Unidad 6 y 7

 

 

]KO@CAEFOA @BOFA@BC MK HK\FOA. F@_]F][]A ]KO@ACAEFOA MK OKTTA BY[C, WKT. HB]KTFB9 MF_KÒA MK KCKHK@]A_ MK HBR[F@B_. F@EK@FKTA. HFE[KC B@EKC _BCB_ DB[]F_]B. [@FMBM 7 y 5. BC[H@B9 _KCF@B HBT]F@KY _BCB_. ET[^A 9? @A. OA@]TAC9 2>?72

 

]khb 7 ]ar`fccas y suiktbmarks. 7.2 Ocbsfgfobofÿ` y mksfe`bofÿ` mk rasobs. 7.4 ]ar`fccas mk patk`ofb. 7.? _uiktbmarks rasobmas. 7.= Iu`tbs mk khpbquktbmurb.

 

7. ]ar`fccas y suiktbmarks. 7.2 Ocbsfgfobofÿ` y mksfe`bofÿ` mk rasobs. Cas tar`fccas sk utfcfzb` pbrb u`fr k`trk sf mfvkrsbs pbrtks mk u`b hâquf`b. Bsè, kc hkoâ`foa mkdk oa`aokr pkrgkotbhk`tk cas mfgkrk`tks tfpas mk rasob oahkrofbc, bsè kc hætama kspkofgfobr cbs tackrb`ofbs mkskbmbs pbrb ha`tbik k`trk tar`fcca yoaha tukrob. Cb kf`mustrfb hamkr`b lb mksbrraccbma u`kc sfstkhb mk rasobs f`tkrobhdfbdcks `arhbcfzbmbs, kc oubc lbok pasfdck cb pramuoofÿ` k` hbsb mk kckhk`tas mk gfibofÿ` rasobmas y tar`fccas pbrb cb trb`shfsfÿ` mkc havfhfk`ta k` tamb ocbsk mk hâquf`bs mk prkofsfÿ`. Cbs rasobs sk utfcfzb` tbhdfæ` oaha u` hkmfa mk pbrb cbs hkmfofa`ks mk prkofsfÿ`: kc hforÿhktra, par kikhpca, mkpk`mk mkc prf`ofpfa mk cb rasob pbrb adtk`kr hkmfofa`ks mk`tra mk mfkzhfcæsfhbs mk pucebmb, a mk hkmfbs ok`tæsfhbs mk hfcèhktra. 

TA_OB_ Tasob9 ks u` gfcktk oa`tf`ua mk skoofÿ` u`fgarhk y brraccbmb oaha u`b kcfpsk sadrk cb supkrgfofk kxtkrfar k f`tkrfar mk u` ofcf`mra. Tasob kxtkr`b9 ks u`b rasob k` cb supkrgfofk kxtkr`b mk u` ofcf`mra. Tasob F`tkr`b9 ks u`b rasob tbccbmb k` kc f`tkrfar mk u`b pfkzb, tbc oaha k` u`b tukrob. Mfâhktra F`tkrfar9 ks kc hbyar mfâhktra mk u`b rasob f`tkr`b a kxtkr`b. Mfâhktra mkc `ùocka9 ks kc hk`ar mfâhktra mk u`b rasob f`tkr`b a kxtkr`b. Mfâhktra caspbsb gcb`oas (a hkmfa)9 kskckcpu`ta mfâhktra u`kcofcf`mra fhbef`brfak`quk par cas gfcktk s k` gfcktks k` kcmk oubc b`ola mk kstas ks feubc bc kspbofa k`trk cas hfshas. ^bsa9 ks cb mfstb`ofb k`trk cbs orkstbs mk mas gfcktks suoksfvas. Ks cb mfstb`ofb mksmk u` pu`ta sadrk u` gfcktk lbstb kc pu`ta oarrkspa`mfk`tk sadrk kc gfcktk bmybok`tk, hkmfmb pbrbckcbhk`tk bc kik. Bvb`ok9 ks cb mfstb`ofb quk bvb`zbrèb kc tar`fcca rkcbtfva b cb tukrob k` u`b ratbofÿ`. ^brb u` tar`fcca mk rasob sk`ofccb kc bvb`ok ks feubc bc pbsa, pbrb u`a mk rasob madck, kc bvb`ok ks kc madck mkc pbsa, y bsè suoksfvbhk`tk.

 

 

OCB_FGFOBOFß@ MK CB_ TA_OB_ Cbs rasobs pukmk` ocbsfgfobrsk mk vbrfbmbs hb`krbs. _keù` kc `ùhkra mk gfcktks9 µ Tasobs mk u`b sacb k`trbmb, quk tfk`k` u` gfcktk. µ Tasobs mk vbrfbs k`trbmbs, oa` vbrfas gfcktks.

_keù` cb garhb mkc gfcktk pukmk` skr9 µ Tasobs trfb`eucbrks, oub`ma cb skoofÿ` mkc gfcktk tfk`k cb garhb bpraxfhbmb mk u` trfâ`euca. _a` cbs hâs usbmbs. µ Tasobs trbpkofbcks, oub`ma cb skoofÿ` mkc gfcktk tfk`k garhb mk trbpkofa fsÿsokcks. µ Tasobs oubmrbmbs. µ Tasobs rkma`mbs. µ Tasobs mk mfk`tk mk sfkrrb, ouyb skoofÿ` tfk`k cb garhb mk u` trbpkofa rkotâ`euca _keù` su pasfofÿ` cbs rasobs sk ocbsfgfob` k`9 µ Tasobs kxtkrfarks sf pkrtk`kok` bc tar`fcca. µ Tasobs f`tkrfarks sf pkrtk`kok` b cb tukrob. _keù` su sk`tfma sk mfvfmk` k`9 µ Tasob b mkrkolb oub`ma bvb`zb a efrb k` sk`tfma mk cbs hb`kofccbs mkc rkcai. µ Tasob b fzqufkrmb oub`ma bvb`zb a efrb k` sk`tfma oa`trbrfa b cbs hb`kofccbs mkc rkcai.

 

^BT]K_ G[@MBHK@]BCK_ MK [@B TA_OB ]ÆTHF@A_ V MKGF@FOFA@K_ Mfâhktra hbyar9 _k ck oa`aok tbhdfæ` oaha mfâhktra kxtkrfar y `ahf`bc mk cb rasob. Ks kc mfâhktra hâxfha mkc gfcktk mkc tar`fcca a mk cb tukrob.  

Mfâhktra hk`ar9 tbhdfæ` oa`aofma oaha mfâhktra f`tkrfar, mkc `ùocka a mk rbèz. Ks kc mfâhktra hè`fha mkc gfcktk mk tar`fcca a tukrob.  

Mfâhktra prfhftfva9  K` u`b rasob ofcè`mrfob, ks kc mfâhktra mk u` ofcf`mra fhbef`brfa ouyb supkrgfofk oartb cas gfcktks k` pu`tas tbcks quk rksuctk` feubcks bc b`ola mk cas hfshas y bc mk cas layas oartbmas par cb supkrgfofk mk mfola ofcf`mra. K` u`b rasob oÿ`fob, ks kc mfâhktra sadrk u` oa`a fhbef`brfa hkmfma b u`b mfstb`ofb mbmb mksmk u` pcb`a mk rkgkrk`ofb rkgkrk`o fb pkrpk`mfoucbr bc kik: cb supkrgfofk mkc oa`a fhbef`brfa oartb cas gfcktks k` pu`tas tbcks quk rksuctk` feubcks bc b`ola mk cas hfshas y kc mk cas lukoas oartbmas oa rtbmas par cb hfshb supkrgfofk.

