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Victorian Liberalism - Post 1857 92 of 115 It was Victorian liberalism in the post - 1857 India that certainly made paternalism the dominant ideology of the Raj.
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Victorian Liberalism - Post 1857 It was Victorian liberalism in the post - 1857 India that certainly made paternalism the dominant ideology of the Raj. The traumatic experience of the revolt convinced many in £ that in India reform was 'dangerous as well as pointless' and that Indians could never be trained to become like £. India thus passed from the Company rule to the Crown rule, which ironically meant the rejection of a liberal promise of reforming India in order to prepare her for self government. It meant, in other words, a "symbolic endorsement of £ permanence in India". 1. It can't be said that the zeal for reform was totally gone for it could be seen in the the Crown Proclamation of 1858, in the patronage of education, in Indian Councils Act, 1861 and in Local Self Government Act, 1882. 2. But the Orientalist regard for Indian culture, Utilitarian hope for emancipation of Indians was replaced by £ racial superiority. £ were ruling not because 'it was for Indian good or to lift the Indians out of a stagnant culture and economy via christianity, free trade or liberal legislative agenda' (as proclaimed by the Utilitarians) but because they had a right to do so given their racial superiority. Indians were not the 'school children' as thought by utilitarians but were 'primitive savages'. They were beyond redemption and trust was reposed in their 'natural leaders' vis the zamindars and native princes. This arrangement has also been called the 'limited raj' where the colonial regime depended on the local power elites like zamindars of the administration of the interior. 3. Such ideas were reinforced by the rise of racial 'sciences' in £ which furthered the idea of superior races. They couldn't contend with the idea of an ancient glorious civilization of 'dark skinned Indian aborigines' and thus the theory of 'white skinned' Aryan invasion over the dark skinned Indian aborigines was invented. Indians were never fit to rule themselves (as they were racially inferior and had always been ruled by foreign invaders) and all talk of right of self determination was dismissed as being sentimental. 4. Such kind of racialism had always been present in the Raj (although came out more openly now) as Cornwallis had earlier transformed the company officials into an 'aloof elite' maintaining physical separation from the subjects. £ soldiers were forbidden to have any sexual contact with Indian women and were confined to barracks where they would be confined from 'Indian diseases and vices'. £ civilian officers were discouraged from having Indian mistresses and urged to have £ wives. In the imperial cities, a physical separation was maintained between the £ and the Indian settlements and thus every city came to have a 'white town' and a 'black town' intersected by a 'grey town' which was dominated by Eurasians and accessible to natives as well. With time the position of Eurasians (mixed children) went down in the imperial pecking order and they too were barred from holding any important posts. 3 philosophical strands after the 1857 revolt 1. After the 1857 revolt £ rule became very authoritarian. There were 3 reactions to it. First were the liberals who became critical of the authoritarian nation of the Raj. Second were the utilitarians who believed that democracy and self governance were desirable goals and authoritarianism was undesirable, but Indians were not ready or educated enough for it and that is why there was a need for paternalistic authoritarianism. They however nurtured the hope that once Indians become properly educated they can be handed over the political control. 2. The third strand outrightly rejected any form of concession and embraced authoritarianism. They advocated that Indians should never be handed over self rule and there was no obligation on £ side to gradually prepare them for this task. Radicals 1. They applied the doctrines of rationalism, humanism and belief in capacity of man to upgrade himself to Indians as well and wanted India to progress. They were also aided unwillingly by missionary activities as they ridiculed Hinduism and Islam. But later they succumbed to imperialistic thought. Nature and Character of £ Socio-Cultural Policy 10/19/2015 1. It was a colonial policy. £ needed a modern section in India to act as a bridge between themselves and natives, to man lower administrative posts, to spread 9:22 AM
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Nature and Character of £ Socio-Cultural Policy 1. It was a colonial policy. £ needed a modern section in India to act as a bridge between themselves and natives, to man lower administrative posts, to spread market of £ products in India. But too much of modernization might produce a violent reaction or worse spread modern ideas of liberty and nationhood in India. 2. The colonial nature is also reflected in the fact they neglected elementary education and literacy of masses. Education of girls was also neglected. They only spent the meagre amount allocated for education on higher education so as to produce clerks. 3. The policy gave full support to missionary activities in India. These missionaries ridiculed Hindu and Muslim religions. Paintings 1. £ created demand for Indian painting but modified it to suit the moods of west. So there was a reaction in Indian schools. Raja Ravi Varma in Kerala tried to re-establish Indian art using western methods like oil painting. 2. Bengal Revival: Abanindra Nath Tagore and Havel led the revival of Indian art in Bengal. Their style as well as themes were Indian and they tried to revive the best in ancient and medieval art and adapt it to modern times. Nandlal Basu was another leading painter who painted in Ajanta style. Social Reform Movements Nature & Character 1. They were liberal and progressive and not regressive. They were inspired by modern ideas and vision of future. 2. They were religious reforms but they aimed at improving the society and creating consciousness among people. Religion was so omnipresent in those days in social interactions that any meaningful attempt to awaken people and reform the society had to involve religious reforms. 3. They were assimilating in character. They assimilated the ideals of west and east, different religions, past and future. They only took the best in each and didn't ape. Rationalism and scientific attitude were taken from west but materialism and racism rejected. Simplicity and value system was taken from east but narrowness and bigotry rejected. 4. It was indian renaissance though not backward looking. Renaissance means rebirth. Even Arya Samaj didn't mean return to vedic life when it said 'go back to vedas'. It simply meant restoration of the virtues established in Vedas. 5. It was egalitarian. Castes, religions, gender. 6. It had close association with politics and the reformers used political backing to support their cause. 7. They emphasized on the common aspects of Indian culture, weaken the divisive elements and hence create a sense of belonging to common nation. 8. They were humanist, pan Indian and non-violent in their thinking. Significance 1. They created awakening and the cultural background. They emphasized on the common aspects of Indian culture and do away with the divisive elements. They instilled a sense of pride in Indians. The concept of nation emerged. They highlighted how all of us are suffering from same problems. 2. All of them supported education and even founded many institutions. This led to spread of modern education and ideas. 3. They encouraged vernacular languages and press. Ram Mohan Roy had a journal 'Samvad Kaumudi'. But they never really tried to preach their message among the masses. Lacking a broad social base, the reformers thus exhibited an intrinsic faith in the benevolent nature of the colonial rule and tried to impose the reforms from top. Equally important is the colonial character of reforms (orientalists). 1. The dominant colonial perception at that time was that religion was the dominant form of social discourse and that it was codified in the scriptures. The social evils were thought of as the distortions created by self serving interests who had a monopoly over the textual knowledge. Thus most of the reformers translated the 10/19/2015 9:22 AM ancient texts into the local languages and used to derive legitimacy for their agenda by references to the scriptures and not because of any intrinsic humanistic
