Unmarried Mother

Unmarried mother A woman who has a baby while she is not married. Dowry system In India, dowry is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to bridegroom's family along with the bride. Generally they include cash, jewellery, electrical appliances, furniture, bedding, crockery, utensils and other household items that help the newlywed set up her home. The dowry system is thought to put great financial burden on the bride's family. It has been one of the reasons for families and women in India resorting to sex selection in favor of sons. This has distorted the sex ratio of India (940 females per thousand males) and has given rise to female foeticide. The payment of a dowry has been prohibited under The 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act in Indian civil law and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). Laws Dowry became prohibited by law in 1961 with the purpose of prohibiting the demanding, giving and taking of dowry. To stop the offences of cruelty by husband or his relatives on the wife, section 498-A was added in Indian Penal Code and section 198-A in the Criminal Procedure Code in the year 1983. False dowry allegations The dowry law is thought to sometimes have been misused by women to lodge false or exaggerated complaints against husbands and entire extended family accusing them of cruel behavior. As per the data only 2% of the cases registered for dowry demand have led to conviction of the groom or groom's family. This had raised questions about rampant misuse of dowry laws in India by women to harass husband's family. According to one survey conducted by reputed Indian news magazine India Today, over 90% of government servants actively seek and get dowry in marriage. It is a common feature for unmarried government servants to seek dowry relevant to the market rates of their post. These rates are sky-high, with an estimate of dowry rates for a bachelor IAS Officer (Indian Administrative Services) being as high as Rs 50 Lac to Rs 5 Crore (up to USD 1 Million). These high rates are one of the primary reasons for corruption as young IAS officers after 1

marriage are forced to take bribes to maintain their new lifestyle and match the financial status of their wealthy in-laws. Prostitution Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations, in exchange for payment. A person who works in this field is called a prostitute, and is a kind of sex worker. Prostitution is one of the branches of the sex industry. The legal status of prostitution varies from country to country, from being permissible but unregulated, to an enforced or unenforced crime or to a regulated profession. Prostitution is sometimes also referred to as "the world's oldest profession". Estimates place the annual revenue generated from the global prostitution industry to be over $100 billion. Prostitution occurs in a variety of forms. Brothels are establishments specifically dedicated to prostitution. In escort prostitution, the act may take place at the client's residence or hotel room (referred to as out-call), or at the escort's residence or a hotel room rented for the occasion by the escort (in-call). Another form is street prostitution. Although the majority of prostitutes are female with male clients, there are also gay male prostitutes, lesbian prostitutes, and straight male prostitutes. Reason for entry Most of the research done by Sanlaap indicates that the majority of sex workers in India work as prostitutes due to lacking resources to support themselves or their children. Most do not choose this profession but out of necessity, often after the breakup of a marriage or after being disowned and thrown out of their homes by their families. The children of sex workers are much more likely to get involved in this kind of work as well. A survey completed in 1988 by the All Bengal Women's Union interviewed a random sample of 160 sex workers in Calcutta: Of those, 23 claimed that they had come of their own accord, whereas the remaining 137 women claimed to have been introduced into the sex trade by agents. The breakdown was as follows: 

Neighbor in connivance with parents: 7



Neighbors as pimps (guardians not knowing): 19



Aged sex workers from same village or locality: 31



Unknown person/accidental meeting with pimp: 32



Mother/sister/near relative in the profession: 18 2



Lover giving false hope of marriage or job and selling to brothel: 14



Close acquaintance giving false hope of marriage or job: 11



"Husband" (not legally married): 3



Husband (legally married): 1



Young college student selling to brothel and visiting free of cost: 1

The breakdown of the agents by sex was as follows: 76% of the agents were female and 24% were males. Over 80% of the agents bring young women into the profession were known people and not traffickers: neighbors, relatives, etc. Also prevalent in parts of Bengal is the Chukri System, whereby a female is coerced into prostitution to pay off debts, as a form of bonded labour. In this system, the prostitute generally works without pay for one year or longer to repay a supposed debt to the brothel owner for food, clothes, make-up and living expenses. In India, the Government's "central sponsored scheme" provides financial or in-kind grants to released bonded labourers and their family members, the report noted, adding over 2,850,000 people have benefited to date. Almost 5,000 prosecutions have been recorded so far under the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act of 1976. Some women and girls are by tradition born into prostitution to support the family. The Bachara, for example, follow this tradition with eldest daughters often expected to be prostitutes. Over 40% of 484 prostituted girls rescued during major raids of brothels in Mumbai in 1996 were from Nepal. In India as many as 200,000 Nepalese girls, many under the age of 14, have been sold into sexual slavery. Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are favoured in India. At the other end of the spectrum operate high-class escort girls recruited from women's colleges and the vast cadres of India's fashion and film industries. They can command large sums of money. These services usually operate by way of introduction. However a recent trend has seen the emergence of several snazzy websites, openly advertising their services. Laws In India, prostitution (the exchange of sexual services for money) is legal, but a number of related

activities,

including

soliciting

a brothel, pimping and pandering, are outlawed. 3

in

a

public

place,

keeping

Rajeshwari (1999) asserts that realistic accounts of prostitution in research contextualize it in the broad frame of the Indian socio-economic structure, adverting to the rural poverty and bonded labor, the gross exploitation of tribal, lower-caste and refugee women, urban red-light areas, disease, policy brutality and corruption, and the increasingly controversial issue of prostitutes' children. The country is a significant source, transit point, and destination for trafficked women. According to UNICEF, India contained half of the one million children worldwide who enter the sex trade each year. Many indigenous tribal women were forced into sexual exploitation. In recent years, prostitutes began to demand legal rights, licenses, and reemployment training, especially in Mumbai, New Delhi, and Calcutta. In 2002, the Government

signed

the South

Asian

Association

for

Regional

Cooperation (SAARC) Convention on Prevention and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution. The country is a significant source, transit point, and destination for many thousands of trafficked women. There was a growing pattern of trafficking in child prostitutes from Nepal and from Bangladesh (6,000 to 10,000 annually from each). Girls as young as seven years of age were trafficked from economically depressed neighborhoods in Nepal, Bangladesh, and rural areas to the major prostitution centers of Mumbai, Calcutta, and New Delhi. NGOs estimate that there were approximately 100,000 to 200,000 women and girls working in brothels in Mumbai and 40,000 to 100,000 in Calcutta. The traditional argument supporting prostitution as a phenomenon invokes male sexual need as a "natural" phenomenon that requires fulfillment outside of monogamous marriage – and the prostitute as servicing this need. Its theoretical defense is given in what is termed the "contractarian" argument, according to which the need for sexual gratification is a need similar to the need for food and fresh air (and hence should be as readily available) and, further, that under conditions of "sound" prostitution, sexual services may be freely sold in the market place (Ericsson: 1980). Feminists reject the notion that the powerful male impulse must be satisfied immediately by a co-operative class of women, set aside for the purpose. This is seen as an adrocentric view of sexuality and as reinforcing the psychology of obtaining sexual satisfaction, by rape if necessary. In legal terms, the Indian Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956, criminalized the volitional act of "a female offering her body for promiscuous sexual intercourse for hire whether in money or in kind". But, under the revised 1986 Act, "prostitution" means " the sexual exploitation or abuse of persons for commercial purpose, and the expression 'prostitute' shall be constructed accordingly" – so there is not 4

only no criminality if there is "offering by way of free contract", there is not even prostitution. More problematic is the status of the transgendered who eke out a living by begging, dancing or prostitution. Indian law recognizes only two biological sexes. The PUCL (K) Report (2003), highlights, "The dominant discourse on human rights in India has yet to come to terms with the production/reproduction of absolute human right are less of transgender communities. At stake is the human right to be different, the right to recognition of different pathways of sexuality, a right to immunity from the oppressive and repressive labeling of despised sexuality. Such a human right does not exist in India." Drug addiction Substance dependence, commonly called drug addiction, is a compulsive need to use drugs in order to function normally. When such substances are unobtainable, the user suffers from withdrawal. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), substance dependence is defined as: When an individual persists in use of alcohol or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Compulsive and repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This, along with Substance Abuse is considered Substance Use Disorders. Substance dependence can be diagnosed with physiological dependence, evidence of tolerance or withdrawal, or without physiological dependence. The DSM-IV does not use the word addiction at all. Causes Drugs known to cause addiction include both legal and illegal drugs as well as prescription and over-the-counter drugs, according to the definition of the American Society of Addiction Medicine. 

Stimulants (psychological addiction, moderate to severe): 

Substituted amphetamines



Cocaine



Caffeine



Nicotine

5



Sedatives and hypnotics (psychical addiction, mild to severe, and physiological addiction, severe; abrupt withdrawal may be fatal): 

Alcohol



Barbiturates and glutethimide



Benzodiazepines,

particularly alprazolam, flunitrazepam, triazolam, temazepam,

and nimetazepam





Z-drugs like zopiclone have a similar effect in the body to benzodiazepines



Methaqualone and the related quinazolinone sedative-hypnotics

Opiate and opioid analgesics (psychical

addiction,

mild

to

severe,

physiological

addiction, mild to severe; abrupt withdrawal is unlikely to be fatal): 

Morphine and codeine, the two naturally occurring opiate analgesics



Semi-synthetic

opiates,

such

as heroin (diacetylmorphine;

morphine

diacetate), oxycodone, buprenorphine, and hydromorphone 

Fully synthetic opioids, such as fentanyl, meperidine/pethidine, and methadone

Addictive drugs also include a large number of substrates that are currently considered to have no medical value and are not available over the counter or by prescription. Several theories of drug addiction exist, some of the main ones being genetic predisposition, the self-medication theory, and factors involved with social/economic development. There are strong associations between poverty and addiction. It is important to remember that people abuse substances for hundreds of different, individual, almost idiosyncratic reasons. Drug rehabilitation Drug rehabilitation (often drug rehab or just rehab) is a term for the processes of medical or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on

psychoactive substances such

as alcohol, prescription drugs, and street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to cease substance abuse, in order to avoid the psychological, legal, financial, social, and physical consequences that can be caused, especially by extreme abuse. Treatment includes medication for depression or other disorders, counseling by experts and sharing of experience with other addicts. Some rehab centers include meditation and spiritual wisdom in the treatment process.

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Alcoholism Alcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and is generally used to mean compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of the drinker's health, personal relationships, and social standing. It is medically considered a disease, specifically an addictive illness. In psychiatry several other terms are used, specifically "alcohol abuse" and "alcohol dependence," which have slightly different definitions. In 1979, an expert World Health Organization committee discouraged the use of "alcoholism" in medicine, preferring the category of "alcohol dependence syndrome". In the 19th and early 20th centuries, alcohol dependence in general was called dipsomania, but that term now has a much more specific meaning. People suffering from alcoholism are often called "alcoholics". Many other terms, some of them insulting or informal, have been used throughout history. The World Health Organization estimates that there are 140 million people with alcoholism worldwide. The American Medical Association supports a dual classification of alcoholism to include both physical and mental components. The biological mechanisms that cause alcoholism are not well understood. Social environment, stress, mental health, family history, age, ethnic group, and gender all influence the risk for the condition. Significant alcohol intake produces changes in the brain's structure and chemistry, though some alterations occur with minimal use of alcohol over a short term period, such as tolerance and physical dependence. These changes maintain the person with alcoholism's compulsive inability to stop drinking and result in alcohol withdrawal syndrome if the person stops. Alcohol misuse has the potential to damage almost every organ in the body, including the brain. The cumulative toxic effects of chronic alcohol abuse can cause both medical and psychiatric problems. Identifying alcoholism is difficult for the individual afflicted because of the social stigma associated with the disease that causes people with alcoholism to avoid diagnosis and treatment for fear of shame or social consequences. The evaluation responses to a group of standardized questioning are a common method for diagnosing alcoholism. These can be used to identify harmful drinking patterns, including alcoholism. In general, problem drinking is considered alcoholism when the person continues to drink despite experiencing social or health problems caused by drinking.

7

Treatment of alcoholism takes several steps. Because of the medical problems that can be caused by withdrawal, alcohol detoxification is carefully controlled and may involve medications such as benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium). People with alcoholism also sometimes have other addictions, including addictions to benzodiazepines, which may complicate this step. After detoxification, other support such as group therapy or self-help groups is used to help the person remain sober. Thombs (1999) states according to behavioural sciences alcoholism is described as a ―maladaptive behaviour‖. He explains this must not be confused with ―misbehaviour‖. Behavioural scientists explain that addicts have a behaviour pattern that may lead to destructive consequences for themselves, their families and society. This does not label addicts as bad or irresponsible. Compared with men, women are more sensitive to alcohol's harmful physical, cerebral, and mental effects.

8

Causes A complex mixture of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, and may be indicated by a family history of alcoholism. One paper has found that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. Individuals who have a genetic disposition to alcoholism are also more likely to begin drinking at an earlier age than average. Also, a younger age of onset of drinking is associated with an increased risk of the development of alcoholism, and about 40 percent of alcoholics will drink excessively by their late adolescence. It is not entirely clear whether this association is causal, and some researchers have been known to disagree with this view. A high testosterone concentration during pregnancy may be a risk factor for later development of alcohol dependence. Severe childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. Lack of peer and family support is associated with an increased risk of alcoholism developing. Genetics and adolescence are associated with an increased sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of chronic alcohol abuse. Cortical degeneration due to the neurotoxic effects increases impulsive behaviour, which may contribute to the development, persistence and severity of alcohol use disorders. There is evidence that with abstinence, there is a reversal of at least some of the alcohol induced central nervous system damage. Juvenile delinquency Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, or youth crime, is participation in illegal behavior by minors (juveniles) (individuals younger than the statutory age of majority). Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically under the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for persons under 18 to be charged and tried as adults. In recent years in the US the average age for first arrest has dropped significantly, and younger boys and girls are committing crimes. Between 60–80% percent of adolescents, and pre-adolescents engage in some form of juvenile offense. These can range from status offenses (such as underage smoking), to property crimes and violent crimes. The percent of teens who offend is so high that it would seem to be a cause for worry. However, juvenile 9

offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence. It is when adolescents offend repeatedly or violently that their offending is likely to continue beyond adolescence, and become increasingly violent. It is also likely that if this is the case, they began offending and displaying antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence. Juvenile is a child who unlike an adult person, having not attained prescribed age, cannot be held liable for his criminal act. The age criteria for being a juvenile vary from country to country, state to state. In ancient India, a parent was supposed not to punish a child who is under five years of age for any offence. As per the law then prevailing a children of such tender age should be nursed and educated with love and affection only. After the age of five, punishment may be given in some suitable form such as physical chastisement or rebuke by the parents, towards the later half of the childhood, punishment should be gradually withdrawn and replaced by advice. From the age of sixteen upwards sons and daughters should be treated as friends by the parents. Delinquency Delinquency is an act or conduct of a juvenile which is socially undesirable. Juvenile delinquency generally means the failure of children to meet certain obligations expected of them by the society. Juvenile delinquency is expression of an unsatisfied urge in the juvenile delinquent. Whether a particular act or conduct of the child would be deviant or not will depend on various factors and vary in different States, Cities and also time to time. The juvenile delinquent has even been defined as "a child trying to act like a grown up". A particular act of the child may be viewed as ordinary childish prank but in another particular context it may cause concern and anxiety. The distinction between a delinquent and normal child, at times is very blurred and deciding point between a playful act and the juvenile delinquency is his relation to concerned person. In fact there is a haze of vagueness and confusion surrounding the definition of juvenile delinquency and there is no single definition that may be acceptable to all. The first legislation on juvenile delinquency, passed by the State of Illinois in l899 specifies many exact kinds of delinquency in addition to the offences covered by the criminal laws.

10

Causes 1. Bad Company 2. Adolescent instability and impulses 3. Early sex experiences 4. Mental conflicts 5. Excessive social suggestibility 6. Love of adventure 7. Motion pictures 8. School dissatisfaction 9. Poor recreation 10. Street life 11. Vocational dissatisfaction 12. Sudden impulse 13. Physical condition Prevention of Juvenile delinquency In order to prevent Juvenile Delinquents we have to deal not only with maladjusted children and youths whose difficulties bring them before law, but also with those who while not violating laws, are disturbing others in school and in the street. Prevention is necessary for such children. If they are not prevented then they would become the habitual offender so their prevention is necessary. They make mistakes and become excited and fail to behave according to legitimate expectations. First of all, we should identify such juveniles and thereafter give him treatment. They will become habitual offender if they are not timely prevented from committing the offence. Juvenile delinquency, as a sign of sick society is day

11

by day becoming an alarm to awaken those who are either struck with the disease or those who are likely to get struck. Over-crowding in the cities, coming up of slums, cinema, smuggling, gambling and drinking are some of the contributory factors responsible for this ever growing phenomenon. This study is guided by a desire to gain an insight into the problem of delinquency and its statutory treatment in a remote developing region of this vast and ever growing country. An attempt has been made to know the various causes of delinquency and its nature in different areas and strata of society. The most effective way to prevent juvenile delinquency has indisputably been to assist children and their families early on. Numerous state programs attempt early intervention, and federal funding for community initiatives has allowed independent groups to tackle the problem in new ways. The most effective programs share the following key components. There are so many Jurists and criminologists who suggested many provisions for the prevention of juvenile delinquency. Some of the provisions are very useful for the welfare of the juveniles and their development. Delinquency Prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in criminal, or other antisocial, activity. Increasingly, governments are recognizing the importance of allocating resources for the prevention of delinquency. Because it is often difficult for states to provide the fiscal resources necessary for good prevention, organizations, communities, and governments are working more in collaboration with each other to prevent juvenile delinquency. Handicapped Disability is the consequence of an impairment that may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional, developmental, or some combination of these. A disability may be present from birth, or occur during a person's lifetime. Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Thus, disability is a complex phenomenon, reflecting an interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives.

12

An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had impairment in the past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group stand ardor norm. Such impairments may include physical, sensory, and cognitive or developmental disabilities. Mental disorders (also known as psychiatric or psychosocial disability) and various types of chronic disease may also qualify as disabilities. Some advocates object to describing certain conditions (notably deafness and autism) as "disabilities", arguing that it is more appropriate to consider them developmental differences that have been unfairly stigmatized by society. Types The term "disability" broadly describes an impairment in a person's ability to function, caused by changes in various subsystems of the body, or to mental health. The degree of disability may range from mild to moderate, severe, or profound. A person may also have multiple disabilities. Conditions causing disability are classified by the medical community as: 

inherited (genetically transmitted);



congenital, meaning caused by a mother's infection or other disease during pregnancy, embryonic or fetal developmental irregularities, or by injury during or soon after birth;



acquired, such as conditions caused by illness or injury; or



of unknown origin.

Types of disability may also be categorized in the following way: Physical handicapped Any impairment which limits the physical function of limbs, fine bones, or gross motor ability is a physical impairment, not yet a physical disability. The Social Model of Disability defines physical disability as manifest when an impairment meets a non-universal design or program, e.g a person who cannot climb stairs may have a physical impairment of the knees when putting stress on them from an elevated position such as with climbing or descending stairs. If an elevator was provided, or a building had services on the first floor, this impairment would not become a disability. Other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other facets of daily living, such as severe sleep apnea. Sensory disability

13

Sensory disability is impairment of one of the senses. The term is used primarily to refer to vision and hearing impairment, but other senses can be impaired. Vision impairment Vision impairment (or "visual impairment") is vision loss (of a person) to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation of visual capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery. This functional loss of vision is typically defined to manifest with 1. best corrected visual acuity of less than 20/60, or significant central field defect, 2. significant peripheral field defect including homonymous or heteronymous bilateral visual, field defect or generalized contraction or constriction of field, or 3. reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of the above conditions. Hearing impairment Hearing impairment or hard of hearing or deafness refers to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially unable to detect or perceive at least some frequencies of sound which can typically be heard by most people. Mild hearing loss may sometimes not be considered a disability. Olfactory and gustatory impairment Impairment of the sense of smell and taste are commonly associated with aging but can also occur in younger people due to a wide variety of causes. There are various olfactory disorders: 

Anosmia – inability to smell



Dysosmia – things smell different than they should



Hyperosmia – an abnormally acute sense of smell.



Hyposmia – decreased ability to smell



Olfactory Reference Syndrome – psychological disorder which causes patients to imagine they have strong body odor



Parosmia – things smell worse than they should



Phantosmia – "hallucinated smell", often unpleasant in nature

Complete loss of the sense of taste is known as ageusia, while dysgeusia is persistent abnormal sense of taste, 14

Somatosensory impairment Insensitivity to stimuli such as touch, heat, cold, and pain are often an adjunct to a more general physical impairment involving neural pathways and is very commonly associated with paralysis (in which the motor neural circuits are also affected). Balance disorder A balance disorder is a disturbance that causes an individual to feel unsteady, for example when standing or walking. It may be accompanied by symptoms of being giddy, woozy, or have a sensation of movement, spinning, or floating. Balance is the result of several body systems working together. The eyes (visual system), ears (vestibular system) and the body's sense of where it is in space (proprioception) need to be intact. The brain, which compiles this information, needs to be functioning effectively. Intellectual disability Intellectual disability is a broad concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific (as in specific learning disability) to qualify as mental retardation. Intellectual disabilities may appear at any age. Mental retardation is a subtype of intellectual disability, and the term intellectual disability is now preferred by many advocates in most English-speaking countries. Mental health and emotional disabilities A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and perceived by the majority of society as being outside of normal development or cultural expectations. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the definition, assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although standard guideline criteria are widely accepted. Developmental disability Developmental disability is any disability that results in problems with growth and development. Although the term is often used as a synonym or euphemism for intellectual disability, the term also encompasses many congenital medical conditions that have no mental or intellectual components, for example spina bifida.

15

Non visible disabilities Several chronic disorders, such as diabetes, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease or epilepsy, would be counted as nonvisible disabilities, as opposed to disabilities which are clearly visible, such as those requiring the use of a wheelchair. Child abuse Child abuse is more than bruises and broken bones. While physical abuse might be the most visible, other types of abuse, such as emotional abuse and neglect, also leave deep, lasting scars. The earlier abused children get help, the greater chance they have to heal and break the cycle—rather than perpetuate it. By learning about common signs of abuse and what you can do to intervene, you can make a huge difference in a child’s life. Effects of child abuse All types of child abuse and neglect leave lasting scars. Some of these scars might be physical, but emotional scarring has long lasting effects throughout life, damaging a child’s sense of self, ability to have healthy relationships, and ability to function at home, at work and at school. Some effects include: 

Lack of trust and relationship difficulties. If you can’t trust your parents, who can you trust? Abuse by a primary caregiver damages the most fundamental relationship as a child—that you will safely, reliably get your physical and emotional needs met by the person who is responsible for your care. Without this base, it is very difficult to learn to trust people or know who is trustworthy. This can lead to difficulty maintaining relationships due to fear of being controlled or abused. It can also lead to unhealthy relationships because the adult doesn’t know what a good relationship is.



Core feelings of being “worthless” or “damaged.” If you’ve been told over and over again as a child that you are stupid or no good, it is very difficult to overcome these core feelings. You may experience them as reality. Adults may not strive for more education, or settle for a job that may not pay enough, because they don’t believe they can do it or are worth more. Sexual abuse survivors, with the stigma and shame surrounding the abuse, often especially struggle with a feeling of being damaged.



Trouble regulating emotions. Abused children cannot express emotions safely. As a result, the emotions get stuffed down, coming out in unexpected ways. Adult survivors

16

of child abuse can struggle with unexplained anxiety, depression, or anger. They may turn to alcohol or drugs to numb out the painful feelings. Types There are several types of child abuse, but the core element that ties them together is the emotional effect on the child. Children need predictability, structure, clear boundaries, and the knowledge that their parents are looking out for their safety. Abused children cannot predict how their parents will act. Their world is an unpredictable, frightening place with no rules. Whether the abuse is a slap, a harsh comment, stony silence, or not knowing if there will be dinner on the table tonight, the end result is a child that feel unsafe, uncared for, and alone. Emotional child abuse Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me? Contrary to this old saying, emotional abuse can severely damage a child’s mental health or social development, leaving lifelong psychological scars. Examples of emotional child abuse include: 

Constant belittling, shaming, and humiliating a child.



Calling names and making negative comparisons to others.



Telling a child he or she is ―no good," "worthless," "bad," or "a mistake."



Frequent yelling, threatening, or bullying.



Ignoring or rejecting a child as punishment, giving him or her the silent treatment.



Limited physical contact with the child—no hugs, kisses, or other signs of affection.



Exposing the child to violence or the abuse of others, whether it be the abuse of a parent, a sibling, or even a pet.

Child neglect Child neglect—a very common type of child abuse—is a pattern of failing to provide for a child's basic needs, whether it be adequate food, clothing, hygiene, or supervision. Child neglect is not always easy to spot. Sometimes, a parent might become physically or mentally unable to care for a child, such as with a serious injury, untreated depression, or anxiety. Other times, alcohol or drug abuse may seriously impair judgment and the ability to keep a child safe.

17

Older children might not show outward signs of neglect, becoming used to presenting a competent face to the outside world, and even taking on the role of the parent. But at the end of the day, neglected children are not getting their physical and emotional needs met. Physical child abuse Physical abuse involves physical harm or injury to the child. It may be the result of a deliberate attempt to hurt the child, but not always. It can also result from severe discipline, such as using a belt on a child, or physical punishment that is inappropriate to the child’s age or physical condition. Many physically abusive parents and caregivers insist that their actions are simply forms of discipline—ways to make children learn to behave. But there is a big difference between using physical punishment to discipline and physical abuse. The point of disciplining children is to teach them right from wrong, not to make them live in fear. Factors While child abuse and neglect occurs in all types of families—even in those that look happy from the outside—children are at a much greater risk in certain situations. 

Domestic violence. Witnessing domestic violence is terrifying to children and emotionally abusive. Even if the mother does her best to protect her children and keeps them from being physically abused, the situation is still extremely damaging. If you or a loved one is in an abusive relationships, getting out is the best thing for protecting the children.



Alcohol and drug abuse. Living with an alcoholic or addict is very difficult for children and can easily lead to abuse and neglect. Parents who are drunk or high are unable to care for their children, make good parenting decisions, and control oftendangerous impulses. Substance abuse also commonly leads to physical abuse.



Untreated mental illness. Parents who suffering from depression, an anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, or another mental illness have trouble taking care of themselves, much less their children. A mentally ill or traumatized parent may be distant and withdrawn from his or her children, or quick to anger without understanding why. Treatment for the caregiver means better care for the children.

18



Lack of parenting skills. Some caregivers never learned the skills necessary for good parenting. Teen parents, for example, might have unrealistic expectations about how much care babies and small children need. Or parents who were themselves victims of child abuse may only know how to raise their children the way they were raised. In such cases, parenting classes, therapy, and caregiver support groups are great resources for learning better parenting skills.



Stress and lack of support. Parenting can be a very time-intensive, difficult job, especially if you’re raising children without support from family, friends, or the community or you’re dealing with relationship problems or financial difficulties. Caring for a child with a disability, special needs, or difficult behaviors is also a challenge. It’s important to get the support you need, so you are emotionally and physically able to support your child.

Tips for changing your reactions 

Learn what is age appropriate and what is not. Having realistic expectations of what children can handle at certain ages will help you avoid frustration and anger at normal child behavior. For example, newborns are not going to sleep through the night without a peep, and toddlers are not going to be able to sit quietly for extended periods of time.



Develop new parenting skills. While learning to control your emotions is critical, you also need a game plan of what you are going to do instead. Start by learning appropriate discipline techniques and how to set clear boundaries for your children. Parenting classes, books, and seminars are a way to get this information. You can also turn to other parents for tips and advice.



Take care of yourself. If you are not getting enough rest and support or you’re feeling overwhelmed, you are much more likely to succumb to anger. Sleep deprivation, common in parents of young children, adds to moodiness and irritability—exactly what you are trying to avoid.



Get professional help. Breaking the cycle of abuse can be very difficult if the patterns are strongly entrenched. If you can’t seem to stop yourself no matter how hard you try, it’s time to get help, be it therapy, parenting classes, or other interventions. Your children will thank you for it.



Learn how you can get your emotions under control. The first step to getting your emotions under control is realizing that they are there. If you were abused as a child, 19

you may have an especially difficult time getting in touch with your range of emotions. You may have had to deny or repress them as a child, and now they spill out without your control. Tips for talking to an abused child 

Avoid denial and remain calm. A common reaction to news as unpleasant and shocking as child abuse is denial. However, if you display denial to a child, or show shock or disgust at what they are saying, the child may be afraid to continue and will shut down. As hard as it may be, remain as calm and reassuring as you can.



Don’t interrogate. Let the child explain to you in his or her own words what happened, but don’t interrogate the child or ask leading questions. This may confuse and fluster the child and make it harder for them to continue their story.



Reassure the child that they did nothing wrong. It takes a lot for a child to come forward about abuse. Reassure him or her that you take what is said seriously, and that it is not the child’s fault.



Safety comes first. If you feel that your safety or the safety of the child would be threatened if you try to intervene, leave it to the professionals. You may be able to provide more support later after the initial professional intervention.

Women abuse Woman abuse is any intentional act of violence, abuse, maltreatment, and/or neglect that a woman experiences from her intimate spouse, partner, friend or caregiver. Woman abuse can include, but is not limited to: physical, sexual, psychological, verbal, social, economical and/or religious abuse. Types of Woman Abuse

Physical Abuse - may include, but is not limited to: 

any unwanted physical contact



hitting, kicking, punching, slapping, choking, or shaking



hitting with an object, such as belts, whip



burning her



restraining her in anyway 20

Sexual Abuse - may include, but is not limited to: 

any unwanted sexual touching



forcing her to have sex



forcing her to have sex with others



forcing her to have sex when she is ill, immediately after childbirth or surgery



forcing her to do sexual things that she does not want to do, such as video taping se



forbidding the use of birth control, insisting on an abortion



criticizing or insulting her body and/or sexual performance



denying sexual intimacy



infecting her with a STD (sexual transmitted disease/infection) Emotional/Verbal Abuse - may include, but is not limited to:



name calling



constantly yelling and screaming



threatening injury and/or death to her and/or someone she cares about



threatening to take away her children



withdrawing affection, "the silent treatment"



isolating her from family and friends



humiliating and criticizing her in front of family, friends and in public



controlling her whereabouts and who she sees Financial or Economic Abuse - may include, but is not limited to:



taking and/or withholding money



preventing her from obtaining employment



controlling her employment choices



keeping family finances a secret



spending money on addiction, gambling, and sexual services



forcing her to pay the bills Religious/Spiritual Abuse - may include, but is not limited to:



preventing her from participating in spiritual and religious practices of her choice



using religion to justify abuse



mocking and ridiculing her spiritual beliefs Overcoming Women Abuse 21

Emotional abuse may not leave scars, but it can cause pain for much longer than physical harm. Many women especially believe that just because they do not suffer from physical abuse by their spouse or partner, they are safe. However, it is not necessarily the case. The scars are mental and can cause a lot of grief and unhappiness. Although more women appear to suffer from emotional abuse, this does not mean that men do not experience mental torture either. Emotional abuse happens when the other party erodes your sense of self esteem and literally, has a hold over your mind. Your sense of self worth shrinks so much that you no longer dare to challenge what is being said about you. You believe in the stories that are being told. Unfortunately, most of them are not true to begin with. Your partner spins a web of lies to control your behavior and for his or her own selfish motives. It is possible that he or she has an inferiority complex to begin with. Perhaps, there comes a time when you decide that enough is enough. You refuse to be held hostage by your mental torture. And you want to move on. Fortunately, it is possible to overcome emotional abuse and regain the confidence and control that you may have lost to an abusive partner. 

Dissociate from the past There is no point lamenting about what has happened in the past. It is over. Do not deny it either. Just accept that it has happened and that you are now on the road to emotional health. You may not have exercised control over your past but you can take charge over your own future from now on. Look at the past as lessons that point out what you no longer want for yourself. Admittedly, it will take time to heal from the emotional trauma caused by an abuser, but gradually, you will discover an inner strength and resilience to build a bright future. A change in environment may be helpful for you to de-associate from your past.



Build self-esteem Abusers are constantly hacking away at your self-esteem. When you come out of an abusive relationship it is essential that you rebuild your sense of self-worth. You need to recognize that you can be strong and capable of independent thought. Surrounding yourself with people who value you is an important part of the healing process. Form your own support group or join an online community that helps support its members to

22

gain strength. It is vital that you remember what makes you a unique and valuable person. 

You hold the power Emotional abusers do what they do to gain power over you. Consequently, you feel that you are being controlled and watched over every single movement that you make. You fear making decisions. In fact, you find it difficult to make one without consulting your partner. You lose confidence in your own abilities, incapable of rational thinking. The important thing is to understand that you are the only person who has power over yourself. One reason why you have been subjected to emotional abuse is that you have handed your power over to your partner. In reality, no one can make you do anything if you do not let them. Realize that only you hold the power. Look for ways to empower yourself.



You know what is right for you You are the only person who knows what is best for you. An emotional abuser will want you to make decisions that are self serving for his or her interest. However, such a decision may not be in line with yours. As much as you care for a harmonious relationship, you need to take an alternate decision if your inner knowing tells you otherwise. Hence, it is your job to take care of your own needs. It is not about being selfish, but about establishing certain boundaries. No one leads your life for you. Do what feels right. Trust your intuition.



You can only control yourself One reason that many women stay in abusive relationships is because they think they can help their partner change. A period in time will lapse and they would find that they remain stuck and with no signs of improvement in their partner. The truth is that you cannot make anyone change, you can only control the way you react to them. Instead, focus on improving your own life. In doing this you will discover your own self worth. You can then decide whether or not your partner is compatible with your new lifestyle.



Spend Time Setting boundaries and expectations People often expect a speedy recovery after being in an abusive relationship. If they do not allow themselves enough time to heal they will often fall into another abusive relationship. It is clear to see that they have not learnt their lessons. They continue to attract

the

same

kind

of

relationships

that

have

them

feeling

needy.

Hence, it is important that you spend time setting boundaries and expectations for 23

treatment in future relationships, before diving into a new one. Commit to a decision that you do not want to enter into any unhealthy liaisons any more. If you are clear in what you want, you are more likely to attract a loving and kind partner, unlike the one that you have been used to. 

Do what makes you feel good Initially, you will feel free from coming out of an abusive relationship. However, you may start to experience insecurity because you do not know how to occupy your time. For this reason, it is important that you do not hang around by your phone, hoping that your partner will call and beg for forgiveness. Instead, find things to do that makes you feel happy. Take a class or pick up a hobby. Try to recall what it is that you have always wanted to explore. With no one telling you what to do or holding you back, the possibilities are endless.

Beggary Begging in India is a fashion, a compulsion, a profession, a privilege and a recreation. The number of beggars in India is much larger than in other countries. Our heads hang down in shame when we read description of this institution given by foreigners in a hateful manner. To the Westerners, India is a land of the mendicants and snake-charmers. Beggars are found in villages and towns, on roads, crossings and footpaths. But their favorite haunts are bathing Ghats, temples, religious or festival fairs, railway stations, trains and bus-stands. It is a big nuisance to be confronted by street beggars at all odd places. Like the God Almighty they seem to be omnipresent. You are waiting for a bus at the bus-stand or walking down a road with your friend, they appear from nowhere and start an endless volley of entreaties and blessings. They follow you close at your heels and keep pestering you till you give them some coins out of a sense of sheer disgust and helplessness. There are various types of beggars in India. The religious; beggars cluster round pilgrim centres and attract public attention by their wonderful feats. There are crippled and disabled beggars who remain lying on road-sides or at railway or river bridges arousing sympathy of the passers-by, making all kinds of pitiful gesture!; There are beggars who are quite stout and able-bodied. Begging for them is not a necessity but a profession. They are idlers and rascals who are unwilling to earn their bread by hard work. They often operate in gangs and their leaders hold a bank balance that would be credit to an important business magnate. They are disguised as physically disabled or handicapped. They use as tools young women with new 24

born babies or young children. Whenever they find an opportunity, they commit thefts and crimes, including kidnapping of children. At some places we come across modernized beggars dressed in suits. Such beggars lead a luxurious life in places of retirement. There are travelling beggars who are particularly seen in trains. The collect alms for orphanages, cowshelters and widow-shelters, which exist only in their minds. Foreigners are their most privileged victims. Begging in India has developed into an art and a full-fledged profession. The practice of begging is the result of the poverty of the country and the deep-seated religious sentiments and superstitions of our country men. Unemployment, illiteracy, ignorance and everincreasing population are other causes of begging. It cannot be denied that the distribution of wealth is not fair and the gulf between the rich and the poor is very wide. The rich and the well to-do accept extreme poverty and begging as a necessary feature of society. Religion seems to teach them that charity is the surest passport to heaven. Beggars, in themselves are problems and they create other social problems by kidnapping women and children; Sometimes, we begin to doubt the integrity of spiritually and morally high persons and ill treat them because pink clothes have become the common dress of beggars in India. Charity, in our country, enjoys religious sanctity. But it is conveniently forgotten that misplaced charity is good neither for the one who shows it nor for one to whom it is shown. It encourages idleness and in activity. It produces parasites and wastes a sizeable amount of human power. Laws should be legislated for abolishing begging and offenders should be severely dealt with. The government should be establish work-houses where able-bodied beggars should be kept and compelled to work. The people, in general, should be made conscious of the fact that beggars are the 'greatest enemies of the country and there should be country wide agitations against beggars. The crippled and disabled beggars should be maintained by the State, The disabled and diseased beggars and orphaned children and destitute women deserve particular attention from the State. There should be asylums and training centres for such people. Here they should first be treated for their ailments and then trained in different kinds of handicrafts and cottage industries. The success of some of the schools for the blind, the deaf and the dumb shows the true solution of the problem. In place of individual charity, funds and donation should be raised on a large and organized scale for the relief of these unfortunate people. 25

Indeed, beggary if so intricately women into our way of life that, no matter how corrupt and scheming it gets, it shall continue to claim attention. If not from the educated, from the illiterate and the superstitious. Tragedy stares at us round every corner. Begging is one of the worst social evils that denegrade India in the eyes of the world. The earlier it is eradicated, the better it would be in the interest of our nation. Of the various problems which our country faces today, the problem of begging is one of the most acute ones. It is true that ours is a country of saints, sages an sadhus; yet the problem of beggars as it exists in our society today, is a matter of great shame for everyone. It has assumed wide dimensions. It is estimated that there are about forty lakh beggars in India. Indeed, begging has become a profession. It is carried on as an art. Everyone of us has seen numerous kinds of beggars. Some are blind, lame or crippled, and so take to begging. Some people, who have lost their homes, become beggars. Child and orphan beggars also are very common. There are people ho are physically sound but who undertake begging as their profession, for it enables them to earn their living easily. Some give up their family life. When they become old they are known as Sadhus. The kids of beggars are numerous. Their methods of begging are equally varied and strange. The causes of begging are many. First of all, some people are physically incapable of doing any work. The only way of getting food open to them is begging. Such beggars easily win the sympathy of others. They deserve it also. But the number of such leprous, blind, or otherwise invalid beggars is not very great as compared to other kinds of beggars. Secondly, some people take to begging due to religious sanction. In Hindus as well as in Muslims, some religious teachers encourage people to become beggars. Many a criminal finds refuge in the guise of such religious 'Sadhus and 'Fakirs'. It is indeed very difficult to distinguish between the genuine religious sadhus and the non-genuine ones. Thirdly, there are organization which train children in the art of begging. Orphans and kidnapped children are engaged in this profession form early childhood. After a time, they become experts. This type of begging is indeed very harmful. It must be checked without any delay.

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Fourthly, some criminals when they come back from jails are not treated sympathetically by society. They are not given any chance to begin their life afresh. They become beggars and find shelter in this profession. Finally, when some people see the trade of begging flourishing and beggars earning their livelihood in a very easy way, they enter the profession. Such beggars are on the increase. We must safeguard our society against them. The problem of begging is a knotty one. We will have to fight it from all sides. First of all, public opinion must be created aginst it. Indiscriminate alms-giving ins neither good for the giver, nor for the receiver. Instead, it creates a number of social evils. Only those who are crippled, helpless or homeless should be given alms. Further, the Government should start its own institutions, where widows, orphans, and other helpless people may find shelter. This will prevent them from joining the profession. The Government should also pass laws, which should make begging by persons below a certain age a crime. Many people with sound health and in their prime become beggars. The law should prevent such people from begging. These are some of the important suggestions which, if implemented, will got a long way towards solving this problem. Though the problem of begging is gigantic, yet it can easily be solved, if there is will and determination to do so. By creating healthy public opinion against it and by passing laws which make this profession a punishable offence, the problem can be solved within no time. Child marriage Child marriage is a common practice in many countries around the world, however it is especially prevalent in India, where more than one third of all child brides live. According to UNICEF, 47% of girls are married by 18 years of age, and 18% are married by 15 years of age. These marriages are often performed without the consent of the girls involved in the marriage. Indian law has made child marriage illegal, but it is still widely practiced across the nation. The highest rates are seen particularly in the rural states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. It affects both boys and girls, but statistics show that girls are far more likely to be forced into a child marriage than boys; however the percentage of girls forced into child marriage in India has declined in recent years. 27

Law against child marriage The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 The Child Marriage Restraint Act, also called the Sarda Act, was a law to restrict the practice of child marriage. It was enacted on 1 April 1930, extended across the whole nation, with the exceptions of the states of Jammu and Kashmir, and applied to every Indian citizen. Its goal was to eliminate the dangers placed on young girls who could not handle the stress of married life and avoid early deaths. This Act defined a male child as 21 years or younger, a female child as 18 years or younger, and a minor as a child of either sex 18 years or younger. The punishment for a male between 18 and 21 years marrying a child became imprisonment of up to 15 days, a fine of 1,000 rupees, or both. The punishment for a male above 21 years of age became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine. The punishment for anyone who performed or directed a child marriage ceremony became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine, unless he could prove the marriage he performed was not a child marriage. The punishment for a parent or guardian of a child taking place in the marriage became imprisonment of up to three months or a possible fine. It was amended in 1940 and 1978 to continue raising the ages of male and female children. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 In response to the plea (Writ Petition (C) 212/2003) of the Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy at the Supreme Court, the Government of India brought the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA) in 2006, and it came into effect on 1 November 2007 to address and fix the shortcomings of the Child Marriage Restraint Act. The change in name was meant to reflect the prevention and prohibition of child marriage, rather than restraining it. The previous Act also made it difficult and time consuming to act against child marriages and did not focus on authorities as possible figures for preventing the marriages. This Act kept the ages of adult males and females the same but made some significant changes to further protect the children. Boys and girls forced into child marriages as minors have the option of voiding their marriage up to two years after reaching adulthood, and in certain circumstances, marriages of minors can be null and void before they reach adulthood. All valuables, money, and gifts must be returned if the marriage is nullified, and the girl must be provided with a place of residency until she marries or becomes an adult. Children born from child marriages are considered legitimate, and the courts are expected to give parental custody with the children's best interests in mind. Any male over 18 years of

28

age who enters into a marriage with a minor or anyone who directs or conducts a child marriage ceremony can be punished with up to two years of imprisonment or a fine. Purpose of child marriage Parents of a child entering into a child marriage are often poor and use the marriage as a way to make her future better, especially in areas with little economic opportunities. During times of war, parents will often marry off their young child to protect her from the conflicts raging around her. Some families still use child marriage to build alliances, as they did during the medieval ages. Statistically, a girl in a child marriage has less of a chance to go to school, and parents think education will undermine her ability to be a traditional wife and mother. Virginity is an important part of Indian culture, and parents want to ensure their daughters do not have pre-marital sex, and child marriage is an easy way to fix this. Prevention programs Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (ABAD), which translates to "Our Daughter, Our Wealth," is one of India's first conditional cash transfer programmes dedicated to delaying young marriages across the nation. In 1994, the Indian government implemented this programme in the state of Haryana. On the birth of a mother's first, second, or third child, they are set to receive 500, or US$11 within the first 15 days to cover their post-delivery needs. Along with this, the government gives 2,500, or US$55, to invest in a long-term savings bond in the daughter's name, which can be later cashed for 25,000, or US$550, after her 18 birthday. She can only receive the money if she is not married. Anju Malhotra, an expert on child marriage and adolescent girls said of this programme, "No other conditional cash transfer has this focus of delaying marriage... It's an incentive to encourage parents to value their daughters." The International Centre for Research on Women will evaluate Apni Beti, Apna Dhan over the course of the year 2012, when the program's initial participants turn 18, to see if the programme, particularly the cash incentive, has motivated parents to delay their daughters' marriages. "We have evidence that conditional cash transfer programmes are very effective in keeping girls in school and getting them immunised, but we don’t yet have proof that this strategy works for preventing marriage," said Pranita Achyut, the program manager for Apni Beti, Apna Dhan. "If Haryana state’s approach proves to be valuable, it could potentially be scaled up to make a significant difference in many more girls’ lives – and not only in India. Bride burning

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Bride burning is a form of domestic violence wherein a groom or his family kills the bride due to his dissatisfaction over the amount or duration of the dowry. Kerosene is most often used as the fuel. It is most common in India and has been a major problem there since at least 1993. This crime has been treated as culpable homicide and, if proven, is usually accordingly punished by up to lifelong imprisonment or death. Bride burning has been recognized as an important public health problem in India, accounting for around 2,500 deaths per year in the country. In 1995,Time Magazine reported that dowry deaths in India increased from around 400 a year in the early 1980s to around 5,800 a year by the middle of the 1990s. A year later, CNN ran a story saying that every year police receive more than 2,500 reports of bride burning. According to Indian National Crime Record Bureau, there were 1,948 convictions and 3,876 acquittals in dowry death cases in 2008. Bride burning is not the same as the ancient custom of Sati, formally abolished in 1829, where a widowed woman was forcibly or voluntarily placed on the burning pyre of her dead husband and burnt to death. Controlling the bride burning Governmental efforts In 1961, India enacted the Dowry Prohibition Act, to halt dowry murders. It was amended in the early 1980s to ―rectify several inherent weaknesses and loopholes‖ in order to make it a criminal offense if the husband or his relatives causes a woman to ―die of burns or bodily injury or unnatural circumstances within seven years of the marriage and where there is evidence

that

she

suffered

cruelty

and

harassment

in

connection

with

the

dowry.‖ Unfortunately, this particular law does not provide a comprehensive definition of dowry, which can change the way it is demanded and delivered. Ultimately, this allowed perpetrators more flexibility in the court of dowry death. The seven-year clause is equally problematic, as it simply allowed husbands to wait until that period ended to burn or otherwise cause the death of their bride. Another major Indian law, the 1983 ―Anti-Cruelty Statute,‖ prohibits cruelty towards a wife and subjects the husband and/or in-laws to fines or imprisonment if they inflict cruelty upon the wife. However, the law is equally ambiguous, which results in inadequate enforcement of bride burning and dowry murders.

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Article 1 of the universal human rights laws declares the following: ―All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.‖ Article 5 proclaims: ―No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.‖ Non-governmental efforts In India, where most cases of bride burning are seen, domestic legislation is typically inadequately enforced. Because of this, grassroots organizations ―have taken up the cause to halt bride burning.‖ One example of this is government-funded family counseling center cells, in which the intended goal is to strengthen family ties and reduce legal intervention. However, often such cells only reinforce the stereotype of ―women’s sharp tongues‖ and men’s power to ―hit and beat.‖ Other similar counseling-style NGOs have been developed in order to resolve such issues with similar consequences. Potential efforts Primarily, alternative initiatives resolve around reform of current flawed, failing laws. One proposal calls for the expansion of the protection for women under the international refugee law in order to provide asylum to victims of gender discrimination or gendercide. One way this could be achieved would be by including women in the definition of a ―persecuted social group,‖ which would allow their gender to seek international asylum under fear of dowryrelated persecution globally. In April 1984, European Parliament introduced a proposal that would ―protect women from persecution on the basis of gender‖ by reforming international refugee laws. However, the proposal was rejected. Another solution is to increase economic interest for women by establishing their property rights. Even when married, the bride has no rights over the property belonging to the husband while he is living. In giving women the right to own property, women would not need to marry for economic or legal purposes, thus disregarding the dowry practice. Slum A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squalor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics from country to country, most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity,

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timely law enforcement and other basic services. Slum residences vary from shanty to poorly built, deteriorated buildings. Slums were common in 19th and early 20th century urban history of the United States and Europe.In the 20th century, slums were predominantly found in urban regions of developing and undeveloped parts of the world, but also found in developed economies. Counter measures Recent years have seen a dramatic growth in the number of slums as urban populations have increased in developing countries. Nearly a billion people worldwide live in slums, and some project the figure may grow to 2 billion by 2030, if governments and global community ignore slums and continue current urban policies. United Nations Habitat group believes change is possible. To achieve the goal of ―cities without slums‖, claims UN, governments must undertake vigorous urban planning, city management, infrastructure development, slum upgrading and poverty reduction. Slum removal Some city governments and state officials have simply sought to remove slums. This strategy for dealing with slums is rooted in the fact that slums typically start illegally on someone else’s land property, and they are not recognized by the state. If slum residents start by violating someone else’s property rights, how can slum residents claim property rights later? Critics argue that slum removal by force tend to ignore the social problems that cause slums. The poor children as well as working adults of a city’s informal economy need a place to live. Slum clearance removes the slum, but it does not remove the causes that create and maintain the slum. Slum relocation Slum relocation strategies rely on removing the slums and relocating the slum poor to free semi-rural peripheries of cities, sometimes in free housing. This strategy ignores several dimensions of a slum life. The strategy sees slum as merely a place where the poor lives. In reality, slums are often integrated with every aspect of a slum resident’s life, including sources of employment, distance from work and social life. Slum relocation that displaces the poor from opportunities to earn a livelihood, generates economic insecurity in the poor. In some cases, the slum residents oppose relocation even if the replacement land and housing to the outskirts of cities is free and of better quality than their current house. Examples include 32

Zone One Tondo Organization of Manila, Philippines and Abahlali baseMjondolo of Durban, South Africa. In other cases, such as Ennakhil slum relocation project in Morocco, systematic social mediation has worked. The slum residents have been convinced that their current location is a health hazard, prone to natural disaster, or that the alternative location is well connected to employment opportunities. Slum upgrading Some governments have begun to approach slums as a possible opportunity to urban development by slum upgrading. This approach was inspired in part by the theoretical writings of John Turner in 1972. The approach seeks to upgrade the slum with basic infrastructure such as sanitation, safe drinking water, safe electricity distribution, paved roads, rain water drainage system, and bus/metro stops. The assumption behind this approach is that if slums are given basic services and tenure security - that is, the slum will not be destroyed and slum residents will not be evicted, then the residents will rebuild their own housing, engage their slum community to live better, and over time attract investment from government organizations and businesses. Eve-teasing Eve-teasing is a euphemism used in Pakistan, India (and sometimes Nepal and Bhutan) for public sexual harassment or molestation of women by men, with use of the word "Eve" being a reference to the biblical Eve, the first woman. Considered a problem related to delinquency in youth, it is a form of sexual aggression that ranges in severity from sexually suggestive remarks, brushing in public places and catcalls to outright groping. Sometimes it is referred to with a coy suggestion of innocent fun, making it appear innocuous with no resulting liability on the part of the perpetrator. Some voluntary organisations have suggested that the expression be replaced by a more appropriate term. According to them, considering the semantic roots of the term in Indian English, Eve teasing refers to the temptress nature of Eve, placing responsibility on the woman as a tease. Sexual harassment by strangers, as with any type of harassment, has been a notoriously difficult crime to prove, as perpetrators often devise ingenious ways to harass women, even though eve teasing usually occurs in public spaces, streets, and public transport. Some feminist writers claim that this behaviour is a kind of "little rape". Some guidebooks to the region warn female tourists to avoid attracting the attention of these kinds of men by wearing

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conservative clothing. However, this harassment is reported both by Indian women and by conservatively dressed foreign women. Stop eve teasing Although Indian law doesn't use the term 'Eve Teasing', victims earlier usually seek recourse through Section 294 of the Indian Penal Code, which sentences a man found guilty of making a girl or woman the target of obscene gestures, remarks, songs or recitation to a maximum jail sentence of three months. Section 292 of the IPC clearly spells out that showing pornographic or obscene pictures, books or papers to a woman or girl results in a fine of Rs.2000 with two years imprisonment for first offenders. In the case of a repeated offence, the offender may have a fine of Rs.5000 with five years imprisonment imposed. Under Section 509 of the IPC, obscene gestures, indecent body language and negative comments directed at any woman or girl or exhibiting any object which intrudes upon the privacy of a woman, carries a penalty of imprisonment for one year or a fine or both. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 introduced changes to the Indian Penal Code, making sexual harassment an expressed offence under Section 354 A, which is punishable upto three years of imprisonment and or with fine. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalking and sexual acts by person in authority an offence. The National Commission for Women (NCW) also proposed No 9. Eve Teasing (New Legislation) 1988. The Indian Parliament has passed The The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, which add protections for female workers in most workplaces. The Act came into force from 9 December 2013. Regionalism India is a large country having continental dimensions and comprising no fewer than 28 States and 7 Union Territories. It is a multi-racial, multi-lingual nation. There are scores of regional languages, various strains of culture and different loyalties, single as well as multiple. Amidst the amazing diversities, it is natural that regional feelings, regional parties, regional institutions and similar other organizations meant for voicing the aspirations of local people and providing forums for them, should emerge. Indeed, with the passage of years, the multi-faceted aspirations, which together may be described as regionalism, have gained strength.

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It is not a new phenomenon. In fact, the fillip given to regionalism by the emergence of the Telegu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh in 3982 has a historical continuity. The growth of this trend can be traced back to the fast unto death by Potti Srivamulu over the demand for the creation of Andhra Pradesh which set in motion the reorganization of State along linguistic lines in 1956. In principle, regionalism need not be regarded as an unhealthy or anti-national phenomenon—unless it takes a militant, aggressive turn and encourages the growth of secessionist tendencies, (as it did in Punjab during the past five years or so). National unity is not impaired if the people of a region have a genuine pride in their language and culture. But regionalism develops into a serious threat to national unity if politicians do not go beyond their regional loyalty and claim to stand only for their regional interests if regionalism is to be regarded as an unhealthy phenomenon, decentralization too would be objectionable, which of course it is not. So there is nothing basically contradictory between nationalism and regionalism. Nor does the growth of regional values and consolidation of regional forces as such pose a challenge to the central administration of the country. Any attempt to counter regionalism in the erroneous belief that is not conducive to national interests, would be ill-conceived. Enforced uniformity in a huge country like India would be sheer-folly. Regional parties do not hinder national unity and integrity as long as they do not exceed their area of activity. Several regional political parties have merged in recent years and have gained strength for obvious reasons. The handful of national parties cannot, by the very nature of things, adequately represent and pursue regional causes. Most of the national patties have even failed to live up to the people's expectations. That explains why more State-based parties have been formed in various regions and are quite successful in their aims. Regional parties are not a new phenomenon. Several parties have been existing in the country for the last many decades. They have held power, or are still holding power, in many states such as Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Pondicherry, Jammu and Kashmir, Assam and other States in the North-Eastern region. But never before were regional parties dubbed as anti-national or regarded as a threat to the nation's unity. People repose confidence in regional parties because they believe that they alone can safeguard the interests of the State concerned and can fight for the legitimate rights and 35

powers of the States without being hamstring by their association with a national party. Regional parties naturally concentrate on safeguarding and promoting regional interests. But they do not sacrifice the larger interests of the country. It is also significant that in the Lok Sabha a regional party (Telegu Desam) now forms the largest opposition group. Among the causes of the growth of regionalism is prolonged maladministration and neglect of an area or State by the Central, Government. There has been a creeping disillusionment against Central rule. Regional symbols, regional culture, history and in many cases a common language, all promote regionalism. The Centre's indifference to the development of certain regions has created imbalances. Some areas particularly in the North, are well developed, with adequate infrastructure while others are way behind. This explains why there is Telegu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, DMK in Tamil Nadu and the Jharkhand Movement in Bihar. There is much concern among leaders of the Congress (I) about the growth of regionalism in the country. It is looked upon with suspicion and is even regarded as a challenges to democracy and national integration. But this concern is largely unwarranted; Regionalism will come into conflict with nationalism only when it becomes aggressive and when members of the various regional parties tend to forget that they are Indians first and last, citizens of the same country. Non-regional conflicts are however a cause for concern. There are constitutional means to deal with regional conflicts, while the communal and caste conflicts have often to be settled in the streets. Inter-regional or centre-region disputes have never created a serious explosion whereas communal clashes frequently cause havoc. Unfortunately, there are important differences among the regional parties themselves in the country. The differences of approach and policy have hindered the formation of an effective, durable and viable combination of regional parties so as to facilitate the emergence of a national alternative to the ruling party at the centre. The growth of regional parties in itself is nor incompatible with the process of nation-building. In a democracy, ideological options are open in the sense that any individual or group can adopt any ideology, provided, of course, it is within the legal framework. Political parties have the freedom to compete for power and pursue their respective ideologies. Since ideologies are no respecters of geographical boundaries, they also check the exclusiveness of 36

regional identities. In fact, it has been the decline of the party system in recent years that has inflated the role of regionalism in the country. As for the cures, three suggestions may be made. First, there should be a greater spirit of accommodation on the part of the Central authorities. This implies a reversal of the process of concentration of power which has admittedly been much in evidence in the country, causing resentment among the opposition-governed State. Power and authority must be shared on an equitable basis between the Centre and the constituent units, of the Indian Federation. Harmonious, balanced growth should be the administrations aim, not suppression of local desires and demands. Of course, firmness is necessary when regionalism, assumes militant forms, as it has done in Punjab m the form of operation Blue Star and Operation Thunder, where in recent years certain groups of misguided youth started running a parallel government and creating chaos. Regionalism must not be allowed to become a shield for militancy, extremism, establishing a reign of terror and carrying on other anti-national activities. The regional parties patriotism should not be suspected, regionalism does not weaken India. The majority groups should not become arrogant or obsessed with power. They should be generous towards the minorities, religious, cultural and linguistic Suppression of regional aspirations is not the right remedy. There are some uniting factors which need to be further promoted. The emergence of a national market, the spread of communications, the influence of all India institutions, the widening transport facilities, the vast network of the electronic media, the establishment of a common structure of formal education almost throughout the country (four states have yet to switch over to 10 plus 2 plus 3). These factors help to counter regional tendencies.

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