^bsa9 Ks cb mfstb`ofb mksmk u` pu`ta mk u` gfcktk bc pu`ta oarrkspa`mfk`tk mkc gfcktk sfeufk`tk, hkmfmb pbrbckcbhk`tk bc kik. ^ukmk mbrsk k` hfcèhktras k` pucebmbs a k` gu`ofÿ` mkc `ùhkra mk gfcktks par pucebmb, mk boukrma oa` cbs sfeufk`tks rkcbofa`ks9 ∔^bsa k` pucebmbs 8 2/`ùhkra mk gfcktks par pucebmb ∔^bsa k` hfcèhktras 8 4;,=/`ùhkra mk gfcktks par pucebmb

Bvb`ok9 Ks cb mfstb`ofb quk bvb`zb u` gfcktk k` u`b vukctb. K` rasobs mk u` saca gfcktk, a mk u`b k`trbmb, kc bvb`ok ks feubc bc pbsa: k` rasobs mk gfcktk madck a mk mas k`trbmbs kc bvb`ok quk ks kc pbsa rkbc, ks feubc bc madck mkc pbsa, quk vfk`k b skr u` pbsa gfotfofa: k` rasobs mk trfpck gfcktk kc bvb`ok ks feubc b trks vkoks kc pbsa: kto.

Orkstb9 Ks cb pkqukòb supkrgfofk supkrfar mkc gfcktk quk u`k cas mas gcb`oas mkc hfsha.

Tbèz9 Ks cb supkrgfofk mkc ga`ma quk u`k cas gcb`oas mk cas gfcktks bmybok`tks. Gcb`oa9 Ks cb supkrgfofk mkc gfcktk quk u`k cb orkstb oa` cb rbèz. Kik mk cb rasob9 ks kc mkc ofcf`mra a oa`a k` quk sk lb tbccbma cb rasob. Dbsk mkc gfcktk9 Ks cb skoofÿ` f`gkrfar mkc gfcktk, a skb, cb hbyar skoofÿ` k`trk mas m as rbèoks bmybok`tks.

 

^ragu`mfmbm mk cb rasob9  ks cb mfstb`ofb k`trk cb orkstb y cb dbsk mkc gfcktk, hkmfmb `arhbchk`tk bc kik.

@uhkra mk gfcktks. Ks kc `ùhkra mk gfcktks k` u`b ca`eftum mktkrhf`bmb quk obsf sfkhprk ks u`b pucebmb.

Ca`eftum mk boapcbhfk`ta9  Ks cb ca`eftum mk oa`tbota k`trk mas pfkzbs boapcbmbs par rasob, hkmfmbs bxfbchk`tk.

Bcturb mk oa`tbota9 Ks cb bcturb mk oa`tbota k`trk gfcktks mk mas pfkzbs boapcbmbs hkmfmbs rbmfbchk`tk.

Cè`kb prfhftfvb a mk gcb`oa9  Ks u`b ek`krbtrfz mkc ofcf`mra a oa`a fhbef`brfas kspkofgfobmas k` cb ?¾ mkgf`fofÿ`.

Erasar mkc gfcktk9 Ks cb mfstb`ofb k`trk cas gcb`oas bmybok`tks mkc gfcktk, hkmfmb b ca cbrea a pbrbckcbhk`tk b cb cè`kb prfhftfvb.

Mfsorkpb`ofb9 Ks u`b mfgkrk`ofb prksorftb f`tk`ofa`bmbhk`tk k` cbs mfhk`sfa`ks mk cbs pfkzbs boapcbmbs, cb oubc `a pkrhftk quk sk rkdbsk` `f cb laceurb hè`fhb `f cb f`tkrgkrk`ofb hâxfhb quæ oa`vfk`k` bc boapcbhfk`ta.

]ackrb`ofb9 Ks cb hbe`ftum mk vbrfbofÿ` pkrhftfmb k` cb hkmfmb mk u`b pfkzb. Hkmfmb dâsfob9 Ks cb hkmfmb `arhbc, tkÿrfob a `ahf`bc, b pbrtfr mk cb oubc sk oa`sfmkrb` tambs cbs vbrfbofa`ks.

Laceurb mk orkstb9  _k k`ouk`trb mkgf`fmb k` kc pkrgfc mk u` tar`fcca oaha kc kspbofa quk qukmb k`trk u`a oubcqufkrb mk sus gfcktks. V cb rbèz mkc gfcktk oarrkspa`mfk`tk k` cb pfkzb mk boapcbhfk`ta. µ Bobdbma9 Ks kc obrâotkr mk cb garhb y supkrgfofk mk u` gfcktk mk rasob a mk atra pramuota.

Biustk9 Ks cb rkcbofÿ` k`trk mas pfkzbs boapcbmbs oa` rkgkrk`ofb b cbs oa`mfofa`ks mk boapcbhfk`ta, cbs oubcks pukmk` mbr cuebr b biustks garzbmas, bprktbmas, hkmfas, cfdrks y lacebmas. Cb obcfmbm mkc biustk mkpk`mk b cb vkz mk cb hkmfmb rkcbtfvb y mkc bobdbma mk cbs pfkzbs boapcbmbs.

µ Ya`b `kutrb9 Ks cb za`b mk mfsorkpb`ofb pasftfvb. µ Cèhftks9 _a` cbs mfhk`sfa`ks kxtrkhbs pkrhftfmbs par cb tackrb`ofb bpcfobmb b u`b pfkzb.

 

_F_]KHB_ MK TA_OB_ _k ccbhb _fstkhb mk Tasobs b obmb u`a mk cas erupas k` quk sk pukmk` ocbsfgfobr cbs rasobs `arhbcfzbmbs oa` kspkofgfobofa`ks a rkecbs quk mkdk` ouhpcfr. Kstbs sk rkgfkrk` b cas sfeufk`tks pu`tas9 µ Garhb y praparofa`ks kc gfcktk µ Ksobca`bhfk`ta mk cas mfvkrsas mfâhktras. µ ^bsa quk oarrkspa`mk b obmb u`a mk cas mfâhktras. µ ]ackrb`ofbs quk sk bmhftk` k` cbs hkmfmbs.

TA_OB_ MK _[IKOFß@ _k ccbhb` bsè cbs rasobs khpckbmbs k` cb oa`struoofÿ` `arhbc hkoâ`fob pbrb cb gfibofÿ` k`kreætfob mk mktkrhf`bmbs pfkzbs mk hâquf`bs. Æstbs rasobs tfk`k`, k` ek`krbc, gfcktk mk skoofÿ` trfb`eucbr k` garhb mk trfâ`euca fsÿsokcks a kqufcâtkra, pkra `a u` trfâ`euca pkrgkota, sf`a oa` kc værtfok tru`obma k` garhb rkotb a rkma`mkbmb. Bc ga`ma mk cb rasob tbhdfæ` sk ck mb garhb tru`obmb a rkma`mkbmb. Kstk tfpa mk rasob `a tfk`k fhpartb`ofb cb kxbotftum mk cas mfâhktras f`tkrfar y kxtkrfar, oa` tbc quk cbs orkstbs mk u`b rasob `a pukmb` taobr cas ga`mas mk cb atrb bc b quk sk boapcb`, k` obhdfa tfk`k erb` fhpartb`ofb cb kxbotftum mkc mfâhktra hkmfa a mfâhktra mk cas gcb`oas puks mk æc mkpk`mk kc duk` biustk mk cb rasob.

GATHB MKC GFCK]K MFHK@_FA@K_

µ

 

 M 8 Mfâhktra `ahf`bc mkc tar`fcca kxprksbma k` pucebmbs f`ecksbs (4;.= Hh.) µ ^ 8 ^bsa kxprksbma k` `ùhkra mk lfcas par pucebmb µ l 8 bcturb mk cas gfcktks 8 >,7=>? ^. µ r 8 rbmfa mk cbs tru`ob murbs 8 >,2?5? ^ µ m 8 mfâhktra mk hb`mrf`bma mk cb tukrob 8 M∔2,4>¾ pbrb pbsas f`gkrfarks b 2hh. Cb tru`ob murb mkc gfcktk cb garhb`, k` bhdas obsas, k` kc værtfok supkrfar mk2/< mk cb bcturb tkÿrfob y mk 2/27 mk ksb hfshb bcturb k` cb dbsk, y kcca hfk`trbs `a sadrkpbsb` cas 2> hh. ^ar k`ofhb mk 2> hh., tb`ta k` kc værtfok supkrfar oaha k` cb dbsk, dbstb u`b tru`ob murb mk 2/27 mk cb bcturb tkÿrfob. ^brb u`b rasob f`ocf`bmb b =;¾, cb bcturb prâotfob mkc gfcktk mkc tar`fcca ks mk9 l2 8 ^ ∔ (2/,¾, cb bcturb tkÿrfob mkc gfcktk ks feubc bc pbsa mfvfmfma par te ?>¾, a huctfpcfobma par oate ?>¾9 l 8 ^/te ?>¾ 8 ^/>,;;5 8 ^ x 2,5?4

Cb bcturb prâotfob ks k`ta`oks9

 

l2 8 2,=>5^

Cb rasob mk brtfcckrèb ks sfkhprk k`ek`mrbmb par kc k`raccbhfk`ta k` læcfok, mk u` pkrgfc ouyb skoofÿ` ks u` trfâ`euca rkotâ`euca oa` u`a mk sus obtktas pkrpk`mfoucbr b cbs ek`krbtrfoks kc ofcf`mra sapartk.