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1. The dominant colonial perception at that time was that religion was the dominant form of social discourse and that it was codified in the scriptures. The social evils were thought of as the distortions created by self serving interests who had a monopoly over the textual knowledge. Thus most of the reformers translated the ancient texts into the local languages and used to derive legitimacy for their agenda by references to the scriptures and not because of any intrinsic humanistic value. Thus It is simplistic to suggest that the great reformers of the 19th century were not concerned about the welfare of women; but the reforms were not just for women. 2. But it is not justified to say that the reformers just reflected colonial formulations. The earlier writings of Raja RM Roy are indeed full of humanistic pleas to ameliorate the condition of Indian women. The reference of scriptures was just to sell his agenda. They undertook to reform their society and its religious practices in order to adapt them to Western modernity while preserving the core of Hindu tradition. 1. It can be argued that they took recourse to the colonial state for support and direction from the post enlightenment concepts of rationality, but they could never leave the Indian tradition. The Indian modernization project always felt a compulsion to construct a modernity that would be located within Indian cultural space. Raja Ram Mohun Roy 1. Education: He opened many institutions like the Hindu College and the Sanskrit College. He was a champion of modern sciences and western education. He setup a Society for Translating European Sciences in 1825 and the Derozians followed it up with a Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge in 1838. His movement reached a major milestone when in 1876 Mahendra Lal Sarkar setup the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Sciences. 2. Journalism: He had a journal called Samvad Kaumudi and was one of the earliest tall figures in this are who defined the path of its growth. 3. Vernacular Languages: Wrote in Bengali. Translated many books in Bengali. 4. Women: Fought for abolition of sati. Widow remarriage, child marriage. 5. Religion: Fought against priestly domination, caste system, polytheism (translated the upanishads into Bengali to prove that ancient scriptures prescribed monotheism), idol worship, rituals. 6. Politics: Organized first political agitation. 7. International: Kept himself aware of international events. Naples revolution failure => fasted. 8. Economy: Raised his voice on economic issues as well. Bijoy Goswami 1. He took the movement out from the elite circle in Calcutta into the district towns of east Bengal along with KC Sen. He bridged the gap between Brahmo movement and Vaishnavism. Debendra Nath Tagore 1. He reorganized Brahmo Samaj and found Tatvabodhini Sabha. After the 1st Brahmo Samaj split in 1865 over question of radical reforms, he led the old faction called Adi Brahmo Samaj. KC Sen 1. He took the movement out of Bengal. He found Sangat Sabha in 1860. He toured India and helped in founding Veda Samaj by S Naidu and Pratthna Samaj in Maharastra. He found Indian Reform Association which was 1st all India reform association. 2. He promoted girl education and reforms which led to Child Marriage Restraint Act. 3. After the 1st Brahmo Samaj split in 1865 he led the radical faction Bharatvarshiya Brahmo Samaj which wanted to dissociate itself from Hinduism altogether. The other faction led by DN Tagore preferred to maintain their identification with Hinduism. Later on Sen himself became milder and in 1878 there was a 2nd split over the issue of KC Sen marrying off his minor daughter. His rivals formed Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (included SN Bannerjea, AM Bose, Sivnath Sastri). After the 2nd 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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3. After the 1st Brahmo Samaj split in 1865 he led the radical faction Bharatvarshiya Brahmo Samaj which wanted to dissociate itself from Hinduism altogether. The other faction led by DN Tagore preferred to maintain their identification with Hinduism. Later on Sen himself became milder and in 1878 there was a 2nd split over the issue of KC Sen marrying off his minor daughter. His rivals formed Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (included SN Bannerjea, AM Bose, Sivnath Sastri). After the 2nd split, he went on to found Nav-Vidhaan with focus on mixing Hindu and Christian ideas. But eventually the movement died as it succumbed to Hindu revivalism. Arya Samaj 1. It laid stress on infallibility of Vedas (because social evils were absent in those times) and education including modern sciences. It is difficult to ignore the western orientalist touch in his discourse that tried to project Hinduism as a "religion of the book". But in his aggressive response to the west, he fully used the western tools of reason and science. Yet the reforms he argued for were the very reforms £ too argued for. 2. It was an attempt to revitalize Hindu society in face of the insensitive and fraudulent activities of Christian missionaries, westernization of India for colonial purposes. He held Hinduism to be superior than Islam or Christianity because for him 'Vedas alone contained scientific truths'. 3. However, it remained confined to North because the appeal of Vedas was not popular in Dravidian lands and non-Vedic groups. Reforms in W India 1. In W India, reforms began in 2 different ways - one was the orientalist method of rediscovering the glory of ancient Indian civilization through its texts (KT Talang, VN Mandalik and RG Bhandarkar belonged to this school), and the other was the more radical and direct trend of attacking caste system, widow remarriage etc (Mehtaji Durgaram, Dadoba Pandurang, Mandav Dharma Sabha, Paramhansa Mandali). Prarthna Samaj 1. KC Sen visited deccan between 1864 and 1867 and as a direct consequence, Prarthna Samaj was setup by MG Ranade in 1867 along with Atmaram Pandurang, RG Bhandarkar, KT Talang. All the leading personalities of this movement were western educated brahmans and its philosophy followed that of Brahmo samaj even though it maintained its distinction from the latter in avoiding a direct confrontation with the brahmanical society (and thus was more cautious and gradual in approach than Brahmo samaj). Thus it did not seek to break with the past and end all connections with the society. 2. Its activities in AP were spread by the famous widow remarriage champion Veersa Lingam Pantulu. Young Bengal Young Bengal left little distinctive or permanent impression on the plane of religion and philosophy. Thus the challenge was to rediscover reason and science in their own civilization, and to reposition the modernization project within a cultural space defined by Indian tradition. 1. They wanted to transform the scientific rationalist mentality into an effective social agenda. They were guided by free thinking and became notorious for their individual social rebellion. Their importance was that they posed a direct and militant intellectual challenge to the religious and social orthodoxy in Hinduism. 2. They founded the Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge in 1838 and advocated social reforms like ending caste taboos, child marriage, kulin polygamy or the ban on widow remarriage. Yet they couldn't usher in an age of reform because they were too anglicized in their thought and behavior. Any movement which based itself on the western thought and distant from Indian tradition couldn't have succeeded in India. Thus the challenge was to rediscover reason and science in their own civilization, and to reposition the modernization project within a cultural space defined by Indian tradition. Other Women Movements It is simplistic to suggest that the great reformers of the 19th century were not concerned about the welfare of women; but the reforms were not just for women. 1. When civilizations were ranked, one of the major criteria was the position of women and it was here that Indian civilization was severely criticized. So the educated Indians responded to this criticism by advocating women reforms. Such reforms however affected only few women. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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1. When civilizations were ranked, one of the major criteria was the position of women and it was here that Indian civilization was severely criticized. So the educated Indians responded to this criticism by advocating women reforms. Such reforms however affected only few women. 2. In 1841 an anonymous Maratha brahman reformer advocated child remarriage of infant widows as a measure to control their sexuality and to make their reproductive capacity socially useful. 3. In 1860s a strong movement under Vishnu Sastri for widow remarriage began but in 1870 it suffered a setback when the reformists were defeated in a public debate. By 1900, only 38 widow remarriages had taken place and in all the places the couples had to face immense social pressure. 4. In Telugu speaking areas of Madras, Veersa Lingam Pantulu started the widow remarriage movement and founded the Society for Social Reform in 1878. He officiated the 1st widow remarriage in 1881 in Rajahmundry. He was able to rally support for the movement and in 1891 a Widow Remarriage Association was formed with the patronage of prominent citizens of the town. 5. In Bengal, Vidyasagar continued his reform movement, directing it against polygamy and child marriage and finally secured the 1856 Act as well as the 1860 Age of Consent Act (fixing the minimum age of consent @ 10). This was raised to 12 by the 1891 Act. BR Ambedkar 1. Journalism: Mook Nayak (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1924), Prabuddha Bharat (1929). 2. Associations: 1st Depressed Classes Conference @ Mangaon / Kolhapur (1920), Bahishkrit Sabha @ Bombay (1924), 2nd Depressed Classes Conference @ Mahad (1927) where he publicly burnt Manu Smriti, Simon Committee (1928), 3rd Depressed Classes Conference @ Nagpur (1930), Independent Labor Party (1936). 3. Agitations: Mahad Satyagrah (1924) for right of untouchable to draw water from public wells, Ferazai Movement 1. It was led initially by Shariatullah of Farirpur (E Bengal) and later by his son Muhammad Mehsin (Dadu Mian). 2. He was influenced by Wahabism and preached radical ideas, need to oppose exploitation. He campaigned against payment of rents. Wahabi Movement 1. It was preached in India by Syed Ahmed Khan of Barelli and it was popular in NWFP. 2. It stressed on purity of Islam and was orthodox.
Economy £ Economic Policy in India Phase 1 Mercantilism (1600-1757) 1. Its role was that of a trading corporation which exported Indian goods in exchange for foreign goods or bullion. So it tried to develop new markets for Indian products abroad and increased Indian exports. By 18th century, Indian clothes had become so popular in € that the € governments imposed stiff trade barriers on Indian products. 2. However, unlike the free trade prevailing in India, £ tried to mix politico-military power with trade, used bribes, negotiations and show of force to gain trade concessions and monopolies. Phase 2 Mercantilism with Political Power (1757-1813) 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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Phase 2 Mercantilism with Political Power (1757-1813) 1. This was the phase where company had control of Bengal resources as well as had nizamat powers in Bengal (1765 onwards). So the company began to misuse its powers to rapidly expand trade. Thus the expanding trade brought only poverty to India. 2. It used revenues of BBO to finance its Indian expenses and to pay for Indian exports. 3. It began to coerce Indian artisans to produce on their terms - forced labor, high input prices, lower output prices. Since it had nizamat powers as well, no one could check this. On top of it, trade barriers continued on Indian goods in €. Phase 3 Industrial Capitalism (1813- 1880) 1. This was the time Industrial Revolution had taken firm ground in £ and £ was manufacturing items in factories. 2. The Charter Act of 1813 ended company's monopoly on Indian trade (except tea) and so the £ manufactured goods began to pour in. Indian handicrafts were now ruined. India became a source of raw materials. Colonialization of Indian economy was firmly practiced. 3. These manufactured goods were imported without any duties while Indian goods had to face trade barriers in €. 4. Other manifestations of this policy were in increased annexation, anglicization of Indian education and missionary activities, development of means of communication. Phase 4 Finance Capitalism (1880 onwards) 1. £ capital was invested in Indian Railways, banks, insurance, ports. Agriculture The agrarian society thus proved to be more resilient than once thought to be. 1. Contrary to received wisdom, modern research has established that the effects of these changes were less spectacular than once imagined, and had significant regional variations, as the land transfers could not fundamentally alter the structure of land holding everywhere. Thus in PS , jotedars retained their traditional influence and not as many outsiders were introduced as was once thought. In RS, it were the local elites or the mirasidars who gained and even in Deccan, only central Deccan saw large influx of Gujarati money lenders. In the MS , local officials, primary zamindars etc. gained although in some cases alien elements came to hold land as well. Tenancy Reforms 1. In 1859 and 1885 the £ brought out tenancy legislations which to some extent protected the tenants by recognizing their occupancy rights. Early Efforts (1765-93) 1. When the company got the diwani rights, it had no idea about LR mechanism in India and no data + not enough officers. So the company appointed naib diwans for BBO. These naib diwans used the existing machinery to collect LR, deduct 10% LR and deposit rest. But this couldn't function properly as - (a) although the native officers were in charge of collection, they were supervised by europeans and their resulting corruption led to under collection for the company. (b) the company had informational disadvantage and there was conflict of interests. 2. So in 1772, Warren Hastings put the naib diwan behind bars (since he wanted to take full control of the revenue collection process) and introduced the 5 year farming system where the company auctioned the zamindari rights for 5 years. The amount due from zamindars was fixed for 5 years and thereafter annual settlements were done. But all of them failed since the burden of revenue demand on the farmers became so onerous that it could not be collected at all. 3. In 1776, Warren Hastings appointed a commission to know the true value of LR. The commission submitted its report in 1778 and this became the basis of the yearly contracts. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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settlements were done. But all of them failed since the burden of revenue demand on the farmers became so onerous that it could not be collected at all. 3. In 1776, Warren Hastings appointed a commission to know the true value of LR. The commission submitted its report in 1778 and this became the basis of the yearly contracts. Permanent Settlement Why did £ make Zamindar the landlord? (a) Colonial Interpretation 1. Misunderstanding. In £ the landlords were the central figure in agriculture and he cultivated via hired labor. £ thought zamindars were his Indian counterpart. (b) Critique of Colonial Interpretation - Creation of private property in land was a misnomer, as the absolute ownership was retained by the imperial authority. 1. In £, landlord was land owner with respect to tenant as well as state. But the zamindar of India was a land owner with respect to tenant only and with respect to the state he was a mere tenant. Instead of paying small amount of income as tax as in £, he had to pay 10/11 of his income to government. 2. They created a class of zamindars who was completely dependent upon them as they needed such a buffer. 3. Making zamindar the owner of land also was administratively easier as £ now had to concern themselves only with zamindars. Financially it was safer for the £ as well as in case a zamindar failed to pay LR, he could be removed and land auctioned to a new zamindar and auction proceeds would pay for the shortfall in LR. 4. A zamindar would only invest in the land for improvement if he has the ownership. What do we mean by 'zamindar was made landlord'? 1. Under Akbar, the peasant held all land and the zamindar could be removed by Akbar on a complaint by peasants. The state recognized the rights of the peasant through patta. So zamindar couldn't also act arbitrarily and remove a peasant or try to collect more. 2. Under £, they said,"give us LR, so long as you give us that, we will not terminate your zamindari rights". So zamindar was free to act arbitrarily and he could even evict a peasant who would have no recourse. Circumstances Leading to PS 1. The company realized that the existing system (revenue farming for fixed tenures) was impoverishing the country, ruining agriculture and was not producing the large and regular surplus that the company had hoped for. As a result its trade had suffered as well because of the difficulty in procuring Indian goods for export. 2. The next problem was to decide as from who to collect the revenue and how much to collect. The nawabs used to collect from zamindars and there were some large land magnates who controlled large areas with their own armed retainers (in 1790 12 zamindars paid ~53% revenue). Others were small zamindars who would pay directly to the state or through the big zamindars. Peasants would pay the zamindars at customary rates. But via the previous experiments, the company administration had thoroughly confused the situation as it retained some zamindars while replacing others with ijardars, customary rates were violated as revenue demand was increased. Economic Philosophy Behind PS 1. This reduced discretionary powers and thus will reduce the corruption that existed when the officers could alter the assessment at will. It was also hoped to save on manpower. 2. The LR since it was going to be fixed in perpetuity was going to be fixed at a high level. This would ensure higher and stable revenue for the company in initial years while later on the taxes on trade etc. could be increased. Thus estimates are that the LR demand nearly doubled between 1765 and 1793. Impact of PS: Change vs Continuity 1. The patta feature of PS was never implemented (either by zamindars or the peasants for they feared losing their rights in any formal agreement). The peasant had 9:22 AM 10/19/2015
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Impact of PS: Change vs Continuity 1. The patta feature of PS was never implemented (either by zamindars or the peasants for they feared losing their rights in any formal agreement). The peasant had lost his land right in 1793 itself and subsequent Acts of 1799 and 1812 gave right to the zamindars to seize property of the tenants as well without any court order in case of non payment of rent. Due to overall increased exploitation naturally the overall cultivation went down. 2. It increased the pressure on zamindars as well and there were large scale transfers of zamindaris. Thus within the first 20 years, more than 50% zamindari changed hands. But contrary to 'old myths' the new guys who bought it were not exactly 'new'. The old zamindaris were parceled out by their own (zamindari) officials, kinsmen, neighboring zamindars, sub-feudatories etc which merely elongated the chain of intermediaries living off the land surplus. 3. Jotedar thesis: Then there were some which were taken up by rich peasants. Also 1859 and 1885 tenancy regulations (which provided benefits to the tenants) could not provide any relief to the poor cultivators. Rather these reforms strengthened the position of a group of powerful rich peasants - jotedars - who controlled vast areas particularly in N Bengal (while zamindars controlled merely revenue collection rights). Ray and Ray (1973, 1975) argue that the power of this class and their control over the rural society remained unaffected and herein lay the basic continuity of the rural social structure in colonial Bengal. Bose (1986) however countered this saying that the jotedars were at best influential in N Bengal only and in rest of the areas the power of the zamindars continued unchecked as late as 1930s. Further research showed that in other areas the zamindars probably retained influence and authority but there also existed all along a section of substantial peasants who too yielded power. However, the interests of the 2 classes were complementary to each other and they often worked in unison. Ryotwari Settlement Economic Ideas Behind RS 1. Ricardian theory of rent showed that rent was the surplus from land which in Indian case the (unproductive) intermediaries kept with themselves without performing any useful activity and thus didn't deserve to keep it. So the state had a legitimate claim on this surplus (since it was the excess of output after compensating the cultivator for inputs). Another reason was the perennial financial crisis of the Madras presidency.
