Untying the Magic of the Pharaoh

UNrveRsrrÄ rpcr-r Srupt or Napor-r "L'Orientale" Dipartimento di Studi e Ricerche su Africa e Paesi Arabi

SERIE EGITTOLOGICA

2

Egyptological Essays on

State and Society

edited by

Rosanna Pirelli

Napoli 2002

UNryrNc rsp Macrc oF rHE PuaRaon Barbara Drieskens and Rita Lucarelli

In this article we want to present a selection of evidence concerning the magical protection of ancient Egyptian tombs from the point of view of two different disciplines, anthropology and egyptology. We do not intend ro give a complete overview of all the existing sources on the topic, but by comparing ancient sources with present day anthropological evidence we will try to approach the topic of the magic protection of the ancient grave from a new angle. Through this interdisciplinary research we want to formulate some new questions on the compatibility between the ancient data concerning the magic used to protect the deceased and the way these beliefs are mirrored in the practices of present-day grave robbers. It is not our aim to draw comparisons between the beliefs of people very distant in time and with very different world-views, namely the monotheistic religions of the Book (Muslims and Copts today) and the ancient Egyptian beliefs with their multiform manifestations of gods. Ancient texts speak of the magic performed by the Egyptians to protect tombs from profanation, and grave robbers today still fear and deal with the magic protecting tombs. In this article we intend to present some of these ancient sources and compare them with the ideas of grave robbers, which are also more generally shared by suburban and rural Egyptians.' 1

Protecting the tomb

Several times already Mansour called from the village to ask if we could find him a Moroccan sheikh.2 He thought that we would be his best help

'The anthropological datawere collected over a period oftwo years ofparticipant observation in the popular quarters of Cairo among lower and middle class Egyptian Muslims; many of those were of rural origin. Barbara Drieskens is responsible for the anthropological part of this article, while the egyptological data have been selected and commented by Rita Lucarelli. 2 The term sheikh is a title of respect with a religious connotation but Egyptians use the word sheikh to refer to all those-who-know (healers, swindlers, witches, saints, . . . ) without distinction. For the Arabic term, the most simple transcription has been used here, trying to stay close to the Egyptian pronounciation. The English spelling of the word has been used whenever it was found in the Concise Oxford Dictionary (ed. Pearsall J.) 1999, Oxford

University Press.

Barbara Drieskens and Rita Lucarelli

80

since I am studying about djinns3 and my husband is working in tourism. It was only when we visited the village that I understood why they needed this sheikh. In the area around the village, in the deserl next to the fields, some people had found some ancient 'treasures'. The story went that a man

from the neighboring village had found a statue of Amon more than six meters tall and that had sold it for a million dollars. Inspiring stories, but the desert is wide and the treasures are guarded and this is what the sheikh is for: to locate the archeological objects and to untie the magical spells that are protecting them. 1.1 Ancient funerary sources

Ancient Egyptians are famous for their strong beliefs in the existence of an afterlife. The most well known symbol of their civilization, the pyramid, was a tomb. A good preparation to life in the hereafter, for an ancient Egyptian, started with the preparation of a proper burial place, which could be a safe depository of his morlal remains. Mainly for this reason, spells invoking the protection of the tomb, are widely attested in texts of everyday magic and in

funerary spells.a According to the funerary texts, but also to many other literary sources of different origin, the grave was considered the indispensable point of departure for survival in the afterlife. Through the funerary rituals and cult performed by the living in the tomb, the deceased could regain his or her physical capabilities and be able to rise from death. The tomb served as

Untyirtg the Magic of titt ?;::

residence sf thg Ssdr :

minative of the housc.

j

;

According to manr Dead, the tomb u as s:er was the place where th: was recomposed, on th: entirety. In this sense. ti soul ofthe deceased. \e grave, because this u ill pabilities, in order to en '[' tomb, and to "go out sense, in manY texts th: opposition to the ce1:s: This explains whr in tr' well as for opening ar:; seem that we are dealir, in reality these orisinrl. body and consequenll\ deceased has to be a:.: wishes, and in the fcc: well exemplified in Ch. tomb for the soui anii : one's feet".6 The u i.th "SPt attested in the CT: see my corPse, for I an Book of the Dead. as :

some Theban tombs. th

of the tomb, while his 3At the time I was doing research for my doctoral thesis in anthropology about "living with the djinn". I had not planned to do research specifically on djinns protecting the tombs of the ancient Egyptians was not directly an aim in itself, but the subject came up at different rnoments during lieldwork. a

