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EDITED BY Anubhav Lahiri www.exampundit.in 30.10.2014

Timeline: Indian History

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2500-1500 BC: Indus Valley Civilisation. 2000-1500: Aryans arrive from central Asia. 1500-1000: The Early Vedic Age – Rigveda. 1000-500: Later Vedic Period - Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Samhitas, early Upanishads and Sutras. 563-483 : Gautama Buddha – born at Lumbini (Nepal); attainment of knowledge – Bodh Gaya (Bihar); first sermon – Sarnath, near Varanasi (UP); Nirvana – Kusinagar (Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh). 540-468 : Mahavira – born at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar) and nirvana at Pavapuri (Patna, Bihar). 492-460 : Rule of Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara, king of Magadha. 364-321 : Rule of Nandas of Magadha 326 : Invasion of India by Alexander Battle of Hydaspes. 322-298 : Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. 273-232 : Reign of Ashoka , son of Bindusara 261 : Kalinga war. 257 : Asoka's conversion to Budhism by Upagupta. 250 : Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra 90 : Sakas invade India. 58 : The Vikrama Samvat (vikram era) introduced by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain. 20-46 AD : Gondophernes, the king of IndoParthians.

320-335 : Reign of Chandragupta-I. 335-380 : Reign of Samudragupta known as Indian Napoleon. 380-414 : Reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). 405-411 : The visit of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien to India. 500-527 : Rule of Huns over North India. 606-647 : Harsha Vardhana of Kanauj. Hiuen-Tsang visited India (AD 630-644). 500-757 : First Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi 630 : Harsha's clash with PulakesinII 973-1190 : Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani 760-1142 : Palas of Eastern India. 985-1014 : Reign of Rajaraja, the Great. Starts a great land survey (AD 1000). 1014-1044 : Reign of Rajendra Chola. Naval campaign against Sri Vijaya kingdom. 788-820 : Sankaracharya and his philosophy of Advaita. 712 : Arabs occupy Sindh. 871-1173 : Imperial cholas of Tanjore. 916-1203 : Construction of Khajuraho Temples. 1000-1027: Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. 1191 : Prithviraj III, defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain . 1192 : Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in theSecond Battle of Tarain in 1192. 1206 : Foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. 1210 : Death of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. 1210-1236: Reign of Iltutmish. 1221 : Mongol invasion under Chenghis Khan. 1231 : Iltumish completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi. 1236-1240: Reign of Empress Raziya, daughter of Iltutmish, the first and last woman ruler of Medieval India. 1266-1287: Reign of Sultan Balban.

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7500 BC : Civilization at Gulf of Khambar

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: Accession of Kanishka, The Saka era begins.

100-300 : The Sangam Age in south India. 50 BC-250 AD : Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan.

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Humayun’s defeat near Kanauj. Birth of Akbar. Battle of Kalinjar. Death of Sher Shah. Battle of Sirhind. Sikandur Suri was defeated by Humayun, Humayun recovers the throne of Delhi. 1556 : Death of Humayun and accession of Akbar. Second Battle of Panipat. 1556-1605: Akbar's reign. 1564 : Abolition of Jezyah. 1565 : Battle of Talikota Vijayanagar destroyed. 1571 : Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri. 1576 : Battle of Haldighati and defeat of Maharana Pratap. 1579 : Infalliability decree issued by Akbar. 1581 : Din-i-Ilahi promulgated by Akbar. 1600 : Deccan expedition and siege of Ahmadnagar : Charter to British East India company. 1605 : Death of Akbar and accession of Jahangir. 1605-1627: Reign of Jahangir. 1609 : William Hawking visited Jahangir. 1615 : Sir Thomas Roe in the court of Jahangir. 1627 : Death of Jahangir. 1628 : Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor. 1631 : Death of Mumtaz Mahal. 1636 : Treaties with Bijapur and Golcunda. 1658 : Coronation of Aurangzeb. 1659 : Murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji. 1663 : Death of Mir Jumla. : Attack on Poona by Shivaji. : Shaista Khan appointed Governor of Bengal. 1665 : Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar signed between Sivaji and Jai Singh. 1666 : Death of Shah Jahan. 1674 : Sivaji's Coronation and assumption of the title of Chatrapati. 1675 : Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur. 1679 : Jeziah imposed on the Hindus by Aurangzeb. 1680 : Death of Sivaji.

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1288-1293: Visit of Marco Polo in India. 1290-1296 : Sultan Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji, founder of the Khalji dynasty. 1296 : Alauddin Khalji invades Devagiri. 1296-1316: Reign of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. 1309-1311: Malik Kafur's expedition into South India. 1320-1325: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik), founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. 1325-1351: Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Transferred the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad1327. Issue of token currency – 1329. 1333 : Ibn Batuta arrives in India. 1351-1388: Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. 1398 : Invasion of Timur during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud 1414-1451: Reign of Sayyid dynasty. 1420 : Visit of Nicolo Conti. 1451-1526: Bahlul Lodhi (1451-89), Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517), and Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26) 1526 : The first Battle of Panipat (1526) Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodhi. 1336 : Foundation of the empire of Vijayanagar by Harihara and Bukka 1438-1468: Reign of Rana kumbha in Mewar. 1509-1530: Reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest king of Vijayanagar. 1565 : Battle of Talikota, decline of the empire of Vijayanagar. 1346 : Foundation of the Bahmani kingdom by Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah (13471358). 1498 : Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut 1505 : De Almeida, the first Viceroy of Portuguese in India 1510 : Conquest of Goa from the Adilshahi Sultan of Bijapur – 1510. 1526 : Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodhi at the first battle of Panipat. Formation of Mughal empire. 1527 : Battle of Khanwa. Babur defeats Rana Sanga of Mewar. 1530 : Accession of Humayun. 1538 : Death of Guru Nanak. 1539 : Sher Shah defeats Humayun at Chausa and assumes sovereignty.

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: Pitt’s Act passed, Setting up Board of Control for East India Company. : Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones. 1786-93 : Lord Cornwalis, Governor-General. 1790-92 : Third Mysore War. 1792 : Treaty of Srirangapatnam signed between Tipu and English. 1793-98 : Sir John Shore, Governor-General. 1793 : The Permanent Zamindari Settlement of Bengal. 1798 : Lord Wellesley as Governor-General and brought subsidiary alliance. 1799 : Fourth Mysore War. Fall of Srirangapatnam. Death of Tipu. 1800 : Establishment of the College of Fort William. 1802 : The Treaty of Bassein between Peshwa and English. 1803 : Occupation of Delhi by Lord Lake. 1803-05 : Second Anglo-Maratha War. 1807-13 : Lord Minto as Governor-General. 1809 : Treaty of Amritsar-Ranjit Singh and British sign treaty of perpetual amity. 1813-23 : Lord Hastings as Governor-General. 1814-16 : Anglo-Gurkha War. 1817-18 : Pindari War – Peshwa defeated at Kirkee. 1818-19 : Last Anglo-Maratha War. 1823-28 : Lord Amherst Governor-General. 1824-26 : First Burmese War. 1828-35 : Lord William Bentinck as GovernorGeneral. 1829 : Prohibition of Sati. 1829-37 : Suppression of Thuggee. 1833 : Renewal of Company’s charter. Abolition of the Company’s trading rights. 1835-36 : Sir Charles Metcalf Governor-General. 1835 : Macaulay’s Education Resolution. English made official language instead of Persian. 1835 : Foundation of Calcutta Medical College. 1836-1842: Lord Auckland as Governor-General. 1839 : Death of Ranjit Singh. 1842-44 : Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General.

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1686 : Conquest of Bijapur by Aurangzeb. 1687 : Golconda annexed to the Mughal empire. 1707 : Death of Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar. 1739 : Invasion of Nadirshah. 1740-1761: Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb). 1746-48 : First Carnatic war. 1748-54 : Second Carnatic war. 1756-63 : Third Carnatic war. 1757 : Battle of Plassey. 1760 : Battle of Wandiwash. 1761 : Third Battle of Panipat: The Marathas defeated by the combined troops of Ahmad Shah Abdali; the Mughals, and other Muslim chiefs of India. 1764 : Battle of Buxar. The English defeat Shah Alam, Shuja-ud-daulah and Mir Qasim. 1765 : Grant of the ‘Diwani’ of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company by Shah Alam II under Treaty of Allahabad. : Clive, Company’s Governor in Bengal. 1765-72 : Dual Government of Bengal. 1767-69 : The First Anglo Mysore War. 1770 : The Great Bengal Famine. 1771 : Marathas occupy Delhi and restore Shah Alam who was till then under English protection at Allahabad. 1772-73 : Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal. : Abolition of Dual Government of Bengal (1772). 1773 : The Regulating Act was passed, bringing the company partially under Parliament’s control and the Presidencies under Calcutta’s control. 1773-85 : Warren Hastings Governor-General. : Establishment of Supreme Court, Calcutta. 1775-82 : The First Anglo-Maratha War. 1776 : Treaty of Purandar 1780-84 : Second Mysore War. 1783 : Fox’s India Bills give more powers to Parliament and to the Governor-General. 1784 : Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the English.

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1883-84 : Ilbert Bill controversy. 1884-88 : Lord Dufferin Viceroy. 1885 : First session of the Indian National Congress held at Bombay. 1887 : Queen Victoria's Jubilee. 1888-93 : Lord Landsdowne Viceroy. 1892 : Indian Councils Act. 1894-99 : Lord Elgin II Viceroy. 1896 : Ramakrishna Mission founded. 1899-1905: Lord Curzon Viceroy. 1905 : Partition of Bengal. 1905-10 : Lord Minto II Viceroy. 1906 : Muslim League formed at Dacca. 1907 : Surat Congress, moderates-extremists clash. 1908 : Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedition. 1909 : Morley-Minto Reforms. : Indian Councils Act passed. 1910-16 : Lord Hardinge II Viceroy. 1911 : Delhi Durbar. : Partition of Bengal annulled. Census of India. : Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced 1914 : Gandhi arrives in India. 1916 : Lucknow Pact of Indian National Congress and All-India Muslim League. : Foundation of Women’s University at Poona. : The Home Rule League founded. 1916-21 : Lord Chelmsford as Viceroy. 1919 : Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. : Rowlatt Act passed. : Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (April 13). 1920 : Khilafat Movement and Non Co-operation Movement. 1921 : Moplah Rebellion and Wagon Tragedy. 1921-26 : Lord Reading Viceroy. 1921 : Harappa excavations begin. 1922 : Mohenjodaro excavations begin. : Chauri Chaura incident. 1923 : Swarajists in Indian Councils. 1926-31 : Lord Irwin Viceroy.

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1844-48 : Lord Hardinge as Governor-General. 1845-46 : First Anglo-Sikh War. Treaty of Lahore. 1848-49 : Second Anglo-Sikh War. Defeat of Sikhs and annexation of the Punjab. : Opening of a Hindu Girls’ School in Calcutta by Bethune. 1848-56 : Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. 1852 : Second Anglo-Burmese War. 1853 : Railway opened from Bombay to Thana. Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. 1854 : Charles Wood’s despatch on Education. 1855 : Santhal insurrection in Bihar. 1856 : Annexation of Awadh. Indian University Act. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act. 1856-58 : Lord Canning – Governor-General. 1857-58 : Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins on May 10, 1857. 1858 : British India placed under the direct government of the Crown. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation. 1858-62 : Lord Canning as Viceroy. 1861 : Indian Councils Act. : Archaeological Survey of India set up. : Indian Civil Service Act. : Introduction of the Penal code. 1862-63 : Lord Elgin as Viceroy. 1864-69 : Sir John Lawrence Viceroy. 1865 : Telegraphic communication with Europe opened. 1869-72 : Lord Mayo as Viceroy. 1875 : Visit of the Prince of Wales. : Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda. 1877 : Lord Lytton held Durbar at Delhi where Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. 1878 : Vernacular Press Act. 1879 : Theosophical Society at Adayar, (was set up) Madras. 1880-84 : Lord Ripon as Viceroy. 1881 : Factory Act. 1883 : Indian National Conference held in Calcutta.

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1934 1935 1936-44 1937

1938 1939 1940 1941 1942

1944-47 1944 1945

1946 1947-48

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: Announcement of Lord Mountbatten’s plan for Partition of India (June 3). : Indian Independence Act passed (July). : Creation of free India and Pakistan on midnight of August 14/15, 1947 as dominions. 1947-64 : Jawaharlal Nehru Prime Minister of India. 1948 : Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (January 30). : Raja-gopalachari appointed first Indian Governor-General (June 21). 1949 : New Constitution of India adopted and signed (November 26). 1950 : India become a Republic. New Constitution comes into force (January 26). : Dr. Rajendra Prasad, first President of Indian Republic. : Planning Commission was set up 1951 : Inauguration of First Five Year Plan. 1952 : First General Election in India : National Development Council (NDC) set up. : Family Planning is launched. 1953 : Conquest of Mount Everest. : University Grants Commission (UGC) is set up : CBI is set up : Formation of Andhra Pradesh on linquiestic basis 1954 : Chou En-lai, the Chinese Premier visits India. : Panchashila signed between China and India. 1955 : Hindu Marriage Act and Indian Citizenship Act. 1956 : Reorganisation of Indian States on linguistic basis : 2nd Five Year Plan launched. : Nationalisation of insurance companies. 1957 : Second General election. Introduction of decimal system of coinage. : National Calender based on Saka era adopted. 1959 : Dalai Lama reaches India for political asylum, Indo-Chinese relations worsen. : Panchayat Raj introduced in Rajasthan. 1961 : Goa, Daman and Diu liberated from Portu-

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: Appointment of Simon Commission. : Simon Commission comes to India. : Death of Lala Lajpat Rai following police assault. Nehru Report. : Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drops bombs in the Legislative Assembly. : Congress on December 31 at Lahore declaring its objective of Poora Swaraj for India. : Gandhiji’s Dandi March. Civil Disobedience Movement. : First Round Table Conference. : Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed. : Second Round Table Conference. : Lord Wellingdon Viceroy. : Third Round Table Conference. : Communal Award announced. : Poona Pact signed. : Civil Disobedience Movement called off. : Government of India Act, 1935 passed by British Parliament. : Lord Linlithgow Viceroy. : Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy. Congress Ministries formed in seven out of eleven provinces. : Haripura session of the Congress. : Second World War begins (September). : Pakistan resolution passed by Muslim League at Lahore. : Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India. : Cripps comes to India with his proposals in March. : Congress rejects Cripps Proposal (11 April). : “Quit India” resolution passed by Congress on August 8. : Lord Wavell Viceroy. : INA reaches Indian soil. : Labour Government in Britain. INA surrenders to the British (May). First trial of INA men (November 5). : Cabinet Mission’s plans announced (June 16). : Lord Mountbatten Viceroy.

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to scale Mount Everest. Indira Gandhi assassinated Rajiv Gandhi sworn in as new Prime Minister. Bhopal Gas tragedy Centenary celebrations of Indian National Congress held. Dhronachary Award instituted Centre and Laldenga sign Mizo Accord. Frontier Gandhi, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan given Bharat Ratna. First foreigner to get Bharatratna. Bharat Ratna conferred on M.G. Ramachandran. Contingent of Indian Army flown to Maldives to help President Abdul Gayoom. Lok Sabha passes Constitutional Amendment Bill reducing voting age from 21 to 18 years. V.P. Singh sworn in as seventh Prime Minister with Devi Lal as his Deputy. Nelson Mandela honoured with Bharat Ratna. V.P. Singh resigns after losing vote of confidence in Lok Sabha. Chandra Shekhar is sworn as New Prime Minister. Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated at Sriperum budur in Tamil Nadu. Bharat Ratna is conferred on Morarji Desai. Rajiv Gandhi and Sardar Patel are awarded Bharat Ratna posthumously. Maulana Azad posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna. Kar Sevaks demolished Babri Masjid in Ayodhya Battle tank “Arjun” inducted into Indian Army. Job Quota for OBC’s becomes operative. Earth quake at Lathur, Maharashtra Panchayati Raj Act becomes operational. Morarji Desai, dies. Bombay becomes mumbai. Atal Behari Vajpayee becomes Prime

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guese possession. Arjuna Award introduced Indo-China War. Death of Jawaharlal Nehru Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minister. Indo-Pak War. Tashkent Declaration Death of Lal Bahadur Shastri Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister. First Nationalisation of 14 Banks. First Dada Sahib Phalke Award was given to Davika Rani Indo-Pak War Birth of Bangladesh. Shimla Agreement between India and Pakistan. Project Tiger Underground nuclear explosion carried out at Pokhran (May 18). Emergency declared in the country. Aryabhatta goes to orbit. Janata Party comes to power. Vajpayee address UNO in Hindi. Denomination of high value notes of Rs. 1,000, Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 10,000 demonetised. Morarji Desai resigns as Prime Minister. Charan Singh becomes Prime Minister. Death of Loknayak Jayprakash Narayan. Bhakara I launched Mother Theresa gets Bharat Ratna. Six more commercial banks nationalised. Apple was launched First Indian Antartic Expedition to Qusim. Dakshin Gangothri, India’s first permanent station at Antartica was set up. Bharat Ratna posthumously awarded to Acharya Vinoba Bhave. INSAT-IB successfully launched. Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma becomes first Indian cosmonaut to go into space. Bachendri Pal becomes first Indian woman

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: Former Indian Air Force Chief, Arjan Singh, is made the first ever marshal of the IAF. : A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 11th President : Bhairon Singh Shekhawat is sworn in the 12th Vice-President. : The first exclusive 1,060 kg. meteorological satellite (METSAT) is successfully launched from the Sriharikotta by PSLV. : Justice V.N. Khare is sworn in Chief Justice of India. : L.K. Advani is appointed Deputy Prime Minister. : INSAT 3E, was launched (September 28) : Air Marshal T.M. Asthana is named the first Commander-in-Chief of the Strategic Forces Command. : The Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee Christens METSAT, Kalpana I after Kalpana Chawla. : Mehbooba Mufti takes over as president of the Peoples Democratic Party thus becoming the first woman to head a political party in J and K. : INS Talwar the Navy’s first stealth warship is inducted into western fleet. : G. Madhavan Nair assumes office as Chairman, Space Commission and ISRO : The government constitutes the 17th Law Commission with Justice M. Jayannatha Rao as Chairman. : The LokSabha passes the POTA Amendment Bill, 2003, providing for safeguard against misuse. : Rajya Sabha passes dual citizenship bill. : India becomes the first developing country to import LNG. : India wins its first ever test series in Pakistan. : Major Rajya Vardhan Singh Rathore gets the silver medal for India in shooting (double trap category) at the Olympic

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Minister on May 16 and resigns on May 28. H.D. Deve Gowda becomes Prime Minister on June 1. Madras becomes Chennai. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C1) is launched from Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh). Arundhati Roy bagged the 29th Booker Prize, Kalpana Chawla became the first Indianborn US woman to go into space. India’s second (May 11) and third (May 13) nuclear explosion at Pokhran. M.S. Subhalekshmi and Jaya Prakash Narayan win Bharat Ratna. Vajpayee becomes 12 Prime Minister of India. Param 10000 India’s new super computer unveailed. Konkan Railway (760 km) inaugurated. INSAT 2E was launched on April 3 PSLV-C2 launched IRS P4. India becomes leading producer of milk in the world. Amarthya Sen wins Bharat Ratna. India launched Operation Vijay to repel the Pak intruders from Kargil. Bill Clinton visits India. Lara Dutta of India becomes Miss Universe. Formation of the states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttaranchal. Karnam Malleswary wins bronze medal in Sydney olympics. Priyanka Chopra of India becomes Miss world. GSLV D1 launches GSAT. Indian parliament attacked. Ms. Poornima Advani is appointed Chairperson of the National Commission for women.

2004

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: The Government comes out with the first ever Outcome Budget. : The trial-run, of the first Amritsar- Lahore service begins linking the two cities for the first time nearly six decades. : India’s first rubber dam is installed across the Janjhavati river in Andhra Pradesh’s Vizianagaram district. : Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy is awarded the 2005 Sahitya Akademi Award for English for her book of essays The Algebra of Infinite Justice. : The first-ever-Lahore- Amritsar bus service begins. : The world’s longest rail is flagged off from Bhilai steel plant. : The President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, returns the Office of Profit Bill for reconsideration : A.P.J. Abdul Kalam becomes the first President to make a sortie in a combat aircraft after flying in a Sukhoi-30 MKT after take off from Lahegaon airbase, Pune. : N. Gopalaswami takes over as the new Chief Election Commissioner. : The GSLV - FO2 launch from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh ends in failure after the vehicle crashes into the Bay of Bengal. : Social activist Arvind Kajriwal is elected for the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award in the Emergent Leadership category. : The President A.P.J Abdul Kalam, confers the 39th Jnanapith Award on Marathi writer Vinda Karandikar. : Actor Shabana Azmi is chosen for the Gandhi International Peace Prize 2006. : The protection of women from Domestic Violence Act 2006 comes into effect. : The Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, presents the 21st Indira Gandhi Prize for National Integration to lyricist Javed Akhtar. : Sri Lankan President, Mahinda Rajapaksa inaugurates the three - day first Asian Mayor’s meet in Dehra Dun.

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Games. : EDUSAT - India’s first exclusive satellite for educational services, placed in orbit. : Tata Motors becomes the first company in the Indian engineering sector to list its securities on the New York Stock Exchange. : Kerala’s Palakkad district collectorate is the first in India to be totally computerised. : The Mahatma Gandhi International Peace Award to the former Botswana President Sir Ketimile Masire. : Over 80,000 people are killed following an undersea earthquake off Sumatra in Indonesia, over 19,000 people are killed in India. : ‘Lakshya’ pilotless target aircraft, test flown. : Cabinet decided to offer dual citizenship for all overseas Indians who migrated after January 26, 1950. : President’s rule was imposed on Goa and the Assembly kept under suspended animation, even after the Pratapsingh Rane Government wins the trust vote. : Tamil writer D. Jayakanthan is selected for the 38th Jnanapith Award for 2002. He is the second Tamil author after P.V. Akhilandan to receive the honour. : Dandi March route (384 km) is declared a heritage path and the Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, announces a Rs 10 crore package for Sabarmati Gandhi Ashram renovation, on the 75th anniversary day of the breaking of the salt act by Mahatma Gandhi. : India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLVC-6 is launched from the spaceport in Sriharikota, and it injects two satellites CARTOSAT - 1 and HAMSAT into their orbits. : The Lok Sabha passes the Right to information Bill. : The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, launches the National Knowledge Commission.

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INDIAN HISTORY Banarjee. It is situated in the Larkhana district in Sind on the right bank of river Indus (Now in Pakistan)

Pre-Historic Period

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Wheat and barley were the first cereals grown by Indians.

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The name India was derived from the rivername Sindhu which is also known as Indus.

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India was originally considered as a part of a larger area called Jambu-dvipa (The continent of Jambu tree)

Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali are the four ages of traditional Hindu thought.

Gulf of Cambut Culture

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An assembly hall was also discovered from Mohanjodaro.

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The most important feature of Harappan civilisation was town planning and urbanism.

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The word Mohanjedaro in Sindi language means ‘the mount of the dead’.

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Mohanjodaro was believed to have destructed by flood.

The Gulf of Cambut culture which was discovered recently from the Bay of Cambut in Gujarat dates back to 7500 BC.

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This was found out by the National Institute of Open Technology (NIOT).

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Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, wheat and barley.

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Banawali is situated in Hariyana.

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Chanhudaro, discovered by N. Gopal Majundar and Mackey, is situated in Sind on the bank of river Indus.

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Kalibangan, another famous Indus city discovered in 1953 by A Ghosh, is situated in Rajasthan on the banks of River Ghaggar. Kalibangan stands for black bangles.

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Lothal, first man made port in the world and dockyard made of burnt bricks, was discovered in 1953 by S.R. Rao is situated in Gujarat on Bhogava river near Gulf of Cambay.

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Ropar is the site situated in Punjab on the banks of river Sutlej. It was discovered in 1953 by Y.D.Sharma.

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Harappan people were the earliest people in the world to grow cotton and rice.

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People cultivated rice at Lothal and Rangpur and

Indus Valley Civilisation 

The Harappan culture spread over the whole of Sind, Baluchistan, almost the whole of Punjab, northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat.

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Harappa the first Indus site, was discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. It is situated in the province of West Punjab, Montgeomery district in Pakistan.

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Harappa is located on the bank of river Ravi.

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Mohanjedaro was excavated in 1922 by R.D.

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Neolithic settlements in Indian subcontinent are not older than 4000 BC.

The Great Granery, the Great Bath a piece of woven cotton, a beared man in steatite and a bronze dancing girl are found from Mohanjedaro.

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The earliest traces of human existence in India so far discovered is between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000 BC from Sohan valley (now in Pakistan)

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barley at Benawali. 

Harappan people domesticated oxen, buffaloes, goats, camel, sheeps, domestic fowls and pigs. Humped bulls were given special importance. Horses were unknown to the Harappan people.

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Indus people had trade contacts with Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The ancient name given to Indus region was Meluha.

Vedic Age is the period of Aryans in India from 1500 - 500 BC.

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Indus people used a gold - silver mixture called Electrum.

Most Probable Home of the Aryans is Central Asia. This theory is of Max Muller.

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They used bronze and copper but iron was unknown to them.

The word Aryan literally means high born, but it generally refers to language.

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The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the word ‘vid’ which means knowledge.

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Vedas are the oldest literary works of mankind. Vedas are four in number, they are Rig Veda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharva Veda. Rig veda is the oldest veda.

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Vedas are collectively known as Sruti

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Vedangas are collectively known as Smriti

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Vedangas are six in number. They are,

Indus people were the first to use copper in India.

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Harappans used a system of weights and measures based on 16 and its multiples.

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The chief male deity of the Indus people was Pasupati Mahadeva (Porto Siva).

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Their Chief female deity was the Mother Goddess.

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They also worshipped fire, pipal trees and Unicorn.

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Vedic Age

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river Indus, aridity of the area, or drying up of river Ghaggar, the invasion of Aryans are the supposed reasons for the decline of the civilisation towards 1500 BC.

Siksha - Phonetic

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Harappan seals were made of Terra - Cotta.

Vyakarana - Grammar

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Chess - like game of Harappans was called Sent.

Nirukta - Etymology

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Indus Valley civilisation belongs to the Chalcolithic period dated between 3000 BC and 1500 BC. It is a Bronze Age civilisation or a proto Historic civilisation.

Chhanda - Metrics and

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Harappan script was Pictographic in nature, which has not been desciphered so far.

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The largest number of Harappan sites in post independent India have been discovered from Gujarat.

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Harappan civilisation extended from Jammu in the North to Narmada in the South and from Makran coast of Baluchistan in the West to Meerat in the East.

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The Northern most point of Indus valley civilisation was Gumla in Jammu and the Southernmost was Daimbad.

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Floods and Earthquakes, change in the course of

Kalpa - Ritual

Jyotisha - Astronomy 

There are 1028 hymns in Rigveda. It is divided into ten Mandalas (Chapters).

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Rig Vedic Hymns sung by priests were called Hotris.

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‘Sruti’ literature belonged to the Sathyayuga, Smriti belonged to Treatayuga, Puranas belonged to Dwaparayuga and Thanthra literature belonged to Kaliyuga.

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Rigveda starts with the line ‘Agnimele Purohitam’

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Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the Rigveda (It is believed to have composed by Vishwamitra)

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Yajurveda deals with sacrifices and rituals.

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‘Visah’ was a cluster of gramas.

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Important tribal assemblies of the Rig Vedic period were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana.

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The Aghanya mentioned in many passages of Rigveda applies to cows.

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Sama Veda deals with Music.

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The Rigvedic religion was primitive animism.

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Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests called Udgatri.

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Indra was the greatest God of Aryans and Agni occupied second position.

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Atharva veda is a collection of spells and incantations. Ayurveda is a part of Atharva Veda, which deals with medicine.

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Varuna was God of water and Yama was the Lord of dead.

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The saying, ‘‘War begins in the minds of men’’ is from Atharva Veda.

Savitri was a solar diety to whom the famous Gayatri Mantra is attributed to.

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Prithvi was Earth Godess.

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The 10th Mandala of Rigveda contain the Purusha Sukta hymn which tells about the origin of caste system.

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Upanishads are 108 in number. Upanishads are philosophical works

The battle of ten kings mentioned in the Rig Veda was fought on the division of water of river Ravi. It was fought on the banks of River Ravi (Purushni).

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Indra was known as Purandara.

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Upanishads are known as the Jnanakantas of Vedas.

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The people called Panis, during the Vedic period were cattle breeders.

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The words ‘Sathyameva Jayate’ have been taken from ‘Mundaka Upanishad’

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The Vedic God in charge of truth and moral order was Varuna.

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Brahdaranya Upanishad was the first to give the doctrine of Transmigration of Soul and Karma.

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Indra Played the role of the Warlord. He is also considered as the rain god.

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Puranas are the part of Smriti literature. They are 18 in number 6 vishnupuranas, 6 sivapuranas and 6 Brahmapuranas.

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The two priests who played a major part during the Rig Vedic period were Vasishta and Visvamitra.

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Bhagvata purana is divided into 18 skandas The 10th skanda mentions about the childhood of Sri Krishna.

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Yajurveda is derived into two: SuklaYajurveda (White Yajurveda) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Black Yajurveda)

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Yajurvedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests called ‘Adhavaryu’.

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Later Vedic Period 

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Skanda purana is considered as the largest purana.

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Brahmapurana is also known as Adipurana.

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Adhyatma Ramayana is included in the Brahmantapurana.

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Cattle was the chief measure of wealth of the vedic period.

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Rigvedic tribe was referred to as Jana .

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Many clans (vis) formed a tribe.

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The basic unit of society was kula or the family and Kulapa was the head of the family.

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The period assigned to Later Vedic Phase is 1000 BC to 600 BC. Later Vedic people used particular type of pottery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) The Later Vedic Aryans were familiar with two seas, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. Rice became the staple diet of Indian people during the Later Vedic Period. The term ‘Rashtra’ which indicates territory first appeared in the later vedic period. Mention of the word ‘Sudras’ - Rigveda (10th Mandala)

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Mention of the ‘Gotra’ is found in the Atharvaveda.

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Each Tribal republic was headed by Ganapati or Jyeshtha.

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Origin of Kingship is found in Aitareya Brahmana.

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‘Soma’ was an intoxicating drink mentioned in the 9th Mandala of the Rig Veda.

The Vedic Education system revealed through ‘Frog Hymn’ in the Rigveda and ‘Wedding Hymn’ describe the oldest marriage rituals.

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Max Mullar was the first person to speak of ‘Aryans’ as a race.

Mention of the word Varna is found in Rigveda.

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The fourfold division of the society is found in the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda.

Epics

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Mention about the Varnashranadhrama is found in the Jabla Upanishad.

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Hinduism has two epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

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The Doctrine of Trimurti is found in the Maitrayani Upanishad.

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Mention about the origin of Universe is found in the Rig Veda (10th Mandala).

Mahabharata was written by ‘Vyasa’.Mahabharata is also known as Jayasamhita, Satasahasri Samhita and the fifth veda.

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Mahabharata has 1,17,000 hymns in it.

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Mahabharata is divided into 18 Purvas, an appendix Harivamsa is considered as 19th Purva.

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12th Purva is the largest and 7th is the smallest.

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Purohita Senani and Vrajapati were the important functionaries who assisted the king in dayto-day administration.

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It describes the 18 days battle of Kurukshetra.

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Stories of Sakuntalam, Pralayam, Ramcharitam, Rishysringan, Satyavan Savitri,Nala and Damayanthi etc are included in the Mahabharata.

The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture land was called Vrajapati.

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The king’s power increased during the Later Vedic Period.

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First law giver of ancient India was Manu. He wrote ‘Manusmrithi’.

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Valmiki is the author of Ramayana.

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Manusmrithi was translated into English by William Jones.

Ramayana has 24000 hymns and is divided into Seven Skandas (Kandas)

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Bhagavatgita is included in the Bhishma Purva of Mahabharata. It is divided into 18 chapters and has about 700 hymns.

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Shyma Shastri translated Arthasastra into English Bali was a tax, which the king used to collect from the people of the Vedic period. Aryans used iron for the first time India. Horse, Iron, Sugarcane, Pulses etc reached India by the coming of Aryans. The God who occupied supreme position in the Later Vedic Period was Prajapati. Rudra was regarded as preserver and protector of the people. The most important functionary who assisted the Vedic king was Purohita. Manarchy was the normal form of Government in the vedic period.

Jainism Vardhamana Mahavira was believed to have born in 540 BC in Kundala Grama in Vaishali the capital

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Six systems of Indian Philosophy 

Samkya ................................ Sage Kapila

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Yoga ......................................... Patanjali

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Vaisheshika .............................. Kannada

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Nyaya ................... Akshapada (Gautama)

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Vedanta Gaudapada and Shankaracharya.

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Mimamsa .................................... Jaimini

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Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal family of Magadha.

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The word ‘Jaina’ was originated from the word ‘Jina’ which means conqueror.

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Jainism speaks about 24 thinthankaras. Mahavira was the 24th Thirthankara, who is considered as the founder of Jainism.

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Rishabha was the first Thirthankara. Neminath and Parswanatha were the 22nd and 23rd Thirthankaras respectively.

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Bhagavatapurana, Vishnupurana, Vayupurana, etc mentions about Rishabhadeva.

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Sidhartha, ruler of Nandadynasty which ruled Kundalapuri, was the father of Vardhmana Mahavira. Mahavira’s mother was Trissala and Yasodha was his wife.

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Jameli was the daughter of Mahavira.

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Mahavira is also known as ‘Vaishalia’ as he was born in Vaishali.

He got Kaivalya at the age of 42 under a Sal tree on the bank of river Rajpalika near Village Jimbhrikagrama.

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At first Mahavira followed the practice of an ascetic group called Nirgrandhas , which earlier led by Parswanath.

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Makhali Gosala was a companion of Mahavira. Who later founded the Ajivika sect.

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Mahavira attained Nirvana at the age of 72 at Pavapuri near Rajagriha in 468 BC.

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Jains observe the day of his nirvana as Dipavali.

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Gautama Indrabhuti is considered as his first desciple.

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Jain sacred texts are called Angas.

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Jain texts were written under Bhadrabahu in BC 296.

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Jain texts were written in the Prakrit language of Ardhamagadhi.

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He belonged to Jnatrika Kshatriya clan.

‘Ahimsa Paramo Dharma’ is the sacred hymn of Jainism. Ahimsa, Satya, Asateya, Aparigriha and Brahmacharya are the five major principles of Jainism. Brahmacharya is the principle added by Mahavira. Mahavira taught the three Jewels of Jainism (Triratna) - Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. The Jains repudiated the authority or infallibility of the vedas. The Jains rejected the concept of Universal soul or a supreme power as the creator and sustainer of the Universe. Jainism does not condemn the Varna system. Mahavira believed that all individuals irrespective of caste can strive for liberation through good deeds and living. First Jain council was held at Pataliputra in the fourth century BC under the leadership of Stulabahu. Second Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in third Century BC under the leadership of Aryaskandil Nagarjuna Suri. Third Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in Gujarat in 5th Century AD under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana. Jainism was divided into two sects Swetambaras and Digambaras after the first Jain Council. Digambaras are sky-clad or naked and swetambaras are clad in white. Gomateshwara statue is situated in Sravana belgola. ‘Syad Vada’ is a Jain philosophy of Knowledge. Kharavela of Kalinga gave patronage to Jainism. Mahavir Jayanti and Rakshabandan are the Gomateshwara festive occassions of Jainism. Temple on the Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a famous centre of Jain worship.

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of Vajji. Now it is in Mussafar district in Bihar.

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Jain Temple at Sravanabelgola in Hassan district in Mysore is known as ‘Kasi of the Jains’.

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Names of Rishabhadeva and Arishtanemi are also mentioned in the Rigveda.

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Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the Mauryan Empire, abdicated the throne towards the end of his life, accepted Jainism reached Sravanabelgola and died there.

Buddhism 

Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC.

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Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism was born in Lumbini in Kapilavasthu on the border of Nepal in 563 BC. Buddha’s mother Mahamaya died seven days after his birth. He was brought up by his aunt Mahaprajpati Gautami, hence he got the name ‘Gautama’.

Buddha made his first sermon after enlightenment at a deer park at Saranath in Uttar Pradesh. This incident is known as ‘Dharmachakra pravarthana’.

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Buddha’s first teacher was Alara Kalama and second teacher Udraka Ramaputra.

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During his first sermon at Sarnath, Buddha described the ‘four noble truths’ and the eight fold path.

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Buddha made his sermons in Pali language and the early Buddhist texts were also written in Pali language.

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Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagara in UP. This was known as Parinirvana. Buddha died by consuming poisoned meat or poisoned mushroom. Last meals of Buddha was served by a blacksmith ‘Chunda’. His last words were All composite things decay, strive diligently. Four noble truths of Buddhism are: life is full of misery, desire is the cause of misery, killing desires would kill sorrows, Desire can be killed by following the eight-told path. The eight fold path of Buddhism are: Right Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech,

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First Buddhist nun was Gautami

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Budha’s birth place is Gautama Buddha now known as Binla.

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Budhas orginal name was Sidhartha.

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Buddha belonged to the Sakhya clan of Kshatriyas.

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His father was Subhodhana.

1. Rishabhdev

13. Vimalnath

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Buddha’s wife was Yasodhara and his son was Rahulan.

2. Ajitnath

14. Anandanath

3. Sambhavnath

15. Dharmanath

Four sights changed his mind and initiated him to spiritual life they were death, old age, sadness and sufferings.

4. Abhinandan

16. Shantinath

5. Sumitnath

17. Kunthunath

6. Padmaprabhu

18. Arnath

He left home at the age of 29 along with his charioteer Channa and favourite horse Kandaka. This incident is known as Mahanishkramana.

7. Suparsavanath

19. Mallinath

8. Suridhi

20. Munisuvrata nath

9. Chandraprabh

21. Neminath

10. Sheetal Nath

22. Arishtanemi

11. Shreyanshanath

23. Parshvanath

12. Vasupujya

24. Mahavira

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Buddha got enlightenment at Bodha Gaya, on the banks of Niranjana river in Bihar at the Age of 35. After enlightenment Buddha came to be known as ‘thadhagatha’. He is also known as ‘Sakhyamuni’.

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JAIN THIRTHANKARAS

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Vinayapitaka and Suddhapitaka were codified at the first council.

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Second Buddhist council was held in 383 BC at Vaishali under the presidentship of Sabhakami and under the patronage of king Kalashoka.

Third council of Buddhism was held in 250 BC at Pataliputhra under the presidentship of Mogaliputta Tissa and under the patronage of Ashoka the Great.

Viharas are the Buddhist monastries.

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Vajrayana was a sect of Buddhism which believed in achieving salvation through Mantras and spells.

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‘Jataka stories’ describe the stories related to the birth of Buddha. They are 500 in number.

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Holy book of Buddhism is Tripitika- Vinayapitika, Suddhapitika and Abhidhamapitika are collectively known as Tripitika.

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Bimbisara of Magadha was a contemporary of Buddha.

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Kanishka who worked to spread Buddhism like Ashoka is known a Second Ashoka.

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Ashoka sent his son and daughter, Mahendra and Sanghamitra to SriLanka to spread Buddhism.

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Sri Buddha is known as the ‘Light of Asia’ He was named as such by Edvin Arnold.

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At the second Buddhist council Buddhism was divided into two Staviravadins and Mahasankikas which later came to be known a Hinayana and Mahayana respectively.

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Abhidhamma Pitika was codified at the third council.

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At the third council decision was also taken to send missionaries to spread Buddhism.

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The fourth Buddhist council was held in the first century AD at Kundalavana in Kashmir under the President-ship of Vasumithra and Ashvagosha and under the patronage of Kanishka.

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Clear division of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana tookplace at the fourth council.

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Upagupta converted Ashoka to Buddhism.

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Ashvagosha was the first biographer of Buddha who wrote Budhacharitam in Sanskrit.

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Vasubandu is known as Second Buddha.

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Ashoka is known as the Constantine of Buddhism.

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Ashoka accepted Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga in BC 261.

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Buddhist worshipping centre is known as Pagoda.

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Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Righ Recollection, Right Meditation Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and Soul (Atman) Buddha accepted the traditional belief in transmigration of the soul and law of Karma. The ‘three jewels’of Buddhism are – Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. The first Buddhist council was held in 483 BC at Sattaparni (Rajagriha) under the presidentship of Mahakashyapa and under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of Magadha..

Edvin Arnold’s ‘Light of Asia’ was translated into Malayalam by Nalappad Narayanamenon.

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Hinayanism is wide spread in Sri Lanka.

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The Bodhi tree at Gaya was cut down by Sasanka, a Bengal ruler.

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The chief Buddhist monastery was at Nalanda, which was under the patronage of Pala kings.

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Previous Buddhas are known as ‘Bodhisatvas’.

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Milandapanho a book of Nagasena describes how Greek king Menandar accepted Buddhism.

Sangham Age 

First five centuries of the Christian Era are commonly known as Sangham Age.

5 SYMBOLS OF BUDDHA Birth ....................................... Lotus and Bull Renunciation ........................................ Horse Enlightenment ................................ Bodhitree First Sermon ......................... Dharma Chakra Nirvana (Death) ............................ Foot prints

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Sangham was an Assembly of literature held at Madhurai.

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References to the Sangham Age can be found in the inscriptions of Ashoka, and Kharavela of Kalinga and in the Indica of Megastenese. The literature of the Sangham Age was written mostly in the form of Poetry. In the Sangham Age, the most common form of government was hereditary monarchy. The village was the fundamental unit of administration. Small village Assemblies during the Sangham Age were known as Arai. Tradition refers to three sangham lasting for 9,900 years. Language of the Sangham literature was Tamil People of the Sangham Age mainly worshiped ‘Murugan’. The greatest work of the Tamil literature of the Sangham Age is Tholkappium written by Tholkappiyar. Tholkappium is considered as the earliest surviving Tamil literary work. It is a book on Tamil grammar. The Capital of the Pandyas was at Madhurai. Uraiyur was the capital of Cholas, known for cotton trade. Vanchi was the capital of Cheras. Silappadigaram, Manimegalai and Jeevakachintamani are the three epics of Sangham literature. Korkai was the main seaport of the Pandyas. Megastanese described Pandya Kingdom as ‘Pearl’ as it was ruled by women. Kaveripumpatnam was the main sea port of the Cholas. Silappatigaram as written by Ilango Adikal. It describes the love story of Kovalan and Kannaki Nedujezhian is the Pandyan king mentioned in Silapadigaram. Satanar wrote ‘Manimekhalai’ which is also an epic and tells about the story of the daughter of Kannaki and Kovalan. Manimekhalai gives reference about Buddhism.

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The famous Chera port Muziris was a great centre of Indo-Roman Trade.

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The largest single tax collected during the Sangha period was the land tax called Karai.

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The founder of later Cholas was Rajaraja I The most important ruler of this dynasty was Rajendra Chola.

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Rajendra Chola is also known as ‘Gagaikonda Chola’ He later named his capital as ‘Gangaikonda Cholapuram’.

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RajaRaja I built ‘Brihadeswara temple’ at Tanjore.

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Cholas were well known for their naval supremacy and efficient village administration.

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The Utharameroor inscription tells about the local self government under the cholas.

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Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar is the Tamil work which is known also as the fifth Veda.

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Jivaka Chintamani the third epic of the Tamil was written by Tirukkadevar.

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The greatest of the Chera rulers was Senguttuvanchera also known as ‘Red Chera’.He built a temple for Kannaki.

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Thirukkural is known as Tamil Bible compiled by Thiruvalluvar. His statue is seen near Vivekanandappara in Kanyakumari.

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II and XIII rock edicts of Ashoka mention about the South Indian kingdoms. Karikala most prominent among early Cholas is known as the master of seven notes of music. ‘Bharatam’ was a Tamil version of Mahabharata sung by Perundevanar. ‘Manimekhalai’ is looked upon as the Tamil Odyssey.

FAMOUS ERAS Vikram Era ........................................ 58 BC Saka Era .......................................... 78 AD Gupta Era ...................................... 320 AD Hijra Era ........................................ 622 AD Kollam Era ..................................... 825 AD Illahi Era ....................................... 1583 AD

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Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th C.BC) the earliest grammar book also called Bhagavati Sutra. Mahabhashya was written by Patanjali. Manusmriti was a law book composed between 200 BC and 200AD. Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with statecrafts is a major source of Mauryan administration. Indica by ‘Megastenes’ is a source of Mauryan society and administration. Chandsutra was written by Pingala. Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha is the earliest biography of Buddha. It was written in Pali language. Raghuvamsa by Kalidasa is an epic based on Mahabharata. Naishad Charita by Sri Harsha contains story of Nala and Damayanti.

Vasavadatta ...................................... Subandu

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Brihat Kathamanjari ................. Kshemendra

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Kathasaritsagara ........................... Somadeva

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Panchathantra ......................... Vishnusharma

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Hitopadesha ........................... Narayan Pandit

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Kamasutra and Arya Manjushree ..... Vatsyayana

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Pavandhoot .......................................... Dhoyi

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Swapna Vasavadatta ............................. Bhasa

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Matavilasa Prahasana ....... Mahendravarman I

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Si-yu-ki ..................................... Hiuen Tsang

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Fo-kuoki ........................................... Fa-hien

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Panchasidhantika ........................ Varahamihir

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Suryasidhantika and Aryabhatiyam .... Aryabhatta

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Nitisara ....................................... Kamandaka

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Charak Samhita ............................... Charaka

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Hastayurveda ................................... Palkapya

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Mitakshara ................................. Vigneswara Dayabhaga ................................ Jimutavahana Sidhanta Siromani ................ Bhaskaracharya Nighantu .................................... Dhanvantari Mudrarakshasa ......................... Vishakadatta Prabhanda Chintamani .............. Meruthunga Geography of India ............................ Ptolemy Brihat Kathakosh ............................ Harisena Mrichakatika ................................... Sudraka Prithviraj Vijaya .............................. Jayanak Nala Vemba ................................... Pugalendi

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Drama

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Lyric Poetry   

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Natyashastra by Bharatamuni is the earliest known work in Sanskrit. Malavikagnimithram, Vikramorvashiyan and Abhinjana Syakuntalam are dramas written by Kalidasa. Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika are dramas written by Harshavardhana.

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Meghadutam by Kalidasa Srinagarashataka, Nitishataka and Vairagyasataka were written by Bhartrihari. Gita Govinda was written by Jayadeva.

Magadhan Empire  

Historical writing 

Harshacharita - Written by Banabhatta

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Vikramamangadeva charita - written by Bilhana.

Prose Literature 

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Dasakumaracharitam ........................ Dandin

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Literary Activities in Ancient India

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Roman king built a temple of Augustus at Muziris.

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In the 6th century BC there originated 16 Mahajanapadas in North India Four prominent royal dynasties stand out prominently out of these Janapadas. They were Haryankas of Magadha, the Ikshvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa and the Pradyotas of Avanti. Haryanka is the name of a new dynasty founded in Magadha by Bimbisara. Bimbisara founded the dynasty by defeating the Brihadrathas.

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Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha. Magadha became a supreme power in North India under Ajatasatru. So Ajatasatru is considered as the founder of Magadhan Supremacy. Pataliputra and Rajagriha were the capitals of Magadhan kingdom. Magadha falls in the Patna region of Bihar. Haryankas were overthrown by Sisunaga and he founded the Sisunaga dynasty there. Kalasoka the son and successor of Sisunaga was succeeded by Mahapadma Nanda and he founded the Nanda dynasty. Ajatasatru’s successor Udayin was the founder of the city of Pataliputra.

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Alexander died of Malaria at the age of 33 in 323 BC while he was in Babylon.

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Alexander was cremated at Alexandria.

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Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia and Sikhandar-I-Asam in Indo-Pak region.

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The Last general of Alexander in India was Eudamas.

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Alexander’s first General in India was Selucus Nikator.

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Alexander IV succeeded Alexander as the Masedonian King.

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Alexander’s teacher Aristotle is considered as the father of Politics, Biology, Taxonomy and the Science of Logic.

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Xerxes was the persian ruler who enlisted Indians in his army.

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The Kharoshti script was brought to India by Persians.

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Alexander’s Invasion

Major sources for the study of Mauryan Empire are the Arthasastra of Kautilya and Indika of Megasthenes.

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The Persian domination over Indian territory lasted upto 330 BC.

Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)

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The Achaemenian king of Persia, Darius (522 486 BC) captured some territories the east of Sindhu in 518 BC.

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Persian Invasion

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Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Mauryan Empire.

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Details about his early life are not available

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He is believed to have belonged to Moriya Clan, hence got the name Maurya.

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It is also said that his mother was Mura a women of lower birth hence got the name Maurya.

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Alexander was born in 356 BC as the son of King Philip II of Mascedonia.

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In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala and Kulahina.

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Epirus or Olympias was Alexanders mother.

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Aristotle was Alexander’s teacher.

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He became the king in 336 BC

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He defeated the Persian ruler Darius III.

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Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt

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In 326 BC Alexander defeated Porus (Purushothama) the ruler of Punjab and Captured Taxila through the battle of Hydaspes on the banks of river Jhelum.

He conspired with Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta) the minister of Nanda to overthrew the last Nanda ruler DhanaNanda. Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne in BC 321. He fought against Selucus in 305 BC. Selucus surrendered before him and sent an ambassador, Megasthenese to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta’s Governor Pushygupta constructed the famous Sudarshana lake. ChandraGupta Maurya was converted to Jainism, abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara, passed his last days at

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Ambhi the ruler of Taxila invited Alexander to India.

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Post Mauryan Period Sunga Dynasty (185-71 BC)  Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Sunga the commander-in-chief of last Mauryan king, Brihadratha.  Kalidasa’s drama Malavikagnimitram is about the love story of Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra and Malavika.

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adopted from the four lion capital of one of Ashokas pillars which is located in Saranath. Rock-cut architecture in India made a beginning during Ashoka’s reign. Brihadratha the last Mauryan ruler was killed by Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dynasty in 185 BC. Megasthenese the first foreign traveller to India mentions about the existence of seven castes in India during the Mauryan period. Stanika in Mauryan administration refers to tax collector.

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Sravanabelagola (Near Mysore) where he died in 298 BC. Chandragupa Maurya was responsible for the political unification of North India for the first time. Bindusara was a follower of Ajivika sect. Bindusara was known as Amitragatha. Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and ruled upto 232 BC. He was known as ‘Devanampriya priyadarsi the beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods. Maski and Gujara Edicts of Ashoka gave the name Devanampriya Priyadarsi. Buddhist tradition says Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers to capture the throne. Ashoka was the first king in Indian history who had left his records engraved on stones. Ashokan inscriptions were written in Kharoshti and Brahmi scripts. Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC Kalinga is in modern Orissa. Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Princep. After the battle of Kalinga Ashoka became a Buddhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war. Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta or Nigrodha a disciple of Buddha. For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started the institution of Dharmamahamatras. The IV Major Rock Edict of Ashoka tells about the practice of Dharma The Major Rock Edict XII of Ahoka deals with the conquest of Kalinga. Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his capital Pataliputra in 250BC under the presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa. He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and Sanghamitra) Ashoka spread Buddhism to SriLanka and Nepal. He is known as the Constantine of Buddhism. In his Kalinga Edict he mentions ‘‘All man are as my children’’. Ceylones ruler Devanmpriya Tissa was Ashoka’s first convert to Buddhism. Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC. The emblem of the Indian Republic has been

Last ling of sunga dynasty was Devabhuti.

Kanva Dynasty (72 BC - 27 BC) 

Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva in 72 BC after defeating the last Sunga ruler Devabhuti.

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This dynasty ruled for a period of 45 years.

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Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman were the rulers of Kanva dynasty.

Cheta (Cheti) Dynasty of Kalinga 

The Cheti Dynasty was believed to have founded by Maha Meghavahana

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The Hatigumbha inscription of Kharavela, of the

Important Mauryan Officers Samaharta ................ Collector of Revenue Sannidata ....................... Head of Treasury Dandapala ........................... Head of Police Durga Pala ................... Head of Royal Fort Pradeshikas .... Head of District Administration Prashasti .......................... Head of Prisons

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Kalinga ruler gives details about the Chedis of Kalinga. 

Alauddin Khilji) 

Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.

Satavahanas (235 BC - 100BC)

Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military governorship in India.

The Parthians (19 - 45 AD)

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Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling dynasty after the Mauryas.

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Parthians also known as Pahalavas were Iranian People.

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Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.

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Satavahanas were the Indian rulers who prefixed their mother’s name along with their names.

Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian rulers.

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St. Thomas is said to have came to India for the propagation of Christianity during the period of Gondophernes.

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Most important Satavahana ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni.

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Satavahanas were Brahmanas.

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Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati in Andhrapradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.

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Sakas were also known as Scythians.

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The two common structures of Satavahanas were the temple called Chaitya and the monastery called Vihara.

The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara.

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The most famous of the Saka rulers in Western India was Rudra Daman I. His achievements are highlighted in his Junagarh inscription written in 150 AD.

Satavahanas mostly issued lead coins.

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The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit

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Indo Greeks

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The Sakas (90 BC - Ist AD)

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Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman was the first inscription in Sanskrit.

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Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman.

First to invade India were the Greeks who were called Indo-Greeks.

Kushans

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The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander with his Capital at Sakala in Punjab (Modern Sialkot)

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The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.

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The introduction of Hellenistic art features into India were also the contribution of Indo-Greek rule.

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Menander was converted into a Buddhist by Buddhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna)

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Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing the figure of kings.

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Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India about 190BC. He is considered as Second Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted the name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani) was

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Kushans are also known as Yuch-chis or Tocharians. Kushans came to India from North Central Asia. First great Kushana king was Kujala Kadphises or Kadphises I. The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka. He became the ruler in 78 AD and started Saka Era in 78 AD. The Capital of Kanishka was Peshawar or Kanishka Purushapura. Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir.

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Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.

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India became ‘‘Greater India’’ under Samudra Gupta.

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Samudra Gupta was an accomplished Veena player.

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Chandragupta II the greatest of Gupta rulers was popularly known as Vikramaditya.

Historically Important Places Ayodhya Birth place of Sri Rama (UP) Amber Palace Rajasthan Aghakhan Palace Pune (Maharashtra) (Gandhi and Kasturba were kept in prison here) Kedarnath Holy place of Hindus (Utharanchal) Amarnath Pilgrim centre (Kashmir) Elephanta caves Near Mumbai Ellora Caves Maharashtra - 34 cavetemples (Hindu, Buddha - Jaina) Rajgir Jain Temple in Bihar Golden Temple Amritsar - Harmandir Sahib of Sikhs Golgumbus Bijapur (Karnataka) Tomb of Muhammed Adil Shah Tanjore Capital of Cholas Brihadveswara Temple Charminar Hyderabad (Monument of Plague eradication) Konark Temple Orissa (Sun Temple) Qutab Minar Delhi Khajuraho Near Bhopal (M.P.) 80 temples Mahabalipuram Centre of Pallava architecture (Tamil Nadu) Kurukshetra Battle of Mahabarata (in Haryana) TajMahal Agra (UP) Built by Shah Jahan Sanchi Buddhist Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) Haridwar Holy Place of Hindus (Uttaranchal)

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Scholars like, Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka and Nagarjuna were the courtiers of Kanishka. The Gandhara School of Art received royal patronage under the Kushans. Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of Buddhism. Kanishka is righty called the ‘Second Ashoka’ Kanishka was the first king who inscribed the image of Lord Buddha on his coins. Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD. The first month of Saka era is Chaithra and the last month is Phalguna. Vasudeva was the last great king of Kushana Dynasty. Kushana school of art is also referred to as the Mathura school.

Gupta Empire (320 - 540 AD) Gupta Empire was founded by Sri Gupta.

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Ghatotkacha was the second ruler.

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Chandra Gupta I was the real founder of the Gupta Empire. He came to the throne in 320 AD.

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He was the first ruler to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja.

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He laid the foundation of Gupta Era on 26 February 320 AD.

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Samudra Gupta succeeded Chandragupta I in 335 AD.

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The Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by Harisena contains information about Samudragupta’s conquests.

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Allahabad Pillar inscription is also known as ‘Prayagaprasasti’.

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Samudra Gupta is also known as ‘Linchchavi Dauhitra’’. (son of the daughter Kumaradevi of Lichchavis)

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Samudra Gupta is described as ‘Indian Napoleon’ by V.A. Smith.

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Samudra Gupta composed ‘‘Vahukabita’’ and had the title ‘‘Kaviraja’’.

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He adopted the title ‘Sakari’ after his victory over Rudradaman II of Gujarat.

belonged to the Gupta period. Aryabhatta was the first to use Decimal System.

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Fa hein, the Chinese traveller, visited India during his period.

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Panchsidhanta, Brihat Jataka, Laghu Jataka and Brihat Samhita are the works of Varahamihira.

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The exploits of Chandragupta II are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar.

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The best specimen of the Gupta paintings are seen at Ajanta caves and the Bhaga caves.

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Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya as a mark of his victory over the Sakakshatraps.

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The Gupta period marked the beginning of Indian temple architecture.

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‘Nine gems’ or ‘Navratnas’ was a famous Scholastic Assembly in the court of Chandragupta II. The members in the Ninegems were - Kalidasa, Kadakarbhara, Kshapanaka, Varahmihira, Vararuchi, Vethalabhatta, Dhanvantari, Ammarasimha, Sanku.

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Guptas issued large number of gold coins in India.

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Guptas largely patronised art and architecture.

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Guptas patronised the Gandhara school of art, Madhura School of Art and the Andhra School of Art.

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I.

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The Fresco paintings in the Ajanta caves are examples of the art of the Guptas.

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Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great ruler of Gupta Empire.

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The chief source of income was land revenue.

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Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the only hero in Asia and Europe who defeated the Hunas in their glorious period.

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The position of women declined during the Gupta period.

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A renowned physician of the Gupta period was Vaghbhatta

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Vishnu Gupta was the last ruler who died in 570 AD.

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Mantriparishad assisted the king in administration.

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Most important Industry of the Gupta period was textile.

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Period of the Gupta is compared to ‘Periclean Age of Greece’, ‘Augustan Age of Rome’ and ‘Elzabethan Age of England’.

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Period of the Guptas is considered as the Golden Age in the history of India.

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Earlier Guptas had their capital at Prayag in Allahabad, later it was shifted to Ujjain by Chandragupta II.

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Nalanda and Taxila were the two universities of this period.

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Kalidasa is generally called ‘‘Indian Shakespeare’ and the ‘Prince of Indian Poets’.

Kalidasa

Books on Sciences Chandra Vyakaran ............... Chandragomin Amar Kosh .............................. Amar Singh Niti Shastra ............................... Kamandak

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The most important officers in the Gupta empire were Kumaramatyas.

Kamasutra ................................ Vatsya yana

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The royal seal of the Guptas bore the emblem of Garuda.

Ashtanga Hridaya ...................... Vaghbhatta

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Aryabhatta was the first to treat Mathematics as a separate subject. He wrote Aryabhattiyam. He

Sankhyakarika ...................... Iswarkrishna

Panchasiddhantika ................ Varahamihira Hastyaurveda ............................... Pulkapya

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They were defeated by Skanda Gupta.

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In the last quarter of the 5th century AD, the Hunas established an independent kingdom in the Punjab. Toramana and Mihirakula were important Huna leaders. In 510 AD Bhanu Gupta defeated Toramana. Narasimha Gupta defeated Mihirakula.

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The Hunas gave rise to the Kshatriya Rajaputs.

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Sialkot was Mihirakula’s capital.

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The Maitrakas of Valabhi 

They were of Iranian origin, they ruled Gujarat.

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Valabhi was their Capital.

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Siladitya I (606 - 612 AD) was the first independent king of Maithrakas.

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Their capital was Vidarbha.

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The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyasakthi.

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Vakatakas were Brahmins.

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Vakatakas were later defeated by the Chalukyas of Badani.

Harsha Vardhana (606 - 647AD)

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Hieun Tsang said Indians were ‘‘Truthful people although quick tempered’’

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Harsha’s biography ‘Harsha Charita’ was written by his court poet Banabhatta. He also wrote ‘Kadambari’.

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Harsha Vardhana was a poet and dramatist. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda are the works of Harshavardhana.

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Harsha Vardhana was defeated by the Chalukyan king Pulikeshin II in AD 634.

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Harshavardhanas empire was the last Buddhist empire in India.

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After Harsha, the Karkotas of Kashmir established their power.

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The Vakatakas established their power in Deccan.

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The Vakatakas (250-500 AD)

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The last Hindu Emperor of North India was Harshavardhana (Last Hindu king of Delhi was Prithviraj Chauhan) Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti Dynasty, also known as Vardhana Dynasty. The Pushyabhuti dynasty was founded by Pushyabhuti. Harsha came to power in 606 AD (Harsha Era)

He made Kanauj his new capital from Taneswar. Original name of Harsha was Siladitya. Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India during his reign. Harsha summoned a religious assembly at Prayag.

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The Huns were a nomadic and barberic race of Central Asia.

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The Hunas 

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Patanjali founded ‘Yoga Shastra’, a school of Hindu philosophy during this period.

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Mahendravarman I and Pulikeshin II were the contemporaries of Harshavardhana.

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Matanga, Divakar, Jayasena and Bhartrihari were the famous scholars in the court of Harshavadhana.

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Harsha founded the Harsha Era in 606 AD.

Chalukyas of Badami 

In 535 Pulikeshin I founded a small kingdom with the Capital at Vatapipura (Modern Badami)

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He was succeeded by Kirtivarman and Mangaleshna.

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Pulikeshin II was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The greatest achievement of Pulikeshin II was the defeat he inflicted on Harshavardhana. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman captured Vatapi and adopted the title ‘Vatapikonda’. Pulikeshin II defated the Pallavas and captured Kanchi. He also defeated Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Kirtivarman, the last ruler of this dynasty was defeated by the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyan

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Rashtrakutas 

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The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (615 - 1076)

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Simhavishnu was the founder of the Pallava dynasty. Narasimhavarman , a Pallava ruler, defeated Pulikeshin II and adopted the title Vatapikonda. Narasimhavarman I was called Mahamalla which meants a wrestler. The book Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by Narashimvarman I. The Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram (Seven Pagodas) were created by Narasimhavarman I. Dandin the author of Dasakumaracharitam, lived in the court of Narasimhavarman II. Narasimhavarman II was the most important ruler of the Pallava dynasty. He founded Kailasanatha Temple and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.

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Pallavas

The Rashtrakuta power was overthrown by Thiala II.

Pratiharas

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The Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (9731190 AD)

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rule came to an end in 757 AD. The magnificient temples of Belur and Halebid and the Elephanta caves were constructed during the Chalukyan period. From the Chronological point of view Chalukyas can be divided into four The Chalukyas of Vatapi (535 - 642 AD) The later Chalukyas of Vatapi (655 - 753 AD)

The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara - Pratiharas - belonging to the 36 clans of Rajputs. The dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I (725740) Nagabhatta II made Kanauj his capital. Pratihara ruler Mihir Bhoja adopted the title ‘Adivaraha’. Yashpal was the last ruler of this dynasty. Sulthan Muhammed of Ghazni entred Kanauj during the period of the Pratiharas.

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Elephanta caves

Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded by Dandidurga in 753 AD. With the capital at Manyakhed or Malkhed. Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I wrote ‘Kavirajamarga’ which is the earliest Kannada work on poetics. He also wrote Prasnottarmalika. The Kailasanath Temple at Ellora was founded by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I. Krishna III (940 -968) was the last great ruler of Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Palas 

The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD.

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Famous Odandapuri University was founded by Gopala.

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The Vikramsila and Sompur Universities were founded by the Pala king Dharmapala.

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The Pala power was destroyed by Vijayasena who founded the Sena dynasty.

Senas 

The Sena dynasty was founded by Vijayasena towards to end of 11th century. (1093)

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Senas had a capital in Vikrampura and another in Vijayapura.

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About the middle of 13th century the senas were overthrown by the Deva dynasty.

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Jayadeva, the author of Gitagovinda was patronized by Sena ruler Lakshmana Sena.

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Alexander : he was the ruler of Macedonia in Greece. He attacked India in 326 BC and captured upto river Bias.

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Ajatasatru : Son of Bimbisara. He established the city of Pataliputra.

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Arien : Greek historian who wrote about Alexander’s Indian invasion.

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Ashwaghosh : Buddhist monk who initiated Kaniskha to Buddhism wrote Buddha charita, Sutralankar and Sandaranand.

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AmarSimha : Sanskrit scholar in the court of Chandragupta who wrote Amarakosha.

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Aryabhatta : He analysed the reasons for Solar and Lunar eclipses and declared that the Earth is round. Wrote Aryabhattiyam.

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Bimbisar : Founded the Magadhan Empire or Haryanka dynasty. He was the first influential king of ancient India.

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Banabhatta : Court poet of Harshavardhana and author of Harsha Charita and Kadambari.

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Charak : He was an Ayurvedic expert wrote Charak-Samhita and established the Aitereya branch of Ayurvedic medicines.

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Amoghavarsha : He was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler.

The four Agnikula Rajputs were the Pratiharas, Chau-hans the Solankis and Paramaras. Chauhans had their capital at Ajmer and Delhi. Ajayaraya established the city of Ajayameru or Ajmer. The most prominent ruler was Prithviraj III (11771192). He defeated Muhammed of Ghore in the First Battle of Tarain (1191). But Ghore defeated and killed him in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192). Prithviraj Chauhan III was the last Hindu ruler of Delhi. Prithvi Raj Rao is the historical Kavya written by Chand Bardai.

The Chandela dynasty was founded by Yasovarman with Mahobas as the Capital

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The Khajuraho temples are the best examples of the Chandela art.

Cholas

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Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola empire. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi.

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Raja Raja I (985 - 1014) adopted the titles of Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva, Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc.

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He built the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur. which is called the RajaRajeswara temple.

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Rajendra I led an expedition to North India, defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala I and adtoped the title, Gangaikondachola and established a new Capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram.

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Cholas maintained a well established local - self government system. Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and Nagaram were the assemblies for local administration.

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The Uttaramerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava gives details about the local self government.

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The Chandelas of Bundelkhand

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Chauhans

Eminent Personalities of Ancient India

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Temples and Builders Kailas Temple at Ellora ........................ Krishna I Chunnakesava Temple, Belur .... Vishnuvardhana Rathas at Mahabilipuram ... Narashimhavarman I Brihadeswara Temple, Tanjavur ... RajaRaja Chola Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram ... Narasimha VarmanII Lingaraja Temple, Bhavaneswar ........................ ...................................... Eastern Gangarubs Karjuraho Temples ............................ Chandellas Rajarajeshwara Temple, Tanjavur ......... Raja raja I Meenakshi Temple at Madhurai .. Nayaka Rulers Shiva Temple at Tanjavur ........... Raja Raja Chola

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Mihirkula : Huna conqueror defeated by Yashodharma.

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Skand Gupt : Last mighty Gupta ruler.

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Darius I : The ruler of Iran (Persia) who invaded India in 6th century BC.

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Gautami Putra Shatakarni : He was the most famous Satavahana king in 2nd Century.

Shushrut : He was a doctor of Ayurvedic medicine. He started the Dhanwantri branch and was an expert in Plastic Surgery.

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Harisena : He was the writer of Pryaga Prashasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription.

Pulikeshin II. Most powerful king of Chalukyas of Vatapi who defeated Harshavardhana in North and Mahendravarman of South.

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Kharavel : Ruler of Kalinga in I century AD. The Famous Hathigumbha inscription belonged to him.

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Pushya Mitra sunga : He killed the last Mauryan ruler and laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty in 185 BC.

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Kanishka : (I century AD) : Most powerful Kushan king. Started Shaka Era. Organised fourth Buddhist council at Kundalvan near Kashmir.

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Pliny : He was a Roman historian who wrote the Natural History. He wrote about the Mauryas of India.

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Karikala : Chola ruler who founded the city of Puhar (Kaveri patanam) in I century BC.

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Panini : Sanskrit scholar specially of Grammar. He wrote Ashtadyayi.

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Kautilya : also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya. He wrote Arthasasthra, which is compared to ‘The prince’ of Machiavelli.

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Varahamihira : He was famous astronomer who wrote Brihat Samhita.

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Kalidas : Famous Sanskrit poet who wrote, Raghuvamsa, Kumara Sambhavam, Abhigyana Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam and Malavikagnimitram. He also wrote Meghadootam and Ritusamharam.

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Kamban : A Tamil poet of 11th century who wrote Ramayan in Tamil.

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Mihir Bhoja : Famous Prathihara ruler of 9th century.

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Kalhana - Famous Kashmiri poet and historian.He wrote Raja Tarangini.

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Marco Polo : Venitian Traveller to India in 13th century.

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Menander : He came to India as a foreign aggressor in II Century BC. MilindaPanho, a book written by Nagasena, is about him.

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Nagarjuna : Famous Buddhist monk. He popounded the philosophy known as Madhyamika.

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Makkali Gosala : Philosopher of 6th Century BC. H was the founder of Ajivika sect.

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Dhanananda : He was a powerful king of Magadha. Alexander did not go forward to invade Magadha only after hearing his reputation.

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Sankaracharya : He was born in Kaladi in Kerala. He propagated Advaita Philosophy.

Selected Questions from Ancient Indian History The source of Swastika symbol Indus Valley Who is considered as the father of Indian archaeoloy Alexander Cunningham Meter scale has been discovered from ......... Harappa Weapon never used by the Indus people Sword What was the major industry in Chanhudaro? Bead making The word ‘Sindhan’ used by the Indus people denoted Cotton Evidence of fractional burial has been excavated from Harappa

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Wheat

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First reference about lending money for interest can be found in

Barley

Satpatha Brahmana

Term used to denote rice in the vedic text Vrihi

Rigvedic paintings have been discovered from Bhagvanpura. It is in which state ‘

Vedic term sita denoted

Hariyana

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The famous frog hymn in Rig Veda throws light to

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The term ‘Bharata’ and ‘Bharatavarsha’ were first used in

Mara Three daughters of ‘Mara’ The ruler who persecuted Buddhists Major philosophic school of Bhagvatism Earliest reference about Srikrishna can be found in Chandoghya Upanishad

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Upanishad which mentions the four Ashramas of Vedic period

Hindu God who found place in Greek literature Sri Krishna

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Jain Thirthankara, who was related to Sri Krishna Rishabhadeva (Ist Thirthankara)

Largest number of hymns in Rigveda a are in praise of Indra

Who is considered as Devil by the Buddhists

Vishishtadvaita

Vedic term ‘Aghanya’ denotes

Jabala Upanishad 

Ananda

Pushyamitrasunga 

Rig Veda 

Who is considered as the St.John of Buddhism

lust, emotion and desire

Who spread Aryan religion in South India

Cows 

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Agasthya 

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Part of which veda has prose part Yajur Veda

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Method used to calculate the number of cows in the Vedic period Ashtakarni

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Rigvedic term ‘Duhitri’ denoted Milker of cows

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The language used by the Jains to spread their religion Prakrit

Varuna 

Community which was considered as untouchables by the Buddhists. Chandalas

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Who was considered as the god of the vedas?

God who was considered as God of Gods Varuna

Vedi terms ‘Urvara’ or ‘kshetra’ denoted

Vedic education 

Upanishad which mentions about police system Brihadaranyaka Upanishads

Which veda mentions about wheel

Cultivated field 

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Rigveda 

Kausambi

‘Yava’ denoted

Ploughed field 

First town in the vedic period to use burned bricks

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The word ‘godhume’ used in the vedic period denote

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Tamil god of the Sangham age for War and Victory Kottavai

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The Arab conquest of Sindh was led by Muhammed Bin Kassim.

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Muhammed Bin Khasim was the nephew of AlHajaj, the governor of the Arab province of Basra.

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Dahir, a Brahmin was the ruler of Punjab at that time. He was killed by Kassim.

First Sangham was founded by

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The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.

Saint Agasthya

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Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of Islam to North India.

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But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.

Lakulisa 

Tamil kingdom of the Sangham Age which sent an ambassador to the court of Roman Emperor Augusts Pandyas

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Famous poetess of the Sangham period Avvaiyar

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Greeco-Roman traders who visited South India during the Sangham period were denoted with the term Yavanas

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Sangham work which describes about Buddhism

Turkish Invasions 

Ghazni in Afghanistan was ruled by a Turkish family called Gamini of Ghaznavid dynasty.

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Muhammed Ghazni was the first Turkish conqueror of North India.

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Muhammad Ghazni’s father was Subu ktigin.

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The word used by Ashoka to denote Buddha Bhagavati Ashokan inscriptions were desciphered by James prince in the year 1837

Indo-Greek ruler who had his boundaries upto Pataliputra

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Edict which mentions about the relation between India and China

The most important raid of Muhammed was the Somanath expedition. It was in 1025. He completely distroyed the temple. Somanath Temple was on the sea coast of Gujarat.

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Muhammed Ghazni died in 30th April 1030.

Nagarjunakonda

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Later his son Masud attacked India and caputred Kashmir.

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The famous Persian poet Firdausi who wrote ‘Shahnama’ (The Book of Kings) lived in his court.

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Alberuni, an Arab Historian, who wrote Tarikhul-Hind (Reality of Hindustan), accompanied Muhammed Ghazni to India.

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Al-Firdausi is known as ‘Indian Homer’, ‘Persian Homer’, or ‘The Immortal Homer of the East’.

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He defeated Jaipal and Anandpal of Shahi dynasty in 1001 and 1009 respectively.

Yuchi ruler who introduced gold coins for the first time

MEDIEVALINDIA Arab Conquest of Sindh 

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He attacked India seventeen times between 1000 and 1027 AD. He made all the raids in the guise of Jihad.

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Vima Kadphesus 

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First Invasion was in 1001 AD.

Menander 

He attacked India only for want of wealth.

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Saint who founded the Saivism

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During the Khaliphate of Omar, Arab forces made fertile attempts to get Bombay Arabs captured Sindh in 712 AD.

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Muhammed of Ghore attacked India betwen 1175 and 1206 AD.

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He was known as ‘Lakh Baksh’ or ‘giver of lakhs’ or ‘giver of favours’ for his magnanimity.

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Muhammed Ghori made his first expedition to India and captured multan in 1175 AD.

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Hasan Nizami was a famous historian in the court of the Aibak.

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In the First Battle Tarain in 1191 (near Taneswar) Muhammed Ghori was defeated by the Rajput forces under Prithviraj Chauhan III.

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In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD) Muhammed Ghori assisted by Qutub -ud-din Aibek a slave, defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III and killed him.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak started the construction of Qutub Minar in 1199 in Delhi in memory of the Sufi saint Quaja Qutub - ud-din Bhaktiar Kaki. Its construction was completed by Ithumish. It is a five storied building.

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Qutub-ud-din Aibak died 1210 by falling from horseback while playing Polo.

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After the death of Qutubuddin, Aram Shah ascended the throne but he was deposed by Ilthumish and crowned himself the Sulthan.

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During the period of Ilthumish (1210-1236) Chengizkhan, the Mongole conqueror attacked India (1221). Chengizkhan

Muhammed Ghori returned from India by intrusting his territories in India in the hands of QutubUddin Aibak. After the death of Ghori in 1206 Aibek founded the Slave Dynasty.

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Muhammed Ghoris Indian invasion resulted in the foundation of Islamic rule in India.

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Delhi Sultanate

The five dynasties which founded subsequently after the Turkish invasion were collectively known as Delhi sulthanate. They are:

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Slave Dynasty ..................... 1206 - 1290

Khilji Dynasty .................... 1290 - 1320 Tughlaq Dynasty ................. 1320 - 1412 Sayyid Dynasty ................... 1414 - 1451 Lodi Dynasty ....................... 1451 - 1526

Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290) 

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In 1193 Muhamed Ghori attacked Jaichand, father in law of Prithviraj . III at Kanauj, Jaichand was defeated.

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Important Court Scholars

Kalidasa .......... Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) Banabhatta ............................ Harshavardhana Alberuni ............................ Muhammed Ghazni Firdausi ............................. Muhammad Ghazni Amir Khusru ........................... Alauddin Khilji Todarmal ............................................... Akbar Tansen .................................................. Akbar Birbal .................................................... Akbar Mansingh ............................................. Akbar Abul Fazal ............................................. Akbar

Slave Dynasty was also called Ilbari Dynasty, Yamini Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty.

Ashva Ghosha ................................. Kanishka Amara Simha ......................... Chandragupta II

Qutub-ud-din Aibak was a slave of Muhammed Ghori and he founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206 AD.

Chand Bardai ...................... Prithviraj Chauhan

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Aibak was the first Muslim ruler of India.

Harisen ................................... Samudra Gupta

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The capital of Qutub-ud-din Aibak was at Lahore

Tenali Rama ........................ Krishnadeva Raya

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Revikirti ....................................... Pulikeshin II Dhanwantari .......................... Chandragupta II

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Khilji Dynasty (1290 -1320) 

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The Chalisa or forty established by Ilthumish was abolished by Balban. His policies are considered to be ‘Draconian’. He started the Iranian system of Sajda and Piabos. He was a patron of men of letters and showed special favour to the poet Amir Khusrau. After Balban’s death in 1286, Kayqubad (1287 -90) became the Sulthan. Madhavacharya of the Dwaita Philosophy got help from Balban. Balban’s Tomb is situated in Delhi. It was constructed by Balban himself. Kayqubad was the last Slave Sulthan. (Kayumars who ruled for a term of three months was actually the last Slave Sulthan. He was killed by Jalaluddin Khilji) and founded the Khilji Dynasty.

Khilji dynasty was founded by Malik Firoz in 1290 and assumed the title Jalaluddin Khilji (129096) In 1292 the Mongols under Abdulla accepted defeat from Jalaluddin Khilji. Alauddin Khilji, the nephew of Jalaluddin Khilji, killed him after his victory on Devagiri in 1296. Alauddin Khilji’s early name was Ali Gurushap. He became the Sulthan in 1296 AD and ruled till 1316 Alauddin Khilji AD.

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Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of Delhi Sulthanate. Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of Delhi Sulthanate Ilthumish was the first Sulthan of Delhi to get recognition of the Khalif of Bagdad. Ilthumish was also the first Sulthan to make Delhi his capital. He issued a purely Arabic coinage of Silver and was the first to do so. Coins introdued by Ilthumish, ‘Silver Thanka’ and ‘Copper Jital’ were the two basic coins of the Sulthanate period. He organised the ‘Chalisa’ or the famous Turkish forty to help him in the administration. Iltumish completed the construction of Qutub Minar. The revenue system of the Sulthanate ‘Iqta system’, was introduced by Ilthumish. Ilthumish was succeeded by his son Ruknuddin Firoz Shah. But he was later executed and Razia became the sulthan (daughter of Ilthumish) Sulthana Raziya, the only women ruler of, the Sultanate came to power in 1236 and reigned till 1240. Sulthana Raizya rejected the Pardah, she adorned the male dress and held open courts. In October 14, 1240 both Razia and Altunia who earlier raised arms against Razia but later joined with her were, beheaded at Kaithal. After Raizya Behran Shah (1240 - 42) Allaud-dinMasudshah (1242 - 46) and Naziruddin Muhammad (1246 - 1266) ruled and Balban, the founder of the second Ilban dynasty, became the Sulthan. Ghiasuddin Balban ‘a slave water carreer, huntsman, noble, statesman became the Sulthan of Delhi in 1266 and continued in power till 1686 AD. Balban is considered as the founder of Second Ilbary Dynasty. Balban described himself as ‘shadow of God’ or the ‘viceregent of God on Earth’ (Zil-i-illahi) Balban because of his autocratic rule is considered as a ‘typical oriental despot’.

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In 1303 Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor, the capital of Mewar, to marry Padmini the wife of Chittor king Ratna Singh. But Padmini and other Rajput women committed Juhar (Juhar is a mass suicide by Jumping into fire, committed by Rajput women to escape from being polluted by others) Padmavat is a historical kavya about Padmini episode written by Malik Muhammed Jayasi. Malik Muhammed Jayasi was the court poet of Shersha Suri. Alauddin Khilji was the first Muslim ruler to at-

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Tughlaq Dynasty was founded by Ghiazuddin Tughlaq. His real name was Ghazi Malik.

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Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.

IMPORTANT DYNASTIES IN INDIAN HISTOY MAURYANEMPIRE .............. 322 BC - 185 BC Chandragupta Maurya ........... BC 322 - 297 BC Bindusara .............................. 297 BC - 274 BC Ashoka ................................. 274 BC - 237 BC KUSHANAEMPIRE .............. 20 AD - 225 AD Kanishka ............................... 78 AD - 120 AD Gupta Empire ........................ 320 AD - 606 AD Chandragupta I .................... 320 AD - 330 AD Samudra Gupta ..................... 330 AD - 380 AD Chandra Gupta II .................. 380 AD - 413 AD VARDHANA DYNASTY ...... 580 AD - 647 AD Harsha Vardhana .................. 606 AD - 647 AD SLAVE DYNASTY ........... 1206 AD - 1290 AD Qutubuddin Aibak .................. 1206 - 1210 AD Ilthumish ................................ 1210 - 1236 AD Raziya Sulthana ...................... 1236 - 1240 AD Balban .................................... 1266 - 1286 AD KHILJI DYNASTY ................ 1290 - 1320 AD Alauddin Khilji ....................... 1296 - 1316 AD TUGHLAQ DYNASTY .......... 1320 - 1412 AD Muhammed Bin Tughlaq ......... 1325 - 1351 AD LODHI DYNASTY ................ 1451 - 1526 AD Ibrahim Lodi ............................ 1517 -1526 AD MUGHAL EMPIRE ...... 1526 - 1540, 1555-1857 Babar ..................................... 1526 - 1530 AD Humayun ................. 1530-1540, 1555-1556 AD Akbar ..................................... 1556 - 1605 AD Jahangir ................................. 1605 - 1627 AD Shahjahan ................................ 1628-1658 AD Aurangazeb ............................ 1658 - 1707 AD Bahadurshah II ....................... 1837 - 1857 AD

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Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 - 1412)

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Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak shah Khilji was killed by Khusrau Khan. Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the last Khilji Sulthan.

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tack South India. Malik Kafur was Alauddin Khilji’s Commander who attacked South India. Alauddin Khilji was the most famous ruler of the Khilji Dynasty. Alauddin was the Sulthan of Delhi who banned the use of liquor. Alauddin had a dream of a World Conquest so he assumed the title ‘Sikhandar-i-sani’ or Second Alexander. Demitrius a Bactrian ruler is popularly known as Second Alexander. Alauddin abolished the Zamindari System and imposed tax on cattle. He was the first muslim ruler of Delhi to introduce measurement of land for tax assessment. His market regulations were to get goods at controlled price to the people of Delhi. Alauddin Khilji was the first Sulthan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He was also the first to proclaim ‘‘I am the Khalifa’’. Alauddin constructed Alai Darwaza the gate way of Qutub Minar. He built the city of Siri, the second of the seven cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar. The first marriage between a muslim ruler and a Hindu princess was between Alauddin and Kamala Devi, the widow of the ruler of Gujarat. Alauddin Khilji was killed by his commander Malik Kafur by poisoning. Amir Khusru was the court poet of Alauddin Amir Khusru is known as the ‘Parrot of India’ He is considered as the father of Urdu language and the inventor of Sitar. Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are the famous works of Amir Khusru. Alauddin khilji was the first Sulthan to maintain a permanent standing army. Alauddin Khilji was responsible for the introduction of postal system in medieval India. Mubarak shah khilji was the last ruler of the khilji Dynasty.

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Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion.

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He built the Tughlaqabad Fort in Delhi the third city of Delhi to the east of Qutub complex.

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Ghiassudhin Tughlaq was the first Sulthan to start irrigation works.

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GhiassuddinTughlaq was succeeded by his son Jauna Khan, popularly known as Muhammed Bin Tughlaq.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451) 

Muhammed Bin Tughlaq is considered as the single most responsible person for the decline of Delhi Sulthanate.

Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan in 1414.

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Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was known as a mixture of opposites, wisest fool, Pagal padushah, unfortunate idealogue and the predecessor of Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.

Last Sayyid Sulthan was Alauddin Alamshah or Shah Alam I. He was killed by Bahalol Lodhi in 1451.

Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)

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He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in 1327.

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In 1330 he introduced token currency of bronze and copper.

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Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India during his period.

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Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of moneyers’.

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Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his elderly cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

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Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sulthan of Delhi to impose Jaziya. It was a religious tax for the freedom of worship. He imposed it only upon Brahmins.

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He built the city of Firozbad in Delhi. The Firoz shah Kotla was also built by him. The gate way of Firozshah Kottla is Khooni Darwaza, or blood stained gate. It was constructed by Shersha Suri.

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He transplanted two Ashokan Pillars to Firozabad.

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He is the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi

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After Firozshah Tughlaq Muhammed Shah Tughlaq or Naziruddin Muhammed came to the throne.

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It was during the period of his reign that Timur

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Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi in 1451. The dynasty lasted upto 1526. Lodhi dynasty was the first Afghan dynasty or first Pathan dynasty in India. Sikhandar Lodhi, who ruled from 1489 to 1517 shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra. Sikhandar Lodhi is considered as the Maker of Agra City. Last Lodhi Sulthan or last Delhi Sulthan was Ibrahim Lodhi. Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar defeated him. His brother Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babar to India to defeat Ibrahim Lodhi in 1524. Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 April 21. The title Sulthan was started by the Turkish rulers. Muhammed Ghazni was the first to assume the title Sulthan. The official language of the Delhi Sulthanate was Persian.

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Ibn Batuta called him ‘‘an illstared idealist’’.

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Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the governor of Multan his authority in India.

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the Lame or Tamerlain a Turkish conqueror of Tartar tribe from Samarkhand attacked India in 1398.

Bahmani and Vijayanagara Kingdoms The decline of the Sulthanate of Delhi gave birth to two mighty states in South India the Bahmani Kingdom of Gulbaraga and the Vijayanagara Empire. The Bahmanis were Muslim rulers, while the rulers of the Vijayanagar were Hindus. The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Zafar Khan (Hassan) who took the title of Alauddin

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Vijaya Nagara Empire

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‘Ashtadiggajas’ was the famous Scholastic Assembly in the court of Krishna Deva Raya.

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Vijayanagar Empire was visited by many foreign travellers.

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Nicolo Conti - Venitian traveller, visited during the reign of Devaraya I.

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Abdur Razzak : Ambassador of Sulthan ShahRukh to the court of Devaraya II.

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Damingos Paes : He visited Krishna Devaraya’s court.

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Ferona Nuniz : A Portuguese who visited during Achyuta Raya’s reign.

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Durate Barbosa : A portuguese who visited Krishnadeva Raya’s court.

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The founders of Vijaya Nagar Empire were Harihara and Bukka Rai, the revenue officers of the Kakatiya ruler Pratap Rudra Deva II of Warrangal.

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Allasani Peddanna, a Telugu poet was a courtier of Krishna Deva Raya. He is considered as the ‘‘Andra Kavita Pitamaha’’ the Grand Father of Telugu poetry.

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They founded the dynasty in 1336 with the capital as Vijaya Nagara on the banks of Tungbhadra river witht the help of Saint Vidyaranya.

The Mughal Empire The Mughals were originally Turks.

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They belonged to the Chaghtai branch of the Turkish race.

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Period of the Mughal empire is known as Second Classical Age. First Classical Age is the period Guptas.

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Mughal Empire is also known as Timurid Empire because of its relation to Amir Timur.

Aravidu (1565 - 1672)

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Krishna Deva Raya (1509 1529) belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. The Italian traveller Nicolocont visited his court.

Mughal Emperors are 20 in number. They ruled India from 1526 to 1857. Only six are considered great They are:

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Zahiruddin Muhammed Babur (1526 - 1530)

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Naziruddin Mirza Muhammed Humayun (1530 40 & 1555 - 1556)

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Jalaluddin Muhammed Akbar - (1556 - 1605)

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Nuruddin Muhammed Jahangir (1605 - 1627)

Vijayanagara kingdom lasted for 230 years and produced four dynasties. Sangama (1336 - 1485) Saluva - (1485 - 1505) Tuluva (1505 - 1565) and

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Athenasius Nikitin (1415) : He was a Russian, who visited during Deva Raya I’s period He wrote, ‘Voyage to India’.

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He wrote Ushaparinayam and Amuktamalyada

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Bahman Shah. He selected Gulbaraga as its capital and renamed it Ahsanabad. There were total eighteen Sulthans and they ruled from 1347 to 1527. Muhammed Gawan was the famous minister of Bahmini kingdom. The last prince of the Bahmani Kingdom was Kalimullah. By 1527, the Bahmani kingdom was split up into five independent principalities. The Adil Shahis of Bijapur -founder - Yusuf Adilshah (1489 - 90) The Nizam Shahis of Ahamadnagar - founder Malik Ahmad (1499) The Imadshahis of Berar - founder -Fateh Ulla Imadshanti (1490) The Qutubshahi kingdom of Golconda - founder - Qutabshah (1512) The Baridshahis of Bidar - founder - Amir Ali Barid (1527).

Krishnadeva Rayar is known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’

Krishnadeva Rayar

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Shahabuddin Muhammed Shah Jahan (1628 1658)

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Muhiyuddin Muhammed Aurangazeb Alamgir (1658 - 1707)

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Babur said ‘I dont like India and Indians’.

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Babur was the first Mughal ruler to keep in hand the Kohinur Diamond.

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Babur was a contemporary of Krishnadeva Raya of Vijaya Nagara Empire.

Babur

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Humayun was born in 1507 in Kabul as the son of Babur and Mahim Sulthana.

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He became the Mughal Emperor on 29 December 1530 at the age of 23.

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He divided the empire among his brothers - Askari, Hindal and Kamran.

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The word ‘Humayun’ means Humayun ‘fortunate’ But Human is considered as the most unfortunate Mughal ruler.

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Humayun

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Human was an accomplished mathematician and astronomer.

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In 1539 by the Battle of Chausa, Humayun was defeated for the first time by Shershah Suri.

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In the next year (1540) Shershah completely defeated Humayun in the battle of Kanauj and founded the Sur dynasty.

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After the lapse of 15 years Humayun re-captured the Empire by defeating the last Sur ruler Sikhandar Shah Suri by the battle of Sirhindh in 1555, July. After the restoration Humayun ruled for only six months. The period from 1540 to 1555 is known as the period of temporary eclipse of the Mughal. Humayun died by an accidental fall from the straicase of his Library ‘Shermandal’ at the Puranakwila in Delhi on 24 January 1556. The Purnakwila was constructed by Humayun but its construction was completed by Shershah. Humayun’s biography Humayun Namah was written by Humayun’s sister Gulbadan Begum. The language used to write this biography was a mixture of Turkish and Persian.

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Babur was born in Farghana in Turkey on 14 Feb. 1483 as the som of Umer Sheik Mirza ad Babur Qulik Nigarkhanum. Babur’s father Umershiek Mirza was the grand son of Amir Timur and the ruler of Farghana. Babur became the ruler of Samarkhand at the Age of 11. He captured Kabul in 1504. Then Babur attacked India 5 times for want of wealth. Babur’s first Attack of India was in 1519 Bhera was the first place captured by Babur. In 1524 Daulatkhan, Ibrahim Lodhi’s brother invited Babur to India. On 21 April 1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, the last Lodhi Sulthan in the First Battle of Panipat. On 16 March 1527 he defeated Rana Sangha of Mewar, in the Battle of Khanwa. The Rajputs in 1528 under Medini Raj of Malwa fought against Babur in the Battle of Chanderi, but were defeated. In 1529 the Afghans under Muhammed Lodhi fought against Babur in the Battle of Ghaghra but were defeated. In 1530 December 26, Babur died and was cremated at Kabul. Babur was the first to use Artillery in India.

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Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was the fifth descendant of Timur on Father’s side and the fourteenth descendant of Chengizkhan on mothers side.

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His memoirs or autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnamah was written in Turkish language, Babur’s mothertongue.

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In 1533 Humayun built the city of Dinpana (world refuge) in Delhi.

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Humayun’s tomb is situated in Delhi (first building in India having double domes)

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Humayun tomb is known as predecessor of Tajmahal, because Taj was modelled after this, also known as a dormitory of the house of Timur. Mirak Mirza Ghias is its architect.

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Mother - Hamida Bhanu Begum

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Step mother - Magam Anaga

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Guardian - Bairam Khan

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First Guardian - Munim Khan

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Akbar was born at Amarkot in Sindh in 23 Nov. 1542.

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He came to the throne on February 14, 1556 at the age of 14 at Kalanur. Hemu the Hindu Prime Minister of Muhammed Adilshah of Bihar occupied Agra and accepted the title Maharaja Vikramaditya. Akbar killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Paniput in 1556 November 2.

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In 1583 he started a new Calendar called Ilahi Calendar.

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In 1576 Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap of Mewar in the battle of Haldighat. Haldighat is a mountain pass in the Aravally hills in Rajasthan.

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The Portuguese introduced tobacco for the first time in India in the court of Akbar in 1604.

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Akbar was the Mughal Emperor when the English East India Company was being founded in 1600 December 31.

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Akbar died in 1605.

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His tomb is situated at Sikhandra near Agra.

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Akbar was an illiterate person, but he was a patron of men of eminence. He maintained a Scholastic Assembly in his court. They included the following personalities.

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Abul Fazal : Akbar’s court historian who wrote Akbar’s biographical works Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Namah..

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Abul Faizi : Persian poet and brother of Abul Fazal. He translated Mahabharata into Persian in name ‘Razam Namah’ and Bhaskaracharya’s mathematical work Leelavati into Persian. Mian Tansen : His original name was Ram Thanu Pande. He was the court Musician of Akbar. He composed a Raga, Rajdarbari in honour of Akbar. Birbal : His real name was Mahesh Das. He is the court jester of Akbar.

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In 1582 Akbar founded a new religion for universal peace and monotheism known as ‘Din Ilahi’ means Divine Faith.

Akbar became an independent ruler at the age of 18 in 1560, after dismissing Bairamkhan. Later he married Bairam Khans widow Salima Begum. In 1561 he defeated the musician Sulthan of Malwa - Baz Bahadur.

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Akbar

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Father - Humayun

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In 1562 Akbar married Joda Bhai, the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber In 1564, he abolished the religious tax Jaziya. Jaziya was impossed for the first time by Firozshah Tughlaq. In 1572 he captured Gujarat and in memory of that he built a new capital city Fathepur sikri (city of Victory) near Agra. The early name of Fathepur Sikri was city of Sikri. Buland Darwaza is the gate way of Fathepur Sikri, built by Akbar.

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Akbar the Great

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In 1575 Akbar constructed a prayer house in Fathepur Sikri known as Ibadatkhana. In 1579 he issued the Infallibility Decree by which he made himself the supreme head in religious matters. In 1580 the first Jesuit missionaries arrived at the court of Akbar. In 1585 Ralph Fitch the first English man to reach India, reached Akbar’s court. Ralph Fitch is known as pioneer English man or torch bearer Englishman.

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Page 35 of 191

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Period of Jahangir is considered as the Golden Age of Mughal Painting. Jahangir himself was a painter. Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan were famous painters in the court of Jahangir.

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Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in Srinagar.

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Jahangir suspended a chain of Justice known as Zndiri Adal infront of his court.

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Anarkali was Jahangair’s lover. Mughal-i-Asam directed by K. Asif is a famous film which tells the love story of Jahangir and Anarkali. Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh -iJahangiri in Persian language.

Jahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at Shahdhara in Lahore.

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Mughal - Rajput friendly relation began during the period of Akbar.

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Akbar was an accomplished Sitar player.

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Early name of Jahangir was Salim. Akbar called him Sheika Baba.

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Jahangir came to the throne in 1605.

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Jahangir was the son of Akbar and Jodabai.

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He married Mehrunnisa, an Afghan widow in 1611 Later he Jahangir gave her the titles, Noor Mahal (light of the palace) Noor Jahan (light of the world) and Padusha Begum.

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In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of Jahangir as the first ambassador of James I of England in the court of Jahangir. As a result of his efforts first English factory was established at Surat in Gujarat.

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Jahangir

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In 1609, Jahangir received William Hawkins, an envoy of King James I of England, who reached India to obtain trade concession.

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Maharaja Mansing : Akbar’s military commander. Badauni : a historian who translated Ramayana into Persian - Tarjuma -1-Ramayan. Tulasidas : Hindi poet who wrote Ramacharitamanas. Akbar’s military system was known as Mansabdari system, which included Ranks from 10 - 7000 Akbar was also responsible for the introduction Persian as Tulasidas the official language of Mughals. He divided the Mughal Empire into 12 Subahs (provinces) for the administrative conveniences. Akbar was also the first ruler to organise Hajj. Pilgrimage at the government expense. The Port Cambay in Gujarat is known as the ‘Gate way to Mecca from Mughal India’.

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Raja Todarmal : RajaTodarmal was Akbar’s finance or revenue minister. He formulated Akbar’s revenue system Zabti and Dashala systems. Raja Todermal also translated Bhagavatapurana into Persian.

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In 1606 Jahangir executed fifth Sikh Guru Guru Arjun Dev, because he helped Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel against him.

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Shah Jahan 

Shah Jahan was born on 5th January 1592 at Lahore.

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His mother was Jagat Gosain and his childhood name was Khurram.

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He married Arjumand Benu Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan, brother of Noor Jahan. She later Shah Jahan came to be known as Mumtaz Mahal which means beloved of the Palace.

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Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese settlements at Hoogly.

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Shah Jahan’s period is considered as the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture and Shah Jahan is known as the Prince of Builders.

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In 1631 he started the construction of Tajmahal in memory of his wife and completed in 1653. It is

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In 1639 he started the construction of Red fort in Delhi on the model of Agrafort built by Akbar. Its construction was completed in 1648. The Diwani-Am, Diwan-i-Khas and the Moti Masjid are situated inside the Red fort. The Mothi Masjid in Agra was constructed by ShahJahan. The INA Trial in 1945 was conducted at the Red Fort.

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The Gateway of Redfort is the Lahore Gate. It is here at the Lahore Gate that the Prime Minister of India hoists the National Flag and addresses the nation on the independence day.

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In 1656 ShahJahan constructed the Juma Masjid in Delhi. It is the biggest masjid in India. First masjid in India was constructed at Kodungallur in Kerala (Cheraman Palli) in 644 AD by Malik Ibn Dinar.

Shah Jahan’s period is known as the Golden Age of Mughal Empire.

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French travellers Bernier and Tavernier and Italian traveller Manucci visited India during ShahJahan’s period.

Aurangazeb 

Aurangazeb imprisoned his father and made himself the Padushah in 1658. But his actual coronation was conducted in 1659.

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Alamgir was the name adopted by Aurangazeb when he became the Padusha.

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Aurangazeb is known as ‘Zinda Pir’ or living saint because of his simple life.

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He banned music and dance.

Aurangazeb He ousted all the artists from his court. At the same time he was an accomplished Veena player.

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Aurangazeb was the last great Mughal Emperor.

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In 1675 he executed 9th Sikh Guru Guru Tej Behadur because of his reluctance to accept Islam.

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Teg Behadur was executed at the Chandni Chauk. In 1679 Aurangzeb constructed the tomb of his only wife Rubiad Daurani at Aurangabad in Maharashtra. It is known as Bibi ka Makabara. It is otherwise known as Mini Tajmahal as it was the blind imitation of Tajmahal. In the same year he reimpossed Jasya upon all the non Muslims, which was earlier abolished by Akbar. Aurangazeb called Shivaji a ‘mountain rat’ and gave him the title Raja because of his guerilla tactics. In 1660 he entrusted Shaisthakhan to defeat Shivaji. Later in 1665 the treaty of Purandar was signed between Maharaja Jaisingh of Amber and Shivaji Jaisingh was deputed by Aurangazeb.

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The Portuguese introduced European painting in India during the reign of Shah Jahan

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In 1658 Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangazeb and he died in 1666, after eight years. His daughter Jahan Ara was also kept in prison along with him at the Agra fort.

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Shah Jahan’s son Dhara Shukoe was a famous scholar. He translated Bhagavat Gita and Sixty Upanishads into Persian. He also wrote a book titled Mujm-ul-Behrain (Mingling of the Oceans) He also translated Atharva Veda into Persian.

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ShahJahan was a famous Lyricist. He wrote Lyrics in Hindi.

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In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital Shah Jahanabad in Delhi and shifted the capital from Agra to there.

The famous Peacock Throne was built by Shah Jahan. It was abducted from here by Nadirsha in 1739 during his Indian invasion (Persian conqueror). Now it is kept at the London Tower Museum, Britain.

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situated on the banks of Yamuna river in Uttar Pradesh. Utad Iza a Turkish/ Persian was its architect. British administrator Furgurson called it ‘a love in marble’. Now Sulphur Dioxide, emitted by oil refinaries in Madhura after mixing with moisture in the atmosphere forms Sulphuric Acid and damages the marble of Tajmahal.

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Later Mughals

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Ahmedshah’s (1748 -1754) period saw the mighty invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. Akbar Shah II (1806 - 1837) conferred the title ‘‘Raja’’ upon Ram Mohan Roy. Bahadurshah II (837-1862) was the last Mughal emperor. On 17th May 1857 Bahadurshah II was declared the independent Emperor of India by the Mutineers. He was surrendered to LtW.S.R. Hodson at Humayun’s Bahadurshah II Tomb in Delhi. In 1859 he was deported to Rangoon in December where he expired on Nov. 7, 1862. The Tomb of Bahadurshah II is in Pwin Manah, the capital of Myanmar.

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In 1739 Nadirshah Quli the Persian conqueror attacked India during the period of the Mughal Emperor Muhammed Shah or Rustan Khan (1719-1748) and took away ShahJahan’s famous Peacock Throne and Kohinoor Diamond.

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His family came to India from Afghanistan.

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He entered the service of Baharkhan Lohani of Behar from whom received the title of Sherkhan, for killing a lion single handed.

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Later he became a member of the Mughal court of Babur.

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In 1539 by the battle of Chausa, Sherkhan defeated Humayun for the first time and assumed the name Shershah.

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Later in 1540 he completely defeated Humayun in in the battle of Kanauj and founded the Sur dynasty.

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While directing the operations of his artillery at Kalanjar against the ruler of Bundelkhand Raja Kirat Singh, Shershah was seriously wounded by a sudden fire from his own artillery and died on May 22, 1545.

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Shershah constructed the Grand Trunk Road from Sohargaon to Attock (Calcutta to Amritsar)

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He introduced the National Highway concept for the first time in India.

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Now the Grand Trunk Road is known as Shershah Suri Marg. Its part from Delhi to Amritsar is known as National Highway -1.

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Grand Trunk Road is also known a ‘Long Walk’.

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He was the first ruler to introduce Silver Rupiya (one rupiya was equal to 64 dams) and gold coin Ashrafi.

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He built the Purana Qila in Delhi (its Construction was started by Humayun) and his own Mousoleum (Tomb) at Sasaram in Bihar.

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He also constructed the Khooni Darwaza (blood stained gate) the gate way of Firozshah Kotla in Delhi.

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Hindi poet Malik Muhammed Jayasi completed his Padmavat, during his reign.

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His Revenue system was excellent and hence Akbar’s administrative reforms were modelled after him. He is regarded as the forerunner of Akbar.

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Shershah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.

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Bahadurshah I came to the throne after the death of Aurangazeb. His real name was Muassam.

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His father was Hassan Khan

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The Mughal Rajput relation became worse during the period of Aurangazeb. Aurangazeb was the only Mughal Emperor who was not a drunkard. Aurangazeb is considered as religiously fanatic. He was also a temple breaker. He persecuted the Hindus and imposed prohibition against the free exercise of Holi and Divali. Aurangazeb died in 1707 February 20,at Ahmednagar. Aurangazeb’s tomb is situated at Daulatabad in Maharashtra.

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Bahadurshah II was also a famous Urdu Poet.

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Bahadurshah II was also known as Bahadurshah Zafar Zafar means gifted poet.

Shershah Suri 

Shershah’s original name was Farid.

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He was born in Hissar Firosa.

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The last Sur ruler was Sikkandar Shah Sur. Who was defeated by Humayun in 1555 by the battle of Sirhindh.

The Marathas

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The first great leader of the Marathas was Chatrapathi Shivaji.

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The Marathas became prominent in the later half of the 17th century. Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of the Marathas.

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Shaji Bhonsle and Jiga Bai were the Parents of Shivaji.

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He was born in 1627 February 19 at the fort of Shivner near Junnar.

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His father was a military commander under the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmedanagar and later of Bijapur.

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Shivaji

Shivaji’s tutor was Dadaji Kondadev. Shivaji received the help of Malavi tribe to capture the territories of Bijapur Sulthan. Torna was the first place captured by Shivaji in 1646. Shivaji came to conflict with the Mughals for the first time in 1657, during the period of Shah Jahan. In 1659 Bijapur Sulthan Ali Adilshah sent Afzal Khan to kill Shivaji. But he killed Afsal Khan. In 1660 Aurangazeb deputed his viceroy of Deccan, Shaisthakhan to kill Shivaji. 1665, Shivaji signed the treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh of Ambher, who was deputed by Aurangazeb. In 1666 Shivaji visited Aurangazeb in his court at Agra. But he and his son Sambaji were imprisoned by Aurangazeb in the Jaipur Bhavan. On 16th June 1674 Shivaji crowned himself an independent Hindu king became the Chatrapathi and assumed the title ‘Haidavadhasmodharak’. Shivaji died in 1680 at the age of 53. Shahu became the Chatrapathi in 1708 and his period witnessed the rise of Peshwaship.

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Balaji Vishwanath (1712 - 1720) Baji Rao (1720 40) Balaji BajiRao I (1740 - 61) and Madhav Rao I (1761 - 1772) were the Peshwas who ruled Maharashtra. Baji Rao popularised the idea of Hindu Padpadshahi or Hindu Empire. Balaji Baji Rao’s period witnessed the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In this battle Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan defeated the Marathas. Madhava Rao was the last great Peshwa. Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II. Madhava Rao’s period witnessed the disintegration of the Maratha power and the formation of independent kingdoms - Holkarofindor, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Sindhya of Gwalior and Gaekwad of Baroda. Shivaji’s Council of Ministers was known as Ashtapradhan. They were Peshwa, Pandit Rao, Sumant, Sachiva, Senapathi, Amatya, Mantri and Nyayadhyaksha. Peshwa was the Maratha Chief Minister. Chaudh and Sardesh Mukhi were two special laxes collected by the Marathas. The first Maratha war (1775 -82) Swai Madhav Rao Vs Raghunath Rao with English support. Second Maratha war 1803 - 05. Third Maratha war 1816 - 19. The last great Soldier and statesman of Maratha was Nana Phadavnis (1800) The Maratha script was called Modiscript. Peshwaship was abolished in 1818 Baji Rao was the ablest of the Peshwas. Shivaji did not allow women in his military camp. The Marathas were equipped with an efficient naval system under Shivaji.

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Sikhism   

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‘Sikh’ is a sanskrit word which means ‘desciple’ Sikh religion was founded by GuruNanak. Guru Nanak was born was born at Talwandi in Lahore, belonged to the Khatri Caste (Mercantile Community) Nanak called his creed as GuruNanak Gurumat or Guru’s wisdom.

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Govind Singh proclaimed the Grandh Sahib as the eternal Guru.

Renjith Singh (1780 - 1836) 

Renjith Singh became the ruler of Punjab in 1799.

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He assumed the title Maharaja in 1801.

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The 1809 the British and Renjith Singh made the Treaty of Amritsar during the period of Lord Minto

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In 1809 Shah Shuja the grand- Renjith Singh son of Ahmedshah Abdali presented the Kohinoor diamond to Ranjith Singh.

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Later Punjab was annexed to the British territories by Lord Dalhousie in 1849. Sir John Lawrence became the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab.

Seventh Guru was Har Rai. He was succeeded by Guru Harkishan. Har Kishan became the Guru at the age of five, hence he is the youngest Sikh Guru. The 10th and the last Guru, Govind Singh formed the Khalsa or the Sikh brotherhood. He introduced ‘Panchkakar’ of Sikhism -ie Kesh (long hair) Kanga (Comb) Kripan (Sword), Kachha (Underwear) and Kara (Iron bangk) He introduced baptism and wanted every Sikh to bear community surname ‘Singh’ or lion. His aim was the establishment of a Sikh State after overthrowing the Mughals. In 1708 he was killed by an Afghan. ‘Vichithra Natak’ is the autobiography of Guru Govind Singh.

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Kartarpur Dabir is the root form of Guru Grandh Sahib.

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GuruNanak was born in 1469 and died in 1538. He was the first Guru of the Sikhs. Nanak preached only in Punjabi. Nanak nominated Guru Angad as his successor. Guru Angad introduced Gurumukhi Script. He also compiled Guru Nanak’s biography Janam Sakis. Langar or free community dining was also introduced by Guru Angad. Third Sikh Guru was Amar Das. He started the Manji system ie, branches for the propagation of Sikhs. He made Guruship hereditory. Guru Ramdas was the fourth Sikh Guru. He founded the city of Amritsar. The place for the city was donated by Akbar. Under the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, Sikhism became an organised religion. He compiled the ‘Adi Grandh’ the sacred book of the Sikhs. He built a temple at Amritsar , (later the Golden Temple) Har Mandir Sahib. He helped Jahangir’s son Prince Khusru to rebel against the Emperor So he was executed by Jahangir at Lahore in 1606 AD. The sixth Guru Hargovind, created a Sikh army and turned against Shah Jahan. He founded a palace opposite to Harmandir Sahib known as ‘Akaltakt’. He also adopted the title Sacha Padusha, which means true ruler. (the title was not adopted by Teg Bahadur)

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The Sikhs fought two wars against the English First Anglo-Sikh War (1845- 1846) and the Second Anglo-Sikh war (1848 - 1849)

The Bhakti Movement 

Love and devotion to one personal God is the basic concept of Bhakti.

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The Alvars or Vaishanava saints and Nayanars or Saivite, saints became the promoters of Bhakti movement in South India. Ramanuja, a Vaishana saint of 12th century AD, was born at Sriperumbathur and founded philosophy of Vishistadvaita or qualified monism.

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Sikh Guru Guru Nanak .............................. 1469-1538 Guru Angad ........................... 1538 - 1552 Guru Amardas ........................ 1552 - 1574 Guru Ramdas .......................... 1574 - 1581 Guru Arjundev ....................... 1581 - 1606 Guru Hargovind ...................... 1606 - 1645 Guru Har Rai ........................... 1645 - 1661 Guru Har Kishan ....................... 1661-1664 Guru Teg Bahadur ..................... 1664-1675 Guru Govind Singh ................. 1675 - 1708

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Al Masudi - An Arabian traveller who came to India in 10th century AD.

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Al Beruni - He came to India with Muhammed Ghazni, his book, Tahrik-ul-Hindh.

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Abbas Khan Shervani : He was a historian of Shershahs time. He wrote Tarikh-1-Shershahi.

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Abul Fazal : He was a a great scholar poet Historian in the court of Akbar. He wrote Akbarnamah and Ain-i- Akbari.

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Bhaktiyar Khilji : Commander of Muhammed Ghori who conquered Bengal and crushed the Sena dynasty.

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Bhar Mal : He was the Rajput ruler of Amber. His daughter Jodabai was married to Akbar. Akbars commanders Bhangavandas and Mansingh were his son and grandson respectively.

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Famous Personalities in Medieval India

Sufism 

Mythical movement of the Muslims was known as Suficism.

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Sufi movement first came to India in the wake of Muhammed Ghazni’s invasion in the 11th century.

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Sufi orders are called Silsilahs.

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Chishti Silsilah was founded by Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmir.

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Sufism declined in the 17th Century.

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The leader of Bhakti movement or Hindu revivalism was Sankaracharya. His philosophy was Advaita or pure monism. He wrote Commentary on Brahmasutra and Upanishad. He founded four matts- Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri and Badrinath. Vallabhacharya promoted the philosophy of Pushtimarga. He was the founder of Sudhadvaita. The North India the Bakti movement was promoted by two sects of thought - the Saguna and Nirguna schools. Ramanand, born at Prayag preached Vaishnavaism. He was a followers of Ramanuja. Kabir (1398 -1458) a nirguna was born near Benaras. His followers started the ‘Kabirpanthis’. Tulasi Dasa (1532 - 1623) a worshipper of Rama compossed Ramcharithamanasa in Hindi. His other works are Kavitavali and Gitavali. Mirabai (1498 - 1509) a Rajaput princess hailed from the Sisodiya dynasty of Chittoor was a devotee of Lord Krishna. Her lyrics were written in Brijbhasha and in Rajasthani. Jnanadeva, Namadeva, Eknatha Tukaram and Samarth Ram Das were the leading Maratha saints of Bhakti movement. Jnanadeva founded the Maharashtra Dharma. His famous work ‘Jnaneswari’ is a commendarel on Bhagavatgita. Ekanath promoted the custom of singing Kirthana and he composed ‘abhangas’ or typical poems. Tukaram a contemporary of Shivaji was the promoter of Maratha nationalism. Samarth Ramdas, the spiritual guide of Shivaji, wrote ‘Dasabhodha’.

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Chathaniya : He popularised ‘Bhakti’ in Bengal. He was worshipper of Krishna.

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Chand Bibi : She was the daughter of Nizam Shai ruler of Ahmed Nagar and was married to the Adil Shahi ruler of Bijapur. As a widow she fought with Mughals to save her dynasty.

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Bairam Khan : He helped Akbar to defeat Hemu.

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Firadusi : famous poet in the court of Muhammed Ghazni He wrote Shah Namah (The book of kings). He is known as Indian Homer or Persian Homer.

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Ibn Batuta : He was an African (Morocco) who visited the court of Muhammed bin Tughlaq and wrote the book ‘Rihala’.

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Hasan Gangu - founder of Bahmani dynasty under the name Alauddin Bahamanshah.

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Jai Chandra - He was the ruler of Kanauj, belonged to the Gahawala dynasty. He was defeated in 1194 by Muhammed Ghori in the battle of Chandwar.

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Islam Shah : Second Sur ruler, son of Shersha He codified the law and introduced an impartial system of Justice.

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Lalitaditya of Karkota dynasty : He ruled over Kashmir from 724 to 760. The famous Martand Mandir temple was built by him.

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Malik Kafur : He was an army commander of Alauddin Khilji - who conquered south India for him. He was converted to Islam from Hinduism.

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Muhamed Gawan : He was a minister to the Bahmani rulers.

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Malik Amber : He was a Syrian slave who could became the Prime Minister of Ahmed Nagar. He administered the State very well fought against the Mughals and Marathas. Mirza Ghias Beg : He was the father of Nur Jahan and received the title Etmatuddaula. His tomb is in Agra.

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Murshid Quli Khan : He was an independent ruler of Bengal, who founded the city of Murshidabad.

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Rana Kumbha : He was a Rajput ruler of 15th century He built a kirti Stambh at Chittar.

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Advent of the Europeans

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MODERN INDIA 

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A new Sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope (Southern tip of South Africa) by Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD marked the beginning of European period in Indian History. He first arrived at Kapad near Kozhikode in Kerala. Saint Gabriel was the name of the ship in which Vasco-da-Gama landed at Kappad, the port of Zamorine of Calicut. The most famous Portuguese men from the point of view of India Vasco da Gama, Almeida and

Albuquerque. Vasco-da-Gama arrived for the second time in 1502 and for the third chance in 1524. He died at Fort Cochin and was cremated at the St. Frnacis Church there. Later his remains were brought back to Portugal. Don Francisco de’Almedia was the first Portuguese governor in the East. His policy was called ‘‘the bluewater policy’’ which aimed at the establishement of strong navy. In 1507 the Portuguese arrived at Madras. The city finally got its name from their leader Madra. The greatest Portuguese governor to the East was Albuquerque. He was the real founder of the Portuguese authority in India. Albuquerque tried to abolish Sati. His policy mixed colony system was to encourage intermarriage between the Portuguese and Indians. They Portuguese religious policy was Lantinisation of Kerala. The conflict for the establishment of Latin rite and syrian rite led to the Coonan Cross Oath incident in 1653. The Portuguese introduced agricultural products such a cashew, coconut, custardapple, pineapple etc in India. They introduced Tobacco in the court of Akbar in 1604. Portuguese authority in Indian seas remained upto 1595. The Portuguese started the first press in India at Goa in 1556. The first Portuguese fort in India was constructed at Cochin. Portuguese captured Goa from the Bijapur Sulthan in 1510.

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Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti : He was a sufi saint of 12th century who started the Chishtia sect at Ajmir.

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The Dutch 

In 20 March 1602 the United East India Company of the Netherlands was formed. The Name of the Dutch Company was Vereenidge Oostindische Companie (VOC)

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The Dutch set up their first factory at Masulipattanam in 1605.

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In 1663 the Dutch captured Cochin.

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In 1741 Marthandavarma, the Travancore ruler defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Kolachal.

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The final Collapse of the Dutch came with their defeat by the English in the Battle of Bedara in 1759.

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The English and the French

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With the treaty of Paris in 1763 peace was settled between the French and English.

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The battle of Plassey was fought in the year 1757 June 13.

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In 1756 Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal, attacked Calcutta and captured it. 146 British prisoners including their commander John Zepheria Holwell and four women were locked in a small room. 123 of them died inside due to suffication. This incident is known a Black-hole tragedy.

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At the Battle of Wandiwash Eyre Coot defeated French general Lally in 1760.

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Early Name of the company was John Company. English East India Company was formally established on 31st December 1600 by a Charter issued by Queen Elizabeth of the Tudor dynasty. Hector, the first ship of the English East India company reached Surat on 24 August 1606. In 1612 the Company became a joint stock company. Sir Thomas Roe, first ambassador of James I of England landed at Surat and met Jahangir in 1613 and the first English factor, was established at Surat. The company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease which he got as dowry from Portugal. The designation of ‘Chief Justice’ was introduced in India by the English in 1678. Madras became the first presidency chartered as municipal corporation with Mayor’s court 1687. Job Charnock founded the city of Calcutta. Colbert the minister of Louis XIV created the compangnile des Indes Orientales in 1664. Francis Carton set up the first French factory at Surat in 1668. The First French Governor of Ponicherry was Francois Martin. The arrival of Dupleix as French Governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo- French Conflict. The first Carnatic war between the French and the English for supremacy in South India occured in 1742. It ended in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-laChapple.

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The English East India Company was formed by a group of Merchants known as ‘The Merchant Adventurers’ in 1599.

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The second Carnatic war was from 1748 to 1754. Robert Clive was the Governor of the English during the Carnatic wars. The Gregorian Calendar came to be used throughout the British dominion in 1752. The Second Carnatic war ended with the treaty of Pondicherry in 1754. The Third Carnatic war was from 1758 to 1763.

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Battle of Plassey was fought Siraj-ud-daula between Robert Clive and Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.

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Siraj-ud-daula was defeated in the battle.

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Mir Zafar was made the Nawab of Bengal after the battle of Plassey.

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After the battle of Plassey Robert Clive became the first Governor of Bengal.

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The Construction of fort William of Calcutta was started by Lord Clive.

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In 1764 the European Bengal Regiment mutinied which was followed by the First Indian Sepoy Mutiny against the British.

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The combined forces of Mirkassim, Emperor of Delhi and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh were defeated in the Battle of Buxar on October 23 1764.

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Robert Clive introduced official postal system in India in 1766.

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Robert Clive introduced ‘Dual government’ in Bengal.

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Conquest of Mysore

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Second Mysore war was fought during the period of Warren Hastings. Third Mysore war started in 1790 and ended in 1792. The third war ended by the treaty of Seringapatnam on March 19th1792. Fourth Anglo Mysore war was in 1799. Fourth Mysore war was fought during the period of Governor general wellesley. In this battle Tipu was killed in 1799 at Srerangapatanam by Col. Arthur Wellesley. Tipu’s Capital was Srerangapatanam. Tipu is known as Mysore Tiger.

Subsidiary Alliance System was used by Wellesley to bring Indian States within the orbit of British political power.

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First Indian ruler to join the Subsidiary Alliance System was the Nizam of Hyderabad.

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Lord Wellesley is consdiered as the ‘Akbar of English East India Company’ by Marshman.

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Permanent Revenue Settlement was introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Benaras and northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. It was planned by Johnshore.

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Fathul Mujahiddin is the book written by Tippu which describes about Rockets.

Ryotwari System was introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. This system was similar to Akbar’s revenue policy Zabti system.

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Subsidiary Alliance system and other Policies

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Haider Ali was the son of Fatheh Muhammed.He was born in 1722. In 1766 he became the ruler of Mysore after the death of Mysore Raja Krishna Wodeyar. First Mysore war between Haider Ali and the English started in 1767 and ended in 1769. First Anglo-Mysore war ended with the defeat of English and the treaty of Madras. Second Mysore war was from 1780 to 1784. Haider Ali died in 1782 and Tipu Sulthan became the Mysore ruler. The second Mysore war ended by the treaty of Mangalore in 1784.

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The third Anglo Maratha war was from 18171818. Thus by the end of third Maratha war the Maratha power disappeared and the English created the State of Sathara.

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Mahalwari System was introduced in Awad region, Punjab, NWFP and parts of Central India.

Executors of British Policies 

Warren Hastings : (1772-85) He introduced quinquennial settlement of land revenue in 1772.

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He codified the Hindu and Muslim laws.

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He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with the help of William Jones in 1784.

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The trial of Maharaja Nandakumar (1775) and his Judicial Murder was during the period of Warren Hastings.

Maratha Wars 

First Anglo Maratha war (1775-82) It ended by the treaty of Salbai.

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He abolished the Dual Government in Bengal in 1772.

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Second Anglo-Maratha War was from 1803 to 1805.

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After his return to England he was impeached there in 1785.

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The treaty of Bassein was signed between the last Peshwa Baji RaoII and the English in 1802.

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By the Regulating Act 1775 of appointed him the first Governor General.

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The second Maratha War was ended by the treaty of Rajghat, 1806.

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First Anglo - Maratha war took place during his period.

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Warren Hastings established a Muhammedan Madrasa in Calcutta.

Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 93) 

He introduced Permanent settlement in 1793.

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The Police system was introduced in India.

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Cornwallis Code was introduced. It was based on the separation of powers.

Lord Wellesley (1793 - 1798) Described himself as Bengali Tiger.

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He created the Madras presidency.

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Introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance.

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The first state to sign the Subsidiary Alliance system was Hyderabad in 1798. Then Mysore, Tanjore, Awadh, Peshwar, Bhonsle, Sindhia, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Mecheri, Bundi, Bharatpur and Berar signed the subsidiary treaty. Lord Wellesley fought the second Maratha war.

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Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote the Tuhfat-ulMuwahiddin (gift to the Monotheists) during his period.

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Lord Minto (1807-1813) 

Lord William Bentinck (1828- 35) 

First Governor General of India by the government of India Act of 1833.

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Known as benevolent Governor General.

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Banned the practice of Sati in 1829. Suppressed Tughi in 1830.

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Banned female infanticide.

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Created the province of Agra in 1834.

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Made English to be the court language in higher court but Persian continued in Lower courts.

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Appointed Macaulay as president of the committee of public instruction, Mecaulays Minutes was submitted in 1835.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 - 36) 

Abolished restriction on press

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He is called the ‘‘Liberator of Press’’

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First Afghan war was started during the Governor Generalship of Lord Auckland.

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Slavery was abolished by Governor general Lord Ellenborough.

Lord Dalhousie (1849 - 56) 

Signed the treaty of Amritsar in 1809 between Ranjith Singh of Punjab and the English.

Mahalwari System of land revenue was introduced in North West Province by James Thomson.

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In 1780 James Augustus Hickey started a weekly paper called Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser during the period of Warren Hastings.

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Lord Hastings (1813-23) 

He was made Marques of Hastings due to his success in the Gorkhar war or the Anglo Nepalis war.

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He abolished the Peshwaship and annexed his territories to the Bombay presidency after the third Anglo-Maratha war (1818)

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Introduced the Ryotwari System in Madras presidency by Governor Thomas Munroe in 1820 under the governor generalship of Hastings.

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Introduced the policy of ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ Indian states annexed through the Doctrine of Lapse were Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849) Baghatpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854). Introduced the Woods Despatch known as the Magnacarta of English Education in India prepared by Charles Wood in 1854. Boosted up the development of Railways and laid the first Railway line in 1853 from Bombay to Thane and Second from Calcutta to Raniganj. Gave a great impetus to Post and Telegraph. Telegraphic lines were laid - first line from Calcutta to Agra. Shimla was made summer Capital and Army Head Quarters.

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Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1856. In 1853 started recruitment of the Covenanted Civil Service by competitive examination.

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A Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Postage stamps were issued for the first time.

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In 1855 the Santhal Uprising took place

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Abolished the title of the Nawab of Carnatic.

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The Mughal Emperor Akbarshah II gave Ram Mohan the title ‘Raja’.

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After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy Brahmasamaj was divided into several sects.

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Adi Brahmasamaj lead by Devendra Nath Tagore and Bharatiya Brahmasamaj led by Keshav Chandra Sen were started in 1866.

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Sadharana Brahma Samaj was started by Anandmohan Bose in 1878.

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Devendra Nath Tagore was the founder of Tatvabodhinisabha in Calcutta in 1839.

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Keshav Chandrasen started a paper called Indian Mirror in 1861.

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Brahmasamaj reached outside Bengal under Keshav Chandra Sen.

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Keshav Chandra Sen was the first Indian who attempted to reform the society on an all India basis.

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Surendra Nath Banerjee was the first Indian to took up his political activity on an all India basis.

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‘Precepts to Jesus’ is a book written by Rajaram Mohan Roy.

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Thuhafath ul - muvahiddin or Gift to Monotheists is also a work of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

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Raja Ram Mohan Roy is known as the father of Modern India, ‘Herald of New Age’, ‘Bridge between Past and Future. ‘First Modern Man in India’ Father of Indian Renaissance, Pathfinder Raja Ram Mohan Roy of his Century etc. Believed in monotheism and opposed idol worship. Established the ‘Atmiya Sabha’ in Calcutta in 1815 inorder to propagate monotheism and to fight against the evil customs and practices in Hinduism. He got legitimisation to his views from Upanishads. In 1821 he started a paper called Samvat Kaumudi. In 1822 he started Mirat-ul-Akbar, which was the first journal in Persian. In the same year Rammohan and Dwarakanath Tagore jointly started a newspaper called Bangadatta.

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Rammohan Roy (1772 - 1883) and Brahmo Samaj

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Socio - Religious Reform Movements

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In 1825 he started the Vedanta College at Calcutta.

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In 1828, August he founded the BrahmaSabha Later in 1845 the name Brahmasamaj was given to it by Devendranath Tagore.

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Against the Brahmasabha orthodox Hindus lead by Raja Radhakant Deb started Dharmasabha.

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In 1829 December 4 Sati was abolished by governor general William Bentinck.

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In 1831 he went to England to argue the case of Akbar II before the Board of Control.

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Prarthana Samaj 

Founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang (not by MG Ranade) as an offshoot of the Brahmasamaj.

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It was later joined by M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar.

Arya samaj 

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It was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswathi in 1875. He considered Vedas as eternal and infalliable and said ‘Go back to Vedas’ Dayanand Saraswati (1824 - 1883) was a Sanyasi from Gujarat.

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Swami Dayanand Saraswathi i

Dayanand, was known in his early life as Mul Shankar.

He started two papers - the monthly Prabudha Barat in English and Udbodhana a Bengali fortnightly.

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He is called the‘patriot saint of India’.

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He founded the Arya Samaj at Bombay in 1575.

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He was also described as a ‘‘Cyclonic Hindu’’.

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He is known as Luther of Hinduism.

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He was the first to use the terms - Swarajya Swabhasha and Swadharma.

In 1898 Sister Nivedita, (Margaret Elizebth Noble) an Irish lady was initiated to brahmacharya by Vivekananda.

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He was the first to consider Hindi as a National Language.

Theosophical Society

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He started the Suddhi Movement to re-convert to Hinduism those who were converted to other religions.

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The Theosophical Society was founded by Madame Blavatsky and Col. H.S.Olcott in Newyork in 1875.

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His book Satyartha Prakash is a commentary on Vedas.

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In 1882 it shifted its head quarters to Adayar near Madras.

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He started Dayanand Anglo Vedic College in 1866.

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Aryaprakash was the news paper started by Dayanand Saraswati.

Its philosophy was inspired by the Hindu Upanishads.

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Dr.Annie Basant came to India in 1893, was its notable President.

Ramakrishna Mission

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His early name was Shuddirama Gadhadhar Chatterjee.

She was the first woman to become the president of INC in 1917.

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She started the Home Rule League with the Cooperation of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916 with Dadabhai Naoroji as its President.

He was a priest in the Dakshineswar Kali temple. So he is called the Saint of Dakshineswar.

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The most famous disciple of Ramakrishna was Vivekananda (1861 - 1903).

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In 1898 she started the Central Hindu School at Benaras, it later became Benaras Hindu University under Madan Mohan Malavya (1916).

Shri Ramakrishna Paramhamsa (1834 - 1886) was born in Kumarpukur village in the Hoogly village of Bengal.

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He was the first to teach an aggressive, reformed and militant Hinduism.

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Young Bengal Movement

Vivekananda was born in a Kayastha family of Calcutta. He attended the Parliament of Reigions at Chicago in 1893, September 11.

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Started by Henry Vivian Derozio, teacher in the Calcutta Hindu College.

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His followers were known as the Derozians They attacked the old traditions and decadant customs.

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In 1828 he started the Academic Association.

Vivekananda

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He was invited to the Congress of the History of Religions at Paris in 1900.

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He founded the Ramakrishana Mission on Ist May 1897.

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1899 the Matha or the centre of the mission was shifted to Belur.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 

Reformer from Maharashtra he advocated the power of human reason.

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He founded the Deccan Education Society at Poona in 1884 with Tilak, V.K. Chiplunkar and N M Joshi.

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Belonging to the low caste of Mali from Maharashtra, struggled against upper caste domination and Brahamincal supremacy through his Sathyashodhak Samaj founded in 1873. He wrote Ghulam-giri in 1872 exposing the conditions of the backward castes. He pioneered the Widow Remarriage Movement in Maharashtra and worked for the education of women.

Muslim Reform Movements Aligarh Movement   

Deva Samaj  

It was started in 1887 by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri at Lahore. The religious text of this Samaj was Deva Shastra and the teaching Devadharma.

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NM Joshi

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He left AITUC in 1929 and started the Indian Trades Union Federation.

HN Kunzru 

Ahmadia Movement

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Initially a member of Ghoklale’s Servants of India Society. He founded the Social Service League at Bombay in 1911. He also founded the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920 at Bombay.

He founded the Seva Samiti at Allahabad in 1914 with the objective of organising social service during the natural calamities and promoting education sanitation, physical culture etc.

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Founded the Seva Samiti Boys Scouts Association in 1914 at Bombay on the lines of world wide Baden Powell organisation, which at that time banned Indians from Joining it.

Veerasalingam Pantulu 

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In 1873 the Singh Sabha Movement was founded at Amritsar.

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The Akali Movement was also started for Sikh reform

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Kuka Movement was started with the aim of Sikh reform and restoration of Sikh sovereignty in Punjab by driving the British away.

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Kuka movement was founded by Bagat Jawaharmal, popularly known as Sian Sahib in the 19th century.

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Kukas recognised Guru Govind Singh as the only true Guru of the Sikhs.

Some other Reformers 

Most prominent social reformer of South India in the second half of the 19th Century.

Founded by Mirza Ahmad at Quadiani in Punjab.

Sikh Reform Movements

Shri Ram Bajpal 

This movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817 - 98) Sir Syed’s journal Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq advocated a rational approach towards religion. He founded the Muhammadan Literarary Society at Calcutta in 1863. In 1875 he founded the Aligarh Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, (later Aligarh Muslim University) Altaf Hussain Hali, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, Nawab Mutin Ul Mulk, Chirag Ali etc were the prominent leader of Aligarh Movement. In 1866 Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Muslim Educational Conference.

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He founded the Rajmundri Social Reform Association in 1878 with the principal objective of promoting widow remarriage.

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Jyotiba Phule

Prof. D.K. Karve who took the cause of widow remarriage started the Indian Women University at Bombay in 1916.

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B.M. Malabari started a Crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of the Age consent Act. 1891.

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The revolt of 1857 ended in failure but it promoted the spirit of Nationalism and Patriotism.

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The 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur which refused to use the greased Cartridge and the enfield rifle, started mutiny in February 26, 1857.

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The first shot was fired on March 29 by Mangal Pandey (of Ballia, UP) of the 14th Bengal Infantry at Barrakpore of Bengal.

Ahrar Movement was founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Mohamed Ali.

The Revolt of 1857

Faridabad - Maulavi Ahmmadulla

Mangal Pandey

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Mangal Pandey was hanged to death on 29 March 1857.

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May 10, 1857 witnessed the real mutiny at Meerut then in Delhi on 11th May.

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Bareili - Khan Bahadur

The first British to loose his life was Col.Finnis Meerut. 

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Major Tribal Movements Area

Year

Chuars

W.Bengal

1768 - 1832

Bhils

Khandesh

1818 - 1848 – Sevaram

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Chotanagpur

1820-1832

Kolis

Sahyadri hillis

Kharies

Khasi hils

Singh Phos Assam

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Tribe

Bahadurshah II surrendered to Lt. W.S.R. Hodson on September 21, 1957 at Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi.

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1830 - 39

The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadurshah as the Emperor of Hindustan gave a positive political meaning to the revolt. 

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The Great Mutiny of 1857 took place during the period of Lord Canning. The Centres and Leaders of the Revolt Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal Kanpur - Nana Saheb Delhi - General Bhaktkhan Bihar - Kunwar Singh Jhansi - Rani Lekshmi Bai

1824 - 48

1829 - 32 – Tirut Singh and Barmanik

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Kols

Chotanagpur

1831 - 32 – Budho Bagat

Kayar

Andhra Pradesh

1840 - 1924 – Alluri Sitaram Raju

Kachnagar Assam

1882 – Sambudhan

Ahom

Assam

1828 - 33 – Gomdhar Konovar

Khonds

Orissa

1846 - 1914 Chattre Bisayi

Santhals

Rajmahal Hills

1855 - 56

Sidhu and Kanhu

Naikadas

Gujarat

1858 - 68

Rup Singh Jogia Bhagat

Mundas

Chotanagpur

1899 - 1900 Birsa Munda

Bhils

South Rajasthan

1933

Oraons

Chotanagpur

1914 - 1915 Jatra Bhagat

Govind Guru

Kukis

Manipur

1917 - 19

Rampa

Andhra Pradesh

1916 – Alluri Sitaram Raju

Rani Gaidinlue

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The immediate cause for the 1857 revolt was the introduction of the greased Catridges. Educated middle class section of Indian population did not support the revolt fo 1857. 

As a result of the revolt of 1857 the then Governor General Lord Canning was appointed as the Viceroy of India. 

On November 1, 1858 a proclamation was made by the Queen to the people of India in eighteeen languages. 

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‘‘The best and the bravest military leader of the rebels’’ sir Hugh Ross said this about Rani of Jhansi.

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The name Congress was suggested to the organisation by DadaBai Naoroji.

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Dadabai Naoroji founded the East Indian Association in 1866.

The original name of Rani of Jhansi was Mani Karnika.

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A.O. Hume was the General Secretary of INC till 1892.

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The administration by Indian Jhansi Rani civil service officers started as a result of the Queen’s proclamation.

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The revolt was completely crusted in 1858.

The Second Session of the INC met at Calcutta in December 1886, under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji. Here the National Conference merged itself with the INC.

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Benjamin Disraeli described the revolt as a ‘‘National Rising’’.

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The second session was attended by 436 delegates and there were 2000 delegates in 1889.

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V.D. Savarkar in his book ‘‘First war of Independence’’ called it ‘‘The First War of Independence’’.

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‘‘Eighteen Fifty Seven’’ is a book written by Surendra Nath Sen.

The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the Moderate Phase of Indian National Congress. Prominent leaders of this phase were Dadabhai Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pheroz Shah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, Gopalakrishna Gokhale etc.

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‘‘We do not ask favours, we only want justice’’, these were the words Dadabhai Naroji.

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Dadabhai Noaroji is the author of the book ‘‘Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India’’ which contains the famous ‘‘drain theory’’.

The most important events during Lord Duferin’s Period (1884-1888) were the third Anglo Burmese War (1885-86) and the establishment of the first All India organisation, the Indian National Congress. The INC was founded in December 28, 1885 at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. 72 delegates participated in the first session of the INC. It was founded by A.O. Hume a retired Civil Servant. W.C. Banerjee was the first president of INC. The Indian Association of S.N. Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose, organised an All Indian National Conference in 1883 December. They had given a call for another conference in 1885. The term ‘congress’ was desired from the history of The United States of America. ‘Congress’ means assembly of the people. DadaBai Naoroji

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The Great Indian National Movement

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The British committee of INC was founded in 1889.

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Aurobindo Ghosh called INC a ‘‘begging institute’’

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Bibin Chandra Pal viewed ‘‘INC playing with bubble’’.

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Tilak, the father of Indian unrest said ‘‘INC should distinguish between begging and claiming right’’ Tilak said ‘‘Rights are not begged they are claimed’’.

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The congress sessions lasts only for three days a year.

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Dadabhai Naoroji is known as ‘‘The Grand Old Man of India’’. He was the first Indian to become a member of the House of Commons on the Liberal Partys ticket. He became the president of INC thrice, in 1886, 1893 and 1906. He founded ‘Gyan Prakash Mandali’ and Bombay Association in 1852. He is also known as father of Indian Economics and Politics.

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Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian woman to become the president of Indian National Congress (1925 Kanpur session)

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Nellin Sengupta became the third woman President of INC, 1933 at the Calcutta Session. Sarojini Naidu in 1906.

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The word Swaraj was first used in the Calcutta session in1906.

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First Joint session of Congress and Muslim League was held at Lucknow 1916.

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Gokhale is considered as the political guru of Gandhiji.

EARLY ASSOCIATIONS

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Year.. Organisation

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1838 ... Landholders society ............................. Dwaraknath Tagore .................................. Calcutta

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W.C. Banerjee founded the Bombay chronicle in 1913 and the ‘Moderate school’. S.N. Banerjee founded the Indian Association in 1876. He was the first President of Indian National Liberal Federation (1918). Gopalakrishna Gokhale founded the ‘Servants of India Society in 1905. K.T. Telang became the first ‘‘Hardworking secretary’’ of INC. Jawaharlal Nehru observed the Early Congress to be ‘‘an English knowing upper class affair’’. George Yule was the first foreigner to become the President of INC. (1888, Allahabad) Gopala Krishna Gokhale was populary known as

the ‘Socrates of Maharahstra’. M.G. Ranade was the political guru of Gokhale.

1839 ... British India Society.............................. William Adams ......................................... London 1851 ... British India Association ....................... Devendranath Tagore ............................... Calcutta

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Badruddin Tyabji was the first Indian barrister at Bombay High Court. He was the first Muslim president of INC. He became the third president of INC in Madras session in 1887.

1862 ... London India Committee ....................... C.P. Mudaliar ............................................ London 1866 ... East India Association .......................... Dadabhai Naoroji ...................................... London 1867 ... National Indian Association .................. Mary Carpenter ........................................ London

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1872 ... Indian Society ...................................... Anand Mohan Bose ................................. London 1876 ... Indian Association ............................... Anand Mohan Bose andS.N. Banerjee ...... Calcutta 1883 ... Indian National Society ......................... Shishir Chandra Bose ............................... Calcutta 1884 ... Indian National Conference ................... S M Banerjee ............................................ Calcutta 1885 ... Bombay Presidency Association ........... Mehta and Telang .................................... Bombay 1888 ... United India Patriotic Association ......... Sir Syed Ahmed Khan ............................... Aligarh 1905 ... Servants of India Society ...................... G.K. Gokhale ............................................ Bombay 1920 ... Indian Trade Union Congress ............... NM Joshi (founder) .................................. Lucknow Lala Lajpat Rai (President) 1924 ... All India Communist Party..................... Satyabhakta ............................................. Kanpur 1928 ... Khudai Khidmatgar ............................... Abdul Gaffar Khan ................................... Peshwar 1936 ... All India Kisan Sabha ........................... Sahajananda and N.J. Ranga ..................... Lucknow 1940 ... Radical Democratic Party....................... M.N. Roy ................................................. Calcutta

Page 51 of 191

First session held in a village was 1937 session held at Fazipur.

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Only session presided over by Gandhi - Belgaum (1924)

1938 session of Congress was held in a village Haripura.

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Complete independence was demanded for the first time (1929) at Lahore.

In the Ramagarh session (1904) decision was taken on Individual Satyagraha.

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For the first time National Song was sung in the Calcutta session (1896) of INC ie Vande Mataram.

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During the fourth session of INC (1888, Allahabad) emphasise was given on the formation of its constitution.

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During the Nagpur session 1891, the word National was added to congress.

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During the Poona session (1895) representives for the second time discussed on the formation of its Constitution.

While Britishers tried to use Congress as a safety valve, Indian leaders tried to use it as a lightning conductor. During the Tripura session (1939) Subash Chandra Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhi’s candidate in presidential election) but later resigned and Rajendra Prasad became the president. During Calcutta session (1928) first All India Youth Congress was established. During the Delhi session (1918) along with S.N. Banerjee many liberals resigned and Rajendra Prasad became its president. Aurobindo published New Lamps For Old. It was the first systematic critic of the Moderates. The radical wing of the INC that emerged at the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Extremist Group. The main leaders of the Extremist Group were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, B.C. Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak asserted Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it. Tilak started two newspapers the Mahratha in English and the Kesari in Marathi. He started Sivaji festival to stimulate nationalism. Lord Curzon Partitioned Bengal on 20th July 1905 as a part of the ‘Divide and Rule Policy’. Rabindra Nath Tagore composed ‘Amer Sonar Bengla’ as a part of ante partition movement, which later became the National Anthem of Bangladesh.

During the special session of the congress in Calcutta (1920) Gandhi proposed to start Non-co operation Movement. Instead of Constitutional self-government congress declared Swaraj Party in 1922. During the Delhi session (1923) Indian National Congress decided to establish All India Khadi Board. During the Guwahati session of INC (1926) wearing Khadi was made cumpulsory to its workers. During the Madras session (1908) its constitution was formed. In Madras session of the INC (1927) proposals for independence and to boycott Simon Commission were passed During the Karachi session (1931) Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy proposals were passed.

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During its 1932 and 1933 Sessions Government had declared INC an illegal organisation.

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During the Lucknow session (1936) Nehru explained for the first time.

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During Faizpur session (1937) Congress decided

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In the Lucknow session of the Congress (1916) the two factions of congress (extremists and moderates) reunited.

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to takepart in election of 1937.

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Boycott of British products was first suggested by Krishna Kumar Mitra in Rabindra Nath Tagore Sanjivani.

Page 52 of 191

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Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by Ashwini Dutt was the largest Volunteer body to support Swadeshi Movement.

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First real labour union - The Printers Union was formed on October 1905.

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Vande Mataram Movement was started by Chandra Pal in Madras Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharine Sabha to propagate Swadeshi Movement. Savarkar founded ‘Mitra mela’. Chakravarthi Vijiaraghavacharya was the first Indian leader to undergo imprisonment in 1882. He was an extremist leader. He was the first Indian to draft a Swaraj constitution for India which was presented at the Madras session in 1927. First congress leader to suffer severe terms of imprisonment for the sake of the country was Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

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Tilak wrote ‘Gita Rahasya’.

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Bipin Chandrapal started an English weekly New India.

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Bipin Chandrapal founded Bande Mataram in 1906 (an organization)

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Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as Sher-ePunjab (Lion of Punjab). He founded and edited ‘‘The Punjabee’’, ‘The Vante Mataram’ and the English weekly ‘‘The people’’.

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The Bengali daily Yugandar was started by Aurobindo Gosh. He also started weeklies ‘Karma Yogin’ and ‘Dharma’.

The Formation of the Muslim League (1906) 

Muhammed Iqbal, who presided over the Allahabad session of the League in 1930 gave the idea of Separate Muslim State in North West India. Hence Iqbal is known as the father of the idea of Pakistan. But the name ‘Pakistan’ was framed by Rahmat Ali.

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Mohammed Ali Jinnah gave his famous Two Nation Theory in March 1940, at the Lahore session of the Muslim League.

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Sarojini Naidu called Jinnah the Prophet of HinduMuslim Unity.

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Later Jinhah became the first Governor General of Pakistan. He is also known as the father of Pakistan.

Surat Split (1907) 

All India Muslim League was founded under the Leadership of Aga Khan to divert the Muslims from the National Political Movement. On December 30th Nawab Salimulla Khan of Dhaka became its first President.

The clash between the Moderates and Extremists culminated in a split which occurred at Surat in 1907.

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Dr. Rash Bihari Bose was the INC President during the Surat Split.

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After the Surat Split the congress remained under the control of the Moderates.

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The Moderates did not approve the boycott of foreign goods but the Extenmists favoured it. The Moderates continued to have faith in the good intensions of the British government. They wanted self government in gradual stages, while the Extremists wanted complete autonomy at the earliest.

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‘Charka’ (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for country’s economic self sufficiency.

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The Swadeshi Movement was started in 1905.

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Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 

The Minto Morley Reforms for the first time tried to introduce communal representation (for muslims) and a popular element in the govt.

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The real purpose of the reforms of 1909 was to confuse the Moderate nationalists and to check the growth of unity among Indians.

Page 53 of 191

Home Rule Movement (1916)

Jalianwala Bagh Massacre - April 13, 1919

Home Rule Movement was started by Annie Besant and Tilak in 1916.

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Self government for India in British Empire and work for national education, social and political reform etc were the aims of Home Rule League.

In 1919, Rowlatt Act, which authorised the government to detain any person without trial was passed.

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Annie Besnat was the first woman president of INC (1917, Calcutta Session)

The Act was passed during the period of Lord Chelmsford.

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Annie Besant set up the newspapers -New India, Common Weal and Young India (1916).

The official name of the Rowlatt Act was the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (1919).

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Home Rule Movement marks the beginning for the attainment of Swaraj.

Sir Sydney Rowlatt was the president of the committee to make proposals for the Act.

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The Montague declaration of 1917 was the greatest achievement of the Home Rule League.

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The Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in 1916 marked the re union of the Moderates and Extremists together at Lucknow in 1916.

C.Sankaran Nair was the only Indian official member who supported the bill, while all the 22 elected Indian members in the Imperial Legislative Council opposed the bill.

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Gandhiji set up ‘Rowlatt Committee’ to protest this act.

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The protest against this ‘Black Act’ was the strongest in Punjab where it led to the Massacre at ‘Jalianwala Bagh’ Amritsar on April 13, 1919. It was on a Baishaki day. The British Officer General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire at unarmed gathering, who were gathered there to protest against the arrest of their popular leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal. On this occasion Tagore renounced his Knighthood in protest. Michael O’Dyer Governor of the Punjab province supported the incident and on March 15, Martial law was declared. Gandhiji renounced the ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ medal given to him for his work during the Boer War. Hunter Committee was appointed to enquire into the Jallianwallah Massacre (1920) Hunter Commissions report was described by Gandhiji as a ‘white wash’. Sardar Udham Singh, who took the name Ram Muhammed Singh, Sonak Murdered Dyer in England as a revenge to the Massacre. The English House of Lords presented a jewelled sword to General in which was inscribed ‘‘saviour of the Punjab’’.

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Montegue - Chelmsford Reforms 1919 It is also known as the Government of India Act of 1919.

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In 1918, Edwin Montague, the Secretary of State and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy produced their scheme of constitutional reforms which led to the enactment of the Government of India Act of 1919.

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The Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged and the majority of their members were to be elected. The provincial government were given more powers under the system of dyarchy. Indian National Congress in a special session at Bombay in August 1918 criticised the reform as ‘disappointing and unsatisfactory’.

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The Montague Chelmsford reforms introduced dyarchy in the provinces.

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Provincial subjects were divided into ‘Reversed subjects’ and ‘‘Transferred Subjects’’.

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Central legislature was made bicameral by this reform.

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The Lucknow pact was executed between the congress and Muslim League in 1916.

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Events/Acts/Reforms.............. Viceroy/Governor Generals Permanent Settlement (1793).......... Lord Cornwallis Subsidiary Alliance (1798) .............. Lord Wellesley Abolition of Sati (1829) ....... Lord William Bentinck Introduction of Civil service .......... Lord Cornwallis Doctrine of Lapse ......................... Lord Dalhousie Railways started in India ............... Lord Dalhousie Post and Telegraph ....................... Lord Dalhousie

Provincial Autonomy (1937) ......... Lord Linlithgow Cripps Mission (1942) .................... Lord Linthgow Quit India Movement ................... Lord Linlithgow Cabinet Mission (1946) ...................... Lord Wavell INA Trial (1945) ................................. Lord Wavell Indian Independence Act 1947) ....... Lord Mountbatten Partition of India (1947) ............ Lord Mountbatten

Non-Co-operation Movement (1920) Non Co-operation Movement was started with the aim of the annulment of the Rowlatt Act, and correcting the ‘Punjab wrong’ changing the ‘Khilafat wrong’ as well as moving towards the cherished goal of ‘swaraj’.

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It was the first mass based political movement under Gandhiji.

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The movement was launched as per the resolution of Calcutta session and ratified in Nagpur session in December 1920.

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The main emphasise of the movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and advocacy of the use of Charka.

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The whole movement was called off on 11th February 1922 at Gandhi’s insistence following the news of burning alive of 22 English plicemen by the angry peasants at ChauriChaura (Chauri Chaura Incident) in Gorakhpur district of Up on 5th February 1922.

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The Non Cooperation movement converted the national movement into a mass movement . It strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity.

Arms Act (1878) ................................. Lord Lytton Local Self Government (1882) ............ Lord Rippon Ryotwari System ................................ Lord Munro Partition of Bengal (1905) ................... Lord Curzon Simon Commission (1928) ... Lord William Bentinck Sepoy Mutiny (1857) ....................... Lord Canning Queens Proclamation (1858) ............. Lord Canning

Factory Act (1881) .............................. Lord Ripon

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Rowlatt Act (1914) ...................... Lord Chelmsford

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Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1881)Lord Canning Indian councils Act/Minto -Morley Reforms (1909) ....................................................... Lord Minto II

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Partition of Bengal revoked (1911) Lord Hardinge II Transfer Capital to Delhi (1911) ... Lord Hardinge II Dyarchy in province (1919) ......... Lord Chelmsford Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919) .. Lord Chelmsford Non co-operation ....................... Lord Chelmsford Poorna Swaraj resolution (Lahore 1929) . Lord Irwin Frist Round Table Conference (1930) ..... Lord Irwin Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931) ....................... Lord Irwin Communal Award (1932) .............. Lord Wellington

Khilafat Movement (1919) 

The main object of the Khilafat Movement was to force the British Government to change its attitude towards Turkey and restore the Turkish Sulthan (Khalifa) to his former position.

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A Khilafat committee was formed under the leadersip of Ali brothers Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal khan, and Hasrat Mohani.

Poona Pact (1932) ........................ Lord Wellington 2nd Round Table Conference(1931) .... Lord Wellington 3rd Round Table Conference (1932) ..... Lord Wellington Separate Electorates (1932) .......... Lord Wellington Government of India Act (1935) .... Lord Wellington

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Vernacular Press Act (1878) ................. Lord Lytton

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English Education in India .. Lord William Bentinck

Page 55 of 191

Indian Working Class 

First organised strike by any section of the working class was the Signaler’s Strike in May 1899 in the ‘Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) Railway’.

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AITUC was formed in 1920 with Lala Lajpat Rai as its first President and Dewan Chaman Lal as its General Secretary.

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Indian National Congress at its Gaya session of 1922 welcomed the formation of AITUC. Government appointed the Royal Commission on Labour in 1929.

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In November 1927, the British Government appointed the Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as Simon Commission, to go it to the question of further constitution reform. The Congress passed a resolution to boycott the Simon Commission at its Madras session 1927. The day Simon landed at Mumbai ; 3 February 1928 all the major cities and towns observed a complete hartal. The Madras session 1927 was presided over by Dr. Ansari. On the arrival of the Commission in Mumbai in 1928, it met with the slogan ‘‘Go back Simon’’. There were Seven members in the Simon Commission. but no Indian. Lala Lajpat Rai was severely wounded in a police Lathi charge and died while protesting against the Commission. To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh shot dead General Saunders.

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Amini Commission on Land Revenue and Famine (1878) Fraser Commission on Agriculture (1902) Hunter Commission on Punjab Disturbance (1919)

Books and Authors Vande Mataram ..................... Aurobindo Ghosh New Lamps for Old ............... Aurobindo Ghosh Bhavani Mandir .................... Aurobindo Ghosh Hind Swaraj ........................... Mahatma Gandhi Gora ................................ Rabindranath Tagore Ghare Baiyare .................. Rabindranath Tagore Gitanjali ........................... Rabindranath Tagore Discovery of India ............................ J.L. Nehru Essays in Indian Economics .......... M.G. Ranade Arctic Home of the Aryans ................ B.G. Tilak Geeta Rahasya ................................... B.G. Tilak Poverty and Un-British Rule in IndiaDada Bhai Naoroji We ........................................... M.S. Golwalkar Durgesh Nandini .... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Bang Darshan ......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Anand Math .......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee India in Transition ............................ M.N. Roy Economic History of British India ....... R.C. Dutt The Indian Struggle ...... Subhash Chandra Bose Indian Musalmans ................................. Hunter Gana Devta ....... Tarashankar Bandhopadhyaya Philosophy of the Bomb..... Bhagavati Charan Vohra Why Socialism ................ Jayaprakash Narayan Gandhi Versus Lenin ....................... S.A. Dange Problem of the East ....................... Lord Curzon Neel Darpam ...................... Deen Bandu Mithra India Today ........................................ R.P. Dutt India Wins Freedom ............ Abdul Kalam Azad Indian Unrest .......................... Valentine Chirol Prachya Aur Paschchatya .... Swami Vivekanand Gau Karunanidhi .................... Swami Dyayanda Letters from Russia ............ Rabindranth Tagore Wither India ...................................... J.L.Nehru Soviet Asia ...................................... J.L. Nehru Pather Debi ................... Avanindranath Tagore History of Hindu Chemistry .................. P.C. Rai Peasantry of Bengal ........................... R.C. Dutt

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Simon Commission

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On 1 June 1920 the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted Gandhi’s suggestion of non co-operation and asked him to lead the Movement.

Some Commissions

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The Khilafat Movement lost its relevance due to the reforms of Mustafa Kamal Pasha in Turkey. Pasha abolished Khilafat and made Turkey a secular state.

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Peasant Movements Indigo Revolt - 1860  The revolt was directed against the British Planters who behaved like Feudal Lords in their estates.  The revolt began after Hemachandrakar deputy Magistrate, published on 17 August, 1859 a proclamation to policmen that they should interefere with the rights of the peasants to saw whatever they preferred.  It began at Govindpur village in Nadia and was led by Digambar Bishwas and Bishnu Bishwas.  Din Bandu Mitra’s novel Neel Darpan protrayed this struggle.  An Indigo Commission was also appointed in 1860.

In may 1874 an Agrarian League was formed in Pabna. Main leader was Ishan Chandra Roy. The revolt was against increased rent.

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C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru were the frist president and Secretary respectively of the Swaraj Party.

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C.R. Das gave the slogan ‘Enter the Council’

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Swaraj Party was formed at Allahabad.

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The 1924 when Gandhi came out of Jail he supported the programme of Swaraj Party.

Trade Union Movement in India 

First Textile Mill : Bombay (1853)

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First Jute Mill at Rishra in Bengal (1855)

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First Factory Act was passed in 1881.

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The Second Factory Act was passed in 1891.

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First Industrial Commission was appointed in 1875.

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The first real labour union was formed in October 1901 in Calcutta called the Printers Union.

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The Madras Labour Union was the first organisation with regular membership and was started by G. Ramanujalu Naidu, G. Challapathi and was presided over by B.P. Wadia in 1918.

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Pabna Revolt (Bengal)

Its early name was Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party.

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The All India Trade Union Congress was founded in 1920. The Indian National Congress President of the year was elected as its President.

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The Trade Union Act of 1926 organised trade unions as legal Associations.

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The Jamshedpur Labour Association was founded by S.N. Haldar and Byomkesh Chakravarthy in 1920.

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In 1929, All India Trade Union Federation was formed under the leadership of NM Joshi.

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The Congress Socialist Party was founded in 1934.

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Kanpur Labour Enquiry Committee was founded under the chairmanship of Rajendra Prasad.

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In 1944 national leaders lead by Sardar Patel organised the Indian National Trade Union Congress.

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Champaran Satyagraha (1917) 

The peasants in this region were forced to cultivate indigo at the prices decided by the British. This system was known as Tinkathia system. Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha in India was the Champaran in 1917.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918) 

Chiefly directed against the government.

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It was started by Madan Mohan Malavya later taken up by Gandhiji in 1918.

Swaraj Party (1923) 

C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from congress on 31 December 1922 and founded the Swaraj Party on 1st January 1923.

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Rowlatt Commission on Sedition (1919) Butler Commission on Indian States (1927) Sapru Commission on Unemployment (1935) Whitley Commission on Labour (1939) Floud Commission on Tenancy in Bengal (1940)

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Civil Disobedience movement -1930

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The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Gandhiji with his famous Dandi March

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He started his Salt Satyagraha or the Dandi March on the morning of 12 March 1930 with a band of 78 volunteers. It was 385km (240 miles) Journey from Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad to Dandi on the West Coast. On April 5, at 6 in the morning Gandhiji and his volunteers picked up Salt lying on the sea-shore. (Sarojini Naidu, at this hailed Gandhiji as ‘‘Law breaker’’) In Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari led a Salt March from Trichirapalli to Vedaranyam on the Tanjore Coast. He was arrested on 30 April, 1930. In Malabar K. Kelappan, the hero of the Vaikkom Satyagraha, walked from Calicut to Payyannur to break the Salt law. Gandhiji was arrested on May 5, 1930. After his arrest his place was taken by Abbas Tyabji and after the arrest of Abbas leadership passed on to Sarojini Naidu. Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy called the decision of Gandhi as a ‘Kindergarten stage’ of revolution. Irwin called Gandhi’s breaking of salt law as a ‘Storm in a tea cup’ ‘Salt suddenly became a mysterious word, a word of power’’ These words were spoken by Nehru on the occassion of Salt Satyagraha. On 18, April 1930 Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya sen. On 23 April 1930, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s

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Governors Generals of India 1772-1785 ............................. Warren Hastings 1786 - 1793 ............................. Lord Cornwallis 1793 - 1798 ................................. Sir Joh Shore 1798 - 1805 .............................. Lord Wellesley 1807- 1813 .................................... Lord Minto 1813 -1823 ................................ Lord Hastings 1823 - 1828 ................................ Lord Amherst 1828 - 1835 .................... Lord William Bentinck 1835 - 1842 ....................... Baron Ellenborough 1842 - 1844 .................. William Wilberfore Bird 1844 - 1848 ............................... Lord Hardinge 1848 - 1856 .............................. Lord Dalhousie 1856 - 1858 ................................ Lord Canning

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In 1930, Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1929 INC adopted ‘Poorna Swaraj’ (complete independence) as its goal at the Lahore session of the congress under the Presidentship of Nehru. It also decided for launching a Civil Disobedience Campaign. At midnight on 31 December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled the newly adopted Tricolour Flag of freedom on the bank of river Ravi. 26 January 1930 was fixed as the first independent day.

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Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gahrwal Rifles refused to fire on Muslim rioters. Darshana Salt Works (21 may) Satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Manilal Gandhi.

Viceroys of British India

1858 - 1862 ................................ Lord Canning 1862 - 1863 .............................. 8th Earl Elgin I. 1863 .................................... Sir Robert Napier 1863 - 1864 .................... Sir William T. Dension 1864 - 1869 ................................. Earl of Mayo 1872 - .................................. Sir John Strachey 1872 - 1876 ........................ Baron North Brook 1876 - 1880 ................................... Lord Lytton 1880-1884 ..................................... Lord Ripon 1884 -1888 ................................. Lord Dufferin 1888-1894 ............................. Lord Lansdowne 1894 -1899 .................................. Lord Elgin II 1899 - 1905 .................................. Lord Curzon 1905 - 1910 ................................. Lord Minto II 1910 - 1916 ............................ Lord Hardinge II 1916 - 1921 ............................ Lord Chelmsford 1921 -1926 ................................. Lord Reading 1926-1931 ...................................... Lord Irwin 1931 -1936 ............................ Lord Wellington 1936 -1942 ............................. Lord Linlithgow 1942-1947 .................................... Lord Wavell 1947 (March 13 - August 14) .......................... ................................. Lord Louis Mounbatten

Governors - Generals of Indian Union 1947 (August 15) 1948 (June 20) ........... Lord Louis Mountbatten 1950 Jan. 25 ....................... C. Rajagopalachari

Page 58 of 191

pressed classes was abolished. 

Harijan upliftment now became Gandhiji’s main concern. He started an All India Anti-Untouchability League in September 1932 and the weekly Harijan in January 1933. The January 8, 1933 was observed as ‘‘Temple Entry Day’’.

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Only Indian to participate all the three Round Table conference was B.R. Ambedkar.

Round Table Conferences

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It was above all Jawaharlal Nehru who imported a socialist vision to the national movement.

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At the Lahore session in 1929 Nehru introduced this idea.

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The Congress Socialist Party was founded in October 1934 at Bombay under the leadership of Jaya Prakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Minoo Masani

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The CSP supported the Quit India Movement.

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Socialist ideas led to the emergence of Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress Socialist party.

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Socialists

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The British government organised the First Round Table Conference at London to discuss the Simon Commission Report. The first Round Table Conference was from 12 Nov. 1930 to 19 January 1931. British Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald presided over the First Round Table Conference. The first Round Table Conference was attended by Tej Bahadur Supru B.R. Ambedkar, Muhammed Shafi, M.A. Jinnah etc. Gandhiji did not participate in it. As a result of the Gandhi Irwin pact (1931) Congress decided to stop the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5th March 1931. The Second Round Table Conference started in London on 7 September 1931. It was attended by 107 Indians including Gandhiji. The Second Round Table Conference was a failure. So the Civil Disobedience movement was restarted on 3rd January 1932.

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One notable feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement of Gandhiji was wide participation of women.

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Towards the end of 1920 M.N. Roy and other Indian emigres at Tashkant formed a communist party of India. In India on 1st September, 1924 Satyabhakta in a press note announced the for-

Sarojini Naidu participated in the Second Round Table Conference.

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The Communal Award was announced on August 16, 1932 by British Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald.

Case

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By the Communal Award minority communities were given Separate Communal Electroates.

Nasik 1909-10 Conspiracy

Vinayak Savarkar

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The Communal Award was opposed by Gandhiji and he decided to go on fast unto death.

Alipore

Aurobindo Ghosh

Hawrah case 1910

Jatin Mukharjee

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The Third and the last Round Table Conference was held between Nov. 17 and December 24, 1932.

Dacca Case

1910

Pulin Das

Delhi case

1915

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The Third Round Table Conference agreed upon certain broad principles for the future constitutional set up: Which were published later as ‘white paper’ (March 1933)

Amirchand, Awad Bihari and Bal Mukund

Lahore case

1929 - 30

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev

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The Poona Pact was signed on 25 September 1932 at Bombay. By this the separate electorate for de-

Famous Conspiracy Cases Date

1908

Accused

Banaras case 1915 - 16

Sachindranath Sanyal

Kakori case

Rama Prasad Bismil and Ashfaq

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1925

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Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee and Sachindranath Sanyal founded the Hindustan Republican Associations (HRA) in 1924, whose object was to establish a Federal Republic. On 9 August 1925 ten revolutionaries robbed the 8-Downtrain at Kakori, near Lucknow. This is known as Kakori Conspiracy.

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HRA became Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in 1928.

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Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw bomb on the Central Legislative Assembly against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. Chittagong Armoury Raid was planned by Suryasen and his associates on 18 April 1930. In March 1929, a group of 31 labour leaders were tried in Meerat Conspiracy Case. Provisional Government of Free India was set up at Kabul in 1915 by Mahendrapratap and Barkatulla. Death of Jitin Das, a revolutionary in jail on the 64th day of a hunger strike was in 1929. Execution of Bhagatsingh Sukh Dev and RajGuru by the British was on March 23, 1931. Death of Chandrasekhar Azad in 1931 in an encounter with police at Allahabad.

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The mission under Stafford Cripps (the Lord Privy Seal and a member of the British War Cabinet) arrived in India on March 22, 1942 to find out a political formula for transfer of power to Indians.

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The main proposals of the mission was to grant Dominion status to India at the end of the Second World War and setting up of an interim government to administer the country in all matters except defence.

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The government of India Act 1935 proposed a government based on Federal System. It ensured complete autonomy First general election as per the Act of 1935 was held in 1937, Congress got the majority. But all the Congress Ministers resigned in 1939 as a protest against Britains decision to drag In-

The Congress and the League rejected the offer Gandhiji called the cripps offer ‘‘a Post Dated Cheque on a Crashing Bank’’.

Quit India Movement (1942)

Government of India Act (1935) 

The famous proclamation made by Lord Linlithgow on 8 August 1940 is known a August Offer. This ensured to give dominion status and freedom to frame constitution based on representative nature.

Cripps Mission 1942

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The government declared CPI illegal in 1934.

Revolutionary Terrorism 

August offer (1940)

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In December 1928 the All India Worker and Peasants Party came into existence.

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dia into the Second World War.

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mation of the Communist Party of India with himself as the Secretary.

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The failure of the Cripps Mission was the major reason for the beginning of Quit India Movement. The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on August 8, 1942 passed the famous Quit India resolution. The Movement began on 9 August 1942. On the occasion of the Quit India Movement Gandhiji gave his famous call of ‘Do or Die’. The term Quit India was coined by an American Journalist while interviewing Gandhiji. ‘‘Quit India’’, ‘‘Bharat Chodo’’ ‘Do or Die’ these were the powerful slogans of Quit India movement. Muslim League new slogan during the Movement was ‘‘Divide and Quit’’. C. Rajagopalachari evolved, in 1944, a formula called the CR Formula to end the struggle between the Congress and Muslim League.

Page 60 of 191

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On 18thFebruary 1946 1,100 naval ratings of the Signal School of HMIS Talwar (ship) in Bombay went on strike against racial discrimination regarding pay and food.

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BC Dutt was arrested for writing ‘Quit India’ on HMIS Talwar.

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Both Congress and Muslim league did not help the mutineers.

Cabinet Mission (1946) 

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The British Government headed by Attlee of the Labour Party, appointed a Cabinet Mission consisting of Pethic Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. Cabinet Mission proposed a federal government for the whole of India.

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Mountbatten Plan (1947)  

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Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held under the Cabinet Mission Plan, in 1946.

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Cabinet Mission arrived in India in 1946 March 23.

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The Mission was headed by Lord Pethwick Lawrence.

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It provided an interim government during the time of Lord Wavell

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It also provided for the establishment of a Constitutent Assembly to frame a constitution

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On 2 September 1946 an Interim Government headed by Nehru came to power.

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It was a 12 member Ministry.Three members were Muslims.

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Liakqat Ali Khan was the Finance Minister in the Interim Government. The Muslim League proclaimed ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August 1946 with battle cry of Pakisthan’, ‘Larke Langa Pakistan’. The Muslim League proclaimed September 2, 1946 as a ‘Day of Mourning’.

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Communal riots broke out in Naokhali from November 7, 1946 to March 2, 1947 Gandhiji toured in these 49 villages. December 3 - 6, 1946 The British Prime Minister Clement Atlee summoned Jawaharlal Nehru, Baldev Singh, MuhammedAli Jinnah and Liaqat Ali Khan for an extraordinary conference at 10 Dawning Street London. Constituent Assembly: The constituent Assembly started its session on December 9, 1946 in the Library of the Council Chamber without the participation of the League. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly.

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Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946)

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Mountbatten arrived in India on March 22, 1947. Mountbatten became the last Viceroy of India, the last Governor General of India and first governor general of free India. Mountbatten proposed a plan to divide India. Clement Atlee announced the plan in the House of Commons on 2 June 1947, hence it came to be known as 3rd June Plan. Work of the demarcation of the boundaries was done by Radcliff . Hence the line is known as Radcliff line. The 3rd June Plan was given effect by the Indian Independence Act 1947. The dominion of Pakistan was inaugurated in Karachi on 14th August 1947. India became free on 15th 1947.

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Lord Wavell, the then Governor General offered the famous Wavellplan in 1945 at Shimla.

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Integration of States  

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The integration of Princely States was done by Sardar Patel with the assistance of V.P. Menon. By August 1947, all the 554 States, with the exception only of Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagarh acceded to the union. On 26th October the Maharaja of Kashmir, Harisingh signed the ‘‘Instrument of Accession’’ and Sheik Abdulla is known as ‘Lion of Kashmir’. The Nizam of Hyderabad signed the agreement

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Indian National Army (INA)

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The Viceroys of India Lord Canning (1856 - 62)

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Revolt of 1857.

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Queen Victoria’s Proclamation and passing of the Indian Act of 1858.

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Withdrawal of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ in 1859, which was passed by Lord Dalhousie.

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Foundation of the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857.

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Indigo Revolt in Bengal in 1859-60.

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White Mutiny by the European troops of East India Company in 1859.

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Bahadurshah II was sent to Rangoon

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Enactment of Indian Penalcode.

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Indian Councils Act of 1861.

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Enactment of Indian Code of Criminal Procedure.

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The idea of Indian National Army was first conceived by Mohan Singh at Malaya, an officer in British Indian Army. The first division of INA was formed in September 1942 with Japanese help. Subash Chandra Bose began to associate with INA by July 1943. The command was handed over by Rash Bihari Bose To the Indians Subash Chandra Bose said ‘you give me blood I will give you freedom’.. Subash Chandra Bose set up two INA headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore. The women’s regiment called the ‘Rani Jhansi’ regiment was under Captain Lekshmi Segal. He was the first to address Gandhiji as the ‘Father of the nation’’ in his appeal on the ‘Azad Hind Radio’ Singapore. In may 1944 INA captured Mowdok and hoisted the tri-colour flag on Indian soil. The Japanese government handed over the Andaman and Nickobar island to him which were renamed ‘Shaheed and Swaraj’ islands respectively. The INA troops surrendered before the British army in 1945. The British Government of India charged INA soldiers of waging war against the king. The trials were held in the Red Fort in Delhi. The first three accused were capt. P.K. Sehgal , Capt. Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon. Subash Chandra Bose was born at Cuttack in Orissa. He appeared for the Indian Civil Service in 1920 and passed with merit, but resigned before completing his probation in April 1921, he joined the Congress and plunged into the national movement. He was unanimously elected President at the Haripura Congress session in 1938 and was reelected for the second term at the Tripuri session in 1939, defeating Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya,

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who was supported by Gandhiji. He resigned the Presidentship of INC in April 1939 and founded All India Forward Block and the Kisan Sabha. But in January 1941, he escaped out of India and reached Berlin (Germany) from where he arrived in Singapore in 1943. Bose was popularly known as the ‘Netaji’ He was reportedly killed in an air cash over Taipei, Taiwan on August 18, 1945. A.N. Mukherjee Commission enquired about the mysterious disappearance of Subash Chandra Bose.

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to join the Indian Union through police action in 1948.

Lord Elgin (1862 - 63) 

Supressed the Wahabi Movement

Sir John Lawrence (1864 - 69) 

Famine commission was constituted.

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Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called policy of masterly inactivity.

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Set up highcourts in Calcutta Bombay and Madras (1865).

Page 62 of 191

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

Wahabi and Kuka movements were active.

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Mayo was murdered

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Lord Lytton (1876-80) 

Passing of the Royal Titles Act of 1876 and the assumption of the title empress of India (Qaiser-ihind) by Queen Victoria.

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Holding of Delhi Durbar in 1877.

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Passing of the Vernacular Press Act of 1878.

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Passing of the Arms Act of 1878.

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Lowering of maximum age from 21 years to 19 years for the Civil Services Examination, an attempt to prevent Indians from entering Civil Services.

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Appointment of first Famine Commission under Sir Richard Strachy.

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Started Statutory Civil Service.

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Second Anglo Afghan war in 1878.

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Coronation durbar in 1911 at Delhi in honour of George V A separate state of Bihar and Orissa was created in 1911. India’s capital was decided to shift to Delhi in 1911 and shifted in 1912. Kamagata Maru incident. 1916, Saddler committee on Univerisities appointed.

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Tilak founded Home Rule League.

Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 21)

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Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882.

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Foundation of the Local Self Government (1882)

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Holding of the first decennial and regular census in 1881 which put the total population at 254 million.

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Appointment of an Education Commission under Sir William Hunter in 1882.

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Passing of the first Factory Act in 1881 for the welfare of child labour.

Famine code of 1883.

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Lord Ripon (1880-84)

The Ilbert bill controversy.

Lord Hardinge (1910-1916) 

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Creation of a new province called the North West Frontier Province. Appointment of Universities Commission in 1902 under Sir Thoma Releigh and passing of Indian Universities Act 1904. Partition of Bengal

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Lord Mayo (1869-72)

Lord Dufferin (1884 - 88) 

Foundation of Indian National Congress

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Third Anglo Burmese war

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Commented on the Congress being a microscopic minority.

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Foundation of women’s university at Poona.

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Hunter Commission on Jalianwala Bagh Massacre.

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Chamber of Princes established in 1921.

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Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant.

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Third Afghan war started.

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Aligarh Muslim University was founded in 1920.

Lord Reading (1921-26) 

Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh by K.B. Hedgewar at Nagpur in 1925.

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Beginning of Indianisation of the officers cadre of the Indian Army.

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Railway Budget was separated from General Budget in 1921.

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Hilton Young Committee on currency was appointed in 1926.

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Viswa Bharati University started by Rabindra Nath Tagore.

Page 63 of 191

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Train Robbery at Kakori.

Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)

Lord Irwin (1926-31)

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His plan to make India free on August 15 1947 is also known as June 3rd Plan.

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First Governor General of free India

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Popularly known as Christian Viceroy.

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Simon Commission arrives in Bombay.

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Meerut conspiracy case.

Rajagopalachari (1948-50)

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Gandhi started his Dandi March.

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Chitagong Armoury Raid.

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First Round Table Conference.

Father of Our Nation

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Gandhi-Irwin pact.

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Communal Award in 1932 by Ramsay Mac Donald.

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Third Round Table Conference in 1932.

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White Paper on Political reforms in India was published in 1933.

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Burma was separated from British Empire in 1935.

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August Offer by the Viceroy in which he declared dominion status as the ultimate goal of British policy in India.

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Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)

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In 1940 individual Civil Disobedience Movement was started.

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1942 Cripps Mission came.

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Congress starts Quit India Movement.

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Gandhiji’s first imprisonment was in 1908 at Johannesberg in South Africa.

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In 1899 during the Boer war Gandhiji organised Indian Ambulance Corps for the British.

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Gandhiji was humiliated and ousted from Peter Marits Burg Railway Station in South Africa.

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Gandhiji became a Brahmachari in 1906.

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Gandhiji started Tolstoy Farm South Africa in 1910.

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Gandhiji started the Foenix Settlement in Durban.

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Gandhian Era in Indian politics is from 1915 -1948.

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He returned to India on 9th January 1915, leaving South Africa for ever. January 9 is observed as ‘Pravasi Bharatiya Divas’ to commemorate this.

Lord Wavell (1943-47) 

Wavell Plan, Shimla conference Congress represented by Maulana Azad

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RIN Mutiny (1946)

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Interim Government was formed (September 2, 1946)

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Prime Minister of Britain Clement Atlee announced to give independence to India by June 1948.

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Cabinet Mission 1946.

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16th August 1946, Muslim League begins ‘Direct Action day’.

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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, called Mahatma, is the father of our nation. He was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat as the son of Diwan Karamchand and his fourth wife ‘Putilibai’. In 1883, at the age of 14, he married Kasthurba Later he went to England to study law. In 1893 he went to South Africa to practice law. After his studies in England Gandhiji began his practice as a lawyer in Bombay and Rajcot. He was subjected to racial discrimination and organised Natal Indian Congress in 1894. There he started a weekly, Indian opinion 1904. Gandhiji experimented the weapon Satyagraha for the first time in South Africa in September 1906 to protest against the Asiatic Ordinance issued against the Indians in Transval

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Lord Willington (1931-36)

First Indian Governor General.

Page 64 of 191

Gandhiji’s first Satyagraha in India was for the right of Indigo workers in Champaran in 1917.

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Gandhiji called Subhah Chandra Bose the‘Palriots’, Patriot

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Gandhiji’s first fast was in 1918 in connection with the strike of mill workers in Ahmedabad.

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Winston Churchil called Gandhiji a ‘‘Half naked Seditious Fakir.

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He started the Satyagrahasrama on the banks of Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad in 1917. In 1918 he started two weeklies - Young India in English and Navjeevan in Gujarati. Gandhiji abandoned his title Kaiser -i-Hind in protest against Jallianwalabagh Massacre (1919) Gandhijis first National Movement was organised against the Rowlat Act in 1919. Gandhiji launched the Non-Co-operation Movement on August 1, 1920 which caused the violent incident at Chauri Chaura in UP. This incident initiated Gandhiji to suspend the movement in 1922. Gandhiji renounced worldly pleasures and became a symbol of halfnaked villager in 1920. The only Congress session presided over by Gandhiji was the one which held at Belgaum in 1924. Gandhiji started his historic Dandi March on 12 March 1930 related to the Salt Satyagraha. Gandhiji partcipated in the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931 August. With the aim of eradicating untouchability Gandhiji founded the All India Harijan Samaj in 1932.

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The name ‘Gurudev’ was given to Tagore by Gandhiji

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Tagore called Gandhiji ‘Mahatma’.

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‘Wardha’ scheme of education was the basic education policy formulated by Gandhiji.

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In 1940 Gandhiji started Individual Satyagraha and selected Vinoba Bhave and Nehru for that.

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In 1942 August 9 Gandhiji started the Quit India Movement and gave the call ‘Do or Die’.

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Gandhiji called the Cripps Mission (1942) ‘‘a postdated cheque on a drowning bank’’.

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Gandhiji was assassinated by Nadhuram Vinayak Godse on 30 January 1948 at the Birla house in Delhi. He died at 5 : 17 pm.

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‘He Ram, He Ram’ was his last words.

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Gandhiji started his journey for Harijan upliftment from the Wardha Ashram in Maharashtra.

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Gandhiji called low class people as ‘Harijan’ which means ‘sons of God’.

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He started the weekly Harijan in 1933.

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Gandhi-Irwin pact was signed on 5 march 1931.

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Gandhiji was associated with the Vaikom and Guruvayur Sathyagraha in Kerala.

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Gandhiji called the Temple Entry Proclamation a wonder of the Modern Age.

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Pattabhi Sitaramayya Gandhiji’s candidate for the Presidentship of INC was defeated by Subash Chandra Bose.

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Godse used an Italian Beritta Pistol to shoot at Gandhiji.

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Gandhiyum Godseyum is a book written by N.K. Krishnavarier.

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‘Mem Nadhuram Godse Bolthai’ is a play written by Pradeep Dalvi to humiliate Gandhi.

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After the assassination, The R.S.S was banned in 1948 February 4.

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Narayan Dathathrya Apte was hanged to death along with Godse on the Gandhi Assassination case.

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French Novelist who wrote the biography of Gandhiji was Romain Rolland.

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Medalim Slaiduin a British woman became a follower Gandhi and came to be known as Meera Ben.

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The original autobiography of Gandhiji written in Gujarathi language was ‘Sathya na Karogo’.

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Liberty or Death written by Patrick French deals with antogonism in Gandhis life.

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Gandhiji called his hanging clock my little dictator.

Page 65 of 191

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‘Ente Gurunathan’ poem written by Vallathol Narayana Menon speaks about Gandhiji.

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‘That’s my mother’ Gandhiji said these words about Bhagavatgita.

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Gandhiji’s political guru was Gopalakrishna Gokhale.

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Gandhi’s prisoner is a book written by Uma Dupfeli Mistri , daughter of Gandhis son, Manilal.

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Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas and Devdas were Gandhijis four sons.

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‘I follow Mahatma’ is a book written by K.M.Munshi.

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‘Unto This Last’ of John Ruskin greately influenced Gandhiji

Rabindnranath Tagore

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R.K. Narayan wrote ‘Waiting for the Mahatma’.

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‘A week with Gandhi, ‘Gandhi and Stalin and Life of Mahatma Gandhi are the books written by Fischer.

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Gandhiji grandson Thushar Gandhi led the second Dandi March from Marh 12 - April 17, 2005 on the 75th anniversary of Dandi March.

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‘‘My only hope lies in prayer and answer to prayer’’ - Gandhiji

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Rabindranath Tagore was born at Calcutta in West Bengal as the son of Maharshi Devendranath Tagore and Sarda Devi. One of Rabindranath’s brothers, Satyendranth Tagore was the first Indian to get selcted for the ICS in 1864.

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In 1901 Tagore established a school at Shanti Niketan which finally developed into the world famous University of ViswaBharati in 1921.

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In 1913,Tagore’s Gitanjali was selected for the Nobel prize for Literature.

Gandhiji’s autobiography ‘‘My Experiments with Truth’ was written in 1922 while he was in Jail. It describes his life from 1869 to 1921.

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‘‘Swaraj for me means freedom for the meanest of our countrymen’’ - Gandhiji ‘‘The light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere’’ Nehru on the death of Gandhiji. ‘‘Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute’’ Gandhiji ‘‘Indian culture is neither Hindu, Islam, nor any other wholly. It is a fusion of all’ - Gandhiji ‘‘Non Co-operation with evil is as much a duty as co-operation with good’’ - Gandhiji

It was translated into English by Mahadev Desai.

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Leon Tolstoy is considered as the spiritual guru of Gandhiji.

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In 1912 Tagore Published Jana Gana Mana (Now India’s National Anthem)

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One of the great dreams of Gandhiji was the establishment of Grama Swaraj. He said ‘‘India lives in villages’’. He started Sewagram Ashram on 30 April 1936.

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The National anthem is composed in the Raga, ‘Sankarabharanam’

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The English translation of the national anthem is ‘‘The morning song of India’’.

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Gandhiji said ‘‘Non violence is not one form it is the only form of direct action’’.

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National anthem was first sung at the Calcutta session of INC (1911)

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Gandhiji once sarcastically (humorously) called jail ‘‘His Majesty’s Hotel’’.

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India accepted it as our national anthem on 24 January 1950.

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''Generations to come it may scarce believe that such a one as this ever in flesh and blood walked upon this earth'', Einstein said about Gandhiji.

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‘Bharat Vidhata’ was the first name of National anthem.

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‘‘Truth and Non-violence are my Gods’’ Gandhiji

National anthem was first published in the book ‘Tatvabodhini’.

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Untouchability is a crime against God and Mankind Gandhiji.

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Tagore also wrote the national anthem of Bangladesh ‘ Amar Sonar Bengla’.

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Gandhiji called Tagore ‘Gurudev’.

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For Tagore, the great objective of education was ‘to know man and to make oneself known to man’’.

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‘Jeevan Smriti’ is the autobiography of Tagore.

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‘Gora’, ‘Raja and Rani’ ‘Rajarishi’, ‘Kabooliwala’ etc are the famous novels of Tagore.

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‘Purabhi’, ‘The cycle of the spring’ ‘The evening song’ ‘The morning song’ etc are the other famous works of Tagore.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)

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Jawaharlal Nehru was the son of Motilal Nehru and Swarupa Rani.

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‘Jawahar’ means Jewel.

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He was born in 1886 November 14.

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Vijayalekshmi Pandit and Krishna Harthising were the sisters of Nehru.

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Nehru became a member of Theosophical Society at the age of 13.

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He went to London in 1905 and joined the Haro Public School, Then Trinity College in Cambridge and finally at the Inner Temple.

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He returned India in 1912 and started practice at the Alahabad High Court.

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Nehru attended the Bankipore Congress Session in 1912.

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He met Gandhi in 1916 at the Lucknow session.

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Nehru became the General Secretary of INC in 1923. Nehru became the president of INC for the first time 1929. Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at this session (Lahore). Nehru became the President of INC for the largest number of times Lahore (1929), Lucknow (1935), Faizpur (1936), New Delhi (1951), Hyderabad (1953) and Kalyan (1954).

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Nehru started a newspaper called ‘National Herald’. Nehru headed the interim ministry formed in 1946 September. He became the first Prime Minister of India after independence in 1947. Nehru has the largest term as India’s Prime Minister. Important works of Nehru are ‘Glimpses of World History’,‘The Unity of India’, ‘The Discovery of India’ ‘Bunch of Old letters’. ‘‘An Autobiography’’ is the autobiography of Nehru. ‘‘.......... At the stroke of the mid night hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom........... these are the words of Nehru. Nehru’s main contribution to the evolution of Indias foreign policy was the acceptance of nonallignment. Non-alignment meant taking independent decisions on international issues with a sense of neutrality. Nehru visited China in 1954, both the countries signed the Panch Sheel. ‘I want the cultures of all lands to be brought to my house as freely as possible’ He said The expression ‘‘Tryst with destiny’ was first used by Jawaharlal Nehru on the Occasion of India attaining freedom. There will be no freedom in this country or in the world so long as a single human being is unfree. Jawaharlal Nehru. It is not so much the existence of a nation that counts but what the nation that counts but what the nation does during various periods of existence Nehru. Nehru was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1955. Nehru got placed in Indial Postal Stamp in 1964. India government began to distribute International Award for International understanding in 1965 U Thant got it for the first time. First woman to get the award was Mother Theresa (1969)

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In 1915, Tagore was awarded Knighthood by the British Monarch George V, but he surrendered it in 1919 as a protest against the Jalianwallabagh Massacre.

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Nehru died on 27 may 1964 at the age of 75.

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Famous Statements

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Swami Vivekananda ‘‘Christianitywins its prosperity by cutting the throats of its fellowmen.

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Swami Vivekananda ‘‘For our own motherland a junction of the two great system Hinduism and Islam is the only hope. Swami Vivekananda ‘‘We are just don’t touchists Our religion is our kitchen our god is the cooking and our religion is don’t touch me, I am holy. If this goes on for a century, everyone of us will be in a lunatic asylum. Aurobindo Ghosh : - ‘‘Political freedom is the life breath of a nation’’. Tilak : ‘‘Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it. Gandhiji on the eve of Dandi March ‘‘Sedition has become my religion’’. Ram Krishna Paramahamsa ‘‘ God is of no use to the hungry belly’

INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

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Lord Dufferin : Congres was a microscopic minority. Lord Curzon : Congress was ‘tottering to its fall’ and one of his greatest ambition in India was ‘‘to assist it (congress) a peaceful demise’. Charles Napier: ‘We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so and a very advantageous, useful humane piece of rascality it will be ’’. Thomas Roe : ‘‘I know these people are best treated with the sword in one hand and the caducean in the other.’’ Nabin Chandra Sen : ‘‘The battle of Plassey was followed by a night of eternal gloom for India’’. John Sullivan : ‘Our system acts very much like a sponge drawing up all the good things from the banks of the Ganges and Squeezing them down on the banks Thames’ Tipu Sultan - ‘Better to die like a Soldier, than to live a miserable dependent on the infidels in the list of their pensioned Rajas and nobles. Peter the Great of Russia ‘‘Bear in mind that the commerce of India is the commerce of the world’’. Cornwallis ‘‘Every native of Hindustan is corrupt’’. William Bentinck : ‘‘The misery hardly find a parallel in history of commerce, the bones of the cotton weavers were bleaching the plains of India’’. Rani of Jhansi - ‘‘With our own hands we shall not let our Azadshahi burry’’. J.L. Nehru : ‘‘British power became the guardian and upholder of many and evil custom and practice which it other wise condemned.’’ Cornwallis : ‘‘One third of Bengal has been transformed into a jungle inhabitated only by wild beats’’ A.O. Hume - ‘‘A safety valve for the escape of great and growing forces generate by our action was urgently needed’’. Dada Bhai Naroji : Regarding law and orders ‘‘pray strike on the back but dont strike on the belly’’. Dufferin : Branded the national leaders as ‘‘Disloyal Babus’ ‘‘Seditious Brahmins’ and ‘‘Violent Villains’.

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India - Pak Wars 

The major cause of the India - Pak wars was the Kashmir problem.

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On September 1, 1965 Pakistan started attack on the border and invaded Chhamb and Dewa regions.

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On September 11, UN Secretary General U-Thant reached to talk on cease fire. After the battle, Tashkent agreement was signed under the mediation of Russia. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Sastri and Pakistan President Ayub Khan signed the agreement. On December 2 The Border Security Force was formed. Lal Bahadur Sastri died at Tashkent on 11 January 1966. The deplomacy of Sastri was the major source behind India’s victory in the 1965 Indo-Pak war. The Second Indo-Pak war was in 1971. After the war Bangladesh became an independent country.

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Indo-China War

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Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chau Enlai established bilateral friendly relation signing the Panchsheel in 1954. But giving asylium to the Dalai Lama of Tibet (1954) provocated China. China attacked India by crossing the Mac Mohan line on September 8, 1962. On October 19 Chinese made a massive attack. On October 26 Government declared Emergency and Defence of India Ordinance. Keeping view of the Chinese aggression the Gold Bond Scheme was declared. In November 1962 the National Defence Council was set up. On Nov. 10, the Chinese declared a Unilateral withdrawal. In 2005 China removed Sikkhim from Chinese map and accepted it Indias part. In 2006, Two countries agreed to open the Nathula pass (Sikkim) after a lapse of four decades.

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Goa was in the hands of Portuguese from 1510 AD onwards. The Liberation Army captured Dadra, Nagarhaveli on 22 July 1954. Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated from the Portuguese in 1964. Pondicherry was under the French Since 1946 there were freedom struggle in Pondicherry. The legal hand over of Pondicherry was in 1962. Malayalam speaking Mahi, Telegu speaking yanam and Tamil speaking Karakkal are the parts of Pondicherry. Pondicherry’s new name is Puthussery.

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Liberation of Pondicherry and Goa

Nuclear researches in India were lead by Homi J. Bhaba. Council for Scientific Industrial Research Institute was formed in 1942. Indias first Nuclear Experiment was on 18th May 1974. First Nuclear Experiment of India was code named as ‘‘Buddha Smiles’. It was during the period of Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister. It was conducted at the Pokhran Desert in Rajasthan. Uranium was used in the process. It was lead by Dr. H.N. Setna and Dr. Raja Ramanna. Second Nuclear experiment was in 1998. It was code named a ‘Operation Shakti’ or ‘Buddha Smiles again’’. Pokhran is in the Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan. Second experiment was conducted during the term of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

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The agreement signed after the 1971 war was the Simla Agreement. Simla Agreement was signed by Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistan Prime Minister Sulfiker Ali Bhuto in 1972. The Kargil war in 1999 was against the terrorist usurpation into Kashmir from Pakistan. Kargil military operation of India was known as ‘Operation Vijay’. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee conducted the famous Lahore Bus Journey in 1999 February. The Kargil war officially ended on 26 July 1999. Boundary line between India and Pakistan is Radcliff line. The Lahore declaration was signed between A.B. Vajpayee and Nawaz Sherif. Military operation conducted by India on Pakistan 1948 was known as Operation Sojila. The operation in which Indian army captured Siachin was known as Operation Meghdoot. India and Pakistan signed the Indus River Water Agreement in 1960.

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Ante Sikh Riots 

In 1984, General K. Sundarji, Commander-in-chief with the army besieged the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star on June 5.90 soldiers and 712 Sikh extremists including Bhindranwale.

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On 6th December 1992, the B.J.P. and VHP organised a huge rally of over 20,000 volunteers at the site of Babri Masjid. The BJP Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, Kalyan Singh assured to the Supreme court that the mosque would be protected. But the mosque was hammered down. The Central Government banned VHP, RSS, BajrangDal and Jamaat -e-Islami. The Kalyan Singh government was dismissed. Babri Masjid was constructed by Babar’s governor Mir Sakhi at Ayodhya (U.P). Narasimha Rao was the Prime Minister when the Babary Masjid was demolished. Ayodhya 6th December, 1992 is a book written by NarasimhaRao,published Posthumously.

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The operation was done by 15th Cavalry Regiment of Indian Army. As a sequel to the Operation Blue Star. Indira Gandhi was gunned down and killed by her own security guards, Sub Inspector Beant Singh and Constable Satwant Singh on October 31, morning. In the Ante Sikh riots more than 3000 sikhs died. Congress president Sonia Gandhi officially apologised the Community in 1998. Justice Ranganath Mishra Commission appointed in 1985 submitted the report in 1986. Kapur Mithal Committee (1987) Jane Banerjee Committee Potti Rosha Committee (1990) Jane Agarwal Committee (1990) Dhillan Committee (1985), Narula Committee (1993), Nanavati Commission (2004) etc enquired about the incident.

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Indian Constitution

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he Constitution of India lays down the framework on which Indian polity is run. The Constitution declares India to be a sovereign socialist democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty. It was passed by the Constituent Assembly of India on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950. India celebrates January 26 each year as Republic Day. It is the longest written constitution of any independent nation in the world, containing

395 articles and 12 schedules, as well as numerous amendments, for a total of 117,369 words in the English language version. Besides the English version, there is an official Hindi translation. The Constitution lays down the basic structure of government under which the people chose themselves to be governed. It establishes the main organs of government - the executive , the legislature and the judiciary. The Constitution not only defines the powers of each organ, but also

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demarcates their responsibilities. It regulates the relationship between the different organs and between the government and the people. The Constitution is superior to all other laws of the country. Every law enacted by the government has to be in conformity with the Constitution. The Constitution lays down the national goals of India Democracy, Socialism and National Integration. It also spells out the Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Duties of citizens.

27. The function of a Public Service Commission in India is ......... 28. In ......... of the constitution, reference to Hindus shall include a reference to Sikhs. 29. Raja Chellayya Committee dealt with ......... 30. The Constituent Assembly of India took all decision by .........

Answers sto Fill in the blanks Attorney General of India Speaker six months Parliament Lok Sabha The Prime Minister The President Governor President 10th schedule 1/10 of the total membership of the house 500 one month 1963 The President Minerva Mills Ltd. & others, 60 any courts in the country submit the resignation of his/ her cabinet the Parliament of India Quasi-Judicial 368 50 State State Prime Minister of India Advisory Article 25 tax reforms consensus.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

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1. ......... is the highest legal adviser to the Government of India. 2. ......... decides the question of disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha. 3. The time gap between two sessions of the Parliament should not exceed ......... 4. The residuary powers under the Indian Constitution rest with the ......... 5. The Prime Minister is responsible to the ......... 6. National Integration Council is chaired by ......... 7. The credential of all Ambassadors or High Commissioners of foreign countries are received by ......... 8. No money bill can be introduced in the Legislative Assembly without the recommendation of the ......... 9. Any dispute between the two houses of the Parliament can be resolved by joint sitting of both the houses summoned by the ......... 10. The provisions as to disqualification on grounds of defection by a member of Parliament are contained in ......... 11. The minimum number of members that must be present to hold the meeting of the Lok Sabha is ......... 12. The number of members of a state Legislative Assembly cannot be more than ......... 13. The proclamation of national emergency ceases to operate unless it is approved by the parliament within .........

14. The first no confidence motion was moved in the Lok Sabha after independence was in the year ......... 15. A bill for alteration of boundaries of states shall not be introduced in the Parliament without the recommendation of ......... 16. The Supreme Court passed the special judgement that the basic tenets of our constitution cannot be changed by the Parliament by any amendment, in the ......... case. 17. A member of Parliament will lose his seat if he remains absent from all meetings without permission for a period of ......... days. 18. Judges of the Supreme Courts cannot practice, after retirement, in ......... 19. If the Finance Minister fails to get the annual budget passed in the Lok Sabha, the Prime Minister should be expected to ......... 20. The name of an Indian State can be changed by ......... 21. The Finance Commission is a ......... body. 22. The article which lays down the amendment of the constitution is ................... 23. The introduction of ‘no confidence’ motion in the Lok Sabha requires the support of at least ......... members. 24. ‘Betting and Gambling’ is included in ......... list. 25. ‘Prisons’ are included in ......... list. 26. According to the Indian Constitution, the ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the .........

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12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

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Answers 1. Socialist, Secular, integrity 2. Cabinet Mission 3. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha, 4. The Governor 5. The Parliament 6 . 10 years 7. It can only withhold the bill for 14 days to make recommendations 8. 6 9. Puducherry and Delhi 10. Uttar Pradesh 11. State Government 12. Article 19 (1) 13. The President 14. Thrice 15. Public Accounts Committee, 16. Provisions regarding disqualification on grounds of defection 17. Any number of times 18. 13 19. Article 74 20. Death sentence 21. 1989 22. 1/10 th of the elected members of the parliament 23. Public Accounts Committee 24. Union List 25. No Confidence Motion 26. 20 27. Until repealed 28. Sales tax 29. The Union Government 30. 1956.

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1. Name the words which were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment. 2. On whose recommendation was the Constituent Assembly formed? 3. To whom does the Public Accounts Committee submit its report? 4. Who is the executive head of a state in the Indian Union? 5. If a state is under President’s rule, then the state Budget is passed by whom? 6. By how many years has the 62nd Amendment of the Constitution in 1990 extended the reservation for persons belonging to SC and ST in Public Services? 7. What is the power of the Rajya Sabha in regard to money bills? 8. How many states in India have bicameral legislature? 9. Name the Union Territories which have a legislature and a Chief Minister? 10. Which state in India has the largest membership in its Legislative Assembly? 11. Who finances the Village Panchayat? 12. ‘Freedom of the Press’ is guaranteed under which Article? 13. Who is legally competent to declare war or conclude peace? 14. How many times has a national emergency been declared so far by the President? 15. Which parliamentary committee in India is normally

chaired by a prominent member of the opposition? What is contained in the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution? How many times can the President of India seek reelection to his post? How many committees were set up by the Constituent Assembly for framing the Constitution of India? Name the article which empowers the President to appoint the Prime Minister of India. What is meant by ‘Capital Punishment’? In which year was voting age reduced from 21 to 18 in India? A party in India in order to be recognised as official opposition in the parliament should have at least how many seats? Which is the oldest financial committee in the Parliament? ‘Extradition’ is included in which list? Through which resolution, the Lok Sabha brings a change in the Government? What is the maximum number of starred questions that can be asked in Lok Sabha on a particular day? How long does a national emergency duly proclaimed and approved by the Parliament remain in force? States earn more revenue directly through which tax? In the case of subjects not mentioned in any of the three lists, the power to make laws rests with whom? In which year the state reorganisation Bill was passed by the parliament?

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Short Notes 1. What are the distinct features of a Constitution? 2. The President & his Functions 3. How can the constitution be amended?

2. The President of India is the head of the Union Executive. The President is elected by indirect election by an electoral college, in accordance with the system of proportional representation of single transferable vote. The electoral college shall consist of elected members of both houses of Parliament, the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry. Qualification for a presidential candidate are :  Must be a citizen of India.  Must have completed 35 years of age.  Must be qualified to be a member of the Lok Sabha.  Must not hold any office of profit.  The following appointments are made by the President,  The Prime Minister and on his advice other ministers.  Attorney General of India.  Comptroller and AuditorGeneral of India.  Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts including the Chief Justice.  Governors of States.  Lieutenant Governors and Commissioners of Union Territories.  Members of Finance Commission.  Members of the Union Public Service Commission.

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29. Discuss about the constitutional provision of the ‘no-confidence motion’. 30. 93rd amendment Bill Answers 1. An analysis of the various definitions of a constitution shows that the constitution has the following distinct features: Firstly, it refers to a collection of those basic laws which are more sacrosanct than the ordinary laws. Secondly, the constitution is not entirely written. Though a major part of the constitution is generally available in the form of a written document, certain laws are also based on customs, usages and conventions and form part of the constitution. Thirdly, the constitution may be created by a special body set up for the purpose or evolved in course of time. Fourthly, the constitution determines the structure of the main organs of government, the distribution of sovereign power between various authorities and the relations between the citizens and various organs of the government. Fifthly, it contains procedures for its own change which is generally quite different from the procedure for the enactment of ordinary laws. Sixthly, the constitution generally contains a statement of its objectives. Finally, the constitution not only lays down the rights of the citizens, but also specifies the limitations on the authority of the government.

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4. Anti-Defection Law 5. What are the major commitments of the Constitution of India as incorporated in its Preamble? 6. “Indian Constitution is drawn from different sources.” Establish the point. 7. Identify the nature and methods of Parliamentary control over the Executive in Indian Polity. 8. Explain the concept of Minorities in the Indian Constitution and mention the safeguards provided there in for their protection. 9. Discuss the power privileges and immunities of the Indian Parliament. 10. Explain the relevance of Rajya Sabha in the federal set up of the Indian Parliamentary System. 11. Highlight the significance of the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India. 12. Indian Judiciary 13. Supreme Court 14. Jurisdiction of the Supreme court 15. 42nd Amendment 16. Relation between the Union and the States 17. Fundamental Duties 18. Powers of the Governor 19. Sarkaria Commission 20. Public Service Commission 21. Election Commission 22. Finance Commission 23. Contingency Fund 24. Eighth Schedule of the Constitution 25. Family Courts 26. CAT 27. Lok Adalats (LAs) 28. High Court

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ment is made to political, social and economic justice. And to ensure social, economic and political justice, the Preamble emphasises the need for securing liberty, equality and fraternity for the Indian people. The liberty, would be of thought, expression, beliefs and faith, signifying political freedom and secularism. Equality is sought to be ensured on political, social and economic level thus besides adult franchise there would be equality of status and opportunity. Individual’s self expression would be allowed freedom but within the limits of the overall objective of national unity and progress. 6. The constitution of India may be said to be a ‘borrowed’ Constitution as its framers have gathered the best features liberally from various sources. The single most important source is the Government of India Act of 1935: the federal scheme, office of the Governor, power of federal judiciary, emergency powers were drawn from this Act. The British practice influenced the law- making procedure, rule of law, single citizenship, besides, of course, basically giving the mode of Parliamentary Government. The U.S. Constitution inspired in independence of judiciary, judicial, fundamental rights, removal of Supreme and High Court judges. The Irish Constitution was the source for the Directive Principles, method of

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provisions to be amended requires a majority of not less than two third of the members present and voting in each house. In some other cases besides two third members of both the house present and voting, it must be ratified by the legislatives of the one-half of the states. 4. Anti Defection Law was passed in 1985 as the 52nd Constitutional Amendment with the aim to political defections in India. A member of Parliament or state legislature belonging to a political party shall be disqualified if he voluntarily gives up the membership of his party or vote against the party directive or abstain from voting. Anti-defection law is added as the 10th schedule of Indian Constitution. The speaker considers the question of disqualification under antidefection law. The decision of the speaker in anti-defection law is now open to judicial review. 5. The Preamble of the Constitution of India embodies the ideals, aspirations and objectives of the social and political order to which the people of India are committed. The Preamble rests the sovereignty in the people of India which is a socialist, secular and democratic republic. Thus, the head of the nation will be elected, all religions will be respected and the State of India would be a welfare state committed to the ideals of socio-economic justice to be obtained in a democratic way by the rule of law. Commit-

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 Chief Election Commissioner and other members of the Election Commission.  Special officers for the scheduled castes and other tribal areas.  The President of India who is the Supreme Commander of the armed forces has the following powers:  Right to declare war and peace.  Legislative powers which include nomination of 12 members to the Rajya Sabha and 2 AngloIndian members to the Lok Sabha.  Right to address the Parliament. The tenure of the President is five years. The President takes the oath of office before the Chief Justice of India but his letter of resignation should be addressed to the Vice-President of India. The President shall be removed only through impeachment, applicable only for the violation of the Constitution. In case of a dispute related to the Presidential election, only the Supreme Court of India has jurisdiction over it. With regard to vacancy a new President should be elected within six months. 3. Three methods of amendment of different provision of constitution are prescribed in the Article 368 of the constitution. First method of amendment is by a simple majority. Certain other

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9. The Parliament can claim a privilege if (i) the Constitution grants it specifically or (ii) it has been created by a law of the Parliament (iii) it was enjoyed by the lower house on January 26, 1950. More specifically the Parliament enjoys freedom of speech, immunity from court proceeding, freedom from arrest in civil cases within 40 days before and after the session of the Parliament and immunity from liability in respect of Parliamentary papers. The Parliament can punish a person for contempt, can legislate and control the executive. The basic financial function of the parliament relates to the imposition of taxes and expenditure from consolidated funds of India. The Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot alter its basic structure. The Parliament has internal autonomy to regulate its proceedings and act independently in internal matters. 10. The Rajya Sabha is an indirectly elected body of 250 members under Article 80 of the Constitution, can offer expert opinion on many issues as it consists of more experienced men. It has many legislative and watch dog functions to perform. It provides for additional debating forum and can reduce the legislative time problems faced by the Lok Sabha. It has exclusive power to transfer state legislative powers to the Centre. It can impose emergency in case the Lok Sabha stands dissolved.

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Policy Resolution of the Parliament are meant as supreme guidelines for the functioning of the executive Government. Parliament also specifies the manner in which certain specific powers constitutionally granted to different authorities is to be exercised. 8. According to the Constitution of India, the concept of Minorities incorporates the groups of people differing from the other in religion, culture and language numerically the majority. Thus there are religious, linguistic and cultural minorities. Religious, cultural and educational safeguards are incorporated in the Constitution to protect all minority groups (religious, cultural and linguistic.) The safeguards are: i. Right to maintain religious and charitable institutions and manage religious affairs without state interference. ii. Religious and linguistic minorities may establish and administer their own institutions and avail of state grants without discrimination. iii. A minority language may be recognised as one of the official language in a State. iv. Special officer for linguistic minorities to report on their status. Besides these, the state does not discriminate on the basis of religion, culture etc, in manners of public appointment and employment.

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presided elections, nomination of members of Rajya Sabha by the President. From the Canadian Constitution was taken the idea of a federation with a strong Centre, and placing residuary powers with the Centre. The Weimer Constitution of Germany was the source of provisions concerning the suspension of fundamental rights during emergency, while the idea of a Concurrent List was taken from the Australian Constitution. 7. Indian Parliament is vested with the power to control over the Executive. The Executive is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. Thus it is assumed that the working of the Union Government is effectively controlled by the Parliament. However, in practice this control is exercised only in the form of question on adminstration raised during the question hour in the houses of Parliament. Parliament also has control over the revenue and expenditure of the Government. The Executive, cannot impose any tax without legislative sanction. If any tax is imposed without legislative authority, the aggrieved person can obtain his relief from the courts of India. As for expenditure, the pivot of parliamentary control is the Consolidated Fund of India. No money can be issued out of the Consolidated Fund of India unless the expenditure is authorised by an Appropriation Act. In fact, Executive cannot spend the public revenue without parliamentary sanction. The

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of the judges of the Supreme Court was initially fixed at eight (including the Chief Justice). Every judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President. The judges hold office until they attain the age of 65 years. No minimum age has been prescribed for the appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court of India nor any fixed period of office. In order to be qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court, a person must be (a) a citizen of India and (b) either a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the President, or (c) should have been a High Court Judge for at least five years. An advocate on a State High Court of ten years standing also qualifies for the post. The independence of the Judges of the Supreme Court has been secured by the Constitution in a number of ways. Our Supreme Court possesses larger powers than its American counterpart, in many respects. The law declared by the Supreme Court shall, be binding on all courts within the territory of India. 14. The Supreme Court of India enjoys three types of jurisdiction: (a) original, (b) appellate and (c) advisory Besides, the Supreme Court has been constituted as a court of record and has the power to punish for contempt. This is an

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resources to them. The other important part of the Amendment is concerned with the constitutionality of the Plan, the Gram Panchayat passes for their local development. As per political scientists, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment is a milestone in the administrative development of the country. 12. One of the greatest legacies of British rule is the Judiciary and the legal set-up in India. An independent judiciary is the very heart of a republic. The foundation of a democracy, the source of its perennial vitality, the condition for its growth, and the hope for its welfare, all lie in that great institution - an independent judiciary. There is a single, integrated judicial system for the Union as well as the States for the administration of both Union and State laws. The judiciary is perhaps the most vital limb of the Government. The sanctity of any constitution rests, to a large extent, on this organ. The Constitution of India provides for an independent judiciary for the country, with the Supreme Court at the apex and High Courts at the State level. The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial body of the land. 13. Union Parliament has been vested with the power to make laws regulating the constitution, jurisdiction, organisation and powers of the Supreme Court. It now consists of a Chief Justice and 25 other judges. The strength

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It can revise bills, control passing of hasty legislation and interpose reasonable delay on arbitrary functioning of the Lok Sabha. 11. In the year 1994, our parliament enacted a very important constitutional amendment. This amendment was concerned with the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). As India opted for the planned development of the country, a proper role for the Panchayati Raj Institutions was prepared. This amendment is concerned with the last tier of the threetier PRI system. In the longdrawn debate of the democratic decentralisation, a major part had been concerned with the financial resources of the Gram Panchayat. The other important factor was the suitable role of the Gram Panchayat in planning process of the area. The present constitutional amendment went for major power delegation to the Gram Panchayat. The Gram Sabha was given full autonomy in the matters of planning as well as some extent of financial self-reliance. Onethird of the elected seats in the Gram Panchayat were reserved for the women. The most important fact concerning the Gram Panchayat had been concerning the financial powers. The eleventh Finance Commission has been asked by the President to devise the methods through which the Gram Panchayats could raise their fund as well as the devolution of revenue

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time to time. The autonomy of the States having been thus eroded, some of them (especially those ruled by opposition parties) have been fighting hard to alter the picture. They have been pressing for greater autonomy, while demanding for a radical revision of the lopsided financial relations that subsist between the Centre and the States. The welfare activities of the States involving huge expenditure, coupled with recurring natural calamities, do call for an urgent revision of the financial provisions of the Constitution, in the light of the experience of 50 long years of our sovereign existence as a modern state. 17. Fundamental Duties is incorporated as part IV A of the constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, based on the former USSR model. Fundamental Duties include ten duties of the citizens towards the State, by which it shall be the duty of every citizen of India. The ten duties are: 1. to abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and the National Anthem; 2. to cherish and follow the noble ideas which inspired our national struggle for freedom; 3. to protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; 4. to defend the country; 5. to promote the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India;

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(b) It devalued the Fundamental Rights vis-a-vis the Directive Principles. (c) It effectively obviated the possibility of judicial review of any Act for amendment of the constitution. (d) It virtually unsettled the original balance between the various organs of the State. This amendment had in fact effected a mini revolution, whereby Parliament sought to overthrow the supremacy of the Constitution and made itself supreme in its stead. Some of the far-reaching changes introduced by Mrs. Gandhi through this amendment were reversed by the Janata Government, by repealing them (through the 43rd Amendment Act of 1977). Some provisions of the 42nd Amendment, however, still stick (despite the Janata Governments bid to scrap them too), as a result of opposition of the Congress Party in the Rajya Sabha. 16. Despite the unitary characteristics and centralising tendencies, the Indian Constitution is yet a federal constitution of its own kind. India is a diverse society with fundamental underlining unity. The unity of India is firmly based on geography and deeply rooted in history. Criticism has become inevitable, in recent years, that the Union Government by virtue of its dominant position in the economic sphere, has left the States high and dry, and they have to constantly look to the Centre for financial assistance from

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extraordinary power which must be used sparingly, but where the public interest demands it, the Court will not shrink from exercising it and imposing punishment even by way of imprisonment in cases where a mere fine may not suffice. The Supreme Court has been conferred powers to direct the transfer of any civil/criminal case from one State High Court to another. As the final appellate court, the Supreme Court can revise the decisions of the High Courts. Likewise, substantial questions of law of general importance pending before State High courts may be taken over by the Supreme Court and disposed of. The Supreme Court enjoys numerous other powers including the power of judicial review. The apex court through its power of judicial review, has ensured that the basic structure of the constitution is in any way vitated. 15. The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was sought to be severely curtailed by the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution effected in 1976. It is called as ‘the Mini Constitution’. The amending Act is a piece of comprehensive legislation containing 59 clauses and touching upon varied constitutional issues. The drastic impact of the 42nd Amendment Act briefly was: (a) It narrowed down and fettered the scope for judicial review of ordinary laws.

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till the age of retirement. The main functions of the Election Commission are: (1) Prepare electoral rolls for the election to parliament and state legislatures. (2) Supervise, direct and controls elections of President, Vice-President, Parliament and State Legislatures. (3) Lays down general rules for election and issues notification of dates and schedules of election. (4) Accord recognition to political parties and allot symbols etc. 22. The President constitutes a Finance Commission every five years. Article 280 of the Constitution provides for the appointment of the Finance Commission. It consists of a chairman and four other members to be appointed by the President. The Finance Commission makes recommendation to the President regarding the distribution of money between the Union and States and the net proceeds of taxes. The 11th Finance Commission was set up in 1997 under the chairmanship of A.M. Khusro. It submitted its report. The 12th Finance Commission was appointed by the Government in 2002 under the chairmanship of C. Rangarajan. The 13th Commission was setup in 2007 under the chairman ship of Vijay Kelker. 23. Parliament has established a contingency fund of India, into which sums are deposited from time to time. It is placed at the disposal of the President to enable advances

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functioning of the State. It also laid down wholesome guidelines for the application of Article 356 which was not to be exercised for the purpose of securing good government. 20. For the recruitment to the civil services and other posts under the Government, the Constitution provides for an independent body known as the Public Service Commission. The chairman and members of .the Commission are appointed by the President. Article 315 provides that there shall be a Public Service Commission for the Union as well as separate Public Service Commissions for each State. Two or more states may agree among themselves to have a common Public Service Commission. Further, the Union Public Service Commission, if requested by the Governor of a State may, with the approval of the President, agree to serve the needs of two or more states. To ensure the integrity and independence of the commission the Constitution debars its chairman and members from further employment after retirement, either under the Government of India or any State Government. 21. Indian Constitution provide for an independent body called Election Commission in Article 324 for the conduct of fair and unpartial elections. At present, the Election Commission consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Deputy Commissioners. Generally they hold office for a term of six years or

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6. to preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; 7. to protect and improve the natural environment; 8. to develop scientific temper and spirit of inquiry; 9. to safeguard public property ; 10. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity. 18. The powers of the Governor are:  He/She appoints the Chief Minister and the council of Ministers, the Advocate-General and the members of the State Public Service Commission.  The Governor nominates one member of the AngloIndian community to the Legislative Assembly of his State.  The Governor can promulgate ordinances during the period, when the State Legislature is not meeting.  The Governor has the power to grant pardon, reprieves, respites or remission of punishments. But he has no power to pardon death sentence. 19. The Sarkaria Commission, set up in June 1983 to study the Centre-State relations, has submitted its 1,500 page report. The report, which has now been published, comprehensively and categorically recommends a strong Centre for the proper

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Court. The salaries are from the charged expenditure of the consolidated fund of the state. They retire at the age of 62. 29. According to the constitution, the Council of Ministers stays in office only as long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha; once the confidence is withdrawn the Government is bound to resign. The rules of parliamentary procedure accordingly provide for moving a motion to ascertain this confidence. The motion is generally known as “noconfidence motion.” A motion of this kind must express want of confidence in the council of ministers, and an individual minister, as the Constitution only provides for collective responsibility. A notice of such a motion must be given before the commencement of the sitting on the day it is desired to be raised. If the Speaker is convinced that the motion is in order, the motion is read in the House. Members in favour of leave being granted to debate the motion are to indicate their support. The Speaker grants leave if not less-than fifty members support the motion. Once admitted, the motion has to be taken up within ten days of the leave being granted. The time for discussion is usually decided after consulting the Business Advisory Committee. 30. The 93rd Amendment Bill of the Constitution to make elementary education a fundamental right secured

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26. CAT is the Central Administrative Tribunal. CAT was set up in November 1985 to provide speedy and inexpensive justice to Central Government employees in respect to their service matters. The tribunals are empowered to resolve disputes and complaints relating to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and posts in connection with affairs of the union Government. It has the jurisdiction, powers and authority of a court in specified matters. 27. Lok Adalats are supplementary forums for conciliatory settlement of disputes. All categories of cases except criminal cases can be settled through LAs. They have acquired a statutory base and the awards passed by the LAs are deemed to be the decrees of the civil court and are binding on all parties to the dispute. There does not lie any appeal to any court against an award passed by LAs. Permanent and continuous LAs are being set up in all districts for encouraging the parties to resolve their disputes and differences amicably.  Legal services Day is observed on November 9. 28. The High Court is the zenith of judiciary in the State. Jurisdiction of a High Court can be extended to more than one State. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of the concerned High

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to be made by him to meet the unforeseen expenditure. Similar funds at the disposal of the State Governors are created in the State. 24. List of 22 regional languages are recognised by the Constitution in this schedule. With the passing of the 100th constitutional Amendment Bill four new languages (Maithili, Dogri, Bodo and Santhali) were included in the group of officially recognised languages. The other 18 languages are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarathi, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Konkani, Manipuri & Nepali. Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added to the 8th schedule by the 71st amendment. English is not included in the list. 25. Family Courts were set up in the country under the Family Court Act passed in 1984. They aim to promote conciliation and secure speedy settlement of disputes relating to marriage and family affairs. These courts are set up in cities with a population of more than 10 lakh. Subtle family disputes are settled in an atmosphere of friendliness and consideration. The aim of the court is to strengthen family ties and bind people not to break them apart wherever possible. International Day of the Family is observed on May 15. 1994 was observed as the international Year of the Family by U.N.

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 Judicial Review: Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to pronounce judgement with regard to the validity of legislation passed by the legislature and the action taken by the administrative authorities. Article 32 confers the power of judicial review on the Supreme Court.  Junta: It is a collective body, consisting usually of military men, which imposes military rule in a country.  Lobbying: The practice of trying to canvass support for a particular measure or viewpoint through personal contacts with the members of legislature. This is usually done in the lobbies to which public has access. Hence the term lobbying.  Legal Sovereignity: The Sovereignity of a state which is legally vested in a particular agency e.g., the Monarch of England, the President of India etc. Such persons may be called titular or nominal sovereigns.  Manifesto: It is a document which is issued, generally before a major election, by a political party, outlining its policies and programmes.  Martial Law: A state of affairs declared by a civilian government in which the military forces are authorised to govern and control certain areas without the usual constraints of democratic decision making or without accepting civil rights. Martial law is a temporary state of affairs and is legitimate in the sense that is directly decided upon and granted by the civilian government.

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 Adjournment: When a sitting assembly is discontinued to be resumed later, it is said that the assembly is adjourned and if the assembly is discontinued without prescribing the date for reassemblage, it is said that the assembly has been adjourned sine die. A sitting can be adjourned by the speaker on a resolution being passed by the assembly.  Adult Franchise: Franchise refers to the right or privilege of voting. Adult franchise is a voting right of an adult without the distinction of gender, caste, colour or religion. This is also called universal suffrage. New Zealand is the first country to introduce women franchise.  Bicameral States: Those states which have two ‘Houses of Legislature’ is called bicameral states. Unicameral states have only one ‘House of Legislature.’

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 Climbing on the Bandwagon: Endorsing support to a person who is likely to be elected.  Crossing the Floor: When a legislator changes his party label, he is said to have crossed the floor.  Cross Voting: The voting by members breaking the barriers of the party is cross voting.  Dissolution: Disbanding of the Assembly to hold fresh elections.  Extradition: The removal of a person by the state where he happens to be, to the state or the territory on which he is alleged to have committed a crime.  Gallup Poll: Conduct of test poll to ascertain public opinion on topical subjects. It has been named after Dr. Gallup of U.S.A., who introduced this poll.

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the approval of the Lok Sabha on November 27, 2002. Once the bill becomes Act, all the children in the 6 to 14 age group will have the Fundamental Right to free and compulsory education. As per the bill “the state shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.” The new law empowers a child to take a state to court of he/she be devoid of his/her fundamental Right.

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 Gram Sabha: It is a general body of all the voters residing within the jurisdiction of the village panchayat.  Gram Panchayat: It is the first tier of the Panchayati Raj and is elected by Gram Sabhas.  Gerrymandering: A reorganisation of electoral districts to gain some advantage in a forthcoming election. It should be distinguished from the reorganisation of electoral districts which is sometimes essential to ensure that every parliamentary representative speaks for approximately the same number of votes, which is known as redistribution.

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day marked for discussion of budget. Ratification: The formal adoption by a state of a treaty signed by the representatives. Refrendum: A device of direct democracy which is used to ascertain the view of electorate either in the form of government or as a legislative proposal on a policy issue. Question Hour: The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During this time, the members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions are of three kinds namely starred, unstarred and short notice. Zero Hour: It is an informal device available to the members of the parliament to raise matters without any prior notice. The zero hour starts immediately after the question hour and lasts until the agenda for the day. The time gap is 60 minutes. No-Confidence Motion: Article 75 of the constitution says that the ministry stays in the office so long as it enjoys confidence of the majority of the members of the LokSabha. In otherwords, the Lok Sabha can remove the ministry from office by passing a non confidence motion. The motion needs the supports of 50 members to be admitted.

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opposition party to assume portfolios in case the party is able to wrest the power. Snap Vote: Voting unexpectedly recorded without the voters being informed in advance by party whip. Zila Parishads: It is the thirdtier of the Panchayati Raj and consists of President’s of Panchayat Samithis, besides the MLA’s and MP’s elected from the district. Amnesty: An act of general pardon of offenders and termination of their penalties Amnesty is generally granted for political offences in the name of the Head of the State to placate the opponents of the regime through an act of generosity and trust. Byelection: Special election to a seat rendered vacant during the running term of an elected person (by death, resignation or disqualifica-tion) Cold War: A state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen itself and weaken the other, but falling short of actual war. Coupd'etat: A sudden change of government by force, brought about by those who already hold some governmental or military power. Filibuster: Parliamentary device of long speeches, not necessarily relevant to obstruct delay or bargain over a measure under consideration for voting. Guillotine: The act of putting all the demands to vote without discussion on the last

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 Nyaya Panchayat: It is the judicial panchayat and is considered an adjunct of the Panchayati Raj system. It is meant to provide speedy and cheap justice to the villagers.  People Sniffer: Indictment of Government through unofficial media.  Plebiscite: A vote by which the people of an entire country or district, express an opinion for or against a proposal especially on a choice of government or ruler.  Political Defection: The phenomenon of a legislator elected as a member of a political party quitting the party without resigning the seat is called political defection.  Prorogation: The discontinued sitting of the Assembly is to be reassembled later. It is done by the Governor or the President on the advice of the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister respectively. Adjournment can be over ruled by prorogation.  Proportionate Representation: An electoral system which was first advocated by J.S. Mill. According to this, the votes of minorities are not wasted. Indian President, Vice-President and members of Rajya Sabha are elected by this method.  Public Interest Litigation: It means that any member of the public can directly write and draw attention of the court to some injustice being suffered by the members of the public.  Shadow Cabinet: the persons who have been elected by the

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Abbreviations AAGSP : All Asian Gana Sangam Parishad. ABVP : Akhil Bharatiya Vidhyarthi Parishad. AG : Attorney General.

: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. ESMA : Essential Services Maintenance Act. EVM : Electronic Voting Machine. FBL : Forward Block. INL : Indian National League. ISP : Indian Socialist Party. IUML : Indian Union Muslim League. JD (U) : Janata Dal (United). JP : Janata Party. MDMK : Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. NCP : National Congress Party. NDA : National Democratic Alliance.

POTA : Prevention of Terrorism Activities (Act). PDP : People’s Democratic Party. PMK : Pattali Makkal Katchi. RJD : Rashtriya Janata Dal. RJP : Rashtriya Janata Party. RLD : Rashtriya Lok Dal. RPI : Republican Party of India. RSP : Revolutionary Socialist Party. SJP : Samajwadi Janata Party. SAD : Shiromani Akali Dal. TDP : Telugu Desam Party. TULF : Tamil United Liberation Front. UPA : United Progressive Alliance.

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DMK

Important Amendments

statehood to Goa. Provided a 40 member Legislative Assembly to Goa.  Amend. 61 (1988) Reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years for the Lok Sabha as well as Assembly elections.  Amend. 71 (1992) Provides that the Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali shall be included in the Eighth Schedule, thus raising the number of languages from 15 to 18.  Amend. 73 (1992) Lead to the formation of Panchayati Raj.

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Amendments deal with  Amend. 7(1956) Implement State Reorganisation Plan.

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AIADMK : All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. BJP : Bharatiya Janatha Party. BKD : Bharatiya Kranthi Dal. BJD : Biju Janata Dal. BLD : Bharatiya Lok Dal. BSP : Bahujan Samaj Party. CPI : Communist Party of India. CPI (M) : Communist Party of India (Marxist). CMP : Common Minimum Programme. CAT : Central Administrative Tribunal. CAG : Comptroller and Auditor General.

 Amend. 25 (1971) Amended Art. 31 regarding the right of the state to acquire private property for public purpose.

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 Amend. 42 (1976) Brought about drastic changes in the Indian Constitution. Because of its wide sweep and drastic nature, it came to be called a Mini Constitution. Its main provisions are 1) the words ‘secular’ and ‘socialist’ were added to the Preamble. 2) the primacy of Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights was ensured 3) restrictions were placed on the exercise of judicial review by the High Courts. It was laid down that the Supreme Court alone would be entitled to examine the constitutional validity of union laws.  Amend. 44 (1978) The Right of Property, a fundamental right was taken away and it is only a legal right now.  Amend. 56 (1987) Accorded the status of

 Amend. 74 (1992) Led to the formation of Nagar Palikas.  Amend. 79 (1999) Extended the reservation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Anglo- Indians in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for ten more years ie, upto 2010.  Amend. 84 (2000) Relates to the creation of new states of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Uttaranchal.  93 Amendment Bill : Education - A Fundamental Right.

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Source of Indian constitution

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Govt. of India act 1935: Federal system, office of the Governor, Power of federal judiciary, emergency power, public Service commission, Administrative details

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United Kingdom: Law making procedure, Rule of law, provision of single citizenship, Parliamentary Govt., Bicameralism, prerogative writs, Office of the CAG

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USA: Independent judiciary, Judicial review, Fundamental rights, Removal of supreme and high court judge (Impeachment), preamble, Function of Vice president Canada: Federation with a strong centre, residuary power with the centre, Appointment of state Governors by center, Advisory/review of Supreme Court Ireland: Directive principle of state policy, method of presidential election, Nomination of members of Rajyasabha by president Germany: Emergency provision and suspension of fundamental rights Australia: Con current list and Freedom of trade South Africa: Amendment procedure France: Republic Russia (USSR): Fundamental duties Japan: Procedure establish by law

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Indian Geography

Queen Mary 2

The Indian mainland can be divided into five physiographic units namely (i) The Great Mountains of the North (ii) The North Indian Plains (iii) The Peninsular Plateau (iv) The Coastal Plains (v) The Islands

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India : Physical Features

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Karakoram

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 The Himalayas is the highest mountain range in the world and also the youngest mountain range.  Longest Mountain Range is Andes in South America  Mountains between the Indus and the Brahmaputra are called 'the Himalayas' meaning 'the abode of snow.'  The Himalayas consist of three parallel ranges. (i) The southernmost range, called the Siwalik is the lowest. (ii) The ranges lying north of the Siwalik are known as the middle Himalayas or the Himachal. (iii) The northernmost ranges of the Himalayas, known as the Himadri, are the highest with an average height of more than 6,000 metres above the sea level.  Longitudina or Regional Divisions of Himalayas.  Kashmir Himalayas, between river indus and sutlej.

Mountains of India The mountains extending between the Pamir plateau and the Indus river in Kashmir are known as the Karakoram.  The Karakoram mountains contain the Siachen, which is the world's largest mountain glacier.  The world's second highest peak called K2 (Godwin Austin) belongs to Karakoram World's largest and most expensive cruise liner range. Queen Mary 2, the luxury ship carrying more than  The Himalayas surrounds India on the north, 2,500 passengers and 1,500 employees. north west and north - east which extends to about 2400 km. 

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Geographically, Deccan plateau is the oldest part of India. 

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Important passes of Himalayas Kashmir : Burzil and Jojila Himachal Pradesh : Bara, Lepcha-la, Shipkila Uttar Pradesh : Thanga-la, Niti-la, Lipu-Lekhla Sikkim - Nathula, Jelepla Khybar pass is the most famous pass which leads from Peshwar to Kabul. South of Khybar pass is the Gomal Pass (it is in Pakistan) The Bolan Pass leads from Kandahar to Quetta. Shipki Pass leads from the Punjab to Tibet. The Purvachal Hills in the north-east consist of the Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Lushai Hills. Vindhya mountains cut off the northern plain from the south. The Peninsular mountains include The Western Ghats (The Sahyadris), The Eastern Ghats, The Satpura Range and The Aravallis. The Western Ghats runs along the west coast from the south of Tapti river valley to Kanyakumari. Passes in Western Ghats are the Palghat between Palakkad and Coimbatore, Shenkotta between Kollam and Madurai, Thalghat between Mumbai and Pune and the Bhorghat between Mumbai and Nassik.

