UNIDAD I. Aspectos Introductorios

 

TNAM TN AMHM HM AA.. Hspd Hspdkt ktls ls Antr Antrlm lmuk uktl tlra rals ls

 

Mdshrrl``l gastûrakl md `h ohquanhrah hjrïkl`h •

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D` gloird mdsmd sus anakals gastûrakls, sd gh dnbrhskhml dn unh `ukgh klnsthntd plr huodnthr su khphkamhm prlmuktavh, pdrl ásth mdpdnmd dn jrhn odmamh md `ls rdkursls dndrjátakls qud masplnjh. @h budrzh ds unh ohnabdsthkaûn md `h dndrjïh, ds `h khphkamhm md pdnshr, p`h `hn nab abak akhr hr,, anv anvdn dntthr, hr, hmhp hmhptthr hr,, dop dop`dhr `dhr,, prlmuk ukar ar ([ ([ttdbbdr dru um, 8123). @h khp hphk hkam amhm hm prlmuktavh md` gloird trhmukamh dn vl`uodn md prlmukkaûn, ds unh rd`hkaûn mardkth md su khphkamhm dndrjátakh dn klrrd`hkaûn kln `ls bhktlrds md` odmal hoiadntd.

Khphkamhm prlmuktavh (vl`uodn md prlmukkaûn)

Khphkamhm md `h budntd dndrjátakh

Bhktlrds md` dntlrnl (hoiadnth`ds)

 

H`tdrnhtavhs dndrjátakhs dndrjátakhs phrh rdh`azhr rdh`azhr `ls prlkdsls tdknl`ûjakls

 

Rdnthfhs md `h odkhnazhkaûn hjrakl`h •

Ydmukkaûn md `h ohnl md lirh

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Yhpamdz md `ls prlkdsls

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Ydmukkaûn md klstls

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Srlmukkaûn dn klnmakalnds hmvdrshs

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Ohylrds rdnmaoadntls plr gdktèrdh

 

Mdsvdnthfhs md `h odkhnazhkaûn hjrakl`h •

Klstl anakah` h`tl

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Ydquadrd kadrths klnmakalnds

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Mdjrhmhkaûn md sud`ls

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Hvhnkd md `h brlntdrh hjrïkl`h

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Ydquadrd pdrslnh` h`thodntd khphkathml Mdpdnmd md dndrjïhs dnd rjïhs bûsa`ds

 

8,713 oltlr md kloiustaûn antdrnh h` trhktlr

 

8,71; mdshrrl``l md` oltlr maásd`, H`dohnah

 

8,193 Antrlmukkaûn md` tloh md pltdnkah y

sastdohs md dnjhnkgd

 

8,1=3 mabusaûn md `h odkhnazhkaûn hjrïkl`h

 

8143 Hmakaûn md` sastdoh sastdoh gamrèu`akl

 

8113 Antrlmukkaûn md kloputhmlrhs

 

]YHK]LY HJYAKL@H

 

Odkhnazhkaln Odkhnazh kaln Hjrakl`h •

@hodkhnazhkaûn odkhnazhkaûn ds un prlkdsl prlkdsl odmahntd d` kuh` sd sd anklrp anklrplrhn lrhn mabdrdntds tapl tapls s md oèqu oèquanhs anhs d aop`dodntls, dn `h prlmukkaûn md un ku`ta ku`tavl, vl, kln d` prlpûsatl md litdndr litdndr unh unh ohylr ohylr prlmuktava prlmuktavamhm. mhm.

 

@ls kls klstls tls md prl prlmuk mukkal kaln n sln sln khmh khmh vdz vdz ohs ohs h`t h`tls! ls!

 

Hplrtd Hpl rtdss md `h Odkhn Odkhnaz azhka hkaln ln •

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Bhka`ath y rdmukd rdmukd d` trhi trhihfl hfl pdshm pdshml. l.  H`av  H` avah ah `h bh bh`th `th md ohnl md lirh lirh.. Odflrh `h prlmuktavamhm y lplrtunamhm md `hs lpdrhkalnds hjrïkl`hs. Odflrh d` usl dbakadntd md `lsrdkursls.

 

D` ]rhktlr Hjrïkl`h •

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Ds un vdgïku`l hutlprlpu`shml qud sd ush phrh oö`tap`ds trhihfls dn `h hjraku`turh. [d khrhktdrazhn khrhktdrazhn plr su iudnh hmgdrdnkah h` tdrr tdrrdnl, dnl, rdmukadnml `h klop klophkthkaûn hkthkaûn md` oasol y plr `h trhnsoasaûn md pltdnkah odmahntd d` tloh md pltdnkah y d` sastdoh gamrèu`akl. [u usl gh plsaia`athml masoanuar `h ohnl md lirh dop`dhmh dn d` trhihfl hjrïkl`h, hsï klol odflrhs dn `h prlmukkaûn.

 

D` ]rhktlr ]rhktlr Hjrakl`h Hjrakl`h Ds un vdgï vdgïku`l ku`l hutlprlpu`shml. ¼Kuh`d ds s sln ``hs hs bunkalnd bunkalnds s ièsak ièsakhs hs md un tr trhk hktl tlr< r< ]rhnsplrthr

Hkkalnhr

@dvhnthr

Ydol`khr

 

D` ]rhktlr dn `h hktuh`amhm

Radndn dquaphmls dquaphm ls kln kln oukgls hkkdslrals, `ls ghkd ohs dbakadntds y md bhka` bh ka` lpdrh lpdrhkaû kaûn n           

Ohylr Sltdnkah Sltdnkah Mardkkaûn Mardkka ûn gamrhö`akh Brdnls Brd nlshsastamls hsastamls Dnjhn Dnj hnkgd kgd md trds puntls ]loh loh md budrzh budrzh Hsadntls Hsadn tls gamrhö`akls Khianh Khi anh phrh d` lpdrhmlr Hard hklnmakalnhml hklnmakalnhml ]rhkkaûn rhkkaûn dn `hs = rudmhs Oûmu`ls md klntrl`d`dktrû klntrl` d`dktrûnakl nakl Sa`ltl htuoètakl htuoètakl

 

K`hsabakhkaûn md `ls trhktlrds  Dn

bunkaûn md `h ` h khtdjlrïh

 Dn bunkaûn md `h pltdnkah

trhkkaûn  Dn bunkaûn md` sastdoh md trhkkaûn rdh`azhn  Dn bunkaûn md` trhihfl qud rdh`azhn

 

K`hsabakhkaûn plr khtdjlrïh •

@h H[HID gh mdbanaml kuhtrl khtdjlrïhs phrh `ls trhktlrds

 

K`hs abak akhk hkal aln n md `ls `ls trhk trhktl tlrd rdss pl plrr su pl pltd tdnka nkah h K`hsab •

Khtdj Kh tdjlra lrah hA

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Oltlku`tlrds (4 h 87 Gp) Sdqudøhs oèquanhs oltlr md antdrnh, md mls oltrakds y ohnuirals phrh `h mardkkaûn, klnkln khphkamhm mdkloiustaûn hkkalnhr aop`dodntls phrhrudmhs tdrrdnls pdqudøls.

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Oanatr Oan atrhkt hktlr lrds ds (: h 93 93 Gp) Gp) Ihfh trhkkaûn, h`tl klnsuol md kloiustai`d, trds puntls md dnjhnkgd, ]MS md 4=3 rpo, dspdkah` phrh èrdhs vdrmds.

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]rhktlrds (oès md 93 Gp) Kln khrhktdrïstakhs vhrahmhs hmhpthmls phrh oö`tap`ds trhihfls.

 

Olnlku`lrds

 

Oana trhktlrds

 

K`hs K` hsab abak akhk hkal aln n md `l `lss tr trhk hktl tlrrds pl plrr su pl pltd tdnka nkah h Khtdjlrah Khtdjlr ah AA [ln tlml tlmlss `ls trh trhktl ktlrd rdss kln unh pltdnk pltdnkah ah odnlr odnlr l ajuh` ajuh` h 833 Gp. Dn Dn su ohyl ohylrah rah sln uta`az uta`azhmls hmls phrh phrh `hilrds `hilrds vhrahs vhrahs dn d` ohndfl ohndfl md `h p`hnt p`hnthkal hkaln. n.

 

K`hs K` hsab abak akhk hkal aln n md `l `lss tr trhk hktl tlrd rdss pl plrr su pl pltd tdnk nkah ah Khtdjlrah Khtdjlr ah AAA [d dnkud dnkudnt ntrh rhn n tl tlmls mls `ls trh trhktl ktlrds rds kln unh pltdnk pltdnkah ah ohyl ohylrr h 833 Gp y odnlr odnlr h 984 Gp. [d uta`az uta`azhn hn phr phrh h `hilrds `hilrds md `dvhnt `dvhnthoa hoadnt dntl l md `h p`hnthk p`hnthkaln, aln, klol klol plr dfdop`l dfdo p`l [uisud`l [uisud`lss slkhs slkhs y bdrta`a bdrta`azh zhkaln. kaln.

 

K`hs K` hsab abak akhk hkal aln n md `l `lss tr trhk hktl tlrd rdss pl plrr su pl pltd tdnk nkah ah Khtdjlrah Khtdjlr ah AR [ln tlmls tlmls `ls trhk trhktlr tlrds ds kln unh unh pltdnkah pltdnkah ohylr ohylr h 984 Gp. Gp. [ln [ln uta`az uta`azhmls hmls phrh phrh `hilrds `hil rds md prdphr prdphrhkal hkaln n md sud`ls. sud`ls.

 

K`hsabakhkaûn plr d` sastdoh md trhkkaûn Ihnm nmhs hs md khuk khukgl gl (Lru (Lrujh jhs) s)  Ih

 

K`hsabakhkaûn plr d` sastdoh md trhkkaûn @`hnt nths hs md khukg khukgl l @`h ]rhkkaln [aop`d

Mli`d trhkkaln

 

]rh rhktl ktlrd rdss Hrtaku`hm Hrtaku`hmls ls

 

K`hsabakhkaûn plr `h hktavamhm qud rdh`azhn  @hilrds vhrahs  Klsdkghmlrhs Md blrrhfd Md jrhnls Md rdol`hkgh Md bruths  ]rhktlr blrdsth`  Hp`akhmlr Hp`akhmlrds ds ([prhydrs) ([prhydrs) md h`tl mdspdfd

 

@hil @h ilrrds vhrah hrahss

 

Klsdkghml Klsd kghmlrh rh md Khnh Khnh md md Hzukh Hzukhrr

 

Klsdkg Kls dkghml hmlrrhs md jrh jrhnl nlss

 

Klsdkghml Klsd kghmlrh rh Ydol`hkg dol`hkgh h

 

Klsdkg Kls dkghml hmlrrh md brut brutls ls

 

]rhktlr Blrdsth`

 

Hp`akhmlrds ([prhy ([prhydrs) drs)

 

H`tl mdspdfd

 

OTKGH[ JYHKAH[ !