Here the emphasis will be put mostly on the evidence provided by funerary texts and not by magical texts stricto sensr. However, there is a general agreement on the fact that "the whole body of Pyramid Texts and its successors (Coffin Texts, Book of the Dead) may be called magical in its approach of the world of things unseen" (J.F. Borghouts in Textes et Iangages de I'Egypte Pharaonique, Paris 1974, p. 9). Many texts that are generally indicated in the egyptological literature as "funerary" were employed as magical spells in ritual contexts bv the living; for an updated r6sumd of the studies on the topic see Quack, J.F., "Magie und Ttrrenbuch-eine Fallstudie (pEbers 2, l-6)" , CdE '14 ( 1999), pp. 5- 17.

5I-ike is (Wbl' 126- ''S'J. Zandee (Deoth as an E'.: terms indicating the tor-:. j funerary texts. most P3j-. . .

B' 1CT242, lll 317 ;--: 8 See Milde' H . fi;. ' ' o

227

Allen, T.G.. Tlrc

-23\:Ceorge. 8.. Z -, :.

pp. 79-80.

;.

[Jntyütg the Magic of tlte Pharaoh

residence of the body; almost all the terms referring to it present the determinative of the house.5 According to many spells of the Coffin Texts and of the Book of the Dead, the tomb was seen both in a positive as well as in a negative way. It was the place where the body of the deceased, fallen apart through death, was recomposed, on the example of the myth of Osiris, and preserved in its entirety. In this sense, the tomb is the eternal house of the body and of the soul of the deceased. Yet, the deceased is afraid of remaining locked in the grave,because this will not allow him to use his reconstituted physical capabilities, in order to enjoy the funerary offerings which are brought to the tomb, and to "go out by day", namely to rise in the Netherworld. In this sense, in many texts the grave is spoken of as a dark, subterranean place, in opposition to the celestial Netherworld that the deceased wants to reach. This explains why in the funerary literature we find spells for protecting as

well as for opening and leaving the tomb. Though, at first sight, it could seem that we are dealing with two different conceptions of the burial place, in reality these originate from the same belief. The tomb is the house of the body and consequently of the soul that animates it; at the same time, the deceased has to be able to go in and out from the tomb "according to his wishes, and in the forms he likes", as recited in many spells. This need is well exemplified in Ch.92 of the Book of the Dead, a "spell for opening the tomb for the soul and for the shadow, going forth by day, and controlling one's feet".6 The wish to open the tomb in order to free the soul is already attested in the CT: "Spell to open a gate for the B. "Open to me, that I may see my corpse, for I am a living soul".7 In the illustration of Ch. 92 of the Book of the Dead, as attested on funerary papyri but also on the walls of some Theban tombs, the deceased is represented as a black shadow, in front of the tomb, while his öi-soul is hovering over it.8

5 Like ls (Wb1,126, 18-22), h.t (Wb 1,2,10), F.t (Wbl,12, l9), n(h('t (Wb II, 49' 8- 13); J. Zandee (Death as an Enemy, Leiden, I 960, pp. 102-104) has listed these and some other terms indicating the tomb, together with some representative passages taken especially fiom funerary texts, most part of which will be quoted in this article as well.

6 7

Allen, T.G., The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day, Chicago 1914' p' 76' CT 242,lll. 32'l (quoted inZandee, op. cit-, p. 106).

See Milde, H., The \4gneues in the Book of the Dead of Neferrenpet, Leiden 199 1 , p:. 227 -230; George, 8., Zu den ögyptischen Vorstellungen vont Schatten als Seele. Bonn 1 9-[r. pp. 79-80. s

il'

82

Barbara Drieskens and Rita Lucarelli

In funerary spells and in other magical texts it is shown that ensuring the protection of the tomb against the harm of the grave robbers was a main preoccupation of the tomb's owner. One of the most representative spells of this sort is Ch. 163 of the Book of the Dead,e a "spell for not making a man's corpse perish in the god's domain, to rescue him from the eater of souls who imprisons (human beings) in the Netherworld, also for not letting his crimes upon earth be brought up against him, for keeping his flesh and his bones sound against worrns and any god who may transgress in the god's domain, for letting him ascend or descend at will, and for doing whatever he desires without being hindered".r0In the same spell it is said: "NN, place a flame and throw fire against him who will raise his hand against the

gravelr of Osiris NN".12 Many demons and non-human creatures are invoked as protectors of the tomb. However, the epithets and names of the supernatural beings occurring in such invocations are of a very allusive character, which makes it difficult to understand their nature. Ch.92 of the Book of the Dead mention the iry.w (.wt Wsir, "those who belong to the limbs of Osiris", a kind of demon who seem to have the role of protectors of the body of the deceased. Yet it is not clear if their was exclusively positive, viz,thatof protecting the living from the harm, or if their influence was also negatively seen as an impediment to the freedom of movement of the deceased body, compelled to remain locked in the tomb: "you shall not confine my soul; you shall not restrain my shadow", the deceased says to them".13 This sort of evidence also shows the double nature of funerary magic: the favorable influence of a spell of the gods or demons, invoked to help the deceased, may be, at the same time, of malevolent character and harm the one who calls for protection. The evidence given mainly by the "Letters to the Dead" shows that "much of the magic provided for the dead could equally be regarded as

e

This is one of the "additional chapters" (162-165) occurring only in later documents; see Naville, E., Das cigyptische Tbdtenbuch der XVIil. bis XX. Dynasrie, I, Berlin 1886, p. 184. Spells 163-167 are dedicated to the protection of the deceased's body (Barguet, P., I-e Livre des Morts des anciens Egyptiens, Paris 1979, p.233). 'o

Allen, op. cit., p. 159.

rr Barguet, op. cit., (nr)(hc.t, "grave".

p.234, note 7, prefers the reading ch(w, "dur6e de vie", instead of

': Zandee, op.cit., p. 106. ':

See also

Milde, op. cit., p.227.

Uttlying the Magic o.f :i:;

magic against the de: being transformed in In funerary texts. the living but also a Realm of the Dead ; passage

ofCh.

14E ot

O mothers of the -ec'a ye rescue N. for me

cruel snare and knivt or the dead ma7' tYvt this year and its sul Book of Gates, the rir

existence on earth. tf At the same time robbers, taking over

djinns and afdrit. tt being approaching ar The belief in the dea

ber and even extend t in the spells used for bers, the dead are m: ones, who are on ear

one is afraid"''e "-\' have eaten what an e neck like that of a L'ir it and fear for an er:: There are also sol the tomb is an ifr. r',

ta

Pinch, G., Maeic :,

t5

Allen, op.cit. p.

16

Zandee,

it

op.cit..p '7 Pinch, op. cir.. p.

'. '-

l

18

See Demarde.

R..

te

[]rk L 260.Il

rc..-.,

ro

Gardiner, A.H. a-6; quoted in Zandee. r;

l

Pinch, op. cit..

t:

Urt4ting the Magic of tlte Pharaolt

magic against the dead".1a Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead. before being transformed in 3!, could be a potential source of harm for the livings. In funerary texts, the owner of the tomb asks protection not only against the living but also against the ntt.ut, the dangerous dead lingering in the Realm of the Dead and unable to be assimilated to the gods; in the final passage of Ch. 148 of the Book of the Dead it is said: "O fathers of the gods. O mothers of the gods, (ye) who are on earth and in the god's domain, may ye rescue N. for me from all evil harm, from all evil suffering, from that cruel snare and knives, from everything evil that (men), gods, the Blessed. or the dead may threaten this day, this night, this month, this half month,

this year and its subdivisions".ls In the later literature, especially in the Book of Gates, the mt.h) are the persons who have conducted an unrighteous existence on ear1h, the sinners, opposed to the n1r.w, the "blessed ones".16 At the same time, the dead can be invoked as punishers of the tombrobbers, taking over a role that appears to be very similar to that of the djinns and ofdrit, who according to modem Egyptians harm any human being approaching ancient tombs, as will be shown in the next paragraph. The belief in the dead as dangerous beings who could harm the grave robber and even extend the damage to the family of the latter is mostly attested in the spells used for everyday magic.rT In some appeals against grave robrE bers, the dead are mentioned iu the form of l/t.n': "I shall make all living ones, who are on earth, fear the spirits (.9!.u;; who are in the West, of which one is afraid";te "All who will enter my grave in their impurity and rvho have eaten what an eminent blessed spirit (l! i/er') detests,...I shall seize his neck like that of a bird, putting fear into him, so that those ones on earlh see it and fear for an eminent blessed spirit".z0 There are also some tornb inscriptions where it is said that the owner of the tornb is an ilr, who could kill the robber and ruin his family.lr Manv

'1Pinch, C., Magic irt Artcient Eg,1,pt, London 1994, p. 150.

r5Allen, op.cit.p. lz10; partof tl'rispassageisquotedinZandee, op.cit.,p. 199 ru

Zandee, op.cit.,p. 199

17

Pinch, op. cit.,

rs

See Demar6e,R., The

t' ({rk1.260.

p. 150. )1.1

ikr n R( Stelae, Leiden 1983, pp. 2061i.

17 (quoted inZandee, op.cit.,

p. 197).

'o Gardiner, A.H. and K. Sethc, Egyptian Letters to tlte Dead, London 192E. X 6; quoted in Zandee, op. cit., p. 197 and in Demarde, op. clr.

I' Pinch. op. cit., pp. 149-150.

81

Barbara Drieske ns and Rita Lucarelli

spells of the Coffin Texts and of the Book of the Dead, bearing the title "making an )!t", were probably connected to the same belief , according to which the passage of the deceased in the state of )fineeded to be accelerated, in order to make him capable of self-defense against his enemies.22

Utttyirtg lhe Magic o,

cially in rituals relr:r: ' of temples and Srr'.:, -

f:::

protect the place

these places by the : - ". the terrible conseq;.r,': These guardins

.:

1.2 Present day conceptions of magic

liels are creäture "The Pharaoh23 is the greatest magician", modern Egyptians often say. The Pharaoh is the symbol of the unbeliever in Egyptian popular beliefs and this conception is echoed by the Coran,2a where he and his people are mentioned several times as an example of the unbelievers and of what will happen to them. In the eyes of the Egyptians today the Pharaoh is the worshipper of demons -the polytheist- and the expert in magic and witchcraft.25 People say that it was with the help of the djinns that the ancient Egyptians were capable of building the pyramids. One of the most famous stories about the Pharaoh is his confrontation with the prophet Mousa.26 The Pharaoh gathers his magicians to fight Mousa and they use all their witchcraft and magic against him,27 but Mousa throws his stick, which changes in a snake who eats all the evil appearances called up by the magicians. Then the magicians turn to the Pharaoh and say: "This is not magic, this is something else".

rr-;,--

S

humans: male or fer.- . can see us, we cannc: ::

in different forms "; preler dirty or aban; Egyptians belier c th'. This might sugge5t :l'another space-time. . -

r:.-

presence ofdjinns

djinns confronts u: i. oI spirits as in.m]tc:.-

-

-

u:.

be created beings

existing in the sarrr:

pernatural beinc" understanding".re

..

"::

The idea of the magic of the Pharaohs is still very much alive, especially in the Egyptian countryside and most people avoid ruins of the past or, on the contrary, use these vestiges of the Pharaohs for magical purposes, espe-

Beliel in djinn. :. to the Islamic part -: . ate, Christians and \1-

:r Probably these spells were recited during the mummification process (Pinch, op.cit.,

djinns exist. Muslir::- mentioned in the C--:-.is much more vaqu- .:. creatures in popular r-' many modern Eg_r p:.-

p

15 1).

:r No distinction is made between the Pharaoh as a ruler and the people living in the Pharaonic period, who might be called as well al-masriyin al-qudamä, the ancient Egyptians. Rendering the stories and conceptions related to the remains ofthe ancient Pharaonic period, I * 1ll use this term Pharaoh in this unscientific form taken from everyday speech.

:'See for example Coran S 3,11; S 8,44; S 20, 79 etc. r: Cf. Cha'raoui, H.H: