female opera singers is a uniquely identifiable instrument. Matheopoulos maintains that an instantly recognizeable voice is perhaps the most important ingredient in the recipe for a worldclass opera singer, and Stanley-Porter agrees.236 It cannot be denied that many successful singers have been hailed as having a timbre all their own, including Maria Callas,237 Marilyn Horne,238 Brigitte Fassbaender,239 Janet Baker,240 Régine Crespin,241 Kiri Te Kanawa,242 Kathleen Battle,243 and Jessye Norman244. In addition, some singers have been faulted for having instruments that were less distinctive than their contemporaries.245 Even if the

sound is technically flawed or a bit harsh in some repertoire, it seems that a distinctive voice is more important than a beautiful instrument that sounds like thousands before it. Whether the tone is steely, harsh, round or light, it seems to matter not, provided there is something unique and recognizeable about the voice. As Stanley-Porter says, “when you hear a sound that stands out, that’s very exciting”246 and this is a truth that young singers should also be aware of as they prepare for professional careers. Having a unique and identifiable timbre is but one of the strengths that one might possess as a singer, and it is important that female opera singers be aware of their own vocal strengths and weaknesses, so that they may accept roles accordingly. Highly effective female opera singers today must constantly refuse roles which are too large or dramatically inappropriate for their voices or ages and, thus, the knowledge of the resources that their instruments possess is one key to keeping these voices singing. While Patricia Craig247, 248 Frederica von Stade , and Natalie Dessay249 have denied roles because they were too large for their voices, it has been equally important for the careers of singers such as Barbara Bonney250 and Janet Baker251 to refuse roles which they have grown out of vocally and dramatically. Steane praises Renata Tebaldi for having remained within an appropriate repertoire for her voice, while Aberbach insists that, lately, too many voices are singing roles at too young an age.252 Whatever the quality of the voice may be, it is apparent that highly successful female opera singers must be aware of the properties of their voices, so that they can maximize their skills but not damage their instrument or bore themselves dramatically.

Kellow, 2001 Ardoin, p. 6 236 Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets the best apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 16-19. 234 235

237 Steane, J. (1998). Singers of the century, v. 2. Amadeus Press: Portland, Oregon.

ibid. ibid. 240 Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets the best apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 1619. 241 ibid. 242 Fingleton 243 Malafronte, Judith (2002).Recordings: Recital: Kathleen Battle. Opera News 67(2), 58-59. 244 Mark, M. (2003). Collections: "The Very Best of Jose Carreras"; "The Very Best of Placido Domingo"; "The Very Best of Jessye Norman." American Record Guide 66(5), 253. 245 Steane 238 239

Eatock, p. 19 Braun, W. (2003). Mainstays [Resident Members of the Metropolitan Opera in the 1980s]. Opera News 68(3), 53-57. 248 Steane 249 Kellow, 2001 250 Matheopoulos 251 Baker 252 Eatock 246 247

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An infallible cure for dramatic boredom is a singer’s ability to communicate and express emotion to an audience. This was found to be a unanimous skill among highly effective female opera singers. Marilyn Horne had an “instinctive flair for the dramatic”253 while Janet Baker’s eyes have been called as expressive as her voice.254 Maria Callas was dubbed “ a natural actor”255 and Régine Crespin “one of opera’s most compelling actresses”.256 Steane forgives some of Frederica von Stade’s technical flaws because of the naturalness and humanity in her acting, and Aberbach echoes a similar sentiment about Teresa Stratas.257 Kellow mentions Dessay’s “blazing theatrical instincts”258 and Driscoll maintains that, aside from astute management and great reviews, it was Renée Fleming’s ability to connect dramatically with an audience that made her and has kept her a star.259 Richard Turp purports that the most important trait that great opera singers share is their ability to enlighten and communicate the meaning of the text they sing, and Stanley Porter declares that “on stage, the most important thing is to “bring the character alive”.260 Singers such as Ferrier, Te Kanawa and Mattila have been praised countless times by critics for their abilities to draw an audience into the music they are singing. This dramatic skill is not to be underestimated in operatic singers. It is obvious that audiences and critics alike look not just for a beautiful voice, but for the dramatic intention allowing that voice, and the actress behind it, to communicate deep emotion. Thus, opera singers who do not possess natural dramatic instincts should be coached incessantly to this end, knowing that it alone can make a performance meaningful to an audience.

Aside from the nine skills and experiences, or “truths,” discussed here, highly successful female opera stars do share other qualities. Many of them are naturally beautiful women, and almost all thoroughly enjoy their work. In the case of Mattila, the fun she has while singing has even been said to be audible on her recordings.261 However, this enjoyment depends largely on the success of the prior nine points, and the perception of a singer as being beautiful can be greatly enhanced by these other traits. Without natural talent, parents and teachers who helped develop that talent, a strong desire to learn, hard work and sacrifice, an understanding of the lifestyle that opera singing often demands, the ability to accept criticism, the possession of a unique and recognizeable instrument, a knowledge of one’s own vocal strengths and limitations, as well as a keen ability to convey emotion and communicate with an audience, today’s female operatic artists would not be successful or celebrated. Some may say that, with these traits and experiences, “there is a sense, then, in which diva life narratives write themselves”.262 However, each singer possesses many other individual traits that enhance or detract from her ability to perform and, certainly, there are many more factors than these which determine a successful career. Still, by examining the lives of successful singers, it is plain to see that these nine truths certainly cannot be ignored, as they are all integral to the development of world class opera singers. Students of singing would be wise to measure their own past, present, and future experiences and skills against those common to successful female opera singers, to ensure that they have considered some of the inevitable situations they will face as professionals. The career of opera singing is, as Callas said, “difficult work”,263 but for those who are blessed with the stamina and talent to withstand its pressures and who are invigorated

Steane, p.173 Steane 255 Ardoin, p.6 256 Albright, W. (1999.) [Review of the book On stage, off stage: A memoir]. The Opera Quarterly 15(1), p.109 257 Eatock 258 Kellow, p.36 259 Driscoll, F. P. (2003). Upward bound. Opera News 68(3), p.6 260 Eatock 253 254

Myers, E. (2001). Recital - Karita Mattila. Opera News 65(8), 76. 262 Leonardi, S. & Pope, R. (1996). The diva's mouth: body, voice, prima donna politics. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 142 263 Ardoin, p. 8 261

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by its challenges, it can also be very rewarding.

to offer a truly well rounded, engaging performance. After the initial technical foundations are firmly in place, students must strive to incorporate dramatic shadings into their music from the moment they begin to study a new piece, and they must learn to do this by any means necessary. It is crucial that singers pay serious attention to the dramatic aspect of their studies in performance, which will ultimately pay off in many ways, and will even serve as a vehicle for a better understanding of their music and improved technical abilities. In most cities students would have the opportunity to enroll in a professional acting course, which is one of the easiest ways to gain knowledge of the dramatic arts so that they may be incorporated into a musical performance. Students may also choose to embark on a self study of basic stage techniques to incorporate into their practicing and performance. It is still very important for singers to maintain their study of the technical aspects of their instrument. A dramatic stage performance void of technical prowess and musical thought is just as unfulfilling as a technically glowing performance given by a deadpan performer. The singer must learn to strike a balance. Above all, a student must try to observe themselves critically at any given opportunity, and enlist the aid of anyone willing to help them become a more wellrounded performer. Many of today’s professional performers will agree that it is absolutely vital that a singer be well versed in the art of stage craft in order to build a career. Renée Fleming is definitely considered one of the top performers of our time. Her voice is absolutely beautiful, but it is not that aspect of her performance that has held the attention of a world that is always so eager to move along to the next big hit. Critics have hailed here as

The Art of Emotion By Rachel Schwarz The career of a professional singer is under constant scrutiny. In an age of digital recording technology, vocal technique must be flawless to meet the expectations of a classical music aficionado. Young, would-be performers spend countless hours in diligent study and practice in order to perfect their technique, and devote all their energy to pursuits that might further their career. They study languages, diction, and doggedly enter competitions and attend auditions in the hopes of building a successful performance career. Unfortunately, many devoted students of voice fail to come close to achieving their goals despite their hard work and fortitude. Although many will quickly dismiss actual success in a performing career to luck, a beautiful voice and flawless technique are only a part of the total package required to really cement a career in performance. Many critics, coaches and voice teachers agree that performers needs to demonstrate a commanding stage presence, aesthetic appeal, audience rapport and a mastery of dramatic nuances in conjunction with a healthy technique if they hope to pursue a serious performance career. While this may seem like common sense, the actual art of performing is often neglected by serious voice students if not completely ignored. In a typical performance degree students have access to a variety of theoretical, historical and pedagogical courses, but are rarely offered the chance to improve their acting skills or learn the deportment necessary to capture the attention of an audience or a panel of judges. While it may be easy to blame institutions for a lack of focus on performing techniques, the onus must ultimately rest on the performer. Often, the cause for a lackluster performance can be attributed to inattention to the amount of work and study that is necessary

“the most celebrated American soprano before the public right now … with her warm stage presence that seems both queenly regal and ‘girl next door’, and her magnificent way with a song.” (Tim Page) 264 264

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Renée Fleming, “The Inner Voice” (New York, Penguin Group, 2004) Back Cover

piece actually free her to become a vehicle of expression.266 Obviously, it would be difficult for an aspiring performer to convince anyone that he or she does not dream of the critical acclaim and devoted following that Fleming enjoys. If that is truly the case, singers owe it to themselves to try and attain the dramatic freedom that Fleming states cam be found within the context of good musical understanding and technical fortitude. As each singer is different, the same solution to the problem of lack of polish in a performance will not work for everyone. Singers must be diligent in attempting to gain some dramatic freedom within the context of their performing. They are responsible for researching various methods of amending their performance style to include some genuinely moving emotional moments. In order to do this, the must first understand how to most effectively create these moments. Arguably the best tool for a singer is their mirror. Everyone should make a point of singing in a full length mirror as often as possible. The trick is to allow the time with the mirror to not simply be about technique and posture, rather, observing how an effort to communicate can change a performance. Singers must guard against overacting lest they become a cliché, and with a clear goal of creating a believable performance they are able to embark on a very rewarding journey of self discovery. As everyone is different, some singers will have an easier time of this than others, as they are naturally gifted with an effusive personality and tangible charisma. This does not mean that they should be excluded from the study of stage craft, because the most engaging performers can still fail to capture an audience if they do not learn to hone their personality and physical attributes to their advantage. Sometimes it is more difficult to watch a singer desperately trying to convey emotion without an understanding of how to effectively do so, than it is to watch a boring performer.

Reading any review of Fleming’s recent performance triumphs or having the chance to watch her create her art live or on film will cement the view that she is truly a master at her craft. In her new book, Fleming shares her views on what make a performer successful, and how to create an unforgettable performance. She speaks candidly about the demands on the classical singer, and it is clear that she ascribes to the belief that performance is an art that encompasses beautiful singing, but an inspired performance cannot rest on the voice alone. In the course of my career I have appeared in many different venues. I’ve sung for a small roomful of people, and I’ve sung in giant outdoor arenas, but whether I’m performing for a group of twelve or a group of twelve thousand, my goal is the same: communicating with the audience … I can reach out with my voice and touch the audience in an almost physical way. For me, the singer’s art is the art of expression – expressing the music, expressing the text, projecting my voice into a large space, and then using it to make that space between me and the audience grow smaller and smaller.265 Clearly, Fleming believes in the symbiotic relationship between the voice and the performance. Her success dictates that she has indeed discovered how to make the stage work for her. Many singers follow her career avidly, admiring her success and technical ability without ever truly grasping that the nature of her performance stems from a genuine desire to evoke emotion and to draw in the audience. In order to give themselves the opportunity to build a career even remotely close to that of Renée Fleming, it is clear that singers must start to more actively take an interest in the actual art of performance. Fleming goes on to contend that it is within the structure of a freely given performance that she actually finds technical nuances that she was not aware were within her scope of ability. She states that the hours she spent working on the technical aspects of a 265

Fleming, p. 175

266

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Fleming, p. 175

Fleming actually claims to be somewhat of an introvert267, which means that she has had to make a concerted effort to craft her inimitable performance style. Upon reading her book, one might draw the conclusion that part of her performance success can be attributed to the fact that she has icons that she admires, and she strives to achieve the kind of depth of performance that has been achieved by legendary singers such as Maria Callas. Fleming spends a good deal of time musing over the qualities that have allowed the legend of Callas to live on, and seeing that kind of thought and insight into performance ability give the reader the impression that she will never be content with the level of technical ability and performance that she has achieved, and that her genuine desire to become better with each subsequent performance will allow her to continue to grow as a vocal titan. Maria Callas is a modern legend. She is one of the last opera divas to ever reach iconic status outside the classical music world. Although her performances were not always flawless, audiences seem to have been willing to forgive her anything because of her stunning performing ability. Her vocal style is in keeping with the Bel Canto ideal of ‘the language of the soul’. In conjunction with the technical work of singers of that time, looking back at manuscripts show that just as much thought was placed on the subtlest dramatic nuance as on the technical mastery of a piece. Gestures and emotional motivation can be found written into countless scores of the period, and treatises proclaim the ‘language of the soul’ to be of vital importance to a complete performance. This includes actual sighs, tears, cries and changes to the timber of the voice for dramatic purposes.268 Suggesting to modern singers that they actually sacrifice some vocal beauty in order to communicate emotion would leave many of the balking at the thought. While it is easy to see how vocal gesticulations are not necessarily 267 268

vital to a modern performance, a singer must not discount the validity in the freedom that they would afford. Perhaps taking some Bel Canto principles into the practice room would allow singers to see exactly how far they can truly go in a performance without making a mockery of the music. It would truly be an exercise for many to interrupt their beautiful legato line with a sigh of heartbreak, but perhaps it is a valuable practicing tool that is not given the credit that it truly deserves. It is interesting to pick up a manual for stage actors and read what it will have to say about the importance of the voice in performance. Many authors of acting manuals will approach the instruction of the voice in much the same way as a teacher of classical singing. Patsy Rodenburg, a well respected voice and acting coach in London, England, views proper vocal technique as the cornerstone for any successful stage performance. She views the voice as the cornerstone of success in acting, and in her courses at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama she spends years training young actors in much the same fashion as singing teachers train their students. She applies many of the same principles and studies used by acclaimed vocal pedagogs such as Dr. Richard Miller to the art of acting, and she has actually devoted an entire book to the importance of healthy voice technique as a vehicle for 269 communication. If a singer were to take the time to think about the importance placed on the voice in stage acting, they might eventually come to the conclusion that speaking and singing are simply different sides of the same craft. The art of dramatic acting is far more technical and pedagogical than many singers realize, and yet the ultimate performance never suffers as a result of technical concentration. Rodenburg has some very interesting views on singing that should at least draw the consideration of any serious singer. “I realize that singing is, on one level, a very technically complex activity. Yet it is more natural than speaking. It has a fluency

Fleming, 175 Robert Toft, “Heart to Heart” (New York, Oxford University Press, 2000) p. 168

269

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Patsy Rodenburg “The Actor Speaks” (New York, Palgrave MacMillan, 2000) pp. 4-16

and a free flow that should be fun and more liberating than speaking text … the potentially joyous side of singing has been corseted wit judgmental fears.”270 If Rodenburg’s views on the close similarities between the speaking and singing voice are true, than it would have great impact on the studies of a would-be performer. The next logical step for singers on their way to a performing career would be to realize that it is necessary to build their stage craft with the meticulous study and planning exerted by a Shakespearian actor. Richard Miller has written many authoritative texts on the subtle workings of the human voice. He is at the top of his field, and is revered by the classical community as one of the great vocal pedagogs of our time. With all of his technical study, it is sometimes easy to forget that Dr. Miller also had a performing career that would be the envy of many a classical singer. It is refreshing to realize that he has very strong opinions on the multiple demands of a successful performing career, and refers to a well rounded singer as having the ‘Performance Package’.271 This refers to absolutely everything society could want from a professional singer, including technique, natural ability, musicality, a sense of drama and a genuine feeling for communication. If a teacher as technically exacting as Dr. Miller feels that a grasp of the dramatic is necessary to complete the performance package, perhaps many studious young singers would do well to take heed. Dr. Miller also contends that a senior performance major should most likely have a decent technical basis for their singing, and that a singer’s practicing must be devoted to both technical and dramatic mastery. He stresses the importance of attention to the inner meaning of a text, and encourages young professionals to strive towards creating a believable and authentic performance experience. To that end, he offers the advice that performance technique can be taught just as easily as vocal technique. He asserts that 270 271

while acting workshops and the like are of great value, a large amount of interpretive work can be done in the studio. He calls on the vocal coaches and teachers to be more diligent with students with regards to creating a feeling of ease within the student’s body, and this comfort will ultimately lead to ease on stage. Dr. Miller explains facial expression is of primary importance in communication, and suggests that singers videotape lessons, rehearsals and performances so that they may watch themselves with a critical eye and learn from their shortcomings.272 Dr Miller is ready to admit that although technical study is always of the utmost importance, as a performance approaches it must cede to the need to focus on the musical and interpretative aspects of singing. He states that “Technical study should not aim at a assembling a singing machine, but at developing a communicative artist.”273 A good bit of wisdom for the classical singer would be to “Never sing without someone, or the illusion of someone, to sing to”.274 Sometimes a great deal of headway can simply be made by deciding your motivation behind singing, and who you are singing to. Sometimes the singer is lucky enough to have a live person to sing to, but more often they must train themselves to create an imaginary partner. If they can master this technique, then they are able to begin to create another world for the audience. Matt Bean also contends that creating someone to sing to affects singing in a healthy way. He believes that if that illusion is not there, singers have a tendency to push their voices, and creating another individual ‘creates the sensation that the singing is being pulled out of us by the person we’re singing to; this is effortless’.275 Obviously there is a great push for modern classical singers to begin to pay more Richard Miller, “Learning to Portray Emotion”, (NATS Journal, vol. 45, no. 5) 273 Richard Miller, “Balancing Technique and Literature”, (NATS Journal, vol. 58, no.4) 274 Matt Bean, “To Whom do you Sing?”, (NATS Journal, vol. 45, no.3) Quoting: David Craig, On Singing Onstage, p.82, 1978 275 Bean 272

Rodenburg, p.137 Richard Miller, “Wrapping up the Performance Package”, (NATS Journal, vol. 49, no.3) 43

attention to their performance style in order to create the package of a well rounded singer and performer. They must use any options available to them, including acting courses, dramatic theory resources, outside feedback and constant personal monitoring in order to ensure they are growing dramatically as well as vocally. When this dramatic motivation is handled properly, it can actually create an environment to foster technical freedom, which will allow singers to reach new levels of vocal ability. It should be a vehicle to allow performers to reach any goal they set for themselves on stage, whether it is technical or dramatic. Ultimately, singers are solely responsible for their own improvement in this area. They must be diligent and have a genuine desire to learn the invaluable stage tools necessary to have the chance to build a professional career. For any successful singer, the dramatic arts are a vital part of their craft. Young singers can do themselves a great service by realizing this, and taking a proactive approach to developing their performance technique sooner rather than later.

physiological and psychological aspect that affects the way we interpret sensations–we can become anxious in situations merely because we perceive a threat even where there is none. 277 Performance is not simply the product of physiological and biomechanical factors, but psychological factors also play a crucial role in determining performance278 There are few activities that can produce tension and anxiety as quickly and as thoroughly as performing in public.279 Cognitive, behavioural, and physiological factors are involved in the underlying processes of performance anxiety.280 A performance itself involves a sequence of skilled actions that may easily be disrupted since the physical systems sustaining a performance are precisely those most likely to be disturbed by excessive tension281. Music performance requires a high level of skill in a diverse range of skill areas including fine motor dexterity and coordination, attention and memory, aesthetic, and interpretative skills.282 Sweating, muscle control and breathing pattern are most sensitive to bodily arousal, yet are crucial to most performing arts.283 Anxiety does not always result in a negative affect on the performer. According the Inverted-U Hypothesis, performance can actually improve with increasing arousal up to an intermediate level, and it is not until the arousal level rises beyond the optimum that

The Cognitive and Physiological Aspects of Performance Anxiety

277“A

Discussion on Performance Anxiety”. (Accessed: 02 February 2005) http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/performance_anxiety.ht ml 278J. Graham Jones, Lew Hardy, Stress and Performance in Sport (England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1990), 3. 279“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”. (Acessed: 02 February 2005) http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/performance_anxiety.ht ml 280Ibid. 281Ibid. 282Dianna T. Kenny et. al: “Music Performance Anxiety and Occupational Stress amongst Opera Chorus Artists and Their Relationship with State and Trait Anxiety Perfectionism”. Journal of Anxiety Disorders (Sept 2003) 757-777, online [database online, UWO], accessed 02 February 2005. 283Steptoe, Musical Times (Aug. 1982)

By: Katherine Serniwka At one time or another, everyone has experienced some form of anxiety. Whether it be in music performance, sports, or other focal anxieties such as a fear of spiders or heights, the individual responds similarly, both physically and mentally to the presence of the feared situation.276 Anxiety has both a 276Andrew

Steptoe: “Performance Anxiety. Recent Developments in Its Analysis and Management”. The Musical Times (Aug., 1982) 537-541, online, available: JSTOR, [database online, UWO], accessed 05 February 2005. 44

performance begins to deteriorate.284 Levels of arousal above or below this optimum amount are seen to produce inferior performance.285 Difficulties in performance may also arise on the other end of the spectrum–some musicians are unable to rise to the occasion and give a dull performance through failing to generate enough excitement and arousal.286 This accounts for the claim frequently expressed by performers that they need a certain level of anxiety and nervousness to perform well.287 The tension needed for a good performance is not anxiety, but a generalized state of moderate physical excitement.288 The tension experienced with anxiety is caused by an overload of Adrenaline and noradrenaline which enters the bloodstream whenever one is faced with a stressful situation.289 It causes hyper-alertness and in part, this reaction is a survival response–the ‘fight or flight reaction’290 The nervous system is activated and physiological reactions interfere with performing by making it difficult to control otherwise simple functions such as breathing.291 During the ‘fight or flight reaction’, the body changes the way it operates physically in order to maximize strength and energy; normally the body uses only a small amount of energy and strength.292 This reaction is a very powerful response that serves as an important survival function, however when one is faced with non-physical threats such as the fear of making mistakes or performing in public, this reaction results in an inferior performance.293 Since the action of performing does not require a physical action such as running from a threat, energy is neither used nor absorbed and thus the outcome is stress and anxiety.294 In a performing situation, this build up of 284Jones, 285Ibid.

295Ibid.

296Dorothy

V. Harris, Bette L. Harris, The Athlete’s Guide tp Sports Psychology: Mental Skills for Physical People (USA: Leisure Press, 1984) 34. 297Jones, Hardy, 6.

Hardy, 20.

286Steptoe, 287Ibid.

adrenaline causes symptoms like shaking, excessive sweating and hyperventilation, and interferes with the performance.295 Anxiety is generally considered to be a combination of the cognitive and somatic manifestations of perceived emotional or physical threat.296 Cognitive anxiety is characterized by negative expectations, lack of concentration and images of failure, while somatic anxiety refers to the perception of physiological symptoms such as sweaty hands or tension.297 Anxiety can be divided int298o subcategories. Trait anxiety is one’s predisposition to perceive certain stimuli as threatening; individuals with high trait anxiety levels tend to exhibit a chronically higher level of arousal in all situations.299 They either perceive more situations as threatening or respond to threatening situations with more intense levels of state anxiety, or both.300 State anxiety is the situation-specific anxiety state; it can be aroused by the perception of danger, fear of failure and worry or threat to selfesteem in a particular situation.301 State anxiety is arousal produced by the perception of danger.302 There are several theories that strive to explain performance anxiety in terms of its causes and effects. Two such theories are the Drive Theory and the Inverted-U Hypothesis. Drive Theory is one of the most influential theories of motivation in psychology and has played an important role in sport psychology, particularly as an explanation for the effects of an audience on motor performance.303 It is believed that state anxiety has motivational and drive properties that are of benefit to performance–to an extent, anxiety can be

Musical Times (Aug 1982)

298

288Ibid.

299Harris,

34. Martens, Sport Competition Anxiety Test (Illinois: University of Illinois, 1977) 5. 301Harris, 34-35. 302Martens, 5. 303Diane L. Gill, Psychological Dynamics of Sport (Illinois: Human Kinetics Books, 1986) 117.

289“A

Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 1. 290Ibid, 1. 291Ibid., 2 292Ibid., 1 293Ibid. 294Ibid.

300Rainer

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motivational. 304 One of the main components of drive theory refers to learned responses or behaviours.305 Drive theory proposes that as arousal or drive increases, as in intense competition, learned behaviours are most likely to occur.306 Anxiety occurs when an individual believes that they do not have to ability to handle the demands of a situation; studies indicate that high levels of anxiety are related to lower levels of confidence.307 If the task is relatively simple or well-learned by an individual so that correct responses are dominant, the presence of an audience will enhance the performance of the task.308 If the task is complex and poorly learned, the dominant response is an incorrect response, and increased arousal brought on by an audience will impair performance.309 The argument is that the presence of others increases drive and thereby enhances the performance of well-learned tasks and inhibits the performance of poorly learned tasks.310 The Inverted-U Hypothesis states that for every type of behaviour there exists an optimum level of arousal, usually of moderate intensity, that produces maximum performance and that this optimum level decreases as performance decreases.311 The required level of arousal is related to the degree of complexity of the task and the length of time necessary to execute the task.312 Performance level progressively declines as arousal increases or decreases from a moderate level.313 Simple strength tasks, such as weight-lifting, may profit from high levels of arousal or anxiety while more cognitive tasks, such as a musical performance may suffer from even moderate levels of anxiety.314 It is difficult to accurately

measure what constitutes a moderate level of anxiety as opposed to a high or low level of anxiety since it differs depending on the individual; this is one of the complications of the Inverted-U Hypothesis. Predicting precise optimal arousal levels for each performer and each task is not possible.315 Past performances shape the expectations of future performances–one bad experience of performing leads to another.316 The experience becomes internalized through a process of conditioning and so the fear is reproduced in later situations.317 Anxiety becomes a response to something that may happen and not a response to something that does happen. Performing in front of an audience requires a great level of focus and concentration. The performer’s inner dialogue or inner speech plays an important part in intensifying and exaggerating anxiety.318 The cognitive aspects of performing may interfere with this concentration and cause the performer to experience worries about memory lapses, fear of a difficulty in the piece, and disapproval from friends and teachers.319 There might also be negative thoughts about the self, and deeming oneself unworthy, technically incapable, and not as talented as one’s colleagues.320 As general anxiety, it is believed that performance anxiety tends to run in families.321 Also, several studies have shown that there may be a connection between personality and performance anxiety.322 It has been indicated that there is a direct correlation between performance anxiety and neuroticism.323 It has also been proposed that personality is made up of many traits and that these traits give rise to tendencies to behave in particular ways, including being anxious.324

304“A

Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3 116. 306 Ibid. 307“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 2. 308Ibid. 309Gill, 119. 310“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3. 311Graham, Hardy, 20. 312Harris, 40. 313Gill, 118. 314Dieter Hackfort, Charles D. Spielberger, Anxiety in Sports: An International Perspective (USA: Hemisphere, 1989) 79-80. 305Gill,

315Gill,

121. 40. 317“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3. 318Kenny et. al., 539. 319Ibid. 320Ibid. 321“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3. 322Ibid. 323Ibid. 324Ibid. 316Harris,

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The relationship between stress and performance is an extremely complex one, involving an interaction between the nature of the stressor, the cognitive and motor demands of the task to be performed and the psychological characteristics of the individual performing it.325 Be it in a performance situation, or an athletic competition, everyone experiences certain levels of anxiety and stress, which if not handled properly, can result in a less than desirable performance. Several theories have been established in order to explain the causes and effects of performance anxiety and many researchers continue to explore and understand the complexities of performing under pressure. Anxiety is an intrinsic part of human nature and, at a moderate level, can be beneficial to achieving a satisfactory performance.

understanding vocal pedagogy until this point were hypothesized through paintings by artists such as van Eyck who, known for his impeccable attention to detail, captured singers in performance327 and taught theorist a great deal about performance practice and vocal technique. By the end of the Renaissance period, and certainly by the beginning of the Baroque era, musicians had a rising interest in notating concepts of performance practice and pedagogies. The voice, being as unique and difficult to understand as it is, claims the topic for a great majority of these treatises. At the turn of the 19th century, science became an important consideration in the development of vocal pedagogy, in particular the invention of the laryngoscope by Manuel Garcia in 1855328. After this invention, great attention was given by physicians and vocalists to the actions of vocal cords, particularly their relationship with registration329. Pedagogues have since led many scientific investigations into understanding the human voice and the function of laryngeal height is a variable that often comes into question. This study will observe the structure in question (the larynx), important surrounding musculature, past experiments to codify the relevance of laryngeal height, a detailed spectrographic analysis of varying laryngeal height and its significance to oral interpretation and intelligibility. In order to understand the relevance of laryngeal height , one must have fundamental knowledge of important physical and acoustical considerations of the voice. The first item to be discussed is the larynx, which is the vibratory source of the vocal apparatus. The larynx consists of three cartilaginous formations, suspended over the trachea. The

Laryngeal Plight: A critical analysis of laryngeal height and its significance to oral interpretation and intelligibility By Geoffrey Sirett Since the beginning of history, experts have been intrigued and mystified by the unique voiceprint of the singing voice, and have thus tried to codify it. Music is a profound expression of the soul common to all cultures; the universal vehicle of such expression is song. Singing as a cultural entity is evident through all traces of history. Until the end of the Renaissance, methodologies and instruction on singing was learned through ‘word of mouth’326. Some of the efforts in

during the a capella period and until the beginning of Opera (1474-1640) (Minneapolis: Pro Musica Press, 1973), 98. 327 Sarah Carr-Gomm, The Secret Language of Art (London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2001), 86-87 328 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 5. 329 David C. Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1908), 34-35.

325Graham, 326

Hardy, 37. Bernhard Ulrich, Concerning Principles of Voice Training 47

cricoid cartilage sits at the bottom of these. The thyroid cartilage, the largest of the three, attaches to the cricoid at the back, allowing it to pivot along the shaft. The arytenoids sit inside this structure and are attached to the vocal ligaments intrinsic musculature of the larynx. All three cartilages are connected by ligaments and membranes330. The arytenoids are able to adjust the vocal folds to varying lengths. This, in combination with the vocalis muscle, located behind the vocal folds, make necessary adjustments to change oscillation frequency of the folds which corresponds to pitch. The lower and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscles are important to consider in terms of laryngeal height.331 These muscles are suprahyoid muscles and act to raise the larynx.332 The relevance of laryngeal height is a question that has been dealt with by vocal teachers, but brought into the spotlight in the middle of the 19th century by Italian vocal scholar Manuel Garcia and has maintained its interest to pedagogues since. Even with the help of modern scientific means, the purpose in studying laryngeal height is ultimately a matter of aesthetics. This is to say, one needs to decide what sounds good, and then relate those sounds to an approachable technique for singers. This is and elusive task at best, and can in many ways be a matter of personal preference. The main school of thought on this matter was established by Garcia in the middle of the 19th century, and has since been reaffirmed by contemporary pedagogues such as Richard Miller and Johan Sundberg. In 1840 Garcia presented his “Mémoire sur la voix humaine” to the Academy of Sciences.333 His observations dealt almost exclusively with the position of the larynx during the singing of various tones. The current main school of technique for laryngeal

position is that the larynx should remain in a stabilized position, at approximately the same height as the position assumed when the singer takes a breath. There are other schools of singing that support a particular depression of the larynx. The concept supported is that the larynx should be as low as possible, as it would be during a yawn, so that there is more vertical space available in the pharyngeal cavity for resonance. This technique, though popular particularly in the 1940’s-1960’s334, has been generally discredited by many pedagogues, including contemporary American scholar Richard Miller, Is it possible to remain free during singing while constantly depressing the tongue, spreading the pharyngeal wall, maintaining and extreme velar elevation, and lowering the larynx excessively – all concomitant with the yawn?335 This brings into light another important muscle, particularly as a larynx depressor: the tongue. Every movement of the tongue effects the position of the larynx.336 Since the tongue is a vital muscle in the intelligibility of text337, excessive depression of the tongue can interfere with the communicative elements of singing. Leo Kofler, German author of various books on vocal production makes his own observations against the use of this technique: I have had opportunities, during the past four years, of examining a number of tenors and basses who had been trained by teachers who force them to keep the larynx in a firm, and closely-confined position. Without one exception their tones sound unmusical, dry, and harsh…338 Richard Miller, Solutions for Singers: Tools for Performers and Teachers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 55. 335 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151. 336 Lennox Browne and Emil Behnhe, Voice, Song, and Speech: A practical guide for Singers and Speakers (London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd, 1896), 68. 337 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151. 338 Browne and Behne, Voice, Song, and Speech, 157. 334

Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique (Belmont:Schirmer/Waldsworth Group/Thomson Learning, 1996), 242-243. 331 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), 114. 332 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 249 333 Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, 34.

330

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Laryngeal elevation is often considered a flaw of “untrained” singers. The observation made by Miller is that, in untrained voices, as pitch rises the larynx elevates, particularly at register pivot points.339 The sound produced by a high larynx is one associated with presentday pop culture and is an undesirable trait for bel canto singing. Bel Canto is a term meaning ‘beautiful singing’. Its origins begin with the traces of early opera experiments at the beginning of the Baroque era. The term came into use in the 19th century during debate between vocal mechanisms used in Wagnerian style opera. The term is currently used to describe ‘classical’ voice training/technique. The connection to pitch and laryngeal height is adapted from speech. There is noticeable movement of the larynx in regular speech patterns, and it is natural for the larynx to rise with pitch. Singing is considered an extension of speech, but there are significant differences between both. Singing is a “higher development of the same power [speech]”340 but the technique for both is quite different. The precise phonation required in singing is absent in speech, as well are factors of range, and sustaining of pitch. The extension of speech required in singing not to carry over speech habits of phonation and breath management, but rather to maintain the ability to communicate . “There must be speech in song, or it would lose all the charm attached to the distinct rendering of the words”341. Johan Sundberg, an active scholar currently professor at the University of London, undertook more exhaustive research of harmonic and formant patterns in varying laryngeal heights342. Sundberg describes the relationship between laryngeal height and timbre by analyzing the amplitude of harmonic frequencies. The voice is unique among instruments in its ability to change the shape of the tract resonating column, and therefore the sound. In singing, vowel differentiation is made as it is in speech; changing the shape of the mouth isolates certain frequencies,

amplifying some and diminishing others. Since everything supraglottis (above the vocal folds) determines the shape of the tract, it is clear that laryngeal height can affect not only strength of fundamental pitch and the singers’ formant, but also vowel differentiation. The following study results investigate further some issues revealed in Sundberg’s observations. Three subjects were recorded for this experiment; two tenors, and one baritone. To diminish variable data to that exclusively of laryngeal height each singer recorded the same pattern, each on similar notes relative to their passaggi: the two tenor subjects at 330 Hz, and the baritone at 269Hz. In subject one, the prevalent singers’ formant (around 3000 Hz for this subject) as well as the fundamental amplitude stayed relatively consistent through all trials. However, important consideration must be made to the action of harmonics between formants. In the second trial [Subject 1 – Depressed Larynx], the dominant amplitude of the singers formant was reduced in frequency by 3%. Observing the second formant (vowel formant), it appears quite similar to the first trial [Subject 1 – Stabilized Larynx], but the modification of vowel was revealed in the increased amplitude in harmonics between the vowel formant and the first and third formants. In the third trial [Subject 1 – Elevated Larynx] the results are deceptive. It appeared that the third formant diminishes in significance. In fact, the concentration of amplitude spread out, and strong formants prevailed well above the 4000 Hz mark, although it is not visible on this graph. The remaining two subjects have results consistent with the findings of the first subject’s trials. In subject three the modification of vowel is particularly evident. In the depressed laryngeal trial [Subject 3 – Depressed] the later two vowels [o] and [u] are hardly differentiated, and in the third trial [Subject 3 – Elevated] the vowels [a] [o] [u] are indistinguishable spectrographically, and orally unintelligible. Spectrographically these results speak for themselves. Although three subjects is not compelling scientific data, it does give a fair bit

Miller, Solutions for Singers, 56. Browne and Behnhe, Voice, Song, and Speech, 27. 341 Ibid. 342 Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 113. 339 340

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of insight into the importance of laryngeal position. Pedagogues in support of this stabilization of the larynx maintain that its primary purpose is to maintain the ‘oscuro’ factor (the first formant)343. Although this data supports the stable laryngeal position, it does so for a different purpose, mainly the intelligibility of the text. In none of the three trials does the ‘oscuro factor’ diminish; the strength of the first formant has little differentiation in amplitude. However, the relationship of the first formant to the singers’ formant is rather what makes distinction between the three trials. Although the first formant strength remains constant, an increase in the strength of partials above 3500 Hz would create the illusion of a diminished first formant or ‘oscuro’. In interpreting the above data one must consider it as a scientific means of studying and evaluating sound. The purpose of this is to understand how sound is conceived and interpreted orally and to provide insight into the concept of ‘ideal tone’. Despite the different approaches to laryngeal position as expounded in different pedagogical techniques there is one unifying element throughout; a goal to create bel canto or “beautiful singing”. The tonal/harmonic structure of the stabilized larynx is perhaps enough to describe this bel canto style, but how to implement it has been of debate for many years. David Taylor, author of “The Psychology of Singing” believes that science has shed no light on this topic and that “knowing how the vocal cords should act does not help the singer in the least to govern their action.344” This idea is discredited by this survey after observations made in the above spectrographic study. There is no proprioseptic sensory for the singer in observing their own laryngeal height; one cannot feel the larynx move up and down, with the exception of sense memory and perhaps nerves in the skin of the neck. In the three subjects discussed, none were able to identify the height of their larynx without visual or kinetic sensory feedback. Yet all of them were 343 344

able to govern the action of the larynx responding to the sound – a concept called audiation. This ability is often overlooked, particularly in male singers. Because of the larger anterior prominence (Adam’s apple) in the developed male larynx, there is particular emphasis by teachers of singing on laryngeal position because of this visual consideration. It is important that this factor not become the primary emphasis on vocal training, and that the most important consideration is that of sound. There is a strong tendency in male voices for over-correction in the concept of stabilizing the larynx345 and undue emphasis is given to lowering the larynx too far. It is important to note that scientific data on this matter is used to reaffirm our oral interpretation and transparency in what each of us believes to be bel canto. By understanding how the singing voice should act, and how the sound should act (or resonate), the singer can govern actions, and direct themselves toward a unique, and yet common goal of beautiful singing and personal expressivity.

The Sport of Singing By Erin Stone Your palms are clammy, your pulse is racing and your legs won’t stop shaking. Butterflies are fluttering madly around your stomach and your heart is beating so loudly, it sounds like someone is drumming in your ear.

Miller, Solutions for Singers, 74. Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, 37.

345

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Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151.

Your head is screaming “don’t screw up” and at about this point, you feel as though there is enough adrenaline pumping through your veins to power an entire city for a year. Whether it is your turn at bat and a baseball game is riding on your shoulders, or you are approaching the high C at the end of a very challenging aria, the physical and psychological effects of performance anxiety are universal. In recent time, growing research has been made in the field of performance anxiety and psychology. The majority of this research has stemmed from psychological and scientific investigations made in sports psychology. As a result of the overwhelming demand for performance psychologists, many sports psychologists have crossed over into music and the arts. Using similar psychological techniques and strategies, sports psychologists have helped artists and performers to cope with the pressures and anxiety that come with performing. Despite the correlations that have been made between sports psychology and musical performance, very few books on voice pedagogy address the physiological and psychological connections that performance anxiety can have on a performer. Instead, the majority of vocal pedagogy books, past and present, concentrate only on the physiological conditions and functions of the voice assuming that the singer is performing at their optimal level of arousal and psychological state. The reality for singers, musicians and athletes, is that they rarely perform in an “optimal state”. Depending on the psychological state or level of arousal, a person’s efficacy to achieve physiological coordination can be greatly impeded by performance anxiety. As part of our daily practice and teaching, it is essential that teachers and singers emphasize the importance of incorporating the strategies and exercises outlined by sport and performance psychologists. When a performer has the ability to understand and identify their physiological and psychological “triggers”, they are better able to diagnose and make adjustments in their performance to minimize or maximize their performing potential at different points of arousal. The purpose of

this essay is to bring into focus the physiological and psychological symptoms of heightened levels of arousals, as well as outline some of the current strategies shared between sport and performance psychologists on how to deal with stress in performance. On the day of a performance, a singer can experience a wide range of different emotional and physical states on stage and off. Whether a singer is actually experiencing an emotional state or dramatically portraying one, when there is an elevation of emotion, there is an increase in the level of physical and psychological arousal. Scientific research has concluded that when monitoring the autonomic nervous system, there is no way to observe whether arousal levels are attributed to anxiety, joy, anger or lust. Although individually we are able to distinguish the diverse nature of these different emotional states, our bodies respond with the same level of arousal.346 Whether we experience joy or anger, if we are unable to be in command of our different emotional states, we are, therefore, unable to control the increases and decreases in our levels of arousal. One of the reasons a singer must learn to be aware of their emotional and psychological arousal, is because the body responds to psychological stimulus with physical arousal. Heightened psychological arousal usually stimulates a physiological response that represents itself in some form of tension. Sports psychologists and physiologists have discovered that uncontrolled physical arousal can result in excessive muscular tension that works against an athlete’s function rather than for the athlete.347 Similarly, when a singer is performing with excessive muscular tension their performance can be inhibited by limited function and lack of physical coordination of the voice. Some of the physical symptoms that one can experience when they are in an elevated state or level of physical arousal can include an increase in pulse, faster shallow 346Michael

Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 11. 347Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 53. 51

higher up breathing in the lungs, increased stomach acid or “butterflies” in the stomach, and cold, clammy extremities. In some cases arousal can become so intense that in can cause people to hyperventilate. The combination of all these reactions is our primitive instinct in reaction to fear.348 Stress or elevated levels of arousal cue the brain’s autonomic responses to elevate a person’s heart rate to send more blood to large muscle groups and extremities. The reasons we begin to sweat and feel cold is because the surge of adrenaline in our bodies is pumping at a level to give us the strength to do insurmountable things. Unfortunately, unlike athletes, singers have no major physical outlet to release this kind of surge of adrenaline in our blood stream.349 Our inability to be able release this kind of adrenaline can cause tremors, feelings of unsteadiness, and other minor symptoms. It is for this reason that singers must be able to monitor their levels of arousal and find ways to control or avoid the sensory overload that is associated with performance anxiety. To improve dexterity, breathing and blood pressure when singing, a useful tactic is recreating the feelings of anxiousness by exerting energy before trying to sing. One way of recreating anxiousness in a performance is running up a flight of stairs or jumping up and down for a minute. After increasing the heart rate and adrenaline, the singer must begin to sing without stopping no matter how it sounds or how it feels. After doing this, the singer must try to figure out how it felt and what parts of their piece you were most difficult to perform. The singer should keep practicing this until they are able to sing with more ease even after exerting themselves.350 The success of professional athletes and singers is most often attributed to the ease

at which they perform. It is these types of professionals that have the greatest control of tension in performance. As mentioned before, our natural reaction when we are aroused or under stress is to brace ourselves and tighten up. Conversely, speed and coordination are the direct result of the rapidity with which you can loosen your muscles. The more relaxed or loose the muscle is, the greater length it can be stretched. The more stretched a muscle is, the more strength and force the muscle is able to possess.351 For athletes and singers, it is best to avoid doing things that will unnecessarily tense the muscles beyond their natural range of motion. In singing, for example, tension must be avoided to sustain a singer’s breath capacity. In order to maintain the constant muscle antagonism required for breathing, the singer is required to have a relaxed abdomen and freedom of movement without tension. Singers can learn to refine their technique by learning to allow their coordination to become reflexive without having overly conscious control their movement.352 The natural tendency of performers and athletes is to concentrate on the small steps of their performance and the execution of each action. This kind of focus can result in a performance where the function or movement of the voice is unnatural, awkward, and without rhythm. On the contrary, doing the opposite, concentrating on the greater whole of the performance commonly results in smoother more natural motion without jerkiness. In many cases when you ask an athlete or performer how they executed such a fine performance, often the case is that they won’t be able to tell you one specific element because their focus was broader. Instead of focusing on one particular aspect of technique, they relied on their “reflex” technique. It is through rehearsal and repetition in practice that the incremental steps of technique must be established to become reflexive. In performance, however, it is often best to have a holistic approach without

348Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 17. 349Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 17. 5Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 18. 6 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1982), 66.

Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 68. 352

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necessarily having one particular technical focus.353 To explain this point even further, the groups of muscles in the body are joined together in opposition of each other. When flexing or tensing a muscle, automatically a corresponding muscle relaxes creating fluidity of motion. It is for this reason being able to identify tensions and where they occur is the first step in being able to use muscles effectively and efficiently so that the proper muscle groups are targeted.354 Again, it is the identification of tension in practice and repetition that must occur before being able to establish reflexive action. When all the muscles are able to work together without tension or focus on one particular muscle, coordination can occur without jerky motion. When the mind of singer responds to what they perceive is as stress, our body reacts immediately to mental cues from the brain. The way to reverse these anxious feelings on a physical level is to change the perception of the physical change in the level of physical arousal.355 One of the ways in which performers can change their physiological reactions is through biofeedback. Biofeedback is process by which people learn to train and regulate their physiological functions by connecting them psychologically. Functions that once were thought to be “involuntary” are able to be regulated. One of the first practices of Biofeedback was Yoga. The ability to redirect control and the changing of heart rates through relaxation is an example of the power of control over “involuntary” responses to the autonomic nervous system.356 Edmund Jacobson developed a method called “Progressive Relaxation”. His method involved control over specific muscle groups

related to other areas in the nervous system. The process is not so much the actual relaxation of the body part but the awareness of tension exists in the first place.357 If performers became more aware of their biofeedback or used techniques such as “Progressive Relaxation” on a regular or daily basis, performers would be able to identify tensions more freely and, therefore, be able to deal with their responses by modifying their perception. One of the ways sport and performance psychologists suggest dealing with tension and perceptions is through imagery and visualization. Images are essentially visual recreations of an experience this is remembered by our senses and produced by our memory and imagination. Although our memories are most commonly associated with visual images, they are produce auditory and kinesthetic sensations. As a result, when we are recalling a memory or experience, our body and mind will react to it as if they are reexperiencing it. In the same way, if a person vividly creates a vividly imagined experience, the body will also react to with the associated sensations.358 The key to using this skill for us as opposed to against us is by visualizing and re-enacting situations while sill relaxed as a process of reconditioning responses. The two types of conditioning include classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is when a natural relationship reoccurs when a stimulus always creates the same response. Operant conditioning is a conditioned response to stimulus that invokes the anticipation of some sort of reward or event.359 Being able to recognize the physical responses to stress is only one part of improving a person’s performing capabilities. Perhaps even more significant to performance

Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 73. 354Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 17. 355 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 18. 356Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 18.

353

357Charlotte

Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 23. 358Jon Waite, Reducing Musical Performance Anxiety, (Oregon: University of Oregon, 1997), 5. 14Jon Waite, Reducing Musical Performance Anxiety, (Oregon: University of Oregon, 1997), 14.

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success is being able to identify the psychological responses that trigger physical reactions. Some of the mental effects of stress can cause unfocussed attention, lapses in memory, and thinking that is not associated with the task at hand. Often when singers are confronted with stress we have a tendency to mentally self-criticize, obsess about people who might be judging, or create worst possible scenarios in their performance.360 One of the ways to overcome this is being able to balance left brain and right brain co ordinations. Although very useful in ordinary situations, the left part of the brain can reap havoc on the mindset of a performer. The left brain is responsible for judgments, analyses, and responds with a constant verbal feedback to our actions and responses. The right brain, however, is where the brain visualizes, and has an overall better sensory awareness. Unlike the left brain, the right part of the brain digests information in holistic way allowing for more free flowing movements and responses. Utilizing the visual and sensory capabilities allows for “mental quiet”, and avoids the “noise” or judgments and commentary from the left side of the brain.361 It is vital, therefore, that as performers we begin to understand how we can make the distinction between left brain and right brain thinking and how to switch between each when performing. One of the reasons that we activate the left brain so much when we perform or participate in sports is because we have an association to the activity. In most cases for singers, because their chosen activity is something for which they excel, their participation in the activity has an association to their ego. When people participate in activities where they are required to perform, in some form or another there is a reward that is associated with the action. An athlete’s reward may be winning first place and for a singer their reward might be receiving applause at the end of an opera. Unfortunately when unmonitored realistically, rewards can root

themselves much more deeply in a performer. Some performers use their art as a way to seek attention or approval from others fulfilling an emotional or social need. Particularly with people who played sports or performed from a young age, their need can go as deep as trying to please a parent or obtaining love by being successful. Instead of focusing only on the challenges of the performance or game, they link their outcome of each challenge as a question of their own self-worth. Psychologically attaching winning or performing successfully with self-worth are what can mentally sabotage the mind of a performer.362 In the case of some of the most famous performers, their only sense of value was through their success as a performer. In these cases their victory or defeat determined their personal value to others and themselves in every day life. Contrary to this kind of mentality, people who are “self-actualized” are able to define themselves without the crutch of their musical ability or athletic strength. In other words, they are able to separate their “ego” from their art.363 To separate or identify how a performer assumes their ego associations, it is important to analyze the environment and people who impact the life of the performer. Often the two most important role models of a performer are parents, coaches or teachers. A teacher or parent’s attitude and influence can have a huge impact on an individual’s performance.364 Once a coach, teacher or parent is able to establish the psychological boundaries of a performer they can better understand how much the performer can be pushed in terms of their level of arousal. It is important that levels of arousal and boundaries are established to achieve successful results with a healthy psychological outlook. The level an individual can be pushed varies from person to person as some people are more sensitive than others. Some people are motivated by Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 16. 363 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 17. 364 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 25. 362

Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best Under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 19. 361 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best Under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 20. 360

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their own terms, while others need to be pushed by fear or guilt tactics. It is when these tactics are blown out of proportion or sabotaged that some of the worst outcomes can prevail. One of the most dangerous mentalities is the Vince Lombardi philosophy, “Winning isn’t everything, it’s the only thing.”365 This mentality is also referred to as “doomsday mentality” because it promotes the idea that if they lose or “screw up” their value as a person is diminished. In these types of situations, the pressure is so great that the individual focuses so much on not screwing up that they end up visualizing themselves doing exactly that, screwing up. While having these kinds of negative visualizations, the body compensates by heightening arousal level to uncontrollable levels.366 As opposed to focusing on the task at hand, there performer begins to have a preoccupation with the need for approval or the need to “win”. It is when an individual continues to not win or be unsuccessful in their pursuits that self-defeating or self-pressure statements and behavior can start to reoccur. Selfdefeating statements are learned responses that people reinforce by repeating them over and over again in their head. These types of statements can become “triggers” or cues that psychologically and physiological cause reactions in the nervous system. These cues can include statements such as “don’t screw up”, “I’ll never get it right”, or “They will always be so much better than me”. When we repeat these statements to ourselves we perceive the situation as though it is our beyond our control. The reason that we end up perceiving these situations to be beyond our control is not because the situation at hand is beyond the individual’s capabilities, but rather these statements are usually said aloud only in the person’s mind and never actually out loud.367 When people are unaware of their selftalk, they usually do not realize how unrealistic

or unreasonable their thoughts are. Being able to comprehend these thoughts by either saying them out loud or sharing them with another is one way of breaking this learned response of believing self-defeating statements. One of the dangerous elements of selftalk is that it is an automatic reaction and does not take time to reason or reflect on each statement. It is for this reason that these statements are not perceived in an objective manner or rational sequence. The way for an individual to actualize their potential when creating self-talk is to re-direct their automatic responses to self-defeating statements and replace them with more positive ones.368 One of the ways of changing this kind of self-talk is again, through visualization. When we set goals for ourselves, more often than not we visualize with a clear mental statement of what we want to happen. The repetition of seeing what they desire is a way of creating a selffulfilling prophecy and expectancy to a more positive outcome. It is in the same way, when we visualize negative outcomes in addition the self-defeating statements, as mentioned earlier, we create a negative self fulfilling prophecy.369 The way to change the repetition of negative visualization or self-defeating statements can be accomplished by voluntary self-regulation and learning to react positively when there is a stressful event. It is through visualization, identification, and sensory awareness though biofeedback that an individual can re-condition their behavior so that it is more realistic and more positive.370 Part of this re-conditioning and realistic thinking is visualizing only optimal levels of performance success. When a person continues to only visualize themselves in their peak performance, when they fail to meet their expectations or visualizations it can often cause Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 15. 369 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 16. 370 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 38. 368

Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 32. 366 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 34. 367 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1982), 83. 365

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access right brain alpha waves.374 The reason why the left part of the brain can be a hindrance to performers is because there is no sort filtering systems when engaging in selftalk. For example, when you say negative things under pressure when your mind processes it, it automatically goes into your belief system with your mind not being able to seriously filter it.375 One of the ways to encourage the breaking of this habit is through visualization and mental rehearsal. Being able to imagine yourself performing well in a multisensory way can help you to mentally correct your mistake, mentally prepare you for the whole performance experience, as well as help you to increase your likeliness of actually performing well.376 When performing, singers are better able to deal and cope with heightened psychological/physiological arousal when they are able to re-enact high pressure performance situations. Identifying when heightened physiological and psychological arousal occurs is essential to managing performance tension and anxiety. It is time that researchers in the field of pedagogy give the performance anxiety and performance psychology the attention it deserves. Ignoring the issues of performance anxiety and arousal levels is an omission of the physiological and psychological connections in singing. Now more than ever, information should be available to performers who are technically proficient in their ability to sing but are unable to execute their ability in a performance situation. Instead of sports and performance psychologists being responsible for this information, specialists in vocal pedagogy should also collaborate with these psychologists to have a greater understanding of the physical effects on the voice in performance anxiety. Should a union occur between physiological and psychological research in singing, there is a better

them to be more frustrated then when they started. Constantly reminding oneself of their performing potential in their optimal state and peak state is vital to understanding how to realistically visualize. After experiencing successful or optimal performance, a performer may be able to increase their performing potential or re-evaluate where their optimal and peak states are.371 One of the ways of being able to clearly understand what an ideal performance is for each individual is to have a clear mindset and agenda to define it. Some of the terms commonly used in the literature of sports psychology and performance psychology include suboptimal, optimal, and peak performance. A suboptimal performance is one in which you do not achieve the performance you desired with the ability to do so. An optimal performance is one in which you are performing as well as you practiced but not necessarily at your best. A peak performance is basically flawless and uncommon performance in most situations.372 Using self-talk and centering is another important strategy when being able to switch between left brain and right brain. Centering is a strategy created by Robert Nideffer that was developed in the seventies to help channel energy in stressful situations. The centering technique physically and mentally allows the mind to switch activity between the left and right parts of the brain.373 Centering down involves directing focus by starting with the tilted downwards and directing focus in to a specific point or location. When focusing on this point, the eye level of the performer should be slight lower than normal. It has been studied that the higher your eye level is the more there is a tendency to switch into left brain. When a person’s gaze is slightly lower however, they are able to more easily able to

Linda Hamilton, “The person Behind the Mask”, (Greenwich: Ablex Publishing Coporation, 1997), 54. 372 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 15. 373 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 40.

371

Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 41. 375 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 49. 376 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 52-57.

374

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opportunity for singers to conquer and succeed in the sport of singing.

in many cases, functional misuse may develop into an actual physical disorder, in the form of nodules or swellings on the vocal folds. Vocal abuse can be classified into several different categories. Many problems relate to overuse of the voice due to occupational demands. Not only singers, but also ministers, teachers, businesspeople, and politicians use their voices professionally, and vocal health may influence the success of their careers. The absence of vocal training in schools doubtless contributes to the formation of vocal problems which persist into later life. It is surprising how often people who expect to make their living with their voices receive little or no instruction about how their voice works and how to keep it healthy.379 They would do well to visit a professional speech therapist long before vocal difficulties set in. Experts claim that many singers would also benefit greatly from formal speech training, and that people with speech problems benefit from taking singing lessons. The singing teacher and the speech-pathologist should always agree on matters of vocal production and what constitutes healthy phonation.380 Because of the importance of healthy vocal function, vocal hygiene has been taught and practised by professional voice users for thousands of years. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) knew practically as much about vocal hygiene as we know today. He advocated simple living, physical exercise, moderate eating, and the avoidance of vocal strain as aids to good vocal production.381 Other personal health issues may contribute to vocal fatigue. Smoking, for example, irritates the mucous membranes in the vocal tract, while the consumption of alcohol may impair judgment and muscular coordination. Alcohol also increases the production of mucous,

Cause and Effect:

A Glace at Vocal Fatigue By Rebekah Sutherland The American poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, once wrote, “The human voice is the organ of the soul.” Combine human limitations with a society characterized by ambition and competition, and is it any wonder that this so-called “organ of the soul” should at times exhibit symptoms of weariness? The human voice is a very complex organism that is still only understood very incompletely by leading scientists world-wide. Its range of output varies from the softest whisper to the resounding shout. Few man-made machines can perform such a range of action with efficiency.377 Fatigue is obviously antithetical to optimal voice production. It is in the interests of all professional voice users to understand vocal fatigue: its causes and how to avoid it. Many would also benefit from knowing that treatment is available when vocal fatigue has reached advanced physiological stages. Vocal fatigue can be caused by many different things. Some fatigue has an actual physiological cause, but most fatigue and most physical abnormalities in the larynx are caused by functional misuse of the vocal organs. According to a study done in 1971, eighty percent of vocal disorders are due to voice abuse, while only twenty percent are due to organic causes.378 It is also widely believed that

Health and Pedagogy (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1998): 107. 379Friedrich S. Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1953): 175. 380Robert Thayer Sataloff, “Introduction to Treating Voice Abuse,” Vocal Health and Pedagogy (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1998): 258. 381Large, 23.

377Ingo

R. Titze, “Vocal Fatigue,” The NATS Bulletin: 39:3 (Chicago: The National Association of Teachers of Singing, 1983): 22. 378Robert Thayer Sataloff, “Common Medical Diagnoses and Treatments in Professional Voice Users,” Vocal 57

which may interfere with optimal vocalizing.382 Proper hydration of the cords is also an essential element of vocal health.383 Simple cautionary measures, such as the avoidance of talking over loud noise and warming up the voice before singing, can go a long way in maintaining vocal health over a long period.384 The voice can also be affected by weight gain or weight loss, allergies, air pollution, and changes in type or amount of use.385 Some vocal fatigue is directly linked to emotional stress. The voice mirrors not only the physical, but also with the emotional state of its owner. According to one writer, “there exists an intimate connection between the voice and personality, emotional balance, moods, passing and lasting emotions.”386 According to another, “the human voice continually reflects our various states of happiness, sorry, worry, rage, and frustration.”387 Fatigue seems to strike performers at the moment when emotional stress is high but total vocal well-being essential: i.e. shortly before an important performance.388 Emotions can also play a role in the retraining of a damaged voice. Vocal behaviours in speech are mostly automatic, especially as relating to pitch and quality.389 However, a speech pathologists may help a patient to identify the emotional situations in which he uses his “best” voice (e.g. speaking to a loved one), and encourage him to use that voice more consistently. Vocal dysfunction is often traced back to a previous illness affecting the larynx, and for this reason singers need to exercise extreme caution when sick.390 Singers with solid technique will often be able to sing “over” a

cold without the audience being able to detect a problem. However, the long-term vocal effects of such singing may be devastating.391 The collecting of body fluids on the cords during illness results in swelling which hinders free vibration of the cords. Forceful use of the cords during such a time can cause damage to the cords because of friction. Such damage is only temporary, but results may linger long after the illness has passed if appropriate care is not taken.392 Allergies can cause the same sort of damage.393 A laryngeal infection may also cause a hypersensitivity to the sensation of a “tickle in the throat,” resulting in unnecessary and damaging coughing after the infection itself is healed.394 This habit should be resisted. A hard swallow will accomplish just as much as a cough, and result in no damage to the vocal folds.395 Improper use of the speaking voice is an often-discounted cause of vocal fatigue.396 It is important for vocal health to speak in the appropriate tessitura. Speaking at a higher or lower pitch than is natural is a common cause of hoarseness, and must be avoided. Some other easily identified forms of vocal activity that are detrimental to vocal health include crying, screaming, throat clearing and coughing. Even a small amount of such activity on a daily basis may be enough to cause dysphonia or maintain a previously existing laryngeal pathology.397 Excessive talking may also lead to many problems and should be cautioned against. The voices of young singers are particularly prone to succumbing to vocal fatigue, and teachers of singing are responsible to protect their students against voice abuse. One way is to ensure that the young singer is singing in an appropriate range for his or her

382Large,

34. L. Lawrence, “Laryngo-scope,” The NATS Bulletin: 37:3 (Chicago: The National Association of Teachers of Singing, 1980): 24. 384Gates, 195-98. 385Linda Gates, Voice for Performance: Training the Actor’s Voice (New York: Applause Books, 2000): 194. 386Brodnitz, 64. 387Joseph J. Klein, Singing Technique (Anaheim: National Music Publishers Inc., 1972): 135. 388Titze, 22. 389Ibid., 103. 390Large, 33.

383Van

391Richard

Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique (Toronto: Schirmer, 1996): 224. 392Brodnitz, 154. 393Ibid., 164. 394Klein, 393. 395Ibid.. 396Morton Cooper, “Vocal Suicide in Singers,” The NATS Bulletin, 26:3 (Chicago: The National Association of Teachers of Singing, 1970): 7. 397Daniel R. Boone, The Voice and Voice Therapy (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1971): 124. 58

voice type. Too much singing in the head or chest register can result in overall imbalances in registration and loss of power in other parts of the range.398 Correct voice classification is intricately linked with this aspect of safe singing. It is also important to warn the young singer of the dangers of singing too much too soon. Even experienced singers can suffer from the demands of a heavy schedule and should exercise caution. Some pedagogues recommend that young singers should not sing more than 15-20 minutes at a time.399 In addition to the restrictions of age, nature to some extent also dictates repertoire boundaries. Some voices are evidently not meant to sing Wagner. For a singer seriously to attempt to sing repertoire beyond what he or she is vocally and physically capable of, is the equivalent of vocal suicide.400 Even with the proper voice classification and repertoire selection, damage may be done by inadequately warming up the voice before singing. A good warm up is essential for young singers, and equally important for older, more experienced singers. According to Richard Miller, bigger voices may need more time to warm up than smaller instruments, and he recommends thirty minutes of warm-up exercises daily.401 Poor vocal technique is a common cause of vocal fatigue. Sometimes there is a physical cause for both technical problems and the fatigue, but often it is technique alone which hinders free and “relaxed” vocal function. A good rule of thumb is to look for signs of vocal abuse when the vocal fatigue experienced is associated and/or proportional to vocal use.402 Technical problems result in three main types of vocal dysfunction: hyperfunction, hypofunction, and glottal tone. Hyperfunction is the use of too much muscular force in vocalizing. Hyperfunction is the disorder that afflicts singers the most, and it is also the main cause of vocal nodules. Simply telling the patient to “relax” is not

generally a useful or even an accurate piece of instruction. Daniel Boone, the author of The Voice and Voice Therapy, states: “If the patient could relax, he would; if his tension did not in fact serve him in some way, he would get rid of it. A certain amount of psychic tension and muscle tonus is normal and healthy, of course, but there are individuals who overreact to their environmental stresses; instead of ‘running at a slow idle,’ they are like ‘fast idle engines,’ expending far more energy and effort than the situation requires. By relaxation, therefore, we mean a realistic responsiveness to the environment with a minimum of needless energy expended.”403 So then hyperfunction is not merely the application of too much muscular force in the laryngeal muscles, but the inefficient application of force.404 Over time, hyperfunction of the vocal folds results in actual physical changes. These changes may include thickening cords, the development of nodules, contact ulcers, polyps, and polypoid thickening of the cords.405 Extreme hyperfunction may result in aphonia, or the complete loss of voice due to a central lesion.406 The opposite of hyperfunction is hypofunction, in which the muscles of the larynx are not active enough to produce a resonant tone. Hypofunction often follows hyperfunction, as the overworked laryngeal muscles grow tired and weak. According to Friedrich Brodnitz, hyperfunction and hypofunction of the vocal mechanism are merely different stages of the same disorder.407 There exist four main types of hypofunction. The first is merely functional, that is, characterised by inefficient use of the vocal mechanism. Voices with this disorder tire when introducted to a new type of singing, different from their previous conception of what was optimal. The second type of hypofunction is simply characterised by a lack of muscular strength. The third type is the most complex, and is characterised by fatigue

398Large,

34. 121. 400Brodnitz, 176. 401Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 158. 402Sataloff, “Common Medical Diagnoses”: 107. 399Bunch,

403Boone,

143. 171. 405Large, 35. 406Ibid., 37. 407Brodnitz, 171. 404Brodnitz,

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in the non-muscular tissues of the larynx, such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and joints. It is thought that prolonged stress on laryngeal tissue in phonation decreases the tension on the vocal muscles themselves, making it harder to sing high pitches. According to Titze, “All biological tissue gradually relaxes the stress that it can support due to elongation...More elongation is then required to restore the original tension, which will again relax. Unless full recovery is experienced during brief moments of vocal silence, the process will continue until no more elongation is possible due to limitations in the posterior movement of the arytenoid cartilages.” The fourth type of hypofunction is associated with a loss of vibrancy over long phonation as a result of the gradual drying of the cords.408 A glottal tone is characterized by too much breath in the sound as well as pitch problems.409 This tone is associated with a form of onset in which the folds are squeezed together, and blown apart violently by a gust of air from the lungs, and is detrimental to vocal health. The only covering on the glottal margin of the arytenoid cartilages is a thin mucous membrane, and contact ulcers may form relatively easily through excessive use of the glottal plosive. Such misuse of the voice can eventually lead to generalized glottal edema, which may seriously affect vocal quality.410 Proper vocal technique, on the other hand, allows for the a lifetime of optimum vocal use. Regular exercising of the voice through good singing seems necessary to general vocal health, and complete vocal rest is recommended only in extreme cases.411 According to Richard Miller, the voice is like any other muscle: endurance only comes through consistent practice.412 However, like anything else, it is important to practise singing correctly. If the voice is overworked and not allowed a reasonable amount of time to rest, injury is to be expected.

Many singers, after a short period of heavy voice use, form “bilateral, symmetrical, soft swellings at the junction of the anterior and middle thirds of the vocal folds.”413 This is not a serious problem, and the swelling usually heals within one or two days as long as heavy voice use is discontinued.414 If, however, the voice is overworked to that extent on a regular basis, without allowing time for healing and recuperation, these swellings may develop into nodes or nodules.415 Although some nodules remain not only untreated but also unnoticed, most have symptoms that professional voice users find unacceptable.416 These symptoms may include persistent hoarseness, a breathy or husky sound quality in the middle range, exaggerated difficulty in the high vocal range, and extra breath pressure needed to produce sound.417 If nodes do form on the cords due to misuse of the voice, simple vocal rest alone will not cure the problem. After the cords return completely to normal, nodes will form again if the voice is not retrained.418 Once treatment is begun for vocal nodules, it usually takes eight to ten weeks for small nodules to heal, and up to twelve weeks for older, harder nodules.419 For many people, vocal production is not something they think about until problems start to set in. Vocal fatigue may be an enemy to professional voice users, but it would seem to be also a necessary safety mechanism of the body. According to Meribeth Bunch, fatigue and hoarseness, even apart from any pain or discomfort, are nature’s signal that the voice needs rest. A tired or sick body equals a tired and sick voice.420 However, the proper amount of rest, a healthy diet, and an appropriate fitness level, combined with a solid technical 413Gates, 414Ibid..

108.

415Boone,

102. “Common Medical Diagnoses”: 108. 417Teresa Radomski, “A Singer’s Notes: Preventing Vocal Nodules,” Wade Forest University Baptist Medical Center. March 2, 2005 www.thevoicecenter.org/singers_notes.html.: 1. 418Radomski, 1. 419Joseph C. Stemple, Voice Therapy: Clinical Studies, 2nd ed. (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, 2000): 392. 420Bunch, 110. 416Sataloff,

408Titze,

22. 34. 410Boone, 126. 411Miller, Structure of Singing: 229. 412Ibid., 220. 409Large,

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foundation and emotional well-being should maintain a voice as healthy as the rest of the person.

Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912), received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen. Nan-in served tea.421 He poured the visitor’s cup full, and then kept on pouring. The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain himself422. ‘It is overfull. No more will go in!’ ‘Like this cup,’ Nan-in said, ‘you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show you Zen unless you first empty your cup?’423

Zen and The Art of Singing:

This story ties in with a saying of Alexander regarding books: “Be careful of the printed matter: you may not read it as it is written down.”424

An Alexander Technique Response to Lamperti

Alexander had serious objections to traditional teaching methods. He observed that unsuccessful attempts to perform a simple physical act usually have their roots in bad habits, which are deeply ingrained in a person’s subconscious from early childhood, and that attempting to fix the bad habits through specific exercises of any sort tends to compound problems, or at best shift the poor coordination to another part of the body-mind. We have, each of us, an assortment of such habits and preconceptions, which often interfere with our perception of the world around us, and affect our reactions to stimuli, such as printed instructions, for example. Each person will have a different filter through which they read The Art of Singing.

By Olga Tylman A singer’s competence, as that of any musician, rests upon her ability to use her instrument to achieve the desired musical sounds. A musician’s body forms part of the instrument in the case of a non-singer, and comprises the exclusive instrument of the singer. The Alexander Technique, concerning itself as it does with the efficient use of one’s body, applies very well to singing, as it does to every other physical endeavour. If one accepts as true, good, and all encompassing the principles Alexander discovered and taught, one is inclined to use his Technique as a criterion by which she evaluates all other methods. It is from this perspective that I would like to evaluate Lamperti’s famous vocal treatise, The Art of Singing. I would like to begin by talking about the published treatise as a teaching medium. The effectiveness of such a treatise, like the effectiveness of any form of instruction, rests upon the condition of the student at the time of instruction. There is a Zen story which illustrates this point:

Let me remind the reader of the quasi-sacred importance of tea in Japanese culture. 422 I can just imagine the Japanese professor, extremely reserved and on his best behaviour, in the presence of this venerable spiritual authority, becoming increasingly disturbed at the sight of tea pouring all over the floor and staining whatever might be covering it. Poor fellow! 421

423

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.ht ml. I find many parallels between Zen philosophy and Alexander Technique. The famous Zen instruction, ‘When hungry, eat, when tired, sleep,’ embodies Alexander’s ideal of natural, efficient response to stimuli. 424 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 11. 61

Furthermore, Lamperti himself would have written the work with his own bad habits intact. This brings us to conclude that truly no treatise should be taken at face value; ‘you may not read it as it is written down’. Nonetheless, just as Zen is said to be ‘the finger which points to the moon’425, Lamperti’s treatise can also point us in some direction, provided we understand its function, and not confuse it for the moon herself. So in other words, let’s not reject the thing altogether. It may have some use. Alexander technique is a method for eliminating bad habits. But eliminating something from one’s use is not what we usually conceptualize when we talk about learning how to ‘do’ something—it is precisely this absence of doing, or of what we might call overdoing which Alexander found to be the prerequisite for efficient physical function. Alexander referred to this detrimental sense of ‘doing’ as ‘end-gaining’. Basically, he found that when a person is focused on attaining a certain result, she tends to be unaware of the complex physical process involved in achieving said result. If a person has developed poor habits of use, then no amount of instruction will help this person, unless she first ‘empties her cup’ of these habits. Because Alexander believed that mind and body are indivisible and work together, his teaching had a physical component which accompanied the verbal. I have heard the Technique described as ‘kinesthetic reeducation’. A teacher gives instructions whilst using her hands to guide the pupil’s motions, or simply to provide physical information which relates to the verbal instructions. Singing involves setting into motion body parts which a teacher’s hands cannot stimulate, but standing or sitting well go very far toward making a good vocal sound, and hands can influence a standing or sitting person. Furthermore, it is possible to sing well whilst moving well, which motion can also be guided

from the outside. Alexander recognized the interconnectedness of all aspects of the body and mind, and for this reason his method is successful in treating a huge variety of ailments, mental, emotional, and physical. From The Use of the Self: …the so-called ‘mental’ and ‘physical’ are not separate entities [and] for this reason human ills and shortcomings cannot be classified as ‘mental’ or ‘physical’ and dealt with specifically as such, but…all training, whether it be educative or otherwise—i.e., whether its object be the prevention or elimination of defect, error, or disease—must be based upon the indivisible unity of the human organism.426 Finally, Alexander’s technique is concerned not so much with what a person does with her body, but with how she does it. The method is applicable to all human endeavours. Like Zen, it is a method for achieving enlightenment. In the preface to The Art of Singing, Lamperti explains his purpose in writing. Like Alexander regarding people in general, and professional teachers and healers in particular, Lamperti bemoans the lack of skill in the singing profession. Like Alexander, he finds it surprising that ‘the force of [moral and intellectual] progress’ so rapid in his day have not had a beneficial effect upon ‘the intelligence of those who devote themselves to singing’.427 Alexander explains this phenomenon thus: Indeed, from its beginnings, the process of civilizing tended to widen the scope for so-called mental and to narrow the scope for so-called physical activities, and, on a basis of subconscious guidance and control, this process meant for the time being a further development on the so-called mental side, but at the cost of an equally distinct if more gradual deterioration on the socalled physical side, with an accompanying deterioration in the standard of sensory appreciation.428

425

http://www.zenmeditation.org/chan_buecher_zen_ beyond_leseprobe.html or http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/finge rs_pointing.php

The Use of the Self, p. 2. The Art of Singing, p. 5. 428 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 74. 426 427

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Lamperti does not look so deeply into cause and effect. He concludes that the decline in singing is due to insufficient training in what he calls ‘breathing well’, compounded by modern vocal music, which, ‘in order to assume a more dramatic character, is almost entirely despoiled of agility of every kind…’429 He blames impresarios for hiring poorly trained singers. He blames composers for redefining which type of voice should sing which parts, setting text syllabically as in declamation, and making roles require strong low and high notes, which, when produced forcibly, can lead to a weakening of the middle voice. He blames the raising of the musical pitch. Most of all, however, he laments that the young generation of singers embark on professional careers without a solid enough grounding in technique, however talented they may be. Unlike Alexander, he does not present a new method, but hopes only to ‘check, if not all at least a part of the abuses as regards singing, and to counterbalance the influence which modern music exercises to the prejudice of good singing, by some practical and fundamental rules, the result of experience gained in many years of teaching’.430 Alexander might argue with Lamperti about the causes he proposes for the decline in singing. He calls for a more radical solution, beyond choice of repertoire and perhaps even duration of training. He said, ‘We can throw away the habit of a lifetime in a few minutes if we use our brains.’431 He would say that if a singer had a proper sense of her body, she would produce sound naturally and effortlessly, avoiding ‘abuses as regards singing’; ‘If I went to a man to take singing lessons, it wouldn’t matter what he taught me, he couldn’t injure me.’432 (The implication here is that the only person who has the power to injure herself through poor use is herself.) The music chosen should not affect the singer’s use of her body. Furthermore, it is the quality of the training, and perhaps not even the quantity, which leads to good use of the self. Lamperti’s

‘practical and fundamental rules’ are useless if a person does not first eliminate her bad habits. Alexander’s technique is more focused on not doing than it is on doing. He refers to this absence of action as ‘inhibition’: You come to learn to inhibit and to direct your activity. You learn, first, to inhibit the habitual reaction to certain classes of stimuli, and second, to direct yourself consciously in such a way as to affect certain muscular pulls, which processes bring about a new reaction to these stimuli. Boiled down, it all comes to inhibiting a particular reaction to a given stimulus. But no one will see it that way. They will all see it as getting in and out of a chair the right way. It is nothing of the kind. It is that a pupil decides what he will or will not consent to do. They may teach you anatomy and physiology till they are black in the face—you will still have this to face, sticking to a decision against your habit of life.433 Lamperti’s treatise is comprised of very short ‘articles’, dealing with different aspects of the art of singing. A large number of vocalizes follow the text. I think Alexander might object to some of the language Lamperti uses in instructing on matters of vocal technique in particular (I will leave aesthetic preferences and musical excerpts aside, as Alexander’s method does not address such topics). I would like to address Lamperti’s Articles III (The Position of the Body, Mouth, and Vocal Organ), IV (Of Respiration), VI (Of the Emission of the Voice), VII (The Appoggio of the Voice), X (General Rules for Study), XII (The Application of the Rule for the Appoggio of the Voice), and finally some of his parting notes at the end of the text. First, another Zen story: Mokusen Hiki was living in a temple in the province of Tamba. One of his adherents complained of the stinginess of his wife. Mokusen visited the adherent’s wife and showed her his clenched fist before her face. ‘What do you mean by that?’, asked the surprised woman.

The Art of Singing p. 6. The Art of Singing, p. 8. 431 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 6. 432 Ibid., p.12. 429

430

433

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The Resurrection of the Body, p. 9.

‘Suppose my fist were always like that. What would you call it?’, he asked. ‘Deformed,’ replied the woman. Then he opened his hand flat in her face and asked, ‘Suppose it were always like that. What then?’ ‘Another kind of deformity,’ said the wife. ‘If you understand that much,’ finished Mokusen, ‘you are a good wife.’ Then he left. After his visit, this wife helped her husband to distribute as well as to save.434

Alexander’s solution to the problem of instruction, and the resulting inflexibility, is a radical one. Like the wise Mokusen, he knew that the solution is not in telling someone what to do, but rather in showing them what they have been doing wrong, and allowing them to decide what to do about it. He recognized that a person must choose to act consciously of her own accord, if she is to act freely. His ‘inhibition’ in the face of instruction is a conscious refusal to follow orders436; a rebellion. From a discussion of breathing:

This story illustrates what I believe is wrong with Lamperti’s Article III (The Position of the Body, Mouth, and Vocal Organ). Lamperti says to hold oneself erect ‘in the position of a soldier’, the mouth smiling, the lips ‘drawn sufficiently tight to merely show the upper row of teeth’, the tongue remaining extended. He adds, in Article IV (Of Respiration), that a perfect respiration may be obtained ‘by standing in the position, and observing closely the directions pointed out in Article III, and then inhaling the air, first through the nose, so that the lungs may dilate gradually and without strain; a breath thus taken may be held for a considerable time without fatigue.’ I do not believe that Lamperti intends any harm in giving these instructions, but I do not agree with the language he uses. The problem lies with words such as ‘hold erect’, ‘position’, ‘draw tight’, and with the implications of instructing someone to inhale on demand. The effect of such instructions might easily result in a lack of flexibility such as that of the stingy wife, who doubtless believed that she was doing right by saving her money, perhaps having been told to do so by similarly well-intentioned instructors. The singer who dutifully follows these instructions to ‘hold’, ‘position’, ‘draw tight’, then ‘inhale slowly’ may end up appearing as deformed as Mokusen’s hand, a caricature of a singer. Lamperti is aware of this danger. In his Article VI, he makes reference to Mancini’s idea that ‘the master should exaggerate all defects of emission on the part of the pupil, to render them more apparent to him, and thus more easy to avoid.’435

For instance, suppose that a pupil has a special desire to increase his chest capacity. This desire acts as a stimulus to the psycho-physical processes involved and sets in motion all the unreliable guiding and directing sensations associated with his established idea of chest expansion. The only way, then, by which he can prevent the old subconscious habits from gaining the upper hand is for him to refuse to act upon this idea. This means that as soon as the idea or desire comes to him he definitely stops and says to himself: ‘No. I won’t do what I should like to do to increase my chest capacity, because, if I do what I feel will increase it, I shall only use my mechanisms as I have used them before, and what is the good of that? I know I have been using them incorrectly up to now, else why do I need these lessons?’ In other words, he inhibits his desire to act.437 It is only after the student becomes familiar with this process that she can begin to accept new directions. These new directions, in Alexander’s method, must concern themselves with ‘means whereby’ an action is performed. In other words, they must remain directions, and they must not turn into an obsession with ‘ends’, such as Lamperti’s It is very important to note that the orders, or what Alexander calls ‘stimuli’, which come from other people, such as teachers, come more commonly from the inside. We are constantly directing ourselves to act, and when these directions produce an undesirable result, it is these flawed internal directions which must be rejected before they can be replaced with new, helpful ones. Alexander Technique is very much about bringing harmful subconscious thought patterns to light. 437 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 47.

436

434

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.ht ml 435 The Art of Singing, p. 14. 64

‘position of a soldier’, for example.438 Alexander blames most human lack of coordination on what he calls ‘end-gaining’— essentially a greedy clinging to desired states of being. In Eastern philosophies such as Zen, this is often called ‘attachment’. More sayings of Alexander, which resemble closely Zen ideas:

This ‘end-gaining’ principle is again dominant when it is decided that a person who is spoken of as a ‘bad breather’ needs specific ‘breathing exercises’ or ‘lessons in breathing.’ We shall see that in this, as in so many other spheres, a vicious circle is developed. […] The pupil is asked to take a deep breath. He may also be asked to perform some ‘physical’ movement at the same time…the idea behind this request being that the performance of the movement may help to increase the chest expansion. Yet it is a scientific fact that all ‘physical’ tension tends to cause thoracic (chest) rigidity and breathlessness (lack of respiratory control), two conditions which should be avoided as far as possible by such pupils during their attempts to pass from conditions which are symptomatic of bad breathing to those which ensure satisfactory respiratory functioning.443

‘I see at last that if I don’t breathe, I breathe…’439 ‘There is no such thing as a right position, but there is such a thing as a right direction.’440 ‘The experience you want is in the process of getting it. If you have something, give it up. Getting it, not having it, is what you want.’441 In Article VII (The Appoggio of the Voice), Lamperti makes reference to the rules established in Article III, and adds that breathing must make use of the ‘muscles of the chest, especially the diaphragm, acting upon the air contained in the lungs.’ He then suggests ‘opening the lower part of the throat with the vowel A.’442 Language and ignorance re. physiology aside (the diaphragm is not a muscle, nor can a person will it to move), let us compare Lamperti’s ideas with Alexander’s: The truth is that when we refer to this mal-coordinated condition as ‘bad breathing,’ we are mistaking a general malcondition for a specific defect, and the conception of the respiratory act which makes this error possible, and which affects even our way of expressing it, provides yet another instance of the dominance of our general attitude by the ‘endgaining’ principle.

Alexander continues by stressing the importance of inhibiting bad habits of use before good ones may be established, and of understanding that specific problems, such as ‘bad breathing’, are symptomatic of wrong use of the whole person, and must be addressed as such, and not with breathing-specific exercises. The diagnosis will differ for each pupil; Alexander lessons are always given one-onone; there is no book which can replace the teacher’s pupil-specific diagnosis, or the feedback of touch. The marvelous efficiency of the respiratory machine, when properly employed, becomes apparent when we realize that we have only to continue to employ the same means whereby we secure the increase (expansion) to secure the decrease(contraction) of the intra-thoracic capacity… When a satisfactory, co-ordinated use of the mechanisms concerned with the acts of inspiration and expiration is established, the teacher may then proceed to help the pupil to employ this co-ordinated use in connexion with all vocal effort. This should begin with whispered vocalization, preferably the vowel sound ‘Ah,’ as this form of vocal use, being so little employed in every-day life, is rarely associated with ordinary bad psycho-physical habits in vocalization.444

From The Resurrection of the Body, p. 109: ‘For years past I have drawn the attention of medical men to the evils wrought by the physical training and the ‘stand-at-attention’ attitude in vogue in the army, and also the harmful effects of the drill in our schools, where the unfortunate children are made to assume a posture which is exactly that of the soldier, whose striking characteristic is the undue and harmful hollow in the lumbar spine and the numerous defects that are inseparable from this unnatural posture.’ 439 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 3. 440 Ibid., p. 4. 441 Ibid., p. 5. 442 The Art of Singing, p. 14. 438

443 444

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The Resurrection of the Body, p. 41-42. The Resurrection of the Body, p. 42.

to accomplish his every-minute Zen.445

It is interesting to note that both teachers advocate the use of the open vowel ‘Ah’, and to note the differing motivations for doing so. I suspect that Alexander would agree that the openness of this vowel serves as a good litmus test for a person’s degree of freedom, although ultimately a singer aims for equal freedom in every vowel, open or closed. In my two years of Alexander Technique lessons, I was never able to produce a free ‘whispered Ah,’ the name given the exercise described above. I don’t believe I had a clear enough understanding of the philosophy behind the technique. Whereas I responded well to the physical feedback given my back, neck, arms, legs, feet, and the like, my use of the vocal mechanism was still hampered. After all, a teacher cannot guide one’s breath into or out of one using her hands! I speculate that had I understood at the time what Alexander himself discovered (I did not read Alexander before preparing to write this paper, six years later), my singing would have improved sooner. It is also distinctly possible that I was not ready to understand his philosophy on a deep level, being too young, and certainly too fixated on ‘ends’ at the time. My example demonstrates the importance of mental involvement (a.k.a. attitude) in use of one’s body, and the fact that singers tend to master their voices at a late age. Another Zen story illustrates the idea that true understanding is a lifelong journey, and reinforces Lamperti’s advice that a singer ought to commit to a long period of study before she embarks on a career. In this case the period of study takes at least 16 years:

Alexander addresses the difficulty of mastering his technique in an excerpt from The Use of the Self, entitled ‘The End-Gainer’s Difficulties with the Means-Whereby’: …when a person has reached a given stage of unsatisfactory use and functioning, his habit of ‘endgaining’ will prove to be the impeding factor in all his attempts to profit by any teaching method whatsoever. Ordinary teaching methods, in whatever sphere, cannot deal with this impeding factor—indeed, they tend actually to encourage ‘end-gaining.’446 […] He presents as a solution to this problem the following advice: I therefore claim that if any habit so confirmed as that of ‘end-gaining’ is to be changed and not merely transferred, it is essential that the pupil should be given the experience, at first in the simplest activities, 1. of receiving a stimulus to gain a certain end and refusing to react to it, thereby inhibiting the unsatisfactory habits of use associated with his habitual reaction; 2. of projecting the directions for the new and more satisfactory use in their proper sequence, primary, secondary, etc., ‘all together, one after the other,’ as already explained, whilst the teacher at the same time with his hands makes him familiar

445

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.ht ml 446 Mastering the Alexander Technique is an ‘end’ with which I have struggled since I discovered the technique. That is likely why I have not yet mastered it! It’s a battle. I like calling it ‘the eternal battle of good and evil’, or ‘The Force vs. The Dark Side,’ or ‘Heaven vs. Hell.’ Other names for ‘end-gaining’ are sin, greed, ego, ambition, and attachment. Christian mysticism (i.e. the teachings of Jesus) addresses these faults, as do Buddhism and Zen. The absence of sin is known, in these philosophies, as the kingdom of heaven, enlightenment, and satori, respectively. I appreciate Alexander’s teachings for their complete avoidance of religious or spiritual terminology, which is so much misunderstood by so many people, and for his reliance on what are essentially scientific principles to achieve a deep sense of wellbeing.

Zen students are with their masters at least ten years before they presume to teach others. Nan-in was visited by Tenno, who, having passed his apprenticeship, had become a teacher. The day happened to be rainy, so Tenno wore wooden clogs and carried an umbrella. After greeting him Nan-in remarked: ‘I suppose you left your wooden clogs in the vestibule. I want to know if your umbrella is on the right or left side of the clogs.’ Tenno, confused, had no instant answer. He realized that he was unable to carry his Zen every minute. He became Nan-in’s pupil, and he studied six more years

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with the new sensory experiences associated with this new use.

against doing the wrong thing. I would argue that the mirror, albeit a useful tool at times, must be used sparingly so as not to become a crutch (we are not given mirrors in performance), but one can use the mirror, or in our modern day, a recording device or a spectrograph, to become aware of one’s bad habits. Alexander himself developed his selfawareness with the aid of mirrors, which he carefully arranged to allow him to observe his head and neck from all angles, and not just from the front. Article XII (The Application of the Rule for the Appoggio of the Voice) features some advice similar to that in Article X:

By this procedure a gradual improvement will be brought about in the pupil’s sensory appreciation, so that he will become more and more aware of faults in his habitual manner of using himself; correspondingly, as with this increasing awareness the manner of his use of himself improves, his sensory appreciateion will further improve, and in time constitute a standard within the self by means of which he will become increasingly aware both of faults and of improvement, not only in the manner of his use, but also in the standard of his functioning generally. […] This improvement will necessarily include an improvement in his manner of reacting to the stimulus to gain a certain end, showing that it is possible, by working to the principle involved in the ‘means-whereby’ procedure, to strike at the very roots of the habit of end-gaining which is so deeply embedded in our make-up.447

By singing appoggiata, is meant that all notes, from the lowest to the highest, are produced by a column of air over which the singer has perfect command, by holding back the breath, and not permitting more air than is absolutely necessary for the formation of the note to escape from the lungs. By practice he will be able to do this without any effort, and so avoid those defects caused by straining the breath, such as frowning, contraction of the tongue, and a fixed expression of the eyes; for the voice will never be neither well appoggiata nor capable of expression until the pupil is able to render his features calm and natural while singing.451

Lamperti offers some very sensible advice in Article X (General Rules for Study). He advocates ‘Singing with the voice full and clear, with as much grace and ease as possible, and being very careful to avoid forcing. […] The general rule is to study moderately, and with a variety of exercises, always finishing before feeling tired.’448 He continues that it is necessary, for the purpose of study, to use ‘a looking glass, which the pupil should place before him while singing, so that he may avoid grimaces and other bad habits.’ About the necessity of intellectual understanding: ‘[The pupil] should study [his exercises] mentally, until he has thoroughly understood their true nature and then he may sing them.’449 ‘In order to preserve the voice fresh and unworn for the professional career, the pupil should make much use of the mental method of study; by this means he may do much toward educating his voice without drawing upon its valuable resources.’450 The common theme in all these points of advice is the importance of what Alexander calls inhibition. Here, Lamperti, rather than telling us what to do, warns us

This excerpt shows yet again Lamperti’s inconsistencies. On the one hand, he uses a popular albeit anatomically incorrect visualization device, the ‘column of air’, and the ambiguous phrase ‘holding back the breath.’ The image of holding anything back, other than one’s bad habits perhaps, is potentially misleading, as is the metaphor of air as a motionless stony column. On the other hand, he warns against some very common defects among singers, those of straining the breath, frowning, contraction of the tongue, and a fixed expression of the eyes. The warning encourages us to become aware of these bad habits and inhibit them. Some of Lamperti’s closing comments parallel Alexander:

The Use of the Self, p. 43-44. The Art of Singing, p. 18. 449 The Art of Singing, p. 18. 450 Ibid., p. 19. 447

448

451

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Ibid., p. 22.

Every art may be divided into two parts—the Natural and the Acquired. The mind conceives the idea, and the instrument represents to others the mind’s conception. A painter conceives the subject of a picture, but it is necessary that his hand and eye be educated by art to enable him to paint it. This argument we will apply to singing…452

Bel “Belting” Canto By Shannon Watson “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder” The debate regarding the ultimate vocal aesthetic is one that has been around for centuries. But what exactly constitutes vocal beauty? Today, we continue to struggle with defining ‘beautiful singing’; the literal translation of bel canto. Bel canto encompasses a wide range of vocal production throughout history, but today has come to represent the ‘classical’ or ‘operatic’ aesthetic of singing. But what about the vocal sounds that seem to lie outside of the set parameters of today’s bel canto singing? According to most, belting is loud, chest voice singing by untrained, nonclassical singers using a ‘technique’ that will destroy the voice455. This is simply not true. It is likely that most opinions are formed on the basis of very little, or no knowledge of belting technique and its physiology, or they are based on a personal theory of vocal aesthetic. It is the purpose of this essay to explore the aesthetic of belting, the concept and physiology of the belting technique and its most common misconceptions. Beauty can be defined as a “quality that gives pleasure to the mind or senses456 ”. If the listener does not receive any pleasure from the musical experience, then they classify the performance as not being beautiful, but ugly. This is a personal aesthetic judgement dependant upon the kind of sound the listener desires to hear. Robert Edwin provides the best analogy: “A fisherman catching a recordbreaking tuna may be moved to exclaim, ‘Isn’t she a beauty?’ when gazing upon his catch. Those who fail to see the tuna’s beauty may not share the fisherman’s aesthetic457 ”. Therefore, one may prefer musical theatre’s main goal which is to communicate the

I will give Mr. Alexander the final word. He wrote, in his preface to The Use of the Self: …in the process of acquiring a conscious direction of the use of the human organism, a scope for the development of human possibilities is practically unlimited, and anyone who chooses to take the time and trouble to carry out the procedures necessary for acquiring a conscious direction of use can put this to the test. I would venture to suggest that even the meager amount of knowledge of the use of the self contained in these pages may be sufficient to enable workers in all fields of investigation, whether in biology, astronomy, physics, philosophy, psychology, or any other453, to realize that in their researches they have passed over a field of experience which, if explored, would add new material to the premises from which to make their several deductions. After all, the self is the instrument through which all these workers must express themselves.454

Edwin, Robert. “Belting 101.” Journal of Singing Vol 55.1 (Sept/Oct 1998): 53. 456 www.dictionary.com 457 Edwin, Robert. “Belting: bel canto or brutto canto?.” Journal of Singing Vol 59.1 (Sept/Oct 2002): 67. 455

The Art of Singing, p. 25. Like SINGING! 454 The Use of the Self, p. xii-xiii. 452 453

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emotions of the character through clear and meaningful speech, sometimes sacrificing the production of tone to do so. This vocal aesthetic is a speech style of singing concentrating on the chiaro part of the chiaroscuro vocal aesthetic. On the other hand, someone else may prefer opera’s main goal which is to produce sounds with flawless technique in order to create an artistic and moving performance. This aesthetic includes the chiaroscuro tonal colour, a continuous vibrato and vowels and consonants which are clear but more sung than spoken. Neither is legitimate than the other, it is simply a matter of personal preference. The technique of belting lies in the balance between the ‘head’ and ‘chest’ voice. These are the terms that most people are familiar with and can be very misleading, but for all intents and purposes, will be used here. Instead of an actual place of origin or separate vocal register, these terms describe the resonance, or tonal colour of the sound being produced. In order to achieve a healthy belt voice, one must learn to balance the two mechanisms which create these voices. The quality of the‘chest’ voice is in part created by the cricothyroid muscles, which lengthens, thins and stretches the vocal chords. The ‘head’ voice quality is partially created by the thyroarytenoid muscles, which are the muscles responsible for the closing of the vocal folds. Whether one is singing in the classical style or the belting style, there is the need for a continuos balance between these two muscles (and various others) for healthy vocal production. Although the movement of the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles are coordinated, belting differs because of increased cricothyroid involvement. Therefore, the difference lies in the percentage of each muscle being used in comparison to the other. For example, a classical singer will have a large percentage of involvement from the thyroarytenoid muscles, but the singer who belts will increase the use of their cricothyroid muscles (especially as the pitch rises) in comparison to the classical singer. At this point it is imperative to reiterate that the belt voice is not solely the use of the ‘chest’ voice, but a

conscious mix between the two. Because of the increased cricothyroid involvement, the folds change in shape, thickness, elasticity and/or stiffness, creating a different tonal colour. The vocal folds and their relative muscles are not the only differences in the belter’s physiology, belters also have a longer closed quotient , meaning that the vocal folds spend a longer time adducted. There are many that believe that this technique is not in fact a technique at all, but that “if you are belting, you are not singing safely; if you are singing safely you are not belting458”. This kind of judgement is made with no appreciation or understanding of the mechanics behind the belt voice. How is it that young children can yell for hours on end and never lose their voice? It is because the sound is free and unrestricted and our bodies automatically manipulate the vocal tract and folds in order to make these sounds. Is it then not reasonable to assume that the same is true of the belt voice? There is not only one way of manipulating the human voice, and therefore there is not just one way of singing (ie. classical music). Some teachers believe that if you learn the classical technique of singing than you can sing in any style, but this is a very dangerous statement. For if a singer tries to impose the classical technique in order to produce a ‘belt’ sound, they will seriously harm their instrument. This leads into the belief that one will get nodules from singing belt when in fact, one may get nodules from singing belt incorrectly, just as one may damage their instrument trying to sing incorrectly in the classical style as well. Many don’t realize that belting is not driving up the chest voice into the higher register as previously mentioned, for that is detrimental to the voice. The student simply needs to be aware of the different muscle activities and be able to achieve a reasonable balance between the muscle groups. Now, what has been mentioned here is only the tip of the iceburg. Hopefully this essay has brought to light the issue of personal vocal Elizabeth Howell, “Chest Voice and Belting,” 1991 from Edwin, Robert. “Belting 101.” Journal of Singing Vol 55.1 Sept/Oct 1998): 53. 458

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aesthetic preference and that it has a large impact on how many perceive the belting technique. It is fine to make an aesthetic judgement, but the validity of the technique should not be criticized because it is deemed ‘ugly’. The quality of belt is considered bright, nasal and speech-like; created through the manipulation of the vocal tract and folds. The manipulation is entirely different from the classical technique, but the relationship between the various muscles is crucial. Correctly done, as proven by Billie Holiday, Barbara Streisand, Frank Sinatra and Ethel Merman, belting can be a long and healthy career.

expressively by varying dynamics and tempo (among other elements) distinguishes advanced musicians from lesser-skilled performers”459. The other elements to which Gabrielsson refers could well be vibrancy of tone, effective use of breath and consistancy of vibrato. Other musicologists such as James Stark, and Richard Miller deem these elements important to effective expression. These vocal techniques that form the art of expressing are made known through ancient musical treatises, journal writings, and markings on music scores of performers and teachers.460 With the analysis of this documentation, one can begin to understand the specific vocal techniques that heighten musical expression through the use of vibrato, messa di voce and tempo rubato. In the late eighteenth century, minimal vibrato was employed to create what audiences and vocal pedagogues thought of as bel canto (beautiful singing). The bel canto technique involves a strong preference for purity of tone; therefore singers had to learn to sing with virtually no vibration in their voice. Important artists of the nineteenth century (Meyerbeer, Auber and Gounod) openly expressed their hatred of a tremulous tone.461 Critics gave bad reviews to those that used vibrato, which certainly hindered the careers of some performers, such as Elizabeth Feron, who was often ridiculed for her tremulous voice.462 The tendency for the voice to vibrate on the loudest and highest notes, however, was thought as natural and unavoidable. Even so, some teachers tried to coach their singers to strain the tone to become light and straight even on the loud notes.463 Joseph Corfe and

ExpressiveVocal Techniques By Alicia Woynarski Musical expression is the key component to an effective, vocal performance. In order for a singer’s expression to touch ones audience and clearly represent the sentiment implied by the text, the singer must employ many different vocal techniques. Musicologists for centuries have held numerous studies to discern the components of a truly musical performance. Although there is still much speculation about even the definition of musicality, most musicologists agree that the effective use of dynamics and tempo are two of the most important components that distinguish one performance from another. Gabrielsson noted, “The ability to perform

459 Robert Woody, Explaining Expressive Performance: Component Cognitive Skills in an Aural Modeling Task, Journal of Research in Music Education 51:1 [Spring 2003] 51-63. 460 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) ix. 461 Herman Klein, The Bel Canto:with particular reference to the singing of Mozart (New York: Oxford University Press, 1923) 25. 462 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) 31. 463 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in

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Robert Smith, for example, “counseled singers not to sing high notes too strongly but to fix them sweetly without any quivering or tremulous motion.”464 Other teachers often made their singers practice exercises on long held notes to correct a singer’s tendency to use vibrato. Despite the negativity that was tied to the use of vibrato it could be and was used by singers as a tool to heighten their expression.465 Vibrato was used to emphasize strong emotions such as deep sorrow, fear, distress and wrath. Singers also liked to use vibrato on the end of long held notes, and especially at the end of phrases to accentuate the punctuation of a phrase.466 The modern view of the vibrato is that its warmth can make every note sound beautiful and expressive. It is understood more as a natural occurring, vocal ornamentation. More recent studies of the vibrato include a closer look at where exactly the vibrations occur within the body, the frequency or rate at which the vibrations occur, the specific pitch oscillation and why it seems to occur naturally in trained voices.467 Advanced technology and a more scientific look at the physiology of the vocal apparatus led to the discovery of the health benefits of using vibrato. Studies have shown that the vocal muscles that cause a vibrato to contract and relax naturally to avoid fatigue.468 This realization has led teachers to encourage their singers to use vibrato more often. In the past vibrato was only used in a limited way, in specific instances of strong emotions. Modern pedagogues advise singers to sing with a consistent vibrant tone and in instances of heightened expression, experiment with different colours one can produce with vibrato. Many singers experiment with different vocal colours by varying the rate at which their vocal folds oscillate (average rate

of vibration per cycle is 5 – 8 pulsations a second)469. A singer may slow vibrations down in order to imitate the tremulous sounds of crying or speed vibrations up when expressing moments of fear or excitement. It is most common for heightened oscillation rates to occur in high voices on notes in the upper most parts of the register. With high subglottal pressure, a lowered larynx and a slower oscillation rate the vibrato becomes more pronounced and can be heard over large orchestras. Audiences of our time seem to prefer a slower vibration rate perhaps because to the ear it sounds more powerful. Take for example the vibrato of Luciano Pavarotti whose oscillation rate is around 5.5 compared to that of another famous singer (of the seventeenth century), Enrico Caruso, whose vibrato rate was near 7.0.470 Modern pedagogues agree with the pedagogues of the early centuries in that vibrato can be controlled in order to colour music, however, today vibrato is expected to be used more frequently, to further vocal colours. Another device that aids in underlining the emotional content of the text is the singing technique ‘Messa di Voce’. This term has been used since the early eighteenth century, relating to the artistry of using loud and soft singing to shape a phrase. It was a key element in vocal instruction of the Old Italian schools. For it was a great exercise in which to teach singers how to control dynamics through supported breath and tone management.471 The messa di voce technique is considered rudimental by some musicologists such as Stockhausen and Tosi while others consider it to be a highly complex maneuver. Many prominent vocal pedagogues have studied and discussed it in detail, including Manuel Garcia in his treatise, Hints on Singing. He describes messa di voce as “swelled sounds” beginning very softly and slowly increasing the dynamic to its loudest capacity and then backing down to the softest

England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) 31. 464 Ibid. 465 Ibid. , 32. 466 Ibid. , 34. 467 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy ( Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 1999) 138 468 Ibid. , 139.

469Ibid.

, 140. , 141. 471 Herman Klein, The Bel Canto:with particular reference to the singing of Mozart (New York: Oxford University Press, 1923) 32.

470Ibid

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degree.472 When he advises the singer in detail on how to execute this technique he instructs to begin with loose glottal closure in falsetto (mid-register) and move through the head voice as one crescendos with firm adduction (folds are firmly closed). Besides a change in timbre and register Garcia’s messa di voce also demands refined control of subglottal pressure (airflow rate) and positioning of the vocal tract.473 As one can see by his description, the messa di voce exercise is complex therefore Garcia reserved it for highly trained singers. Another prominent musicologist named Lamperti had a slightly different definition of messa di voce. His did not involve a change in register rather a consistent timbre and slightly higher subglottal pressure through out the exercise. Some of the Italian masters like Pierfrancesco Tosi, thought of messa di voce as a type of ornamentation that was to be used tastefully on sustained notes. 474 While other vocal pedagogues applied the technique, sparingly to open vowels. The messa di voce technique was most often applied to long held notes as a mean of sustaining them, especially at the ad libitum pause just before a cadenza. This was very effective in shaping the ends of phrases and aided singers to avoid monotony.475 In later years, there was an obvious decline in the use of Messa di Voce. As noted by Tosi, “there are very few singers who esteem it worthy of their taste, whether because they love instability in the voice, or because they wish to remove themselves from the past.”476 Today, using messa di voce on every note as singers did in the early centuries is considered ineffective as a method of aiding expressive singing. Singing with a swelled

sound on every individual note or word is not a convincing method of expression. If the technique is misused, it may take on what teachers refer to as the “wah-wah” or “doppler” effect in which legato line and steady tone are disrupted. This vocal technique is better suited to entire phrases, which allows singers to shape towards the most important words of the text; making the expressive words the loudest. Many singers continue to use messa di voce as a daily exercise to achieve brilliant consistent tone throughout the entire range of dynamics. If one can master a consistent vibrant timbre throughout the range of dynamics it is assumed that one can then apply this acquired technique to the text providing the audience a well-expressed performance. As the contrasting dynamics of messa di voce can help express a range of emotions, so can the contrasting tempos of the tempo rubato. The literal translation of tempo rubato is robbed time, it is a technique in which the accompanist continues to play in the established tempo while the soloist pushes and pulls the tempo in order to suit the emotional content of the piece.477 Pierfrancesco Tosi introduced robbed time in 1723. In his opinion this ‘stealing of time’ was best suited to the aria style called the aria pathetic, popular around 1687-1700.478 Singers altered rhythms in the rubato manner for many reasons: to aid in avoiding “false accentuations”479, to elongate appogiaturas as well as other ornamentations and portamentos or “to simply add an expressive element of rhythmic tension to the music”.480 Singers often employed tempo rubato to move quickly in passages of excitement, increasing passion or hatred, where as the pulling back of the tempo is reserved for moments of hesitation,

Ibid, 31. 473 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy ( Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 1999) 98. 474 Owen Jander and J.B. Steane: 'Messa di Voce', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Sun. 20, Feburary, 05]), 475 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) 71. 476 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy ( Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 1999) 95. 472

Richard Hudson: ‘Rubato’, Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Fri. 18, February, 05]), 478 Richard Hudson Stolen Time: The History of Tempo Rubato.. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) 41. 479 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000) 80. 480 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy ( Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 1999) 173.

477

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increasing despair or hopelessness.481 The skill of using tempo rubato effectively was deemed very important by great musicians such as Tosi: “He who does not know how to use rubato in singing … remains deprived of the best taste and the greatest intelligence”.482 In musical works by composers of post eighteenth century, such as Liszt, Mascagni and Puccini, tempo rubato is extended over entire works, allowing the tempo to be flexible through out.483 As there are varying instructions on how to execute messa di voce, musicologists also differ in their opinions about rubato. Tosi and Robert North describe rubato in terms of anticipation and delay where as Alencons (who published a Dutch translation of Tosi’s documents) interprets rubato as an increase and decrease of note values. The difference is that in Alencon’s version the lengthening of one note is equalized by the amount of time lost on the last note of the same musical phrase. With Tosi and North’s anticipation and delay such a balance is not required. One may anticipate the entry of one note and not have to compensate by following with the delay of another note.484 To audiences of Tosi’s time it was in the beauty of the dissonance created by delaying a note that created such interest.485 Tempo rubato is still employed by singers today, although tempo fluctuations occur more often in the form of accelerandos and ritardandos indicated by the composer. The difference between these two forms of tempo fluctuations is quite noticeable, as the accompanist plays in strict time while the soloist uses rubato where as the accompanist moves in sync with the singer for accelerandos and ritardandos. Both are effective methods of heightening expression. The text seems to come alive when the tempo is in rhythm with a character’s stirring emotions or with the flow

of nature. This is one vocal technique that should never be discontinued for it speaks so strongly to ones emotion. Music would be very dull and monotonous without it. Through the use of vibrato, messa di voce and tempo rubato expressive singing has the power to create aesthetic feelings that one compares to human emotion.486 The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’ use of vibrato gives colour to words of strong emotion. Messa di voce draws the attention of the audience to expressive words within a phrase and adds musical interest to the line through the use of dynamics. Tempo rubato effectively represents the increasing and decreasing action of both the music and the text. The changes in the use of these techniques, from the eighteenth century to now, demonstrate how ideas of what are aesthetically pleasing and expressive have evolved and are continually changing. Singers will be steadily presented with new expressive techniques in which to please audiences.

Toft, Heart to Heart, 83. Stark, Bel Canto,173. 483 Richard Hudson: ‘Rubato’, Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Fri. 18, February, 05]), 484 Richard Hudson Stolen Time: The History of Tempo Rubato.. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) 50. 485 Ibid, 57.

481

482

Nancy Kovaleff Baker: ‘Expression’, Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Wed. 23, February, 05]), 486

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The Fach System:

them cast appropriate voices to suitable roles.487 The names and titles of these subcategorizations vary depending on the source and the translation, but the general idea remains the same. For example, the soprano category alone can be divided into seven types, including the soubrette, lyric coloratura, lyric, dramatic coloratura, spinto, dramatic, and heavy dramatic. These titles do not include the three divisions of the mezzo-soprano voice: lyric, dramatic, and contralto (although the contralto is often considered a voice type on its own, with its own subcategories).488 Every role in opera has become associated with a Fach, and occasionally can be cross-listed into more than one Fach. Some typical examples include the role of Lucia, from Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor, known as a dramatic coloratura soprano role; or the title role in Carmen, by Bizet, known as a dramatic mezzo-soprano role. Some very specific Fächer can also be defined by a composer, or a nationality, like the Wagnerian soprano or the tenore di grazia, which includes mostly Italian roles. Despite all of these variations, the basic structure of the Fach system remains intact.489 There is also great variety in the way a Fach is determined. Definition of Fach occurs in two areas: the type of role, or the actual voice type of the individual singer. Although the range of an operatic role is obviously an important factor, there are many other pertinent elements. The tessitura of the part, as well as the sostenuto demands help to define the actual type of voice needed, whereas the orchestral writing underneath the vocal line

Definitions and Controversies

By Meagan Zantingh Attempts at codifying anything in the realm of vocal pedagogy usually end in disastrous confusion and biased terms. The Fach system, however, is one system of codification that is generally recognized throughout the world, with varying degrees of specificity. The Fach system began as a classification of voice types, in order to guide opera companies in their casting, and to protect singers from performing inappropriate roles. However, today it has spread far beyond the opera company, becoming a marketing tool, and in some cases, a definition of character. Each broad Fach can be subdivided into more specific sub-categories, containing specific roles suitable for each voice type. Determining a singer’s voice type, or Fach, has become a controversial issue of vocal pedagogy, often being given too much importance in the training of a young voice. The idea of Fach, to today’s degree of specificity, is a relatively modern concept. Historically, singers could perform roles of a different voice type, without the baggage of Fach definition. Today, the importance of Fach for casting differs according to the country and the politics of the opera company. In any case, Fach is a factor in the casting process, either as a marketing device, or as a determination of persona. The Fach system developed from the traditional categorizations of soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. These four main voice types are divided into Fächer, or literally, divisions, that relate more specifically to individual voices. Originating in Germany, these subdivisions also stipulate what dramatic roles are suitable for each voice type. The whole system is intended as a guide for opera companies in their audition process; to help

487J.B.

Steane, “Fach,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (London: Macmillan, 1992), II: 234. 488 http://www.e-paranoids.com/f/fa/fach.html Article licensed under the GMU Free Documentation License. http://www.lyricoperaofwaco.org/education/voices/, designed by Melanie McCalmont, updated Jan 5/03. http://www.geocities.com/concertopera/voicetype.html 489 Anthony Legge, The Art of Auditioning (London: Peters Edition Limited, 2001), 55-167. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/cardiffsinger01/guide.sht ml?voice, provided by the BBC, updated Mar. 4/05. Andrea Suhm-Binder, http://www.cantabilesubito.de/Categories/hauptteil_categories.html, updated Feb./05. 74

calls for a particular size and colour. Dramatic requirements of the role also suit some timbres better than others, and cannot be discounted.490 Certain types of roles often become associated with a certain Fach; for example, the lyric soprano is the typical ‘girlfriend’ personality.491 The placing of a role into a specific Fach is, to some extent, a subjective process, and some leeway of definition is necessary. The issue of determining the voice type of a singer is surrounded by even more variables and controversy. Once again, the range and tessitura of the voice are important factors, assuring the comfort of the voice. The natural timbre and size of the voice also play a role in deciding the voice type. Because the Fach is also used for dramatic purposes, even such subjective factors as the physical appearance of the singer, and his or her personality help to define the Fach.492 However, some voices never really fit into a specific category, and are able to sing roles from different areas. Especially in young singers can the Fach be difficult to identify, and many argue, that Fach identification should not even be a part of early vocal training. The Fach system was developed for the opera house and should be confined to the opera house. To bring discussions of voice type into a lesson program of a young singer takes emphasis away from other pedagogy issues, and could cause the student some anxiety, worrying about fitting in to a specific category. In fact, some pedagogues believe that young voices should not even attempt to sing arias, let alone entire roles. 493 However, young singers may find this difficult. Even delaying the process of Fach identification can be challenging, while surrounded by an abundance of opinions. Most auditions for schools and programs, even

for less experienced singers, require the student to state their voice type and sing at least one aria. While many pedagogues realize it is not healthy to push a voice in one direction or another, the singer himself or herself may find it difficult not to lean in a particular direction, being immersed in a Fach-obsessed society. There are also pedagogues who believe in defining the voice type of a student as soon as possible, in order to healthily train the voice.494 Once the singer knows his or her voice type, he or she can begin learning roles pertaining to that Fach. However, the development of a voice can change drastically in the early adult years, so these learned roles may later become obsolete for the singer. Regardless of Fach, the teacher must have a perceptive ear to guide the student in choosing repertoire appropriate for his or her voice at that time. In many cases, after basic, fundamental training, the singer will correctly identify his or her voice type according to where the voice is comfortable, and the teacher should also respect this judgment.495 Whether it is determining the Fach of an individual voice, or of a specific role, the decision is based on a great deal of subjective insight, as well as musical and technical aspects. The whole historical development of the Fach system is surrounded by personal opinion and contradiction. Generally, the system has evolved from a broad to a much more specific classification. In order to look at this topic from a broad historical perspective for the purposes of this essay, the focus will be on the female voice, specifically the development of the mezzo-soprano as a Fach. The original seventeenth- century pieces written for soprano usually had an approximate range of middle C to high G, which would now be considered an appropriate mezzosoprano range. Beginning in the first half of the eighteenth century, as composers started writing voice parts with a more extended upper range, there was a greater perception of the slightly weightier and lower voice that could

Richard Miller, On the Art of Singing (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1996), 199-201. 491 J.B. Steane, Voices: Singers and Critics (Portland: Amadeus Press, 1992), 3-111. 492Bard Suverkrop, http://www.su.edu/SUOpera/classes/mupp425/D ocuments/Performances/Fach/Home.htm, provided by the Shenandoah Conservatory. 493 Miller, On the Art of Singing.

490

David L. Jones, “Lower Voice or Higher Voice?,” http://www.voiceteacher.com/vocal_fach.html, 2000. 495 Miller, On the Art of Singing. 494

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not manage these higher notes as extensively. J. J. Quantz was the first composer to distinguish the female role into three main categories: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and alto; but it was not until after 1800 that the term ‘mezzo-soprano’ came into general use.496 G. F. Handel, of course, wrote for lower voices, but his roles were intended for contralto castrati, rather than women’s voices. In the early nineteenth century, when the castrato began to disappear, the mezzo-soprano gradually took his place, and composers started to write more often specifically for this lower voice type. However, this evolution was not sudden, and therefore many of the famous mezzo roles of the 1800s are heroic trouser roles, many of which are by Rossini. Composers also tended to write roles with a specific singer in mind, writing idiomatically for her voice. For example, Rossini wrote the role of Malcolm for Benedetta Pisaroni, who called herself a soprano; but this role today is generally considered more suitable for a mezzo voice. Verdi is perhaps the first composer to write specific mezzo-soprano roles, although he often deemed them contralto parts. The same contradictions appeared in Germany, with roles written for mezzo, but premiered by a soprano; Weber’s role of Eglantine in Euryanthe was premiered by soprano Therese Grünbaum. By the twentieth century, many composers were writing for the mezzosoprano voice, most notably Jules Massenet and Richard Strauss. The trend throughout the history of the mezzo usually casts her, if not as a man, at least as a less romantic role than the soprano. Nurses, confidantes, mature married women, dowager duchesses and elderly aunts are all typical mezzo-soprano characters, also becoming a defining factor of the Fach itself.497 The ambiguity of the mezzo-soprano Fach is also apparent in the voices themselves. The trend in the development of the Fach system has evolved from a general idea of voice area, to a much more specific and 496 497

restrictive classification. Historically, the range of roles sung by one singer was typically much wider and more varied than singers of today. Tracing the roles of Maria Malibran and Pauline Viardot, this wider breadth of roles is apparent. In a short career, ending with her death at 28 years old, Maria Malibran sang a total of nine full roles. She debuted in 1825 as Rosina in Rossini’s Il barbiere di Siviglia. She was generally considered to be a mezzosoprano, and sang typically mezzo roles, such as the title roles in Rossini’s La Cenerentola and Tancredi, as well as Arsace in his Semiramide. However, she also sang the title role in Donizetti’s Maria Stuarda, and Armina in Bellini’s La Sonnambula, both of which are roles that have since been made famous by many sopranos. Malibran’s sister, Pauline Viardot, had an even more varied career, singing a total of at least twenty-two roles, covering a wide range of Fächer. She was also considered a mezzosoprano, and sang all of the roles that her sister sang, but she also overlapped a great deal into soprano territory. After her debut in 1839 as Desdemona in Rossini’s Otello, she went on to sing such soprano roles as the title role in Bellini’s Norma, and Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor, and both Zerlina and Donna Anna in Mozart’s Don Giovanni. Apart from being soprano roles, these parts also cover different Fächer within the soprano category. She also sang works by Meyerbeer, Halevy and Gounod, breaking away from the more traditional Italian styles.498 This great variety of roles demonstrates the lack of rigidity in the system of voice types during the nineteenth century. Grace Bumbry, over a century later, still defied the boundaries of the average singer, and the trend towards specificity. Beginning as a mezzo-soprano, she sang most of the great mezzo roles in the French repertoire, like Carmen and Dalilah, as well as roles by Verdi: Azucena, Eboli, and Amneris. Later in her career, she sang more soprano

J. J. Quantz lived from 1697-1773 Owen Jander, J.B. Steane, Elizabeth Forbes, Ellen T. Harris, “Mezzo-soprano,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (London: Macmillan, 1992), III: 145-152.

April Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius: A Life of Pauline Viardot (London: John Calder Ltd., 1964). Andrea Suhm-Binder, http://www.cantabilesubito.de/Teachers/hauptteil_teachers.html 498

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repertoire, including Mascagni’s Santuzza, Strauss’s Salome, and Janacek’s Jenufa.499 A more typical career of a modern singer is illustrated through the careers of Denyce Graves and Elina Garanca. They have a select few roles that they are known for, mostly staying in a specific Fach. Denyce Graves is especially known for the roles of Carmen and Dalilah, performing them repeatedly and almost exclusively for many years.500 As a less experienced singer with a less extensive career, Elina Garanca is also so far limited to a few select roles: Dorabella in Mozart’s Cosi fan tutte, Rosina in Rossini’s Il barbiere di Siviglia, Charlotte in Massenet’s Werther, and a few performances of Oktavian in Strauss’s Der Rosenkavalier.501 The limited roles of both these singers present a much more restricted idea of Fach than earlier singers. Because of this evolution, many singers have controversial opinions about the Fach system. Grace Bumbry, for example, believes singers today restrict themselves by singing in a specific Fach: “Too many singers stay within one certain boundary. Instead of all their instrument, they just use that portion that is required at that particular time, instead of trying to do whatever they can do with their entire voice.” She cautions singers against choosing a Fach according to the market, rather than the suitability of their voice. However, in a way, she contradicts herself when asked about a particular singer: “My point of view is that Dolora Zajick is not a mezzo soprano anyway. She’s a soprano.” 502 In this statement, Bumbry is stating a specific Fach for a singer, categorizing her in a way that she had earlier protested. The opinions of Thomas Hampson are also contradictory; when he promotes himself as a baritone, but is

described as “resisting passionately the notion of Fach, which, he believes, is built by agencies […] ‘Singing is not about timbres or category labels.’”503 Other singers perhaps have the same opinion, but it rare to see a professional singer that does not advertise according to his or her Fach. The role of the Fach system in the process of casting brings to the forefront many more debates, in many cases depending on the country. As a tool for opera companies, the Fach system is especially helpful for inexperienced directors to find an appropriate singer for each role. The singers themselves can also use it for contractual protection, to keep them from being forced to sing unhealthy roles for their voices. The system is used in very different ways in Europe and North America. The general opinion is that the system is used more often, and more specifically in Europe. In Europe, the ideal situation for the typical regional repertoire opera house would be to hire a set ensemble for the season, which would include one singer from each Fach. Unfortunately, this rarely happens, as there are many different Fächer, and it would require the hiring many singers, usually an economic impossibility. As a result, singers often cover roles that are outside of their Fach.504 In some cases, this can mean unhealthy singing, as in the less successful productions of the English National Opera: “When casting is influenced by economic considerations, the variable should be the repertoire, not the singer.”505 Often however, the role is still comfortable for the singer. If the singer is perfectly able to sing the role, even if it is outside of his or her supposedly fixed Fach, perhaps the idea of Fach is too restricting and specific.

Grace Bumbry, http://home.swbell.net/gyurci/bumbrybio.htm. 500 Denyce Graves, http://www.denycegraves.com/biography.html. 501 Elina Garanca, http://www.elinagaranca.com/en/news.html. 502 Joel Kasow, “An interview with Grace Bumbry,” http://www.culturekiosque.com/opera/intervie/rhe bumb.htm, Sept. 2/97.

Thomas Hampson, http://www.hampsong.com, updated Mar. 4/05. 504 Bard Suverkrop, http://www.su.edu/SUOpera/classes/mupp425/D ocuments/Performances/Fach/Home.htm, provided by the Shenandoah Conservatory. 505“ENO and the Fine Art of Casting,” http://www.operatalent.com/Safe/articles/FineArto fCasting.asp, (Inter Ads Ltd., 2003).

499

503

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In North America, many believe that the Fach system is less rigid, but it is actually just used in a different way. Here, with the different hiring system, companies usually hire a singer for a specific role, for one production. In this way, he or she is not hired according to their Fach, but rather according to the role. However, it is often the case that once the singer becomes known for a specific role, he or she is only hired for this role, which is restricting in a different way. To prevent this from happening, it is the responsibility of the performer, in the ten minute audition package, to present every quality of the voice, especially if the voice does not fall in the usual Fach boundaries.506 However, this ideal package is difficult to create, especially when auditioning for a specific role, towards which the singer will gear his or her audition. Linda Maguire states her difficulties:

required to sing outside of this category once hired. In both scenarios, the rigidity of the Fach system becomes an opponent to the singer. Despite this criticism, the Fach system can work. In theory, on paper as a guideline, the system is helpful for teachers, singers, and directors. However, it should be restricted to the opera house, and even then just as a basic guide, always receptive to different possibilities and interpretations. Determination of Fach in the young singer often causes anxiety, and should not be a focus of the training. It is only recently, that the idea of a rigid Fach has become popular, but perhaps freedom can be found once again in the historical, more ambiguous views of voice type. Today, used as a marketing device, Fach only results in restricting the career of a singer, rather than guiding the path of the career. The voice as an instrument is unique to every singer, and therefore it is impossible to classify voices into groups, where they lose their sense of individuality. Great voices are not remembered for their ability to fit into a category, but rather for their singularity.

However, in an 8-minute time slot, auditioners just don’t have time or head space to gather and process the fact that I am a mezzo who sings such soprano operatic roles – it’s an unusual thing, and confusing for them. […] If I can’t be put into a neat and convenient little category… well, they just don’t have the time, the imagination, or the inclination in normal audition circumstances to ‘get it,’ especially when I’m in with scores of other singers, the majority of whom obediently fit in their ‘five perfect opera roles.’507 Even in North America, where the Fach system is based more on the roles, the singer can have difficulty breaking away from the preconceived notions that are tied to a Fach. The singer can be hired for their voice, regardless of Fach, but could then be restricted to a select few roles for much of his or her career. In Europe, the system works in almost the opposite direction, although it can be equally restrictive. Singers are generally hired for according to their Fach, but then may be Lloyd W. Hanson, http://www.vocalist.org/group/vocalisttemporary/message/7111.html, Nov. 30/00. 507 Linda Maguire, http://www.lindamaguire.com/info/faqs.html, from an interview for Wholenote Magazine. 506

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