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 Kumaon Himalayas, between river Sutlej and River Kali.  Nepal Himalayas, between river Kali and river Teesta.  Assam Himalayas, between river Teesta and Brahmaputra Gorge.  The Himadri contain some of the world's highest peaks.  Mt. Everest (8848 m) in Nepal is the world's highest peak.  Kanchenjunga in Sikkim is the highest peak of the Himalayas in India.  Highest Mountain Peak in India (a) K2 (b) Kanchenjunga (c) Nanda Devi (d) Mt. Everest Ans: (a) K2  It is in Pak Occupied Kashmir.HutZym-Kn-I-ambn CXv C´y-bpsS {]tZ-i-am-Wv.

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The Eastern Ghats are irregular hill ranges that stretch from northern Orissa to the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu across the coastal Andhra. The Satpura range extends from the Narmada valley in the north to the Tapti valley in the south. The 800 km range Aravallis stretching from the north-east to the south - west of India separates the semi-desert regions of Rajasthan from the fertile Udaipur and Jaipur regions. Aravallis is the oldest mountain range in India. Sahyadri hills is a part of the Western Ghats. Nilgiris is also a part of Western Ghats. Nilgiri is known as the Blue Mountains.

The southernmost tip of Eastern Ghats is called Cardamom Hills.  The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet at Nilgiri Hills.

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The Peninsular Plateau 

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Rising from the Alluvial plains of U.P and Bihar, south of the Yamuna - Ganga line, the great Indian plateau (Peninsular plateau) extends towards the south to encompass the whole of the peninsula. Its north-west limit is marked by the Aravalli range. The Peninsular plateau can be divided into three-

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Anthroth Island The largest Island in Lakshadweep

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The Great plains are found between the Himalayas and Peninsular plateau which extends to about 2400 km. The plains are drained by river Sutlej and the Beas in the west, the Ganges and its tributaries in the east. Sambhar, the salt lake lies in the Rajasthan plains. The most fertile region of India is the northern plains formed by the valleys of rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra.

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Soils in India

The Islands Besides mainlands India has two groups of Islands namely the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.  Andamans consists of a northern cluster of 204 small islands and Nicobar islands consists of a southern cluster of 19 Islands.  Ten degree channel separates Andaman from Nicobar.  Port Blair is the capital of Andaman & Nicobar 

Islands. The southernmost tip of India, Indira point is in Great Nicobar islands which is the biggest island in Nicobar group. The islands of Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi in the Arabian sea are known as Lakshadweep. It comprises of a group of 36 islands, about 300km to the west of Kerala coast. Only 10 of the islands are inhabited. Kavarathi is the capital of Lakshadweep. New Moore Island lies in Bay of Bengal near West Bengal also belong to India. Coco Islands North of Andaman belong to Myanmar. Biggest Island in Andaman Group - Middle Andaman Biggest Island in Nicobar Group - Great Nicobar Smallest Island in Andaman Group - Ross Island Smallest Island in Nicobar Group - Pilomillow Island Highest point in Nicobar Group - Mount Thullier.

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the Central Plateau, the Eastern Plateau and the Deccan Plateau.  The Eastern plateau lies to the north - east of Malwa.  East of Baghelkhand is the Chottanagpur plateau in Jharkhand which is 700m high and has steep borders.  The Malwa plateau, particularly its north - eastern part called the Chottanagpur plateau is the richest mineral producing region of India.  Anamudi (Idukki) in Kerala is the highest peak of Peninsular India.  The Deccan plateau lies to the south of northern plain. The plateau is flanked by mountain ranges called Eastern and Western Ghats.  The triangular plateau is India’s largest plateau with a height ranging from 900 to 300 m in the west and east. N- Sextenat - 1600 km and E-Wextent - 1400 km.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) divides the soils found in the country into 8 major groups.  They are: Alluvial soil, Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil, Forest soil, Arid and Desert soils, Saline and Alkaline soils and Peaty and Organic soils. 

Alluvial Soil 

Alluvial soil contributing the largest share, is formed by the deposition of sediments by rivers in the interior parts of India and by the sea waves

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Black Soil Black soil is found largely in the Deccan plateau.  Black soil is suitable for the cultivation of cotton and therefore it is called black cotton soil.  The black colour of the black soil is attributed to the presence of compounds of Iron and alum i n i u m , accumulated humus, aluminium silicate, colloidal 

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Gujarat, Orissa and Kerala are some of the states in which alluvial soil is found. The coastal alluvium is of tidal origin. The desert alluvium or 'Loess' is bought by wind erosion.

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Red soil is formed by the weathering of ancient metamorphic and crystalline rocks. They are airy and need irrigation support for cultivation. Red soil is suitable for the cultivation of pulses and coarse grains. Red soils are poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and organic matter.

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Red Soil

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hydrated double iron and titaniferous magnetite.  Black soil found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

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in the coastal areas of the country. Alluvial soil is the best agricultural soil because (i) They contain a variety of salts derived from Himalayan rocks. (ii) They are light and porous, therefore easily tillable. (iii) They are good for canal irrigation because of high water table and an easily penetrable stratum. Alluvial soils are rich in potash and poor in nitrogen and organic matter. Alluvial soils are suitable for cultivation of almost all kinds of cereals, pulses, oil seeds, cotton, sugarcane and vegetables. Ahmedabad, Baroda and Kheda districts of

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ragi, tobacco and vegetable.

of organic matter. These soils are highly saline and rich in organic matter.

Laterite Soil

Forest soils are formed by the deposition of organic matter derived from forests. They are rich in organic matter and humus. They are found mainly in Punjab, Karnataka, Manipur and Jammu & Kashmir. These soils are used for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and fruits.

Himalayan rivers

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Arid and Desert Soils

Arid and Desert soils are formed under arid and semi arid conditions in the north -western parts of the country. They are rich in phosphate though poor in nitrogen.

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These soils often have a high soluble salt content and low to very low humus content. These soils are made fertile by adding gypsum.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

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Rivers in India may be classified into the Himalayan rivers, the Deccan river (Peninsular Rivers). These soils cover the high rainfall areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Kerala.

The Himalayan rivers are perennial snow fed rivers. During the monsoon season, the rivers discharge the maximum amount of water causing frequent floods. Yamuna, Gomti, Ghagra, Gandak, Ram Ganga, Son, Chambal, Betwa and Ken are the the main tributaries of Ganga. Ganga is known by the name ‘Padma’ in Bangladesh. Ganga flows through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and finally enters into the Bay of Bengal. Brahmaputra is the second largest river system of Indian sub-continent. The 2,688 km Brahmaputra is longer than the Ganges, but only one third of the river passes through India. Brahmaputra orginates from the Manasarovar lake in Western Tibet. It mainly flows through Tibet and a small portion of it flows through India. In Tibet, Brahmaputra is known as Tsang Po. After making deep gorges in Namcha Barwa, it enters India in Arunachal Pradesh as 'Dihang'. It enters Sadiya District of Assam and known as Brahmaputra when it enters Bangladesh, it is named as 'Meghna.' knÔphpw {_lva]p{Xbpw KwK-tb-¡mÄ hep-Xm-

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Forest Soil 

The River Systems of India

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Laterite soils are formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. Laterite soils are deficient in nitrogen. They are chiefly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Malabar areas. These soils are agriculturally unimportant because of intensive leaching, a low base exchange capacity and their acidic nature.

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Saline and Alkaline soils are salt impregnated and infertile. These soils are found especially in the dry tracts of the north.  Also known as reh, kallar, usar, thur, karl and chopan  They contain a larger proportion of sodium potassium and magnesium  They acquire salts largely because of dry climate and poor drainage 

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Peaty Soils 

Peaty soils are developed under humid conditions as a result of the accumulation of large amounts

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The River Ganga is the longest river (2640 km) in India. Its source is at Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas.

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Peninsular rivers

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Peninsular rivers (The Deccan System) are generally rainfed and comprises the rivers of peninsular India. They are shorter and seasonal in nature. River Godavari is the largest river system (1465 km long) of peninsular India. It is known as the 'Vridha Ganga' or 'Dakshin Ganga.' It rises from Trambak in Nasik district in the Western Ghats. River Krishna rises from the north of Mahabaleswar in the Western Ghats. It enters into the Bay of Bengal. Krishna basin forms the third largest river basin in India. River Cauvery rises from the Brahmagiri hills in the Coorg district of Karnataka. About 55 percent of the cauvery basin lies in Tamilnadu, 41 percent in Karnataka and three percent in Kerala. River Pennar rises in the Kolar district of Karnataka. River Damodar rises from the Chottanagpur plateau near Tori in Palamau district of Jharkhand. River Damodar of Jharkhand is called as "Sorrow of Bengal and Jharkhand", because of frequent flood, mass, soil erosion and heavy siltation. River Narmada which rises from the Amarkantak plateau in Chhattisgarh is the largest among the west flowing peninsular rivers. Narmada and Tapti are the major west flowing rivers of India. They drains into the Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea. Satpula Mountain range lies between Narmada and Tapti. Luni and Sabarmati are the other two west flowing peninsular rivers. Sabarmati rises from the Jai Samand lake of Udaipur, Rajasthan.

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The largest fresh water lake in India: Lake Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh). Wular is the second largest fresh water lake. The second largest salt water lake is Sambhar in Rajasthan. Important lakes in India are Chilka (Orissa), Sambhar (Rajasthan), Pulicat (Andhra The largest Pradesh) and saltwater lake : Vembanad (Kerala), Lake Chilka Woolar (J &K), Dal (Orissa) (J&K), Uday Sagar (Rajasthan), Puslikar (Rajasthan), Puslikar (Rajasthan), Loktak (Manipur Hills).  Dal Lake is famous for house boats.  Sambar in Rajasthan is the largest inland salt lake in India.

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The Luni orginates from Annasagar in the Aravallis and ends on the Sahni marshes, North of Rann of Kutch. The world’s largest delta, Sunderbans is formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra in West Bengal and Bangladesh, in the Bay of Bengal. The Third river system is also called the ‘Rivers of Inland Drainage Basins’ which consists of small rivers in the sandy areas of Rajasthan.

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sW-¦nepw Ch-bpsS sNdn-sbmcp `mKw am{Xta C´y-bn-eqsS Hgp-Ip-¶p-Åp. Brahmaputra is the only river in the world which form a river island named 'Majauli Island.' Indus is the longest river of Indian sub-continent. It is 2900 km long. It flows mainly through Pakistan. Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum are the five tributaries of Indus. Mount Kailash in Tibet is the source of Indus river. It enters into the Arabian sea. The Ravi is the smallest river of Punjab and is wellknown as the 'River of Lahore.' It rises near the Rohtang pass in the Kulu hills of Himachal Pradesh. The Chenab is the largest of Indus tributaries. It has a total length of 1,800 km in India.

Indian Climate Indian climate is greatly influenced by the presence of Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south.  The climate of India is monsoonal type, fed up by two rain bearing winds.  Latitude and the monsoon winds are the major factors affecting the Indian climate.  The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones namely the northern zone and the southern zone.  India receives 90% of the total rainfall from monsoons. Monsoons are the seasonal winds which blow during six months of summer from ocean to land and for the six months of winter from land to sea.  The South West Monsoon forms the main monsoon season in India (June to August). 

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landmass of north-western India towards the Indian Ocean. Thunder storm cause upto 25 cm of rainfall along the Kerala and Karnataka coasts and about 10 cm. in the interior of South India. Such rains are called 'Cherry Blossoms' in Karnataka where they prove immensely beneficial to coffee plantation. They are called as 'Mango Showers' in South India, due to their salutary effect on mango crop. The normal date of the onset of the rains is 20th May in Andaman & Nicobar Islands and by the end of June, it is usually established over most of the country.

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The North East Monsoon (October - November) brings rain mainly to Tamil Nadu. On the basis of monsoonal variations there are four seasons in India namely the cold (winter) season (December to February), the hot (summer) season (March to May), the south west monsoon (the rainy season) (June to September) and the season of retreating monsoon (October to November). The North - East Monsoons are comparitively minor monsoons confined to a smaller area of the country. They are the winds blowing out from the

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Mawsynram in Meghalaya (1141 cm) is the rainiest place in the world.

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gions, Drass and Kargil of Ladakh region are the coldest regions in the country. Chirapunji in Meghalaya is the wettest place in India. Jaisalmer in western Rajasthan is the driest place in India which receives the lowest rainfall.

India : Natural Vegetation (Forests) Natural vegetation in India varies from region to region due to variations in climatic conditions, soil types and relief features.  Nearly 19.39% of the total land area in India is under forest. The National Forest policy has laid down a target of raising the area under forest to nearly 33.3%.  Tropical Evergreen forests are dense forests of luxuriant growth found in areas where rainfall ranges between 200 to 300 cm. eg; Western Ghats and sub-Himalayan regions.  Tropical Decidous Forests or Monsoon Forests are areas having annual rainfall between 100-200 cm.  Tidal or Littoral Forests occur along the deltas of West Bengal Orissa and Andhra Pradesh receiving annual rainfall above 200 cm. Sundari tree is the important tree in these forest.  Dry Tropical forests are mostly prevalent in regions with an annual rainfall of 90 to 130 cm.  Swamps or Littoral forests are also called tidal forests which occur in and around the tidal creeks and along the deltas of river Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari.  Alpine forests cover the alpine areas in the Himalayas, at a height of 2880 m to 3700m.  Siwaliks are covered with tropical moist deciduous flora such as sal and bamboo.  Planting of trees is known as afforestation.  Deforestation is the destruction of trees.  Forests also help to prevent soil erosion and land slides. It maintains the ecological balance and provides forest products such as timber and industrial raw materials. Forests helps to protect wild life and rare species of trees and plants.  Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forest among the Indian states.

National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves in India

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Namdapha (B.R) .................. Arunachal Pradesh Kaziranga (N.P) ...................................... Assam Manas (N.P) ........................................... Assam Hazaribagh (N.P) ............................... Jharkhand Gir (N.P) ................................................. Gujarat Nalsarovar (S) ........................................ Gujarat Jaldapara (S) .................................. West Bengal Manali (S) ............................. Himachal Pradesh Dachigam (N.P) ..................... Jammu & Kashmir Salim Ali (N.P) ....................... Jammu & Kashmir Karakoram (S) ........................ Jammu & Kashmir Bandipur (N.P) .................................. Karnataka Kudremukh (N.P) ............................... Karnataka Ranganathittu (S) .............................. Karnataka Eravikulam (N.P) ...................................... Kerala Silent Valley (N.P) .................................... Kerala Idukki (S) ................................................ Kerala Indravati (N.P) ............................... Chhattisgarh Kanha (N.P) .................................. Chhattisgarh Sariska (N.P) ...................................... Rajasthan Jim Corbett (N.P) ............................. Uttaranchal Dudhwa (N.P) ............................... Uttar Pradesh Nanda Devi (N.P) ............................ Uttaranchal

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Normal duration of the monsoon varies from 2 to 4 months. The Trans-Himalayan and Greater-Himalayan re-

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Haryana has the least area under forest. Arunachal Pradesh has the largest percentage of area under forest. India provides about 8% of the world’s hardwood and ranks third after Brazil and Indonesia. Mangrove forests are found in the coastal plains. The forests on the Ganges delta in Bengal are called Sunderbans after the sundari trees in these forests. Evergreen forests (Tropical) are found in the Western ghats and Sub-Himalayan region. They provide hardwood like teak, rosewood, ebony etc. Social forestry aims at not only providing fuelwood, fodder and other forest products, but also to meet the requirement of ecological balance through large scale afforestation on community lands and waste lands. Energy plantations are plantation of softwood and grass to meet the energy needs of households. World Environment Day : June 5

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The wild life reserves of India are of two types the Wild life sanctuaries and National parks. Presently the country has 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 92 National Parks and 27 Tiger Reserves. Wild life protection in India was given statutory status with the adoption of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 by all the Indian states except Jammu and Kashmir.. Trade in endangered species is subject to strict rules under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of wild flora and

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India’s Wild Life

fauna, to which India is a signatory.  Some of the endangered species are Asiatic Lion, One Horned Rhinocerous, Hangul, Royal Bengal Tiger, Wild Ass etc.  The Animal Welfare Board of India was established in 1962. Research programmes in wildlife are carried out by the Wild life Institute of India, Dehradun and the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore.  Project Tiger is the centrally sponsored scheme launched on April 1, 1973 to save the tigers from extinction on India.  At present Madhya Pradesh tops the state with greater number of Tigers. Madhya Pradesh is known as the tiger state of India. M.P was followed by Uttar Pradesh.  Project Elephant was launched to protect the wild life and elephant population during the eighth plan, ie in 1991.  A wild life week is observed in the first week of October every year.  Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere preserve are multi purpose protected area to preserve the genetic diversity in representative eco system.  So far fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up.  They are: Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans, Similipal, Dibru Daikhowa, Dehong Deband, Panchmarhi, Khangchendzonga. Agastyamalai and Achanakamar - Amar Kantak.

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Mineral Wealth In India   

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Keibul Lamjo is the only floating National Park in the country, is located in Manipur in Loktak Lake

India is rich in mineral resources and has the potential to become an industrial power. India is the 5th largest exporter of Iron ore in the world. India is the largest producer of mica in the world. Jharkhand is the leading producer of mica. Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh also produce mica. The Great plains of Northern India are devoid of deposits of economic minerals. On the other hand Jharkhand and Orissa areas on the North-Eastern parts of Peninsular India possess large concentration of mineral deposits accounting for nearly three-fourths of the country’s coal deposits.

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Raniganj (West Bengal), Jharia (Bihar), Singarui (Madhya Pradesh) and Korba (Chhattisgarh) are the major coal fields in India.  Mineral deposits are also scattered over the peninsular India and in parts of Assam and Rajasthan.  Thorium, a likely future substitute for Uranium as a fission meterial in atomic reactors, occurs in considerable quantities as ThO2, in the beach sands of Kerala coast.  Thorianite and Monazite are the main ores of thorium. Monazite deposits of commercial value are found in about 160 kms between Cape Comorin and Kollam in Kerala.  India possesses the largest reserves of monazite known in the world.  Uranium compounds occurs in Singhbhum - copper belt of Jharkhand, Aravalli's and central Himalaya.  Monazite which contains small percentage of Uranium Oxide occurs in the beach sands of the east and west in India.  Marble is found largely in Rajasthan.  Diamond is found at Panna in Madhya Pradesh.  India is rich in iron, mica, manganese and bauxite.  India is deficient in copper, lead, mercury, zinc, tin, nickel, petroleum products, sulphur and tungsten and spends considerable amounts in foreign exchange on their imports.  Gypsum deposit is found in Rajasthan.  Leading salt producer in India is Gujarat. It produces 60% of salt of the country.  State with the largest mineral deposit is Jharkhand. Formerly it was a part of Bihar.  Jharkhand is the state with highest mineral output in India.  Chottanagpur plateau is the richest mineral belt of India.  Gold is found in the Kolar Gold fields in Karnataka and in small quantities in Ramigiri gold fields in Andhra Pradesh.  Lignite is mainly found in the Neyveli fields in Tamil Nadu.  Natural gas fields are Ankleshwar and Cambay in Gujarat, Bombay high and Assam.  Almost all the copper in India comes from Singhbhum and Hazaribagh in Jharkhand and Khetri in Rajasthan.  India ranks third in the world in the production of manganese. Orissa is the leading producer of manganese in the state. 

Mineral State of India

Jharkhand

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The first successful oil well was sunk at Digboi in 1889. The recently discovered sea-bed oil fields of Bombay High are also yielding, substantial quantities of oil. Bombay High is the offshore oil field located in the coast of Maharashtra. The first boring was made at Nahor Pung in November, 1866 in Makum area of Assam. Digboi in Assam is the oldest oil well of India. Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was set up at Dehradun in 1956.

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Major Industries in India The Industrial policy adopted by the Government of India envisages a mixed economy, i.e., the co-existance of public and private sectors.  The large scale industries of India covers iron and steel, engineering, jute, cotton, textiles and sugar industries.  Cotton textiles is the oldest industry in India. It has the largest number of workers employed in an industry.  Mumbai has become the 'cottonpolis' of India.  Ahmadabad Vadodra region is the second largest centre of cotton textile.  Kanpur is famous for textiles and clothing, large modern tanneries, leather works and shoe manufacturing.  Sholapur is famous for important textiles based on cotton grown in local regular soils.  The first modern cotton textile mill was estab

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Agriculture is the largest source of livelihood for over 2/3rd (about 70%) of the population of India.  Agriculture contributes 22% to the GDP.  Crops in India can be classified into subsistence crops, commercial crops, plantation crops and horticulture crops.  Crop season in India can be classified into three such as Kharif, Rabi and Zayad.  Kharif (rainy) crops are sown in June/July and harvested in September / October. Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Maize, Cotton and Jute are the important Kharif crops.  Rabi (winter) crops are sown in October/ December and harvested in April/ May. Wheat , Barley , Peas, Rape-seed, Mustard and Grams are the important Rabi crops.  Zayad (Summer) crops : Swon in April, May and June. Products are mostly fruits and vegetables.  Cardamom is found mainly in Karnataka, Kerala, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu. 

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(i) at Vellore (near Kottayam) in Kerala (ii) at Nepanagar (M.P) - 1955 (iii) Shimoga in Karnataka. (iv) Pugalur in Tirchchirapalli (T.N.)  West Bengal is the leading state in paper manufacturing.  NALCO (National Aluminium Company Ltd.), BALCO (Bharat Aluminium Company), HINDAL CO (The Hindustan Aluminium Corporation Ltd.), The Indian Aluminium Co. Ltd. (INDAL) are the leading producers of aluminium in the country.  India is the largest sugar producing country with over 15% share of the global output. It is also the largest consumer.  Maharashtra produces more than one third of the total production of sugar in country.

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lished in Bombay in 1851. Karnataka is the largest producer of silk. First modern silk factory - was set up at Howrah in 1832. Dharwar - Belgaum are known for cotton textiles railway and general engineering goods. In 1870, the first steel industry,‘Bengal Iron Company’ was set up at Kulti, West Bengal. The first large scale steel plant in the private sector was Tata Iron and Steel Company, Jamshedpur. The public sector steel plants are managed by the Steel Authority of India (SAIL). Majority of the jute mills are located in West Bengal. As a foreign exchange earner, it is an important industry in the country. Rourkela steel plant in Orissa was set up under the second five year plan in assistance with Germany. Bokaro, the biggest plant in Asia was set up under the fourth five year plan in association with the Russian Government. It is located in Jharkhand. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is a quasi governmental institution for drawing up standards for the products of Indian industry. It was established in 1947. National Productivity Council (NPC) is an autonomous body formed to inculcate productivity in industries, established in 1958. Godavari - Krishna delta is known for local tobacco, sugarcane, rice, oil, cement and small textiles. The industry associated with sports materials mainly located at Agra, Meerut (UP), Batalla, Jalandhar (Punjab) and Delhi. Pinjore in Haryana and Jalahalli in Bangalore are associated with watch industry. Moradabad is famous for brass utensils with engraving and polishing. Indian Explosives factory is located at Gomia in Hazaribagh (Jharkhand). First fertilizer plant is near Ranipet of Tamil Nadu in 1906. First public sector fertilizer plant is at Sindri (Jharkhand) The first synthetic rubber factory was started in Bareilly in 1955. There are only four newsprint manufacturing plant:

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Punjab is known as the

'Granary of India.'

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Uttar Pradesh leads in the production of wheat, sugarcane, maize and barley.

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Gujarat is the leading producer state of cotton, caster seed and groundnut. Rajasthan leads in the production of coriander (a- Ãn). West Bengal leads in the rice production and jute production. Irrigation in India can be classified into Wells, Tanks and Canals. Wells account for about 48% of the total irrigated area in the country. Tanks account for about 10% of the total irrigated area, are used in Central and Southern India. Canals are the major sources of irrigation in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. They account for about 40% of the total irrigated area.

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India is the third largest producer of and fourth largest consumer of Rubber. Black pepper is the most important dollar earning crop. India occupies second position after Gautemala in terms of production, productivity and export of cardamom. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of chillies. India is the largest (80%) producer of ginger India stands second in terms of cultivated land after USA. Millets (Jowar & Bajra) is a poor man's food. Two varieties of tea in India : Black tea and Green tea. Indian Coffee is known for its quality and aroma. There are two types of coffee : Arabica and Raibusta. Arabica is better than Raibusta. Wheat production is highest in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab comes next. Operation flood I was launched in 1970, which aimed at capturing a commanding share of the liquid milk market. A centrally sponsored Command Area Development Programme was launched in 1974-75 with the main objective of improving utilization of irrigation potential and optimizing agricultural productivity. India is the leading producer of tea.

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Cashewnut is mainly found in Kerala. Saffron is found mainly in Jammu and Kashmir. Groundnut is found mainly in Gujarat. Karnataka is the chief producer of coffee. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugarcane.  Tobacco is mainly produced in Maharashtra.  The Green Revolution (first) was launched in 1967-68.  The second Green Revolution was launched in 1983-84.  The father of Green Revolution in India - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.  Father of Green Revolution - Norman Borlaug.  To increase yield per hectare government of India introduced a programme called Green Revolution. According to this programme the farmers are taught to use high yielding variety of seed (H.Y.V), correct types of fertilisers and the government has provided facilities of irrigation.  Rice in the staple food of India.  India has the largest area under rice cultivation in the world  In terms of production it is next only to China.  India occupies second position in rice exports, nex only to Thailand.  Banana ranks no 1 in fruit production in India's followed by Mango and citrus.  Potato ranks No. 1 in vegetable production in India, followed by Brinjal, Tomato, Cabbage.  India accounts for 10% of world fruit production.  India has highest productivity in grapes.  India's share in mango production is 54% of world production  India leads the world in Mango, banana and acid lime.  India occoupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world.  India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of cashew in the world.  India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses  India is the second largest producer of groundnut in the world.  India is the second largest producer of tobacco in the world after China.  Tobacco crop depletes the potash content of the soil.     

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The most populous state of India: Uttar Pradesh

The least populous state: Sikkim

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The largest state: Rajasthan

The eastern most state: Arunachal Pradesh

The smallest state Goa

The Mineral state: Jharkhand

The smallest Union Territory

The southern most tip of India: Indira point

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INDUS

INDIA

Indus ( km) is the largest river of Indian sub continent. J h e l u m , Chenab Ravi, Sutlej, Beas are the important tributaries Chenab is the largest of all the Indus tributaries

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Brahmaputra

GANGA It is the longest river in India (2640 km). Formed by two head streams, Alakananda and Bhagirathi which join at Devprayag.

East Flowing Rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri are the important rivers. Godavari is the longest river of the Peninsula. Bhima, Krishna and Thungabhadhra are the three tributaries of Krishna.

The Yamuna is the largest and the most important tributary of Ganga. Ganga is known as ‘Padma’ in Bangladesh.

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Brahmaputra is the second largest river system of Indian sub continent. After making deep gorges in Namcha Barwa, it enters India in Arunachal Pradesh as ‘Dihang’. It enters Sadiya District of Assam and known as ‘Brahmaputra’. When it enters Bangladesh, it is named as ‘Meghna’.

INDIA Physical Features World’s second highest peak: K2 (Godwin Austin)

Mount Everest: Highest Peak in the World (Nepal)

Kachenjunga in Sikkim is the highest peak of the Himalaya in India

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Aravallis is the Oldest Mountain Range in India

Cardomom Hills Southern tip of Eastern Ghats

The highest peak in Western Ghaths: Anamudi

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Deccan Plateau is the oldest part of India

Now India have Wild life Sanctuaries: 490 National Parks : 88  Keibul Lamjo is the only floating National Park in India (Manipur) Sanctuaries/National Parks .... Location & State

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Valmiki ............................ Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) Simlipal ................................. Mayurbhanj (Orissa) Palamau .......................... Daltonganj (Jharkhand) Bandipur ................................ Mysore (Karnataka) Kanha ...................... Mandla and Balaghat (M.P) Melghat ............................................... Maharashtra Ranthambore .......... Swai Madhopur (Rajasthan) Corbett ............................. Garhwal (Uttarakhand) Sunderbans ........................................ (West bengal) Manas ......................................... Barpetal (Assam) Periya r ........................................... Idukki (Kerala) Sariska ....................................... Alwar (Rajasthan) Buxar .................................................... West Bengal Indra vathi ............................................. Chattisgarh Nagarjuna Sagar ............................ Srisailam (A.P) Namdapha ................ Tirap (Aruanchal Pradesh) Dudwa ............................. Lakhimpur Kheri (U.P) Kalkad Mundanthuria Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu) Bandhavagarh ............. Shadol (Madhya Pradesh) Panna ............................................ Madhya Pradesh Da mpha .................................... Aizwal (Mizoram) Bhadra ..................................................... Karna taka

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INDIA - Minerals  India has the world’s largest reserves of iron.

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 Chottanagpur plateau is the richest mineral belt of India.

 India is rich in iron, mica, manganese and bauxite but deficient in copper, lead, mercury, zinc, tin, nickel, petroleum products, sulphur & tungsten.

 India ranks third in the world in the production of manganese Orissa is the leading producer.  Gold is found in Kolar Gold fields in Karnataka and in small quantities in Ranigiri gold fields in Andhra Pradesh.

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River Valley Projects

Idukki Project ........................................................ Periyar

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Koyna Project ......................................................... Koyna

Tehri Dam Project ..................... Bhilangana, Bhagirathi Narmada Sagar Valley Project ......................... Narmada Obra Power Station .................................................. Obra Rihand project ....................................................... Rihand

Name of the Project .............................................. River

Bhakra - Nangal Project .......................................... Satlej

Farakka Project ................................. Ganga - Bhagirathi

Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) .............. Damodar

Beas Project ............................................................... Beas

Hirakud Dam Project ......................... Mahanadi (Orissa)

Rajasthan canal project ................ Beas, Ravi and Sutlej

Mayurakshi Project .................................... Murali (A.P.)

Chambal Project ................................................. Chambal

Nagarjunasagar Project ....................................... Krishna

Kakrapara Project ..................................................... Tapti

Kosi Project ................................................................Kosi

Ukai Project ............................................................... Tapti

Pallivasal .....................................Mudirappuzha (Kerala)

Poochampad Project .......................................... Godavari

Peringalkuthu ..................... Chalakkudy Puzha (Kerala)

Malaprabha Project ....................................... Malaprabha

Sabarigiri ................................................. Pamba (Kerala)

Mahi ........................................................................... Mahi

Kuttiyadi ................................. Kuttiyady Puzha (Kerala)

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Neighbouring Countries

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Golden Quadrilateral - Links Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai North-South Corridor - Sreenagar to Kanyakumari East West Corridors - Porbandhar to Silchur

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TIMELINE:WORLD HISTORY BC

c. 2500 : The Pyramids and Great Sphinx were built in Giza, Egypt. c. 2500 : The Indus Valley civilisation began to flourish in the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in what is now Pakistan.

400

: Hippocrates, the father of Medicine showed that diseases have natural causes.

399

: Socrates was forced to commit suicide by drinking hemlock, a poison.

44

: Julius Caesar of Rome was assassinated.

27

: Augustus became the first Roman emperor.

4

: Birth of Jesus Christ.

AD 1

in

c. 3500 : The Sumerians invented the first form of writing. It was later simplified to produce wedge-shaped cuneiform writing, which spread throughout the Middle East.

: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built.

it.

c. 3500 : A number of small cities, centres of the world’s first civilisation, appeared in Sumer, the lower part of the TigrisEuphrates Valley (present Iraq).

500

: The Chinese invented paper.

nd

c. 9000 : The development of agriculture.

250

: The Mayans developed an advanced civilization in Central America and Mexico.

313

: Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted freedom of worship to Christians of the Roman Empire.

395

: The Roman Empire split into the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire and the West Roman Empire.

300

: The Ghana Empire, the first great black empire in Western Africa, existed as a trading state.

c. 1700 : Code of Hammurabi, one of the first law codes, was drawn up.

570

: Birth of Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam.

c.1500-1000:The Aryans of central Asia came to India.

610

: Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, began preaching.

c. 1400 : The making of iron began.

622

: Muhammad, prophet of Islam, fled from Mecca to Medina. His flight, called the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

750

: The Abbasids became the Caliphs of the Islamic world.

800

: Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, ruler of the Franks, emperor of the Romans.

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c. 2500 : The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Epic of Creation, the oldest epic poems in world literature, were written in Mesopotamia.

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c. 2500-1100: The Minoan civilisation on the island of Crete rose and fell.

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2300s : Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerians and united all Mesopotamia under his rule, creating the world’s first empire. c. 1792-1750 : Babylonia flourished under King Hammurabi.

776

: The first recorded Olympic Games were held in Greece.

c. 550 : Cyrus the Great established the Persian Empire. 509

: The people of Rome revolted against their Etruscan rulers and established a republic.

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988

: Vladimir I converted the Russians to Christianity.

1054

: Rivalries between the church in Rome and the church in Constantinople resulted in their separation as the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches, respectively.

1110

: The Chinese invented the magnetic compass.

1279

: The Mongols gained control of all China.

1300s : The Renaissance began in Italy.

1858

: Great Britain took over the rule of India from the East India Company after the Indian Revolt.

1869

: The Suez Canal opened.

1871

: Germany became united under the Prussian king, who ruled the new empire as Kaiser Wilhelm I.

1901

: Trans-Siberian Railway opened. Marconi sends first wireless message. Sweden awards first Nobel Prizes.

1902

: First Siamese twins Barnam and Bailey circus twins separated. Thomas Alva Edison invents a new electrical storage battery. London School of Economics and Political Science opened. ‘Cedric’, the world largest ship (21,000 tons) built. First Trans-Atlantic telegraph message sent.

1492

: Columbus discovered America.

1498

: Vasco da Gama discovered sea route to India.

1903

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1500s : The Reformation led to the birth of Protestantism.

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: The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople (Istanbul) and overthrew the Byzantine Empire.

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1453

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1400-1450s : The first book printed in Europe with movable type appeared in the mid-1400s.

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1519-1521: Ferdinand Magellan commanded the first globe-circling voyage, completed in 1522 after his death. : Babar, a Muslim prince, invaded India and founded the Mughal Empire.

1543

: Nicolas Copernicus proposed that the sun was the centre of the universe.

1588

: The Royal Navy of England defeated the Spanish Armada, establishing England as a great naval power.

1776

: The 13 American colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence, establishing the United States of America.

1904

: Henry Royce produces first motor car, a 10hp 2-cylinder model.

1905

: Frenchman Alfred Binet invents intelligence tests. Albert Einstein says time and speed are relative. Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen lands at Alaska and finds magnetic pole.

1906

: “HMS Dreadnought”, world’s most powerful ship, built. SOS (Save our Souls) adopted as international distress signal. First submarine, UI, enters service.

1907

: Finland becomes the first to elect women as MPs. Robert Baden Powell forms Boy Scout Movement. Establishment of Kuomintang by Sun Yat-sen. World’s first working helicopter made.

1908

: Solid helium developed by Dutch scientists. Professor Albert Einstein presents

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1526

1789

: The French Revolution began.

1815

: Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo, ending his attempt to rule Europe.

: Marie Curie becomes the first woman to win a Nobel Prize (Physics). Wilber and Orville Wright fly their ‘Flyer’ at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

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: First pure sample of radium isolated by Marie Curie. Death of Leo Tolstoy.

1911

: First wireless messages from the air. King George V crowned “King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India”. World’s first official airmail flight between Bamrauli and Naini (India). Beginning of the the Chinese Revolution that ended 1000 years of imperial rule. Sun Yat-sen becomes the first president of the Chinese Republic. Second Nobel Prize awarded to Marie Curie. Ronald Amundsen reaches South Pole. : Titanic, world’s biggest ship sinks in North Atlantic.

1913

: Grand Central Station, New York, world’s largest railway station, opened. Neil Bohr’s quantum theory of the structure of atoms published. Thomas Edison invents a telephone recorder. Noguchi isolates the virus of rabies.

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1912

1914

: Atoms ‘split’ by artificial means for the first time by Professor Ernest Rutherford. First nonstop flight across the Atlantic by Alcock and Brown. Treaty of Versailles signed. First World War ends. Germany declared a republic (Weimar).

1920

: League of Nations inaugurated. The International Court of Justice set up at Hague.

1921

: First BCG vaccine given in France.

1922

: Arms conference in Washington agrees to outlaw the use of gas in warfare. BBC formed. Free state of Ireland created.

1923

: Turkey declared a Republic.

: Cancer treated with radium successful. Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife shot and killed in Sarajevo by a student, Garvilo Princip. It served as a catalyst for World War I.

1917

: Russian Revolution. Russia became a republic. Bolsheviks came to power in Russia.

1918

: US President Wilson enumerates his 14 points. Moscow is made the new capital of Russia. Bolsheviks become the Russian

in

1910

1919

it.

: London’s new direct 7,000 mile telegraphic link with India opened. Colour films are screened in public for the first time in Brighton. North Pole conquered by US Commander Robert E. Peary.

1924

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1909

Communist Party. Tzar Nicholas II and his family massacred.

: Bacillus causing rabies isolated by the Pasteur Institute, Paris. Edwin Hubble discovers the unknown boundaries of the Milky Way.

nd

his ‘Quantum’ theory of light. Jack Jackson (USA) is the first Negro to become world heavyweight champion.

1925

: John Logie Baird perfects television.

1926

: Abdul Aziz ibn Saud proclaimed King of the Hejaz who named his country Saudi Arabia.

1927

: The Jazz Singer, the first talkie, made. First solo non-stop flight between New York and Paris made by Charles Lindbergh.

1928

: Germ killing mould discovered by Alexander Fleming, London. Stalin’s First Five Year Plan.

1929

: Wall Street crash, the biggest financial crisis of the century.

1930

: Pluto, the 9th planet, discovered by Claude Tombaugh. First modern computer designed by Vannevar Bush and his team.

1931

: Thomas Alva Edison dies.

1932

: Chadvick discovers the neutron.

1933

: Adolf Hitler, Nazi leader, becomes Chancel-

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: Walt Disney’s first feature-length cartoon, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

1939

: Spanish Civil War comes to an end. Pact of Steel between Italy and Germany. World War II begins.

1941

: Birth of modern commercial television. The Japanese attack Pearl Harbour, bringing USA into World War II.

1944

: DNA discovered. Bretton Woods Conference.

1945

: Mussolini killed by Italian partisans Hitler commits suicide. 50 nations sign the World Security Charger to establish UN. UN Charter signed by 50 countries. Postdam Conference. Little Boy, a Uranium-235 fission bomb, dropped over Japanese city Hiroshima, explodes, 570 mts. above ground, instantly killing over 70,000. A 22-kiloton plutonium 239 bomb, Fat Man, dropped over Nagasaki, explodes 510 mts above ground, killing 40,000 immediately. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank are founded.

: Agatha Christie’s Mousetrap performs its 1,998th performance. Russia launches a man-made satellite, Sputnik-1.

1958

: US enters space arena, launching Explorer-1.

1959

: Dalai Lama, fleeing from Tibet reaches India and finds sanctuary. Pictures of the dark side of the moon sent back by Lunik III.

1960

: Sirimavo Bandaranaike sworn in as the world’s first woman Prime Minister in Sri Lanka. John F. Kennedy elected president of USA– youngest man and first Roman Catholic to be elected.

1961

: Inter-planetary space station launched by USSR. Soviet Union’s Yuri Gagarin, becomes the first man to fly in space. Alan Shephard Jr. becomes the first American in Space. East Germans erect a five foot wall (Berlin Wall). UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld killed in an aircrash.

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1938

1957

it.

: Spanish Civil War begins. Germany’s “People’s Car” – Volkswagen – launched.

: Non Alignment Movement founded.

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1936

1956

nd

lor of Germany.

1962

: John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit Earth in ‘Mercury’.

1963

: Valentina Tereshkova (USSR) becomes first woman in space. Martin Luther King’s immortal “I have a dream speech”. US President John F.Kennedy assassinated.

1965

: Singapore recedes from Malaysia to become an independent state.

1946

: Paris Peace Conference.

1947

: IMF begins operations.

1948

: GATT enters into force. New state of Israel proclaimed.

1966

: Luna 9 of USSR makes the first soft lunar landing.

1952

: King George VI of UK dies and Elizabeth II becomes Queen. Artificial heart used for the first time in USA. A non-violent campaign against apartheid begins in South Africa.

1967

: Apollo I cabin bursts at the Kennedy Space Centre launch pad killing three.

1968

: Martin Luther King assassinated.

1969

: Arafat head of PLO. Anglo-French supersonic airline Concorde introduced. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin become the first men to set foot on the moon.

1970

: Kingdom of Cambodia becomes the Khmer Republic.

1953

: China’s five-year plan begins. Hammarskjöld sworn in as UN Secretary- General. Mount Everest conquered by Edmund Hillary and Tensing Norway.

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: Agreement ending Vietnam War signed.

1974

: U.S President Nixon resigns following the Watergate Scandal. Gerald Ford takes over.

1975

: Japan’s Junko Tabei becomes first women to scale Everest. Army coup in Bangladesh. Mujibur Rehman killed.

1977

: Coup in Pakistan; Bhutto deposed; Gen. Zia-ul-Haq takes over.

1978

: Louise Brown, the first test tube baby, born in UK.

1979

: Z.A. Bhutto executed. Margaret Thatcher becomes first woman Prime Minister of Britain. SALT II agreement signed by Jimmy Carter and the Soviet leaders. : The reusable Space Shuttle Columbia launched. TGV, world’s fastest train, makes its inaugural run from Paris to Lyons.

1982

: Russia’s Venus-13 lands on Venus.

1984

: Dorjei conquers the Everest without oxygen.

1985

: The Rainbow Warrior, flagship of ecological group Greenpeace, sinks after explosion in Auckland.

1986

: New Zealander, Richard Hadlee, becomes the first cricketer to take 400 test wickets. Nelson Mandela freed after 27 years in prison. Iraq invades Kuwait. UN imposes embargo on Iraq. Unification of Germany. Formal end of Cold War.

1991

: Gulf War. Warsaw Pact disbanded. Kuwait fully liberated. Khaleeda Zia appointed first woman Prime Minister of Bangladesh. Formal end to the Soviet Union. Commonwealth of Independent states formed.

1992

: Earth Summit in Rio.

1993

: Bill Clinton new US President. Netherlands becomes the first country to sanction mercy killings. Allan Border betters Gavaskar’s record (10,122 runs). Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa assassinated. USA’s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) stopped. Maastricht Treaty on European Union comes into effect.

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pu

1981

1990

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1973

onstrate for democratic rights. Chinese troops storm Tienanmen Square and crush the pro-democracy campaign. Ayatollah Khomeini dies. Demolition of Berlin Wall. Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia.

it.

: Vietnam War comes to an end (57,000 Americans lost their lives). Mujibur Rehman declares Bangladesh independent. Marines-9 orbits Mars (first spacecraft to do so).

nd

1971

: US Space Shuttle Challenger explodes after takeoff, killing seven astronaut. Soviet Union’s Mir Space Station launched. Nuclear leak in Chernobyl power station. Ann Bancroft becomes first woman to reach North Pole.

1994

: End of Apartheid in South Africa. The comet Shoemaker Levy 9 smashes into Jupiter.

1995

: WTO comes into effect. Austria, Finland and Sweden become new members of EU. Kobe earthquake in Japan kills 4,700 people. DNA code of living organisms deciphered.

1988

: Pakistan President General Zia-ul-Haq killed in an air crash. India quells invasion of Maldives by sea-borne group. George Bush elected President of USA.

1996

: Gary Kasparov wins chess series against IBM computer Deep Blue. Arafat becomes President of Palestinian Authority.

1989

: Ranasinghe Premadasa becomes President of Sri Lanka. Students in Beijing dem-

1997

: British scientists clone a sheep (Polly). Hale Bopp comet comes closest to earth (200

Page 111 of 191

m.km). Labour Party wins polls in Britain; Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister. Chemical weapons convention takes effect. Britain hands back Hong Kong to China. Mars Pathfinder sends pictures of Mars. Diana, Princess of Wales killed in a car accident. 1998

the German Novelist, Günter Grass. : China celebrates the 50th anniversary of Communist rule : Army takes over in Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif sacked and confined to House. : World population turns 6 billion.

: Myanmar celebrates its 50th anniversary of independence. Pope John Paul II visits Cuba. : Sri Lanka celebrates its 50th anniversary of independence. Communist Manifesto completes 150 years of publication. US scientists produce the world’s first cloned Calf named Mr. Jefferson.

: The US formally transfers the control over the Panama Canal to Panama. 2000

: At the NPT conference in the United Nations, USA, Russia, France, Britain and China pledge to eliminate atomic weapons, without setting a time table.

it.

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: Jose Saramago, the Portuguese novelist win 1998 Nobel prize for literature. Amartya Sen of India wins 1998 Nobel Prize for Economics. John Glenn, 77, the oldest man in space. 1999

: An e-mail virus I Love You created by a Filipino creates wide spread damage to computer systems across the world.

nd

pu

: France win World Cup Football.

in

: James Cameron’s Titanic wins 11 Oscar awards. : India conducts five nuclear tests (three on 11th May and two on 13th May 1998). Pakistan conducts six nuclear test (5 on 28th May and one on 30th May 1998).

: Ananova, the world’s first virtual newsreader, makes her debut on the internet at www.ananova.com.

: Twelve European countries launch single currency, the Euro. : The South African Parliament elects Thabo Mbeki, the country’s new President. : The US space shuttle, Columbia, blasts off under the first woman commander Eileen Collins, after two failed attempts. : The former New Zealand Prime Minister, Mike Moore, takes over as the head of the World Trade Organisation. : S.R. Nathan, sworn in as Singapore’s sixth president. : The 1999 Nobel Prize for Literature goes to

Page 112 of 191

: Fiji’s President declares a state of emergency after a group of gunmen led by George Speight seize the nation’s first ethnic Indian Prime Minister, Mahendra Pal Chaudhry and his Cabinet colleagues and MPs as hostages. : The North Korean leader, Kim Jong Il and the South Korean President, Kim Dae Jung meet at the North Korean capital Pyongyang. They decide to work for the unification of the Korean Peninsula. : The two-day G-15 summit begins in Cairo (Egypt). It has now 19 members with the inclusion of Columbia and Iran. : The International Space Station linked up smoothly with the Russian-made Zvezda control module. Zvezda is the first module built solely by Russians. : George Speight, the leader of the coup in Fiji, is arrested. : The US astronomers announce that they have detected 10 new planets outside the

solar system. It brings the total number of planets circling other stars, so-called exoplanets, to 50.

elected to the Senate. : Margaret Atwood of Canada wins the coveted Booker Prize 2000 for her novel, The Blind Assassin.