RS created individual property right in land and it was vested in the peasants rather than in zamindars. But it defined the state itself as the supreme landlord and individual peasants as the landowners who obtained title by paying annual cash rents or revenue assessments to the government. 1. It was based on a field assessment system where the rent payable on each field was to be permanently assessed through a general survey of all lands. Then the government and the peasant would enter into annual arrangements for cultivation who had the choice of accepting it or rejecting it. If he agreed he would get a patta if he didn't the state could lease out his land to someone else (violating the private property concept) and if no one was willing to cultivate the land, it would lie fallow. 2. Thus in order to be successful a detailed survey was needed and assessments to be realistic. But in practice, assessments were made by guesswork and revenue demanded was excessively high. The revenue was fixed on the entire farm and not on each field while some of the land may be irrigated and some dry, no considerations were made. And peasants were coerced into acceptance. The cultivating peasants therefore were gradually impoverished and increasingly indebted and couldn't invest for the extension of cultivation. Factors Responsible
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1. £ utilitarian philosophy. They were against monopoly of zamindars. 2. £ thought this was the original system of India. The poligars had subsequently usurped the land rights and sovereignty when the power of the state had declined. This needed to be reversed now. 3. Need to eliminate zamindars and corner more revenue. Madras was anyways revenue deficient. 4. Failure of PS. Came up in Madras in 1820 and in Bombay in 1825. 5. Fixing PS revenue in perpetuity. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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4. Failure of PS. Came up in Madras in 1820 and in Bombay in 1825. 5. Fixing PS revenue in perpetuity. Features 1. Assessment & collection @ individual level. Based on survey & measurement. Fertility of soil and type of crops being sown kept into mind. 2. LR in cash or kind. 1/3 to 2/5 level. A peasant free not to cultivate if he didn't agree. In such a case, land would be auctioned to another peasant. If no one willing to pickup, then left fallow. 3. LR adjusted in 35 years. Patta and kubuliyat present. Impact - RS was the 'golden age' of Mirasidars 1. Coercion. Peasants forced to cultivate. Actual land revenue was ~80% due to inflated assessment. Farmers began to abandon land and fly into nearby jungles. According to a survey conducted in 1855 by the Madras government, ~ 60% of cultivable land was lying fallow. 2. The RS was favorable to the village elites or mirasidars. As their privileged rents and special rights were recognized and caste privileges of brahmans were respected in the RS, the existing village power structure hardly altered, and indeed was even more strengthened by the new system. These elements who also often worked in the positions of local revenue officials appropriated most of the vacant land at lucrative prices (since there were no other buyers). Moreover after 1816, these local revenue officials were also vested with the police duties (apart from the already held revenue duties) which spelled doom for the poor peasants. Absentee landlordism also grew as a result. Reforms in RS 1. In 1855 (on the recommendations of Madras Torture Commission) a scientific survey of the land and a fresh assessment of revenue was undertaken which resulted in some decline of the actual tax burden. It was decided that the revenue rate will be half of the net value of produce and the settlement would be done for 30 years. The system was implemented from 1864 but by then most of the damage had been done and it strengthened the position of the new landlords (who had already displaced most of the old ones). RS in Deccan 1. Initially in these areas, £ were collecting revenue via the traditional deshmukhs. But this didn't yield as much revenue as they hoped for and from 1813 they began to collect LR on their own directly from the peasants. Soon the abuses of the Madras system appeared here as well and peasants lost their land to money lenders or migrated to the neighboring native states. 2. In 1835 'Bombay Survey System' was devised which was a practical settlement aiming at lowering the LR demand to a reasonable limit which will ensure its regular payment. The actual assessment of the field was to be based on what it paid in the immediate past, the expected price rise, the nature of soil etc. It was implemented from 1836. 3. It is believed it gave rise to the Deccan uprising of 1875 since it reduced the village patils and deshmukhs to an ordinary level. £ however argue that this process had started from the time of Sivaji itself and they were merely continuing it. Moreover this displacement was not uniform in all areas and it was only in central Deccan that a power vacuum was created at the local level (where the Gujarati money lenders stepped in) and the 1875 revolt was not centered here. As for the peasants the new settlement had made LR less burdensome. If they became indebted this indebtedness was 'long standing'. Mahalwari Settlement Evolution - The refractory and oppressive nature of the taluqdars and the need to maximize revenue as well as protect the rights of the peasant proprietors to ensure the improvement of agriculture, rather than the influence of Ricardian theory of rent, prompted the making of Mahalwari Settlement. 101 of 115
1. These areas had a small group of intermediary zamindars - taluqdars - who contracted with the state to collect LR. Then there were a large group of10/19/2015 primary 9:22 AM
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improvement of agriculture, rather than the influence of Ricardian theory of rent, prompted the making of Mahalwari Settlement. 1. These areas had a small group of intermediary zamindars - taluqdars - who contracted with the state to collect LR. Then there were a large group of primary zamindars who held the ownership rights over land and included small owner cultivators as well as large proprietors of several villages. 2. The £ initially tried to make short term settlements with the taluqdars but they were again based on faulty assessments and had fixed the revenue demand too high. Many of the big taluqdars resisted this increased demand and were disposed of ruthlessly. Many were driven off and their fortresses flattened. The land which was then sold in auction was most of the times bought by revenue officials, civil servants, merchants, bankers etc. thus creating a whole new class of landlords alienated from the village community. 3. Mackenzie in 1819 asserted that only the village bodies were the real owners of land in Oudh and thus from taluqdars the £ preference now shifted to the primary zamindars and the village communities. The 1822 Regulation (based on Mackenzie's recommendations) provided for a detailed field to field survey for revenue assessment and settlement to be made with the village community, primary zamindars and taluqdars depending upon the local structure of land relations. Apart from the overall settlement, the rent to be paid by individual cultivator was to be recorded as well. But the new settlement from the very beginning was enmeshed in confusion, and corruption, as in practice it was virtually impossible to implement. 1. The survey which was at the core of the new arrangement failed because it was too complex to be carried out with the existing administrative machinery. The obvious result was over assessment, corruption, arrears started mounting, land remained uncultivated and buyers were difficult to find. 2. In 1833 the system was reformed to make it more manageable. Now the detailed survey would be carried out at the mahal level and the total revenue so fixed would be shared by the members of the mahal. The state was to get 2/3 of the net income from the land and the settlement would be made for 30 years. Impact 1. Even the surveys after the 1833 reforms remained imperfect and rid with over assessment, and remained hostile towards the taluqdars. The increasing pressure and £ hostility led to many of them losing their jobs. Land passed in the hands of money lenders and alien land lords in many cases. One can hardly say nothing happened, the grievances of the rural society of N India were soon to be expressed rather loudly and violently in the revolt of 1857. Commercialization of Agriculture Factors Responsible 1. £ utilitarians, their free trade policy, economic colonialization of India as it became a raw material supplier. 2. Cash based economy encouraged by £ coupled with huge LR demand. But the LR argument is a weak since a cash economy would mean even the food grains can be sold in the market and higher prices of cash crops would indicate a profit motive. 3. Breakdown of self-sufficiency of villages. Indian economy became closely inter-linked and also linked with international markets. Need to balance trade of China led to cultivation of opium. 4. Development of means of transport like railways, Suez canal. 5. Coercive practices followed by £ backed by legislations. £ capital. Pattern of CoA
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1. It was a coercive process and exploitative. The benefits never accrued to the peasants because of this. A classic case is indigo plantation. The farmers could hardly reap any benefits of higher prices due to monopoly coercion by the manufacturers (often £ earlier on and later Indians) while the lower prices were passed on to them. The coercion element prevented CoA from becoming a tool for the modernization of agriculture. 2. It involved plantations where land was owned by € planter and labor was hired. It also involved indigo type cultivation where a contract was signed with the peasant. 3. It involved regional development only. Only some pockets were suitable for some crops. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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2. It involved plantations where land was owned by € planter and labor was hired. It also involved indigo type cultivation where a contract was signed with the peasant. 3. It involved regional development only. Only some pockets were suitable for some crops. 4. The crops were cultivated keeping £ needs in mind. Thus cotton production in deccan was encouraged due to $ civil war. Jute came up in Bengal to serve £ factories. The cultivation of indigo declined after the synthetic dye came up, opium grew till 1900 then decline as China stopped importing opium. Wheat export began to increase to £ and it was produced in areas in Maharastra despite not being a staple crop in the region. Bengal rice was exported to China, SE Asia. Impact 1. Volatility killed. Widespread poverty. Coercion. £ grip on India increased. 2. Famines (food grain production lagged behind the population growth and the element of coercion meant that land was forcibly diverted from food grains to cash crops disregarding market signals), agricultural indebtedness. 3. Revolts, growth of nationalism. Famines Major Famines 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Bengal Famine of 1770. Wiped out 1/3 of population. In 1784, Madras was struck by a massive famine. In 1792, N India struck by a famine. In 1803, another famine in Oudh. In 1833, Guntoor famine which wiped out 40% of population. In 1837, another famine in N India.
Famine Policy 1. The £ company was totally unconcerned about it. Some sort of policy started evolving only after the transfer of power to £ crown. 2. In 1861, Delhi-Agra region was struck by a famine. A committee was appointed but no significant study was undertaken and situation remained largely unchanged. 3. In 1866 the Odisha famine struck and 3 mm died. A committee was setup to look into the causes. The committee suggested that steps should be taken to generate employment and famine relief measures should be carried out. 4. In 1876-78 another famine struck in many parts of India and 5 mm died. Richard Stretchy commission was appointed in 1880 which suggested - (a) A famine code be formulated, (b) LR should be remitted for famine struck areas, (c) Data about peasantry should be collected to understand the true causes of the famine, (d) A famine relief fund should be established. As a result of its recommendations, (a) A famine relief fund with a corpus of Rs. 1 cr was setup. (b) A famine code was implemented in 1886 which divided the famine prone areas into various categories, listed the precautions to be taken in normal times, listed the relief measures to be taken in a famine and the responsibilities of the officials in relief campaigns. 5. In 1896-97 a major famine struck in whole India. Another commission was appointed but nothing came out. 6. In 1899-00, another famine broke out in India. McDonnell commission was appointed which recommended - (a) Famine commission be established to coordinate relief measures. (b) Famine code be revised. (c) Transportation facilities be developed. (d) Agricultural banks should be setup. (e) Irrigation facilities should be developed. In pursuance with recommendations a famine commission was setup, famine code revised and irrigation facilities developed. 7. In 1942-43 Bengal famine happened. Another commission was appointed which suggested merger of departments of food and agriculture and steps be taken to increase agriculture production. Means of Communication Railways Factors Responsible 103 of 115
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Means of Communication Railways Factors Responsible 1. 2. 3. 4.
Free traders and their influence. Good for capital. Good for £ iron and steel industries. Good for administration.
