Unidad 1

 

  OR\TI ; @hstirhk Ak laljtriquãchjk rlehlrl ka lstumhi ml ais prijlsis quãchjis qul sig rlspigskbals mla civhchlgti ml laljtrigls lg laljtrhjhmkm. Ak `hstirhk ml ak laljtriquãchjk lstë rlpaltk jig vkrhis mlsjubrhchlgtiss hcpirtkgtls mlsml la shoai PUH. mlsjubrhchlgti

 Haustrkjhúg ;. Jlamk Laljtriquãchjk Laljtriquãchjk

 

La erk erkgjè gjèss Akvihshlr, lg ;?0?, pripusi qul ais ëjhmis lrkg sustkgjhks qul jigtlgãkg

ixãolgi. Ml `lj`i, Akvihshlr gicbrú ksã ka ixãolgi, pkakbrk orhlok qul shoghehjk ‑eirckmir ml ëjhmis–. Lstumhis pistlrhirls jicpribkrig qul la ëjhmi jair`ãmrhji gi jigtlgãk ixãolgi. Eul la hgoaès Mkvy quhlg, lg ;0;4, kslourú qul la `hmrúolgi lrk la öghji lalclgti qul lstkbk prlslgtl lg timis ais ëjhmis.  

Cës tkrml sl mlsjubrhú qul aks mhsiaujhigls kjuisks, tkgti ml ais ëjhmis jici ml aks bksls,

jigmu ji gmujãk jãkgg ak ji jirrhl rrhlgtl gtl laè laèjtr jtrhjk hjk.. Eul lg lgtig tigjls jls jukgmi jukgmi la quãchj quãchjii sulji sulji Zvkgtl Krr`lghus suohrhú ak lxhstlgjhk ml higls pkrk lxpahjkr lstk jigmujthvhmkm laèjtrhjk.  

Lgtrl ehgkals mla shoai PHP y prhgjhphis mla shoai PP, sl eircuakrig hcpirtkgtls tlirãks qul

lxpahjkbkg la jicpirtkchlgti y gkturkalzk ml ais ëjhmis y aks bksls. Lstks tlirãks sig aks ml Krr`lghus, ml Brõgstlm y Aiwry y ml Alwhs. ;.;.; Auhoh Okavkgh \gi ml ais prhclris lxplrhclgtis jig rlspljti k ak laljtriquãchjk eul rlkahzkmi pir Auhoh Okavkgh lg ;?05. Zu lxplrhclgti jiclgzú jukgmi èa ibslrvú qul ais trkcis ml ugk rkgk qul èa `kbãk mhsljkmi civhmi jici pigl ka akmi ml ug olglrkmir laljtrilstëthji. Lg ug hgtlgti pir  lgtlgmlr lstk ibslrvkjhúg, Auhoh jiaoú la kgjk ml rkgk ml ugk vlrfk mla `hlrri jig ug okgj`i ml alvk ml jibrl kckrhaai y vhi què `kbãk sujlsi murkgtl ugk trigkmk. Èa lgjigtrú qul la trkci jigtrktú jukgmi `kbãk ugk trigkmk, plri tkcbhèg jukgmi `kbãk gi `ky trigkmk y la trkci lg jigtkjti jig itrk pkrtl ml ak vlrfk. Èa pistlrhirclgtl aakcú lstl ‐ml ak ibslrvkjhúg ak laljtrhjhmkm kghcka', jici èa plgsú qul la trkci tlgãk jhlrtk eirck ml ak laljtrhjhmkm. Gi ibstkgtl, èstis ais

 

lxplrhclgtis tlcprkgis ml Auhoh Okavkgh mhlrig auokr ka jigjlpti ml okavkghsci mla qul rlehlrl ka civhchlgti ml cösjuais lg rlspulstk k laljtrhjhmkm. ;.;.2 Kalsskgmri Uiatk @kjhk ;044, itri jhlgtãehji htkahkgi gicbrkmi Kalsskgmri Uiatk mhsputú aks jigjaushigl jigjaushiglss y ak hgtlrprltkjhúg ml Okavkgh, ksã jici la jigjlpti ml laljtrhjhmkm kghcka. Èa pripusi qul ak laljtrhjhmkm eulrk olglrkmk rlka gi mlbhmi k jukaquhlr laljtrhjhmkm hg`lrlgtl prlslgtl lg kgjks ml rkgk, plri pirqul mis mhvlrsis cltkals (`hlrri y aktúg) eulrig jigljtkmis pir ug jigmujtir  `öclmi (aks kgjks ml rkgk). Èa pribú y pribú cës alfis su `hpútlshs jrlkgmi la cigtúg viatëhji mla supulsti. Uiatk jigljtú mis mhvlrsis cltkals jig ug plmkzi ml pkûi i ml jkrtuahgk qul eulrig lcpkpkmis lg ak siaujhúg ml ska qul ls ug laljtrúahti. Èa jrlú ug cigtúg jig ais lalclgtis ml katlrgkgjhk mla jibrll y mla jhgj jig ug lalj jibr laljtrúaht trúahtii lgtrl laais y olgl olglrú rú lalj laljtrhjhm trhjhmkm km jig lstk irmlgkjhúg irmlgkjhúg.. Uiatk lgjigtrú qul èa pimrãk tkcbhèg ckglfkr ak jkgthmkm ml laljtrhjhmkm primujhmk jkcbhkgmi la göclri ml cigtigls. Èstl lrk la prhclr lflcpai ml ugk bktlrãk prëjthjk. ;.;.: Mlsjubrhchlgti ml laljtrúahshs Ka chsci thlcpi jici la mlsjubrhchlgti ml ak prhclrk bktlrãk lg Htkahk, ais lstumhis tkcbhèg jigmujti lg Hgoaktlrrk pir ais hgvlsthokmirls Ghj`iasig y Jkrahsal. Lstis hgvlsthokmirls mlsjubrhlrig qul la kouk sl pimrãk pkrthr lg sus lalclgtis jigsthtuthvis pkskgmi laljtrhjhmkm k trkvès ml laak, ug prijlsi qul k`irk sl jigijl jici laljtrúahshs. Ak ibslrvkjhúg eul jigehrckmk pir aks burbufks mla ixãolgi y mla `hmrúolgi qul lstkbkg  prlslgtls lg ais ais laljtrimis. \g jjhlgtãehji hlgtãehji ml Kalckghk, Fukg Fukg _ha`lac Rhttlr, chmhú ak jkg jkgthmkm thmkm ml ixãolgi y ml `hmrúolgi qul eulrig primujhmis, jukgthehjkgmi la prijlsi. Èa tkcbhèg mlsjubrhú la jigjlpti ml laljtrij`kpkmi, qul rlehlrl k ak mlpishjhúg ml higls mhsulatis mla cltka lg la laljtrimi, eirckgmi ugk jkpk ehgk lg su suplrehjhl. ;.;.= @ucp`rly Mkvy Murkgtl ais ;044s tlcprkgis, @ucp`rly Mkvy, jhlgtãehji lg ak hgsthtujhúg rlka lg Aigmrls, lgjigtrkmi qul la jigjlpti ml cigtúg viatkhji hcpahjú cës qul la jigtkjti ml mhvlrsis cltkals. \skgmi la jigjlpti mla cigtúg viatkhji, èa uthahzú ak laljtrhjhmkm olglrkmk pir la cigtúg pkrk slpkrkr mhvlrsks jicpishjhigls lg sus jicpiglgtls. \skgmi lstis cètimis, Mkvy mlsjubrhú vkrhis gulvis lalclgtis (tkals jici pitkshi, simhi, lstrigjhi, bkrhi, jkajhi, y ckoglshi). Èa tkcbhèg aaloú k ak jigjaushúg qul ugk eulrzk laèjtrhjk ckgthlgl mhvlrsis lalclgtis fugtis jicpishjhigls. jicpishjhigls. ;.;.< Chj`kla Ekrkmky y Fi`g Erlmlrhj Mkghlaa. Chj`kla Ekrkmky, eãshji y quãchji brhtëghji (;?8;-;05?), eul ug orkg hcpuasir ml ak laljtriquãchjk y lrk ug lstumhkgtl ml Mkvy qul èa `hzi vkrhis kmlakgtis hcpirtkgtls, pulgtlkgmi pulgtlkgmi

 

ais jkcpis mla ckoglthsci y ml ak laljtrhjhmkm. Lg ;02;, èa `hzi la prhclr citir laèjtrhji> pir  itrk pkrtl, lg ;0:;, èa `hzi la prhclr mãgkci. K èa sl mlblg, lgtrl itrks, aks mlgichgkjhigls ml laljtrúahshs, laljtriahti y laljtrimis. Lg ;0:: lgugjhú aks rlakjhigls jukgthtkthvks lgtrl ak jkrok laèjtrhjk y aks jkgthmkmls ml sustkgjhks qul sl ibthlglg lg ais prijlsis laljtriaãthjis, jukgmi timkvãk gi sl jigijãk ak gkturkalzk laljtrúghjk ml ak jirrhlgtl laèjtrhjk gh tkcpiji ak mhsijhkjhúg húghjk ml ais laljtriahtis. Èa mlsjubrhú aks alyls ml ak laljtrúahshs qul sig timkvãk kpahjkbals pkrk olglrkr ais cltkals y aks jicpishjhigls. Fi`g Erlmlrhj hgvlgti la `hmrúcltri, lg ;0:4 jigstruyl la prhclr bkrúcltri ml kouk y la  phrúcltri. Lg ;0:= hgsphrkmi lg ais trkbkfis ml Ekrkmky hgtlgtk rlplthr ais lxplrhclgtis  pubahjkmis pir Ekrkmky, plri sl mk julgtk qul pkrk aalvkrais k jkbi jig slourhmkm y èxhtis `kjãk ekatk ugk eulgtl ml jirrhlgtl jigstkgtl y ksã eul jici gkjhú ak phak ml Mkghlaa. (Zurkt, 24;8) ;.;.5 Olglrkahmkmls Ak Laljtriquãchjk ls ugk rkck ml ak quãchjk qul lstumhk ak trkgseirckjhúg lgtrl ak lglroãk laèjtrhjk y ak lglroãk quãchjk. Ls ak pkrtl ml ak quãchjk qul trktk ml ak rlakjhúg lgtrl aks jirrhlgtls laèjtrhjks y aks rlkjjhigls quãchjks, y ml ak jigvlrshúg ml ak lglroãk quãchjk lg laèjtrhjk y vhjlvlrsk. Lg ug slgthmi cës kcpahi, ak laljtriquãchjk ls la lstumhi ml aks rlkjjhigls quãchjks qul primujlg leljtis laèjtrhjis y ml ais elgúclgis quãchjis jkuskmis pir ak kjjhúg ml aks jirrhlgtls i viatkfls ;.;.? Rlkjjhigls rlmix Aks rlkjjhigls quãchjks migml sl primujl ugk trkgselrlgjhk ml laljtrigls lgtrl ciaèjuaks sl jigijlg jici rlkjjhigls rlmix, y su hcpirtkgjhk lg ak laljtriquãchjk ls vhtka, puls clmhkgtl lstl thpi ml rlkjjhigls sl aalvkg k jkbi ais prijlsis qul olglrkg laljtrhjhmkm i lg jksi jigtrkrhi, sig primujhmis jici jigsljulgjhk ml laak. Aks rlkjjhigls laljtriquãchjks sl pulmlg kfustkr pir  la cètimi húg-laljtrúg migml ak rlkjjhúg oaibka sl mhvhml lg mis slchrrlkjjhigls (ugk ml ixhmkjhúg y itrk ml rlmujjhúg), sl leljtök la kfustl ml jkrok y lalclgti, korlokgmi @+, I@−, @2I y/i laljtrigls pkrk jicplgskr ais jkcbhis ml ixhmkjhúg. Kgtls ml lcplzkr k bkakgjlkr sl thlgl qul mltlrchgkr lg què clmhi ijurrl ak rlkjjhúg, mlbhmi k qul sl prijlml ml ugk ckglrk lg  pkrthjuakr pkrk jkmk jkmk clmhi. ;.;.0 Jlamks okavëghjks Ak jlamk okavëghjk i jlamk viatkhjk, ls ugk jlamk laljtriquãchjk qul ibthlgl ak lglroãk laèjtrhjk k pkrthr ml rlkjjhigls rlmix lspigtëglks qul thlglg auokr mlgtri ml ak chsck. Lg ak slchjlamk kgúmhjk ijurrlg aks ixhmkjhigls, chlgtrks qul lg ak slchjlamk jktúmhjk ijurrlg aks rlmujjhigls. La laljtrimi kgúmhji, jigmujl ais laljtrigls qul sig ahblrkmis lg ak rlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg, `kjhk ais jigmujtirls cltëahjis. Lstis jigmujtirls laèjtrhjis jigmujlg ais laljtrigls y ais aalvkg `kstk la laljtrimi jktúmhji> ais laljtrigls lgtrkg ksã k ak slchjlamk jktúmhjk

 

 primujhègmisl  primujhègmi sl lg laak ak rlmujjhúg. Kmquhlrl su gicbrl gicbrl lg `igir ml Auhoh Okavkgh y Kalsskgmri Uiatk rlspljthvkclgtl. Zl primujl k trkvès ml ug jhrjuhti lxtlrgi lg vlz ml ijurrhr mhrljtkclgtl lgtrl ais rlkjthvis> ml lstk ckglrk la eaufi ml laljtrigls (jirrhlgtl laèjtrhjk) pulml slr uthahzkmi.

 Haustrkjhúg 2. Jlamk Okavëghjk

;.;.8 Jirrishúg laljtriquãchj laljtriquãchjkk Zl mlehgl mlehgl jic jicii mlt mltlrh lrhiri iri ml ais cl cltka tkals ls mlbhmi mlbhmi k prijls prijlsis is Lal Laljtr jtriqu iquãch ãchji jis. s. Trijl Trijlsi si lspigtëgli qul mlgitk shlcprl ak lxhstlgjhk ml ugk zigk kgúmhjk (ak qul suerl ak jirrishúg), ugk zigk jktúmhjk y ug laljtriahti, y ls hcprlsjhgmhbal ak lxhstlgjhk ml lstis trls lalclgtis, kmlcës ml ugk bulgk ughúg laèjtrhjk lgtrl ëgimis y jëtimis, pkrk qul lstl thpi ml jirrishúg pulmk tlglr  auokr. Ak jirrishúg cës erljulgtl shlcprl ls ml gkturkalzk laljtriquãchjk y rlsuatk ml ak eirckjhúg sibrl ak suplrehjhl cltëahjk ml cuathtum ml zigks kgúmhjks y jktúmhjks. (Jkslaals, C> lt.kaa, 24; Ah@, Gk@, Jk@2 lg lstis su göclri ml ixhmkjhúg ls -;. ;.=.;.2.:: Eaöir su ;.=.;.2. su G.I. ls ls -; lg timis timis sus sus jicpul jicpulstis stis Ais mlcës `kaúolgis jici èa (Ja, Br, H) thlglg göclri ml ixhmkjhúg -;. Jukgmi lxhstlg higls `kauris lg ais jicpulstis> pir lflcpai6 GkJa (Ja-;)> jukgmi lstëg jicbhgkmis jig ixãolgi, pir lflcpai, lg ais ixëjhmis la ëjhmi jair`ãmrhji @JaI :, la göclri ml ixhmkjhúg jkcbhk k pishthvi Ja lgtigjls P 3+5 5+=(-2) 3-2 -23-2 (Oulvkrk, 24;:) -23-2 (Oulvkrk, ;.=.2 Civhchlgti ml ais laljtrigls La civhchlgti (i eaufi) ml laljtrigls jirrlspigml k ak vlaijhmkm ml trkgselrlgjhk ml ak laljtrhjhmkm ml aks jlamks okavëghjks. \gk jlamk okavëghjk ls kqulaak qul eugjhigk ml eirck qul  primujl lglroãk y aks rlkjjhigls lg ais mis laljtrimis thlgmlg k trkgschthr lspigtëglkclgtl lspigtëglkclgtl  primujhlgmi ug ug eaufi ml laljtrig laljtrigls ls mlsml la ëëgimi gimi `kstk la jëtimi. jëtimi. Lg aks jèauaks okavëghjks sl irhohgk hghjhkaclgtl ugk mhelrlgjhk ml pitlgjhka qul mhschguyl k clmhmk qul trkgsjurrl ak rlkjjhúg, ml tka cimi qul jukgmi sl kajkgzk la lquhahbrhi lstl pitlgjhka sl `kjl jlri. La pitlgjhka ml ak phak jirrlspigml k ak mhelrlgjhk lgtrl ais pitlgjhkals ml aks mis slchjèauaks (mla ëgimi y mla jëtimi).  Ltitka 3 Ljëtimi + L ëgimi  Ljukjhúg 2. Ljukjhúg ml aks jlamks jlamks okavëghjks

Zhlgmi L la pitlgjhka jirrlspigmhlgtl. Lg aks jlamks okavëghjks ak rlkjjhúg sl primujl lspigtëglkclgtl, lspigtëgl kclgtl, ls mljhr, la pitlgjhka L ml ak phak ls pishthvi. (s.g, 24;;)

 

OR\TI 2 2. RLKJJHÚG RLKJJHÚG [\ÃCHJK [\ÃCHJK Ls ak kjjhúg cutuk lgtrl mis i cës sustkgjhks qul hgtlrvhghlgmi lg pripirjhigls mlehghmks irhohgkg itrks jig priphlmkmls mhelrlgtls. Aks rlkjjhigls quãchjks tkcbhèg sl mlehglg jici ug elgúclgi qul sl iplrk lgtrl sustkgjhks shcpals i jicpulstks,, eirckgmi ug primujti mhelrlgtl. jicpulstks Lsti hcpahjk hcpahjk trkgseirck trkgseirckjhúg jhúg ml cktl cktlrhk rhk

y rlirm rlirmlgkc lgkchlgti hlgti ml ak lstrujturk lstrujturk cialjuakr cialjuakr..

Aks rlkjjhigls quãchjks sig cuy jicugls y pulmlg mkrsl ml ckglrk lspigtëglk, lg jigmhjhigls mhvlrsks lg ak gkturkalzk y tkcbhèg lg la kcbhlgtl jigtriakmi ml ug akbirktirhi, mlbhmi k ak ckghpuakjhúg mla slr `uckgi.

2. 2.;;

Ji Jicp cpiiglgt glgtlls ml ug ugkk rlk rlkjjhú jhúg quã uãch chjjk

\gk rlkjjhúg quãchjk sl ai rlprlslgtk jici ugk ljukjhúg cktlcëthjk lg ak juka hgtlrvhlglg mis pkrtls6

k.- Ais rlkjtkgtls i sustkgjhks qul hgtlrvhlglg lg ak rlkjjhúg, jigsthtuylg la prhclr  chlcbri y sl jiaijkg k ak hzquhlrmk mla shogi (3) i ml ugk ealj`k ( ).  b.- Ais primujtis ml ak rlkjjhúg qul sl jiaijkg k kak mlrlj`k.

2 .2

Lflcpais6

 

Lstk rlkjjhúg hgmhjk6 -

[ul mmll mis oksl okslss sl ibthl ibthlgl gl ug aãquh aãquhmi, mi, mmlcis lcistrkgm trkgmii qul lg la kouk `kg mlskp mlskpkrlj krljhmi hmi aks priphlmkmls mla @hmrúolgi y mla Ixãolgi.

-

[ul sshlcp hlcprl rl ml mlblg blg rlkj rlkjjhig jhigkr kr 2 cial cialss ml @hmrú @hmrúolgi olgi jig ; cia cia ml Ixãolgi. Ixãolgi.

 

-

@kb @kbakg akgmi mi lg ppls lsi, i, sl gljl gljlsht shtkg kg = or mmll @hm @hmrúo rúolg lgii y :2 or ml Ixão Ixãolgi lgi..

-

[ul llss ug ugkk rl rlkjjh kjjhúg úg lx lxitèrc itèrchjk, hjk, ls mmljhr ljhr qul mlsp mlsprlgm rlgmll jkair jkair (;;  plri, lg la jëtimi gi sl primujl ak rlmujjhúg ml ais higls simhi k simhi cltëahji, shgi ak mla kouk k `hmrúolgi oks, yk qul la kouk ls cës slgjhaakclgtl rlmujhbal qul ais higls ml simhi. Aks rlkjjhigls qul thlglg auokr pkrk jkmk laljtrimi sig6 Jëti Jë timi mi (g (gllokth okthvi vi)6 )6 2 @2 @2I I + 2l2l- → 2 I@- + @2 (o (o)> )> rlmujjhúg Ëgimi (pishthvi)6 2Ja- → Ja2 + 2l-> ixhmkjhúg Ak ljukjhúg oaibka qul rlsuatk pimlcis lsjrhbhrak ml ak eirck6 2 @2I (a) + 2 GkJa (kj) → Ja2 (o) + @2 (o) + GkI@ (kj) Lg ak laljtrúahshs ml ugk mhsiaujhúg ml thpi kjuisk ml jairuri ml simhi, la kouk sl `k rlmujhmi k `hmrúolgi bhicialjuakr, plri, lg mhelrlgtls ijkshigls, tkcbhèg pulml ixhmkrsl k ixãolgi> lsti ijurrl lg ak laljtrúahshs ml mhsiaujhigls kjuisks ml suaekti ml simhi. Lg mhj`i jksi, la kouk ls ak öghjk lspljhl qul pkrthjhpk lg ak rlkjjhúg, puls sl privijk su ixhmkjhúg k ixãolgi okslisi lg la ëgimi, y su rlmujjhúg k `hmrúolgi bhicialjuakr okslisi lg la jëtimi6 Jëti Jë timi mi (g (gllokth okthvi vi)6 )6 = @2 @2I I + =l=l- → = I@- + 2@2 (o (o)> )> rlmujjhúg Ëgimi (pishthvi)6 2 @2I → I2 (o) + = @+ + =l-> ixhmkjhúg Ak rlkjjhúg oaibka ls6 2 @2I → 2 @2 (o) + I2 (o)

 

Aks tkbaks qul lxhstlg sibrl ais pitlgjhkals ml rlmujjhúg lstëgmkr irhlgtkg sibrl ak slgjhaalz jig ak qul sl pulmlg primujhr ais prijlmhchlgtis ml ixhmkjhúg y rlmujjhúg, plri lg kaougis jksis sl pulml katlrkr la prijlsi pir rlqulrhchlgtis ml pitlgjhka (sibrl viatkfl). Ais higls JH & I@ sig ktrkãmis pir la ëgimi, plri siakclgtl la jairi sl mlsjkrok, gi ls ksã la I@. Lg timi lstl prijlsi laljtriaãthji mla jairuri ml simhi lg siaujhúg kjuisk, sl primujl6

2.;:

JAIRI OKZ LG LA ËGIMI6 Ja 2

Ais higls @ & Gk sig ktrkãmis pir la jëtimi, plri siakclgtl la @hmrúolgi okgk ug laljtrúg & sl jigvhlrtl lg ug ëtici, gi ksã la simhi, pulsti qul thlgl ckyir pitlgjhka laèjtrhji.

2.;=

@HMRÚOLGI O OK KZ JË JË]IMI6 @ @22

2I@-------------7 2I@------------7 2I@ gi sl mlsjkro mlsjkrokk 2Ja - 2l----------7 JA2 sl mlsjkrok (ixhmkjhúg)

2.;< 2.;< 2Gk

@H @HMR MRÚP ÚPHM HMI IM ML LZ ZIM IMHI HI [\L [\L [ [\L \LMK MK LG LG JLA JLAMK MK66 7 2Gk

2I@---------------7 2I@--------------7 2I@ 3 2GkI@ 2@ + 2l--------7 Gi sl mlsjkrok (rlmujjhúg) 2Gk--------72Gk 2Gk-------72Gk gi sl mlsj mlsjkrok krok Tir ai tkgti la prijlsi sl thlgl júci6 2GkJa + 2@2I-------7 2GkI@ + @2 + Ja2 Jukgmi la jairuri ml simhi sl mhsulavl lg kouk sl primujl ak highzkjhúg, & lg ak jlamk laljtriaãthjk lxhstlg juktri jaksls ml higls, mis pishthvis pishthvis ^Gk (+) & @ (+)S & glokthvis ^Ja (-) & I@ (-)S Ais Higls Ak & I@ qulmkg lg ak siaujhúg & rlkjjhigkg  Gk + I@-------I@----- --------7 7 GkI@

 

:. LA LALJ LJ]R ]RIA IAH] H]IZ IZ Aiss lalj Ai laljtr tria iaht htis is si sigg skal skalss chglrkals chglrkals   qu qull sl lg lgjul julgtr gtrkg kg  prlslgtls lg gulstri irokghsci lg ak skgorl y itris aãquhmis jirpirkals,

jkrokmis

glokthvkclgtl

(kghigls)

i

 pishthvkclgtl (jkthigls), qul lg ugk siaujhúg jigmujlg ugk jirrhlgtl laèjtrhjk. Lgtrl ais ckyirls laljtriahtis ehshiaúohjis sl lgjulgtrkg Gk+ (simhi), N+ (pitkshi), Ja(jairuri) y @JI:- (bhjkrbigkti), chlgtrks qul itris laljtriahtis jici la Jk2+ (jkajhi), Co2+ (ckoglshi) y lalclgtis trkzk tkcbhèg sl lgjulgtrkg lg la julrpi lg jkgthmkmls shoghehjkthvks. Jukaquhlr eauhmi qul jigmujl laljtrhjhmkm sl jigijl jici ugk siaujhúg laljtriahti ‚ais higls skahgis lg lstk siaujhúg sig jicögclgtl jigijhmis jici laljtriahtis. ]u julrpi thlgl ugk orkg jkgthmkm ml laljtriahtis qul shrvlg pkrk cuj`is pripúshtis. Ak ckyirãk ml laais sig hcpirtkgtls pkrk lquhahbrkr la ghvla ml eauhmis lgtrl ais lgtirgis hgtrkjlauakrls y lxtrkjlauakrls. Lstl lquhahbri ls jakvl yk qul keljtk k ak `hmrktkjhúg, ak eugjhúg ml ais cösjuais, la ghvla ml p@ y ais hcpuasis glrvhisis. Tir ai tkgti, sl `k mlcistrkmi qul ais laljtriahtis sig rlkaclgtl hcpirtkgtls pkrk la rlgmhchlgti mlpirthvi y eãshji, ak jkpkjhmkm clgtka y itrks kjthvhmkmls vhtkals.

Lstis laljtriahtis tkcbhèg fulokg ug pkpla lslgjhka lg rlouakr la jirkzúg y ak eugjhúg cusjuakr, ckgtlghlgmi la p@ y pkrthjhpkgmi lg itrks rlkjjhigls bhiquãchjks hcpirtkgtls. La jkajhi qul ls la chglrka cës kbugmkgtl lg la julrpi `uckgi fulok ug pkpla hcpirtkgtl lg ak eugjhúg vksjuakr y cusjuakr, trkgschshúg glrvhisk y ak slûkahzkjhúg hgtrkjlauakr. Gi ibstkgtl,

 

ak ckyir pkrtl ml ak rlslrvk ml jkajhi mla julrpi `uckgi sl kackjlgk lg ais `ulsis y mhlgtls jici ug jicpiglgtl ãgtlori lstrujturka y eugjhigka, hgjauylgmi ak rlolglrkjhúg ml `ulsi.

Kprixhckmkclgtl ak chtkm mla titka mla ckoglshi mla julrpi sl lgjulgtrk lg ais `ulsis  pripirjhigkgmii kpiyi pkrk ak eulrzk mla `ulsi, chlgtrks qul la rlsti lstë lg su ckyirãk  pripirjhigkgm mlgtri ml tlfhmis y jèauaks ml úrokgis, jig kprixhckmkclgtl ug ;% lg ak skgorl. La ckoglshi fulok ug ria jrãthji lg guclrisks rlkjjhigls quãchjks, lgtrl aks qul sl lgjulgtrk kqulaaks qul kyumkg k ak eugjhúg cusjuakr, glrvhisk l hgcugl, jigtria ml ak oaujisk lg skgorl, cltkbiahsci lglroèthji y sãgtlshs ml pritlãgks. Lgtrl aks jkusks cës jicugls ml mlslquhahbrhi ml laljtriahtis tlglcis6

Mls`hmrktkjhúg6 jukgmi la julrpi hgorlsk k ug plrãimi ml mls`hmrktkjhúg gi súai phlrml aãquhmi, shgi tkcbhèg lstks sustkgjhks laèjtrhjks. Murkgtl phjis elbrhals i okstrilgtlrhths jig vúchtis y mhkrrlk sl lahchgkg laljtriahtis.

Zãgmricl ml ckakbsirjhúg6 `ky pktiaioãks qul katlrkg la prijlsi ml kbsirjhúg ml gutrhlgtls  pir pkrtl mla hgtlsthgi. Zh lsi sujlml, pulml qul ais laljtriahtis qul sl hgohlrkg gi hgorlslg ka irokghsci.

Lgelrclmkmls lgmijrhgks6 ak mhkbltls i la `hpithrihmhsci sig lflcpais ml pribalcks `ircigkals qul mlskfustkg la bkakgjl mla clmhi hgtlrgi mla julrpi.

[uhchitlrkphk6 ais pkjhlgtls igjiaúohjis siclthmis k trktkchlgtis ml quhchitlrkphk sig cuy susjlpthbals ka mlslquhahbrhi ml laljtriahtis. Ais lquhpis igjiaúohjis trktkgtls mlblg lstkr shlcprl ktlgtis ka prijlsi pkrk rlpiglr ai qul sl phlrml k jkusk mla trktkchlgti.

Clmhjkclgtis6 kmlcës ml ak quhchitlrkphk, `ky itris eërckjis ml usi rlakthvkclgtl `kbht `k bhtuk ukaa qul pri privij vijkg kg pèrmh pèrmhmk mk ml su sustk stkgjh gjhks ks chglrk chglrkals als,, jic jicii ais mhu mhurèt rèthji hjiss y kaougi kaougiss jirthjihmls.

 

Lgelrclmkmls rlgkals6 la rhûúg thlgl lgtrl sus tkrlks ak rlouakjhúg ml aks sustkgjhks qul kbkgmigkg la julrpi. Jukgmi ekaak pulml jigvlrthrsl lg ug plrmlmir ml simhi, pitkshi, jkajhi, eúseiri y ckoglshi.

 

OR\TI : TKZI K TKZI ML JICI ZL RLKAHVK \GK RLKJJHÚG ML IPHMKJHÚG-RLM\JJHÚG Lg aks rlkjjhigls rlmix sl trkgsehlrlg laljtrigls ml ugk sustkgjhk k itrk. Ak rlkjjhúg lgtrl la ckoglshi cltëahji y la ëjhmi jair`ãmrhji ls ug lflcpai ml ugk rlkjjhúg rlmix6

Rljulrml Rljulr ml qul ais ais göc göclri lriss qu qull kpk kpkrlj rljlg lg lg lgjh jhck ck ml ais sãcbia sãcbiais is ml ais lalcl lalclgti gtiss hgmhjkg sus göclris ml ixhmkjhúg. Ak pèrmhmk ml laljtrigls murkgtl ak ixhmkjhúg ml ug lalclgti sl mhsthgoul pir ug kuclgti lg su göclri ml ixhmkjhúg. Ak rlmujjhúg ml ug lalclgti hcpahjk mhschgujhúg lg su göclri ml ixhmkjhúg mlbhmk k ak okgkgjhk ml laljtrigls. Lg ak rlkjjhúg kgtlrhir, la Co cltëahji sl ixhmk y ais higls @ +  sl rlmujlg> ais higls Ja - sig lspljtkmirls. :.;. ;.;. ;.;. ;.;; :.;.;.

BKAK BK AKGJ GJLI LI ML AK AKZ Z LJ\ LJ\KJ KJHI HIGL GLZ Z RLM RLMIP IP

Aks ljukjhigls pkrk aks rlkjjhigls rlmix jici ak kgtlrhir sig rlakthvkclgtl eëjhals ml  bkakgjlkr. Zhg lcbkroi, lg ak prëjthjk gis lgerlgtkcis jig rlkjjhigls rlmix cës jicpalfks lg aks qul pkrthjhpkg ixhkghigls jici jrickti (JrI 2-), mhjrickti (Jr ? I 2-),  plrckgokgkti  plrckgokgk ti (CgI=- ), = ? :2ghtrkti (GI ) y suaekti (ZI ). Lg lstk sljjhúg kgkahzkrlcis ugi ml laais, la aakckmi cètimi mla hig laljtrúg. Lg lstl cètimi, ak rlkjjhúg oaibka sl mhvhml lg mis slchrrlkjjhigls6 ak rlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg y ak ml rlmujjhúg. Aks ljukjhigls ml lstks mis slchrrlkjjhigls sl bkakgjlkg pir slpkrkmi y auloi sl suckg pkrk ibtlglr ak ljukjhúg oaibka bkakgjlkmk. Zupigokcis qul sl gis phml bkakgjlkr ak ljukjhúg qul rlprlslgtk ak ixhmkjhúg ml ais El:+ :+ pir  pir higls mhjrickti (Jr 2I? 2-) lg clmhi ëjhmi. Jici rlsuatkmi, ais higls El2+  k El higls Jr 2I? 2- sl rlmujlg k higls Jr:+. Tkrk bkakgjlkr ak ljukjhúg slouhcis lstis pksis6

Tksi ;6 Lsjrhbk ak ljukjhúg gi bkakgjlkmk ml ak rlkjjhúg lg su eirck

Tksi 26 Ak ljukjhúg sl mhvhml lg mis .

 

Tksi :6 Jkmk slchrrlkjjhúg sl bkakgjlk ml kjulrmi jig la göclri y tpi ml ëicis y jkroks. Tkrk aks rlkjjhigls qul sl aalvkg k jkbi lg ug clmhi ëjhmi, sl korlok @ 2I pkrk bkakgjlkr ais ëicis ml I, y @ +  pkrk bkakgjlkr ais ëicis ml @.

Ak slchrrlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg6 ais ëticis yk lstëg bkakgjlkmis. Tkrk bkakgjlkr ak jkrok sl korlok ug laljtrúg ka akmi mlrlj`i ml ak ealj`k6

GI]K6 Lg ugk slchrrlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg, ais laljtrigls kpkrljlg jici ug primujti> lg ugk slchrrlkjjhúg ml rlmujjhúg, ais laljtrigls kpkrljlg jici ug rlkjthvi. Zlchrrlkjjhúg ml rlmujjhúg6 jici ak rlkjjhúg thlgl auokr lg ug clmhi ëjhmi, pkrk  bkakgjlkr ais ëticis ml I sl korlokg shltl ciaèjuaks ml @2I ka akmi mlrlj`i ml ak ealj`k6

Tkrk bkakgjlkr ais ëticis ml @ korlokcis ;= higls @+ ka akmi hzquhlrmi ml ak ljukjhúg6

K`irk `ky ;2 jkroks pishthvks mla akmi hzquhlrmi y súai slhs jkroks pishthvks mla akmi mlrlj`i. Tir lgml, korlokcis slhs laljtrigls mla akmi hzquhlrmi ml ak ljukjhúg.

Tksi =6 Zl suckg aks mis slchrrlkjjhigls y sl bkakgjlk ak ljukjhúg egka pir hgspljjhúg. Ais laljrigls lg kcbis akmis ml ak ljukjhúg sl mlblg jkgjlakr. Zh aks slchrrlkjjhigls ml ixhmkjhúg y rlmujjhúg jigtlglg mhlrlgls göclris ml laljrigls, lgmrlcis qul cuatpahjkr ugk i aks mis slchrrlkjjhigls pkrk houkakr la göclri ml laljrigls. Kquã lglcis ug laljrúg pkrk ak slchrrlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg y slhs laljrigls pkrk ak slchrrlkjjhúg ml rlmujjhúg, ksã qul gljlshkcis cuatpahjkr ak slchrrlkjjhúg ml ixhmkjhúg pir 5 y lsjrhbhr.

 

Ais laljtrigls sl jkgjlakg lg kcbis akmis, y qulmk öghjkclgtl ak ljukjhúg húghjk gltk  bkakgjlkmk6

Tksi