: British Airways suspends Concorde operations.

: Netherlands becomes the first country to legalise euthanasia, (the mercy killing).

: Carl Banks, the Disney Illustrator and creator of Donald Duck passes away.

: Nawaz Sharif pardoned off and exiled to Saudi Arabia.

: Tuvalu, a Pacific island state admitted to the United Nations as its 189th member in its first session of the New Millennium in New York (USA). : French voters approve a referendum on shortening the Presidential term to five years.

: George W. Bush declared elected as the 43rd President of United States. 2001

: ANDi the world’s first genetically modified monkey, created.

in

: Russia recognises Yugoslav opposition leader, Vojislav Kostunica’s, historic presidential election victory over Slobodan Milosevic.

nd

it.

: The radical Islamic Taliban regime in Afghanistan demolishes two huge statues of the Buddha at Bamiyan. : Dennis Tito of the United States becomes the first person to tour the space.

pu

: Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the world’s first elected woman Prime Minister, passes away.

am

: Gao Xingjian, a dissident Chinese novelist and playwright settled in France who left China in 1987 to settle in France, wins the Nobel Prize for Literature for 2000 for his work that has opened new paths for the Chinese novel and drama.

: The Guinness Book of World Records, sets a new record of its own selling seven million copies of its first edition of the new century. : Hillary Clinton, wife of US President Bill Clinton, wins the US Senate seat from New York. Thus, she becomes the first wife of a President in American history to be

: Denise Quinones August chosen as the 50th Miss Universe at a function in Bayamon in Puerto Rico. : The Organisation of African Union (OAU) becomes African Union (AU).

ex

: Kim Dae Jung, South Korean President, selected for the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize for his work towards peace and reconciliation with North Korea that led to a ground breaking summit with his North Korean counterpart.

: The 15-year-old Mir Space Station abandoned

: Gen. Pervez Musharraf takes over as the President of Pakistan. : United Nations (UN) Secretary General and V.S. Naipaul win the Nobel Prize For peace and Literature respectively for 2001. 2002

: Euthanasia or mercy killing comes into force in Netherlands. : Robert Mugabe elected President of Zimbabwe. : Xanana Gusmao, the independence leader of East Timor, elected President of the island nation. : Mark Shuttleworth of South Africa becomes the second space tourist.

Page 113 of 191

: The Iraqi special Tribunal holds the first hearing in the trial of Saddham Hussian. : Afghanistan holds its first ever presidential election. : Scientists discover a new tiny species of human that lived in Indonesia. : Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat dies in Paris. 2005

in

: Muhammed Abbas is sworn in as Palestinian Authority President.

it.

: Taiwan and China agree Temporarily lift Taipe’s five - decade ban on direct flights between the two rivals. :

Former Lebanese Prime Minister RafikalHariri is assassinated in a car bombing in central Beirut close to the harbour.

:

The trial of pop star Michael Joseph Jackson gets underway in Santa Maria over a year since his arrest on charges of child molestation.

:

American aviator Steve Fosset completes the first solo fight around the world without refuelling and lands his jet plane in Salina Kansas.

:

Israel open the world’s largest Holocast museum on Mount Herzi in Jerusalem to commemorate the six million Jews exterminated by the Nazis.

:

Jalal Talabani is sworn in Iraqi President making him the first non-Arab head of an Arab nation. Shia leader Irabhim Jaafari is nominated as the Prime Minister.

:

Pope John Paul II, the ‘‘Peoples Pope’’ or the ‘‘Travelling Pope’’ is laid to rest in the cryst of St. Peters Baslica in Vatican.

:

Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger of Germany is elected 265 th Pope and is to be known as Benedict XVI.

nd

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2004

: NASA’s unmanned. Probe Deep Impact collided with the comet Tempel-1 on June 3, 2005. G-8 Summit was held at Gleneagles, Resort, Scotland on July 6-8, 2005

pu

2003

: Switzerland becomes the 190th member of UNO. : Hamid Karzai elected President of Afghanistan. : The International criminal Court (ICC) starts functioning in the Hague (Netherlands) : The UN Earth Summit held in Johannesburg (South Africa) : East Timor joins as the 191st member of the United Nations. : The 17th Commonwealth Games held in Manchester (U.K) : The 14th Asian Games held in Busan (South Korea) : Miss Asra Akin crowned as Miss World. : SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) outbreak in China and spreads all over world killing thousands. : The space shuttle Columbia perished in space. Seven astronauts including Dr. Kalpana Chawla died (February). : The USA and Britain jointly launch Operation Iraqi Freedom to liberate Iraq from Sadam Hussain, who build up weapons of mass destruction. : Spirit and Opportunity land on Mars. : 28th Summer Olympics was held in Athens in Greece. The USA secured first place, China stood at second. India won only one silver. : Bomb attacks on four Madrid commuter trains kill 191 and injure hundreds more : Photos of US soldiers allegedly abusing Iraqi detainees in Abu Gharaib prison emerge. : A team of Russian scientists and another of US scientists report the discovery of two new chemical elements. These are elements 113, given the temporary name Ununtrium (Uut) and element 115 designated Ununpentium (Uup)

Page 114 of 191

:

Lakshmi Mittal’s 18.6 billion euro takeover bid for Arcelor is blocked by a change in Luxemburg corporate law.

:

Solar eclipse observe in Turkey.

:

Kuwaits first woman Prime Minister Maasuma al Mubarak, takes out in Parliament.

:

:

Junichiro Koizumi is re-elected as Japanese Primier by the new House of Representatives at a special session in Tokyo.

Kavya Vishwanathan’s novel ‘How Opal Mehta Got kissed, Got wild and got a Life’ being recalled from store shelves, after she admits copying passages fr om another book.

:

:

The IAEA and its chief Muhammed El Baradei get the Nobel Peace Prize for their work in Stopping the spread of nuclear weapons.

Britain replaces US as the publisher of most new books in English.

:

Earthquake measuring 6.2 rocks Yogyakarta in Java killing about three thousand as per first reports.

:

J.K. Rowling voted the greatest living British writer in a survey, followed by Terry Pratchett, Ian Mcewan, Salman Rushdie, Kazuo Ishiguro and Philip Pullman.

it.

The world’s first facial transplantation is done on a French woman Isabella Dinoire in Amiens.

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:

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The Dhaka Declaration decides to set up a SAARC Poverty Alleviation Fund and to declare 2006 - 2015 the SAARC decade of Poverty Alleviation.

:

World’s oldest tortoise Harriet dies at 176 years in Australia.

:

Montenegro becomes the 192th member of United Nations

:

Qinghai - Tibet railway the world’s highest and longest highland railway becomes operational.

US space probe ‘Stardust’ returns to earth carrying precious samples of dust from stars and comets.

:

Chile elects Michaelle Bachelet to be its first woman President.

:

NASA launches the first space mission to Pluto, as the New Horizons spacecraft is hurled on a 9-year 4.5 b - KM journey.

:

First world summit of religious leaders in Moscow is attended by 200 representatives from 40 countries.

:

35th summit of World Economic Forum opens, in Davos, Switzerland.

:

Italy beats France 5-3 to win World Cup Football.

:

French actress Eva Green chosen as the new James Bond girl.

:

Kiran Desai wins the Booker Prize.

:

Bhutan’s king Jigme Singye Wangchuk abdicates the throne after a 34 year reign in favour of his son crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk.

:

The former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein is hanged to death in Baghdad for the 1982 killing of 148 persons of Dujail town, three years after being captured by the US forces.

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:

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2006

:

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Albanian poet and novelist Ismail Kadare is named the winner of the Man Booker International Prize, a brand new laurel for the world’s finest writers.

:

:

Jamaica to have Portia Simpson Miller as Prime Minister, the first woman head of the state.

:

Oscar award announced : ‘Crush’ is the best film, Philip Seymour Hoffman - best actor, Reese Witherspoon - best actress and Ang Lee - Best Director.

Page 115 of 191

World History

 

First metal used by man was copper

The Pre-historic period is divided into four distinct periods.



Paleololithic Period (Old Stone Age) 5,000,000 10,000 BC



Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age) 10,000 – 4000 BC



Neolithic period (New stone Age) 6000 – 1000 BC



Chalcolithic Period (Metal Age)

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The possible ancestor of hominids (Proconsul) appeared in East Africa towards 20,000,00 BC

Australopithecus was the first hominids on the earth, which appeared in East Africa towards 3,700,000 BC.

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

Homohabilis was the first hominid tool maker, which appeared in Africa towards 2,100,000 BC.

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Zinjanthropus, which was found in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa, is considered to be the earliest in the human species.

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The earliest known primate (Plesiandapis) appeared on the earth towads 70,000,000 BC.

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‘Java Man’ existed some seven lakh years ago in Java and ‘Peking Man’ who existed some three lakh years ago excavated from Peking in China are some humans of the Paleolithic Period. Most famous Paleolithic man was the Neandarthal Man who was discovered from Germany. Cromagnan (France) and Grimaldi (Itali) men belonged to the Middle Stone Age. Paleolithic people used tools and implements made of rough stone.

in



They ate raw flesh and wild fruits and vegetables. They had no idea of agriculture. They belonged to the Negrito race. Paleolithic men led a nomadic life, ie, wandering from one place to another. Neolithic Age means the New Stone Age. People learnt the art of cultivation and the Neolithic Age was the food producing stage. They started using polished and sharp stone implements. Man began to domesticate animals during the Neolithic Age. Dog was the first animal domesticated by man. Wheat and Barley were the earliest cereals grown by man. ‘Potters Wheel’ was invented in the Neolithic Age. Paleolithic Age is known as the ‘Age of Hunters’ while the Neolithic Age is known as the ‘Age of Farmers’. Most polished weapon of the Neolithic Age was the ‘Stone axe’. Man discovered the use of jute and began to use cloth made of jute during the Neolithic period. Early men started the settled life in the Neolithic period. Earliest human villages appeared towards 6000BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Barter system of exchange came into practice during the Neolithic period. Family life also began during the Neolithic Age. The concept of ‘State’ also originated during the Neolithic period. Chalcolithic Age is known as the Metal Age.

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Pre-Historic Period

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Page 116 of 191

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Copper was first used to make ornaments and tools.

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The period when man began to use Bronze tools and weapons is known as Bronze Age.



The period when man began to use iron is known as Iron Age.

MAJOR HUMAN RACES OF THE WORLD



Majority of modern Human race belonged to the Mongloid race.

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People living in Japan, China, Indonesia, Formosa Tibet etc belonged to the Mongloid race.

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People lived in Ancient Egypt belonged to the Hemitic race.

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Ancient Babilonians, Hebrews, Phoenesians, Arabs etc belonged to the Semitic race.

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Semitic, Hemitic and Indo-Europeans are the subgroups of the Caucasoid race.

Hieroglyphics 

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ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES AND WRITING

SUMERIAN

OR MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION (3000 -1600 BC) 

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Man began to speak meaningfully during the Neolithic Period.

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English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Greek, Russian, Persian, Sanskrit and American languages belonged to the Indo-European or Aryan language group

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Hebrew, Arabic, Abyssenian early Assirian and Phoenesian languages belonged to the Semitic group of languages.

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Languages spoken by the people lived around Mediterranean sea were of the Hemitic group.

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Lapis, Finnish, Magyar,Tartar, Manchu, Mongol etc, belonged to the Turanean group of languages.

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Egyptians were the first to use Phonetic writing.



The early writing of the Egyptians were known as Hieroglyphics.

Phoeniseans were considered as the originators of the modern pattern of writing.

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‘Pigmies’ seen in Africa, South East Asia and Indonesia is a subgroup of the Negroids.

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People living in Africa, Arabia, India, Malaysia, Australia and Tansania belonged to the Negroid Race.

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Sumerian civilisation flourished on the banks of rivers Euphrates and Tigris later came to be known as Mesopotamian civilisation The word Mesopotamia means land between rivers. The name Mesopotamia was given by the Greeks. The area where Mesopotamian civilisation existed belonged to modern Iraq. The northern part of Mesopotamia was known as Assiria and southern part was known as Babilonia. The first dynasty in the world was established at Ur in Sumeria in 3000 BC.

CUNIEFORM WRITING The Sumerians are credited with the invention of a distinctive system of writing known as Cunieform. They wrote on clay tablets using wedge shaped letters. The name Cunieform was originated from the Latin word ‘cuneus’ which means wedge. The Cunieform script was desciphered by Henry Rawlinson.

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Ur, Urukh, Lagash, Uma, Nippor were the major cities of the Sumerians. The Sumerian Empire declined towards BC 2650 due to the attack of the Accadians. The chief architect of the Acadian empire was Sargon. Dungi was the most important ruler of the Sumerians. The writing system of the Sumerians was known as Cunieform. Mesosoptamian seals throw light on the trade relation between the Indus people and the Sumerians.

ciple of ‘‘an eye for eye and tooth for a tooth’’. 

Babilonian people invented water clock and sundial to know the time.

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Assirians were credited for the invention of the system of dividing a circle into 360 degrees.

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Mesopotamian civilisation is also known as the ‘melting pot of civilisation’.

Egyptian Civilisation (3000 BC 1750 BC) 

Egyptian civilisation flourished on the banks of Nile river.

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Egyptian kings were known as ‘Pharoh’

The Mesopotamians invented wheel and glassware.

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‘Pharoh’ means one who lives in a mansion.

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Mesopotamian civilization is considered to be the world’s first urban civilisation.

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‘Hyksus’ were a semetic group of people who captured Egypt towards BC 1750.

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Mesopotamians discovered the system of Geometry. It was later called ‘‘Pythagorus Theorem’’.

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A Lunar Calendar based on the Moon was one of the major achievements of the Sumerians.

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Mesopotamians were worshippers of multi Gods.

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Their major God was the Sky God ‘Anu’.

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Mesopotamians were the first to invent the system of Multiplication.

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Egyptian Queen Hatsheput is considered as the first women ruler of the world.

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Ramses III is considered as the last of great Pharohs of Egypt. Egyptians were the first to invent a solar calendar having 365 days with 12 months of 30 days each.

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Empires, water supply system, use of gold and silver for transaction, code of laws, libraries, educational centres, poetry, literature, sculpture, palaces, arches, pillars, domes, slavery, autocracy imperialism etc first originated in Sumeria.

Egyptian Sun God was known as ‘Ra’ or ‘Re’.

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Hammurabi is known as the founder of Early Babilonian Empire.

Osiris was the Goddess of truth worshipped by the Egyptians.

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Preserved dead Mummies bodies of the Egyptians were known as ‘mummies’. Mummification shows their belief in life after death.

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Egyptians were responsible for the invention of Addition, Subtraction and Division.

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The word ‘Chemistry’ was originated from the Egyptian language.

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Egyptian script was pictographic in nature. It was known as Hierogliphics.

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Hammurabi was responsible for the introduction of a code of conduct to the Mesopotamians. It was based on the prin-

Hammurabi

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The word Hierogliphic means sacred writing. It consisted of 24 signs. Vowels were not used. The Egyptian alphabets were deciphered by Champollion.

knots made in strings. 

Paper was invented by the Chinese.

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Lao-Tse, Confucious and Mencious were the three major Philosophers of ancient China.

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Lao-Tse was the founder of the most important religion of China known as Taoism.

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Lao-Tse is considered as the ‘‘Chinese Buddha’’

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Confucianism was the new religion founded by Confucious.

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‘‘The Great Temple of Abu Simbel’’ is known as the ‘‘Temple of the Rising Sun’’, since the rays of the rising sun get into the temple.

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Pyramids were the Tombs of Egyptian Pharohs.

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First Pyramid was built about 2700 BC.

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Greatest of the Pyramids was the Great Pyramid at Giza built by Pharoh Khufu.

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Siesmograph and Gun Powder were also invented by the Chinese.

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Biggest of the temples built by the Egyptians was the temple at Karnak.

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Tea was invented by the Chinese.

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Great Pyramid at Giza is the only survivor of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

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Earliest coins were believed to have used by the Egyptians.

Indus Valley Civilisation was discovered as a result of the archaeological excavations carried out in 1920-22 at Mohenjodaro and Harappa (Both in Pakistan) by R D Banarjee and Dayaram Sahni. John Marshall was the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India at that time (more details are given in the Indian History part).

Persians belonged to the Indo-European race.

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Cyrus was the strongest of the Persian rulers.

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Cyrus is considered as the founder of the Persian Empire.

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Greatest of the Persian rulers was Darius I.

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Darius I was responsible for the foundation of the ever largest empires of the world.

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The Greeco- Persian conflict began during the period of Darius I.

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The Battle of Marathon (BC 490) between the Persians and Athenians was led by Darius I.

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The writing of the Persians was Cunieform, adopted from the Mesopotamians. The Persian priests were known as ‘Maji’. The English word ‘Magician’ was originated from the Persian word ‘Maji’.

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Chinese Civilisation 

Chinese Civilisation originated on the banks of river Hwang Ho.

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Shang dynasty was the first dynasty to rule China from BC 1750-1125.

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The Qin dynasty established China’s first strong central government.

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Chin ruler Shih Hwangti was responsible for the construction of the Great Wall of China to prevent the Huna invasion.

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Shih Hwangti was the founder of Chin dynasty.

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The Great Wall is 1500 mile long and having 20 feet breadth and 20 feet height.

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Early communication of the Chinese was done by

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Persian Civilisation existed in modern Iran

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Indus Valley Civilisation

Persian Civilisation

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Sphinx Sphinx was a mythological animal of the ancient Egyptians. It was the largest of the Egyptian statues. It has a human head and the body of a lion. It has 100 feet length and 70 feet height.

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Herodotus who, wrote about the Persian war was a Greek historian. He is considered as the Father of History.

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Demosthenese was a world famous Greek orator

‘Avesta’ is known as ‘Persian Bible’

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Thales of Meletus is considered as the father of Greek Mathematics

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Pythagoras who made great contributions in Geometry was a Greek.

Anaxagoras, Euclid etc were famous Greek Mathematicians.

Greek Civilisation Greek Civilisation dates back to 800 BC

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Greece is in the European continent.

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Greece is on the coast of Mediterranean sea.

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The civilisation existed in Greece, before the Greeks was known as Aegean Civilization.

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Early Greek immigrants were known as Ionians.

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Greeks were collectively known as Hellenes. Hence their civilization was known as Hellenistic Civilization.

Herodotus

Hippocrates, who is considered as the father of Medical Science was a Greek.

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Leopold Van Ranke, a German historian is considered as the father of Modern History.

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Zorastrianism (Persian religion) was founded by Zorathushtrar. The Parsies of India believe in Zorastrianism. Ahuramazda is the God of the Zorastrian religion. ‘Ahriman’ was considered as the evil spirit by the Persians. ‘Avesta’ (Zend Avesta) is the sacred book of Zorastrianism.

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Homer, a blind poet, composed Greek epics ‘Illiad’ and ‘Odyssey’.

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Homer lived in the 9th century BC.

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Democracy was originated in Greece. Greek Democracy was direct democracy.

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Greek Civilisation reached the Zenith of its progress during the period of Pericles, a ruler of Athens. His Age is considered as the ‘Golden Age of Athens. Under Pericles the city of Athens got the name ‘‘the School of Hellas’’.

Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Mascedonia etc were the major city states in Greece.

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Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the Great.

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Pindar was a famous Greek Lyric Poet.

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Aesceles was the greatest of the Greek dramatists, who wrote famous tragedies.

Aristotle founded a school named Lycium in Athens.

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Greeks were the first to introduce Vowels in the alphabet.

Aristotle is considered as the father of Biology, Politics and the Science of Reasoning.

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Aristotle was considered as a ‘Walking University’.

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Thucydides another great Greek historian wrote the history of the Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta. Socrates the Greatest of the Greek philosphers was forced to commit suicide by drinking Hemlock a poison, in 399 BC. Zantippee was the wife of Socrates. Plato was the student of Socrates. Plato’s original name was Aristocles. Plato founded a university named ‘Academy’ in Athens. Republic was the famous work of Plato. Aristotle was the famous student of Plato.

The civilisation of Greek city states is known as ‘Classical Civilisation’.

Euripides and Aristophenes were the other famous Greek dramatists.

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Hipparchus calculated the diameter of the Moon.

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Erathosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth.

Punic Wars were fought between Rome and Carthage.

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The first Olympic Games were held at Olympia in Greece in 776 BC.

Julius Caesar one of the prominent rulers of Rome was born in 102BC.

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Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44BC by Casius, Brutus and other senators.

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The Roman Emperor Theo-dosius banned Olympics in 394 BC. (more details about Olypics could be seen in sports and games portion)

‘‘I came, I saw, I conquered’’ His famous saying 

Caesar modified the Old Calendar which had only 355 days, New Calendar came to be known as Julian Calendar.

Macedonian Empire Mascedonia was a Greek city state. It became a prominent empire under its king Philip II (359 336 BC)

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Later this calendar was modified by Pope Grigory XIII and came to be known as Grigorian Calendar.

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Alexander the Great, the son and successor of Philip II, was born in 350 BC and became the ruler in 337 BC.

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‘Caesarism’ means autocracy or imperial supermacy.

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Alexander defeated the Persian ruler Darius III. Alexander captured Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria there. Alexander invaded India in 326 BC and defeated Porus, the ruler of Taxila. He died at the age of 33 in 323 BC at Babilonia. Ptolemy, a commander of Alexander is considered as the Father of Cartography.

Constantine was the first Roman king who accepted Christianity.

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The city of Constantinople was founded by Constantine. Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453. The Greatest contribution of Romans to the world is their code laws. Vergil the author of ‘Aenid’ was famous Roman poet. Lucricius the author of ‘‘On the Nature of Things’’ was famous Epicurian Philosopher. Pliny wrote the famous book ‘Historia Naturalis’ Romans were the inventors of concrete and the technique of binding stone and bricks. ‘‘The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’’ is a famous book written by Edward Gibbon.

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Archemedes the originator of the law of specific gravity lived in the Hellenistic Age.

Roman Civilisation 

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City of Rome was known as ‘‘City of Seven Hills’’.

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City of Rome was founded in BC 753 by two brothers Romulas and Romus.

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The idea of Republic originated in Rome.

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‘Senate’ was the Roman Assembly of Elders

Rome

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Roman Civilisation developed on the banks of river Tiber in Italy.

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Major Religions of the World Judaism- Christianity - Islam  Judaism is one of the oldest religions of the world.  Abraham is considered as the father of the Jews.  Jews are the believers of one God, Jehovah.  Jews are the selected people of Jehovah  Mosses is considered as the founder of Judaism.  Mosses freed Egypt from slavery and gave the ‘‘Ten Commandments’’ at the Mount of Senai.

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Christianity

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‘Revelation’ is the last book of Bible.

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Tamil was the first Asian language in which Bible was printed (1715)

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Ponthios Pelathos was the Roman Governor who tried Jesus Christ.

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Crusification of Christ was on a Friday, now it is observed as ‘Good Friday’.

Islam 

Hijas is known as the birthplace of Islam. The Island which includes Hijas is known as the Island of Arabs.

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Ka aba was the ancient worshipping centre in Mecca.

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Muhammed Nabi was born in AD 570 in the Khuraisi tribe in Mecca. His father was Abdulla and mother was Amina.

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The Word Islam was originated from the root of Aslama.

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Christianity was originated from Judaism. Jesus Christ was born in 4 BC at Bethlahem in the small town of Nasreth in Galeleo. King Herodos of Yuda was a contemporary of Jesus Christ. Roman emperors Augustus and Thiberius Caesar had direct contact to Jesus Christ. Those who believe in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ came to be known as Christians. Christianity was spread to Kerala by St. Thomas Aposthel in 52 AD (Crangannore). Bible has four Gospels. They are the Gospels of Mathews, Markose, Yohannan and Luckose. Christ was crusified by the Jews in 29 AD. Christ spoke in the Aramic Language which was a mixture of Cyriac and Hebrew. Roman Emperor Constantine gave freedom to the Roman Christians through his Milan Proclamation (AD 313)

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Invisible forces which acts as per the directions of the god are known as Malakku.

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Khadeeja was the first to receive the message of Muhammed.

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Muhammed Nabi fled from the Mecca to Medina to escape from the Khuraisis on 24th September AD 622. This day is known as Hijra.

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The followers who accompanied Muhammed to Medina are known as Muhajirs.

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He died on 8th June 632 AD at Medina.

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Ka’ aba was the first centre established in the world worship Allah.

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Koran, Hadis and Ijmah are the basis of Islamic law.

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Khalifa became the head of Islam after the death of Muhammed.

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testament.

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Judaism is considered as the mother religion of Christianity and Islam. ‘Thorah’ is the Sacred text of the Jews Thorah is included in the Old Testament of Bible. The Hebrew word ‘Thorah’ means ‘to lead’ . Synagogue is the worshipping centre of the Jews. The White Jews Synagogue at Mattanchery in Cochin is a worshipping centre of Jews in Kerala. Jarusalem was the famous pilgrim centre of the Jews. The worshipping centre in Jerusalem was constructed by King Solomon in BC 1000. It was destructed by the Babilonian king Nebukanisar in 587 BC. Jarusalem is an equally holy place for the Jews, the Christians and the Muslims.

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Theodosius proclaimed Christianity as state religion.

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Abu Beker, Umar, Usman and Ali were the Khalifas.

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The word ‘Bible’ means book.

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Bible is divided into two - Old Testament and New

In 1924 Mustafa Kamal Pasha of Turkey abolished the title of Khalifa.

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Koran is the codification of revelations given through the Gabriel Angel to Muhammed.

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The Sun Temple at Cusco was a contribution of the Inca Civilization.

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It contains 114 chapters. It took 22 years to have the complete revelations to Nabi.

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Red Indians were the aborginals of America. They were named so by Columbus.

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Koran was codified in AD 633 during the period of Khalifa Abu Beker.

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Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492.

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There are two divisions in Islam - Shias and Sunnis.

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America derived its name from Americo Vespuci, an Italian explorer.

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Shias are the followers of Ali.

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Copper was the first metal used by Americans.

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Iran is the only Shia majority nation in the world.

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Maize cultivation was the base of American Civilisation.

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Mayan, Inca and Aztec are the main native American civilisations flourished before the European colonization of America.

African Civilisation 

It is believed that human beings evolved in Africa.

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American Civilisation

First American Civilisation developed between 1000BC and 1000 AD.

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The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach Africa.

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Mayan books written on the bark of trees were known as Codid.

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City of Moro in Central Africa is known as Berminhatam of Central Africa.

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Mayan Civilisation declined in the 15th century due to Spanish invasion.

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Toltecs were another Amarindian people who developed their civilisation to the south of Mexican plateau. They constructed pyramids like the Egyptians.

First country formed in the western part of Africa is Ghana. Ghana is also known as the ‘Gold Coast’.

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Islam spread to Africa in the 8th Century.

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Vasco-da-Gama was the first European to reach the Cape of Good Hope, the southern most tip of Africa.

Floating Gardens built by the Aztecs were known as Chinambus.

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Aztecs believed in the worships of serpents (Snakes)

Bandus are the Negroes of Central and South Africa. Bandu means humans.

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The dark skinned race of Africa are called Negroes.

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Swahilis are the people living in the parts of Kenya and Tanzania. Zulus are the people living in South Africa, belonging to the Bandu family.

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The capital of Aztec was Tinochtitlans it was captured by Spanish conquerors in 1519 AD, thus ended the Aztec Civilisation. Most civilised of the Amarindian civilizations was the Inca, which developed in Peru (South America)

Middle Ages

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Inca was politically the most developed Amarindian tribes.

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Maize, Potato, Tomato, Pumpkin, Pineapple, Ground nuts, Guava, Tobacco, Cocaine etc were made to use for the first time by the Inca people of Peru.

The attack of Roman Empire and its destruction by the Barbarians in 455 AD marks the end of the ancient world and the beginning of Middle Ages.

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The word Barbarian means uncultured.

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Early Middle Ages is known as ‘Dark Ages’. It ended up to the 11th century.

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He belonged to Poland.

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Pope Pius IX was the Pope who ruled the longest term (31 years)

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John Paul II is the Pope with second longest term (26 years).

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John Paul II was the first Pope to accept the Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin.

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John Paul II visited India twice (1986, 1999)

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‘‘Crossing the Threshold of Hope’’ ‘‘Gift and Mystery’’ ‘‘Roman Tryptych Meditations’’ ‘‘Rise up Let us Go’’, ‘‘Memory and Identity’’ are the books written by Pope John Paul II.

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Joseph Ratzinger of Germany who came to be known as Benedict XVI became the 265th Pope after the death of John Paul II.

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Pope John Paul II died on 2 April 2005.

Benedict XVI is the second oldest pesson (78) to become the Pope.

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Oldest person to become the Pope was Clemant XII.

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Benedict XVI was the Second German to become the Pope.

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Latin Language is considered as theVehicle of Medieval Culture.

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Geofery Chaucer is considered as the father of English Poetry.

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‘Canterbury Tales’ is the famous work of Chaucer.

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Monasticism originated in Europe in the Middle Ages. In the 12th and 13th centuries there occurred several wars between Christians and Muslims in Palestine. These battles are known as Crusades. Muslims became religiously intolerant due to the Crusades. Crusades resulted in the spread of Islam to Europe. Feudal System was first emerged in Europe. The early name of feudalism was Clientage. The word feudalism was originated from the word ‘fief’ or ‘fued’ which means land given to peasant. The structure of feudal relationship was like a pyramid. King was on top of the pyramid and slaves were at the bottom. Feudalism came to an end towards AD 1000 by the influence of christianity. Feudalism helped to control the autocratic rule of kings in the Middle Ages Guilds were th merchant organisations of Europe in the Middle Ages. The University of Italy founded in 825 was the first University in Europe. Paris University was the first University in France. Oxford University was founded in 1163 AD and Cambridge in 1284. Aleson Richard was the first woman to become the Vice Chancellor of Cambridge University. Christianity was responsibile for making the Barbarians a civilised people. The Monastry of Monte Casino was founded by St. Benedict. The word Catholic means ‘Omnipresent’. Pope was the head of Medieval Christian Church. The silver jubilee celebrations of the Pope John Paul II’s Pontification has been one of the longest in the history of the Papacy celPope John Paul II ebrated in 2003.

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Joan of Arc 

The Middle Age was a period of superstitions. It was common among the orthodox to accuse someone, especially young, beautiful and enterprising girls as witch and initiate legal proceding against them.

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‘The Court of Inquisition’ was meant for the trial of those who are accused of as such.

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Heresy or the denial of religious principles was one of the most severe offences of the Middle Ages.

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In the Hundred Years War which started in 1338 between England and France, France was losing

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‘The Last Supper’ a fresco in Milan, ‘The Mona Lisa and the ‘Virgin and the Child’ were the famous paintings of Leonardo Da Vinci.

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Da Vinci was the first person to identify the models of aeroplanes, submarines and Mona Lisa cars. ‘Madona’ and ‘The School of Athens’ are the famous paintings of Raphael.

Modern Age 

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The literal meaning of Renaissance is rebirth.

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The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 was the cause of Renaissance in Europe. The new name of Constantinople is Istambul. During the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries there was a great revival in Europe in the field of art, literature and learning. This marked the transition from the Medieval to the Modern period. This is known as the Renaissance. The birth place of Renaissance movement was Italy.

Michelangelo was another Italian painter who was the author of famous painting ‘Last Judgement’ and Sculpture ‘David and Moses’.

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St. Peters Basilica in Rome was built under the patronage of Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X It was designed by Michelangelo.

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‘The Praise of Folly’ was a satiristic work written by Erasmus.

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Erasmus was known as the prince among the humanists.

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‘Utopia’ was a famous work of Sir Thomas More portraying an ideal community on an imaginary island indicating the glaring abuses of his time.

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Humanism is considered as the heart and soul of Renaissance. Petrarc, an Itaian poet is considered as the, father of Humanism.

The technique of printing was first developed by the Chinese.

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John Guttenburg of Germany is considered as the father of printing. He published Bible in 1456.

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Niccolo Machiavelli wrote a book on politics named ‘The Prince’

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William Caxton established the first printing press in England in 1477.

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Machiavelli is known as Italian Kautilya and Kautilya is known as Indian Machiavelli.

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The Renaissance painters painted directly on plaster walls called frescoes.

Copernicus a Polish astronomer developed the theory of universe through his book ‘‘Six Books concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’’.

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Renaissance was actually the rebirth of Classical Grecco-Roman literature and learning.

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The Renaissance

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frequently. There was nobody to lead France. Then Joan a shephered girl, with god’s revelation met the king of France and got the permission to lead the French army. She started her victorious Journey by crashing the barricade of English Army in Orleans, in France. Thus she got the name ‘‘Maid of Orleans’’. The orthodox church authorities accused her a witch and trialed at the court of inquisition. The verdict was to burn her alive. In 1431 Joan was burnt at the stake. But later the church authorities realized their mistake and in 1921 Vathican proclaimed her a beatified person. Now Joan of Arc is known as St. Joan.

The Renaissance emerged in Italy roughly between AD 1300 and AD 1550.

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Italy is known as ‘‘the Cradle of Renaissance’’

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‘Divine Comedy’ written by Dante was a classical work of the Renaissance period.

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Kepler wrote a book titled ‘On the Motion of Mars’ to establish the heliocentric theory.

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Galileo Galilei an Italian scientist invented telescope in 1609.

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Isaac Newton was born in England in 1642. He published his work ‘‘The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’’.

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The great dramatist Shakespeare who is popularly known as the ‘Bard of Avon’ was born in AD 1564 and died in AD 1616. His great tragedies are ‘Hamlet’, ‘Macbeth’, ‘Othello and KingLear’. He wrote altogether 37 plays.

Reformation and Counter Reformation The name ‘Protestant’ was first applied by Martin Luther.

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Reformation was started in Germany by Martin Luther in 1517. This resulted in the formation of Protestant Religion.

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Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin were the leaders of reformation in Switzerland.

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Reformation in Switzerland was known as Calvinism.

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Reformation movement in England was known as Anglicanism it was led by King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I.

Portugal was the first European country to encourage geographical discoveries.

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Prince Henry, the Navigator of Portugal encouraged sailors by making maps.

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Bartholomew Diaz sailed down the west coast of Africa in 1487, which came to be known as ‘Cape of Good Hope’.

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Vasco-da Gama followed Diaz’s route, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Kappad in Calicut in the Spring of 1498.

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Vasco-da-Gama was sent to India by the Portuguese king Dom Manual.

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He reached India in a ship named St. Gabriel.

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Christopher Columbus discovered West Indies and thought that it was India in 1492 and called its people Red Indians.

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Counter-Reformation was a reformist movement within the Catholic Church to restore its universal authority.

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John Wycliffe is known as the ‘‘Morning Star of the Reformation’’. He was responsible for giving inspiration to translate Bible into English for the first time.

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Ignatius Layola formed a society of monks known as ‘Jesut order’ in Spain.

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Jesute missionaries reached India for the first time during the period of Akbar the Great in 1580.

Later, Amerigo Vespucci reached the South American coast in 1499 and America was named after him.

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Ferdinant Megallan of Portugal who started his Voyage in 1519 was the first circum navigator (who sailed around the world). His circum navigation exclusively proved that the Earth is round.

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The name ‘Pacific’ was given to the ocean by Megallan.

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He reached Phillipines in 1521 and died there fighting its aborgins.

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The coast of Venezuela was explored by Amerigo Vespucci.

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John Cabbot discovered New Foundland in 1497.

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Peru was discovered by Francisco Pizzaro.

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Kabral discovered Brazil in 1500. He was a Portuguese.

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Portugal was the first country in the field of colonialism.

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Geographical Discoveries

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His theory of universe was later supported by Galileo.

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Megallan

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The inhabitance of England in the Neolithic Age were known as Iberians.

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Julius Caesar captured England in BC 55 and the Romans ruled England for 367 years.

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After the Romans England came in the hands of Anglo-Saxons.

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First priest to rule England was Dunston.

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Christianity reached England for the first time by the coming of Romans.

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Ceadmon was the first English poet and Bede was the first English historian.

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The Magna Carta was signed by King John of England in AD 1215 at Runnymede. The Magnacarta is described as the ‘Bible of the English Constitution’. It is also known as the ‘Bible of English Liberty’.

The Hundred years war (1338-1453) fought between England and France started during the period of King Edward III.

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The Peasants Revolt in England was in 1381.

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Battle of Roses were the civil wars in England.

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The Great Plague in London broke out in 1665.

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The system of Parliament originated in England during the period of Henry I.

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The Stuart king of England believed ‘in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship’.

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James I, the Stuart king wrote a book ‘‘The Law of Free Monarchies’’.

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Stuart king Charles I dissolved the Parliament in 1629 and did not summoned it till 1640.

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He resummoned the Parliament in 1640 and ended in 1660. It is known as Long Parliament. 

The Petition of Rights was accepted by the British Parliament in 1628. The Bloodless revolution or Glorious Revolution occurred in England in 1688. Through the Bloodless Revolution English king JamesII was dethroned and Mary, the daughter of Charles I and her husband William of Orange came to power in England. ‘Whigs’ and ‘Torys’ the political parties of England originated during the period of Charles II. Habeas Corpus Act was passed in England in 1679 during the period of Charles II. The Bill of Rights was accepted in England after the Glorious Revolution in 1689. In 1707 by the ‘Act of Union’ England and Scotland joined together and became ‘Great Britain’. By ‘the Act of Union’ of 1801 Great Britain and Northern Ireland joined together and it became United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. But Ireland was delinked in 1921 and Northern Ireland became part of England. The official name of England is ‘‘United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’. ‘Pound Sterling’ is the Currency of England. Robert Walpole was the first Prime Minister of England and the first in the world to hold the post of Prime Minister. He laid the foundation of Cabinet system. He became the Prime Minister in 1721. The Industrial Revolution first started in Robert Walpole England in the second half of the 18th century with the rapid growth of applied sciences, power driven machines replaced handwork. The Agrarian Revolution also took place in Britain. ‘The Commonwealth of Nations’ is an association of those free nations which were previously the part of British Empire.

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Innocent III was the Pope when the Magna Carta was signed.

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Civil War in England started in 1642. Oliver Cromwell led England after the Civil War. He ruled with the little ‘Lord Protector’.

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United Kingdom includes the Islands of England, Scotland and Ireland

Charles first was beheaded publically in 1649.

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England

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The Boston Tea Part 

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American War of Independence 

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America was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 12th October 1492. In the first quarter of the 17th century some protestants from England migrated to the southern part of North America to escape from the religious persecution of James I. They came to be known as ‘pilgrim fathers’. They sailed to America in a ship named, ‘The May Flower’. Britain established its first colony in Jamestown in Virginia in 1607.

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United States of America 

The American war of independence was fought between the American colonies and the Britain. The leader of colonies was George Washington. The Stamp Act was passed in 1765. The Navigation Act was passed in 1651. The Town Shent Act was passed in 1767. These Acts were passed to control and exploit the colonies. The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was associated with the American Revolution. To protest against the tax on tea, the revolutionaries threw tea boxes from the ship anchored in the Boston Port. This incident is known as Boston Tea Party.

‘‘No taxation without representation’’ was the famous slogan associated with the American Revolution. The representatives of the 13 colonies met at the First Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774. Second Philadelphia Congress was met in 1776 and it adopted the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776. The Declaration of American Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson. By the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States of America came to being. The Constitution of America was adopted in 1789. The Civil War in America was during 1861-65 Abraham Lincoln was the President during Civil War. The city of Chicago in America has the largest number of rail roads. ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’’ of Harriet Beechstowe published for the first time in 1852.

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The delegates send each other by Common Wealth Countries are known as High Commissioners and delegates send by Common Wealth nations to other countries are known as Ambassadors. The Falklands War was fought between England and Argentina in 1982. Stanley is the capital of Falkland Island. Britain came out victorious in the battle. It is a British colony even today. 10 Dowining Street is the official residence of the British Prime Ministers. Tony Blair of Labour Party is the Prime Minister of England. Princess Diana died in a car accident along with Dodi Al Fayed in Paris. Buckingham Palace is the residence of British Monarch.

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Abraham Lincoln

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Statue of Liberty is situated in the Liberty Island in the Newyork Port. It has 91 meter height.

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Eagle is the National bird of America.

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American women got voting right in 1920.

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John Jai (1789-95) was the first Chief Justice of America.

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Baseball is the National game of America.

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Golden Rod is the National Symbol of America

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George Washington is the father of America.

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He became the President of America in 1789.

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Thomas Jefferson was the third President of America.

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President who abolished slavery in America was Abraham Lincoln. He was the 16th President of America. He worked as storekeeper and village postmaster. He abolished slavery in 1862. He was assassinated in 1865 while watching a drama, ‘Our American Cousin’ in the Fords Theatre alongwith his wife. He was assassinated by John Wilksbooth. Lincoln is known as ‘‘Great Immancipator’’.

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First modern census was held in America in 1790.

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49th Parallel separates America and Canada.

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William Henry Harrison was the President who ruled the least term. James Madison is known as the father of American Constitution.

Ronald Reagan was the only filmstar who became American President.

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Chicago International Airport is the world’s busiest airport.

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Gand Canyon in the Colarado river in America is the biggest Gorge in the world. United States Library of Congress is the largest library in the world. American Museum of Natural History is the largest museum in the world. Port of New-York and New Jersy is the largest port in the world. Grant Central Terminal in Newyork city is the biggest railway station in the world. Yerkis Observatory of Illinois University has the largest refractor telescope. ‘General Sherman’ in California is the biggest tree in the world. Coast Redwood in the Redwood National Park in California is the tallest tree in the world.

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The first American President to be assassinated was Abraham Lincoln. Other American Presidents who were assassinated James A Garfield in 1881 William McKinley in 1901 John F Kennedy in 1963 USA has two political parties - Republicans and Democrates. Great Depression striked America in 1930’s There are 50 states and one district in the U.S.A District of Columbia (Washington DC) on the banks of Potomak river is Americas capital district. New York is the largest city in America. Chicago is known as the City of Winds. Newyork city is situated on the banks of Hudson river.

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The residence of American President got the name White House during the period of Theodor Roosevelt.

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Important Battles

Hundred Years War (1337-1453) : England and France Seven Years War (1756-1763) : French were defeated by the English Battle of Trafalgar (1805) : British fleet (under Nelson) defeated the combined fleet of France and Spain. Battle of Water Loo (1815) : British force led by Duke of Wellington defeated French force led by Napolean Bonaparte. Opium War (1839-1842) : China and Britain Crimean War (1853-1856) : War between Russia and the alliance of England, France, Turkey and Sardinia. Boer War (1899 - 1902) : Fought in South Africa between the British and the Boers (settlers of Dutch descent in South Africa) World War I (1914 - 1918) : Germany (with Austria, Hungary) against Britain (with Russia, France, Japan, Canada and Belgium) World War II (1935 - 1945) : Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) against the Allies (Great Britain, U.S.A., U.S.S.R, China) Axis powers were defeated.

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The figures of four American Presidents are engraved on the Mount Rushmor.

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The term of American President is four years.

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Only American president who got all the electoral votes - George Washington.

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The birth place of George Washington -Virginia

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George Washington died on 1799 December 14.

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First Vice President of America - John Adams

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First American Lady who advocated for the rights of women Abey Gale Smith (Wife of John Adams)

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American President who was entrusted to prepare American Constitution - Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson James Madison is known as the ‘Father of American Constitution’. Last military officer of the American revolution to become the President of America - James Munroe First American President who was the son of a former president - John Kwinsy Adams ‘Kitchen Cabinet’ prevailed during the period of Andrew Jackson. First American President to die in harness Wilham Henry Harrison First American President who was subjected to impeachment - John Tailor American President who is known as ‘Black Horse’ - James K. Polk First American President who was ousted from his party while in Office - John Tailor American President who chose the site for White House - Herbert Hover American President who worked as the Chairman of UN Human Rights Committee - Elenar Roosevelt American President who gave orders to drop atom bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Harry S. Truman

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American President who was known as Smiling President - Eisonhower First Roman Catholican born in 20th century to become the President of America - John F.Kennedy Who shot dead John F. Kennedy - Lee Harvey Oswald. John F. Kennedy’s assassination was the first live broadcast murder in the world. First Vice President to become President while the President was alive - Jerald R. Ford. Watergate incident (1972) is related to - Richard Nixon Oldest President of America - Ronald Reagon The agreement to give back Panama canal to the nation of Panamas was signed during the term of Jimmy Carter as President. American Presidents who got Nobel Prize for Peace - Theodor Roosevelt, Jimmy Carter, Wudrow Wilson. First Bachelor President of America - James Buccanan. Tallest American President - Abraham Lincoln First to be elected for a second term as President - George Washington First to get married while he was president -Grover Cleavelend Which American President is known as ‘Human Chain’ - Benjamin Harrison First American to win Nobel Prize for Peace Theodor Rousevelt (1906) First American President who later became Chief Justice - William Haward Daft Which American President said ‘The Chief business of America is business’’. - Kalvin Koolinch First American Citizen to become American President - Martin Von Buran He was born after the declaration of American independence in 1776.

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American Presidents

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French Revolution (1789) 

The century from 1750 to 1850 is known as the ‘Age of Revolutions’

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18th century is known as the ‘Age of Enlightenment’

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18th century is also known as ‘Age of Reason’

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Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu were the prominent philosophers who gave inspiration to the French people.

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Louis XVI was the king of France when the revolution broke out (1774-1792)

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His wife was beautiful but ‘Empty Headed lady Mary Antoinette.