Features of Railway Development 1. Till 1869, railway development was with private capital assuring 5% guaranteed rate of return with full capital back at the end of 99 years. But this proved inadequate and slow although in this period railways attracted some £70 mm of foreign capital. So from 1869-1880, railways were built as a state enterprise. From 1880 onwards, both private and public capital was used. 2. All capital was £. Indian capital as well as other € and $ capital was not allowed. Till 1901, IR was a losing concern and all losses to private capital were made good by £ government. 3. Guaranteed return on cost led to inefficiencies. Against and estimated cost of £9,000 per mile, actual cost was £30,000 per mile. When the government began to construct on its own, the cost turned out to be £12,000 per mile. 4. Railways were just another colonial enterprise keeping in mind only colonial interest in design (connected internal markets with ports only and not with internal cities, connected frontier areas to facilitate army movement), implementation and use. Even the coal used to run the railways was imported from £. The transfer of technology remained confined to low technology areas like plate laying, bridge building or tunneling while the higher technologies were never Indianized. Many nationalists believe that such capital could have been much more beneficial had it been invested in irrigation. 5. But when £ left, they left behind 65K km of railway lines - obviously an unintended product of £ imperialism. Telegraph Postal Services European Business Enterprises Managing Agency System Nature & Character 1. These were partnership firms or private limited firms. Within these firms, control was limited to 3-4 people and was hereditary. 2. They used to provide management expertise to the companies. 3. They also used to act as financiers and promoters. When a company applied for a loan, apart from the company's signatures, a managing agency signature was also required. Sometimes, the themselves used to lend. Thus they acted as financiers. Then due to absence of capital markets, while promoting new companies, these agencies used to buy shares temporarily and offload later. This way they acted as promoters. Limitations 1. They had too much of power vested in them. This led to lack of interest on Indian capitalists' part to float their own ventures. 2. Poor corporate governance as they were opaque in functioning, hereditary in control and shareholder had little power. 3. Sometimes their remuneration was linked to goals contrary to goals of the shareholders. Example sales maximization instead of profits. So through successive companies acts and amendments, their power was curtailed and eventually abolished. Advantages 104 of 115
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Advantages 1. They provided capital when no one did. 2. They modernized Indian market. Introduced the practice of public capital whereas in those days it used to be family capital only. Economic Transformation of India Decline of Indian Handicrafts Factors Responsible 1. The character of £ rule. 2. The misuse of political-administrative power by £. They used to force artisans to work for them @ low wages, pay less for output, pay more for input, reveal trade secrets. So Indian manufacturing became an unprofitable venture. 3. Policy of one way free trade due to impact of utilitarians who emphasized laissez faire. 4. Policy of annexation resulted in loss of patronage and loss of market as well. 5. Westernization of India - missionaries and middle class. Consequences 1. Deindustrialisation, pressure on land increased, de-urbanization. 2. Poverty, famines. 3. Class of landless labor increased in number. Did India under £ experience any economic development at all? It was after the pacification of the revolt of 1857 that the 'classical colonial economic relationship' between £ and India gradually emerged. 1. At the time of WW1, Indians consumed 85% of Lancashire cotton piecegoods and 17% of £ steel was absorbed into Indian railways. Until WW1, there was no import duty which could possibly offer any protection to Indian industries. Even after the 1919 Fiscal Autonomy Convention where the import duty policies were supposed to be changed, any rise in cotton duties was offset by a rise in excise duties as well in the wake of Lancashire lobby which fought for "our rights" in India which was considered to be an "important imperial asset". 2. Similarly Indian exports with other countries helped £ to overcome their BoP deficit with them and her exports to £ satisfied the raw material needs of the £ companies. Home charges and drain of wealth was another factor of exploitation. Debate: How big was the drain? 1. Colonial historians argued that the drainage represented < 2% of the value of Indian exports in that period. Another argument is that some of the expenditure was to encourage economic development in India (guarantee on loans, encourage FDI etc.). Much of the foreign loans were used for the development of infrastructure in India and £ enabled her to borrow cheaply from the world markets. £ and Irrigation
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1. There was very limited colonial initiative to develop agriculture in India except for the construction of some irrigation canals in NW, NE and SW India i.e. the non PS areas where there was a scope of increasing revenues (in PS the revenues were fixed). Still the area under irrigation remained a small % of the total cropped area. Even in areas where canals were constructed the canal charges remained high and only the rich peasants and landlords could avail of them. Thus the entire exercise remained ineffective as it was guided solely by profit motive. Famine conditions tell the true story. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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£ and Industries (Revisionist Literature) 1. Some historians argued that the rate of deindustrialization of cotton industry was not significant since as late as 1930s the handlooms continued to produce coarse cloth for the poorer consumers in India. If they declined afterwards it was because they were taken over by Indian mills. But this is a weak argument. Research indicates that in the 19th century, the proportion of industrial population declined to less than half in many parts of the country. 2. Some historians also argue that while employment declined, real income per worker in the industry increased between 1900 and 1947. And this rise in per capita income was not merely due to rise in modern industries but also due to rise in productivity per worker in the small scale sector. As such it was brought about by technological and managerial changes (substitution of wage labor for family labor). Production now came to be done for non local markets as well, a shift occurred from local to long distance trade and development of infrastructure aided in this. 3. But it has been pointed out that if such a development took place why didn't the share of industry grow in the GDP. Between 1881 and 1947, the structure of economy remained virtually unchanged with agriculture contributing 70% and manufacturing 10%. The growth of industrial sector before WW2 was only 3.5% p.a. which was not fast enough to set India on course of IR. 4. Another major reason for the failure of Indian industry was the £ monopoly over capital and the european managing system. Then the state itself was far from just being a 'night watchman' and followed a policy of discrimination against the Indian industries. A clear example is the tea plantations in Assam which were developed in 1833 by the government. Later on when they were transferred to the private sector, Indian capital was completely ignored. The 1859 Inland Emigration Act also secured the supply of labor to these european plantations. Gradually India's role in the greater imperial structure was subordinated to its own domestic requirements. The imperial goals and ideology were muted to accommodate pressures built up in India, both financial and political. 1. Between 1880 and WW1, successive financial crisis and famines showed that India was incapable of bearing the financial burden of serving the empire. 2. Development of political opinion made any increase in internal taxes a risky affair. This resulted in the weakening of imperial goal and sharing of power. The WWs saw end of £ imports into India, gradually import tariffs were imposed, £ investments in India declined, £ trade with India declined and the use of £ Indian army to serve the £ empire too declined - for the cost now had to be borne by London or by the colony which needed it.
£ Conquest Dutch Power 1. The real founder of Dutch power in India was Jan Linschoten and the Dutch company is sometimes called Jan Van Company. Their Indian headquarters were @ Pulicat which they got from Raja of Chandragiri (successor of Vijaynagar empire). 2. Their 1st factory in India was @ Masaulipatnam (famous for Muslin cloth) and they got a farmaan from ruler of Golconda. 3. They were defeated by £ in Battle of Bedara (1756) and Battle of Chinsura which ended their power in India. Debate #1 Was £ Conquest Planned or an Accident? Colonial Interpretation
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1. £ were busy in commercial activities. Circumstances evolved such that £ found themselves masters of India. Marshall has argued that until 1784, there was no conscious or consistent policy for the political conquest of India. The foundation and the growth of the empire was the initiative of the company officials i.e. a case of subordinate colonialism. The opportunity for such an initiative were provided by the political feud following the decline of the Mughals in India and10/19/2015 thus the 9:22 AM
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1. £ were busy in commercial activities. Circumstances evolved such that £ found themselves masters of India. Marshall has argued that until 1784, there was no conscious or consistent policy for the political conquest of India. The foundation and the growth of the empire was the initiative of the company officials i.e. a case of subordinate colonialism. The opportunity for such an initiative were provided by the political feud following the decline of the Mughals in India and thus the reasons for the establishment of £ empire in India need to be traced in India and not in £. 2. In the beginning the difficulties of communication with £ gave the company's officials in India virtually a free hand here to behave like their own masters. There was misinformation and lack of interest about Indian affairs in £. Thus the £ empire was a result of sub imperialism only and not any conscious policy from the metropole. 3. Their dominant objective and preoccupation was trade. True, they sought to gain more trade concessions from the native rulers and didn't hesitate in using bribery, diplomacy and sometimes military to achieve it, but their concern was not political dominance, only trade. It didn't concern itself with the political battles of the age. They fought and defeated Portuguese @ Battle of Swally Hole / Surat in 1612 and used the goodwill created to open a factory @ Surat. Then it got further privileges from Jahangir in exchange for protecting Mughal ships form Portuguese. They were never in favor of free trade anyways and used these concessions / monopolies to get an advantage over others. They opened up multiple factories for carrying out their trading operations. Their activities revolved around their settlements / factories which became the nuclei of flourishing trade activities. Nationalist Interpretation 1. This was planned. What £ did in India was not unique to India. They had done this worldwide. To go as traders and then to conquer it when the native powers decline. Phase I (1600-1749) Nature & Character of £ Strategy
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1. But it is also not possible to decline the role of the metropole in this expansion. The connection between trade and the use of arms is only too obvious as a policy of the £. Also despite the apparent separation between the company and the state, the two were intimately linked in promoting England's diplomatic goals as the company owed its privileges (and the very existence) to a charter granted by the king. In the beginning, to secure wealth and independence for the crown, the Stuart kings followed an aggressive commercial policy in the Indian ocean and coast with the use of navy. There were also clear instructions on how to divide the booty between the government and the company in case of any joint campaign. 2. The island of Bombay was gifted by the crown to the company for a toke sum and it may be noted that the Portuguese gave the island of Bombay to the crown on the condition that it would be used to protect the Portuguese settlements in India. When the crown handed it over to the company, this obligation was transfered as well. 3. The company's directors in London time and again gave directives to India to follow an aggressive policy backed by military power as is evident from their letters. The company tried to do so although it is another matter that they were defeated by Aurangzeb but this can't hide the fact that it was a part of their policy. By 1750s, the company had gained decisive technological and military edge and converted its defeat into victory. If later the London authorities became averse to wars (1784 - 1813) then it was only because of the rising costs of wars and not any other reasons. 4. Then the relationship between the company and the crown was always mutually beneficial. The company used to pay gifts / tributes / loans to the crown time and again. Then again in 1698 the £ authorized the foundation of a rival company when it offered a loan of £2 mm to the crown as against the old company which was prepared to offer a loan of £700 K only. This proved that the trading rights with India were a marketable commodity which could be used by the crown. The 2 companies were merged in 1709 again and the crucial role of the company in furthering £ financial interests was recognized . In 1770s, the company agreed to pay the crown £400 K annually in return for confirming its territorial possessions in India. "Now the company was looked upon as a powerful engine in the hands of the government for the purposes of drawing from a distant country the largest revenue it is capable of yielding". The charters were now seen as providing "delegated sovereignty" while the monopoly of trade and territorial possessions were considered to be returns on the public funds invested. The regulating act of 1773 further subjected the company to crown control. Indian resources came to be seen as an important source to finance £ capitalist industrial revolution. It is thus clear that the crown wanted a share in the Indian exploits as much as the company officials. territorial 9:22 AM 5. Thus the search for revenue, quest for trading privileges and the imperatives of military exigencies all took the driving seat to accelerate the process of 10/19/2015
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subjected the company to crown control. Indian resources came to be seen as an important source to finance £ capitalist industrial revolution. It is thus clear that the crown wanted a share in the Indian exploits as much as the company officials. 5. Thus the search for revenue, quest for trading privileges and the imperatives of military exigencies all took the driving seat to accelerate the process of territorial conquest and erect in India the most magnificent empire that £ ever had. Evolution 1. First English factory was opened in Masaulipatnam in 1611, then in Surat in 1612. In 1639, they got Madras on lease from the local raja and the right to fortify it. This was called Fort St. George. 2. In 1633, factories were opened in Odisha (Hariharpur and Balasor) and in 1651, the factory @ Hooghly came up. In 1634, the company got the right to carry out sea trade in Bengal. 3. In 1668, the EEIC got Bombay from the £ government and immediately fortified it. It was easy to defend against Marathas, hence the centre of operations in the west shifted from Surat to Bombay. 4. Jahangir gave them right to setup trading posts anywhere in the Mughal empire. In 1651, the governor of Bengal gave them right to carry on duty free trade in Bengal in return of a lump sum payment of Rs. 3,000. These concessions were further extended by the governor of Bengal in 1698. In 1717, they got an imperial farmaan from Farukh Siyar to carry out duty free trade and other concessions. This brought them in increasing conflict with the Nawabs. 5. In 1698, the EEIC got the zamindari rights of 3 villages - Kalikata, Sutanati and Govindpur. These became Calcutta and Fort St. Williams. Fort Williams was built and fortified to counter the rebellion by a zamindar Shobha Singh. Phase II (1749-1813) Nature & Character of £ Strategy - Colonial Interpretation 1. A number of wars and battles were fought in this period by the £. Yet the element of planning and deliberate strategy was missing earlier on and evolved only slowly. Still the focus was not as much on extending direct territorial control over India as on preserving their commercial interests and political influence. For this, £ followed a strategy of using the struggles of native powers to their advantage and then to reduce them to subordinate status. 2. The £ were forced into the Carnatic wars as a result of the actions of the French. Once the French had emerged victorious in round 1, they had to fight them out even to maintain their foothold. 3. That BoP was largely due to the actions of an individual, Clive, can't be denied but at the same time, the conflicts before that which led to Siraj sacking Calcutta and subsequent £ action of recovering it shows that £ were determined to defy Indian political powers to protect their legitimate and illegitimate commercial interests. Still that the official policy was only to restore £ rule in Calcutta shows that the policy of political expansion had not been formulated yet. 4. It was after BoP that £ found themselves in possession of valuable influence in Bengal that they began to develop a policy to protect that. Though they didn't interfere in day-to-day affairs of Nawab, they retained the power to remove him or to influence major policy decisions. This led to further conflicts and BoB even though none of the warring parties wanted it. Evolution of £ strategy
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1. In the post enlightenment intellectual environment, the £ also started defining themselves as a modern civilization vis a vis the orientals and this rationalized their imperial vision. The resulting £ patriotism reveled in the glory of the imperial empire. They began to look upon their imperialistic campaign as an 'age of reform'. Thus the £ imperial ideology in India and the so called 'sub imperialism' was merely a part of such imperialistic ideology back home and provided every justification for the actions of the local officials in India. 2. The Carnatic wars brought the crown troops in India at an unprecedented scale which indicates a greater and direct role of the metropole in Indian affairs. Moreover from this stage on the company too decided to raise its own standing army in India on a large scale. The size of this army increased steadily - as a result of conscious decision - which destroyed all balance of power in India and ultimately gave it the edge over other Indian powers. The policy of maintaining this huge army itself created the need of further annexations. 10/19/2015 3. To protect its gains after the Carnatic wars and the BoB, the company followed a policy of ring-fence. According to this policy, the company's territories were 9:22 AM
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of conscious decision - which destroyed all balance of power in India and ultimately gave it the edge over other Indian powers. The policy of maintaining this huge army itself created the need of further annexations. 3. To protect its gains after the Carnatic wars and the BoB, the company followed a policy of ring-fence. According to this policy, the company's territories were surrounded by the buffer states like Oudh and Hyderbad and Carnatic to protect against the unfriendly powers like Marathas and Mysore. But this in itself is an aggressive approach or reads a very narrow interpretation of 'offensive war'. Thus the company in 1766 signed a mutual defence pac with the Nizam in return of Northern Sarkars. It also annexed Carnatic in 1801 throwing off even the nominal suzerainty of the nawab which clearly can't be called a defensive act. 4. Pitts India Act: It is true that for a short period after the passage of the Pitts India Act which forbade the company from making wars / offensive-defensive alliances and stipulated for it to focus purely on commercial activities, there was a parliamentary prohibition on imperial expansion. But this was more a result of the heavy expenses incurred in the war and the need to protect and consolidate the company's possession when the £ empire was passing through its lowest ebb. The idea was to maintain a balance of power (use of Oudh, Hyderabad and Carnatic) between the Indian states and thus to protect the company's gains at minimum military expenditure. 5. Lord Wellesley: But taking two steps forward, one backward, the company increasingly got itself indulged into the political questions. The Maratha and Mysore wars are an example and the way company chose to interfere in the Maratha affairs to wage the 1st and 2nd Anglo-Maratha wars was by no means "defensive". Wellesley had decided that the policy of balance of power would no longer work in India even before landing in India and followed a forward policy. "Wellesley was not formulating a policy of response to local conditions but trying to create the conditions necessary for the attainment of his objectives... If Indian politics was turbulent, he described them as threatening, if they were tranquil, he ruffled them. However the authorities in London were no innocent observers in this imperial drama as well". He thus used the pretext of Napoleonic invasion of Egypt in 1798 to soften London's resistance to expansion (while neither him nor anybody in London for a moment seriously believed that Napoleon would leave Europe and attack India). Authorities in London sanctioned all his aggressive moves in the name of protecting the most important objective of the 1784 act itself i.e. to protect £ Indian empire against all threats from its european rivals. He next annexed Mysore in 1799 on the pretext of the "prospects of French resurgence" and "Tipu's secret negotiations with the French". He also evolved the policy of subsidiary alliance into a systematic tool which would establish £ control over the native states without incurring any military liability and this system was clearly not "defensive". Wellesley was recalled in 1805 only when his wars led the company into a serious financial crisis. Oudh's annexation was a naked annexation. Carnatic Wars Factors Responsible (a) Political 1. Mother countries were @ war. 2. The political condition in south was favorable for the implementation of their designs. The native powers were fragmented and weak, they were fighting each other, wars of successions were going on. 3. By this time both companies had established well trained military and their political influence was recognized by native rulers. (b) Economic 1. Both were economic rivals in India as well and India was too big a prize to let slip away. 2. It was a strategy of both companies to mix trade with political and military supremacy as well so as to create monopolies. (c) Cultural 1. Both believed in imperialistic policies so as to add to the strength and prestige of their empire. Lessons of the Carnatic Wars
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1. A well trained army with modern equipment could easily defeat old Indian armies. To maintain such an army, it was not required to have only € soldiers, Indians could be hired as well since there was no feeling of nationalism in India. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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1. A well trained army with modern equipment could easily defeat old Indian armies. To maintain such an army, it was not required to have only € soldiers, Indians could be hired as well since there was no feeling of nationalism in India. 2. Indian princes will always be fighting each other. € companies could take advantage of this and they would be always welcomed. 3. The strategy of supporting an Indian power and upon victory maintain army and resident there to make it completely subservient. Seeds of subsidiary alliance. 1st Anglo-Carnatic War (1740 - 48) 1. It broke out over Austrian succession. However the hostilities of the two companies in Bengal were contained by Alivardi Khan. But in Carnatic, no such strong power existed. A French fleet arrived from Mauritius and together with the French army in India, they sacked £ positions in Madras. The £ appealed to the nawab of Carnatic for help who sent his forces but was defeated by the French. 2. However difference emerged between Dupleix and the French admiral and he returned to Mauritius after surrendering Madras. In 1746 Dupleix captured Madras again and followed it up with a siege of Fort St. David but failed to capture it. The war ended in Europe and so it did in India. 2nd Anglo-Carnatic War (1749-54)
1. French supported Chanda Sahib in Carnatic and Muzaffar Jung in Hyderabad. Naturally the £ got alarmed and they supported the rival candidates Muhammad Ali in Carnatic & Nasar Jung in Hyderabad. 2. In 1749, Chanda Sahib + French + Muzaffar Jung defeated and killed Nawab Anwaruddin. His son fled to £. Next in Hyderabad, Muzaffar Jung + French + Chanda Sahib defeated and killed Nasar Jung. French got many territories (Northern Sarkars, Masaulipatnam, Pondicherry), cash, right to station army in Hyderabad along with a resident. Muzaffar Jung was accidently killed and a new Nizam was placed by French. Thus French power was now @ its peak. 3. In 1750, £ decided to throw their entire weight behind Muhammad Ali. The French + Chanda Sahib had seized Trichinopoly where Muhammad Ali was hiding. The £ decided to attack Arcot and the seize was lifted. The tide turned. French began to lose, expenses began to mount. Government intervened and concluded peace with £ in 1754. The treaty restored old possessions and the French power in India still remained far from over. Conquest of Bengal The Farmaan of 1717 1. It granted to the company the right to carry on duty free trade, zamindari rights of 38 villages around Kolkata and to use the royal mint. But Murshid Quli Khan (and later nawabs) refused to extend this duty free provision to cover also the private trade of the company officials, denied the 38 villages and refused to offer minting privileges. Factors Responsible for Clash of Nawabs with £ (a) Economic
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1. The EEIC had got an imperial farmaan from Farukh Siyar allowing it to carry duty-free trade and to issue dastaks (passes) for the movement of such goods. The company began to misuse it and carried the goods of Indian merchants on payment of money and its officers as well. This naturally led to unfair competition as well as loss of revenue for Nawabs. 2. Bengal was too rich a prize to be left alone. In 1750s £ private trade had suffered a lot as a result of French competition in collusion with Asian merchants. They were also wary of the nawab's ability to protect them against French. (b) Political 1. The EEIC was increasing its political clout. Earlier it had fortified its factory in Calcutta. The nawab obviously didn't like it. Then it defied his orders to undo the 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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(b) Political 1. The EEIC was increasing its political clout. Earlier it had fortified its factory in Calcutta. The nawab obviously didn't like it. Then it defied his orders to undo the fortifications and also granted asylum to a political opponent of the Nawab who was sought after by him. 2. In 1756, a war had broken out between £ and French. So their companies in Bengal too sought to protect themselves. 3. Siraj had succession problems and there were many intrigues against him. The conditions were thus favorable for £. So they pressed for a complete victory over him. 4. These factors were responsible for the conflict up to the restoration of Calcutta to £. From Calcutta to Plassey was an act of Clive in which his personal zeal and treachery played a vital role. Significance of BoP / Plassey Plunder / BoP marked the beginning of the supremacy of £ in India (a) Economic 1. The £ got undisputed right to free trade in BBO. They got zamindari rights of 24 Parganas and huge sum in cash for the company as well as officials. Mir Zafar also gave them Rs. 22.5 mm between 1757 - 1760 while his own treasury was Rs. 15 mm only. Later when they replace Mir Zafar by Mir Qasim, they got zamindari of more districts and more cash. 2. It opened the gates for drain of wealth and corruption, exploitation of Bengal. Bengal was made to pay for company's expenses in Madras and Bombay as well and to finance £ imports. Thus the import of bullion not only stopped but it was reversed and this was called 'India investments'. 3. Plassey also opened the floodgates for the officials to make personal fortunes. Clive got huge jagirs and was called a nebob in £. Rampant misuse of dastaks began for private trade as now there was no check. (b) Political 1. It enhanced £ prestige. Now they could help a nawab in his accession. It made them a major political power in India. 2. It enhanced £ military power as well as with the Bengal revenues, they would be able to maintain larger and better army. 3. But this victory was not complete since it was based more in treachery than on display of military force. The new nawabs didn't feel initially they were under company's control. They simply felt the company had aided them in becoming Nawab for which they repaid through concessions and bribes. No way were they under company's control. But the company thought they were its puppets. So tensions resurfaced. There cannot be 2 masters of same land. Circumstances Leading to BoP 1. There was a chronic conflict between £ and Nawabs over the imperial farmaan. The Nawabs alleged misuse while the company believed it was well within its right to issue dastaks. Since the nawabs were powerful, they used to force the £ to pay a lump sum tax and not to use dastaks for its officers' and Indian trade. 2. In 1756, Siraj demanded that £ should trade on the same basis as others. He also demanded they abandon their fortifications. But the £ refused to comply and even began to charge customs duty on the goods entering Calcutta. This was an open challenge. 3. Nawab sacked £ factories @ Kasimbazar. The £ chief believed he could still avenge his defeat by force and ignored Nawab's diplomatic overtures. As a result Siraj also took Calcutta in June 1756. He then retired, celebrating his victory. The £ escaped and came back with a large navy and infantry from South under Clive and Watson. In January 1757, under Major Kill Patrick and Major Eyre Coot, £ recaptured Calcutta. Treaty of Ali Nagar was signed in February 1757 and £ got their factories and privileges (including that of fortifications) back. Chandernagore was captured as well by Admiral Watson. In the meantime, they also engaged in stroking the intrigues against the nawab. 4. Clive re-conquered Calcutta in early 1757. But due to the intrigues, he felt confident that he could defeat the nawab as well and fought him @ Plassey. Reasons for Intrigues in Siraj's Court 111 of 115
1. There was a natural convergence of interests between Indian and £ merchants since many of the Indian merchants worked as the brokers / agents of the £ or 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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Reasons for Intrigues in Siraj's Court 1. There was a natural convergence of interests between Indian and £ merchants since many of the Indian merchants worked as the brokers / agents of the £ or traded with them, acted as their dadni merchants etc. They also used £ ships for carrying their cargo. Mir Qasim 1. Although he became a nawab with £ help, he looked upon them merely as someone who had helped him and didn't control him. So he rewarded them initially by giving them Chittagong, Burdwan and Midanpore and then tried to rule independently. But soon he found situation was not like this. 2. He shifted his capital away from Calcutta to Munger, tried to remove revenue corruption and raise an efficient army and build an ordinance factory @ Munger. Over the issue of dastaks he tried to negotiate with the company but nothing came out. So when he abolished all custom duties, hostilities came out in open. Battle of Buxar Factors Responsible (a) Political 1. The BoP didn't answer the question clearly - who is the boss of Bengal? So Mir Qasim thought that he had repaid £ for their help in his accession, but £ thought that he should be a puppet. 2. Colonial outlook of £. This made a conflict inevitable with anyone who stood in their way. 3. Sujha fought to increase his influence. Shah Alam fought God knows why. (b) Economic 1. Issue of dastaks. Continuous exploitation and demand of £. Shuja-ud-daula's Participation 1. He fought because he was promised Bihar and a payment of Rs. 30 mm on the successful campaign. This would also have propelled him high in the political arena of the age. 2. In the end he had to pay Rs. 5 mm to the company, host a £ resident, agreed to a mutual defence pact with the company, and had to give duty free trade rights to the company throughout Oudh (the tensions created by which led to the ultimate annexation of Oudh itself) and to cede Allahbad and Kara to the company. Circumstances Leading to BoB 1. Mir Qasim wanted to be an independent nawab. He knew that for this, he had to get away from the influence of the £ and rebuild his strength. So he shifted his capital to Munger, built an arms depot there, recruited, maintained and trained a large force there and rooted out corruption in his department. He began to act independently. Then there was the issue of dastaks. 2. But both sides didn't want a conflict @ that stage. The nawab didn't feel strong enough and £ didn't want to lose the gains from Plassey. So they tried to negotiate and reach an agreement. 3. But the high handed behavior of some officials and issue of dastaks finally broke the waters. Significance (a) Political
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1. Firmly established company's authority beyond any doubt. No question was left as to who is the boss. De jure as well as de facto power. Exposed the weakness of Indian powers. 10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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1. Firmly established company's authority beyond any doubt. No question was left as to who is the boss. De jure as well as de facto power. Exposed the weakness of Indian powers. 2. Dual Rule in Bengal: The company got the diwani rights of BBO. This led to a situation where all revenues went to the company and all administrative responsibilities were left with the nawab. In 1765, the company could imposed a treaty on the nawab where he was made to abandon his army, govern through a deputy subehdar who was to be appointed by the company and couldn't be removed without its consent. This gave the company nizamat or police and judicial powers as well. Soon entire administration began to be run by the company's Indian agents called gomasthas. Open plunder was the outcome and massive Bengal famine of 1770 struck. The plight of Bengal was highlighted by Navin Chandradas in his play navanna. 3. Even Oudh was made dependent on £. He was to pay for £ troops while £ promised to aid him. Thus they created a buffer state. (b) Economic 1. The company got the diwani rights. Due to resources, the company became powerful. 2. Drain of wealth, £ used these revenues to pay for their imports. Famine of 1770. Anglo Maratha War I (1775-82) Circumstances 1. The growth in company's cotton trade with China through Bombay from Gujarat made them conscious of the need to establish political supremacy in Deccan also. Coupled with the territorial ambitions of the Bombay government, the company was looking for an opportunity to interfere. Peshwa Madhav Rao died in 1772 and was succeeded by Narain Rao. But Raghunath Rao had him murdered in 1774 but Nana Phadnavis and other sardars raised minor Peshwa Madhav Rao Narain to gaddi. Raghunath Rao went to Bombay government and signed a treaty with them in 1775 called Treaty of Surat. 2. War began but Warren Hastings came down heavily on the Bombay government and withdrew £ and signed Treaty of Purandar in 1776. According to it £ control of Salsette and revenue from Bharuch were maintained. 3. But in 1778, the influx of French officers in Maratha land changed the situation as French had entered US war of Independence against £. So Warren Hastings opened hostilities again (French illusion). Initially £ suffered a rout an a humiliating treaty of Wadgaon was imposed upon them. But Warren Hastings rejected it, sent more troops gained battle victories and signed Treaty of Salbai. Significance 1. The company was passing through its lowest ebb. US war had been lost, Mysore and Nizam were fighting against it too, financial problems were there. So the company wanted to withdraw to fight another day. 2. This war proved Maratha power was not yet finished. 3. But it also proved Indians could never be united. Though £ suffered loss in the war, they split the anti-£ alliance. Mysore was left alone to fight and in the next war, Marathas joined against Mysore. Anglo Maratha War II (1802-05) Circumstances
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1. Same. Fight over Peshwaship. The Peshwa Baji Rao II was unpopular and corrupt. He had the brother of Holkar killed who was the most powerful sardar. So Holkar defeated the combined army of Peshwa and Scindia. Peshwa got worried, ran to £ and signed subsidiary alliance. This was the Treaty of Bassein. 2. But Treaty of Bassein had theoretical significance only. Because the Peshwa had little credibility and control over Maratha sardars. None of the sardars agreed to it and £ had to fight in battlefield. The Peshwa himself turned hostile. But this time £ defeated Marathas and imposed subsidiary alliances on the Peshwa as well as Maratha sardars. £ GG was Lord Wellesley and commander Lake inflicted many sharp defeats upon Marathas in N India. In Deccan Arthur Wellesley (who later defeated Napoleon) defeated Marathas. Battle of Assaye in 1803 was the battle where Wellesley defeated combined confederacy forces. 10/19/2015 3. In the end, £ imposed subsidiary alliances on each of the Maratha sardar (except Gaekwad), secured delhi, Agra, extensive areas in Gujarat and many other 9:22 AM
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Maratha sardars. £ GG was Lord Wellesley and commander Lake inflicted many sharp defeats upon Marathas in N India. In Deccan Arthur Wellesley (who later defeated Napoleon) defeated Marathas. Battle of Assaye in 1803 was the battle where Wellesley defeated combined confederacy forces. 3. In the end, £ imposed subsidiary alliances on each of the Maratha sardar (except Gaekwad), secured delhi, Agra, extensive areas in Gujarat and many other territories. Anglo Maratha War III (1717-19) 1. Pindaris formed irregulars in Maratha army. They had their own arms, were not paid regularly and made their living out of plunder after victories. But after the Anglo-Maratha war II, maratha sardars had to sign subsidiary alliance, abandon their armies and hence pindaries became unemployed. So they took to highway robbery. 2. Maratha sardars were sympathetic to them and didn't assist Lord Hastings whole-heartedly. So Hastings turned on them. Oudh / "When Dalhousie finally annexed the remainder of Oudh in 1856 on grounds of misgovernance, it was only a logical culmination of a long drawn out process" 1. £ had secured the positioning of a £ resident in Oudh and stationing a permanent £ garrison there in 1773. But the issue of its payment became a contentious issue as the amount demanded by £ increased gradually through time. To meet this heavy demand the Nawab had to impose more tax on his taluqdars which made them rebellious. This resulted in political instability in the state (which eventually became a pretext for direct annexation). Warren Hastings had suggested annexation of territories in Oudh to pay for the maintenance of the troops. Still the annexation was somehow avoided until the arrival of Wellesley with his forward policy. 2. In 1801 the Nawab gave hints that he might not be able to pay the maintenance charges. Then the Nawab was also complaining against the misuse of the dastaks. Oudh was also a big producer of indigo which was becoming an important export item to £. Oudh was also a big producer of cotton which was exported by £ to China. And then the Nawab imposed a stiff export tax on indigo which clashed with £ interests. 3. In 1797 £ helped a contender to Oudh's throne who had promised them an annual subsidy of Rs. 7.6 mm. When in 1801 he expressed his inability to pay it, Wellesley annexed half of Oudh's territories in 1801 which were actually worth Rs. 14 mm. Moreover Wellesley justified his actions on moral grounds - annexation for better governance. From now on the office of the £ resident in Oudh became the real center of power as he frequently interfered in the administration, appointed his favorites to important positions etc. Phase III (1813-58) Nature & Character of £ Strategy 1. This period witnessed a systematic and highly developed policy of extending £ influence in India. 2. Annexation was an important element and different ways were pursued to extend the territory of £ India. 3. Subordination of native rulers continued to be an important aspect of £ policy. For this a policy if 'subordinated isolation' was followed. The native states were kept away from each others as well as company authorities. 4. Colonialization of economy too was an important feature and for this means of communication were improved. Lord Hastings (1813-23) 1. He was a staunch imperialist. He initiated the new policy of 'paramountcy' which proclaimed company's interests to be supreme in India and that any native state could be legitimately annexed or threatened with annexation to protect such interests. 2. After the defeat of Marathas in 3rd Anglo-Maratha war, he annexed whole of the kingdom except a small territory @ Satara for Sivaji's descendants. 3. He wanted a recognition of the de-jure power of the £ in India. Thats why he refused to meet Mughal emperor Akbar II except on equal terms. His successor met Akbar II on equal terms in 1827. In 1835, the effigy of Mughal rulers on £ coins was replaced by that of £ crown. Annexation of Punjab 114 of 115
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Annexation of Punjab 1. Ranjit Singh had maintained a delicate balance of power in his court between the hereditary Sikh chieftains and the non Sikh nobles from Jammu and other areas. After his death, this balance broke down. As a result of the subsequent feuds, the revenue demand on the peasants and zamindars increased which began to resist the revenue collection. The commercial classes too were affected. 2. The resulting political instability in Punjab made £ anxious as so far a stable and strong Punjab had served as a buffer state against the Russo-Afghan threat. But the continuous political instability made this scheme unworkable. Thus Punjab became a "victim of Victorian imperialism". Lord Hardinge declared war on 1845 which resulted an imposition of subsidiary alliance on Punjab, £ annexing Jalandhar doab, Kashmir was given to Raja Gulab Singh Dogra for his loyalty. Dalhousie completed the work in 1849 with the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war using a pretext of a rebellion by 2 Sikh governors. Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) 1. He was a staunch imperialist and carried £ imperialism to its climax. When he became the GG, the map of £-India was in fragments. When he left, it was contiguous. He doubled the size of the empire in his tenure. 2. Until now the policy of annexation was followed only against unfriendly native states or for strategic concerns. But he extended the policy of annexation even for friendly states. He left only those states out which he couldn't annex on one pretext or other. 3. Oudh was annexed on pretext of misgovernance, Satara, Bagha, Jhansi, Udaipur, Nagpur on pretext of Doctrine of Lapse, Punjab through a war. 4. Thus £ policy could be summarized as "trade with informal control of possible, trade with rule when necessary" although the distinction between both was rather dubious as it was the need to secure the benefits from trade through informal control which often led to direct rule. Phase IV (1858-1947) Nature & Character of £ Strategy
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1. The policy of annexation was abandoned. Instead crown paramountcy was proclaimed. 2. Policy of subordinated union was followed with respect to native states.
10/19/2015 9:22 AM
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