_F_]KHB_ MK TA_OB_ ]TB^KYAFMBCK_ Cbs rasobs trbpkzafmbcks sk khpckb` prf`ofpbchk`tk pbrb cb trb`shfsfÿ` y trb`sgarhbofÿ` mk havfhfk`tas, oaha par kikhpca, k` kc lusfcca mk rasobr mk u` tar`a. Cas prf`ofpbcks sfstkhbs sa` mas9 cb rasob trbpkofbc bohæ y cb rasob MF@.

TA_OBMA BOHÆ Æstk sfstkhb mk rasobma trbpkzafmbc, quk tfk`k cas gcb`oas f`ocf`bmas b 2=¾?>', ks kc hâs khpckbma k` cas kstbmas u`fmas k` sustftuofÿ` mk cas gfcktks oubmrbmas. Kc tar`fcca qukmb sfkhprk ok`trbma par sus gcb`oas f`ocf`bmas y su biustk ks huy sk`ofcca, oahpbrbma oa` kc mk cas tar`fccas mk gfcktk oubmrbma: bmkhâs rksuctb pasfdck oarrkefr cbs laceurbs, y su oa`struoofÿ` ks hâs gâofc b cb vkz quk su rksfstk`ofb ks hbyar b cb mk cas gfcktks oubmrbmas. Kc gfcktk bohæ kstâ k`ek`mrbma par kc k`raccbhfk`ta k` læcfok, mk u` pkrgfc ouyb skoofÿ` ks u` trbpkofa fsÿsokcks k` kc quk kc â`euca quk garhb` sus mas cbmas pbrbckcas ks mk 46¾. Cbs dbsks mkc trbpkofa sa` pbrbckcbs bc `ùocka mkc tar`fcca, y cb hbyar mk kccbs oaf`ofmk oa` cbs ek`krbtrfoks mkc hfsha.

 

MFHK@_FA@K_

µ M 8 mfâhktra `ahf`bc mkc tar`fcca, kxprksbma k` pucebmbs f`ecksbs. µ ^ 8 pbsa kxprksbma k` `ùhkra mk lfcas par pucebmb. µ l 8 bcturb mk cas gfcktks 8 ^/4 + >,4;= Hh. µ b 8 >,?5>5 ^ µ d 8 >,?5>5 ^ ∔ >,2?42 Hh.  µ m 8 mfâhktra mk hb`mrf`bma mk cb tukrob 8 M∔^   µ Mfâhktra mk `ùocka mkc tar`fcca 8 M∔ (^ + >,;>< Hh.) 

TA_OBMA ]TB^KYAFMBC @ATHBCFYBMA Kc rasobma trbpkzafmbc `arhbcfzbma `a ks, sf`a kc rasobma bohæ bmbptbma b cbs `koksfmbmks grb`oksbs, k feubchk`tk oa`okdfma pbrb suprfhfr cbs pasfdfcfmbmks mk laceurbs f`lkrk`tks b cas tar`fccas mk rasob oubmrbmb. Cb garhb mkc gfcktk trbpkzafmbc `arhbcfzbma kstâ k`ek`mrbmb par kc k`raccbhfk`ta k` læcfok, mk u` pkrgfc ouyb skoofÿ` ks u` trbpkofa fsÿsokcks k` kc quk kc â`euca quk garhb` sus mas cbmas `a pbrbckcas ks mk ?> ¾. ]bhdfæ` k` æstk obsa cbs dbsks mkc trbpkofa sa` pbrbckcbs bc `ùocka mkc tar`fcca, y cb hbyar mk kccbs oaf`ofmk oa` cbs ek`krbtrfoks mkc hfsha.

 

 

TA_OBMA O[BMTBMA Kc rasobma oubmrbma ks u` rasobma quk obmb vkz tfk`mk hâs b mksbpbrkokr, rkkhpcbzbma par kc rasobma trbpkzafmbc: sk utfcfzbdb obsf kxocusfvbhk`tk pbrb tamas cas tar`fccas mk boofa`bhfk`ta mk cbs hâquf`bs∔lkrrbhfk`tbs. Kc gfcktk oubmrbma ks

k`ek`mrbma par kc k`raccbhfk`ta k` læcfok mk u` pkrgfc mk skoofÿ` oubmrbmb oa` u`a mk cas cbmas bpayb`ma kc ofcf`mra ek`krbmar. ^umfk`ma skr cas tar`fccas mk vbrfbs k`trbmbs y læcfoks, kc pbsa mk cb læcfok ks k` tbc obsa, cb mfstb`ofb, kxprksbmb k` hfcèhktras, oahprk`mfmb k`trk mas kspfrbs mk oa`skoutfvbs mk cb hfshb læcfok hkmfmb pbrbckcbhk`tk bc kik.

 

MFHK@_FA@K_

µ M 8 mfâhktra `arhbc mkc tar`fcca, kxprksbma k` hfcèhktras. µ ^ 8 pbsa k` hfcèhktras µ l 8 bcturb mk cas gfcktks b) 2 læcfok9 6/26^ a >,=5?^ d) 4 læcfoks9 6/?,4?5^ µ m 8 mfâhktra mk hb`mrf`bma mk cb tukrob 8 M∔>,6=7 ^bsa bpbrk`tk.   Kc rasobma oubmrbma `a tfk`k tbdcb puksta quk `a kstâ `arhbcfzbma.

TA_OBMA TKMA@MA @ATHBCFYBMA Kc rasobma rkma`ma `arhbcfzbma ks, pksk b sus duk`bs oubcfmbmks hkoâ`fobs, u` rasobma paoa utfcfzbma mkdfma b cbs mfgfouctbmks hkoâ`fobs quk k`trbòb su kikouofÿ`. _u utfcfzbofÿ` sk rkoahfk`mb pbrb tamb u`fÿ` mk ÿreb`as susokptfdcks mk rkofdfr olaquks, oaha cas k`eb`olks mk vbea`ks. Cb garhb mkc gfcktk ks skeù` cb `arhb bckhb`b MF@ =>;, oa` u` â`euca mk cas gcb`oas mkc gfcktk mk ?>¾ y rkma`mkbhfk`tas ouya rbmfa sk bpraxfhb b cb hftbm mk cb bcturb mkc gfcktk.

 

MFHK@_FA@K_

µ M 8 mfâhktra `ahf`bc mkc tar`fcca kxprksbma k` hfcèhktras. µ ^ 8 pbsa kxprksbma k` hfcèhktras. µ T2 8 rbmfa mk cb oara`bofÿ` mkc gfcktk k` kc tar`fcca 8 >,4?,4?,4?7^. µ T= 8 rbmfa mkc ga`ma mkc gfcktk k` cb tukrob 8 >,442^. µ l 8 bcturb mk cas gfcktks 8 >,;^. µ m 8 mfâhktra mk hb`mrf`bma mk cb tukrob 8 M ∔ >,6^  

 

7.4 ]AT@FCCA_ MK ^A]K@OFB

Cas tar`fccas, oaha kckhk`tas mk suikofÿ` a mk u`fÿ` k`trk pfkzbs, oa`stftuyk` u`a mk cas oahpa`k`tks hâs utfcfzbmas k` kc mfskòa mk tama tfpa mk kstruoturbs y hâquf`bs. K` gu`ofÿ` mk cb hfsfÿ` quk ouhpck`, cas tar`fccas sk pukmk` ocbsfgfobr k` tar`fccas mk u`fÿ` y tar`fccas mk patk`ofb. ^ar u` cbma, cas tar`fccas mk u`fÿ`, cas quk oahù`hk`tk oa`aokhas, sk khpckb` pbrb u`fr a bskeurbr mas a hâs hâ s pbrtks kstruoturbcks mk u`b hâquf`b a kstruoturb, y pukmk` skr mk mfstf`tas tfpas9 • ]ar`fccas mk obdkzb   • ]ar`fccas prfsfa`kras a  mk gfibofÿ` • ^kr`as  • Kspârrbeas 

^ar atra cbma, cas tar`fccas mk patk`ofb, adikta mk kstk tutarfbc, sa` bqukccas mkstf`bmas b cb trb`shfsfÿ` mk patk`ofb y havfhfk`ta, y quk ek`krbchk`tk sk utfcfzb` pbrb oa`vkrtfr u` havfhfk`ta b`eucbr a mk efra, k` u` havfhfk`ta mk trbscbofÿ` a cf`kbc, boahpbòbma bmkhâs mk u`b trb`shfsfÿ` mk ksgukrza. Cas tar`fccas mk patk`ofb sk usb` k` huolbs bpcfobofa`ks, oaha tar`fccas mk bvb`ok k` hâquf`bs lkrrbhfk`tbs, harmbzbs, ebtas hkoâ`foas pbrb kckvbofÿ` mk vklèoucas, prk`sbs y atras mfspasftfvas mk kckvbofÿ` mk obrebs, hâquf`bs u`fvkrsbcks mk trboofÿ` y oahprksfÿ`, kto. K` kstk sk`tfma, ks huy usubc kc khpcka mk hkob`fshas oa`stftufmas par tar`fccas mk patk`ofb pbrb cb kckvbofÿ` a trbscbma mk obrebs, mkdfma b quk pkrhftk` mksbrraccbr erb`mks gukrzbs b ca cbrea mk su kik.

 

Kc prf`ofpfa mk gu`ofa`bhfk`ta quk rfek kc hkob`fsha mk cas tar`fccas mk patk`ofb patk` ofb ks huy sk`ofcca9 [` tar`fcca pukmk skr oa`sfmkrbma, mk hb`krb sfhpck, quk kstâ garhbma par u` oukrpa ofcè`mrfoa (quk skrèb kc vâstbea a cb obòb mkc tar`fcca), sadrk kc quk sk k`raccb k` raccb u` pcb`a f`ocf`bma garhb`ma cas gfcktks mk cb rasob mkc tar`fcca.  Blarb dfk`, sf sk mfspa`k mk u`b tukrob k`rasobmb k` kc tar`fcca, bc lbokr efrbr kc tar`fcca ?7>¹, cb tukrob rkoarrk sadrk s adrk kc pcb`a f`ocf`bma u`b ca`eftum mk ofrou`gkrk`ofb ofrou`gk rk`ofb feubc b ώµmh sfk`ma mh kc mfâhktra hkmfa mk cb rasob, y sk trbscbmb u`b mfstb`ofb  p  skeù` cb mfrkoofÿ` bxfbc a ca`eftumf`bc mkc tar`fcca. Cb mfstb`ofb ca`eftumf`bc  p

rkoarrfmb par cb tukrob k` u`b sacb rkvacuofÿ` sk ccbhb pbsa a bvb`ok mkc tar`fcca, sfk`ma kc â`euca mk pbsa ( β ) kc mbma par cb kxprksfÿ`9 β8tb`2 (p/ώµmh). Ek`krbchk`tk, cas tar`fccas mk patk`ofb trbdbib` sahktfmas b u` razbhfk`ta kckvbma par cb grfoofÿ` oa`tf`ubmb k`trk cbs supkrgfofks mk cbs rasobs mk tar`fcca y tukrob.

. 

^ar kcca, gbotarks oaha kc mksebstk a kc obck`tbhfk`ta kxoksfva mk cbs supkrgfofks vb` b skr fhpartb`tks k` su mfskòa, bmkhâs mk cbs oa`sfmkrbofa`ks mk rksfstk`ofb purbhk`tk hkoâ`fob mk cb kstruoturb mkc tar`fcca.  Bsè, bpbrtk mk cbs oubcfmbmks quk lb` lkola huy papucbr kc usa mk tar`fccas mk patk`ofb, oaha sa` cb sk`ofcckz mk su mfskòa, dbia oasta mk gbdrfobofÿ` y cb pasfdfcfmbm mk su gbdrfobofÿ` oa` erb` kxbotftum, k xbotftum, ks kc kckvbma razbhfk`ta y par tb`ta cb dbib kgfofk`ofb k` cb trb`shfsfÿ`, ca quk oa`stftuyk u`b mksvk`tbib k` su usa.

OÂCO[CA MK ]AT@FCCA_ MK ^A]K@OFB [`b mk cbs bpcfobofa`ks hâs lbdftubcks mk cas tar`fccas mk patk`ofb ks cb gbdrfobofÿ` mk hkob`fshas pbrb cb kckvbofÿ` mk obreb. K` kstk bpbrtbma sk vb` b hastrbr cbs

 

mfstf`tbs kxprksfa`ks hbtkhâtfobs quk sk utfcfzb` pbrb obcoucbr kc pbr tarsfa`bc `koksbrfa pbrb lbokr efrbr bc tar`fcca k` cb kckvbofÿ` a mksok`sa mk u`b obreb (G )).. ^brb kcca, prfhkra ks `koksbrfa oa`aokr kc oa`iu`ta mk ksgukrzas quk botùb` sadrk kc tar`fcca mk patk`ofb. ^brb kc oâcouca mk kstas ksgukrzas sk pbrtk mk cbs koubofa`ks mk kqufcfdrfa mk gukrzbs quk eadfkr`b` kc hkob`fsha.

 B oa`tf`ubofÿ` sk bmiu`tb` bceu`as mk cas pbrâhktras pbrâh ktras quk skrvfrâ` pbrb mkgf`fr cbs obrbotkrèstfobs mk u` tar`fcca mk patk`ofb9 β 9 â`euca mk læcfok  κ 9 â`euca mk bvb`ok  p9 pbsa a bvb`ok mkc tar`fcca mh9 mfâhktra hkmfa mkc tar`fcca (tbhdfæ` mk`ahf`bma mfâhktra prfhftfva) G 9 suhb mk tambs cbs gukrzbs bxfbcks quk botùb` sadrk kc tar`fcca (rkprksk`tb cb obreb

b kckvbr a mksok`mkr) ^ 9 gukrzb `koksbrfb b bpcfobr bc tar`fcca pbrb vk`okr cb gukrzb mk razbhfk`ta y lbokr bsok`mkr/mksok`mkr cb obreb par kc pcb`a f`ocf`bma mk cb rasob mkc tar`fcca. K` cb sfeufk`tk gfeurb mk bdbia sk prksk`tb kc obsa mk u` tar`fcca mk patk`ofb oa` rasob oubmrbmb, y quk sk khpckb oaha hkob`fsha pbrb cb kckvbofÿ` mk obreb. K` kstk obsa, ks `koksbrfa bpcfobr u` pbr tarsfa`bc ( ] ) bc tar`fcca quk ca lbeb efrbr y oa`sfeb kckvbr bxfbchk`tk b cb obreb, pbrb ca oubc mkdk vk`okr bc razbhfk`ta k`trk cb rasob mkc tar`fcca y tukrob.

 

  Kc pbr a hahk`ta tarsfa`bc ( ] ) skrâ feubc bc pramuota mkc ksgukrza ^ par kc rbmfa prfhftfva (rh 8 mh/4 ) mkc tar`fcca9 ] 8 ^ µ rh

K` kstk obsa, cbs gukrzbs quk f`tkrbotùb` k` cb rasob skrâ` cbs sfeufk`tks9 G 9 rkprksk`tb cb obreb b kckvbr, y ks cb suhb mk tambs cbs gukrzbs bxfbcks quk botùb`

sadrk kc tar`fcca. ^ 9 gukrzb `koksbrfb quk ks `koksbrfa rkbcfzbr pbrb vk`okr cb gukrzb mk razbhfk`ta

y lbokr bsok`mkr cb obreb par kc pcb`a f`ocf`bma mk cb rasob mkc tar`fcca. @ 9 gukrzb `arhbc bc pcb`a mk cb læcfok mkc tar`fcca.  γµ@ 9 rkprksk`tb b cb gukrzb mk razbhfk`ta quk ks `koksbrfa vk`okr pbrb lbokr efrbr

bc tar`fcca. _k lb rkprksk`tbma k` cb gfeurb (b) b`tkrfar cbs gukrzbs G y ^ quk botùb` sadrk kc vâstbea mkc tar`fcca, hfk`trbs quk k` (d) sk rkprksk`tb k` u` trfâ`euca, kc mksbrracca mk cb læcfok a gfcktk mk cb rasob k` u`b vukctb vuk ctb oahpcktb mkc tar`fcca. K` mfola trfâ`euca, su dbsk tfk`k u`b ca`eftum mk ώµmh y u`b bcturb mk p (pbsa mkc tar`fcca). Dbia cb boofÿ` mk cbs gukrzbs mkgf`fmb sk kstbdckok` cbs koubofa`ks mk kqufcfdrfa, skeù` cbs mas mfrkoofa`ks mkc pcb`a (larfza`tbc y vkrtfobc), rksuctb`ma skr cbs sfeufk`tks9 • K` mfrkoofÿ` larfza`tbc9 ^ @µsk` (β) γ µ@µoas (β) 8 >   • K` mfrkoofÿ` vkrtfobc9 G + γµ@µsk` + γµ@µsk` (β) @µoas (β) 8 >  

Mk ma`mk sk adtfk`k quk kc ksgukrza `arhbc ( @ ), ), quk botùb k` mfrkoofÿ` `arhbc bc pcb`a mk cb læcfok mkc tar`fcca rksuctk skr9

 

Kc ksgukrza ^ , quk rkprksk`tb cb gukrzb `koksbrfb quk lbdrâ quk bpcfobr bc tar`fcca pbrb lbokrca efrbr y pramuofr cb kckvbofÿ` mk cb obreb k` mfrkoofÿ` bxfbc, sk mktkrhf`brâ b pbrtfr mk cb sfeufk`tk kxprksfÿ`9

^ar atra cbma, cb rkcbofÿ` k`trk kc â`euca mk læcfok ( β ) y kc mfâhktra hkmfa ( mh) mkc tar`fcca vfk`k mbmb par cb kxprksfÿ`9

_fk`ma ( p  p) kc pbsa a bvb`ok mkc tar`fcca. Kc pbr a hahk`ta tarsfa`bc ( ] ) quk ks `koksbrfa bpcfobr k` kc tar`fcca pbrb kckvbr u`b obreb (G ), ), skrâ feubc bc pramuota mkc ksgukrza ^ par kc rbmfa prfhftfva (rh 8 mh/4 ) mkc tar`fcca9

Ruk sustftuyk`ma kc vbcar mk ^ rksuctb u` pbr tarsfa`bc (] ) mk9

Cb kxprksfÿ` b`tkrfar praparofa`b kc pbr a hahk`ta tarsfa`bc `koksbrfa pbrb sudfr u`b obreb mk vbcar (G ), ), usb`ma u` tar`fcca mk patk`ofb mk rasob oubmrbmb.

Mk garhb b`âcaeb bc praokmfhfk`ta rkbcfzbma b`tkrfarhk`tk, sk pukmk obcoucbr cb kxprksfÿ` quk praparofa`b kc vbcar mkc hahk`ta a pbr pb r tarsfa`bc `koksbrfa pbrb dbibr u`b obreb (G ) oa` u` tar`fcca mk patk`ofb. Kstb kxprksfÿ` rksuctbrâ skr cb sfeufk`tk9

 

  Cbs b`tkrfarks kxprksfa`ks sa` vâcfmbs, oaha sk lb mfola, pbrb tar`fccas mk rasob oubmrbmb, ma`mk cbs obrebs `arhbcks sa` pbrbckcbs bc kik ca`eftumf`bc mkc tar`fcca. Hâs bmkcb`tk sk kxpa`mrâ cbs kxprksfa`ks vâcfmbs pbrb pb rb tar`fccas oa` rasob BOHK a [`fgfobmb. Ek`krbchk`tk, oub`ma u` tar`fcca mk patk`ofb sk usb pbrb kckvbr a mksok`mkr obrebs, ks lbdftubc khpckbr u`b pfkzb f`tkrhkmfb, ccbhbmb oaccbrè`, pbrb mfstrfdufr hkiar cb gukrzb mk khpuik sadrk cb dbsk mk bpaya. K` cb gfeurb bmiu`tb sk rkprksk`tb u` ksqukhb mk u` hkob`fsha mk tar`fcca mk patk`ofb quk f`ocuyk u` oaccbrè` sftubma dbia cb dbsk mk bpaya mk cb obreb ( G ) b kckvbr. K` kstk obsa, kc havfhfk`ta efrbtarfa mkc tar`fcca vb b ek`krbr obrebs mk razbhfk`ta bmfofa`bcks k`trk kc oaccbrè` y cb dbsk mk bpaya. ^ar tb`ta, ks `koksbrfa bpcfobr u` pbr bmfofa`bc ( ]o ) pbrb vk`okr b kstk razbhfk`ta `ukva, y quk sk suhbrâ bc pbr b`tkrfar obcoucbma pbrb kc obsa sf` oaccbrè`.

 Bsè, cb kxprksfÿ` quk praparofa`b kc pbr bmfofa`bc `koksbr `koksbrfa fa pbrb vk`okr cb gukrzb mk razbhfk`ta k` kc oaccbr ( ]o ) skrâ cb sfeufk`tk9

 

  Ma`mk,  γ oo  9 ks kc oakgfofk`tk mk razbhfk`ta k` kc oaccbrè` m oo  9 ks kc mfâhktra hkmfa mkc oaccbrè`

Kxfstk` aobsfa`ks, ma`mk bc utfcfzbr tar`fccas mk patk`ofb oa` u` bvb`ok a pbsa rkcbtfvbhk`tk kckvbma, y ouya oakgfofk`tk mk razbhfk`ta skb pkqukòa (par kikhpca, k ikhpca, parquk cb rasob kstæ k`erbsbmb), pukmk` mbr cuebr b quk cb obreb quk sastfk`k kc tar`fcca, oub`ma `a sk botùb sadrk æc, pukmb mksok`mkr par sè sacb. K` kstas obsas, kc mksok`sa mk cb obreb par cb rasob mkc tar`fcca sfhucb kc oahpartbhfk`ta mk u` adikta quk mksofk`mk sadrk u` pcb`a f`ocf`bma, lbofk`ma quk kc tar`fcca efrk sf` `f`eu`b boofÿ` kxtkr`b. Kstas obsas aourrk` parquk kc hahk`ta tarsfa`bc pbrb dbibr cb obreb tfk`k u` vbcar `kebtfva a sfhpckhk`tk `uca. ^brb kvftbr kstbs sftubofa`ks, quk pukmk` rksuctbr pkcferasbs pbrb cb skeurfmbm, sk utfcfzb` cas ccbhbmas tar`fccas frrkvkrsfdcks, tbhdfæ` mk`ahf`bmas oaha buta bskeurb`tks a butadcaob`tks. K` kstas tar`fccas kc k c vbcar mkc pbr tarsfa`bc pbrb lbokr mksok`mkr cb obreb vb b skr sfkhprk pasftfva, par ca quk sfkhprk vb` b `koksftbr quk sk cks bpcfquk u` hahk`ta tarsfa`bc kxtkr`a pasftfva pbrb lbokr mksok`mkr cb obreb.

 

7.? _[IK]BMATK_ TA_OBMA_

Ks u` kckhk`ta u apkrbmar hkoâ`foa quk mkrfvb mfrkotbhk`tk mkc pcb`a f`ocf`bma. Dâsfobhk`tk pukmk mkgf`frsk oaha u` pcb`a f`ocf`bma k`raccbma sadrk u` ofcf`mra suroa lkcfoafmbc tbccbma k` cb supkrgfofk mk u` ofcf`mra.

^brtks mk u` _uiktbmar Tasobma

_keù` sk tbcck kc suroa, a sk k`racck kc gfcktk sk tfk`k9 •Tasob mkrkolb, oa` gfcktk k`raccbma k` kc sk`tfma mk cbs beuibs mkc rkcai.   •Tasob fzqufkrmb, oa` gfcktk k`raccbma oa` sk`tfma oa`trbrfa

Cb hâs khpckbmb ks cb rasob mkrkolb, quk lbok quk kc tar`fcca bvb`ok bckiâ`mask, oub`ma ca lbokhas efrbr sadrk u`b tukrob a u` arfgfofa rasobma k` kc sk`tfma mk cbs beuibs mkc rkcai

 

  Lby u`b bhpcfb vbrfkmbm mk kstfcas mk suiktbmarks rasobmas, mfspa`fdcks k` u`b mfvkrsfmbm mk hbtkrfbcks, f`ocuyk`ma bokra, bokra b okra f`axfmbdck, bcuhf`fa, cbtÿ`, dra`ok y pcâstfoa. Cas suiktbmarks rasobmas sk pukmk` ocbsfgfobr mk mfstf`tb hb`krb9 •^ar su usa a gu`ofÿ` •]fpa mk obdkzb  •]fpa mk pkrgfc mk rasob   •^ar su rksfstk`ofb 

Ocbsfgfobofÿ` par su usa a gu`ofÿ`  ^kr`as y tar`fccas  [` pkr`a ks u` suiktbmar oa` obdkzb y vâstbea rkota rasobma pk`sbma pbrb utfcfzbrsk oa` u`b tukrob b gf` mk hb`tk`kr u`fma u` oa`iu`ta.

_f` khdbrea kc

hfsha suiktbmar sk oa`aok oaha tar`fcca oub`ma oub`ma qukmb rasobma k` u` beuikra oa` rasob, k` vkz mk k`rasobrsk k` u`b tukrob.

]fpas mk obdkzbs _keù` kc tfpa mk obdkzb cas tar`fccas pukmk` skr9 •Lkxbea`bc

•Oubmrbmb •Tkma`mb •Bvkccb`bmb •ofcè`mrfob 

 

  ]fpas mk pkrgfcks mk rasobs k` suiktbmarks _keù` cb garhb mk cb supkrgfofk cas tfpas mk rasobs sa`9 •]rfb`eucbr • trbpkzafmbc •oubmrbrb •rkma`mb  

Tksfstk`ofb mk cas suiktbmarks rasobmas Cas pkr`as y tar`fccas mkdkrâ` skckoofa`brsk oa` dbsk k` su rksfstk`ofb mk prukdb (_p) skeù` mkgf`fma par _BK, B_]H a F_A. Kstbs areb`fzbofa`ks ar eb`fzbofa`ks mkgf`k` cas erbmas a ocbsks skeù` cb rksfstk`ofb y kspkofgfob` kc hbtkrfbc y trbtbhfk`ta tærhfoa. Cb rksfstk`ofb mk prukdb (_p) ks kc ksgukrza bc oubc kc pkr`a khpfkzb b tahbr u`b mkgarhbofÿ` pkrhb`k`tk y ks okrob`b b, pkra f`gkrfar quk kc cèhftk mk gcuk`ofb kcâstfoa mkc hbtkrfbc.

 

7.= I[@]B_ MK KH^BR[K]B KH^BR[K]BM[TB. M[TB.

_k mk`ahf`b  iu`tb hkoâ`fob,  iu`tb mk kstb`qukfmbm a khpbquktbmurb b u`as oahpa`k`tks mk hbtkrfbc bmbptbdck quk sfrvk pbrb skccbr dfk` cb u`fÿ` mk cbs obrbs hkob`fzbmbs mk cas kckhk`tas mk ofkrrk mk cbs obibs mk trb`shfsfa`ks  trb`shfsfa`ks  y ek`ærfobhk`tk k` oubcqufkr kckhk`ta lfmrâucfoa y/a `kuhâtfoa, quk cckvb` cudrfob`tk k` su f`tkrfar. Kstbs kvftb` quk lbyb gueb mk cudrfob`tk, a gcufma b kstb`qukfzbr, lbofb kc kxtkrfar par bceù` pkqukòa mkgkota k` kc hkob`fzbma y mk cbs za`bs mk ofkrrk u atras hkob`fshas quk tk`eb` prksfÿ` f`tkr`b oaha hatarks mk kxpcasfÿ` a oahprksarks. Lby mfgkrk`tks tfpas mk khpbquks, cas oubcks sk mfvfmk` k` mas ocbsks ek`krbcks9 oa`gf`bmas y `a oa`gf`bmas. Cbs gfeurbs 22-?4b y 22-?4d hukstrb` mas vbrfb`tks mk khpbquks oa`gf`bmas, u`a mk cas oubcks ks u` khpbquk mk b`fcca.

Gfeurb 22-?4 Khpbquk oa`gf`bma Cbs iu`tbs oa` khpbquks `a oa`gf`bmas, oaha cb quk sk fcustrb k` cb gfeurb 22 ?4o , tfk`k` kc khpbquk rkcbtfvbhk`tk subvk, skpbrb`ma oahpcktbhk`tk cbs supkrgfofks khpbrkibmbs.

 

  Gfeurb 22-?4 Khpbquk `a oa`gf`bma Cbs iu`tbs blarrb` mf`kra k` kc hkob`fzbma mk cbs supkrgfofks mk u`fÿ` parquk `a lbok `koksbrfa quk skb tatbchk`tk kxbota su boapcbhfk`ta, parquk cb iu`tb oarrfek cas pasfdcks gbccas quk kxfstb` k` kc hkob`fzbma. Cb iu`tb mk kstb`qukfmbm hâs sfe`fgfobtfvb quk kxfstk ks cb quk sk f`tkrpa`k k` cb u`fÿ` k`trk kc dcaquk mk ofcf`mras mk ofcf`mras mk u` hatar mk kxpcasfÿ` y cb oucbtb mkc hfsha, mkdfma b cbs bctbs tkhpkrbturbs y prksfa`ks quk sapartb. Cb iu`tb mk kstb`qukfmbm hâs sfe`fgfobtfvb quk kxfstk ks cb quk sk f`tkrpa`k k` cb u`fÿ` k`trk kc dcaquk mk ofcf`mras mk ofcf`mras mk u` hatar mk kxpcasfÿ` y cb oucbtb mkc hfsha, mkdfma b cbs bctbs tkhpkrbturbs y prksfa`ks quk sapartb.

 

]khb 5 B`âcfsfs mk sacmbmurbs 5.2 ]fpas mk sacmbmurbs, sfhdacaeèb y bpcfobofa`ks. 5.4 Iu`tbs sacmbmbs dbia obreb kstâtfob. 5.? Iu`tbs sacmbmbs dbia obreb mf`âhfob

 

5.2 ]F^A_ MK _ACMBM[TB_, _FHDACAEÈB V B^CFOBOFA@K_ ]F^A_ MK _ACMBM[TB_ Cb gfeurb 5.2b hukstrb vbrfas tfpas mk sacmbmurbs,, ouyas `ahdrks pravfk`k` mk cb ekahktrèb mk cbs arfccbs mk sacmbmurbs cbs pbrtks quk sk vb` b u`fr. Adskrvk cb prkpbrbofÿ` kspkofbc quk rkqufkrk cbs arfccbs, k` kspkofbc oub`ma cbs pcbobs sa` eruksbs, pbrb pkrhftfr cb vbrfccb mk sacmbmurb k`trk b cb iu`tb y garhk u` oarmÿ` oa`tf`uaquk mk sacmbmurb.

_ÈHDACA_ MK _ACMBM[TB [`b kstruoturb sacmbmb sk gbdrfob sacmb`ma k` oa`iu`ta u` erupa mk garhbs mk hktbc, oartbmbs oa` oa`gfeurbofa`ks sacmbmurb, cbs mfvkrsbs pbrtks sk hb`tfk`k` k`pbrtfoucbrks. oa`tbota oa`Murb`tk gfrhkzb, cb b hk`uma hkmfb`tk bdrbzbmkrbs a suiktbmarks. Cbs sacmbmurbs mkdk` kspkofgfobrsk oa` prkofsfÿ` k` cas mfduias mk trbdbia, ca oubc sk lbok hkmfb`tk cas sèhdacas mk sacmbmurb, oaha cas mk cb gfeurb 5.2d, cas oubcks lb` sfma kstb`mbrfzbmas par cb Bhkrfob` Ukcmf`e _aofkty (BU_). Cb gckolb mk kstk sèhdaca ; 5.2b bpu`tb lbofb cb u`fÿ` quk sk vb b sacmbr. Kc oukrpa mkc sèhdaca oa`tfk`k tamas cas kckhk`tas quk sk oa`sfmkrb` `koksbrfas9 • Cè`kb mk rkgkrk`ofb

 

• Gckolb 

_èhdacas dâsfoas mk sacmbmurb, oaha cas mk cb gfeurb 5.2o ♧ • Mfhk`sfa`ks y atras mbtas ♧ • _èhdacas oahpckhk`tbrfas ♧ • _èhdacas mk bobdbma ♧ • Oacb mk cb gckolb ♧ • Kspkofgfobofÿ` a praoksa .

Kc cbma mk cb gckolb mk u`b u`fÿ` ks cb cè`kb, cbma, ârkb a kckhk`ta prÿxfha bc oubc bpu`tb cb gckolb. Kc cbma apuksta mk cb gckolb ks kc atra cbma. K` cbs gfeurbs mk cb 5.2o b cb 5.2m sk fcustrb` cas tfpas mk sacmbmurbs quk cas mfskòbmarks khpckb` oa` hâs grkouk`ofb. K` kc obsa mk kckhk`tas ek`krbcks mk hâquf`bs, cb hbyarèb mk cbs sacmbmurbs sa` mk gfcktk, bu`quk cbs sacmbmurbs b tapk sk khpckb` huola k` kc mfskòa mk rkofpfk`tks b prksfÿ`. ^ar supuksta, cbs pbrtks par u`fr mkdk` oacaobrsk mk hb`krb quk lbyb u` kspbofa cfdrk sugfofk`tk pbrb cb apkrbofÿ` mk sacmbmurb. _f sk rkqufkrk` u`fa`ks f`usubcks mkdfma b u` kspbofa cfdrk f`sugfofk`tk, a par cb garhb mk cb skoofÿ`. Kc mfskòa qufzâ skb mkgfofk`tk y kc mfskòbmar mkdkrâ oahk`zbr oahk `zbr mk `ukva y trbtbr mk kstbdckokr atrb sacuofÿ` hâs bmkoubmb. Oaha k` cb apkrbofÿ` mk sacmbmurb sk khpckb obcar, sk kxpkrfhk`tb` obhdfas hktbcùrefoas k` kc hktbc mk dbsk, okrob mk cb sacmbmurb. Bsfhfsha, sk f`tramuok` ksgukrzas rksfmubcks obusbmk mkcbcbsacmbmurb. suikofÿ` a^ar u`fÿ` mk cbs pfkzbs a, bceu`bs vkoks, mkdf ma bcb armk` mkdfma ca ek`krbc,

 

kstas ksgukrzas rksfmubcks `a sa` tb` skvkras oaha pbrb obusbr pradckhbs: k` bceu`as obsas sk lb mktkrhf`bma quk u` trbtbhfk`ta tærhfoa cfekra, mkspuæs mk cb sacmbmurb, ks ùtfc pbrb cfdkrbrcas. Oub`ma cbs pbrtks quk sk vb` b sacmbr sa` eruksbs, rksuctb dk`kgfofasa sahktkrcbs b u` prkobck`tbhfk`ta. _f cb oa`gfbdfcfmbm mkc oahpa`k`tk mkdk skr huy bctb, ks `koksbrfa kstbdckokr praerbhboa` mk kcprukdbs pbrb fmk`tfgfobr quæ obhdfas a bmfofa`ks sa` u` `koksbrfbs adikta mk bskeurbr cb hkiar obcfmbm.

 B^CFOBOFA@K_ MK CB _ACMBM[TB b) Oa`struoofÿ` mk puk`tks, kmfgfofas d) ^ramuoofÿ` mk tudkrèbs, rkofpfk`tks, obcmkrbs, tb`quks o) Oa`struoofÿ` `bvbc m) F`mustrfb bkra`âutfob y kspbofbc k) Butahÿvfcks, gkrraobrrfcks, kto. < 5.2m Cb [`fÿ` par _acmbmurb Cb sacmbmurb pramuok u`b oa`kxfÿ` sÿcfmb k`trk mas pbrtks ccbhbmbs u`fÿ` par sacmbmurb. Lby of`oa tfpas dâsfoas mk u`fa`ks9 [`fÿ` Khpbchbmb K` kstk tfpa mk u`fÿ`

 

cbs pbrtks sk k`ouk`trb` k` kc hfsha pcb`a y sk u`k` sus darmks [`fÿ` mk Ksquf`b Cbs pbrtks k` kstk tfpa mk u`fÿ` garhb` u` â`euca rkota y sk u`k` k` cb ksquf`b mkc â`euca. [`fÿ` _upkrpukstb Kstb u`fÿ` oa`sfstk k` mas pbrtks quk sk sadrkpa`k`. [`fÿ` k` –]‘ [`b pbrtk ks pkrpk`mfoucbr b cb atrb garhb mk cb cktrb –]‘ [`fÿ` mk Darmks Cb u`fÿ`

sk lbok k` kc darmk oahù` 5.4 I[@]B_ _ACMBMB_ DBIA OBTEB K_]Â]FOB. K` kc mfskòa mk u`fa`ks sacmbmbs ks `koksbrfa oa`sfmkrbr cb garhb mk bpcfobr cb obreb sadrk cb iu`tb, cas hbtkrfbcks k` cb sacmbmurb y k` cas kckhk`tas quk sk vb` b u`fr, y cb ekahktrèb mk cb iu`tb hfshb. Cb obreb pukmk kstbr u`fgarhkhk`tk mfstrfdufmb sadrk cb sacmbmurb, mk tbc hama quk tambs sus pbrtks tk`eb` kc hfsha ksgukrza, a dfk` sk pukmk bpcfobr kxoæ`trfobhk`tk. Kc tkrhf`a tfpa mk iu`tb sk rkgfkrk b cb rkcbofÿ` k`trk cbs pbrtks u`fmbs, oaha sk fcustrb k` cb gfeurb 5.4b. Cb sacmbmurb b tapk pkrhftk quk u`b u`fÿ` tk`eb kc hfsha kspksar `ahf`bc quk cbs pbrtks u`fmbs, y k` ek`krbc sk obreb k` tk`sfÿ`. _f cb u`fÿ` sk lbok oarrkotbhk`tk y oa` kc hktbc mk bpartk bmkoubma, skrâ hâs rksfstk`tk quk kc hktbc arfef`bc.  Bsè, `a sk `koksftb u` b`âcfsfs kspkofbc mk cb u`fÿ`, sf sk lb mktkrhf`bma quk cas kckhk`tas hfshas quk sk u`k` sa` skeuras. _f` khdbrea, sk boa`skib tk`kr oufmbma oub`ma cas hbtkrfbcks quk sk vb` b u`fr sk bgkotk` par kc obcar mkc praoksa mk sacmbmurb. Oaha kikhpcas, sk tfk`k` cas bokras oa` trbtbhfk`ta tærhfoa, y huolbs bckbofa`ks mk bcuhf`fa. _k supa`k quk cas mkhâs tfpas mk u`fa`ks mk cb gfeurb 5.4b sahktk` b cb sacmbmurb k` oartb`tk.

 

HÆ]AMA ^BTB OA@_FMKTBT CB _ACMBM[TB OAHA [@B CÈ@KB  Bquè sk kxbhf`brâ` oubtra garhbs mk bpcfobr cb obreb9 2) tk`sfÿ` a oahprksfÿ` mfrkotb, 4) oartk vkrtfobc mfrkota, ?) gckxfÿ` =) tarsfÿ`. Kc hætama pkrhftk quk kc mfskòbmar rkbcfok cas oâcoucas k` u`b garhb huy pbrkofmb b cb quk sk khpckÿ pbrb mfskòbr cas kckhk`tas partb`tks hfshas. sk b`bcfzb cb sacmbmurb par mk skpbrbma, tfpa mk obreb, y K` sk ek`krbc, mktkrhf`b cb gukrzb par pucebmb cbma mkobmb sacmbmurb, mkdfma b obmb obreb. K`ta`oks, sk oahdf`b` cbs obrebs vkotarfbchk`tk pbrb obcoucbr cb gukrzb hâxfhb.

K` kstbs gÿrhucbs, sk hb`kib cb ekahktrèb mkc oarmÿ` pbrb kvbcubr cas tærhf`as Bw, _w y Iw oa` cbs rkcbofa`ks mk cb gfeurb 5.4o. Adskrvk cb skhkib`zb k`trk kstbs gÿrhucbs y cbs quk sk khpckbra` pbrb lbokr kc b`âcfsfs mk ksgukrzas. ]bhdfæ`, adskrvk cb sfhfcftum k`trk cas gbotarks ekahætrfoas mk cas oarma`ks y cbs prapfkmbmks mk cbs ârkbs quk sk khpckb` k` kc b`âcfsfs mk ksgukrzas. Vb quk sk oa`sfmkrb cb sacmbmurb oaha u`b cè`kb sf` kspksar, cbs u`fmbmks mk cas gbotarks ekahætrfoas sa` mfstf`tbs quk cbs mk ârkbs, oaha sk f`mfob k` cb gfeurb 5.4o. Kc khpcka mk kstk hætama pbrb b`bcfzbr sacmbmurbs sk mkhukstrb k` cas pradckhbs hamkca. K` ek`krbc, k` mfola hætama sk rkqufkrk` cas sfeufk`tks pbsas9 ^TAOKMFHFK@]A EK@KTBC ^BTB MF_KÒBT [@FA@K_ _ACMBMB_ 2. ^rapa`eb cb ekahktrèb mk cb u`fÿ` y kc mfskòa mk cas kckhk`tas quk sk vb` u`fr. 4. Fmk`tfgfquk cas ksgukrzas quk sk mksbrraccb` k` cb u`fÿ` (gckxfÿ`, tarsfÿ`, oartb`tk vkrtfobc, tk`sfÿ` a oahprksfÿ` mfrkotb). ?. B`bcfok cb iu`tb pbrb mktkrhf`br cb hbe`ftum y cb mfrkoofÿ` mk cb gukrzb sadrk cb sacmbmurb, mkdfma b obmb tfpa mk obreb.

 

=. Oahdf`k vkotarfbchk`tk cbs gukrzbs k` cb u`fÿ`, a k` cas pu`tas mkc oarmÿ` ma`mk cbs gukrzbs pbrkzob` hâxfhbs. ;. Mfvfmb cb gukrzb hâxfhb sadrk cb sacmbmurb k`trk cb gukrzb bmhfsfdck, mk cb tbdcb 5.4d, pbrb obcoucbr kc cbma rkqukrfma pbrb kc oarmÿ`. Adskrvk quk oub`ma sk sukcmb` pcbobs eruksbs, cas tbhbòas hè`fhas bokptbdcks mk cas oarma`ks sa` cas quk hukstrb cb tbdcb 5.4m. 5.? I[@]B_ _ACMBMB_ DBIA OBTEB MF@BHFOB. Oub`ma sk sahktk` kckhk`tas sacmbmas b obrebs oèocfobs cb gbccb sukck prksk`tbrsk k` cb iu`tb sacmbmb hbs `a k` cas kckhk`tas quk kstâ` u`fmas, k`ta`oks sk oa`sfmkrb quk k` cbs pbrtks ma`mk sk prksk`tb cb sacmbmurb sk k`ouk`trb u` gbotar mk oa`ok`trbofÿ` mk ksgukrzas, bmkhâs k` cb hbyarèb mk cas obsas cbs obrebs sa` oèocfobs. ^ar ksta cas ksgukrzas sa` hbyarks k` cbs iu`tbs y b cb vkz k` cas pu`tas hâs okrob`as b kstbs. Cb YBO (Ya`b Bgkotbmb par kc Obcar) quk ks kc ârkb bcrkmkmar mk cb sacmbmurb quk sk gu`mk y pastkrfarhk`tk sk rkorfstbcfzb prksk`tb hforaparas y kstb ks cb rbzÿ` quk pravaob ksgukrzas hbyarks b cas prksk`tks k` kc mkhâs hbtkrfbc trbdbibma k` grèa), bmkhâs mk quk ksta pravaob quk cb prapbebofÿ` mk erfktbs sk ek`krk k` cb hbyarèb mk cas obsas sÿca k` kc hbtkrfbc quk sk gu`mfÿ b`tkrfarhk`tk. ^ar ksta `a ks mkhbsfbma rkoahk`mbdck usbr iu`tbs sacmbmbs k` bpcfobofa`ks ma`mk kstæ` sahktfmbs b obrebs oèocfobs, bu`quk tèpfobhk`tk sf sk usb`. K`ta`oks pbrb mktkrhf`br kc tfpa mk sacmbmurb sk suefkrk tk`kr mk k` oa`ok`trbofÿ` ouk`tb cb sfeufk`tk tbdcb k`btk`mfk`ma cb quk sk bc hukstrb` bceu`as gbotarks mk ksgukrzas tfpa mk sacmbmurb quk sk kstæ hb`kib`ma. ]bdcb 2.- Gbotarks mk rkmuoofÿ` mk rksfstk`ofb b cb gbtfeb pbrb mfstf`tas tfpas mk sacmbmurbs.

  Cas oa`ok`trbmarks mk ksgukrzas sa` mk erb` fhpartb`ofb k` cbs iu`tbs sacmbmbs, sfhpckhk`tk oa` quk mk u`gcuk`ofb, k` u` pu`ta sk bcob`ok` `fvkcks mk ksgukrza supkrfarks bc ksgukrza bu`quk kc ksgukrza `ahf`bc

 

skb huola hk`ar quk kc ksgukrza mk gcuk`ofb, ksta pravaob quk f`fofk cb gbccb y sk prapbeuk` cbs erfktbs. Oub`ma sk prksk`tb` obrebs kstâtfobs k` iu`tbs sacmbmbs cb gbccb ek`krbchk`tk sk prksk`tb k` kc hbtkrfbc dbsk (cbs mas pfkzbs sacmbmbs), pkra oub`ma sk prksk`tb` obrebs oèocfobs cb gbccb pukmk aourrfr tb`ta k` kc hbtkrfbc dbsk oaha k` cb YBO. Oaha sk hk`ofa`ÿ b`tks cbsoa` obrebs oèocfobs sa` cbs hâs oahu`ks k` cb prâotfob y sa` vbrfbdcks rkspkota bc tfkhpa bmkhâs pukmk` skr b tk`sfÿ` y oahprksfÿ`. Cbs obrebs quk pramuofrâ` prfhkra cbs gbccbs skrâ` sfkhprk cbs quk kstæ` b tk`sfÿ`, cbs obrebs oèocfobs tfk`k` cb sfeufk`tk garhb, hastrbmb k` cbs gfeurbs 4 y k` cb 2 sk pukmk` bprkofbr cbs ourvbs obrbotkrèstfobs mk cas ksgukrzas rksfmubcks.

   Bmkhâs, k` huolbs aobsfa`ks `a saca dbstb bpcfobr cbs ocâsfobs koubofa`ks pbrb mktkrhf`br cas cèhftks mk cb iu`tb sacmbmb sf`a tbhdfæ` kxpkrfhk`tbr, k` cb tbdcb 4 sk hukstrb` cas ofocas b cas quk `arhbchk`tk rksfstk u` tfpa mk u`fÿ` sacmbmb. ]bdcb =.4.- Cèhftks mk gbtfeb skeù` kc tfpa mk u`fÿ` Drftfsl _tb`mbrm 2;?.