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Like the Stuart kings of England, the Bourbons of France also ruled by the Divine Right Theory of Kingship. Louis XIV (1643 - 1715) who fully exploited the theory said ‘‘I am the state’’ He also said ‘‘flood after me’’

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The French Parliament was known as ‘Estates General’.

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The Bastile Prison which was the symbol of monarch’s cruelty was broken by the Third Estate on 14th July 1789. Thus began the French Revolution.

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July 14th is observed as a national holiday in France every year in memory of this incident.

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Liberty, Equality and Fraternity the slogan of the French Revolution was given by Rousseau the French Philosopher and the author of ‘‘The Social Contract’’.

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The Eiffel Tower is situated on the banks of river Science in Paris. It was built in 1888 by Gaustave Eiffel. His famous saying is ‘‘Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains’’.

Napolean Bonaparte (1769-1821) is known as the ‘‘Child of the French Revolution’’. Napolean Bonaparte was bornin Corsica, an island in the Meditteranean sea in 1769. He proclaimed himself the emperor of France in 1804. He was defeated by the English in 1813 and deported to Elba. But later he recaptured power. But after his final defeat in the Battle of Water Loo he was deported to St. Helena Island. There he died in 1821. The government formed by Nepolean in France Rousseau was known as Consulate. The Bank of France was established by Napolean. French Philosopher Rousseau is the author of books such as Emile, Confessions, Social Contract etc. The most important work of Montesquieu is ‘‘The Spirit of Laws’’ French Revolution resulted in the destruction of feudalism in France. French Revolution gave the term ‘nation’, its modern meaning. Elysee Palace is the official residence of French President. Now the term of French President is five years, earlier it was seven years. Franc is French currency Jacqueous Shirak is the President of France. In 2006 there was a racial conflict between the African immigrants and natives.

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French society on the eve of Revolution was divided into three Estates - Clergy, Nobles and Commons.

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The Industrial Revolution 

Eiffel Tower

Louise Phillippe was the Emperor of France from 1830 - 1848 AD. He

The Industrial Revolution is the name given to a series of changes that brought about a transition from production by hand to production by ma-

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chine from small scale production to large scale production, hand made goods to machine made goods.

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Electric Telegraph was invented by Graham Bell in 1876.

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John Macadam, an engineer of Scotland made the first strong roads in England with the help of small stones.

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First important Trade Union Movement in the world was Chartist Movement originated in England as a result of the Industrial Revolution.

Industrial Revolution started in England in the second part of the 18th century and in the first part of the 19th century.

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Industrial Revolution first influenced the Cotton Textile Industry.

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In 1733, John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle for weaving cloth.

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Japan was the first Asian country to be indsutrialised.

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James Hargreaves invented the Spinnng Jenny in 1764 (Jenny was the name of his wife)

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The Steam Engine invented by Jameswatt was called Beelzebub.

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Water Frame was invented by Richard Archwright.

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Industrial Revolution gave rise to Capitalism.

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Samuel Crompton invented Mule in 1779.

A little before the Industrial Revolution the Agrarian Revolution broke out in England.

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Power Loom was invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785.

Russian Revolution

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James Watt invented Steam Engine in 1769.

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‘Safety Lamp’ or ‘Davis Lamp’ was invented by Humphrey Davy in 1816.

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‘The Warrior’ was the first warship built with iron plates.

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Abraham Derby invented the method of smelting iron with coke in 1709.

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Bersemer invented the steel furnace in 1856.

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First Steam Locomotive was invented by Trevithick in 1800.

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In 1814 George Stephenson invented an improved steam locomotive called Rocket. It was finally used in opening the first passenger railway from Liverpool to Manchester. That is why Stephenson is called the father of Steam Locomotive.

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Steam Boat was invented by Robert Fulton in 1807.

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First steam ship sailed from Glasgow to Liverpool in 1857. A ship first crossed the Atlantic in 1833.

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The method of sending message by wire was invented by Morse in 1835.

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Russia was united into an empire in the 9th century AD. Russia was unified by the Rurichs. Russians belonged to the Salvonic race. Mongols captured Russia in the 13th century. The Romanoff Dynasty of Russia was founded by Michael Romanoff in 1613. Romanoff Emperors were known as Czars. They ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917. Peter the Great is considered as the father of modern Russia. Peter’s foreign policy was known as ‘warm water policy’ Russian Revolution was started in 1917 and it was led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin.

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Elias Home invented sewing machine in 1846.

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Lenin was the leader of the Russian Social Democractic Labour Party.

Bloody Sunday On the 22nd of 1905 thousands of unarmed Russian workers marched to the Winter Palace of Czar in St.Peterburg. Their demand was to have administrative reforms. But the army fired at the mob Hundereds of workers died, thousands wounded. This incident is known as Bloody Sunday, that is related to the Revolution of 1905 in Russia.

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Lenin is known as the arichitect of Soviet Union.

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St. Petersburg is the largest city in Russia second only to Moscow.

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Lenin was born in 1870 April 10. in Simbrisk, Russia.

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He received the name Lenin in 1901.

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He was led to Communism by his elder brother Alexander.

The city of St. Petersburg was founded by Peter the Great in 1703. The city was known as Petrograd from 1914 to 1924. Later it came to be known as Leningrad. Gorbachov renamed it St. Petersburg again. Grand Cremlin Palace was the Residence of Czars. Rasputin was a crooked witch, who had an influence over the Czarina. The economic and political reforms started by Gorbachev in 1985 was known as ‘Peristroika’ which means restructuring. For freedom of press and freedom of expression he also introduced ‘Glasnost’ which means open approach. The Crimean War (1854-56) The Crimean War was fought between Russia on the one side and Turkey, France and England on the other.

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Lenin 

Lenin started a newspaper known as Iskara in 1900.

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Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevic section of the party.

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He died in 21st January 1924 of cerebral stroke.

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Bolsheviks, the majority party and Menshiviks, the minority party were the two division of the Russian Social Democractic Labour Party.

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USSR came into existence in 1922 December

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Czar Nicholas II was the reigning Czar of Russia when the Revolution occurred.

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Russian Parliament is known as Duma.

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The new form of workers organisation formed on the eve of the Revolution was known as ‘Soviet’.

Chinese Revolution (1911)

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February Revolution was on 12 March 1917.

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The Chinese Revolution tookplace in 1911.

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Provisional Government which formed after the February Revolution was led by Alexander Kerensky.

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Ching dynasty or the Manchus were the last ruling dynasty of China.

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The October Revolution happened on 7 November 1917 (because old Russian Calendar was 14 days backward).

Puyi, a six year old boy was the last Manchu Emperor.

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The Republic of China was formed in 1912 and Sun Yat-Sen became the first Chairman and first President of the Chinese Republic.

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Sun-Yat-Sen was a leader of the Comintang Party MilitaryHead Yuan Shikai assumed power replacing Sun-Yat-Sen in 1912 march 10.

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In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party defeated the nationalists and formed the ‘‘Peoples Republic of China’.

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The Opium Wars were fought between Britain and China.

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Florence Nightingale established the first nursing school. Florence Nightingale is known as ‘‘Lady with the Lamp’’

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After the October Revolution Trotsky came to power

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Stalin is known as the Iron Man of Communism.

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Stalin became the head of Soviet Union in 1924.

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He introduced Five Year Plans (1928) for the economic progress of Russia.

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In 1991 the Communist rule in Russia came to an end and the USSR collapsed. Russia and other Soviet Republics became independent nations.

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The first Opium War, was fought during 1839-42 and the second was during 1856-60.

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Opium Wars were fought to get open the ports of China to trade opium from British India.

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As a result of the first Opium War the Chinese province of Hongkong came under the control of Britain in 1844. Hong Kong became a special administrative region of China on July 1, 1997 when the colony was handed over by Britain to China.

ated water way extends more than 1600 Kilometers from Hangzhou in the south to Beijing in the north. 

Chinese People’s Liberation Army is the world’s largest Army in number.

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China is the largest producer of paddy, silk and coal in the world.

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China has the largest Communist Party in the world.

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World’s largest dam Three Gorges Dam is built across the Yangtse river in China.

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China opened world’s highest and longest highland railway on 1st July 2006 The Qinghai-Tibet Railway (1, 1142 Km)

Macao, which was a colony of the Portugal was restored to China on 20th December 1999.

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Shanghai is the biggest city in China. Beijing is in the second place.

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China was admitted to the UN in 1971. Now she is a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council.

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Karakkoram highway is the only overland connection between China and Pakistan.

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92% of the Chinese people belonged to the Han race.

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Communist China’s first international religious gathering was conducted in April 2006.

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The Tianen Square in Beijing is described as the ‘Naval of China’. The name means ‘the gate of heavenly peace’.

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The highest Court in China is the Supreme People’s Court.

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China’s leading newspaper is ‘Renin Ribao’ (People’s Daily) of Beijing, which is the official newspaper of Chinese Communist Party.

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China is the first Asian country to launch a space shuttle. Zhenshou V was the Chinese space shuttle and Yang Liwei was its first space traveller. China is the world’s most populous country. It has about a fifths of the world’s population.

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China has the oldest living civilisation.

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Chinese were the first to make compasses, paper, pottery, and silk.

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Chinese Mandarin is the most widely spoken language of the world and it is the mother tongue of the largest number of people. Chinese call this language ‘Putoghua’ (Common language)

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China has the world’s largest fishing industry.

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The Grand Canal world’s longest artificially cre-

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In that World Buddhist Forum, Buddhists from more than 30 countries participated.

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2012 Olympics will be held in China.

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Wenjiabo became the President of China.

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It is for the first time the posts of President and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China held by two persons.

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The present General Secretary of Communist Party of China is the former President JiangZemin

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Den-Sia-O-Ping brought liberalist policies in China in 1970.

First World War (1914-1918) 

The murder of Arch Duke Ferdinant of Austria by a Serbian student Gavle Prince on June 28, 1914 was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918). The war was started by the declaration of war against Serbia by Austria - Hungry. The main combatants in the war were the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) and the Allied Powers (England, France, Belgium, Serbia and Russia). The Central Powers lost the war. The war

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Unification of Italy, and Fascism

Submarine warboat (U-boat) used by Germany in the war was a great menace.

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Wudrow Wilson was the President of America during the First World War.

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Lloyd George was the British Prime Minister and Clemenceace was the French Prime Minister during the War.

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The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the Allies and Germany on 28th June 1919.

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The Treaty of St. Germain was signed by the Allies with Austria- Hungary in 1919.

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An armistice (Peace Agreement) was signed on November 11, 1918 to end the war. It was followed by a peace conference at Paris and the Treaty of Versailles in 1920.

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The Treaty of Versaile’s resulted in the foundation of League of Nations in 1919.

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League of Nations was formed on the basis of the ‘Fourteen Points’ put forward by Wudrow Wilson in 1918.

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League of Nations was the predescessor of the UNO.

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League of Nations was disbanded in 1945 and even before that it lost its importance in 1939 when the Second World War broke out.

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The First World War was fought as ‘a war to end all wars’.

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One of the most important results of the First World War was the Great Depression which started in USA in 1929.

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Only one European country which was not affected by great depression was Russia.

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Three major powers during the interwar period were USA, USSR and Japan.

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Ku Klux Klan was a white terrorist gang working in America during the period of Great Depression.

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Franklin D. Roosevelt became American president during the great depression in 1932.

After the decline of the Roman Empire Italy was divided into a number of small independent states. Joseph Massini is known as the ‘‘Prophet of Italian Nationalism’’ Massini founded ‘Young Italy’ in 1821. Garibaldi was another famous leader of Italian Nationalism. He founded an organisation known as ‘Red Shirts’. The unification of Germany was completed in 1870. Political organisations which originated in Europe after the First World War were collectively known as Fascist Movements. The word ‘Fascism’ was originated from the Italian word ‘fasces’ which means ‘‘a bundle of rods and an axe’’. Benitto Mussolini, the world’s first fascist dictator who came to power in Italy in 1922, is known as the father of Fascism. Mussolini organised his followers into the ‘Black shirts’ In October 1922 he organised a ‘March to Rome’ and took over as Prime Minister. Mussolini was against Socialism and Communism and formed an organisation known ‘‘Fasci di Combattiment’’. When Italy surrendered after the Second World War in 1945 Mussolini was captured and executed at Como. Italy was the first Axis Power to surrender in the First World War. After 2000 Medea Tycoon Silvio Berlysconi won the election and became the PM. In 2006 he was defeated by the former President of EU Romano Prodi. Italy won the World Cup Football title held in Germany by defeating France.

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ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. (Versailles is a city near Paris)

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Unification Germany, and Nazism 

Germany was known as Prussia in olden times.

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The process of German Unification began when King William I appointed Otto Von Bismark as his Prime Minister in 1862.

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Bismark is known as the ‘Iron man of Germany’

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His policy was known as ‘Blood and Iron Policy’.

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‘Customs Union’ was an organisation which supported German unification indirectly.

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Bismark is known as ‘Iron Chancellor’.

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Nazism in Germany was a German form of Fascism in Italy.

In 2006 June Germany decided to open up a huge archive of Nazi records on Concentration camp inmates.

Second World War (1939-45) 

The Treaty of Versailles and the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany were the main causes of the war.

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The Soviet German Non Aggression Pact was signed on August 23, 1939.

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Hitler’s armies invaded Polland on 1 September 1939.

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On 3 Septmber 1939 Britain and France declared war on Germany, thus began the Second World War.

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The Second World War was between The Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, USA etc)

Adolf Hitler

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Adolf Hitler (18891945) was the leader of the Nazi Party in Germany. He was known as the Fuehrer (Leader). Hittler was born in Austria in 1889.

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National Socialist German Workers Party founded in 1920 was known as Nazi Party.

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Nazi Party wanted the exclusion of Jews from German citizenship.

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The supporters of Nazi Party were known as Sturn Abteilung or ‘Brown Shirts’.

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Hitler became the head of Nazi Party in 1923.

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Hitler wrote his autobiography ‘‘Mein Kampf’’ (My Struggle) while he was in Jail.

German attack on Russia during the war was known as ‘Operation Barbosa’

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Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.

When the Second World War broke out, the US announced her neutrality.

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In 7 December 1941, the Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawai.

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On 8 December 1941 US declared war on Japan. Thus US formally entered the Second World War.

In 1935 under the Nuremberg Law German Jews were deprived of their citizenship.

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Hitler became the President of Germany in 1934 when Hindenburg died.

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Secret Police force of Hitler was known as ‘Gustapo’.

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Hitler committed suicide along with his wife Iva Brown after the failure of Second World War in 1945. Bismark is known as the father of German integration and Helmet Kohl is known as father of German Unity. It was under Helmet Kohl that two Germanies united in 1991. In 2005 Angela Merckel became the first woman

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Chancellor of Germany.

The German plan of conquering Britain during the Second World War was known as ‘Sea Lion’.

Titles

Persons

Fuehrer ...................................... Adolf Hitler II Duke .......................................... Mussolini Lady with the Lamp ..... Florence Nightingale Maid of Orleans ......................... Joan of Arc Maiden Queen ............................. Elizabeth I Man of Blood and Iron .................... Bismark Man of Destinig Little Corporal ..... Napolean

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The first Atom Bomb was dropped in Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 by America. This bomb is known as ‘Little boy’’. The second Atom Bomb was dropped in Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 it is known as ‘fat man’. The first country to surrender in the war was Italy and last to surrender was Japan. On 2 September 1945 Japan surrendered and the Second World War ended. The Axis powers lost the Second World War. This war led to the foundation of UNO in 1945. The UN Charter was signed at San Francisco on 26th June 1945 by fifty nations and UN came into force on 24 October 1945.

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The Nuremberg Trials were the trials of the major war criminals of the Second World War. It began on November 20, 1945.

Big Powers and Cold War

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The formation of North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in April 1949 was one of the most important aspects of Cold War. In 1954 the US brought most of the South East Asian Countries under a common framework modelled on NATO called SEATO. The Arab states formed CENTO in 1955. (Central Treaty Oganisation) The Cold War continued upto the collapse of Soviet Union in 1990. HOTLINE is a telecommunication link established since 1963 between the Kremlin (Moscow) and White House (Washington DC, USA) to avoid misunderstanding. Now ‘hotline’ means a direct exclusive line of communication especially for an emergency. Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed under the Soviet Union against NATO in 1955.

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Now Russia is in a more or less stable condition under the Presidentship of Vladimir Putin.

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The United States of America, the Soviet Union, Britain, France and China were regarded as the big powers since the end of the Second World War (1945). Among them, the United States and the Soviet Union were the Super Powers.

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The biggest crisis of the early stage of Cold War was the Berlin Blockade which began in 1948.

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Second World War became a Global war in 1941.

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There was much co-operation among the Big Powers during the War. But later there aroused mutual suspicion among them and Cold War began.

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The Cold War was a war of words or ideologies and of nerves. This Cold War created great international tension. The Cold War was announced by Winston Churchill in his famous ‘‘iron curtain’’ speech at Fulton, Missourie in 1946.

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The word ‘Cold War’ was first coined by Bernard Baruch 1946.

Middle East Conflict 

Israel Palestine conflict is popularly called Middle-East Conflict. The conflict became worse by the formation of Israel in Palestine in 1948. In the battle that occured in 1948, Israel came out victorious.

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Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was formed in 1964 to defeat Israel.

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In the 1967 Arab-Israel battle which lasted for six days, Israel came out victorious.

Revolutions American war of Independence .................... 1776

The years 1945-47 are generally taken to mark the beginning of the Cold War.

Russian Revolution ...................................... 1917

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The first ‘shot’ of Cold War was fired by Winston Churchill.

Chinese Revolution ...................................... 1911

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The US decision to intervene in the Greek Civil War may be considered as formally ushering in of the Cold War.

Industrial Revolution .......... 1750-1850 (England)

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French Revolution ....................................... 1789 Communist Revolution in China ................... 1949 Green Revolution in India ............................ 1964

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The Israel - Palestine Peace Treaty was signed in 1994 and PLO supremo sworn in as the head of PalestineNational Authority.

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The historic Israel-PLO agreement was signed in Washington on September 28, 1995. River Wye Agreement was signed by Israel and Palestine for solving the crisis.

Islands of West Indies are the major parts of Latin America. 

There are altogether 46 countries in Latin America. 33 independent nations and 13 dependent countries.

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Brazil is the largest Latin American country in area and Population.

Golan Height was a place captured by Israel from Cyria in 1967

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Spanish is the most widely spoken language in Latin America.

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West Bank : This place was captured by Israel from Jordan. As per the peace treaty of 1994 the administrative authority of this place was given to Palestine National Authority.

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Guarani is the language of Indian origin spoken in Paragua.

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Quechua is the Indian language in Peru.

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Aymara is the Indian language Spoken in Bolivia.

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Christopher Columbus was the first European to a reach Latin America.

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Francisco De Miranda (1750-1816) was one of the most important leaders of Latin America. He fought for the liberation of Venezuela and came out victorious in 1910 and it proclaimed its independence in 1911.

Sinai Peninsula : This place was also captured from Egypt in the 1967 war and handed over to Palestine in 1982.

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The official name of Israel is Medinat Israel.

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Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages of Israel.

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The conflict reached a turning point with the election (January 2005) of Mahmud Abbas as the new Palestinian leader following the death of Yassar Arafat.

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Gaza Strip is in the Egypt. It was captured by Israel in the 1967 battle and as per the treaty of 1994 it was handed over to Palestine National Authority.

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In 2006 July-August Israel invaded Labanon and tried to destroy the so called extremist organisation Hisbulla led by Sheik Hassan Nasrulla. Yassar Arafat The Hamas lead coalition won the general election in Palestine. But the Israel and EU blocked their financial assistance to this country. Now it is in great financial crisis.

San Martin (1778 - 1850) another famous Latin American leader worked for the liberation of Argentina, Chili and Peru.

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Brazil got independence from Spain in 1822. Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in 1959. Due to health reason Cuban President Fidel Castro transferred his power temporarily to his brother Raul Castro in September 2006. Panama got the Panama Canal from US in 1999. Panama Canal was opened in 1914. Panama Canal connects the Pacific and Atlan- Fidel Castro tic Oceans.

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Countries to the south of USA are collectively called Latin America.

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Mexico, Central America, South America and the

Simon Bolivor (1783-1830) worked for the liberation of Columbia, Venezuela, Equador, Peru and Bolivia. He is considered as the father of their nation by all these countries. He is known as the ‘Liberator’ or ‘the Washington of South’.

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LATIN AMERICAN NATIONALISM 

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Soccer (Football) is the most important game of Latin American countries.

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Aguaretiente is a liquor obtained from sugarcane used in Latin America

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Latin American Tea is known as Mate.

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Most of the Latin American countries follow Christianity.

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Brazilian dance is known as Samba Cuba - Conga Argentina - Tango Bolivia & Chile - Cueca Mexico - Jarabe Tapatio

Japan

craft named ‘Box car’ on 9 August 1945. Follwed by the Japan surrendered before the Axis Powers on 2 September 1945. The treaty of surrender was signed in a ship named USS Missourie in the Bay of Tokyo. 

Kabuki is a form of stage drama in Japan.

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Bunraku - a puppet theatre

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Sumo is a Japanese form of Wrestling.

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Ikebana - Japanese style of flower arranging

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Sake - Rice wine made in Japan

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Cloisonne - A Japanese type of decorative enameling

Japan is an Island nation of the North Pacific.

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The name Japan was originated from the name Zipangu used by Marco Polo in Italian language.

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Origami - The Japanese art of folding paper into decorative objects.

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The official name of Japan is Nippon or Nihon, which means the source of the Sun.

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Japan is known as the ‘Land of Rising Sun’ or ‘Britain of the East’.

Kawabata Yasunari is the first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize (1968) for literature. ‘Snow Country’ is the book authored by him.

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Yuichiro Miura : 70 year old man who became the oldest to conquer Mt Everest in May 22, 2003.

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Junko Tabei First woman to climb mount Everest.

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Tokyo became the capital of Japan during enlightened rule (Meiji Age) which is known as the Golden Age of Japan.

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Manasobu Fukuvoka is the author of the famous book ‘One Straw Revolution’. He was a famous agricultural scientist.

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First constitution of Japan came to force in 1889 and the Japanese Parliament Diet was formed.

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Jimmu Tenno : He was supposedly the first emperor of Japan. In 660 BC he became the Emperor.

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Geographically Japan is situated in ‘‘the Ring of fire’’ which is in the coast the Pacific ocean with lot of volcanoes.

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Hirohito became the first Japanese emperor who travelled outside Japan in 1971.

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Mount Fujiyama is the highest mount in Japan.

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In the first World War Japan was in the part of Allied Powers.

World’s longest suspension bridge, the Akasi Kaikyo Bridge (1990 metres) is in Japan. It connects the Island of Honshee and the Island of Shikoku.

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Japan joined the Second World War in 1940 on the part of Italy and Germany.

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Japan’s largest single export is Crude Oil.

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On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbour. This resulted in the entry of USA into the Second World War.

‘Yomeeyerie shimbon’ a News paper in Japan has the largest circulation in the world. It is also published in English with the name ‘Daily Yomiyurie’.

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The Japan’s economy ranks second only to USA in terms of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

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Japan has the largest fishing industry in the world.

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New PM of Japan is Shinzo Abe (Liberal Democratic Party)

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America dropped an Atom Bomb named ‘Little boy’ in Hiroshima from an aircraft named ‘Inola Gay’ on 6, August 1945. Later another bomb ‘Fatman’ was dropped in Nagasaki from an air-

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INDIA AND PAKISTAN

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THE SOUTH AFRICAN STORY   

The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910. It became a Republic in 31 May 1961. Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990 after 27 years of imprisonment. He was imprisoned at Robert Islands In 1994 he sworn in as the first black President of South Africa. His term ended in 1999. First Democratic President Nelson Mandela of South Africa is Nelson Mandela. Thabo Mbeki, the President of ANC (Africa National Congress) succeeded Nelson Mandela as the President of South Africa in 1999. Nelson Mandela was the second foreigner to receive the Bharat Ratna. The first foregner to receive Bharat Ratna was Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the ‘Frontier Gandhi’ South Africa is the leading producer of gold in the World. African Development Bank (ADB) was formally established in 1964 and began its operation in 1966. Organization of African Unity (OAU/ OUA) was formed in 1963, with its headquarters at Addis Ababa (Ethiopia)

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Muhammed Ali Jinna was the founder of Pakistan. He was the first Governor General of the Dominion of Pakistan. Jinna house is in Mumbai. Pakistan observes its independence day on August 14 Jinna is called the father of Pakistan. Pakistan proclaimed itself an Islamic Republic in 1956. Poet - Philosopher Muhammed Iqbal, first articulated the concept of Pakistan in 1931. Pakistan’s first free elections were held in December 1970. Bangladesh was separated from Pakistan in march 26, 1971. On 28 and 30 may 1998 Pakistan carried out five nuclear tests in the desert of Baluchistan at the Chagai Hills in response to India’s test. On 12 Octber 1999, General Pervez Musharraf in a military coup deposed the Premier Nawaz Sherif and suspended the constitution. In 2001 he became the President of Pakistan. Musharraf’s presidency was extended by five more years till 2007. The Tashkent Agreement was signed on January 10, 1966. This Agreement was signed by Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan just after the 1965 Indo - Pak War. On January 11, Shastri died at Tashkent. Now Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekisthan. The Shimla Agreement of 1972 was signed between India and Pakistan after the 1971 battles. The Lahore Declaration was signed between India and Pakistan just before the ‘Operation Vijay’ of 1999 in Kargil to expel the ussurpers. Th Radcliff line separates India from Pakistan, the Durand Line is between Pakistan and Afghanisthan and the McMohan Line is between India and China. Siachin Glacier which lies between India and Pakistan is referred as the highest and the coldest battle field in the world. The Agra Summit (2002) between Musharaff

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and AB Vajpayee ended in failure. Aim-solving bilateral problems. Pak conspirations attacked Indian Parliament in 2001 that led to the verge of a war. Relation worsened due to the Mumbai blasts in July 2006 In the side line NAM summit in Havana (2006 September) both agreed to continue to the peace process

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Gulf War I and II 

The Gulf War (1991) was fought between the US led multinational forces and Iraq to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Its code name was Operation Desert Storm.

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‘Operation Desert Fox’ was the continuation of operation Desert storm.

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Australia

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Harriet a 178 year old giant tortoise credited with helping Charles Darwin pioneer the theory of evolution dies in Australia in 2006 June 22. Australian Crocodile hunter Steve Irwin (44) died on September 4, 2006 following a stingray blow to the chest while filming a documentary on the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Port Douglas in Queenland state. Marsupial lions, Kangaroos as tall as trucks and wombats the size of a rhinoceros roamed Australias outback before being killed off by fires it by arriving humans. The giant animals lived in the arid Nullarbor Desert around 400,000 years ago, but died out around 50,000 year ago, relatively shortly after the arrival of human settlers, according to new fossil skeletons found in Caves.

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Father of History Herodotus Iron was accidently discovered by Neanderthal man Humans with similarity to the Neanderthal man Cromagnans Mesopotamian ruler who gave a famous code of laws Hammurabi The Cunieform script was discovered by Sumerians Largest Pyramid of Egypt Khufu Large temple in ancient Egypt dedicated to Sun God Temple of Abusimbel Three states of China existed in the 300 BC Chin, Chu, Ehi

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Selected Questions from World History

Siesmograph was discovered by Ancient Chinese Most important Persian ruler who lived in BC 600 Cyrus God of Parsies or Zorastrians Ahuramazda Most famous ruler of ancient Athens Pericles Olygarchy is a form of government led by . a group of rich people Greek poetess who sung about love, nature and beauty Sappho Greek poet who wrote poems in honour of victorious athletes Pindar Father of tragic dramas Aeschilus Father of Comic dramas Sophocles Most important example of Greek architecture Temple of Parthenon The word Heirogliphic means Sacred Writing Philosopher king of Rome Marcus Areleus Famous Orator of Greece Cesero The Roman Governor who gave the verdict to crucify christ Pontheos Pelathose The birth place of Prophet Muhammed Mecca Who as the wife of Prophet Muhammed Khadeija

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On 11 March 2006 Michelle Bachlet is sworn in as Chile’s first woman president. Now there is a trend in South America that several of its countries moving to the communist side of political ideology.

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Which place is known as the Bermingham of Central Africa Sinja - Trophus

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Most famous ruler of Mali in Africa Manga Kangan Muza

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Time taken to complete the construction of the Great Pyramid in Egypt 20 years

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Capital of Arab Empire during th Abbsasid rule Baghdad Frist Industrially developed country in Asia Japan The Capital of Japan in the 8th Century Nara Ancient religion of Japan Shintoism Architectural style developed in France Goethic The mount where Saint Benedict founded his monastery Monte Cassino Holy Ka aba was built by Prophet Ebrahim The capture of constantinople by the Suljek Turks resulted in the decline of Byzantine Empire The prophet of French Revolution Rasseau Nationalisation of Suez Canal was done by Col. Gamal Abdul Nazar of Egypt Japanese Parliament is known as Diet Battle in which Napolean was defeated in 1815 Battle of Trafalgar Unification of Germany was done by Bismark Pakistan President who was hanged to death in 1979 Sulfiker Ali Bhuto English king who was trialed and executed publically in 1649 Charles I English king who signed the Magnacarta in 1215 John Treaty which ended the Ruso-Japanese battle of 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth Co-operative movement was started in England in 1821 by Robert Oven

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Who was the commander of Carthage in the Punic wars Hannibal Who became the ruler of Rome after Julius Caeser Octavian (Augustus Caesar) Country known as the nest of singing birds England Perceolis was the capital of the ancient Empire Persia The hanging gardens of Babilona was built in the name of Nebuchandnessar Only South East Asian country never occupied by any European powers Thailand Famous chinese king Shihuangti belonged to Chin dynasty Which ancient civilisation was famous for secular architecture Persian The tutelary diety of the city ‘UR’ in Mesopotamia Nannar The Mayan calendar had 18 months Buddhism reached China from India during the period of Han dynasty Golden Age of Rome is the period of Augustus Caesar Most cultured civilisation of Middle Ages was of Arabs Which was the language of learning of the Middle Ages Latin First university in the world was started in Paris Which subject was known as Queen of Sciences during the Middle Ages Theology Who was the immediate successor of prophet Muhammed or first Khalifa Abubekker

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Vietnamis freedom struggle was led by Ho Chimin Who banned ‘Shake Hand’ in Italy in 1930 Benitto Mussolini Saudi Arabian king who gave the name to the country in 1925 Abdul Aziz Sand Persia came to be known as Iran from 9th March 1935 Symbol accepted by Hitler for German national flag Swastika Lover of Hitler Iva Brown Country ousted from League of Nations in 1939 U.S.S.R Hitler and his wife Iva Brown committed suicide in 30 April 1945 Mussolini and his wife Claretta were killed by the Italian Guerillas in 28 April 1945 Which city is called by its natives as ‘The Big Apple’ New York Who questioned the Sale of Indulgence Martin Luther Founder of Salvation Army William Booth Who killed Abraham Lincoln in 1865 Wilks Booth Princess Diana was killed in a car accident in Paris on 31 August 1997. Communist leader who proclaimed war with Cuban ruler Batista in 1958 Fidel Castro The Great fire of London was in the year 1666. Chinese President who adopted christianity in 1980 Chiang Kaishek Mussolini was captured and killed at Como Founder of Comintang Party Dr. Sunyat Sen

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Small Island where Columbus landed in 1492 Wattlings Island Amerigo Vespucci who identified America belonged to Italy The petition submitted American colonists before king George III of England in 1774 Olive Branch Petition The Queen who was known as Madam Deficit Mary Antoinet (France) Oath of Tennis Court is related to French Revolution Water Loo where Napoleon was defeated is situated in Near Brussels in Belgium Nepoleon Bonapparte was died in the year 1821 Who is considered as the father of Scientific Socialism Karl Marx Work which is considered as the birth cry of modern socialism Communist Manfesto ‘Open Door Policy’ was introduced by USA The rebellion led by the peasants of Keniya against the British Mau-Mau-Rebellion Russian Parliament was known as Duma Spy organisation formed by Germany during the second world war Fifth Columists The policy of USA which helped Britain and France during the Second World War Cash and Carry Policy Party which became prominent in Britain after the Second World War Labour Party Trojan horse tactics was the policy adopted during the Second World War by Germany Leader of Indonesian Nationalism Dr. Sukarno

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WORLD GEOGRAPHY Bed P-waves (Primary Waves) 2/3rd Fumarole Biosphere Political maps Mountain Gorillas Green land Leningrad, Omsk Pacific rain - shadow area Paleontology Alfred Wegner Orographic rain travelling time from a point USA Cork conserve water Echo-sounding western disturbances The Mediterranean region cattles bajra Potato ores afforestation Hail The Suez Sumatra and Malaysia Savanna Tibet Coffee Zaire (Boyomar falls)

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

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1. The temperature at which the air is fully saturated is called ............. 2. The type of soil typically formed under tropical monsoon condition is ............. 3. The bottom of a river is called ............. 4. The waves which pass through the core of the earth is ............. 5. Ocean covers ............. part of the earth’s surface 6. A vent in the ground of a volcanic area which gives off volcanic hot gases is known as ............. 7. The narrow contact zone of land, water and air which contains all forms of life is called ............. 8. Maps showing different countries and states of the world with their boundaries are called ............. 9. Virunga National Park in Congo is famous for ............. 10. ............. is the largest island in the world. 11. The Trans-Siberian Railway (8960 km) connects ......... in the west to .......... in the east. 12. Humbolt ocean current is in ............. ocean. 13. The leeward side of a mountain which does not receive rain is known as the ............. 14. The study of fossils is ............. 15. ............. is the propounder of the continental drift theory. 16. The rainfall caused due to the presence of mountains in the way of winds is called ............. 17. Isochrones are lines joining places with equal .............

18. Leading producer of cement is ............. 19. Cadiz, in Spain, is famous for ............. 20. Trees shed their leaves in winter season to ............. 21. ............. is the technique applied to measure the depth of the sea. 22. Winter rains in north-western India are caused by .............. 23. The western disturbances causing winter rains in northern India originate in ............. 24. John’s disease affects ............. 25. The disease, ‘green ear’, affects ............. 26. ............. are nodules on the sea bed containing a variety of minerals. 27. The Thar Desert believed to be expanding. The most suitable way to check it would be by ............. 28. ............. consists of masses of ice in layers one above the other. 29. ............. Canal lies on the world’s largest of trade routes connecting Europe and Far East. 30. Strait of Malacca separates ............ and .......... 31. ............. grasses are known as elephant grasses. 32. The river Tsangpo (River Brahmaputra) flows through ............. before entering India. 33. The most valuable cashcrop of Brazil is ............. 34. The country in which the greatest waterfall is situated ............. Answers 1. Dew Point 2. Alluvial

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Answer in a Word or Sentence 1. What is called the study of lakes and ponds? 2. Which gas in the atmosphere absorbs ultraviolet rays? 3. Which is the longest river of Asia? 4. Name the lowest point in Europe?

Farakka Barrage Completed in 1990, the Farakka Barrage is a dam located 10 km from the Indian side of the border between India and Bangladesh, in the state of West Bengal. India uses it to control the flow of the Ganges river. The dam was built to divert the Ganges River water into the Hooghly River during the dry season, from January to June, in order to flush out the accumulating silt which in the 1950s and 1960s was a problem at the major port of Calcutta on the Hooghly River. Bangladesh and India have not had many debates about how the Farakka Barrage cuts off Bangladesh’s water supply. Also in Bangladesh, the diversion has raised salinity levels, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water quality and public health. Lower levels of soil moisture along with increased salinity have also led to desertification

21. The ocean surrounds the continents where as the sea is an arm of the ocean 22. Captain james Cook 23. Mt. Kosciusko (2226 m) 24. Santos (Brazil) 25. Wharton Trench (South of Java) 26. Venus 27. In Southern Argentina 28. Yellow Stone National Park (U.S.A)

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27. Where is Patagonia Desert situated? 28. Which is the world’s first National Park? Answers 1. Limnology 2. Ozone 3. Yangtze Kiang 4. Caspian Sea 5. Trich Mir (7,699 m) 6. Queensland Coast of Australia. 7. Lake Tanganyika (East Africa) 8. Direction of winds 9. Mediterranean Sea 10. Botswana 11. Farakka Barrage 12. Majuli (Assam) 13. River Jordan 14. Lake Baikal 15. Indian Ocean (South west of Sri Lanka) 16. Grand Coulee Dam (Washington) 17. Keibul Lamjao National Park (Manipur) 18. Mount Etna 19. Gurushikhar (1772 m) 20. Brazil

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5. The highest peak in Hindukush mountain range is 6. Which is the largest reef in the world? 7. Which is the longest fresh water lake in the world? 8. Ferrel’s Law is concerned with 9. Which is the largest inland sea in the world? 10. In which country is Kalahari desert located? 11. Which is the world’s largest River Barrage? 12. Which is the largest river island in the world? 13. Which river flows into the Dead Sea? 14. Which is the deepest lake in the world? 15. In which ocean is the island ‘Diego Garcia’ situated? 16. World’s largest concrete dam 17. Which is the only place in the world where Browantlered Deer is found? 18. Which famous volcano is known as the ‘Bonfire of Europe’? 19. Which is the highest peak in Aravalli range? 20. Which is the largest country in South America? 21. What is the difference between the ocean and the sea? 22. Who discovered Hawai Island? 23. Which is the highest mountain in Australia? 24. Which port is known as the ‘Coffee Pot’ in the world? 25. Which is the deepest spot in the Indian Ocean? 26. Where is Maxwell mountain range situated?

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Short Notes 1. What are the rocks? How would you classify them? 2. Write short notes on: (i) Weathering (ii) Denudation & (iii) Springs 3. Write short notes on (i) Canyon (ii) Delta (iii) Geyser (iv) Rift Valley 4. What are earthquakes? How are they caused? 5. Write short notes on (i) Continental Shelf (ii) Coral Reefs

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Lake Baikal

recognisable crystal form, colour, hardness, lustre, fracture and other physical characteristics. Rocks of the earth’s crust are grouped in three principle classes. (i) Igneous Rocks: Rocks which are solidified directly from molten materials are called igneous rocks. To a certain extent, all other rocks originate from igneous rocks. Therefore, these rocks are commonly referred to as primary rocks. These are divided into extrusive rocks, viz., lava and pumice, or intrusive rocks, such as some granites which is high in calcium and magnesium and low in silicon. The intrusive rocks are solidified beneath the surface while extrusive rocks are solidified at the surface. (ii) Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed from materials which have accumulated as the result of various processes, viz, by the build - up of particles derived from other rocks, or from the remains of organically formed matter (from living or once living things), or from deposits created by chemical action. The rocks formed by the deposition of sediment in water are conglomerates (e.g., gravel, shingle, pebbles), sandstones and shales (layered clay and claystone). Peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite are the result of the deposition of organic matter. Gypsum, chalk and limestone are examples of chemical sedimentation. (iii) Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks were originally igneous or sedimentary but

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22. What is soil erosion and how is it caused? What are the consequences of soil erosion? 23. What is ‘The International Date line’? 24. Write notes on the “Pressure Gradient Force” and the “Coriolis Force.’’ ? 25. Define the following terms: Typhoon, Hurricane and Tornado. 26. What are ‘Ocean Currents’ ? What are their causes? 27. What causes the change of seasons? Also explain the terms summer solstice, winter solstice and equinoxes and how are they caused? 28. What is an equator, latitude, meridian, prime meridian, local or sun time and standard time? Answers 1. Rocks are the main materials composing the earth’s crust. Rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are natural inorganic substances each with a fairly definite chemical composition and

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6. What are tides? 7. What are Trade Winds? 8. Write short notes on (i) Roaring Forties (ii) Horse Latitudes. 9. What is the difference between Sea Breeze and Land Breeze? 10. Write a short note on Monsoons? 11. What is the difference between Cyclones and AntiCyclones? 12. What is a rain shadow region? 13. What is the difference between weather and climate? 14. Distinguish between Tributary and distributary. 15. Write short notes on El Nino & La Nino 16. What are Aurora? 17. Water Harvesting 18. Artesian Well 19 What is Condensation? 20. Relief (or Orographic) Rain: 21. What is soil and what are its main constituents?

Lake Baikal is in Southern Siberia in Russia, located between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast, near the city of Irkutsk. The name Baikal comes from Baigal or 0930; which in the Mongolian language means “nature”. It is also known as the “Blue Eye of Siberia”. In Buryat language and Mongol language it is called Dalai-Nor, which means “sea lake.” At 1,637 meters (5,371 ft), Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world and is the largest freshwater lake by volume (23,000 km³), containing approximately twenty percent of the world’s total surface fresh water. Like Lake Tanganyika, Lake Baikal was formed on an ancient rift valley and is therefore long and crescent-shaped with a surface area (31,500 km²) less than half that of Lake Superior or Lake Victoria. Olkhon, the largest island in Lake Baikal, is the second largest lakebound island in the world after Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron.

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dolomite, accumulated by lime secreting organisms known a coral polyps. Coral polyps secrete calcareous matter to form shells around their body. A colony of corals comprises a very large number of animals living in shells sticking to each other. As the corals die, the shells remain deposited and new corals attach their shells to the existing deposits. In this manner corals produce large rock formations. These rock formations made by corals are called coral reefs. Eg. Barrier reef, Atoll etc. 6. Alternative rise and fall of the surface of the sea, approximately twice a day, are called tides. These are caused by the difference of attraction between water and the earth. These are of two types: (i) Spring Tide: At new moon and full moon, the sun and the moon are in the same line as the earth and both exert their influence together on earth. So the tide produced by the sum of their force is consequently higher than usual. This is called spring tide. (ii) Neap Tide: At the first and third quarters of moon, as the sun and the moon are at right angles to each other; the tide produced by the difference of their force is consequently lower than usual. This is called Neap Tide. 7. These are the winds which blow towards equator. They blow between 5 degrees to 30 degrees north and 5 degrees and 30 degrees south latitude. 8. (i) Roaring Forties: These are steady north-west anti-trade winds between latitude 45 to 50 degrees south.

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(iii) Geyser: It is a fountain of hot water; issuing from a hole which extends deep into the earth’s crust. The water is hurled high into the air by the force of steam formed low in the hole. It contains minerals in solution and they get deposited around the hole from which the water gushes out. (iv) Rift Valley: A long and narrow valley formed by the sinking of a portion of the earth is called a Rift Valley.

African Rift Valley. From left to right: Lake Upemba, Lake Mweru, Lake Tanganyika (largest), and Lake Ruk wa.

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have been changed by pressure, heat or action of water. When individual grains tend to deform and interlock from existing rocks, they are then called metamorphic rocks. For example, granite, an igneous rock, may be metamorphosed into gneiss. Limestone, a sedimentary rock, may become marble. Sandstone may be metamorphosed into quartzite and shale when greatly compressed into slate. 2. (i) Weathering: It means the breaking up or disintegration of rocks. The chief agents of weathering are temperature, frost, air and rain. (ii) Denudation: It means laying bare of a rock which was previously covered. The chief agents of denudation are temperature, water in its various forms, air and wind, plant life and animal life. (iii) Springs: A spring is a place where water issues out of the ground spontan eously. 3. (i) Canyon: A deep and narrow river valley with steep bank is called a canyon. The most famous canyon in the world is that of the Grand Canyon, Colorado (U.S.A). For about 480 kms, the river flows through a gorge or a canyon the banks of which are, at some places, more than one and a half kilometre high. (ii) Delta: An alluvial deposit shaped like the Greek letter D (delta) formed at mouth of river is called delta. Nile delta is well known in the world and so is the Sunderbans delta in India and Bangladesh.

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4. An earth quake is a sudden temporary motion or a series of motions which originate in a limited region and then spread out from the place of origin in all directions. It continues for a while and then gradually dies out Earth quakes are caused either by volcanic eruptions or by sudden movement of rock along fault planes. 5. (i) Continental Shelf: It is that part of a country or continent which is submerged under the sea and where the water is not more than 200 metres in depth. (ii) Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are masses of limestone and

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Alfred Lothar Wegener

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(ii) Land Breeze: These are the winds, which blow during the night from land to sea, during which sea is hotter than the land. 10. These are the seasonal winds, which blow during the six months of summer from ocean to land and for the six months of winter from land to sea. This is due to the fact that during summer, when rays of the sun fall vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the land becomes comparatively hotter than the sea. Therefore, the winds blows from the sea. Reverse is the case in winter. They blow over S.E. Asia, East Asia, Australia, New Zealand etc. 11. Cyclones: These are the winds, which blow in a spiral form round a centre of minimum pressure. They move anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere. They

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(ii) Horse Latitudes: The tropical Belts of Calms, i.e., regions between 30 degrees and 35 degrees, are known as Horse Latitudes. The origin of this term is obscure. It is said that the sailing ships carrying horses to the west Indies were often becalmed between 30 degrees north and 35 degrees north and the sailors were obliged to throw all the horses overboard and then the ships could move. This part, therefore, came to be called Horse Latitudes. But now both tropics of calm are known by this name. 9. (i) Sea Breeze: These are the winds blowing during the day from sea towards land which is comparatively hotter than sea. This is due to the fact that during the day there is high pressure on sea and low pressure on the land and the wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.

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Alfred Lothar Wegener (Berlin, November 1, 1880 – Greenland, November 2 or 3, 1930) was a German interdisciplinary scientist and meteorologist, who became famous for his theory of continental drift (“Kontinentalverschiebung” or “die Verschiebung der Kontinente” in his words). Wegener had early training in astronomy (Ph.D., University of Berlin, 1904). He became very interested in the new discipline of meteorology (he married the daughter of famous meteorologist and climatologist Wladimir Köppen) and as a recordholding balloonist himself, pioneered the use of weather balloons to track air masses. His lectures became a standard textbook in meteorology, The Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere. Wegener was part of several expeditions to Greenland to study polar air circulation, when the existence of a jet stream itself was highly controversial. On his last expedition, Alfred Wegener and his companion Rasmus Villumsen went missing in November 1930. