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2nd EDITION
THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND
UQ BUSINESS SCHOOL
Assignment Writing Handbook Kashonia L. Carnegie PhD, MSc, MA, BA (Hons)
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First Edition – 1997 Second Edition – 2001
© Kashonia L. Carnegie, 1997; 2001 UQ Business School The University of Queensland Qld 4072 Brisbane Australia
2nd EDITION – ISBN 0-9578967-0-0
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION ............................................................................ 1 HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK ............................................................................. 2 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 4 2. PREPARATION..................................................................................................... 4 2.1. 2.2.
3.
REPORT OR ESSAY FORMAT.......................................................................... 7 3.1. 3.2.
4.
Motivation.................................................................................................................... 5 Time Management ....................................................................................................... 5 Report Format .............................................................................................................. 8 Essay Format ............................................................................................................... 8
RESEARCHING YOUR ASSIGNMENT............................................................ 9 4.1. 4.2. 4.3.
Analyse the Question ................................................................................................. 10 Designing a Structure................................................................................................. 13 Research and the Library ........................................................................................... 35
4.3.1 Research on the Internet ..........................................................................................................36
4.4.
5.
STYLE – MECHANICS OF ASSIGNMENT WRITING ................................ 41 5.1. 5.2. 5.3.
6.
The Basics.................................................................................................................. 41 Tables and Figures ..................................................................................................... 50 Non-Discriminatory Language .................................................................................. 51
DEVELOPING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT .............................................. 52 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5.
7.
Critical Reading ......................................................................................................... 37
Critical Analysis ........................................................................................................ 53 The Art of Integration ................................................................................................ 60 Applying the Theory and Data to a Case Study......................................................... 67 Using Paragraphs as ‘Building Blocks’ ..................................................................... 68 SWOT Analysis ........................................................................................................ 69
REFERENCING................................................................................................... 70 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4.
Plagiarism .................................................................................................................. 71 When and How to Reference ..................................................................................... 71 Reference List versus Bibliography........................................................................... 80 Reference List Format ............................................................................................... 80
8. EDITING YOUR ASSIGNMENT ...................................................................... 85 9. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 91 10. APPENDICES...................................................................................................... 93 Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix
10.1 – Summary of Main Recommendations........................................................ 93 10.2 – Assignment Chart....................................................................................... 94 10.3 – Glossary of Directive Words...................................................................... 96 10.4 – List of Common Mistakes .......................................................................... 98 10.5 – Further Reading........................................................................................ 100 10.6 – General Information ................................................................................. 102 10.7 – Acknowledgments.................................................................................... 104
REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................... 105
SOME KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER ................................................... 110 ______________________________________________________________________
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PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The Assignment Writing Handbook is a special project funded by the UQ Business School, at The University of Queensland, to support the academic growth of both undergraduate and postgraduate students. Since the first edition of this handbook was written in 1997, over 10,000 copies have been published. At the beginning of each semester, the UQ Business School runs an Assignment Writing Seminar at which some of the concepts in the first edition are explained in more detail. The models, templates, and extra information presented in those face-to-face seminars have been integrated into this second edition of the Assignment Writing Handbook. All UQ Business School students have access to this book. Not all choose to read it, and even fewer follow the guidelines it contains. In speaking with many hundreds of students over the past few years, I believe that one of the reasons that many students don’t take a greater interest in improving their assignment writing skills is that they don’t appreciate the importance of writing well. A student once said to me that they weren’t interested in knowing if their writing style was appropriate, instead they just wanted to know if the content of their work was “right”. At university level, especially in social sciences, it is generally not a matter of having the right or the wrong answers – rarely are there any right or wrong answers. It is all about how well you argue your case for the answers or position that you have chosen to support. The better your writing skills, the more persuasive your argument will be, and in turn, the better your grades. Having a resource such as this just sitting on your desk is of no value. However, those students who do choose to read and be guided by the contents of this handbook, are generally the students who receive top grades. Finally, it should be noted that there are many approaches that can be taken when writing academic assignments, and many different styles of presentation. Just as there are no right answers, there is no one method or style that can be considered the right approach for writing assignments. For many different reasons, some lecturers like their students to follow a style of writing or presentation that is different to the suggestions in _____________________________________________________________________ 1
_____________________________________________________________________ this book. Should you encounter such a lecturer, then their wishes should be followed for their particular subject. Where your lecturer expresses no such preferences, the UQ Business School recommends that the contents of this handbook be used as your guide.
HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK Sometimes students, especially mature age students new to academic study, tend to go into ‘overwhelm’ when they are first introduced to the concepts that are outlined in this book. I have heard comments such as, “I can never learn to do all of this”, or “do you mean we have to know all of this before we even get into the content of the subjects in which we are enrolled?”. Whether you are in that category or not, I can assure you that the handbook has been designed to help you get the most out of your academic journey. And so I suggest you approach the handbook in the following manner. 1. Assuming you have reached this section of the book, don’t read any further – at this stage. 2. If you haven’t already done so, read the “preface to the second edition”, above. 3. Go back to the table of contents and take a minute or so to look at, and reflect on, the various chapters and sections that the book contains and the order in which they are presented. You will see that the chapters build on each other as they take you step-by-step through the process of writing your assignments. 4. Go through the book page-by-page, just looking quickly at each the page, without stopping to read anything at this stage – just look over each page and then turn to the next one. 5. Having looked right through the book, you will have a pretty good feel for what the book contains. You will have noticed that there are sections of written explanation, there are sections of step-by-step examples, checklists, and so forth. 6. Now that you have seen what the book contains, go to Appendix 10.4 – Common Mistakes, at the end of the book. Here you will see a brief list of the common mistakes that markers continually find in student’s papers, despite them having a _____________________________________________________________________ 2
_____________________________________________________________________ copy of this handbook to guide them. All items in that list thwart the attainment of top grades. 7. Now, if you have time, skim/read through the book. However, if you don’t have time, at least you have an idea of where to go to find things when you need them. 8. Ideally, before semester starts you will make the time to skim through the book. There is no need to read the book, cover-to-cover in a detailed manner. It is better to just skim/read it a couple of times and then, as you start working on your assignment you can read carefully through the book, one section at a time, to correspond with the various stages of researching and writing your paper. Finally, use the book as an overall checklist to ensure that you have addressed all issues before you submit your assignment. 9. Based on feedback that I have received from many students, I often say in the Assignment Writing Seminars, if you want to get a 4 grade average, skim the book once. If you want a 5 grade, read it two or three times. If you want a 6 grade, read through the book many times. If you want a 7 grade, then continually read through the various sections as they write each paper, and use it as an overall checklist before each submission. As one former MBA student, who regularly received grades of 7, said to me: “Of all the books I used during my studies, the Assignment Writing Handbook is the most battered and used book of the lot”.
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1. INTRODUCTION Writing a good assignment is a skill. And like any skill, it can be learned. To that end, this handbook will outline the major components required in an academic assignment for both undergraduate and postgraduate students. This handbook has been designed to guide you, progressively, through each stage of your assignment from the preparation, on to your research, and the mechanics of writing your paper, through to developing an argument, referencing, and editing. As much as possible, the book is designed to reflect the guidelines that are discussed throughout. The format of the handbook is loosely based on a compilation of essay and assignment writing guides from various departments and universities (see the acknowledgments in Appendix 10.7 and the reference list). The content too has been drawn from many areas. However, one of the major sources was a reflection on the common mistakes I have found during the marking of assignments. As this is purely a guide to refer to when writing your assignments, it is recommended that you also attend some of the many assignment writing skills and research skills development courses that are regularly held by different service departments throughout the university. Some of these, and other student support resources and services have been listed in Appendix 10.6. Finally, even though the are many, many different writing styles and formats, which are quite acceptable when writing social science papers, it is recommended that the formats presented in this handbook be used for UQ Business School assignments, unless otherwise instructed.
2.
PREPARATION
No matter what task you undertake, the degree of success you finally enjoy will depend greatly on the initial preparation. There are three key issues that need to be considered in the preparation of any assignment, or even an exam: motivation, time management, and analysing the question. Motivation and time management will now be discussed, and analysing the question will be covered in Chapter 4.1.
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2.1.
Motivation
Generally, the only way you’ll get top grades is to put in the time and the effort. The greater your overall effort, the better the grade. However, the greater your motivation the easier and more enjoyable it is to put in that time and effort. Cloake and Noad (nd:2) suggest that motivation can be helped by working at the times that are best for you; and by keeping aspects of your work that you enjoy for times when you become “tired or jaded”.
As an example, in writing this book there were sections that I
intuitively thought would be easy, other sections that I thought would be fun to write, and yet other sections again that I knew would require a lot more effort and thought. So I wrote the less enjoyable sections at the beginning of my work sessions when I was fresh. Then, when I began to tire I changed to one of the easier or fun sections and worked on that for a short time before returning to, and completing, the original section. In addition, it is important to take a 5-10 minute break every hour or so. However, the thing that will motivate you the most is to keep the reason you are doing the course uppermost in your thoughts and the vision of that goal, and your life after you have attained that goal, in your mind’s eye. Therefore, it is recommended that at the beginning of your university studies you write a list of all the reasons that you have for doing a university degree and the benefits that will come to you as a result of you completing your degree. Then throughout your time at university keep adding to the list. As a result, at 4 am, when you are finishing off that paper that has to be in later that same morning; or at 10 o’clock at night when you are still in the library standing at the photocopier after having been at Uni all day, and you ask yourself, “is this all worth it?” just visualise all the benefits that are on your list. If your list is long enough the answer will always be “yes”. The more reasons you can give yourself for doing something, the more compelling that future will become, and consequently, the more motivated you will be to complete the task.
2.2.
Time Management
Whether you are a full-time student or a part-time student involved with other activities, your most valuable resource will be your time. So it is essential to plan your time well at the beginning of each semester.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Normally, by the end of the first week of the new semester you will know how many assignments are required for each subject that you are taking, plus the amount of work involved, and the due date.
As soon as that information is available, it is
recommended that you prepare an Assignment Chart (see Appendix 10.2) and stick to it. An Assignment Chart is a time management tool to help you plan your semester to ensure that all assignments can be completed on time. Whilst you may not plan to work on a specific assignment until a couple of weeks prior to the due date, it is essential to decide on the question you will work on as soon as possible. Once this decision has been made, see if you need to do any primary research that involves collecting written information from organisations other than the library or the Internet. If you do require outside information, make the necessary requests to the organisations concerned immediately, so that you will have the information ready and waiting when the date arrives that you have allocated to start on that particular assignment.
Admittedly, these days most of the information that was once only
obtainable physically from an organisation is now available on their Web site. Nevertheless, there might be other activities, such as interviews, that need to be organised prior to the dates that you have allocated to writing the assignment. Just one final word of warning.
In adhering to your Assignment Chart you will
complete several assignments each semester well before their due date.
It is
recommended that you hold onto the completed assignments until the due date, as quite often lecturers will continue to give added pieces of information on the assignment up to the lecture before the due date. By holding onto the assignment you are able to make an adjustment if necessary. After all, a small adjustment to a couple of papers due in the same week is a lot better than trying to write two or three, or even more, complete assignments from the beginning – and then finding you need to try and get an extension that may not necessarily be granted.
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3.
REPORT OR ESSAY FORMAT
A major aspect of the assignment to note on your time management assignment chart is the format. Frequently, at the beginning of semester, you are required to complete a small assignment. This could be anything from a brief literature review, an annotated bibliography, a library exercise where you have to do some library searches and report on your findings, to a substantiated piece of reflective writing. One of the aims of this initial assignment is to get you moving – to get you thinking about the subject. Due to the varied nature of those early assignments, it might not be necessary, or practical, to follow all of the guidelines in the next two chapters. As an example, if you are asked to write an annotated bibliography, your assignment will not have the same components as a report or an essay. And you will not go through the “designing a structure” processes detailed in Chapter 4. You will, however, still need to follow the guidelines in Chapter 4.1 – Analysing the Question; Chapter 5 – Mechanics of Style; Chapter 7 – Referencing; and Chapter 8 – Editing. When writing up those early, oft times unusual, assignments you must use some common sense as to the processes to follow, and as always, when it doubt check it out – ask your lecturer or tutor what, specifically, they want you to do. The guidelines in this handbook, and especially in the next two chapters, are to guide you when writing your major term paper – the main assignment that you are required to submit for the subject. The major assignment will usually be in the form of a report or an essay. If the lecturer wants the assignment written in report style, which is the most common style at the UQ Business School, it will be specifically stated. As an example, ‘Write a report on XYZ’. If the format style has not been specifically stated in the assignment details, it can normally be assumed that your assignment is to be written in an essay style. However, always check with the lecturer if there is any doubt as to the format required. The following sections, 3.1 and 3.2, contain an overview of the components of a report style and essay style format, highlighting the main differences between the two. This is to help you become familiar with the two styles in preparation for Chapter 4. In Chapter 4, each of the sections of the report will be explained in some detail as I take _____________________________________________________________________ 7
_____________________________________________________________________ you through a step-by-step exercise that will demonstrate how to write up these various sections and design a useable structure on which to base your report.
3.1. Report Format A report follows a very structured format containing the following sections, generally presented in the following order: •
Title Page
•
Letter of Transmittal
•
Table of Contents
•
Executive Summary
•
Introduction
•
The Body
•
Conclusion
•
Recommendations
•
Appendices
•
Reference List
It is sometimes suggested that the Table of Contents should be placed after the Executive Summary, and the Reference List before the Appendices. The reason for the placement of the Table of Contents before the Executive Summary and the Reference List at the very end of the report after the Appendices is explained in Chapter 4.2, under the respective sub-headings, Table of Contents and Reference List.
3.2.
Essay Format
Compared to the report format, an essay is not as formally formatted and is written in more of a flowing style. Therefore, dot points and numbered paragraphs are rarely used in an essay, and if they are used, justification must be given for doing so. The executive summary is called an abstract, or occasionally a synopsis, in an essay and is quite often limited to 150-300 words. Instead of numbered sections and sub-sections, an essay uses headings and sub-headings that are generally not numbered, as information is not as frequently cross-referenced as it might be in a report. Further, an essay does not contain _____________________________________________________________________ 8
_____________________________________________________________________ a letter of transmittal, or recommendations. Otherwise, the various sections of your essay will contain, and be structured, in virtually the same manner as for a report, as discussed in Chapter 4.2, keeping in mind the above exceptions. As such, most of the references and examples throughout this book are of reports, and so if you are required to write an essay instead of a report all you have to do is transpose the information for the relevant report sections into your essay, again, keeping in mind the above differences. In summary, an essay usually contains the following sections. •
Title Page
•
Table of Contents (rarely used in short essays)
•
Abstract or Synopsis (instead of the term Executive Summary)
•
Introduction
•
Body
•
Conclusion
•
Appendices (if appropriate)
•
Reference List
Now that you are familiar with these two main formats, it is time to begin the processes necessary to get your assignment together.
4.
RESEARCHING YOUR ASSIGNMENT
In this chapter, you will be guided through the process of preparing, researching, and structuring your assignment in a step-by-step fashion. I suggest that you take a moment to skim through this entire chapter, then come back and study one section at a time, as you are working on the corresponding section of your assignment. Normally during the first week of semester, you will receive details of the assignments you are required to submit for your assessment. As soon as you have the details of all the assignments you will have to complete for the semester, set up your Assignment Chart as discussed in Chapter 2.2 and detailed in Appendix 10.2. At the same time as you set up your Assignment Chart, if you have been given a choice of the topic or _____________________________________________________________________ 9
_____________________________________________________________________ question, decide which specific question in each assignment you intend working on and contact any external organisations from which you require information, as discussed in Chapter 2.2. By the time you come to work on your assignment you should be familiar with the topic and the approach you are going to take in answering the question. This familiarity with the topic will come from attending the lectures and tutorials, reading your text book, and general reading and discussion on the topic. Once you have a rough idea of the approach you intend to take, your research really begins. In this section four main research aspects will be explored: analysing the question; designing a structure; research and the library; and critical reading.
4.1.
Analyse the Question
When preparing to work on your assignment it is not enough to just read the question. The question, and all the instructions, must be fully studied and analysed. It is surprising how often a student submits an excellent assignment that has not addressed the question asked and; thus, barely rates a passing grade. I cannot stress strongly enough how often this happens and, as a result, how important it is to make sure that you have studied the question – and answered the question asked. If you can’t read an assignment question accurately, how are you going to read a client’s brief, or tender requirements, accurately. Analysing the question involves the following: •
Highlight, with a highlighter pen, all the action oriented directive words in the set assignment piece. These are words such as discuss, examine, review, analyse (see Appendix 10.3 for a list of directive words and their definitions). What do they mean? What specifically are they asking you to do?
•
Highlight the content oriented directive words that are linked to the action words. As an example; discuss (action/directive) a particular HRM issue (content/directive). Or review (action/directive) the effectiveness (content/direction) of that HRM issue. Normally I shall just refer to both the action and the content words as directive words.
•
Analyse the main points in any general instructions that support the question, such as: ‘you are not required to describe and discuss the theory, however, you must discuss the relevance and application of the theory to your case study’. Both
relevance and application are directive words. Ask yourself; ‘What does that _____________________________________________________________________ 10
_____________________________________________________________________ instruction actually mean?’ ‘What, specifically, am I being asked to do, and not to do?’ •
Ask your lecturer what the marking criteria are so you can get an idea of the percentage weighting of the various parts of the question so that you can devote the space and time to each section of the question that is appropriate to the marks it can attract. In addition, your lecturer might provide you with a list of the features that they expect you to include in the assignment. If the lecturer does provide such a list, make sure all features have been included if you want to receive reasonable marks.
•
Some key questions that need to be answered as part of your question analysis are: •
What do I have to demonstrate to the marker? In other words, if the question is on change management, then you must demonstrate to the marker that you clearly understand what change management is all about and that you have read the literature on change management extensively. You demonstrate extensive reading by discussing many different points of view and, in turn, citing numerous references.
•
What kind of task is being set? For instance, are you being asked to draw a relationship between two arguments, differentiate between two concepts, demonstrate an understanding of the theory and apply it to a case study, or something else.
•
How many elements or parts are involved in the question?
•
Which concepts or distinctions covered in this subject are relevant to the question?
•
What are the key concepts needed to answer the question and do I need to define them?
•
Which quotations, examples, and/or pieces of theory can I use to show familiarity with the topic and to support my argument?
As with so many of the techniques that you will learn at the UQ Business School, the exercise of analysing an assignment question, as described above, is also of great _____________________________________________________________________ 11
_____________________________________________________________________ benefit to your non-academic activities. I strongly recommend that you use the same process when preparing to reply to a job advertisement, or a business tender, or brief.
NOTE WELL As a university student, it is vital that you are able to demonstrate; (1) that you have a clear and solid understanding of the topic on which you are writing; and (2) that you fully understand and comply with the ‘brief’. In other words, you must do what you are being asked to do.
Major Research Report, 5000 words, 70%, due Tuesday 2nd June The assessment item is a report on an organisation in which you work, have worked or can gain access to. The report will identify a particular HRM issue or practice in this organisation, review its effectiveness, and make recommendations about how to improve performance in this area. The report should demonstrate a capacity to identify, read and comprehend the literature on the specific HRM area identified, as well as to apply the theoretical insights gained from the literature to the ‘real life’ operations of the organisation. The report should include the following features: •
Clear identification of the issue or function chosen, and why it was chosen;
•
A review of the relevant literature;
•
Discussion of how you went about gathering information about your chosen organisation;
•
An analysis of the information;
•
Recommendations, based on your reading, observation, and analysis, on how the organisation could go about improving its performance in the HRM area considered.
The report must include a reference list. referencing apply.
Standard rules for academic writing and
The assessment items will be discussed in much greater detail during the subject. If you are unsure about any aspect of the assessment please contact me as soon as possible and seek clarification. You should keep copies of any written work which you submit in case the original is misplaced.
Figure 1: Example of an Assignment Question
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_____________________________________________________________________ You will lose marks if you do not follow the instructions and answer the question asked. If you are not sure of what is required, ask your lecturer.
When in doubt, check it out! In the box above, is a copy of an assignment question. Go through it and highlight all of the directive words. The directive words in this question are listed in the next section in the box headed List 2 – Directive Words – Figure 3. Once you have analysed the question and highlighted all of the directive words, and before you begin your research, you need to decide how your paper will be structured. Based on the question below, I shall now go through a step-by-step structure building exercise for your assignment.
4.2.
Designing a Structure
If you have to drive from one side of a strange city to the other for the first time, it is unlikely that you will take the most efficient and effective route without consulting a road map; and a builder would never start work on a house without a blueprint or plan of some sort to follow; so it is with assignment writing. Before you start working on your essay or report you must prepare a plan or structure to follow. The following steps can be used as a template to help you design a structure for your report or essay that will ensure that you include all of the requirements set down on your assignment question sheet. As you read through this section on structural design, you will note that I have used a number of different fonts and cases in the lists. This is so that when the various lists are combined, you will be able to quickly identify which list they originally came from. You will recall that at the beginning of Chapter 3.1 – Report Format – there was a list of the sections that are to be included, when appropriate, in your reports. A copy of that list appears below as List 1 – Figure 2.
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STEP ONE List 1 BASIC COMPONENTS Title Page Letter of Transmittal
The first step in designing a
Table of Contents
structure for your report is to keep
Executive Summary
a list of all those components at
Introduction
hand, ready for step two.
Body Conclusion Recommendations - Implications - Limitations - Implementations Appendices Reference STEP TWO List Figure 2: List 1 – Basic Components of a Report
STEP TWO For step two, go back to your assignment question and write a list of all the directive words that you highlighted. Figure 3, below lists all of the directive words contained on the example question above – Figure 1. How many did you find when you went through the assignment sheet? You will notice on list 2 – Figure 3, below, that I have written the action/directive words in capitals, and beside these are the associated content/directive words. As an example, IDENTIFY. What did you have to identify? An HRM issue and why it was chosen. DEMONSTRATE: What did you have to demonstrate? A capacity or ability to IDENTIFY, READ, and COMPREHEND. What? Literature on the HRM issue including theory, examples, and data. And so your list goes on.
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List 2 - DIRECTIVE WORDS IDENTIFY – HRM Issue// Why Chosen REVIEW
– its effectiveness
MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS
The terms examples and data can
– on how to improve
mean different things to different
DEMONSTRATE – capacity/ability – IDENTIFY
}literature on
– READ
}HRM issue
people.
For the purpose of this
exercise, and throughout this book, the
– COMPREHEND }theory, data
term
data
will
refer
to
qualitative and quantitative data
examples
that
APPLY (to the Case) – theoretical insights gained from literature + examples + data
has
been
collected
and
recorded. And the term examples, refers to the anecdotal case study
DISCUSS – how information was gathered
examples that are so prevalent
ANALYSIS – of all information
throughout management literature.
Figure 3: List 2 – Directive Words
Once you have completed that second list, you can be sure that all the requirements of the assignment will be included in your report.
Provided, of course, that you haven’t
missed any of the directive words on your question sheet. That is why it is so important to really analyse the question, not just read through it. Now to step three.
STEP THREE In list 2, you just wrote down the directive words in the order that they appeared on the question sheet. Obviously, you are not going to write about them in that order, yet all the items on list 2 have to go somewhere in your report. List 1 contains all of the possible places that you can put the items from list 2. So, you have to decide where, on list 1, that you will place the various items from list 2. In step three, you integrate list 2 into list 1 as demonstrated below (Figure 4). You will notice _____________________________________________________________________ 15
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LISTS 1 & 2 COMBINED Title Page/Title Letter of Transmittal Table of Contents Executive Summary ------------------------------------------------Introduction (See Book) - Set Up IDENTIFY Issue (1 or 2 sentences) Why Chosen DISCUSS How Information Was Gathered ----------------------------------------------------------------Body DISCUSS CASE/SITUATION FULLY REVIEW HRM issue’s effectiveness – pluses & minuses Integrate the following: LITERATURE REVIEW IDENTIFY } READ } For & Against COMPREHEND } APPLY (To Case) – theory + examples + data ANALYSE ---------------------------------------------------------------Conclusions Recommendations – RECOMENDATIONS – Implications + Limitations + Implementations Appendices Reference List
Figure 4: Lists 1 and 2 Combined
that the different font styles reflect the two different lists – the Comic Sans font is list 1 and Times New Roman is copied from list 2. Notice too that the list 1 items remain unchanged down to Introduction. In the introduction section, the three items from list 2 are inserted, as shown. The balance of the items on list 2 are in the body section of list 1, except for recommendations, which naturally go into the recommendations section at the end. The items from Conclusions down to Reference List are, again, straight out of list 1.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Before moving onto Step Four, I shall include another list by way of explanation of the term Literature Review. As the term implies, a literature review is exactly that – a review of the literature on the topic, whatever topic you happen to be writing on. I shall talk more about the contents of this list at various stages throughout this handbook. At this stage, however, the following list will give you some suggestions as to what you can include in your literature review.
LITERATURE REVIEW SUGGESTIONS
When you do your library searches, or search the data bases, these
History/ Background
‘literature review suggestions’ are the
Definition
things
that
you
will
be
searching for to include in your
Characteristics
report, or essay. Arguments for [supported by theory, data, examples – evidence]
These categories will also give you the background information that
Arguments against [supported by theory, data, examples – evidence]
you will need to ensure that you ask the right questions in any field
Overcome the arguments against
interviews that you might do.
Figure 5: Literature Review Suggestions
STEP FOUR Whilst you can have a section in your report or essay headed “Introduction”, it is not appropriate to have a section headed “The Body”, unless the assignment is on Elle Macpherson. So you will now have to decide how to refine your structure even more, by deciding on appropriate headings and sub-headings for the various sections of the body of your paper. In step four you also decide on a title for your paper. Below is an example of how you can transpose all of the items on the combined lists 1 and 2, onto a third sheet of paper, and by creating appropriate headings and sub-headings, arrive at a completed structure for the assignment question that we’ve been working on. _____________________________________________________________________ 17
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Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation Letter of Transmittal Table of Contents Executive Summary 1.0. Introduction IDENTIFY ISSUE (1 or 2 sentences) Why Chosen DISCUSS How Information Was Gathered Also include your proposition – what you are going to argue for
2.0. The Learning Organisation Concept History – Definition – Characteristics (per Literature Review Sheet)
3.0. The Learning Organisation at Smith & Co Tell the reader in one paragraph what section 3 contains – a mini introduction 3.1. Background to Smith & Co Who/What is Smith & Co – History – Characteristics 3.2. The Learning Organisation in Action Integrate-Application Of Theory + Examples + Data DISCUSS THE CASE/SITUATION FULLY REVIEW LEARNING ORGANISATION EFFECTIVENESS – +/Theoretical Arguments for and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples Theoretical Arguments against and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples Using the literature, plus data and examples, you must overcome the ‘againsts’ ANALYSE the situation – develop a persuasive argument to support your thesis statement. This analysis will lead to a conclusion, from which will come some recommendations
4.0. Conclusions 5.0. Recommendations Recommendations – each stated in one succinct sentence Rationale that links back to arguments in the body, section 3.2, above; and the conclusion Implications + Limitations + Implementations
6.0. Appendices 7.0. Reference List
Figure 6: Example of a completed structure for your report – Note the different fonts and upper, lower and title cases representing the different lists that have been combined in the figure above.
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_____________________________________________________________________ You should be able to recognise where the items from the Combined Lists 1 & 2, have been positioned on the above example of a report structure. Shortly, I shall go through each of the components in the above assignment structure – line-by-line – and explain the sort of things that you will be expected to write in each section. Before proceeding, however, I shall briefly explain a little bit about the topic that has been used in the example above. As you will recall, the question asked, in part, that you identify an HRM (human resources management) issue, or topic. The topic I have arbitrarily chosen is that of the so-called learning organisation. Broadly based on systems theory and double-loop learning, the learning organisation is one that encourages staff to learn, especially from feedback, and as a result grow and move to higher and higher levels of competency and creativity. This, in turn, results in the organisation doing the same. The results of an ABI-Inform data base search on the learning organisation will provide you with a greater understanding of the concept.
Just as there is no one ‘right’ way to write an assignment, so too there is no one right way to structure an essay or report. You might be the sort of person who prefers to mind-map your report design. And that is fine. The report structure above is but one form of design structure. However, it is an effective structure and provides a good template if you have no better alternative. Remember however, that whilst the overall framework will probably remain the same, the detailed topic/content of the various sections are likely to change slightly, or even substantially, as you continue to research your topic. But you need to have a starting point. This structure will give you that starting point with which to work. I shall now go through the components of Figure 6 – the example of the completed structure of the report – piece-by-piece, and explain what the structural components are all about (as per list 1 – Figure 1), and what is required for the content pieces (as per list 2 – Figure 2). Title Page: Although not highlighted on the above design structure (Figure 6), on list 1 – Figure 1 – the first component of the report is the title page. As the name suggests, _____________________________________________________________________ 19
_____________________________________________________________________ the title page displays the title that has been given to the report, typed in a large font (see the title page of this book). Frequently, it will also state for whom the report has been prepared, who has prepared the report (plus your student number for academic assignments), the date, and a sentence expanding on the title.
In an academic
assignment that sentence expanding on the title might be a brief adaptation of the question you are answering. In a business report, the title might still be “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation”; and the sentence expanding on the title might be something like: ‘A report prepared for the Board of Directors of Smith and Company on the HRM division of the Brisbane Office.’ Remember that even though you have included a title page you still need to attach a departmental cover sheet on top of your title page. Before you can write up your title page, naturally you must think up an appropriate title. In our example, the title I am using is:
Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation Keep your title simple, straightforward, and a reflection of the content of the paper. If you have an uncontrollable emotional need to use a cutesy title such as “Spinning at Ever Higher Evolutions” or the like, then keep that as a sub-title. The main words in your title should immediately tell the reader what the paper is all about. In the example I have been using, we were asked to write a report on an organisation. The chosen organisation is Smith and Company. We had to write about an HRM issue. The chosen HRM issue is the learning organisation. Hence, “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation”. Simple, descriptive, and straight to the point.
Letter of Transmittal This letter or memorandum is an official, yet almost personal, letter from the author of the report, or the Chair of the committee who wrote the report, to the person who commissioned or authorised the report. Written in a normal business letter format, it is merely a formality stating that the commissioned report is now complete and attached. The letter would normally contain a brief paragraph highlighting what the report was about. You might acknowledge any significant people or groups of people who helped with the report.
And you would close with an invitation to be contacted if the
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_____________________________________________________________________ commissioner of the report has any questions. Although a good habit to get into, a letter of transmittal is not always a vital inclusion for your academic assignments, unless your lecturer specifically requests that you do so. This is another of those occasions when it would be a good idea to ask your lecturer if they would like you to include a letter of transmittal.
Table of Contents A table of contents is a very important inclusion. Not only does it facilitate easy access to the various sections of your report, but also, more importantly, it is like a mini abstract or synopsis. It tells the reader exactly what they can expect to find in the report and so helps to familiarise them with the content. The table of contents lists the sections and sub-sections, all of which should be numbered, complete with the corresponding page number on which the section begins. The section numbers appear against the left-hand margin, and the sub-sections are indented one tab space. Similarly, sub-sub-sections are indented two tab spaces. Generally, essays, especially short essays, don’t have a table of contents. The easiest way to create a able of contents is using Word’s Style window to insert Headings, and then go to your Insert Menu, then to Index and Tables, choose the table of contents tab, and within a couple of seconds you will have your table of contents appropriately set out, and complete with accurate page numbers. This can be updated at any time by pressing F9. The very last thing you do before printing is to put your cursor anywhere on the table and press F9 so that you have the very latest update of contents.
Executive Summary In a report, the abstract or synopsis is called an Executive Summary and contains a brief overview of the entire report, complete with a summary of the key findings and recommendations. The executive summary is usually not more than about one page in length, it should not contain any sub-headings, or any new, extra, or unnecessary descriptive information. It should simply contain very brief statements of the following:
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
The purpose and scope of the report.
•
The type of analysis conducted.
•
How that analysis was conducted.
•
The most important and significant findings.
•
The most important and significant recommendations.
The executive summary is not counted in your word or page count and should be the last thing you write, once you have completed your report and you know what you did and how you did it. In addition to the sentence or two on the key recommendations in your executive summary, an extra section can be included listing all the recommendations in summary form. This Summary of Recommendations list will appear on a new page following the executive summary and will contain a numbered list (R1; R2; R3 …) of all of the recommendations contained in the report. In this section, the recommendations will be presented in the briefest possible form with no supporting evidence. At the end of each recommendation you should include the page number or section of the report where the recommendation is presented in full. As will be discussed later, this summary of recommendations list can, alternatively, be placed at the end of the report or in the appendix (see an example in Appendix 10.1).
1.0 Introduction As with essays, all reports should have three major sections: the introduction, in which you tell the reader what you are going to tell them; the body, in which you tell the reader what the report is all about; and the conclusion, in which you tell the reader what you have just told them in the body. As a general guide, for an average term paper, the introduction should be around 10% of your word limit. So for a 3000 word paper the introduction will be about 300 words and should contain: •
The aim of the report – what you want to achieve by writing the report. This should be stated within the first one or two sentences.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
A brief explanation of how the report is structured and the scope of the report – the topics or issues that the report covers.
•
A brief explanation of how you went about your research – where and how you obtained your information, data, examples.
Remember that the
introduction is just briefly telling the reader what you are about to tell them. A further explanation of what goes into the introduction, from a slightly different perspective, is presented below as I discuss the elements asked for in the example question introduction. It is important to note that by this stage in your report the reader has been introduced to your material three times, in three different ways: in the table of contents; the executive summary; and now in the introduction – four times if you include the overview in the letter of transmittal. Further, with each introduction the information has been expanded upon or presented from a slightly different perspective, or both. It is because of this progressively expanding introduction to the report and its contents that the Table of Contents is placed before the Executive Summary. As a result, by the time the reader has read the introduction component they are becoming very familiar with what they are about to read and so the body of the report, which is the ultimate expansion of the previous introductions, will be a lot easier to read and comprehend. The three items below, listed for inclusion in this introduction section, are included because they were specifically asked for on the example assignment question sheet. Nevertheless, they would normally be covered in your introduction in a very brief fashion, even if they hadn’t been specifically asked for, as evidenced by the dot point guidelines above. •
IDENTIFY ISSUE (1 or 2 sentences maximum)
This is straightforward. Initially, you have to decide on the actual topic that you want to write on. In this example, I have selected the HRM issue of the learning organisation. •
Why Chosen
This explanation of why you selected that particular topic need take no more than a couple of sentences.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
DISCUSS How Information Gathered
Again, this need be no more than a sentence or two at the most, giving a brief overview of the processes involved in gathering the information for the report. As an example; ‘The information in this report is based on two interviews, one with the staff and the second with the executives of Smith and Company; an archival search of company records on the Internet; and “real-world” examples and theory obtained from library and data base searches.’ That is all that is required for a term paper report. You are not to go into great detail about how you conducted your library search, or that you took the third book off the fourth shelf, or the like. It happens! If you obtained theoretical information from the library and data bases, then as the example sentence above indicates, you need say no more than ‘theory obtained from library and data base searches.’ Any more than that is too much, unless you have been specifically asked for more detail. •
Also include your proposition – what you are going to argue for
Although not specifically stated in the example question, you should always include in the introduction, in a clear and succinct statement, what it is that you are going to argue for. This is often called your thesis statement. Using this “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation” example, your thesis statement might be something like: ‘In this report, I shall argue for the benefits of the learning organisation concept, however, I shall demonstrate that this concept is not working effectively in Smith and Company due to their prevailing corporate culture.” Once you have that statement, you have the backbone, or the prevailing theme, for your report. You then know that everything that you write should be arguing for, and supporting, that thesis statement. If it is not, then you have wondered off track and you had better get back on track quickly. One final word on your thesis statement. It could be that you set out arguing for a certain position, however, your research demonstrates to you that the position is not valid. For a coursework term paper you can then either change your thesis statement, your position, so that it corresponds to your research findings, or explain that you originally held one position, however your research has demonstrated otherwise.
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2.0. The Learning Organisation Concept This is the first heading for the body of your report, and so before examining this specific example, I shall briefly discuss what the body of a report contains from a structural perspective. The body is where you tell the reader, in full, what it is they have come to find out and so it should be written in a way that the reader will fully understand what you are trying to say and the position you are arguing for. The body should include the following points. •
The body should cover all aspects of the question you are required to address.
This might include identifying and analysing the problem –
whatever it might be.
In other words, what is wrong and why is it a
problem? •
It should cover the points required to achieve the aim of the report.
•
It will contain sections and sub-sections, all of which have numbered headings.
•
Unlike an essay, it is generally acceptable, and sometimes very beneficial to use dot points, at times, in your report. Dot points are commonly used for clarity and brevity where there is a lot of data being presented.
•
Apart from that, the body of the report will contain structurally complete and grammatically correct paragraphs. Each paragraph should contain a separate idea and all paragraphs should be logically sequenced.
•
The body contains your critical analysis of the situation, as such all ideas and opinions must be supported by theoretical evidence and or your research findings. This will be discussed in a lot more detail in Chapter 5, under the sub-heading “Substantiation” and Chapter 6 on Critical Analysis.
•
Never assume that the reader has read all the same literature that you have read. As such, always state why you have included, or excluded, certain information. As a rule of thumb, give your paper to someone to read who does not know the subject and ask them if it makes sense.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Whether you are writing a report or an essay always keep in mind your audience. Who is it that you are writing the paper for, and consequently, how do you have to word the paper so that the reader will fully understand what the paper is all about. In addition, as you write always keep in mind your aim and/or the central argument or point that you are trying to make (your thesis) and continually link your writing back to that aim and cental argument/thesis. As such, newly introduced ideas and concepts, in each section, should be subtly linked back to the aim and thesis. Remember that new ideas and concepts should also provide another piece of the jig-saw that answers the questions associated with the aim. Your aim and central argument is like a thread which should run through your entire paper joining all the sections together in to one coherent whole. Again, this will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 6 on Critical Analysis. Now back to the Smith and Company design structure example. Just as the overall title of the paper, “Smith and Company as a Learning Organisation” is simple and yet descriptive; the various headings and sub-headings for the body of your paper should also be simple and reflect the content of that particular section. Thus, you shouldn’t have any problems understanding my reasons for using the headings and sub-headings that I have chosen to use. •
History – Definition – Characteristics (of the Learning Organisation Concept)
In this section, you are just setting the scene, and explaining to the reader what the concept of the learning organisation is all about. You will recognise that the three areas covered – history, definition, and characteristics – are from the literature review suggestions list. Again, as this will be mainly descriptive, it should also be kept to a minimum.
3.0. The Learning Organisation at Smith and Company •
Tell the reader in one brief paragraph what section 3 contains – a mini introduction – see Chapter 5.1 under the sub-heading ‘Linking and Flagging’
Every new section should begin with a mini introduction ‘flagging’, or giving a very brief overview, of what the section contains. No more than 1 or 2 sentences.
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3.1. Background to Smith & Co •
Who/What is Smith & Company – History – Characteristics
Just as you provided the reader with a brief overview of the learning organisation concept in section 2.0 of this design structure example, in this section you need to provide the reader with a very brief overview of the background, history, and characteristics of Smith and Company. It is at this point that many students fall into a major trap – especially mature age students who are in the work force. Suddenly you are asked to write about something that you know a lot about. Perhaps the organisation is dear to your heart. The result is that there is a tendency to write pages and pages and pages on this one section. Don’t ! Your marker is not interested. As with section 2.0 of this structure example – The Learning Organisation Concept – the descriptive information in this section is, again, merely to set the stage. All the marker/reader wants to know are the basic facts about the organisation. No matter how big or small, no matter how unusual or commonplace the organisation is that you are going to write about, for a 3000-5000 word report, if you have taken any more than about a quarter to half a page to write up this section, then you have written too much. You will have an opportunity later on to discuss further aspects of the organisation that are relevant to your topic.
3.2. The Learning Organisation in Action •
Integrate – Application Of Theory + Examples + Data
•
DISCUSS The Case/Situation Fully
•
REVIEW Learning Organisation’s Effectiveness – +/-
•
Theoretical Arguments for and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples
•
Theoretical Arguments against and how/if applies to Smith & Co – data, examples
•
Using the literature, plus data and examples, you must overcome the ‘againsts’
•
ANALYSE the situation – develop a persuasive argument to support your thesis statement. This analysis will lead to a conclusion, from which will come some recommendations
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_____________________________________________________________________ This is arguably the most important section of your report. It is the section that will attract the most marks and, in turn, the largest percentage of words will be allocated to this section. This is your opportunity to write about, in this case how the learning organisation is operating at Smith and Company. What is working, and why? What is not working, and why? It is in this section that you will be critically analysing the concept of the learning organisation, or whatever topic you have chosen, and critically analysing the effectiveness of the learning organisation concept at Smith and Company, in preparation for a conclusion that will lead to a series of recommendations. When working on this section of your report it is important that you read Chapter 6, of this handbook, very carefully for a detailed discussion on developing a persuasive argument, integrating theory and practice, and critical analyses. Due to the volume of work in this sub-section, you might find it appropriate to divide this sub-section into several sub-sub-sections.
4.0. Conclusion The conclusion is where you tell the reader what you have just told them.
The
conclusion is a roundup of all you have just written. It pulls together all the sections in the body in to one comprehensive whole to demonstrate to the reader that you have accomplished what you set out to do. In essence, the conclusion must demonstrate that you have answered fully the chosen question. Thus, the conclusion should contain: •
A re-cap of your aim and the outcomes which were stated in the introduction and then tell the reader how you fulfilled your aim and those outcomes.
•
A very brief paragraph to reinforce, in the reader’s mind, how you fulfilled all the instructions and directions given in the question.
•
An integrated overview of the different sections and how they all lead to your findings.
•
And the conclusion should contain a conclusion. Normally, this will be a one or two sentence answer to the original question asked, or your aim. Alternatively, it will be a confirmation or denial of your original thesis or position.
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5.0. Recommendations Recommendations – each stated in one succinct sentence Rationale that links back to arguments in the body, section 3.2, above; and the conclusion Implications + Limitations + Implementations The recommendations flow out of the conclusion and tell the reader what actions need to be taken. There are several ways in which the recommendations can be presented in a report. 1. In a short report, especially if the report is focussing on only one topic, such as staff training, or innovation, or product promotion, or whatever, the recommendations are usually placed in a single section after the conclusion. 2. In longer, or more complex, reports each section of the report might have its own conclusion. In this case, based on that conclusion and the supporting evidence presented in the discussion in that section, the recommendations can be listed at the end of each section. 3. A third method, of integrating your recommendations into the body of your report, will be discussed shortly. But first, whatever method is used the following points must be noted. •
Recommendations must logically follow on from the conclusion.
•
They must be clearly and succinctly stated in one sentence in which the words are used “it is recommended that …”. Or if your report has been written using 1st person, “I (we) recommend that …”.
There is no point is making
recommendations which begin with things like: “I suggest you do…” ; or “You could possibly try …”. Presenting firm recommendations in those weak ways indicates that, either it is not necessarily important, or that you are not very confident in the action you are recommending. And if you are not confident about your own recommendation, why should anyone else have confidence in the recommendations. If you don’t believe that your recommendation is sound, then don’t make that recommendation.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Recommendations must be accompanied by a rationale – a reason that you are making the recommendation. In other words, you must sell to the reader of the report the benefit of taking the recommended action.
•
To have credibility, all recommendations must be supported by evidence that you have argued for in the body of your report. Generally, this evidence is to be in the form of theory from the literature, or data collected, or ideally both. Without credible supporting evidence your recommendations are no more than an intuitive wish list.
•
The recommendation, rationale, and the supporting evidence must clearly link back to discussions in the body of your report or related section, otherwise there has been no point in your previous discussions. The whole point of the body of your report, or section just completed, is to argue a case for the recommendation you are about to present.
•
As a result, whether your recommendations have been placed at the end of a section, or the end of the entire report, the logical sequence is as follows: 1.
in the body discuss the situation;
2.
argue your case, supported by evidence based on theory, data, and examples which will lead to;
3.
a conclusion, which will lead to;
4.
the recommendations.
5.
Each recommendation is stated clearly and succinctly in a single sentence.
6.
Another sentence contains the rationale which is linked back to the evidence argued for in the body of the report.
Remember, recommendations not supported by a rationale and evidence are merely a wish list and are of no academic or business merit. The third way of presenting recommendations, as mentioned above, is to sprinkle them throughout a section after each specific point is argued for.
However, if
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_____________________________________________________________________ recommendations are presented in that manner there are a few extra guidelines that must be remembered. •
All the points listed above still apply, and must be adhered to.
•
The specific recommendation must be clearly stated and be visually obvious. Something that blends, both verbally and visually, into a sea of writing is of no value at all. To ensure that that does not occur, and that there is no confusion as to what is, or is not, a recommendation:
It is recommended that the recommendation be typed in bold type, and, if appropriate, written on its own as a self-contained, single sentence paragraph which contain the key identifying words “It is recommended that …” or “Therefore, it is recommended that …”. Whenever this method is used, a separate recommendation summary section must be included in the report. This Summary of Recommendations can be placed after the Executive Summary, as previously mentioned, or it can go after the conclusion or in an appendix. It should contain a numbered list of the recommendations only, just as they were presented throughout the report, without any supporting evidence. At the end of the recommendation insert the page number or section where the recommendation appeared so that the reader can have a look at the supporting evidence in the body when the recommendation was originally presented.
See an example summary list of
recommendations in Appendix 10.1. The credibility of your recommendations will be significantly enhanced if three final features are included. They are the implications, limitations, and implementation of your recommendations. Implications: Discussing the implications will demonstrate that you have fully considered the ramification of your recommendations, both if they are implemented and also if the recommendations are not implemented. Keeping in mind the interdependent nature of an organisation, the implications sub-section will answer questions such as: how will the implementation of your recommendations affect the other sections in the organisation that may not be directly involved?
What may occur if the
recommendations are not implemented, and so on? _____________________________________________________________________ 31
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MODEL FOR WRITING RECOMMENDATIONS The following model will help you with your recommendations. It is adapted from what is known as the 4Mat system. The 4 Mat System is based on research from many fields including, right and left brain dominance theory, creativity, management, and the learning style model of David Kolb (McCarthy, 1980). The system was developed by educationalist, Bernice McCarthy, who explains it fully in her book, The 4Mat System: Teaching to Learning Styles with Right/Left Mode Techniques (McCarthy, 1980). McCarthy claims that there are four main styles of learning, and people generally have a preference for one of these four methods. Whether writing a book, giving a talk, or designing a training program, to accommodate the entire audience, all four learning styles need to be included. This is done by ensuring that the questions, why, what, how, and what else/what if are answered. These same questions need to be addressed when we are attempting to demonstrate the credibility of our recommendations. In other words, these four questions need to be addressed when we are writing recommendations. First of all, state the recommendation up front, clearly and succinctly in one sentence. Then answer the four questions, why, what, how, and what else/what if. As an example: •
Why do they need to do this? Give the rationale behind your recommendation, linking it to the analysis, arguments, evidence, and discussion in the body of your report.
•
What do the experts say about this recommendation? understanding of the relevant theory. This is where supporting, your recommendation. Ideally, present the contrasting. See the section on critical analysis – Chapter
•
How does it work, how do they do it? How is this recommendation to be implemented? Explain exactly how the organisation will go about doing what it is that you are recommending that they do – the physical processes and activities involved; the details of what is required to fulfil the recommendation’s requirements; the time-line for completing the recommendations; and so forth.
•
What else, what if –
This is where you demonstrate your you present the theory justifying, or theory for and against, comparing and 6.1.
•
What else can they do with these new skills, these new learnings, this new process or way of doing things? What else do I need to add – for example, what are the broader implications of implementing this recommendation. What else might occur, in the way of added benefits, other than those already linked to the discussion in the body? Sell the added benefits of adopting the recommendation.
•
What if "X" happens. What are the limitations of the proposed recommendation? What if the recommendations are not implemented – what are the implications?
Figure 7: Model for writing up recommendations
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_____________________________________________________________________ Limitations: In a similar vein to the implications, the limitation sub-section demonstrates that you have thoroughly considered the reality of implementing your recommendations. In the limitations section examine the barriers to the implementation of your recommendations.
No matter how sound, according to the theory, your
recommendations might be, if they cannot be applied in a ‘real life’ situation then the best theory in the world means nothing. As such, in this section consider what would prevent the organisation from implementing your recommendations?
And what
recommendations would you make to overcome those obstacles, or would you have to change your original recommendations? A very brief and simplistic example might be that, based on the theoretical evidence, you want to recommend that the organisation introduce a flatter structure and a more open form of communication.
However, if the organisation currently has a very
hierarchical structure, and conservative and inflexible form of corporate culture, it would be highly unlikely that your recommendations would be realistic. Accordingly, you might first have to recommend some major attitudinal intervention that would result in a change in the corporate culture and a long term change management program which would eventually lead to the introduction of the flatter structure and more open communication. Implementation: A final sub-section that can follow the limitations or be included in the appendix is a brief overview of how your recommendations will be implemented. In this section, issues such as who will do what, and how, and when it will be done, are explored. The model in the box above (Figure 7), should help you to write comprehensive recommendations that incorporate the most important aspects discussed above.
6.0. Appendices Appendices contain information that might be of interest to the reader, which expands upon the information that has already been discussed in the body of the report or essay. Unless otherwise stated, appendices do not count in the word or page count. There are a few points that are important to note regarding appendices.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Appendices are usually used for information such as charts, maps, tables, extracts, questionnaires, and details of responses that have been summarised in the body of the report.
•
Never introduce new material in the appendix, unless it can be linked to some reference in the body of the report.
•
The same rules for referencing that apply to the body of the report apply to the appendix.
•
Each new appendix should start on a new page and have its own heading.
•
Use a separate appendix for each major piece of information.
•
Within reason, there is no limit to the number of appendices that you can include. However, keep in mind that appendices are rarely read.
7.0. Reference List Reference lists can either be placed between the conclusion and the appendices or at the end of the paper, after the appendices, as the very last section. However, there are two main reasons for recommending that the reference list be located in the latter position, at the very end of the paper. The first is that the reference list is one of the first things the reader should skim through prior to reading the paper, and is often referred to during the reading of the paper. Hence, it is a lot quicker and easier to find if it is placed at the very end of the paper instead of the reader having to continually rummage through appendices to find the reference list. The other reason is that normally the appendices will contain references that have to be included in the reference list and so it is more logical to have the reference list follow all reference citations than to follow some and come before others. All further details, including examples, of Referencing and the Reference List and Bibliographies are contained in Chapter 7.
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STEP FIVE Having written up a structure, a final task is to note, against each section, roughly how many words you have available to devote to each section and sub-section so that your paper will be the length required, plus or minus 10%.
By now, it is possible that you are in complete overwhelm, and are wondering if this studying at university business is worth while. Let me assure you that it is. Also, let me assure you that if you take the above guidelines, one step at a time, they won’t seem nearly as onerous. I suggest that you read through this section a couple of times, and with each step picture in your mind’s eye what it is that you might be doing at each step; what it is that you might be planning for each step; what it is that you might be writing at each step. You will then need to work completely through the above process to develop your initial structure. Then after completing your research, you will need to work through the above process again, section by section, one step at a time, as you write each section. With this basic structure in place, you now have a foundation on which to begin your research.
4.3.
Research and the Library
As stated previously, writing an assignment takes time and effort. And part of that time must be spent in the library and using associated IT research facilities. No assignment should be written without completing a thorough search of the library catalogue for books and reports available on the topic and the data bases for journal articles and sundry other information.
An assignment based on the views of just one or two
different authors will be very superficial and, as a result, will usually only attract a poor grade. The only way to get a good understanding of your topic, and add depth and credibility to your argument and recommendations or conclusions, is to read widely, yet with a narrow focus. In other words, read whatever you can find but only on the areas that are relevant to the specific aspects that you have listed in your assignment plan. The most efficient way to do this is to focus your attention on several classic books on the topic and as many journal articles as you can – within reason. Normally journal _____________________________________________________________________ 35
_____________________________________________________________________ articles contain information that is a lot more current than books and, if it is a refereed journal is a very credible source to support your argument. 4.3.1 Research on the Internet The Internet is another source of information, but a source which should be used with great care as there is no guarantee that it is accurate or has any credibility, with one exception. The Internet is an invaluable source of organisational archival information, such as Annual Reports, company history, product information, and the like. As long as the site you visit is the official site of the organisation that you are researching, it can be a real gold mine. When it comes to theoretical information, however, you must evaluate Internet information very carefully before using it. Check the author. Is it a commercial site? Are they selling something? Is it an education/research site? Check for any affiliations and the objectivity of the information. To whom is the information directed? Where is the site located and how current is the information and so on. If you do include a reference of any kind from the Internet save a hardcopy of the information you are citing, because if you or your lecturer want to check on the reference at a later stage, it might have been removed by the time you go back there. See Chapter 7.2.1 and 7.4 for information on how to reference Internet citations. The library runs a number of invaluable courses of varying lengths on research skills. These courses include general library tours, usually at the beginning of each semester, and a range of courses covering topics such as computer search facilities, research information skills, and Internet skills. It is strongly recommended that you attend as many of these courses as possible. See Appendix 10.6 for more information on these and other computer skills courses.
A SPECIAL NOTE, ESPECIALLY FOR MATURE AGE STUDENTS Many students, especially mature age students, believe that their life-experience skills and knowledge will make up for a lack of research. As such, they fill their papers with example, after example, of their life’s work and then wonder why they are receiving poor grades.
No matter how successful you are in business, and no matter how
impressive your CV might be, you are here to learn NEW things.
You are here to
expand your current knowledge and skills, not just regurgitate your daily routine _____________________________________________________________________ 36
_____________________________________________________________________ because it is familiar to you, and so the easiest thing to do, or perhaps because you want to impress the reader of your paper.
Your practical life experiences can be an
invaluable resource for providing a practical context in which to assess the academic theory. However, as this is an academic institution, you are here to learn about, and assess, a range of academic theories, relating to whatever subject you are working on. Consequently, you must demonstrate to the marker that you have read widely, and have a deep understanding of the topic on which you are writing, from an academic perspective. That requires research and reading academic based literature. The more research, the more reading, the more you’ll grow.
4.4.
Critical Reading
Locating the appropriate books and journals for your assignment is the easy part. For many, the effort comes in reading through all the information and comprehending its contents. There are a number of different types of reading in which we can engage including reading for pleasure, reading to learn about a hobby, and reading to prepare for an assignment. Each type of reading requires different skills, focus, and time. Obviously, you will read at a much more leisurely pace when reading for pleasure than you will when reading material in preparation for an assignment. Correspondingly, just as your research was done in a specific way, with a specific purpose, so too reading for an assignment must be reading with a purpose – critical reading. Critical Reading: The volume of reading during any academic study is substantial, as such you must learn to read critically – read with a purpose – because you will not have time to read every word. The following points can be used as a guideline to critical reading. Reading with a purpose, or critical reading, involves searching the paper for: •
the main arguments and themes in the paper. With that in mind, at the end of each section and/or chapter ask yourself; ‘What does this mean?’ ‘What is the point that the author is trying to make?’ ‘What is the author actually saying?’ If you clearly understand what you have read, you will be able to answer those questions in your own words.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Search for sections that will answer your questions. Ask yourself; ‘How am I going to use this information?’
•
Search for sections that support and/or oppose your argument; and
•
sections that demonstrate strengths and/or weaknesses associated with the topic.
As a result, before reading each section of the paper, or chapter of a book, get a clear answer to the following three questions: 1. Why am I reading this? 2. What, specifically, am I looking for? 3. What is my thesis, or position, that I am taking in my paper that I need to challenge and defend? Speed Reading: Putting some basic speed reading techniques into action will help you get through your reading requirements in a more efficient and effective manner. The following speed reading techniques will also assist you in finding the information you are after as quickly as possible. The speed reading process is divided into two main sections. The first part is to familiarise yourself with the book or paper. Initially, it is essential to get to know the book or paper on a friendly, but not yet intimate basis.
Now I know that that might sound a little trivial or even silly.
Nevertheless, as a great deal of the speed reading process occurs on a non-conscious level, ‘getting to know’ your book or paper is a very important part of the speed reading process that assists your reading at that non-conscious level. To that end, the following steps should be followed. 1. Any time you go to read a brand new book that has never been read before you must ‘break the book in’. This is done by opening the front cover and running your finger, very gently but firmly, down the spine, between the cover and the first page. Then go to the back cover and repeat the process. Then proceed a few pages at a time opening them up and running your finger gently down the spine, alternating, a few pages from the front and then a few more from the back of the book until you reach the centre of the book. This process is especially important with paperback books as, on a non-conscious level, it is very uninviting, to the point of almost being
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_____________________________________________________________________ a non-conscious struggle, to read the pages of a paperback book that are constantly trying to close on you because the book has not been well broken in. 2. Flick through the book/paper to gain familiarity with the format – have they used tables or diagrams; are there any pictures; is it broken up with headings and subheadings or divided into sections; is the print large or small; and so on. 3. Always check the date of publication of the journal or book so you can put the information you read into a context related to the time in which it was written. 4. If the author is not known to you, read their background details to determine their credibility and possible perspective they may be presenting. How biased will a paper from this author be? 5. If the paper has a contents page, read through that to familiarise yourself with the information you are about to read. 6. Skim through the reference list to get a feel for the literature on which the paper/book is based. 7. Read the abstract, or if a book, the blurb on the dust cover, to find out what the paper/book is about. All that should only take two to five minutes, depending on the size of the book or paper. Now, having made friends with the book it is time to gain a more intimate knowledge of the contents by reading the pages in the following manner. 1. If possible, read with the book or paper at an upright angle so that you are not looking down at the paper but instead looking straight ahead. Reading with your book at an angle is less tiring, helps you to read more quickly, and also facilitates the retention of the information. To keep your book or paper at an angle rest it against some stacked books, or better still, purchase a reading easel. The University of Queensland Bookshop usually has Easy Reader book stands for sale designed for just this purpose. 2. Read the introduction and the conclusion or summation. _____________________________________________________________________ 39
_____________________________________________________________________ 3. Skim through the paper until you find the relevant parts, as mentioned in the points on critical reading above. 4. As you find pieces of relevant information read a little more slowly and, if appropriate, put a pencil mark in the margin so you can come back to it. If the book is not yours, do not write on it, instead note down the page number. However, if you are overwhelmed by the uncontrollable need to mark books such as library books, then only do so with a yellow highlighter pen. A yellow highlighter pen fades over time and doesn’t show up if the page has to be photocopied. 5. After skimming the paper go back to the pencil marks and read those sections very carefully and critically (as per the critical reading points above) taking down notes that can be used in your assignment. 6. Whenever you take down any notes from any sources at all – books, journals, reports, brochures, Internet – always take down full bibliographic details, including page numbers, so that you can find that source again at any time. 7. By the time you have finished your reading you should have a pile of notes that will then form the basis of your assignment.
NOTE: It is recommended that if you start to fall asleep reading – take a break. Often, you only need to break the trance-state that has been induced by your concentration on the page. So if you find it hard to stay awake, stop, because in that condition the work you are doing is totally unproductive. Get up and do some exercises for 5-10 minutes. Go for a walk. Play with the dog. Take a walk around the block. Spend 5-10 minutes in the garden. Do some exercises. Brain Gym exercises are ideal See the Further Reading list in Appendix 10.5 for books on Brain Gym. Do some cooking. Anything is better than continuing in that sleepy trance-state. If you are the type of person who can take a catnap that only lasts 10-15 minutes, and not 2-3 hours, then give in to the sleepy state and have a catnap. However, when you awake spend a few minutes doing some physical activity. Any active change from the reading, that you choose, will break the trance-state. After that 10 minutes change in activity you will return to your reading refreshed and alert. _____________________________________________________________________ 40
_____________________________________________________________________ When you are at the stage of working through this book step-by-step, by now, you would have designed your assignment structure, done your research including the reading of the literature that you’ve gathered, and you have a pile of notes, and are now ready to begin writing. You will now find out how to write up your assignment from a presentation perspective, and in Chapter 6, how to write up a persuasive argument.
5.
STYLE – MECHANICS OF ASSIGNMENT WRITING
It should go without saying that if one of your aims is to receive high marks then you will make your assignment as easy and as enjoyable as possible for the marker to read. The guidelines below are designed to do just that – make your paper as easy as possible to read and mark. Remember that your marker will sit down with a big bundle of papers, of which yours is one. Let me assure you that marking papers is a very onerous task. Your marker can easily tell that you have used 10 point, or even 11 point, font, when you have been asked to use 12 point font. Your marker can easily tell if you have used single line spacing instead of 1.5 or double line spacing. And no matter what technical tricks are used, your marker can tell if you have gone excessively over the word limit. Now setting aside the fact that there are normally marks allocated for presentation, if your paper is hard to read, for whatever reason, or is not presented in an appropriate fashion, it is quite possible that the marker will non-consciously be far more critical of your arguments. Keep in mind the little saying: a happy marker is a good marker; a sad marker is a bad marker. Therefore, one of your aims should be to make the marker as happy as possible. So style and presentation are important, ignore it at your own peril.
5.1.
The Basics
Different writers, different journals, different universities, different departments, and even different lecturers within the one department might advocate slightly different variations in writing style. As an example, it is stated in this section that you should double line-space your assignments. Yet many lecturers these days are happy for you to use 1.5 spacing, in which case they will normally say so, and so you use 1.5. However, the guidelines contained in this chapter should be followed unless you have been given specific instructions to the contrary. No matter how petty you might think some of the _____________________________________________________________________ 41
_____________________________________________________________________ following guidelines are, they all have a reason. The major reason is that they make your paper easier to read and mark. It is strongly recommended that you read through this section before you submit every assignment. General Points •
All pages are to be consecutively numbered.
•
Unless otherwise requested, include your name on each page with the page number.
•
Use one side only of A4 paper.
•
Do not put your individual assignment pages into plastic pockets.
•
Assignments must be typed or word processed – not handwritten.
•
Ensure that your print-out is clear, easy to read, and that the printer ribbon or cartridge has not been overused or is not empty.
•
All pages should be secured with a staple in the top left-hand corner. Do not use paper clips or pins.
•
Ensure that you keep a copy of your assignment in case the original is misplaced.
•
Make sure you use the format stated in your assignment details – essay format or report format.
•
When sticking tables and graphs onto pages of typed text, photocopy the completed page and submit that copy – it looks better.
•
Remember to spell check your paper, before you print.
•
Make sure your spell checker is set to the Australian English dictionary.
•
A hyphen looks like this -
•
A dash is usually twice the length of a hyphen and looks like -- or –
Plagiarism Everything that is not your own original idea must be referenced (see Chapter 7).
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_____________________________________________________________________ Substantiation Just as everything that is not your own original idea must be referenced, so too even your own ideas must be substantiated in some way. Through out my undergraduate and my postgraduate studies, lecturers used to have this mantra “students don’t have opinions”. As a mature age student with a lot of opinions, I initially took offence at that comment. But what they were really saying was that every statement, proposition, or point of view had to be supported by some credible authority. My opinion on its own, as a student writing academic term papers, was not sufficient. Now there are two main ways to give credibility to what you are saying. (1) Go out into the field and do some solid empirical research to demonstrate that what you are stating is credible. Alternatively, (2) find some credible authority figure, through the literature, who has come up with the same opinion. The latter is obviously the easiest option for non-research students, and that is all that is required for most, albeit not all, course work subjects. But what about if you are asked for your own opinion, as will happen in some subjects. Unless your lecturer has instructed you otherwise, that opinion still needs to be substantiated. In other words, state your opinion, then you need to give a reason for holding that opinion. There must be some reason for you to believe what you do. Tell the reader what it is. If you can’t offer an academic reference, because it is just not that sort of belief, then perhaps you can offer an example. To illustrate; I have seen many papers that will state something like; ‘I think that the structure that XYZ company use is efficient’.
Then they move onto the next point.
The students that get high marks tell me why they thought the structure was efficient. For instance; ‘I think that the structure that XYZ company use is efficient because of XXX’ Or ‘the structure that XYZ company use is efficient as evidenced by XXX’. It only takes an extra line or two to substantiate a comment and it will make all the difference to the credibility of your statement, and in turn, your marks. That applies to all assignments that you write, as well as any reports you write in the course of your work activities for ‘real world’ organisations.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Style •
Unless specifically asked to do differently, always use double line-space, or 1.5 as a minimum, for all your assignment with the following exceptions: block quotes are single spaced; the reference list is single-spaced with a double line of spacing between each reference; and the abstract can be single-spaced or 1.5 spaced.
•
Use a minimum of 12 point font and a maximum of 14 point font with the exception of headings and footnotes and so on.
•
After a full stop, use 2 spaces before starting the next sentence.
•
Traditionally, academic writing for the social sciences was written in a formal 3rd person style. By contrast, some other disciplines, such as philosophy, traditionally use 1st person in academic writing. These days the more natural and friendly 1st person style is gaining popularity with social scientists and is arguably the preferred style. Nevertheless, if in doubt as to whether you should use a 1st or 3rd person style, check with the lecturer in that particular subject.
•
In an academic paper do not use abbreviations like ‘e.g.’ or ‘i.e.’ or ‘&’ or ‘etc.’ unless it is placed inside a bracket. Outside a bracket, in the main body of text, write everything out in full: ‘for example’, ‘that is’, ‘et cetera’.
•
In an academic paper, numbers consisting of one or two words like one, ten, twenty two should be written out in full. Never start a sentence with a numeral. To illustrate: 1026 cats roamed the park… should be written as One thousand and twenty six cats roamed the park…
•
Numerals are used when the number is more than two words; for tabulation; statistical discussion; sums of money; addresses; dates; time; and page, chapter, and volume numbers (Teitelbaum, 1982: 46).
•
Be consistent in all you do. For instance, the citation in the body of your report must correspond with the citation in the reference list; the form of citation used must
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_____________________________________________________________________ be the same throughout your paper; and the style of headings must be consistent throughout your paper. •
Whenever possible include page numbers in your citations. As an example: Smith (1997: 289).
•
Vary the language you use as much as possible. Particular attention should be paid to varying the words you use to begin paragraphs. This is discussed a little more fully in Chapter 8 on editing.
Quotes •
Whenever you are using a direct quote, the quote must be placed in quotation marks (unless it is a block quote) and written exactly as it appears in the original text. If there are obvious mistakes or discriminatory language in the quote, you should indicate that you are aware of the error by using the term [sic] placed in square brackets, as demonstrated, immediately after the inappropriate language. The term sic is Latin for thus.
•
Block quotes are used whenever a direct quote is more than three lines long. A block quote is indented, typed in single spacing, with no quotation marks at each end. Below are some examples of block quotes showing various ways to begin them, and as such, various placements of the citation.
•
Whenever possible paraphrase information in preference to using direct quotes. Direct quotes should always be kept to a minimum.
All that a direct quote
demonstrates is that you are able to copy words from a page, they normally do not demonstrate that you understand what those words mean. Often a marker will interpret the use of a direct quote as evidence that you do not fully understand the concept. •
Put another way; don’t just add quotes and paraphrases in an attempt to make your paper look good. You must fully understand what an author is trying to convey before citing any of their ideas. Your marker will have a pretty good idea of how well you understand the concept, by the way you have used the quotes, or paraphrased the material.
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_____________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLES OF BLOCK QUOTES In a survey completed among 1400 business managers in the 1980s, truthfulness was cited as the major ethical issue. It was stated that ... false or deceptive communications can undermine the trust of customers, employees and shareholders. ... To strengthen trust and instil confidence ... corporate cultures must be characterised by open and honest communications (Serpa, 1985: 425). In a similar vein, Willis Harman (1993: 285) poses the question: In the days of the Holy Roman Empire the Church, as the dominant institution in society, took major responsibilities for the wellbeing of the whole. [As] business is the dominant institution in modern society; does it need to accept a similar responsibility? In the mid 1970s, Rosemary Radford Ruether (1975: 204) wrote: Women must see that there can be no liberation for them and no solution to the ecological crisis within a society whose fundamental model of relationships continue to be one of domination. They must unite the demands of the women’s movement with the demands of the ecological movement ... Figure 8: Examples of Block Quotes
•
I’d just like to highlight a couple of points in the above examples of block quotes. You will notice that the first example begins with three little dots (...). This is called an ellipsis and indicates that some words from the original text have been left out. In this example, the ellipsis is required to indicate that the actual quote begins in the middle of the original sentence. As a result, the first word begins with a lower case letter. In the middle of the quotation, there are two more ellipses. Again, this indicates that some of the actual words from the original text have been omitted. The second example begins with a capital letter as it begins where the original sentence begins. Also, in the second example you will see the word As enclosed in square brackets. This is to indicate that I inserted the word to help the quote make grammatical sense in this new location. Finally, the last example ends in an ellipsis, again, to indicate that the sentence in the original text continues on. Whilst block quotes should be kept to an absolute minimum, if you do have a very good reason
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_____________________________________________________________________ for using a number of block quotes, try and vary the lead in to the quote as demonstrated above. Clarity •
For a clearer meaning, and a more direct and persuasive argument, use what is known as active voice, instead of passive voice.
Compare the following two
sentences. The ball was caught by Warne (Passive voice). Warne caught the ball (Active voice). •
Never assume that the reader will know what the letters in an acronym stand for. The first time an acronym is used it must be enclosed in a bracket and follow the term it represents, which is written out in full. As an example: Modern managers realise the importance of Human Resources Management (HRM). According to Jeffrey Pfeffer (1994) HRM provides an organisation with a major competitive advantage … .
•
If English is not your first language it is recommended that you get someone to read through your paper to check your English expression before submission.
The
University of Queensland Student Support Services offer a range of assignment skills support services for students. See Appendix 10.6 for further information. Frequently Misused Words There are a number of words in the English language that are frequently used in an inappropriate fashion. Below are just some of the more frequently misused words. •
The most common mistake occurs with the use of its and it’s. The apostrophe s is used to indicate possession in all words except its. Its without the apostrophe is for ownership or possession. It’s with the apostrophe is the contraction of the two words it is. The apostrophe is used to indicate that the letter i has been removed.
•
Their, there, and they’re: Their, indicates ownership – their house, or their car. There indicates location. It’s over there. There is a bottle of milk on the table. Or, there’s a bottle of milk on the table. They’re – is a contraction of the two words they are. They are playing in the park. They’re playing in the park.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Affect and effect: We affect an effect. Affect is the verb, something that we do that results in an effect. So effect is a noun and refers to the results of an action. The soggy effect was the result of being affected by rain.
•
Practice and practise: Practice, with the letter c is the noun. Practise, with an s is the verb. As an example: The dental practice was opened last July. I practise dentistry. I practise the piano twice a day.
•
The use of two other words can sometimes cause confusion. The two words are but and however. Both words indicate that you are about to present an opposing point of view. The most common practice is to use the word but as a conjunction joining two contrary views contained in the one sentence, and however in a sentence that just has a single point of view, that is contradicting the view expressed in the previous sentence. As an example. It is best to paint the roof of your house white, as it reflects the sun, but a silver roof can be equally as effective. Or, It is best to paint the roof of your house white, as it reflects the sun and keeps the house cooler. However, it could be argued that a silver roof is equally as effective. Although not as common, words like however, nevertheless, thus, therefore, and accordingly can also be used in the middle of a sentence to join two opposing views, but if used, they must be preceded by a semi colon. For instance: They painted the roof black; however, a white roof is a lot cooler. The car is twenty years old; nevertheless, it looks like new.
Linking and flagging your intentions – mini introductions and conclusions •
Mini introductions: Just as you flagged the overall aims and intentions for your entire essay or report in your Title, Table of Contents, Executive Summary or Abstract, and your Introduction, so too you need to continually let the reader know what you are going to do next, right throughout the essay or report.
At the
beginning of every section and sub-section you need to write a mini introduction. No matter what you write about, the key is to make it as easy as possible for the reader to read. Academic writing is not like writing a mystery novel. You need to explain what you are going to do, by way of a brief introduction, each step of the way.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
If you change direction, or introduce a new concept, or move from one section to the next, warn the reader what you are going to do and why, by way of a mini introduction.
EXAMPLES OF LINKING AND FLAGGING •Following are two examples of what I mean by linking and flagging. Following the extract example, which is in a different font, I shall comment on what has been written and why. ... If the organization chooses the later then, prior to making a final policy decision, they can proceed with stage two – the transformational journey. It is the inclusion of this second stage that transforms applied ethics into action ethics. Stage Two – The Transformational Journey The transformational journey (stage two) commences with commitment – the ‘magic glue’ that binds someone to an act or decision.
In the above example, the concluding paragraph flags or prepares the reader for the next section by mentioning what the next section is about – “...they can proceed with stage two – the transformational journey.
It is the inclusion of this second stage
Then the next section is headed “Stage Two – The Transformational Journey”. Note also that first sentence of this next section restates what the section is all about – a mini introduction. It doesn’t start, “It commences that transforms ...” .
with commitment”, as I frequently see, but “The transformational journey commences ...”. In other words, that first sentence links back to the section heading, flagging
or preparing the reader for what is ahead. In addition, it links back to the end of the previous paragraph, just as the last paragraph links forward to what is ahead. The second example was a little further down in the same section, of the same paper. To facilitate these outcomes much of this second stage of the environmental action ethics process will be presented as a metaphor. Metaphor has been used to assist the learning process and the developing of new ideas for almost as long as history has been recorded (Bandler, 1978: xi).
Again, note how the last sentence of the first paragraph and the first sentence of the next paragraph are linked with the common concept of metaphor. By that I mean that the last sentence of the first paragraph is introducing the next paragraph, which will be arguing a case for the use of metaphor.
Figure 9: Examples of Linking and Flagging
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Never launch into a series of dot points in your reports without a mini introduction explaining to the reader what the list of dot points is all about, otherwise the list will have no meaning to the reader. Again, no matter what you write, but especially if you are presenting a list of dot points, get into the habit of commencing with a very brief introduction.
This mini introduction need be no more than one or two
sentences. •
Mini Conclusions: Just as the first paragraph should tell the reader what you are going to tell them in that section, and the first sentence in a paragraph should tell the reader what you re going to tell them in that paragraph, so too, the final paragraph in each section should be a mini conclusion telling the reader what you have just told them. It should tie the contents of the section together just as the conclusion of the overall paper draws everything in the paper together. One of the many examples of this sort of summary paragraph used in this book can be seen at the end of this chapter.
•
Linking: Finally, just as the continual flagging of your intentions at the beginning of sections and sub-sections helps to guide the reader through the paper, so too as much as possible, paragraphs should also be linked from one to the next, to the next, as demonstrated in Figure 8, above. By linking one paragraph to the next with the first or the last sentence, or both, it is as if you are actually taking the reader by the hand and walking them through the paper in a continuous flowing fashion, explaining everything as you go along.
This concept of linking paragraphs is
discussed, from a slightly different perspective, in Chapter 6.4. To flag and link in a subtle and elegant fashion can take time and practice. So, like all essay writing skills, the more papers you write, the easier and more proficient you will become.
5.2.
Tables and Figures
Used appropriately, tables and figures can be a very efficient way to convey a lot of qualitative, as well as quantitative, information in a clear and succinct way.
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_____________________________________________________________________ 5.2.1. Tables Whilst tables are usually used for quantitative data they can also be very effectively used for qualitative data, especially when comparing information. When using tables ensure that: •
Every column has a heading
•
Each table is numbered
•
There is a brief but descriptive title
•
The source of the table is cited if it is not your own original creation
•
The table will fit on the page
•
You have explained in the text what the table is all about and analysed the information in the table, if appropriate
•
The table is placed as close as possible to the reference in the text.
5.2.2. Figures A figure is usually described as any type of illustration other than a table and includes charts, graphs, photographs, or drawings (APA, 1994: 141). In addition to the above points regarding Tables, where applicable when using figures, ensure that: •
The figure is accurate
•
The figure is simple, clean, and free of unnecessary detail
•
If the figure is to be reduced, that any lettering, or detail is still dark enough and large enough to read.
The above points on tables and figures have been adapted from Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA, 1994: 140-141; 162).
5.3. Non-Discriminatory Language Great care must be taken not to use discriminatory language in academic writing. Depending on the context, disparaging terms can occur in relation to race, age, culture, religion, background, and disabilities.
The most common, and yet normally
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_____________________________________________________________________ unintentional, form of discriminatory language is sexist language. It includes terms such as his, him, or her when referring to a position that could be held by either a male or female; mankind instead of humankind; or manned instead of staffed; air hostess instead of flight attendant, and so on. Further details about non-discriminatory language can be found in the Style Manual (AGPS, 1994). In addition, The University of Queensland’s Office of Gender Equity has produced a leaflet which is available to students and staff called “Gender Inclusive Language” (OGE, 2000). In a similar vein, the Vice-Chancellor’s Committee Against Racism (2001), has produced a leaflet called “A guide to using culturally inclusive language: valuing diversity”. Both leaflets are available free of charge at the faculty’s Student Resource Centre, level 1, Colin Clark building. Incorporating all of the points and guidelines on the mechanics of style covered in this chapter will ensure that your paper is presented in the most appropriate form for ease of reading and marking. However, no matter how well presented the paper, the content and your arguments must be persuasive.
6.
DEVELOPING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT
So far, in working on your assignment you have analysed the question you are planning to answer; designed an appropriate structure for your assignment; completed your research and reading; and have a pile of notes which will form the basis of your assignment. Also, you are aware of the basic mechanics of writing your paper. It is now time to use the information you have collected and develop a persuasive argument. Briefly, an argument is the presentation of the case for and against a particular proposition – your point of view, your thesis. You argue your case in the body of the report. As such, unless specifically instructed, the body of your essay or report must be more than just a descriptive retelling of source material. In some cases, the descriptive retelling of source material, alone, may not even get you a passing grade. An academic assignment should contain a thesis or point of view that you will argue for by critically analysing the theory – the academic literature on the subject – and any data that has been collected.
In management assignments, you will normally be expected to
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_____________________________________________________________________ demonstrate an understanding of the theory by integrating that theory with the collected data and examples, then applying the theory and data to a case study, and finally arguing for a series of recommendations. Put another way, you will be expected to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the literature by using the literature to argue a case in support of your point of view. Generally, the better the argument, the better the grade you will receive. Hence, in this section four essential elements in developing a persuasive argument will be addressed: critical analysis; the art of integration; applying theory and data to a case study; and using paragraphs as building blocks. Finally, as SWOT analyses are often (mis)used in management assignments in an attempt to enhance an argument, a section (6.4) on SWOT analyses is also included.
6.1.
Critical Analysis
A student once said to me that they weren’t interested in knowing if their writing style was accurate, instead they just wanted to know if the content of their work was “right”. At university level, especially in social sciences, when writing an essay or report it is generally not a matter of having the right or the wrong answers – there rarely are any right or wrong answers. It is all about how well you argue your case for the answers, or position, that you have chosen to support – it is about how well you argue for your thesis. And that is one major reason why your writing skills are so important. At the heart of most academic assignments is an assessment of how well you can argue a case for your particular point of view, or your thesis, using as evidence the theoretical academic literature, and examples and data if appropriate, to support your case. Just imagine that you are an attorney on The Practice or Law and Order, or if you go back that far, Perry Mason. The marker or the reader of your paper is the jury. You have to convince the reader/the jury that your position is the very best one to hold. With academic writing, you do that by way of what is called critical analysis, not description. When I say description, I am referring to the practice of quoting from, and paraphrasing, the paper under discussion – merely describing the situation that the paper under discussion is talking about. Now it is true that you need to include some description to set the stage, to provide context. However, most of your marks will be given for critical analysis, not for description. Description merely demonstrates that you are _____________________________________________________________________ 53
_____________________________________________________________________ able to regurgitate something that someone else has written to support your case. You are not telling the reader anything that they cannot find out for themselves by reading the original paper. By contrast, critical analysis demonstrates your creativity, insights, and ability to go further than just what one author/paper says.
Critical analysis
demonstrates your ability to compare and contrast, or look at the commonalities or similarities and the differences, the pluses and the minuses, of a number of different positions in an attempt to convince the jury/the reader that the position you have chosen is the best one on this occasion. The strength of your argument will be determined by the persuasiveness of your evidence to an unbiased, clear-thinking person (Seech, 1993:2). The first step in developing a persuasive argument is to decide on a point of view, the position that you are going to argue for. Using the courtroom metaphor, you find a client – a topic – and decide whether you will play the part of the defence attorney or the prosecutor. In other words, what is your position, do you support the theory, or are you against the theory. Your decision as to the position you will take generally comes to you as you familiarise yourself with the various aspects of the topic through lectures, reading your text book, tutorial preparation, general discussion, and general reading on the topic. The next step in developing a persuasive argument is to critically analyse the literature on the topic. And a critical analysis involves more than just reading a couple of papers that support your point of view. How would the people from Law and Order go if they just went into the courtroom and said; ‘Our client is innocent because his/her Mum says he’s a good boy, or she’s a good girl’. That is certainly not a strong enough case to keep the defendant out of jail. For every point of view there will normally be many writers who support it, and normally many who oppose it – writing in great detail why they believe that point of view is flawed. Consequently, your research must include the reading of just as many papers written by people who object to your opinion, as those who support you. Within reason, the more literature you read, covering a whole range of views relating to your topic, the stronger your argument will become.
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_____________________________________________________________________ However, the critical analysis does not come by just descriptively listing the views of the various writers. Instead, you need to break down the various arguments. You must look for the strengths and the weaknesses in each argument – just as each witness for both the defence and the prosecution are cross examined to find the strengths and weaknesses in their testimony. If you have read widely, many of those strengths and weaknesses will be highlighted for you in the academic papers you read. Whilst there are many ways you can structure your analysis, one way is to present it in the following form: 1. You present your point of view, complete with a rationale, and then support that opinion by citing one, two, or more authors with the same opinion, discussing all the reasons why they believe that your thesis/position is valid. Putting it another way by continuing with the courtroom metaphor, the defence attorney presents their case. They deliver an opening statement to the jury stating that their client is innocent and they give the reasons why they believe this to be so. They then call some witnesses to support their case. 2. Next, you argue against your own opinion, by citing the work of people who object to your thesis, giving the reasons that they proffer. In other words, you then either play Devil’s advocate, or pretend you are the prosecutor and cross-examine the witnesses for the defence in an attempt to find holes in their testimony. 3. Then, if you want to persuade the reader of your paper that your opinion has merit you must overcome all the objections stated and any others that come to mind by citing some more writers. Again, as defence attorney, if you want to get your client a not-guilty verdict, you now must overcome all the objections the prosecutor raised. You must be able to argue that the flaws that the prosecutor raised in your original position are completely without foundation, or your client goes to jail. 4. To this point, all you have done is examine the arguments and debated your thesis. To complete the analysis you have to answer the questions: “So what?”; “What does all the evidence mean in relation to my point of view?” To answer those questions you must think about the debate you’ve just presented – think about the analysis so far – and based on that analysis make some logical conclusion/s.
Without
presenting some logical conclusion – without answering the “so what?” question _____________________________________________________________________ 55
_____________________________________________________________________ – you have not completed your analysis. In the case of the courtroom metaphor, after all the evidence has been presented the attorneys present their final summation to the jury. The defence attorney ties all the pieces of evidence together, and highlights how all this evidence demonstrates that their client is innocent. Thus, to the defence attorney, the “so what?” at the end of all of the courtroom argument is that their client is innocent. No matter how you ultimately structure and write up your analysis, the four points above are the basic components required to develop your argument. It is a bit like a four-step dance. (1) You argue for a substantiated position; (2) find the flaws in that position – argue against that position; (3) then overcome those objections using credible evidence to substantiate your claims; and finally (4) tell the reader/marker/jury what all this debate means. Tell them the conclusion that they should make as a result of reading/hearing the debate. This might all be done within one small paragraph, or this four-step process might be extended over many pages, depending on the size of the paper, and the importance to your thesis, of the argument in question. Below, is a simple example of a small section from a short paper, demonstrating a number of things that we have covered so far in this handbook. You should be able to identify the introduction, the body, and the conclusion to this section, and examples of linking and flagging.
You should also be able to identify the four-step process
described above. However, to ensure that there are no misunderstandings, I shall present the piece twice – once without comment for ease of reading, and then a second time in which I shall comment on each of the processes. But first, see how many of the above characteristics you can identify in the following unmarked piece of writing, which commences about four pages into a 2000 word essay. Why do Boards Fail? John Pound (1995: 89) indicates that, what he refers to as the “managed corporation” is akin to the current new trends in corporate governance, as has been discussed above – characteristics similar to the recommendations found in the Cadbury Report. Further, he suggests that these changes, of merely moving the source of power from one party to another, are not the answer to successful corporate governance. He contends that poor corporate performance is due to a poor board decision-making process and uses the labels the “managed corporation”
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_____________________________________________________________________ versus the “governed corporation” to differentiate between the current new trends in corporate governance similar to the Cadbury style board, and the board which focuses on an effective decision-making policy. The “governed corporation” will be discussed shortly, however initially, it is important to address some of the superficialities of Pound’s argument. For Pound’s argument to be sound, then the downfall of all corporations would have to be due to poor decisions. Yet as we are all too aware, with the cases such as Maxwell, Skase, et cetera, mentioned above, the demise of the company was due to the criminal intent of the CEO/Chairperson. As such, one must ask to what extent a strong board, with an independent NED as Chair, minimum executive involvement in the board, audit committees, and so on, would have been far more effective than a good decision-making policy. But setting aside any criminal intent, boards can fail, due to numerous reasons as highlighted by Thain and Leighton (1995), who offer six key “signs and symptoms of problems in board effectiveness” – legitimacy and power; role definition; board culture; competence; board management; and board leadership. In addition, Sir Adrian Cadbury (1995: 58) suggests that failings are due to “ ignoring the interests of the shareholders, being self-perpetuating, … and drawing their membership from too narrow a section of society” as well as plain incompetence. Further, as previously stated, many boards just do not want to “rock the boat” (Patton & Baker, 1987). Now it could, rightly, be argued that at the heart of all these problems an original decision had to be made, and thus the decision-making process is the real problem. Nevertheless, it could also be equally submitted that many of these problems could be prevented, or at the very least curbed, by the new trends of an empowered board. Consequently, as demonstrated, a good decision-making process is not necessarily the only answer to effective corporate governance. Many other issues are involved, all of which could be explored at great length. However, due to the word constraints, as the aim of the paper is to discuss Pound’s proposition concerning the differences between the “managed corporation” and the “governed corporation”, I shall move onto the issue of decision-making and Pound’s “governed corporation”. Decision-Making and The Governed Corporation Pound (1995) argues that the key to a successful corporation and good corporate governance is for the board to focus on a good decision-making process which he describes as the “‘governed corporation”.
I shall now repeat the section, and in a different font which is underlined, I shall comment throughout. Why do Boards Fail?
The introduction, the body, and the conclusion for the section are clearly identifiably. The introduction is contained in the first paragraph, where the
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_____________________________________________________________________ section is introduced or set up. It is giving you an idea of what John Pound’s argument is all about in preparation for the critical analysis of Pound’s argument, which is contained in the body of the piece. Paragraphs two and three form the body and contain the critical analysis. The final paragraph draws the argument together in a concluding paragraph and links that section to the following section. Now let’s look at paragraph one. John Pound (1995: 89) indicates that, what he refers to as the “managed corporation” is akin to the current new trends in corporate governance, as has been discussed above – characteristics similar to the recommendations found in the Cadbury Report. Further, he suggests that these changes, of merely moving the source of power from one party to another, are not the answer to successful corporate governance. He contends that poor corporate performance is due to a poor board decision-making process and uses the labels the “managed corporation” versus the “governed corporation” to differentiate between the current new trends in corporate governance similar to the Cadbury style board, and the board which focuses on an effective decision-making policy. The “governed corporation” will be discussed shortly, however initially, it is important to address some of the superficialities of Pound’s argument.
In essence, Pound is arguing that poor corporate governance is due to poor decision-making processes. Using the four-step critical analysis process described above, I am now going to challenge that argument and suggest that there might be other things as well that should be considered. For Pound’s argument to be sound, then the downfall of all corporations would have to be due to poor decisions. Yet as we are all too aware, with the cases such as Maxwell, Skase, et cetera, mentioned above, the demise of the company was due to the criminal intent of the CEO/Chairperson.
To challenge, or find a hole in Pound’s argument that poor corporate governance is due to poor decision-making, I have used two examples of very well known cases, at the time, which were discussed in greater detail in a previous section. As such, one must ask to what extent a strong board, with an independent NED as Chair, minimum executive involvement in the board, audit committees, and so on, would have been far more effective than a good decision-making policy.
I have now offered a counter position to that of Pound – that “a strong board ...[et cetera] would be more effective ...”. In the next paragraph, I proceed to supply more evidence to support my position. We are still at step one, presenting and supporting my position. But setting aside any criminal intent, (here I am saying, okay, in case you
don’t like my criminal intent argument, I’ll presents some other evidence to support my claim) boards can fail, due to numerous reasons as highlighted by Thain and Leighton (1995), who offer six key “signs and symptoms of problems in
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_____________________________________________________________________ board effectiveness” – legitimacy and power; role definition; board culture; competence; board management; and board leadership.
I am now presenting my first piece of referenced theoretical evidence to support my claim that there are many reasons for poor corporate governance, other than poor decision-making. In addition, Sir Adrian Cadbury (1995: 58) suggests that failings are due to “ ignoring the interests of the shareholders, being self-perpetuating, … and drawing their membership from too narrow a section of society” as well as plain incompetence.
A second piece of referenced theory from the literature to support my position. Further, as previously stated, many boards just do not want to “rock the boat” (Patton & Baker, 1987).
And a third piece of evidence supporting my position. Now it could, rightly, be argued that at the heart of all these problems an original decision had to be made, and thus the decision-making process is the real problem.
This is step two of the four-step process where I argue against my own arguments. I play Devil’s advocate and ask myself; ‘what would Pound say at this stage in defence of his position that I am arguing against?’ Nevertheless, it could also be equally submitted that many of these problems could be prevented, or at the very least curbed, by the new trends of an empowered board.
The above sentence is step three in which I have rebutted the counter argument. I haven’t denied that the counter position might have some merit, but again I have raised other possibilities. Consequently, as demonstrated, a good decision-making process is not necessarily the only answer to effective corporate governance. Many other issues are involved, (step four – the conclusion. As long as there is a possibility that there are
other reasons for poor performance, the decision-making position cannot stand-alone) all of which could be explored at great length. However, due to the word constraints, as the aim of the paper is to discuss Pound’s proposition concerning the differences between the “managed corporation” and the “governed corporation”, I shall move onto the issue of decision-making and Pound’s “governed corporation”.
In these last few lines I have done a number of things; (1) acknowledged that I have only presented a very superficial argument with regard to this aspect of the paper; that there is a lot more that could be said if I had more space to play with, but my challenge is just a side issue and so doesn’t warrant any more space. (2) I have linked back to the aim or
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_____________________________________________________________________ theme of the paper, which is decision-making and how it relates to Pound’s version of the governed corporation. (3) This is also the link flagging the next section. Decision-Making and The Governed Corporation Pound (1995) argues that the key to a successful corporation and good corporate governance is for the board to focus on a good decision-making process which he describes as the “‘governed corporation”.
In beginning this next section, I haven’t just launched into a discussion, but I have used an introductory statement reiterating Pound’s position in preparation for what is to follow.
In this chapter – 6.1 – the first stage in developing a persuasive argument, the critical analysis, has been explained in some detail. It should be noted, however, that the fourstep dance described above is the most basic form of critical analysis.
You can
critically analyse any statement or proposition at ever deepening levels by taking into account such things as the perspectives of a variety of stakeholders, and their relationships to each other and to the proposition; by discussing the vast array of shortand long-term consequences of actions that are associated with the statement or proposition; and so forth. Whilst a simple analysis was performed in two paragraphs, in the superficial demonstration example, above, it would be quite possible to devote 40, 50, or even 100+ pages to an in-depth analysis of the self-same proposition. But if you can at least begin with the simple version, as above, I can assure you that you will impress your marker. Then, with practice, you can continue to develop your skills working at higher and higher levels of skill and deeper and deeper levels of analysis. No matter whether your critical analysis is performed in a simple manner, or in some depth, to increase the persuasiveness of your argument you need to develop the skill of integrating your various pieces of theory, and the practical situation, like examples and data.
6.2.
The Art of Integration
Unfortunately, all too often assignments are submitted with an isolated section containing a descriptive list of disparate theoretical views.
Then a second, separate
section is added, that is merely a retelling of examples or data material as it was told to _____________________________________________________________________ 60
_____________________________________________________________________ the student during their research. No matter how much work you have done, an assignment like that usually receives a very poor grade. Integrating or combining is just that; the two aspects, the various pieces of theory and the data or the case information – the practical – must be combined. Although it is not that common in management, but if for some reason you are writing a purely theoretical piece, then you must integrate the various pieces of theory, not just list them one after the other. It is a bit like making a cake. You don’t make a cake by placing the flour in one section of the cake tin; and then the eggs in another corner; and then the milk in a third corner; and the sugar in the fourth corner; and then go and put the tin full of disparate ingredients in the oven. If you do, it will come out of the oven pretty much the same way it went in – a heck of a mess. Instead, you get a big mixing bowl and stir all the ingredients in together and then put that combined, integrated, mixture into the cake tin; the cake tin in the oven; and when it comes out, it’s beautiful. You do the same with your theory and practice. Especially in social sciences, like management subjects, the theory and the practice must be woven together in your discussion supporting your claims. Just as a critical analysis, as described above, involves using the theoretical literature to argue both sides of the case for you and also to overcome all objections, so too your data is used to support and confirm, or contradict, the propositions in the theory. In so doing, the strength of the theory is increased, which in turn increases the strength of your argument. Or conversely, instead of the data supporting the theory, the theory can be used to support the data and or the examples, in which case it is the theory that is giving credibility to the practical aspects of your case study. In other words, two of the most basic ways to integrate theory and practice is; (1) to present the theoretical argument and then find some of the data or examples that you have collected and discuss how those data support or contradict the theoretical evidence. Alternatively, in a term paper (2) you might be use your theory to support your examples, or the practical aspects of your case. The integration of the theory and data – theory and practice – can be written up in many different ways. Once again, there is no one ‘right’ way of doing it. However to give you a bit of an idea of what a well written piece of theory/practical integration might _____________________________________________________________________ 61
_____________________________________________________________________ look like, I have included the following example, written by two teams of third year undergraduate students working on an Ipswich subject called “Managing the Virtual Organisation”. The example is part of a brief, 2-3 page, activity in which the students were asked to perform the following task.
Module 6 – Activity 1: Trust Activity This activity has both a theoretical and a practical component. You are to link the results of your theoretical trust research to the practical activities set down in “Project Topic Task II” on page 71. The aim of this activity is: (1) to get you thinking about trust in relation to your team project; and (2) to give you some practise in using referenced theory (from your trust research) to support the proposed activities for Project Topic Task II (page 71). So, the emphasis is on integrating theory with practice. (2-3 pages max) Figure 10: Integration Activity Question
Below I have taken the introduction from the SARJ 007 (2001) team1, and the practical steps from the VIP (2001) team2, as an example of a very high 7 grade answer to the above Trust Activity. Again, I have inserted the piece twice. The first time I have left it clean, so that you can easily read it without distractions. In the second copy, I have inserted comments throughout, using a different font, highlighting exactly what the teams have done that makes this such an outstanding piece of work.
Module 6 – Activity 1: Trust Activity Throughout the readings in this module, trust has been identified as a key factor in successful collaboration (Harringston & Ruppel, 1999; Lipnack & Stamps, 2000; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; and Nandhakumar, 1999). For our recruiting company project to be successful, our aim should be to create an environment that harnesses compatible goals, strives for mutual gain, and promotes effective communication (Harringston & Ruppel, 1999; Lipnack & Stamps, 2000; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; and Nandhakumar, 1999). To achieve this, our company needs to address the issue of trust.
1
The four members of the SARJ007 team were; Sarah Seckold, Anne-Maree Dowd, Renee Burgess, and Jessica Curtis. 2 The four members of the VIP team were; Clint Feuerherdt, Don Drane, Gloria McGreevy, and Ross Opperman.
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_____________________________________________________________________ According to Fukuyama (1995), trust is a form of “Social Capital”. He states that “social capital arises with a community of regular, honest and cooperative behaviour, based on commonly shared norms” (Fukuyama, 1995: 65). Therefore, collaboration within our recruiting company needs to be recognised as a social group dependent on trust for the attainment of goals and objectives. The question our group now needs to address is – “what mechanisms are there to build and maintain team member trust” (Schwarz, 2001: 70)? ... [SARJ 007 Team] Trust must be maintained throughout the team’s life (Lipnack & Stamps, 2000: 6991). Therefore, VIP has identified the following mechanisms to build and maintain trust over the complete life cycle of our team. Team members share the same goal, objective, vision and mission VIP believes that team members are more likely to trust each other if all members share the same goals, objectives, vision, and mission. This is evidenced in Duarte' and Snyder's (1999) research in the formation of virtual teams. Handy (1995: 46) builds on this theory by equating trust with confidence in other member’s competence, commitment to shared goals, and values. Members should create and agree on team communications, procedures, processes (Jackson, 1999: 313-32) and boundaries (Handy, 1995: 46) in order to facilitate open and honest communication. Bonding Trust is also built on the group activities that VIP project members perform, as supported by the Jarvenpaa and Leidner (1999) theory. This ‘bonding’ is often achieved through common values and beliefs (Handy, 1995: 46). As a result, VIP will include a range of communications activities extending beyond just the basic project tasks, to foster such bonding. Smaller more frequent tasks The VIP project plan will factor high-level outcomes into smaller tasks with shorter timeframes (Weber & Green, 2001). This will provide opportunities for our members to display competence and goal commitment. Handy (1995: 48) refers to this as “reciprocal loyalty”. Making these positive outcomes visible to the relevant participants earlier and more frequently will enhance trust building between members in our project scenario. Regular reviews VIP will utilise regular reviews of team communication procedures and processes to maintain trust between our project members. Such a review process would also facilitate repeated interactions and shared experiences (Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1999) between members. Allowing for feedback will not only allow us to grow as a team, but will increase our team’s effectiveness. Lipnack and Stamps (2000: 81) refer to this as having feedback through virtuous loops. ... [VIP Team]
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_____________________________________________________________________ VIP continued with a number of other points and a good conclusion, but that is sufficient for you to see how they have integrated the theory with their practice. I shall now repeat the activity with inserted comments in a different and underlined font. Module 6 – Activity 1: Trust Activity
Note the clean, clear heading reflecting the heading of the activity as per the question. Throughout the readings in this module, trust has been identified as a key factor in successful collaboration (Harringston & Ruppel, 1999; Lipnack & Stamps, 2000; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; and Nandhakumar, 1999).
Here they have made a statement – “... trust has been identified as a key factor ...” and they have supported that claim with not one, but four references. Even though at this stage of the course it was well known that trust was a key concept, but that doesn’t mean that references were not required. When you make a statement of fact, it must be supported by credible sources. And they have done that. For our recruiting company project to be successful, our aim should be to create an environment that harnesses compatible goals, strives for mutual gain, and promotes effective communication (Harringston & Ruppel, 1999; Lipnack & Stamps, 2000; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; and Nandhakumar, 1999).
Now they have introduced the practical aspect with a comment on their project, and they have stated a number of characteristics required to make their project a success. Sure we could all take a guess that those would be important characteristics. But SARJ007 is acknowledging that those ideas came from, again, four pieces of theory. And so they are stating that those characteristics that were taken from their reading of the theory are going to be used to make their practical project a success. They have beautifully integrated theory with practice. To achieve this, our company needs to address the issue of trust. According to Fukuyama (1995), trust is a form of “Social Capital”. He states that “social capital arises with a community of regular, honest and cooperative behaviour, based on commonly shared norms” (Fukuyama, 1995: 65).
It is true that they have used a direct quote there, but (1) it is the only direct quote in the entire activity and (2) with the conclusion that follows, they are clearly demonstrating that they understand what is being said.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Therefore, collaboration within our recruiting company needs to be recognised as a social group dependent on trust for the attainment of goals and objectives.
This is a concluding sentence. So in summary, they have put forward a proposal, a claim that trust is a key issue, and supported that claim with references. They then showed how that theory would work with their practical project. They added weight to the claim with a further piece of theoretical evidence from Fukuyama (1995). And now they are rounding it all off with this last concluding sentence. The question our group now needs to address is – “what mechanisms are there to build and maintain team member trust” (Schwarz, 2001: 70)? ... [SARJ 007 Team]
This final sentence is a linking sentence (see “Flagging Your Intentions” – Chapter 5.1) preparing the reader for what is to follow. That is as good an introduction as you will find anywhere.
This is where VIP’s piece starts. It begins with the following paragraph, which is a brief introductory paragraph, as mentioned in Chapter 5.1 “mini introductions”, which introduces the dot points to follow. You might recall that I said you can’t just launch into a list of dot points without explaining what they are all about. Well the two paragraphs above introduce the topic of trust, in relation to this activity and the project. It is like a mini literature review. Then the following paragraph introduces the dot points and what is to come. Trust must be maintained throughout the team’s life (Lipnack & Stamps, 2000:6991).
Again, just like SARJ007, see how VIP have made a claim, stated a fact, that “Trust must be maintained throughout the team’s life”. And they have acknowledged that that concept was one that they read in Lipnack and Stamps. Therefore, VIP has identified the following mechanisms to build and maintain trust over the complete life cycle of our team.
Now they have inserted a concluding sentence that is linked to the following points. Note that each point is clearly identified with its own subheading. As you read through each of these points see how skilfully VIP has woven the theory and practice together. _____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________ Team members share the same goal, objective, vision and mission VIP believes that team members are more likely to trust each other if all members share the same goals, objectives, vision, and mission.
They have just stated a belief that they hold. All beliefs have some foundation. The foundation for their belief is given in the next sentence (below) which, in essence, states: “This is evidenced” by some credible research carried out by Duarte and Snyder. This is evidenced in Duarte' and Snyder's (1999) research in the formation of virtual teams. Handy (1995: 46) builds on this theory by equating trust with confidence in other member’s competence, commitment to shared goals, and values.
Now it is not only Duarte’ and Snyder’s work that they are using to support their belief, their claim, but they are also adding the support of Handy’s work. ‘And that’s not all, there’s more!’ Members should create and agree on team communications, procedures, processes (Jackson, 1999: 313-32) [they are making a further claim which has practical
application to their project, however it is based on their research of the theory, as so is duly referenced.] and boundaries (Handy, 1995: 46) [and yet another referenced source from their reading of the literature that they are able to use in practice for their project] in order to facilitate open and honest communication.
And how are all these things going to help their project – what is the rationale or the reason for using all these concepts? “In order to facilitate open and honest communication”. That is an excellent example of integrating theory, or information that they have read in the literature, with their practical example. In other words, they are using the theory from the literature to support the actions that they are proposing/ the practical. Bonding Trust is also built on the group activities that VIP project members perform, as supported by the Jarvenpaa and Leidner (1999) theory.
Again, they have made a claim – “Trust is also built on the group activities ...” and supported that claim with a reference. This ‘bonding’ is often achieved through common values and beliefs (Handy, 1995: 46). How does this bonding occur? “...through common values and
beliefs.” And what makes them think that? Their research into Handy’s work, and so they have cited Handy. As a result, VIP will include a range of communications activities extending beyond just the basic project tasks, to foster such bonding.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Another concluding sentence to round off the paragraph. “As a result” of all these things relating to bonding that VIP have learned from their research (THE THEORY), “VIP will include a range of communication activities extending beyond just the basic project tasks, to foster such bonding.” (THE PRACTICE). In each point, the same level of excellence in integrating theory with practice can be seen. Now that you know what to look for, see if you can pick up the same pattern of linking referenced theory with practice, a practical application, in the following paragraphs. Smaller more frequent tasks The VIP project plan will factor high-level outcomes into smaller tasks with shorter timeframes (Weber & Green, 2001). This will provide opportunities for our members to display competence and goal commitment. Handy (1995: 48) refers to this as "reciprocal loyalty". Making these positive outcomes visible to the relevant participants earlier and more frequently will enhance trust building between members in our project scenario. Regular reviews VIP will utilise regular reviews of team communication procedures and processes to maintain trust between our project members. Such a review process would also facilitate repeated interactions and shared experiences (Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1999) between members. Allowing for feedback will not only allow us to grow as a team but will increase our team’s effectiveness. Lipnack and Stamps (2000: 81) refer to this as having feedback through virtuous loops. [VIP Team]
To present a piece of writing of the standard that SARJ007 (2001) and VIP (2001) have demonstrated here takes a lot of practice. And to get that practice, you must first be consciously aware of what is required. I hope that through these examples, you are beginning to gain that awareness. Then it is just a matter of getting started and giving it a go. And with each attempt, you will become more and more skilful. Practice, practice, practice.
6.3.
Applying the Theory and Data to a Case Study
On most occasions your collected data will relate to the case study you are working on, in which event if you have been integrating the data as described above, you will at the same time be applying it to your case study. However, if for some reason the data are external to the case, then the case must be integrated in a similar manner to the way you have integrated the data. As a case in point: you are discussing the theory, you have then discussed how the data support or contradict the theory, and you now must comment on whether the theory and data are, or are not, being used in the ‘real life’ _____________________________________________________________________ 67
_____________________________________________________________________ organisation you are studying. If it is not being applied, why not? Is the theory supporting the case study, or the data, or both, or neither the case nor the data? Is it possible that the data can be applied to the case, yet it contradicts the theory? If so, is the theory unrealistic? Just because theory has been published does not mean that it works on all occasions, in all situations. You must continue asking those sorts of questions whilst systematically comparing and contrasting the case with the theory and the theory with the data and the data with the case and so on. These questions are just a small example of the many questions you will need to address as you continue to analyse the data, the theory, and the case study in an integrated way. Finally, once again, your analyses must lead to a logical conclusion. And as previously discussed, in a report, those conclusions must then lead to some logical recommendations.
6.4.
Using Paragraphs as ‘Building Blocks’
Now that the basic components of an integrated critical analysis have been explored, it is pertinent to reflect briefly on the basic building blocks which are used to support your analyses. These building blocks are your paragraphs. Paragraphs should contain a topic sentence, supporting details and, as previously mentioned in Chapter 5.1, links or transitions which can be used to make clear connections between paragraphs. These transitions will facilitate the evolution of a coherent and logical argument. Consider how the following transitions, linking one paragraph to the next, could be used as the basis on which to build your argument. Showing similarity
likewise, similarly, in the same way
Showing contrast
on the contrary, but, not only, however, although, nevertheless, in spite of, on the other hand, conversely, by contrast
Showing addition
too, also, in addition, further, moreover
Showing illustration
as an example, for instance, to illustrate
Showing sequence
next, subsequently, after, finally, first, second or firstly, secondly
Showing conclusion
therefore, consequently, accordingly
as
a
result,
so,
The above examples have been adapted from Environmental Audits and Risk Management (nd: 19) Study Skills Booklet.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Get a little booklet, or use the spare pages at the end of this book, and keep adding to the above list of key words as you come across examples of linking and flagging in your readings. To summarise this chapter so far, it has been stated that a persuasive argument is developed in the following way: (1) present a point of view; (2) defend that point of view with evidence in the form of a critical analysis of the theoretical literature; (3) integrate the analysed theory with any supporting data; (4) apply the analysed theory and data to your case study; and (5) the analysis that results from the application of the theory and data to the case study should then lead to a logical conclusion from which you make your recommendations, if required.
Finally in this section, it has been
submitted that the basic building blocks used to build your argument are paragraphs that have been linked together in a coherent and logical manner. Before moving to the important aspect of referencing there is one form of analysis, the SWOT analysis, which is frequently used in management assignments and so deserves comment.
6.5.
SWOT Analysis
As most people are aware, the first step in a SWOT analysis is to identify the organisation’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. However, all too often that first step is as far as the student goes with the analysis, in which case the SWOT is purely a list of organisational characteristics that have been divided into four categories and so contributes little to the paper. All that it does demonstrate to the reader is that the student has heard of a SWOT analysis but does not understand what it is for, or what to do with it, which is worse than not using it at all. A SWOT analysis, if used correctly, can be a very powerful tool and can enhance an argument greatly. However, like all other forms of analyses, the SWOT must move beyond that first step and answer the questions, “So what?” “What does it all mean in relation to my topic?”. As mentioned, the first step is an analysis of the organisation’s activities to arrive at the four categories. But the significant part of the analysis comes in the analysis of those four categories and, correspondingly, an answer to the question, “what does it all _____________________________________________________________________ 69
_____________________________________________________________________ mean?” Like the analysis process described above, the analysis of the four categories must lead to some conclusion, which in turn, should lead to some recommended action. In other words, if presented at the beginning of your paper the SWOT analysis can “identify a niche that the organisation can exploit” (Robbins, Bergman & Stagg, 1997: 251). And in so doing, the exploitation of that niche may be the position you decide to argue for in your report. In which case you would be starting your argument from a very strong position. Then again, the conclusion you reach after analysing the four SWOT categories might provide you with the aim on which your paper will be based. Similarly, if the aim and your thesis, or position, have both already been established, after analysing the four SWOT categories you might conclude that the organisation has some key challenges which need to be addressed before any of your other arguments would be accepted. Or those key challenges, which you have identified as a result of analysing the SWOT findings, may be the aspects of the organisation that you need to focus the rest of your critical analyses on. It doesn’t matter how you choose to use your SWOT analysis conclusions. However, once the SWOT has been included in your paper then, like all other analyses as discussed above, the SWOT, and the SWOT analysis conclusions must be continually linked to the rest of the paper and to the aim or central theme of the paper. There is no point in doing a SWOT analysis and then never mentioning it again. If you include a SWOT analysis, you must use it to support or refute your arguments, not just have it sitting there.
7.
REFERENCING
Although not as creative as your critical analyses, complete and correct referencing is equally as important in academic writing. There are three main reasons why full referencing is essential. 1. The first is that when another writer’s work is used without being referenced the act of plagiarism has been committed. This will be discussed a little more fully, shortly. 2. The second reason for referencing is so that anyone reading the paper can follow up any ideas or concepts that have been presented. This is especially important in _____________________________________________________________________ 70
_____________________________________________________________________ academic writing where people involved in research may read the paper. One of the main ways of researching a topic is to read what other people have written and then follow up some of the references they have cited. Then, after those follow-up papers have been read, the researcher can continue the search-trail by tracking down more references cited in those follow-up papers, and so on. This is known as a bibliographical chain. It is a bit like accessing deeper and deeper links on the Internet.
This research is impossible if papers are not fully and accurately
referenced. 3. A third reason why referencing is important is that it adds credibility to the argument that you are presenting. As discussed in the previous section, if an argument is to have any credibility it must be supported by evidence. That evidence must be referenced. The following sections will address the issues of plagiarism and then when and how to reference your assignments and write up your reference list.
7.1.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of passing off as your own work another person’s writing, words, or ideas. You commit plagiarism if you do not acknowledge the source of a direct quote, or a specific piece of writing that you have paraphrased, or even if you describe an idea or concept that you have heard or read somewhere without a reference or acknowledgment. Under The University of Queensland Act statute 13, in conjunction with Assessment Rules 18, 1, and 26 plagiarism is subject to disciplinary action and can even result in exclusion from the University.
7.2.
When and How to Reference
As indicated in the section on plagiarism, above, everything that you put in your assignment that is not your own creative idea or conclusion must be referenced. As a general rule when in doubt, include a citation even if you have to search the literature especially to find a particular reference that is applicable. If ever the reader of the paper can read something that you have written and ask questions like: “Who says?” or “How do you know that?” or “On what do you base that comment?” then what you have written needs to be referenced. The following list contains a few examples of material that must be referenced, but where students often erroneously omit those citations. _____________________________________________________________________ 71
_____________________________________________________________________ •
Commonly, a claim will be prefaced with something like “writers agree that …”. The first thing your maker will say is “which writers”, “who are they”. If you use an attribution such as “writers agree” you must include at least one or two references. So your claim might read: “writers, such as (reference; reference), agree that …”.
•
If you think of a common concept that you want to include in your paper, such as motivated staff are more productive, it must be referenced even though you intuitively thought of it and didn’t actually read about it in the course of your research. This is because it is a concept that is not based on your own original creative thought and so, if you use it, you will have to search the literature for some authority figure who has already said it. You can be assured that if you search, you will find it there.
•
Similarly, referencing is often erroneously omitted from very familiar material such as a discussion on promotional issues or motivation. No matter how familiar the topic is, in an academic assignment every idea and every concept must be referenced. It is true that there is a concept known as assumed knowledge which refers to information that is commonly known and rarely in dispute, as such it does not need a reference. Assumed knowledge includes such things as the sun rises in the east, and humans need fresh air, water, and food to survive. However, when writing an assignment you are using your references, in part, to demonstrate that you are not just making intuitive assumptions; that you know who the authority figures are on whom your ideas are based; and you have read widely. So you might even choose to reference what is considered to be common, or assumed knowledge. Once again, when in doubt, include a reference.
•
All tables, or figures, or graphs that are not original but have come from another source must be referenced, complete with a page number, whether they are in the body of the paper or in the appendices.
•
It is not sufficient to say that the information in your case study has come from numerous brochures, leaflets, reports and interviews with staff and management. They all must be individually referenced if they are used. As an example, if you take information about the company from their annual report then the annual report
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_____________________________________________________________________ must be cited against that piece of information and then listed in the reference list. Likewise, if you get some figures about the company from a publicity leaflet, then that leaflet must be cited and listed in the reference list. Yet again, if you discuss some information that you obtained during an interview, the interviewee’s name must be cited and listed in the reference list. •
With regard to citing interviewees: if for reasons of confidentiality the interviewee does not want to be named, cite the comment as (anonymous, 1997) or (interviewee A, 1997; or interviewee B, 1997) and include a footnote saying why you have done this.
The sub-section headed “Substantiation”, in Chapter 5.1, is also related to this issue of when to reference.
I suggest that you turn back and review that piece before
proceeding. Remember to continually ask yourself: ‘Have I answered the “says who?” question. 7.2.1. Referencing Systems: The two main forms of referencing are the footnote or endnote form, and the author-date method, sometimes called the Harvard system. Nevertheless, within these two forms there are literally hundreds of variations as evidenced by the claim that the “End Note 2 plus” referencing software package “includes more than 300 styles” (Nile, 1997: 135). Unless specifically instructed to do so, you are not to use an endnote or footnoting reference system in your UQ Business School assignments. Unless otherwise instructed, the UQ Business School prefers that you use the Academy of Management form of author-date reference style shown throughout this handbook, although the author-date APA (American Psychological Association) style is also quite acceptable. Both of these styles are included on the later versions of the End Note referencing software package. When using the recommended author-date referencing style, footnotes or endnotes can also be used sparingly to expand points within the text. Following is a list of the most common times when you will reference your work. The in-text citation examples all follow the above Academy of Management author-date style. Note the placement of commas, semi-colons, colons, full stops, and so on. Also, _____________________________________________________________________ 73
_____________________________________________________________________ whenever possible, you need to include the page numbers in the citation, especially if you are using a direct quote. Direct quotation from a single author from any source – book, journal, newspaper: •
Ohmae (1990: 248) states that “Boeing has become the global champion of commercial aircraft”.
•
“Boeing has become the global champion of commercial aircraft” (Ohmae, 1990: 248).
Direct quote from an interview: •
“We [Legal and General] believe that companies who are environmentally sensitive have indications of being forward looking companies (Fallick, 1995).
See 7.4 for an example of how this citation will appear in the reference list.
Combined paraphrase and direct quote from the Internet: •
Ericsson, with 70,000 employees in over 100 countries have stated that one of their visions “is the learning organisation, where learning is an integrated part of the daily work” (Ericsson, 1997).
See chapter 7.4 for an example of how this citation will appear in the reference list.
Remember, there is no guarantee that theoretical information on the Internet is accurate or credible. And if you do include a reference from the Internet save a hardcopy of the information you are citing, because if you or your lecturer want to check on the reference at a later stage, it might have been removed by the time you go back there. Paraphrasing: •
To be successful the learning organisation must be integrated into the organisation’s culture (Garvin, 1993: 81).
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_____________________________________________________________________ Citing three or more authors for the one paper: Note that the names appear in the order that they appear on the book title page, or the paper. They are not put into alphabetical order. For the first citation, insert the names of all of the authors: •
Tichy, Fombrun and Devanna (1982) or (Tichy, Fombrun & Devanna,1982)
For the second and subsequent citations, you only need mention the name of the first author followed by et al. – et al. means and others: •
Tichy et al. (1982) or (Tichy et al., 1982)
A paraphrase when a number of different authors, in different papers or books, have said the same thing. Cite the names in alphabetical order separated by a semicolon. •
A major component of any business strategy is the management of their human resources (Armstrong, 1992: 53-57; Purcell, 1995: 63; Rothwell, 1995: 167).
When different authors have the same last name include their initials for differentiation in the in-text citation: •
It is a manager’s responsibility to rethink their business strategy on a regular basis (Smith, P.T., 1994: 24).
•
Global companies must be concerned with universal values (Smith, A.D, 1989: 319).
When the one sentence is made up of two or more ideas from different authors: Note that each citation is placed at the end of the concept to which it refers. •
A major human resource challenge of the multinational company is international placements (Brett & Stroh, 1995: 412) and the “seven Cs of international human resources management” as described by Derek Torrington (1994: 106).
Secondary source: Let’s say that you are reading a paper by, as an example, Johnson (1999). And Johnson has cited the work of another author, say Parker (1996). If you also want to cite Parker’s work, you can do one of two things. (1) You can follow the bibliographic _____________________________________________________________________ 75
_____________________________________________________________________ chain by looking up Parker’s bibliographic details in Johnson’s reference list, and then go to the library and see if you can find the original paper by Parker; read it; find the information that you want; and then cite that original paper. You too then put Parker’s bibliographic details in your reference list. That is known as going to the original source. Alternatively, (2) you can just extract Parker’s ideas from Johnson’s paper and use the ideas that way, without ever viewing Parker’s original document.
Using
Johnson’s paper instead of going to the original Parker paper is known as using a secondary source of Parker’s ideas. There is some discussion about the manner in which secondary sources should be cited and referenced. Research students are generally advised not to use secondary sources. Instead, they are expected to seek out the original source and read and reference that. Using a few secondary sources at undergraduate level and for course-work students, however, is normally acceptable, although some lecturers might still expect you to search out the original primary source, or publication. As I keep on saying, when in doubt, check it out – ask your lecturer or tutor. Nonetheless, when using a secondary source it is commonly advised that you acknowledge that you have done so. It is true that the option exists of using a secondary source without acknowledging that you have done so, by just copying the citation from the secondary publication and also copying the bibliographic details from the reference list of that secondary source. However, those who do that, need to consider a number of issues. 1. First of all, there is the ethical issue of inferring that you have done the added research and have, in fact, read a publication that you have not read at all. Therefore, inferring that your knowledge base is broader than it actually is. 2. If the ethical argument is not persuasive to you, then this second issue, related to self-interest, might be more of a concern. What if Johnson (1999) has taken Parker out of context, or totally misinterpreted Parker’s message. This is not an uncommon thing to see in literature that is well known to a reader. So, assuming that Johnson has misinterpreted Parker’s piece, and you are going to cite Parker directly from Johnson’s paper. If you do not acknowledge that you have used the secondary source, the reader, or marker, might know the literature well enough to realise that, by falling into the same trap as Johnson, you have; _____________________________________________________________________ 76
_____________________________________________________________________ (a) not gone to the original Parker paper at all, but are wanting the marking to believe that you have – an arguably unethical act; or (b) you have gone to the original source and you have not understood the information well enough and so have made the same mistake, out of ignorance, as Johnson did. Either way, it does not reflect well on you. Consequently, by acknowledging that you are using a secondary source you are protecting yourself by saying, in essence, this is what Parker said as it has been interpreted by Johnson, and I am going to take Johnson’s word that it is a correct interpretation. 3. A third reason for acknowledging that you are using a secondary source is for bibliographic chain research purposes. Say I read your paper and I really love Parker’s idea. But instead of it being Parker (1996), it is Parker (1956). You have not acknowledged that you have used a secondary source. You have just cited and referenced Parker as an original source. I start a search for the original Parker paper so that I can read more about the topic. As the paper is getting on to 50 years old, the document is not available. I have now come to a dead end. At this point I might become very suspicious at your ability to access the document, but I’ll set that aside. If you had referenced the document as a secondary source, then I could go to the easily accessible Johnson paper and find out a lot more about what must be a similar topic to that on which Parker had originally written. I am also able to use Johnson’s reference list to further my research on that topic, and so the bibliographic chain can continue. 4. Finally, as page numbers should be included in your in-text citation, after the year of publication, especially if you are using a direct quotation, it is not always possible to know the page number if you are not acknowledging the use of a secondary source. Remember too, that your marker will frequently check the references and so will know if you have attempted to do something unethical.
Therefore, unless your lecturer
specifically says that you are not required to acknowledge secondary sources, you are advised to do so.
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_____________________________________________________________________ So, how do we cite and reference these secondary sources? •
Organisations are concentrating more on “the attitudinal and behavioural characteristics of employees” (Parker, 1996, as cited by Johnson, 1999: 216). or
•
According to Parker (1996, as cited by Johnson, 1999: 216) organisations are concentrating more on “the attitudinal and behavioural characteristics of employees”.
Then in the reference list, you just list Johnson’s bibliographic details. You do not include Parker in the reference list because you did not read Parker’s work. You just read Johnson’s interpretation of Parker’s work.
Personal communication: This is similar to an interview however usually less formal. As David Suzuki (1992: pers. comm.) said … See chapter 7.4 for an example of how this citation will appear in the reference list.
An organisation with a long name as the stated author: As an example: World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). This is cited as: •
The Brundtland Report, Our Common Future (WCED, 1987) detailed in a simple and yet dramatic way …
See chapter 7.4 .for an example of how this citation will appear in the reference list.
When no publication date is available cite as ‘nd’ for no date: •
The Officecare program has been designed to raise environmental awareness amongst Australian office workers (Fuji Xerox, nd: 3)
See chapter 7.4 for an example of how this citation will appear in the reference list.
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_____________________________________________________________________ A block quote is used when a direct quote is longer than three lines. Note that the quote is single spaced, indented on both sides, and has no quotation marks. See other examples in Chapter 5.1. In the days of the Holy Roman Empire the Church, as the dominant institution in society, took major responsibility for the wellbeing of the whole. As business is the dominant institution in modern society; does it need to accept a similar responsibility? (Harman, 1993: 285). When the beginning of the original sentence is omitted from the beginning of the block quote this is indicated with three full stops [...], known as an ellipsis. Similarly, if you end the block quote before the end of the sentence, then finish with an ellipsis to indicate that the original text continued on. As an example: … companies will have to recognise that no one part of their business operates independently. It is this recognition that will be necessary if companies are to find new ways to compete … (Taylor, 1992: 670).
If an entire section is based on the one source you can footnote this fact by stating: •
Unless otherwise stated, this section is based on Smith (1996: 24-27).
An example of this can be seen in Chapter 8 of this handbook, which is based on Cloake & Noad (nd).
This form of referencing, however, should be done very sparingly indeed, and will rarely be appropriate in short, term-papers. For a more detailed examination of referencing information, consult the Style Manual for authors, editors and printers published by the Australian Government Printing Service.
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_____________________________________________________________________
7.3.
Reference List versus Bibliography
Whilst the terms reference list and bibliography are often used interchangeably they do refer to different forms of lists and it is important to know the difference. A Bibliography is the name given to a complete, alphabetical list of all the material you have consulted in the preparation and writing of your assignment, whether you have quoted the material or not (AGPS, 1994: 145; Marshall & Rowland, 1981: 180). A Reference List is a complete list, in alphabetical order, only of the material actually cited in the assignment (AGPS, 1994: 145). In most cases, university assignments only use a reference list. The marker only wants to see the actual references you have cited in your paper, not a list of everything you have read on the topic. So, even if your question sheet states that you are to include a bibliography, I strongly suggest that you check with your lecturer that they do in fact want a bibliography and not a reference list. Generally, you will find that if they have used the term bibliography, they have done so unthinkingly in a generic sense.
7.4.
Reference List Format
If the recommended Academy of Management, author-date in-text citation method is used, the corresponding Academy of Management format, as detailed below, should also be used for your reference list, unless otherwise instructed. •
Use single line spacing with a double line of space between references.
•
Do not number the references or use dot points at the beginning of the reference.
•
Indent the second and subsequent lines of the reference by one tab space.
•
All references must be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
•
Do not make a series of separate lists for journals, books, interviews and so on. Combine all references in the one alphabetical list.
•
When listing more than one reference by the same author list in date order.
•
When listing more than one reference by the same author published in the same year, differentiate by adding a,b,c, and so on after the year. To illustrate: 1997a; 1997b; 1997c.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
All book titles and the titles of journals are to be either underlined or typed in bold italics.
•
All titles of journal articles are to be typed in normal font without any underlining.
•
References must include the names of all listed authors, in the order in which they appear in the publication.
•
Books must include the names of all the authors, the year of publication, the book title, the city of publication, and the publisher’s name.
•
Following are two examples of how to reference the same book. The first example has the title underlined. Prior to computers and the ease of using italics, all titles were underlined. If for some reason you are unable to use italics, then the underline method is normally acceptable. However, as previously stated, the UQ Business School prefers that you follow the Academy of Management style of bold italics for book and journal titles, as demonstrated in the second example. After this first example, all further examples will use the Academy of Management Journal bold italics style of writing titles.
Robbins, S.P., Bergman, R., & Stagg. I. 1997. Management. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Robbins, S.P., Bergman, R., & Stagg, I. 1997. Management. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
•
A paper from an edited collection should be referenced as follows:
Nadler, D.A. & Tushman, M.L. 1992. Design organizations that have good fit: A framework for understanding new architectures. In D.A. Nadler, M.S. Gerstein & R.B. Shaw (Eds.), Organizational architecture: Designs for changing organizations: 39-56. New York: Jossy-Bass Management Series.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
All journal articles must include the names of all the authors, the year of publication, the title of the article, the title of the journal, the volume number, issue number if appropriate, and page numbers of the complete article.
Elliott, P. 1996. Power-changing people’s performance. Training and Development, 50 (12): 46–49 Schuler, R.S. & Jackson, S.E. 1987. Linking competitive strategies with human resource management practices. Academy of Management Executive 1 (3): 207– 219
•
Newspaper articles should be referenced in a similar manner to a journal with the name of the journalist first, the year of publication, the heading of the article, name of the newspaper, date of publication, and page on which the article appeared.
O’Brien, N. 1995. Director jailed over toxic waste dumping. The Australian March 10: 3 •
If the newspaper, magazine or journal article does not have the journalist’s by-line then lead the reference with the name of the paper. The second example, below, would be followed if the article has no journalist’s by-line and no article title.
Economist, The. 1994. Regulate us please. The Economist. January 8: 330: 65 Australian, The. 1997. July 7: 35 •
The citation in the reference list must correspond with that in the paper. Therefore, if an abbreviation or acronym has been used in the in-text citation, as an example, (WCED, 1987: 213), then for consistency and to keep the reference list in alphabetical order reference as follows:
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development). 1987. Our common future. The Brundtland Report. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
Once again, the citation in the reference list must correspond with the in-text citation.
As a result, a personal communication reference would be listed as
follows:
Suzuki, D. 1992. Personal communication. May 21. Brisbane.
•
When older books have been reprinted both the reprint year, as cited in your assignment, and the original publication date put in square brackets should appear in the reference list. All details, other than the original year, will relate to the reprint edition from which your citation came.
Leopold, A. 1991 [1949]. A sand county almanac. New York: Ballantine Books. •
Following are a range of various Parliamentary and Government Publication references that do not have specific authors. These examples have been adapted from the Department of Government Essay Guide (Chenoweth & Tomkins, 1997: 14).
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 1995. The labour force, Australia, June 1995. Cat. No. 6203.0. Canberra: ABS. Australia, House of Representatives. 1962. Votes and proceedings 1: 639. Australia, House of Representatives. 1971. Debates, no. 10:219. Australia, Parliament. 1976. Department of Foreign Affairs Annual Report 1975. parliamentary paper 142, Canberra. Australia, Senate. 1970. Journals, no.123:718. Commission of Inquiry into Poverty. 1975. Law and poverty in Australia. Second Main Report (Prof. R. Sackville, Commissioner). Canberra: AGSP. Department of Foreign Affairs. 1975. Annual Report 1975. Canberra: AGPS.
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_____________________________________________________________________ •
All Internet sources must be referenced in a similar manner to newspaper articles with the Internet site included, and the date stated on the site if it is there, plus the date you visited the site. Remember to always keep a hard copy of any information taken from a web site – see Chapter 4.3.1.
Ericsson. 1997. Using WWW within a world wide company to create a ‘learning organisation’. http://tecfa.unige.ch/edu-ws95/contribution/andersson.hmtl February, 1997. Visited, April 25, 1997.
A more detailed list of suggested forms of Internet referencing can be found at the following sites. http://www.stedwards.edu/cfpages/stoll/internet.htm (Page, 1995). http://www.ipl.org/ref/QUE/FARQ/netciteFARQ.html •
A publicity leaflet, brochure, or any publication without a publication date or details.
Fuji Xerox. nd. Officecare resource saver guide. Officecare promotional booklet. Fuji Xerox, Australia.
•
Reference a video tape as follows. Note that as the tape has also been produced by Fuji Xerox and has no stated production date, ‘nd’ is used again however the letter ‘a’ has been included to differentiate this reference from the previous reference.
Fuji Xerox. nd.a. Putting the future first. Environmental report on video tape. Fuji Xerox, Australia.
•
Interviews should include the name of the interviewee, their position, the company they represent, and the date of the interview.
Fallick, L. 1995. Assistant Director of Investment Services, Legal and General. Phone interview. February 28. _____________________________________________________________________ 84
_____________________________________________________________________ For an example of a complete reference list, see the reference list at the end of this handbook. In this chapter, the notion of how, when, and why to reference has been addressed. Three key points to remember when referencing are: (1) is your referencing style consistent; (2) does your in-text citation correspond with the reference in the reference list; and (3) are the details in your reference list sufficient to enable the referenced publication to be located by someone unfamiliar with the topic.
8.
EDITING YOUR ASSIGNMENT3
After you have researched and written your assignment and completed the reference list, there is still one process to go before your paper is ready for submission. It is a major process, which all too often is thought of as a minor add-on that will only take a few extra minutes – an hour or two at best. Yet, this process is one of the most deceptive processes with regard to time. The process is editing – your paper must be edited. To many, meticulous editing seems like a tedious and unnecessary act. However, the way you present your paper, which includes the care you have taken in editing the paper, is a reflection of who you are. If you are putting in a submission for a major job, and the decision gets down to two people/organisations – you and another tenderer. Your submissions are equal in all respects, except that your submission is badly edited, and the other is well edited. Who do you think will get the job? Most likely, the other organisation. The rationale being that if you are happy to submit a sloppy tender document paper, then there is a risk that your on-site working performance will also be sloppy. Editing is another of those academic hoops that you have to get used to. And so you must allow time to edit your paper, not once, but several times. This is because there are many aspects of your paper that need to be checked before your assignment is submitted, and it is impossible to focus on all of these things with the one read-through. Cloake and Noad (nd:40-43) suggest that you edit the paper four times starting with a macro focus on issues such as content and evidence, and then move
3
Unless otherwise stated, the material in this section on editing is based on Cloake and Noad (nd: 40-43)
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_____________________________________________________________________ logically down to a micro focus on aspects such as spelling and punctuation. However, by beginning with a general, overall edit the time taken to do the subsequent, more specific edits may be reduced. As such, the process described below will consist of five edits. And whether you do the five edits as five separate processes, or combine several edits is up to you. The main thing is that all editing processes listed are completed before the submission of your paper. And that takes time. The importance of allowing sufficient time to edit properly cannot be stressed strongly enough. For an average 2500 word term paper you will need to allow approximately 915 hours to complete the editing process. So if you are still typing your paper at 4 am to meet a 9 am deadline the same day, you’re not going to make it. This is why good time management is vital. Editing time is just as much a part of the assignment writing process as is your research. Consequently, if you are consciously well aware of what needs to be done then you can add that time into your assignment writing schedule. In this section, an overview of the different editing tasks has been presented as five separate processes. The approximate times given for each edit are based on an average term paper that is about 2000-2500 words in length. Edit Number 1 After you are satisfied that there is nothing more you need do to your paper print up that first draft. Then read through the paper out aloud. This first read-through is to correct anything obvious. Therefore, as you read aloud through your paper mark any obvious mistakes in grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, sentence transitions, paragraph and section sequencing, and anything else that is prominent.
Having marked the
obvious mistakes make the changes required and print up a new draft and start on edit number 2. Edit Number 2 In your second edit you should check for the following: •
Have I answered the question asked? Go through the original question, and any supplementary information, given to you by your lecturer.
Study it.
And go
through the question piece by piece checking that you have included all of the information required. _____________________________________________________________________ 86
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Content, as it affects your argument and your choice of evidence. You may need to add or delete evidence at this point.
•
Balance: Check to ensure that the presentation of your argument is not one sided. Do you have arguments both for and against your thesis? Have you overcome the objections? Have you supported all arguments with evidence?
•
Logical Order: Check that the sections and main points are in a logical order so that the arguments flow.
•
Have you answered the lecturer’s question? You must check that all the question requirements and general instructions have been fulfilled.
Have you critically
analysed, or discussed, or applied the theory, or whatever you are required to do? Have you written the appropriate number of words for each aspect of the writing task?
Have the course objectives been taken into account along with any
appropriate tips or hints that were given out in lectures or tutorials? •
Accuracy of the references: Check that all of your references are complete and have the correct information in terms of date and page.
Are your references
relevant to the subject and your argument? Have you included something from your assigned textbook, if appropriate? The combined time to complete the first and second edit will be about 5-10 hours. However, if you need to do any major re-writing or research new evidence it could even take longer. Edit Number 3 For this edit, allow 2-3 hours correction time plus the time it takes to organise and have someone else read the paper. •
Topic Sentence: Check that each paragraph has a topic sentence by asking the question: ‘What is the point of this paragraph and how does it fit into the writing task?’
•
Re-arrange Paragraphs: Where necessary rearrange your paragraphs so that they are logical in their presentation.
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Flagging: Have you lead the reader through the paper by continually telling them what you are doing next and why you might have included or excluded certain material but not other information.
This includes mini introductions and
conclusions at the beginning and end of sections and, where appropriate, subsections. •
Readability: Whilst this is especially important for students whose first language is not English, it nevertheless applies to everyone. You may wish to get someone else to read your work and bracket the sentences that don’t make sense to them – either grammatically or logically. You need to plan the appropriate amount of time for this; and give your reader clear directions of what you want them to do – what you want them to look for. Choose a good reader and chances are that the sentences they have trouble with would also be the ones that concern the marker. Correct these unclear sentences by adding examples and explanations or re-wording for clarity.
•
Printing: If you are not going to print up the paper yourself make arrangements, or bookings, if necessary.
Edit Number 4 Allow about 2 hours for this edit. •
Transition Words: Check the use and appropriateness of transitions words like: afterwards, furthermore, in addition, however, nevertheless, therefore, and so on.
•
Links: Check that whenever possible, but as appropriate, paragraphs are linked one to another. Sometimes these links can be as simple as a good transition word. Other times it might require an entire sentence. Check that sections are also linked and that the entire paper is tied together by continually linking back to your aim or theme.
•
Strengthen verbs where appropriate by replacing passive voice with active voice.
•
Sentences: Check that the topic sentences are short and to the point, whilst sentences containing evidence are longer.
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Jargon and ‘Buzz’ Words: Be careful of the over use, and the inappropriate use, of jargon, ’buzz’ words or colloquialisms.
Any special effect is destroyed with
overuse. •
Creative Sentence Beginnings: There is nothing worse than to read a paper where every paragraph over a page or two, or even more, begins with: According to…” According to…”.
Or “This report…”; “This report …”.
Try to start every
paragraph and as many sentences as possible on any one page with a different beginning. •
Generalisations and Ambiguities: Check the paper for any gross generalisations or ambiguities.
•
Check Punctuation.
Edit Number 5 Allow approximately 1-2 hours for this final edit. •
Vocabulary: Check the dictionary for the precise use of vocabulary. Look for any word that might be out of place.
•
Formatting of Reference List: Ensure that the reference list has been properly formatted.
•
Visual Attractiveness: Check the layout and format of your paper, the margins, double line spacing, sections, headings, consistency throughout, and that there are no orphaned headings, and so on.
•
Special Instructions: Check your assignment details to make sure that any specific presentation instructions have been adhered to.
•
Spell Check your paper.
•
Do a Word Count
•
Checklist Chapter 5 – Style: Go back to chapter 5 in this booklet and use that chapter as a final, overall checklist.
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_____________________________________________________________________ Final Read-Through Having completed everything, if it is at all possible, set your paper aside for about a week and then come back to it for another read-through. Unfortunately, I can almost guarantee that when you come back to the paper you will find a whole range of mistakes that you completely overlooked with all the previous edits. Obviously, if you have to produce thirteen term papers in thirteen weeks this might be a luxury that you cannot afford. However, if the paper you are writing is very important, or a dissertation, or thesis, setting your paper aside for a day or two between the minor edits and at least a week or more after the final edit is no longer a luxury, but a necessity.
Having made the final corrections and completed a final read-through:
you can now click on print for the last time – and celebrate!
☺
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9. CONCLUSION This handbook had been designed to guide you through your assignment writing experience, step-by-step. To that end, I have described some processes, used examples where possible, and added little tips that have come my way, both as a marker of assignments, and as a student. The style, structure, and format of the book reflects, as much as possible, the style, structure, and format suggested throughout the book. I recommend that you continue to review the various sections, as required, and integrate the suggestions into your assignments. I can assure you that the more practice that you get at writing assignments, the easier it all becomes. Those who are consistently awarded high grades, are those who have discovered the key to assignment writing at university level. They have locked into a format that works for them. They have good introductions and conclusions throughout, and they have some good analyses in the middle. Writing university assignments, no matter what subject, is all about jumping through the hoops. Once you work out a workable formular, and unless your lecturer asks you to do otherwise, the UQ Business School recommends that you use the formulas outlined in this handbook, you can then use it over and over and over again, in all subjects. Just change the content, and adjust what you are doing to suit the length, but the process and basic structures are the same. Also, once you are comfortable with a generic process and format, then you can pay more attention to gaining a deeper understanding of the content of whatever subject you are learning about. I wish you all the best as you travel on your academic journey in these exciting and challenging times.
*****
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10. APPENDICES Appendix 10.1 – Summary of Main Recommendations R1. It is recommended that you attend some of the many assignment writing skills and research skills development courses that are regularly held by different service departments throughout the university (s.1.). R2. It is recommended that the formats presented in this handbook be used for UQ Business School assignments, unless otherwise instructed (s.1). R3. It is recommended that at the beginning of your university studies you write a list of all the reasons that you have for doing a university degree and the benefits that will come to you as a result of you completing your degree (s.2.1.) R.4. It is recommended that you prepare an Assignment Chart and stick to it. (s 2.2.) R.5. It is recommended that you hold onto your completed assignments until the due date, as quite often lecturers will continue to give added pieces of information on the assignment up to the lecture before the due date (s 2.2.). R.6.
It is recommended that the recommendation be typed in bold type, and, if
appropriate, written on its own as a self-contained, single sentence paragraph which contains the words “It is recommended that …” or “Therefore, it is recommended that …” (s 3.1.7.). R.7. It is strongly recommended that you attend as many of the [library’s research skills] courses as possible (s. 4.2). R.8. It is recommended that if you start to fall asleep reading – take a break (s.4.3.). R.9. It is strongly recommended that you read through this chapter [5.1] before you submit every assignment (s.5.1.).
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Appendix 10.2 – Assignment Chart This chart is a time management tool to help you plan your semester to ensure that all assignments can be completed on time. Note: The assignments listed below for the various subjects are purely to demonstrate how to use the chart and do not necessarily reflect the assignments set for those subjects. 1. As soon as you have been notified of the assignments required for each subject list them, complete with their due date, word length and format as follows: MGMT 7000 Essay Essay Report Report MGMT 7200 Essay Report Exam MGMT 7700 Report Exam MGMT 7201 Essay Review Report
2000 1500 5000 5000 1500 3000
15% 15% 35% 35% 10% 40% 50% 50% 50% 20% 10% 70%
5000 2000 800 5000
Mon. 3rd March. Mon. 24th March Mon. 9th May Wed. 11th June Tues. 8th April Thurs. 29th May June Thurs. 29th May June Tues. 18th March Tues. 8th April Tues. 3rd June
2. Transpose the above assignment details onto a table and allocate the dates that you will work on each assignment. In the table below you will note that the smaller assignments with a smaller % weighting have been allocated between 6 – 8 days to complete, whilst the major assignments due later in the semester, with a heavier % weighting, have been allocated approximately 2 weeks. You will also note that on each occasion, the day of the week has been included. This is important because it is easier to keep track of time when the date is supported by a conscious awareness of the actual day of the week. Also, being aware of the day of the week makes it easier to focus on the extra time you will have due to weekends, days off work, or public holidays. 3. Finally, you must also take into account that during each period of time that you have allocated to writing your assignments you will also be required to keep up with your weekly readings for your other subjects and your day-to-day life activities. _____________________________________________________________________ 94
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Assignment Chart Allocation Date Assignment Details
Due Date
Sat. 1st March - Sun. 9th March
MGMT 7000 – Essay – 2000w – 15%
Mon. 10th March
Mon. 10th March - Sun. 16th March
MGMT 7201 – Essay – 2000w – 20%
Tues. 18th March
Mon. 17th March - Sun. 23rd March
MGMT 7000 – Essay – 1500w – 15%
Mon. 24th March
Mon. 24th March - Sat. 29th March
MGMT 7200 – Essay – 1500w – 10%
Tues. 8th April
Sun. 30th March - Fri. 4th April
MGMT 7201 – Book Review – 800w – Tues. 8th April 10%
Sat. 5th April - Fri. 18th April
MGMT 7000 – Report – 000w – 35%
Fri. 9th May
Sat. 19th April - Fri. 2nd May
MGMT 7700 – Report– 5000w – 50%
Thurs. 29th May
Sat. 3rd May - Wed. 14th May
MGMT 7200 – Report– 3000w– 40%
Thurs. 29th May
Thurs. 15th May - Fri. 30th May
MGMT 7201 – Report – 5000w– 70%
Tues. 3rd June
Sat. 31st May - Tues. 10th June
MGMT 7000 – Report – 5000w– 35%
Wed. 11th June
To Be Set
MGMT 7200 – EXAM – 50%
June Exam Period
MGMT 7700 – EXAM – 50%
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Appendix 10.3 – Glossary of Directive Words Analyse
Show the essence of something, by breaking it down into its component parts, and then examining each part in detail.
Argue
Present the case for and against a particular proposition.
Comment
Make critical observations which have been backed up by evidence.
Compare
Look
for
the
similarities
and
the
differences
between
propositions. Contrast
Similar to ‘compare’ but with a concentration on the differences.
Critical Analysis
Break a proposition into its component parts. Examine each part in detail presenting a range of opinions both for and against the original proposition. An analysis of this examination will lead you to a conclusion, the rationale of which is supported by evidence.
Criticise
Give your judgement about the merits and detractions of a theory or opinion. Your judgement must be supported by a discussion of the evidence.
Define
Give the precise meaning of a word or phrase. Show that the distinctions implied in the definition are necessary.
Describe
Give a detailed or graphic account without any explanation or criticism.
Diagram
Present an explanation in table or figure form.
Discuss
Examine by argument giving reasons for and against which lead to a conclusion.
Enumerate
List or specify and describe, usually in numerical order.
Evaluate
Present an appraisal of the worth of something, in the context of its apparent truth and utility.
Include your personal opinion,
however, support that opinion with evidence. Evidence
Material used to support an argument including theory from the academic literature; data such as statistics, graphs, qualitative and quantitative survey results; examples from case studies. Different disciplines might require different forms of evidence.
Examine Present in depth and investigate the implications. _____________________________________________________________________ 96
_____________________________________________________________________ Explain
Clarify, interpret and account for in detail.
Illustrate
Explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples, or by the use of a figure or diagram.
Interpret
Explain the meaning of something usually giving your own opinion and a rationale for that opinion.
Justify
Show adequate evidence for your position, conclusions, decisions, and/or judgements.
List
Give an itemised series or tabulation. Be concise.
Outline
Give the main features or general principles of a subject, omitting minor details, and emphasising the structure and relationships.
Prove
Demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting relevant evidence.
Relate
Describe how things are connected to each other and to what extent they are alike or affect each other.
Review
Survey the topic, examining the subject critically.
State
Express points fully and critically.
Summarise
Present a concise account of the main points, omitting details and examples.
Trace
Identify and describe the development or history of a topic from some point or origin.
Adapted from Harry Maddox, 1967, How to Study as presented in Marshall and Rowland (1981: 61), and Cloak and Noad (ND: 17-18).
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Appendix 10.4 – List of Common Mistakes I am reluctant to use the work mistake, however, (1) if you have access to a resource such as this; and (2) you are aware that it demonstrates clearly what is expected of you with regard to the writing of your assignments; and (3) for whatever reason you choose not to follow the guidelines; and (4) as a result your grades suffer – I guess you have made a mistake. Despite the fact that all UQ Business School students have access to this handbook, only a relatively small percentage of students follow the writing guidelines contained in the book. I can only assume that the students who don’t follow the guidelines have either not bothered to read the handbook, and or do not realise the importance of developing their writing skills. Needless to say, it is the students who do follow the guidelines, and continue to develop their writing skills, who continually receive high grades. Following is a brief list of the common mistakes that markers continually see in student’s papers, despite them having a copy of these guidelines. •
In a large percentage of papers the basic mechanics of style are not followed; font size, line spacing, page numbering, cover sheets, et cetera – see Chapter 5.
•
Papers have not been edited carefully enough. You must read your papers out aloud when editing – see Chapter 8.
•
Students don’t seem to understand the importance of referencing and can suffer significant penalties as a result – see Chapter 7.
Also see the item on
“Substantiation” – Chapter 5.1 •
This point might seem very hard to believe. I know I constantly find it very hard to believe, but it is one of the most common mistakes, which results in very poor grades no matter how much work and effort the student has put into the assignment. Students do not address the specific aspects of the question asked. Even when lecturers specifically prepare handouts explaining exactly what is required; not even these sheets are followed – see Chapter 4.1 – 4.2.
•
Brief introductions are rarely used in sections and sub-sections to flag your intentions – let the read know what is ahead – see Chapter 5.1.
•
Brief conclusions are rarely used in sections and sub-sections to tie your arguments
together and then link to the next section – see Chapter 5.1. _____________________________________________________________________ 98
_____________________________________________________________________ •
The level of integration of theory with theory, or the theory with the practical, is frequently very poor. It takes practice to integrate material well. But practice means at least having a go – see Chapter 6.2.
•
More often than not, recommendations are merely a wish-list and are not connected to the arguments in the body of your report – see Chapter 4.2.
•
By far the most concerning aspect of most papers is the lack of critical analysis. There is a big difference between descriptive writing, and analysis or critical analysis. Whilst some description is always required, at university level, generally speaking it is your ability to critically analyse that will attract the greatest marks. This is also a skill that will develop with practice – see Chapter 6.
As you can see, all of these very common mistakes are discussed in some detail in this handbook. I find it fascinating that students know that this handbook is normally used as a guide by the markers of their papers, and yet even very basic things such as font size and other fundamental presentation requirements are not adhered to.
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Appendix 10.5 – Further Reading In addition to the works cited in the reference list, the following books might be useful in improving your study, communication, and assignment writing skills. However, remember that suggested writing styles will differ from author to author. Therefore, unless otherwise instructed, when writing assignments for the UQ Business School the style and methods recommended in this Assignment Writing Handbook are to be used. Academic Resources Corporation. 1987. Effective Study Strategies. Video recording (50 min). Hawthorne: Academic Resources Corporation. Ballard, B., & Clanchy, J. 1984. Study abroad: A manual for Asian students. Kuala Lumpur: Longman. Barnet, S., & Bedau, H. 1987. Current issues and enduring questions: Methods and models of argument from Plato to the present. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Bell, A.H., & Smith, D.M. 1999. Management communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Betts, K., & Seitz A. 1986. Writing essays in the social sciences. Melbourne: Nelson. Clanchy, J., & Ballard, B. 1981. Essay writing for students: A guide for arts and social science students. Melbourne: Cheshire Longman. Dwyer, J. 1999. Communication in business: Strategies and skills. Sydney: Prentice Hall. McLaren, M., & Locker, K.O. 1995. Business and administrative communication. 1st Australasian Edition. Sydney: Irwin. Ober, S. 2001. Contemporary business communication (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Osland, D., Boyd, D., McKenna, W., & Salusinszky, I. 1991. Writing in Australia. Marrickville: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group. Roberts, J. 1985. Successful submission writing: … Projects development and management of change. Melbourne: Information Australia – Margret Gee Media Group. Stanton, H. 1991. Study skills. Audio cassette (60 min) and booklet. Presented by Sandy McCutcheon. ABC Radio. Strunk Jr, W., & White, E.B. 1979. The Elements of Style (3rd ed.). London: Collier Macmillan Publishers. _____________________________________________________________________ 100
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The University of Queensland’s Student Support Services publish the following short handouts. Preparing for Exams, Multiple Choice Exams, How to Study, Memory Skills, Time Management, and Editing Checklist.
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Appendix 10.6 – General Information This section has been included as a brief resource directory of information and services available that might be of assistance to you. Further Reading: Appendix 10.5 contains a list of books on writing skills and related topics that may be of further interest. In addition, you can discuss any issues relating to your assignments with your lecturer, or tutor, or make use of the following services. Study Skills: The University of Queensland Student Support Services offers an extensive range of workshops, support groups, and individual sessions to help you with your exams and assignments. Whilst they cannot do the work for you, they will tell you if you are on the right track. Phone 3365 1704 (St Lucia Campus); and 3381 1011 (Ipswich Campus) for further information and appointments. Research Material: For library advice related to Management topics ask to speak to the library’s adviser for the UQ Business School at the Social Sciences and Humanities Library. Research and Library Skills: The Social Sciences and Humanities Library offers a range of courses on research skills; researching on the Internet; and the use of library facilities. Information can be obtained on the web < www.library.uq.edu.au/training/ > or by contacting the reference desk (ph.3365. 6346). Computer Skills: AskIT offers a large range of IT skills courses, including courses on a variety of software packages.
They are located on Level 2, Duhig building # 2
(SS&H library blg) St Lucia campus, or level 3, building 12, Ipswich campus. For further information and the timetable of courses on offer phone 3365 8811 (St Lucia) or 3381 1293 (Ipswich) or go to the AskIT web site < http://askit.uq.edu.au > Word-processors: There are a number of computer laboratories located around the campus with personal computers available for students to use. At the St Lucia campus, the AskIT Computer Labs are located in the Duhig building (blg 2). – the main student lab is on level 2, however students can use the computers in the AskIT training rooms when trainings are not in session. There is also a computer laboratory for the exclusive use of management, economics, and commerce undergraduate and postgraduate students. This is located in the Chamberlain Building – building 35. It is open between _____________________________________________________________________ 102
_____________________________________________________________________ the hours of 8am to 9pm. However, for 24 hour access you can obtain a pass from the faculty’s Student Resource Centre, level 1 (ground floor), Colin Clark Building – building 39. For students at the Ipswich campus computers are available for use in the Library – building 1, and at the Self-Directed Learning Centre – building 12, level 3. As none of the computer laboratories take bookings, you might have to join a queue during semester times. In addition to the do-it-yourself computer laboratories, the Student Union has an extensive list of people who provide word-processing services. Contact the Student Union Employment Officer (ph. 3377 2241) for details. Non-Discriminatory Language Leaflets: “Gender inclusive language” (OGE, 2000) and “A guide to using culturally inclusive language: Valuing diversity” (Vice Chancellor’s committee against racism, 2001) are available free of charge from the faculty’s Student Resource Centre, level 1 (ground floor), Colin Clark Building – building 39. UQ Business School Contact Details: Phone:
(07) 3365 6475
Fax:
(07) 3365 6988
Email:
[email protected]
Web Site:
http://www.business.uq.edu.au
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Appendix 10.7 – Acknowledgments This handbook was based on a compilation of ideas and concepts adapted from numerous sources including Chenoweth and Tomkins (1997); Summers and Pedersen (1994); Cloake and Noad (nd); AGPS (1994); and the lecturers and tutors who provided invaluable feedback on my own assignments over many years of academic study. In addition, I would like to thank Dr Art Shulman, Dr. Bill Harley, and Dr Jessica Kennedy for their time in reading the draft of this handbook and their suggestions and comments; and Melissa Parker for formatting the final draft of the first edition. In relation to this second edition: I thank Professor Victor Callan, Head of the UQ Business School, for his continued support and funding of this project, and also for his feedback after reading the final draft; Peter Noordink for his interest in the project and for reading the final draft and his invaluable feedback; and Professor Neal Ashkanasy, Dr Amanda Roan, and Malcolm Johnson for there suggestions and comments. Whilst the Academy of Management referencing style is used throughout this book, the Style manual for authors, editors, and printers
(5th edition) published by the
Australian Government Publishing Service (AGPS, 1994) is the primary source of the writing style guidelines. The AGPS (1994) publication should be referred to for a more detailed exposition of appropriate writing styles in Australia.
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REFERENCE LIST AGPS (Australian Government Publishing Service). 1994. Style manual for authors, editors and printers (5th ed.). Canberra: AGPS. APA (American Psychological Association). 1994. Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington: APA Chenoweth, J & Tomkins M. 1997. Department of Government essay guide Brisbane: The University of Queensland. Cloake, P., & Noad, P. nd. Academic writing skills. Unpublished workbook for the Centre for Crime Policy and Public Safety, Faculty of Education. Mt Gravatt: Griffith University. Environmental Audits and Risk Management. nd. Study skills booklet. Unpublished booklet. Graduate School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering. Nathan: Griffith University. Marshall, L. A., & Rowland F. 1981. A guide to learning independently. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire. McCarthy, B. 1980. The 4Mat system: Teaching to learning styles with right/left mode techniques. Arlington Heights: Excel. Niles & Associates, Inc. 1997. End Note 2 plus (3rd ed.). Berkley: Niles & Associates OGE (Office of Gender Equity). 1988. Gender inclusive language. Leaflet on gender inclusive language. Office of Gender Equity. St Lucia: University of Queensland. Page, M.E. 1995. A brief citation guide for Internet sources in history and the humanities. http://www.stedwards.edu/cfpages/stoll/internet.htm October 30. Site visited July 1, 1997. Robbins, S.P., Bergman, R & Stagg, I. 1997. Management. Sydney: Prentice Hall of Australia. SARJ 007 (Seckold, S. Dowd, A-M. Burgess, R. & Curtis, J.) 2001. Student team submission in the subject MGMT 3305 – Managing the Virtual Organisation. Ipswich Campus: UQ UQ Business School Seech, Z. 1993. Writing philosophy papers. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Summers, J., & Pedersen C. 1994. A guide to preparing and presenting written assignments (2nd ed.), Department of Business Studies, Gatton College. Gatton: The University of Queensland. _____________________________________________________________________ 105
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Teitelbaum, H. 1982. How to write a thesis: A guide to the research paper. New York: Prentice Hall Press. Vice Chancellor’s Committee Against Racism. 2001. A guide to using culturally inclusive language: Valuing diversity. Leaflet on non-racist language. St Lucia: The University of Queensland. VIP (Feuerherdt, C. Drane, D. McGreevy, G. & Opperman, R.) 2001. Student team submission in the subject MGMT 3305 – Managing the Virtual Organisation. Ipswich Campus: UQ UQ Business School
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For Your Notes & Lists of Directive Words
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SOME KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER I am here to learn NEW things Use ‘the book’ as a writing role-model and checklist STUDY the question – answer the question asked Don’t read every word – I don’t have the time Critically Analyse – I must not accept what is offered at face value ALWAYS look for the opposing argument and then overcome it Have I answered the “so what?” question Recommendations not supported by a rationale and evidence are just a wish list Have I answered the “says who?” question with a reference - reference EVERYTHING
When in doubt; Check it out! 2nd EDITION – ISBN 0-9578967-0-0
© Kashonia L. Carnegie, 1997, 2001
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