Unit-1 Peace and Conflict Studies - Nature and Scope

 

UN T 1 PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES: NATURE AND SCOPE Structure

1.1

Introduction

1.2

Peace Traditions

1.3

Peace and Violence

1.4

Fonns of Violence 1.4.1

Direct and Structural Violence

I .4.2

Negative and Positive Peace

1.5 Conflict Analysis and Conflict Management

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1.5.1

Structural Conditions

1.5.2

Traditional Management Strategies

1.5.3

Dispu e Settlement and Conflict Resoluiion

1.5.4

Conflict Transformdtion and Peace Building

Some Approaches to the Study of of Peace 1.6.1

Feminist Approach

1.6.2

The Political Economy Approach

1.6.3

The Environmental Approach

1.7

S ummaty

1

Exercises

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1 I INTRODUCTION Peace is generally conceived o off as equivalent to the absence o off manifest violen violence. ce. In the Explanatory Phonographic Pronouncing Dictionary of of the English Language (1850), peace is defined as a list of synonyms which include respite from wa warr , quite from suits and disorders , rest from any commotion , freedom from terror , silence , suppressions of thoughts etc etc.. Most of these are definiti definitions ons by exclu exclusion sion and peace here has been defined by the absence of non-peace . Juergen Dedring spines spin es that the traditional assumption regards peace as the counterpart to t o the state o off war an and d hence peace is defined s absenc abs ence e of war . Accordin According g to Linus Pauling, the editor-in-chief of UTorid UToridblicycBspaedia blicycBspaedia experienced ced of Peace (1986), As history progress, peaks of joys and troughs of pain are experien by the human kings populating the system, peace studies are usually concerned more with the avoidance of of the latter, than with obtaining the former . Peace is thus largely identified "

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as a lack of conf conflic lictt of any serious kind. More often the te term rm peace-making is associat associated ed with conflict resolution resolution without the use of viole~ce. "

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1.2

PEACE TRADITIONS

The concepts conce pts of peace have been rich rich in content conte nt across various religious religi ous and and philosophical traditions. traditio ns. From the early period of of human thinking, there has been a clear understanding that war is neither neit her a natural phenomenon nor the irreversible wil willl of of Gods. A peaceful world belongs to a society where people can work and live together in harmony and friendship and the t he domination of of one group over another is a major obstacle to peace. In Eastern religions, there is a strong str ong emphasis on links between a spiritual life li fe and action for social justice. The Buddhist traditions traditions emphasise justice, equity, non-violenc violence, e, concern conce rn for the well-being of others and compassion among among living beings. They also reflect a wellordered state of of mind, min d, inner peace and harmony within a culture. cult ure. Tranquillity in the inner state of of mind mind and harmonious interpersonal relationship relations hip contribute to universal universa l peace. peace. The practice practi ce of non-exploitation of nature exists in Native American American and Afri African can tribal cultures. Peace with the planet represents the need for humans to live in harmony with nature rather rather than conquer it. The earth constitutes constitut es a web in which humans humans are part, and by destroying living and non-living forms of of existence exist ence on on the planet humans threaten even their own survival. Many Western religious traditions have delivered the message of natural goodwill, unconditional uncondit ional love, wholeness wholeness and individual well-being as well as cessation cess ation of of hostilities. The passages of the th e Old Testament of the Bible state that swords shall be beaten into ploughshares and and ttheir heir spears into pruning hooks. In early Christian social utopia, there was a strong emphasis on a community of love. Greek philosophers conceptualised a peaceful world in terms of of a lack of of civil c ivil disturbances. disturbance s. These philosophical philosophica l traditions are also linked to t o unity based based on the moral substance of humanity in each person and the principl prin ciple e of world citizensh citi zenship. ip. The vision of a world without war w was as embraced as the core approach to peace in the Hellenic civilizatio civiliz ation. n. In the Roman and Medieval periods, peace implied stable relationship relations hip among among units of society that lead to the control of of organised violence. In Enlightenment thinking, violence and conflict, conflic t, seen seen as the greates greatestt evils in history, are 7 h

ascribedand to aJean disorderly Political philosophers hers viewed such aswar John in they and -Jacquesworld. century Rousseau in. thephilosop 8thcentury asLocke unnecessar unnecessary believed that social contracts could prevent violence.

Given their focus foc us on individual autonomy autonomy and freedom, ideas in anarchist anar chist utopias oppose government and legal institutions that impose an artificial order. According to the 19 century Russian thinker Tolstoy Tolstoy and other pacifist anarchists who considered peace as a cherished human value, the state power apparatus is responsible responsi ble for the organisation of both oppression and violence. War War can be b e abolished with wi th the elimination of a political structure attributed attributed to social s ocial oppression and and exploitation. With their goal to realise powerful changes in improving human conditions, socialist movements movemen ts in the t he 9thand early 20thcentury stipulated that peace could be obtained in a classless society. The primary causes of human misery are economic inequality and a repressive political system associated with social injustice. Peace has has a firm social imension

 

in which equity and consideration of others' well-being are crucial for a harmonious community commun ity life. People from dif different ferent cultural and political tradition traditionss wou would ld be united by the achievement of an equal society.

1.3

PEACE AND VIOLENCE

Though the central ce ntral core of peace studies includ includes es the study of peace as the absence o off violence, there has been disagreement disagreeme nt as to what constitutes peace and violence . The "

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major debate hasor been whether defin definee peace simply as the the absence o off war often called 'negative peace' whether thetoconcept encompasses both absence of war and the peace. Those who argue presence of of soc social ial and economic justice justice,, often called positive peace. that peace should be defined narrowly, hold that broadeni broadening ng the cconcept oncept reduces its clarity. Those- who favour the broader conception, argue that the violent, life-threatening characteristics of various forms o off systematic repression and underdevelopment approach or exceed that of of over overtt warfare. The two individual researchers most often associated with the poles of of this t his debate are Johan Galtun Galtung go off Norway who is credi credited ted with inventin inventing g the term 'Positive Peace' in the mid-1960s and Kenneth Boulding o off the t he United States of America whose "twelve friendly q u m l s with Galtung include this one. In practice, however, there is more consensus than this conceptual schism schism would seem to suggest suggest.. Few scholars would contest the argument that there th ere is a rela relationship tionship between the absence o off war and the presence of other social values such as justice and freedom. According to Karl Deutsch, a security conmiunity is one in which there are dependable expectations of peaceful change for the foreseeable future. "

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1.4

FORMS OF VIOLENCE

The concept of peace is more clearly underst understood ood in comparison with the concept of violence. An understanding of of different diff erent forms o off violence present in various social relations is, therefore, theref ore, necessary to understand the concepts of of peace. . 1.4.1

Direct and Structural Violence

Direct Direc violenc violence e is the popularly understood meaning o off violence referred to in termsr of phyt sical physical injuries an and d infliction i nfliction of of pain such as kill killing, ing, beating and and is verbal abuse whethe whether they happen in war or in inter-personal situations. Direct violence is personal, pers onal, visible and manifest, whereas violence in inter-personal relations may be employed as an instrument for robbery, revenge or hono honour ur and states use organised violence for political politi cal purp purposes oses.. The capacity for violence is institutionali institutionalised sed in prison system systems, s, concentrat concentration ion camps, military fonxs fon xs &d militia. Nazi German Germany y killed millions o off European Jews and other ethnic minority groups. Pol Pot decimated at least a million Cambodians Cambodians in the late 1970s to consolida consolidate te his rule by imposing fear. Genocide is a major form of of diredt violence that is inflicted on recipro cal violence b by y the weaker side. one group by the other with very little reciprocal Structural violence vi olence consists o off inegalitaria inegalitarian n an and d discriminatory practices causing human misery like poverty, hunger, hunger, repression, re pression, and social ali alienation. enation. Structural violence is apparent social systems maintained by exploitative means. Discrimination results in denying people

 

gross violation of human rights and dignity prevents the optimum development of eac each h numan being. The 'lack of an opportunity for self-fulfilment can be based on race, religion, gender, economic status or age. If a young female's need for education is not provided adequately because of gender differences, it consti constitutes tutes inequitable life conditions. In many socizties, some people are dying from a lack of protein or health care while a few enjoy a luxurious way of life.-Givenits indlir ect and insidious nature, structural violence most often works slowly slowly in erodin eroding g human values and shortening lif lifee spans. As war is only one kind of peaceles peacelesss condition, tthe he opposite of peace is more than the existence of of manifest violence. The absence of of direct violence does not necessarily mean mean the satisfaction of conditions for maintaining decent humam life. The concept of of structural pslitical ical oppresshn oppress hn and violence helps us understa understand nd deep causes of czofiict ingrained in pslit economic despair. despair. Given that gross socia sociall injustice can be ama.intaixledby personal vioience, structural violence is more easily noticed in a society that is governed by fear and repression. When Whe n coerciv coercivee mechanisms are effective, structural violence is not challenged for a long time. How Howeve ever. r. prolo prolonging nging exploitative conditions eventually produces violent v iolent resistance like liberation moveme movements nts during the VC7esterncolonial domination in Africa and Asia. Certain cultural elements like religion, ideology and art that touch upo upon n 'the symbolic sphere of of our exis existence tence'' can be poss possible ible sources of direct and structural violence through their value justification just ification and legitimisation of their instruments. instrument s. In religio religion, n, the there re is a sharp distinction chosenstate people andoroutsiders its accepted boundaries. efhxiici y hbeyond s been an instrument for promotin promoting g Nationalism between justified through ideology or discrimination based war. wa r. Some categories o off structural violence suzh as suths~ri~arianism on gender and race are typically coilcloned by cultural norms. A socialisation process maintains distortion of knowledge n d images about other people. As both manifest ,and latent violence have a cultural cult ural layer, r:ultural practice is not strictly separated from the two main types of vi violence. olence. Minimisation of cultural violence goes along with reduction in structural and direct violence. 1 4 2

Negative

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and Positive Peace

Negative peace is focussed on the absence o off manifest violence such as wa war, r, which could . be realised through through neg negotiation otiation or mediation rath rather er than resorting to physica physicall force. It recommends the use of non-violent n on-violent means, total disarmament and social and economic interdependenceto interdependence to avoid the physical violence and discourage the use of of force in conflict situations. In a negative peace approach, preventing wa warr also requires a large m a y of international agreements and institutions that can support stable relations among nations. The idea of improving peace has also been reflected in man many y interna international tional ag agreements reements an and d in the mechanisms of of col collecti lective ve security includ included ed in the League of Nations and the United Nations. Due to to Negative peace policies rnay focus on a present, short or near future time-scale. Due oppress ive system, negative peace the fact that stability and order can be maintai~pdby an oppressive is compatible with structural violence. In such a situation, s ituation, absence of physical violence can derive from deterrence deterre nce strategies to punish enemies. Lasting conditions of of peace are not synonymous with the preservation of intervals between outbreaks of warfare. War can not be eradicated as long as militarism remains a prevalent value. "

 

The concept of positive peace, based on a broad understanding of social conditions, means the removal of structural violence beyond merely the absence of direct violence. According to Johan Galtung, positive peace would not be obtained without the development of just and equitable conditions associated with the elimination of inegalitarian social structures. Equality is an es essential sential element of pe peace ace because its absen absence ce perpetuates tensions of of all types. All groups of people ought to have equitabl equitablee access to the eeonomic benefits of of society as well as enjoyin enjoying g social, cultural and political political development. For marginalised groups of people, equahty means overcoming obstacles related to institutional, cultural, attitudinal and behavioural discrimination. discrimination. According to Boutros Bonuos-Ghali, former Secretary General of th UN. the elimination of repression and poverty is an talents ts and essential element of peace. Equal ogportunirics allow people to develop their talen skills so that they can participate in tranous aspects of development. The comprehensive notion of pezcice touches upon many issues :hat influence quality of life, hcluding personal growth, freedom, social equa equali lity ty,, ec ono m c equity, solidarity, autonomy and participation. According to the IJN Docnm ent No.84 1996, on The United Nations and the the Advancement Advancement of Women Women 1945-IWQpeace entails, beyond violence and hostilities at the national and international levels. 'the enjoyment of economic and social justice, equality and the entire range of human nghts and fundamental freedoms within society . rmliimisation of all forms forms of exploitation. Conditions for harmonious relations derive from rmliimisation As the earth is recognised as the object of exj nitation, positive peace is also exten extended ded to embrace the notion of respect for nature. "

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Negative peace thinkers argue that, in considering human nature and the power structure of the world, it is unrealistic and thus, meaningless to equate peace with social justice. A narrow focus on the control of symptoms of violence has a more tangible effect than a broad-based struggle for improving the quality of living. During Duri ng Cold Wa War, r, peace researchers like Kenneth Boulding raised concerns that a broadened notion of peace would divert attention attentio n away from the proble problems ms of of disarma disarmament ment toward 'a grand, vague study o off world . development'. Those who are mainly inter interested ested in the redu reduction ction and elimination of warfare consider justice a less essential essent ial requirem requirement ent for peace. Thl~spopular topics in this research tradition have been control of violent social behaviou behaviourr and the arms race. Priority has been given to investigatin in vestigating g various methods relevant to reduction of the risks of war, disarmament, disarmament , prevention of accidental war, non-proliferati proliferation on o off nuclear weapons and negotiated settleme settlement nt of international conflicts. Scholars in the t he positive peace research tradition, most prominently JJohan ohan Galtung, assert that the structural roots o off violent conflict have to be more seriously studied studied than particular cases of avoiding and limiting war or such narrow issues as reduction n particular weapons systems.. Knowledge for conditions to achieve achieve peace has to explain strategies to overcome institutional institutio nal form of violence. The study of positive peace identifies conditio conditions ns threatening human survival whic which h inc include lude environmental issues as well as poverty and econo economic mic dis disparity. parity. Given that these problems are not likely to be solved in the world's current economic and political structure, the analysis of shortcomings of of the present system naturally leads to a search for policy and institutional changes that can serve human welfare. In the areas of of n non on-violence, some people are mainly concerned with logistics and tactical issues involved in unarmed struggle against enemies without much regard to changes in 15

 

struct ural conditions for oppression. Peace thinkers like Gene Gene Sharp view non-violent action a s merely an effective strat strategic egic instrument instrument to achieve specific political objectives objectiv es and score victories with non-lethal means. means. Other thinkers, such as Geoffrey Ostergaard who follow the traditions of Mahatma Gandhi, emphasise non-violence as a principle capable capable of preventing the origin or existence o off unjust social and economic system. Non-violent social structure in turn can be acquired a cquired by establishing establishingegalitarian egalitarian social relations. Though the focus of of anti-war movements during the Cold War War period was to prevent the worst scenario having a nuclear manyofpeace groups working in thea negative traditions, at theofsame time, sharedwar, the ideal pacifist communities that peacefulpeace order requires social justice. justice. If the study o off peace is designed forpolicy changes and action, its ultimate goal is to create cre ate social conditions for the betterment of the life of all humanity. Building positive peace should thus be complementary to practicing negative peace. Preventing the use of physical, manifest violence is more successful under certain socia sociall structuralconditions. structural conditions. There is no need need for the use of viol violence ence iiff there is jus justice tice iin n society. Institutions of of war are based on domination, and they play an important role in mainta maintaining ining the culture of viole violence. nce. IIn n that sense, peace is synonymous synony mous with the elimination of the institution of war.

1.5

CONFLICT ANALYSIS AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict emerges from the pursuit of incompatible incompatible goals which can intens@ struggle between opposing forces, especially especially in the absence of collaborative collab orative problem solving mechanis mechanisms. ms. In conflict situations, situation s, resour resources ces are mobihsed to force the other party to change their behaviour conflict turns into int o violence causing mass according to one's own +ishes. Mismanaged conflict destruction. Peace, as already mentioned, does not necessarily mean absence or suppression of of co conflict. nflict. Rather peace theorists accept conflict as a normal part of human life and international relations. The goal o off peace analysts is to determi determine ne h how ow to manage and and resolve conflict in ways that that reduce the possibility or the level o off violence without diminishing other values such as justice or freedom. 151

Structural Conditions

Many las Many lasting ting internal and internation international al conflicts have their roots root s in structural injustice. Serious conflict is embedded in an inequitable social and economic system, reflecting prolonged exploitation supported b by y coercion. The destruction o off cultural identiti identities, es, political autonomy and economic sustainability for the weak has been associated with the imposition of dominant power situat situations ions.. This was reflected in the rule o off European empire empiress iin n many colonies in Africa and Asia with their superior military power in the past centuries. Due to their diffei-ent power status, parties have opposing interests in maintaining the system. in athe disadvantaged position demand a new set of relationships when they begin toThose perceive situation as unjust and exploitative. However, until some form of serious challenges is made either violentl violently y or non-violently, ihose benefiting from the status

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quo have little incentive incentiv e for taking the issues rais raised ed by the under underprivileged privileged se seriously. riously. While reform may be proposed to meet some of of the concerns, conflict can also be suppressed suppres sed by the use of of physical violence, consequently reinforcing one party's will over another. Maintenance Mainten ance o off coercive instruments is legitimised by by the state by citing or o r even manipulating public fear of disorder. Threats Thre ats o off punishment and adversarial instit institutio utions ns become major characteristics of an eliteelite-controlled society Suppressing the collective identities of marginalised peoples who attempt to pursue self -esteem and autonomy. Hegemony is maintained by by institut institutional ionalisat isation ion of power relat relations ions and maintaining values which serve the interests of elites. Restlessness in modem society arises out of various forms form s o off alienation derived derived from social control in everyday life. The absence of legitimised structures and policies, aalong long with increasing inequali ineq ualities ties of income and opportunity, serv serves es aass the primary source of of confli co nflict. ct. Once basic assumptions assump tions about the traditional trad itional concepts o off law and or order der as the common good are questioned, the right ri ght o off the government to rule and to expe expect ct obedience is itself at the root of of the conflict. 15 2

Traditional Management Strategies

In the traditional management of of con conflict flict,, a judicial system and the wider public administration system are mostly concerned with the preservation preservation of the status-quo and and the maintenance of existing institutions. Because those in power tend to interpret challenges to their authority in terms t erms of enforcemen enfor cementt of order, conflic conflictt management is largely seen in terms of social control designed to rninirnise the challenge to the core valu values es of of the system. system. Efforts are off rules ru les of of soci social al order. order. The made to frame conflict behaviour within the recognised sets o existence of underlying underl ying conflicts can even be effectively effectivel y denied for legitimising legitimi sing power inequality. Conflict managem management ent in a traditional setting helps reinforce reinf orce coercive policy by conforming to dominant social soci al norms. In political politically ly oppressive societies, demands for autonomy are answered by coerciv coercivee responses rather than negotiation of new relationships. The legitimacy of the existing order is eventually eventuall y challenged by the refusal to accommodate accom modate alienated communities communiti es where participation participation is denied because o off social categories. In the long run, deterrent strategies relying on threats and punishment have limited value in maintaining social control with resistance triggered tri ggered by by the repression of aspirat aspirations ions for cultural identity, security, and recognition: 1.5.3

Dispute Settlement and Conflict Resolution

Dispute settlement approaches are based on legal l egal mechanis mechanisms ms and and conventi conventional onal negotiation negotiation to settle disputes by finding compromise compromis e solutions. By By sort sorting ing out difference within an existing system, dispute settlement contributes to the stability of society with the confirmation of legitimate roles of accepted norms, values, and institutions in everyday everyd ay life. life . Dispute settlement mechanisms mechanisms could not be applied effectively to the resolytion resolyti on of of value and identity conflict. confl ict. It is entirely possible toresolve an incompatibility incompatibil ity without touching the actors and their relations. Compromise can be accomplished accomplished without with out regard to examining the conflict formation process itself. The actors continue to remain with their structure

basically untouched.

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-,ng suspicion and distrust between In contrast to dispute settlement that. that.focuse focusess on adversaries, conflict resqlution goes through a far more complex process. process. In adversarial bargaining, conflict is often considered by antagonists as a zero -sum situation situation in which the gain of of the one is the loss o off the other. Collabo Collaborative rative problem solving approaches ca can n be adopted to find a solution that benefits both parties.

Analysing the roots roots o off problems reveals complex behavioural relationships. Discovering the substantive substant ive mat matters ters beneath underlying issues can be an initial step towards colla collaborative borative problem solving. Conflict resolution prevents the recurrence of future conflict by evolving satisfying conditions to be acceptable to all parties. 15 4

Conflict Transformation and Peace Building -

For a constructive transfonnation of contlicts, it is necessary necessary to identify and consolidate support structures that teftd to strengthen strengthen peace. Positive opportunities can be enhanced through the awareness of mutual dependence on one another. Changing psychological dimensions dimensio ns of adversarial relationship supported supported by the opportunities to understand differeit views is undoubtedly an inevitable part of the movement toward conflic conflictt de-escalation. . Moreover, efforts to end end hostile, competit competitive ive and coerciv coercivee processes would be fruitless if .one party's domination continues to be allowed. Newly forged relationships hav havee to be supported by structural transfonnation of social conditions. In a transformative framework, identity and power relations continue' to be re-negotiated in an on-going process of resolving conflict. Dynamics of conflict are not not likely to be transformed toward toward resolution by an attempt to protect existing interests. Re-establishing a status quo wou would ld not dramatically change conflict relations. In transformative perspectives, roles and relationship5 have to be redesigned in the process of re -structuring the patterns of transactions and interactions. . Resolving conflict in transformative perspectives has to be geared toward helping the underprivileged break out of the discriminatory social roles assigned to them within the . status quo. The existence of injustice in asymmetric conflic conflictt structures requires strategies to deal with power power imbalanced sit situations. uations. Social change for promoting justice, by which decent

conditions for peace building.

human life can be established, is the most appropriate means for

T h u ~ a c c b uil u ildd ~rlg ~rlghh largely equated with the construction of a new social environment that ad\ ances a sense of confidence and improves conditions of life. Leaving an abusive deperldciltt rela rela ionrh ip intact is incompatible incompatible with with peace building. Conflict transformation and deperldcil ca11 underscore th goal of peace building through empowering a marginalised population exposed to extreme vulnerability in such a way to achieve self -sufficiency and well-being. The successful outcome of confl co nflict ict ttransformation ransformation therefore contributes to eeliminating liminating structural violence. 6

SOME APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PEACE

study of arms control and the management and prevention of violent conflict has remained the most traditional area of' pc ice studies. Peace education at its beginning, he

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war. However, in the past focussed on arms race, disarinament and deadly conflict and war. few decades. peace studies have becom becomee inore direct directly ly connect connected ed to the activiti activities es of many ordinary people who want to change the world. Peace studies today today are iinclusive nclusive of a vast range of approaches and experiments. Many innovative ways of thinking have been developed out of of ordinary citizen's endeavours to make the world become a more peaceful place.

1.6.1 Feminist Approach The occurrence of both inanifest and latent violence against women has emerged as an important concern of peace studies in the last three decades. Images of women have been historically associated with with pacifism. Feminine values of of caring, compassion an and d nurturing have enriched the conceptions concept ions o off peace. Moreover, the application of feminine values to the radical transformation of an oppressive social order serves as an important principle in the struggle for achieving peace. .

Violence against Women Whi le both women and men are victims o While off sexism, racism. human rights right s abuse, and poverty, there are particular types of of violence that afflict women more than men, Family violence and sexual and emotional abuse includes of women areand major concerns in inrandom many parts of the world. Direct violence against women rape unorganised physical abuse as well as attacks on women in in organised war. It was admitted by the Japanese government in 1992 that during World Wa Warr 11, the Ja Japanese panese Army forced young women from Korea, the Philippines, and other places in Asia to serve Japanese soldiers as so called 'comfort women'. The rape and deliberate impregnating of thousands of women. namely Muslims in BosniaBosnia-Herzegovina, was a form of ethnic cleansing conducted by Serb nationalists. In many other countries having anti-government insurgencies, like Peru, Columbia, and other places, there have been reports of assault on women by the security forces. Yet, most governments failed to condemn or punish those who committed rape and killings. Since time immemorial, structural vi violenc olencee ha hass severely affected women in many impoverished countries. Among the poorest of the poor are young widows and elderly individuals with little capacity to manage household economies. The high level of poverty as well as harsh working condit conditions ions have put a particularly heavy burden on female heads of household who do not have adult males to help them. Even in contemporary times, young women provide a hard working labour force for multinational corporatio corp orations ns but are paid low wage wages. s. W Women omen in certain regions of the world form the majority of subsistence farmers. In particular, of a market women inAfrica produce 8 per cent of the food. However, the i~~rroduction oriented economic system deprive3 women's income by rrb\igning iow inonetary value to their ecano~nic ~ c t i v i t i e ~

Gender Identitie Ident ities s and Values Individuals born into the biological categories

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rilale or female are assigned to he

stereot~pedsocial categories categori es o off men and women through the acquisition of locally-definedT attributes of in3~culinitv 9 smnin~niryThus, gender has a lot tto do with the social behaviours and c h a r a c t e r ~ ~ u c ~ .

 

The construction con struction o off masculine and feminine categories is linked to power relations arising from the practice of of aattaching ttaching meaning to gender identities. Emotion, bo body dy and nature hav haveebeen historically associated associat ed wit with h the identity of femal femalee g gender. ender. It has been regarded as inferior to the male gender identity characterised by reason an and d mind. Men are supposed to kill and die on behalf of the state to prove their manhood while women have to be properly subservient subservien t to satisfy the demand o off military comprised largely o off men. Competitive, organisational and exclusive masculine values support a model of of hierarchic hierarchical al human relationships. relationships. These values are often reflected in the bureaucracies o off states, churches, corporations, political parties, and the milit military. ary. State building is a masculine project that that en encourages courages a willingness to engage in violence. Men, conside considered red as an aggressive aggress ive biological class, are given licens licensee for engaging in wars and are motivated motivate d to fight. The arms race an and d other national securit security y priorities are the main main factors in the subordination subordin ation of the wom women. en. Social welfa welfare re is traded for military spending and it further furthe r exacerbates female fema le poverty. poverty. Growing entry entry and ssuccess uccess of wome women n in politics and other institutio institutional nal arenas have been enhanced enhance db by y women's adoption o off masculine values as a strategy to be accepted for an authority role. As the prime minister of of B Brita ritain, in, Margret Th-atcherundermined than advanced social services for women women and children. Several prominent women at the highest governmental decision making do not peacemakers, but as war -heroines. Golda Meir won the Six Day positions War against theremain Arabs,asIndira Gandhi did notwarflinch from waging a war with Pakistan, and Margret Thatcher sent military forces to re re--occupy the Falldand Islands in the dispute with Argentina. The masculanisation of wo women men is an attempt to prove that women can perform most tasks reserved for men. This supports the small masculine elite groups wh who o control institution institutionss and conduct state affai affairs. rs. But this disables their and society's ability to question the standards and the systems that have long despised feminine values. Recently, professional military careers have become one of the new frontiers open to women. Especially in the United States of America. women have been joining joinin g the armed services in unprecedented numbers. They prove proved d an indispensable part of the recent rece nt US military operations in various wars. Major feminist organisations in the USA USA have supported the move for women to be eligible for combat on the grounds of professional equal opportunity.. They believe that portraying them as natu opportunity natural ral peacemakers perpetuate perpetuatess women's subordination. subordin ation. Thus, in orde orderr to change their pacifist image image,, they should participate par ticipate in in the armed forces and this key arena aren a o off control and p power ower should not be left in th thee hands o off men. However, the opponents opponen ts of a greater role for fo r women in the military remind us that women have been been victims o off militarism. State militaries are urganised to maintain the system of inequality. Ironically thus, women are more likely to be tiansformed by militarization.Feminist goals can be better achieved through nonnon-violent pn-actices. Shared Goals of Peace and a nd Feminism

Their vulnetability to the structure of violence and deprivation pl places aces women women in a better position than men to appreciate the value o off peace. peace. They have played the role of nurturers mothers and natural peacemake peacemakers rs tthroughout hroughout most o off the history of human civilization.

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Feminist thinkers find a logical linkage be between tween feminism pacifism and socialism. socialism . By challenging the inevitability inevitabil ity of dominant social socia l order and war war,, the feminine notion of peace elegantly exposes expose s the hierarchical hierarchi cal nature of our society. Domination and violence are caused by a hierarchical system such as military institutions that depend on superior and inferior relationships between certain member members. s. The elimination of of violence in both private and public spheres is essential to achieving peace. The goal of of the liberation of women from violence can be promoted by disarmament and the campai campaign gn against war war.. . Feminist conceptions of peace are extended to the conditions of social justice, economic equity, and ecological balance. ce. Equity and and democracy have be women transformational~values for forthcom forthcoming ing social balan changes. Equal relations betwee between n mentoand can sewe as the foundation for equality among all peoples and an end to racism ra cism and ecological destruction. The struggle against all types of of violen violence ce is supported by by pr promotion omotion of w women's omen's rights so as to attain an equal distribution distribution of resources and the right to express oneself freely.

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Women's access to land, employment and other resources is an indicator to measure the welfaree of a society. Poverty and underdevelopment welfar underdevel opment cannot be overcome in a social structure that generates inequality and violence. In trying to alter power relations, women redefine their roles against their oppressors and raise consciousne conscio usness ss of their identity. identity. Social  justice and and development development require th thee full full participation participation of women.

Reconceptualisation of Security National security, defined as the defence of sovereignty is built into the constructions of masculinity. National security reflects the impulse that produces the military dominant structures of organised violence controlled by the state. The history of nuclear weapons developmentt is an excellent example developmen exa mple of a few men exercising exercisi ng power over man many. y. The atomic bomb project is ripe with the images of masculine power and destruction. The public under the influence of of patriarchal military cult culture ure generally accepts the arms race and other national security priorities. In the name of national security, governments are allowed to exemplifi ed in testing nimufacture and mismanage weapons without public knowledge as exemplified weapons on human populations. ~q clearweapons Feminist values broaden the concept concep t of securit security y by including in it all peoples peopl es and all nations based on a notion of of kinship extended to the entire human family. Secondly, the conceptual framewo rk aims to embrace a broad, holistic d framework definition efinition that advocates the protection of life and enhancement of the quality of of life. Thirdly, in in the feminist view, an advers adversarial arial state centric security securit y system negatively negative ly affects the conditions for protecting the most fundamental roots of survival embodied in health and a decent quality o off life. The militar military y-dependent present world security system sys tem itself is seen as a major threat to humanity. The high cost of military spending puts a strain on meeting social and economic needs. Fzminist security agenda seeks protection from organised state violence and the fulfilment of fundamental qeeds of human harmony.

11\ 6.2 The Political Economy Approach The Political Economy apprcach draws attention to the political and economic structures of the international system, which create conditions for inequitable inequitab le distribution o off wealth

 

minimum wage requirements and other laboilr standards in their home countries. The minimum comparative advantage of cheap labour is found i the most aggressive and repressive states such as China, Malaysia and other newly industriaiised countries that are leading exporters exporte rs of consume consumerr goods sold in North America and Europe. In these count,ries, labour discipline discipl ine is tightly enforce enforced, d, wit with h severe limitation on workers' rights, to maintain political stability and support capital accumulation. ocialTransition

Many poor countries in the world today are former European colonies and share experiences off international political of years of exploit&on and fi-ustration with the dominant structure o economy. In bring bringing ing about modem transformation,capitalism as a dominant institutional nexus has destroyed indigenous economies. In the Third World, traditions traditio ns of of self -sufficient economies have been pushed aside, local exchange relationships dissolved dissolved and collective forms of ownership broken-up. The Th e spread of markets into the domain of traditional life increased the number of households losing losing control over subsistence means in the process of being integratedin into to new economic relations. Commodity production pushes impoverishe impoverished d peasants, pastuarlists, and women to unproductive land. Global economic expansion created conditions of social segregation and fragmentation wit in countries. Economic decisions are disentang disentangled led from family, gender and social relations as well as cultural traditions. traditions. The incorpor incorporation ation int into o a cash economy leads to the devaluation of tradition traditional al producti productive ve activiti activities es of wome women. n. The costs of of eeconomic conomic marginalisation include

social polarisation and destruction of internal linkages. 1.6.3

The Environmental Approach

The environmental approach to the study of of peace points out that the th e unbalanced relationship of humans to bio-environmental system is a source source of threat to human survival. Human beings have a unique unique capacity to damage the planet that supports life support systems of all species. Harm done to the earth and its enveloping environment fforms orms an important area of investigating the conditions of peace. Growing attention has also been paid to the scarcity of environmental resources as a source of violent conflict.

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The global environmental degradation has led to the deteriorating quality of life in many parts of of the planet. Greenhouse effects, river and ocean pollution, defores deforestation tation and distortion act ivities which threaten life-supporting of biodiversity are elated to the expansion of human activities ecosystems. Global warming associated with the greenhouse effect is caused by an accumulation accumul ation o off ca carbon rbon dioxide dioxide,, methane and nitrogen in atmosphere. atmo sphere. This result resultss mainly rom the burning of fossil fuels fuel s by automobiles and industry. It is increased by the destruction of world's world' s forests that have the capacity to naturally remove carbon from the atmosphere. atmosph ere. Gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as coolants in refrigerators, solvents s olvents in industry and propellants in aerosol sprays contribute to the destruction of stratospheric ozone, resulting in the increased increased levels of harmful solar rays. The ozone layer above the Antarctic has become thin and has a larger hole. The impact of deforestation deforestation,, desertification, .pollut .po llution ion,,overfishing, and overgrazing on the ecosystem ecosys tem threatens our planetary biodiversity. The loss o off fo forests rests directly affects the world's biological diversity, diversity, causing mass extinctio extinction n of huge numbers of of plants and animals. The scarcity and misuse of of fresh water pose

 

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another serious threat to human health, welfare, food security and the entire ecosystem. Today, Toda y, about o one ne-fourth of world's population lacks clear and safe water. Toxi Toxicc chemicals and waste as well as atmospheric pollution have a major impact on the quality of of water, as do agricultural use and deforestation. The rapid increase in population, especially in the Third World World countries outstrips econom economic ic growth, growt h, deteriorates living standards, and results in severe environmental degradation. Hundreds of of millions o off poor people are forced to overgra overgraze ze land and plunder forests. The carrying capacity of land, that is, the number of people an area can support without compromising compromi sing its abil ability ity to do so in ffuture, uture, has been rapidly d deteriora eteriorating ting in the Third World countries. The planet is gradually moving towards overloading the carrying capacity with a rapid growing population. Present cons consumption umption and production ser seriously iously hamper the long-term ability to support the regions' regions' resource base for future future generations. The movement moveme nt of water and air does not different differentiate iate between nationa nationall borders. Often the irresponsible irrespons ible use o off these common resources has created damag damagee to the environ environment ment that belongs to others. For example, Scandinavian forests and lakes suffer from acid rain caused by industrial pollution in other parts of Europe. Uuregulated resources tend to become over -utilised, and it leads to the destruction of conditions for sustainable management. If community members members pursue their own se self  lf -

interest in whales seekingintothe maximise advantage, nothing wil will l be lef left. t. The unregulated hunting of oceans until recentl recently ysoon has led them to virtual extinction. Access to 'commons, that is, commonly shared resources like the oceans and the outer space, have to be regulated to put a limit on private greed to protect the common good.

Resource Scarcity Scarcity and Conflict Competition for limited or inequitably distributed resources may lead to violent conflicts. Threats to subsistent life caused by resource scarcity increase the probability of social unrest and war. war. The peasant majority is pushed to the most ecologically vulnerable land while the top two per cent of the total population controls more than 60 per cent of land in Brazil. In many regions of the worl world d where resources are not able to support the population, efforts to t o assert or prevent control over fertile cropland, forests fore sts and water create conditions for intra-state and inter-state conflict. The water conflict conf lict between Israelis and Arabs is related to the use of the river Jordan and is part of the larger context of the conflict. Deteriorating resource bases bases coupled with rapidly growin growing g population produces a volatile social situation situation for group conflict. Population dislocation can be caused b by y such environmental changes as deforestation, desertification, drought, s.oil erosion and floods. In Africa, for instance. desertification has been a driving force behind the movement o off ecological ecologi cal refugee refugeess across national borders. The population influx exceed exceeding ing the capaci capacity ty of the host environment contributes to group competition along with unequal access to scarce resources. Intense group identities identitie s are felt with the rising level o off grievance. grievan ce. The weak state capacity to handle economic problems deepens deepens fragmentation between between groups. Increases iin n demands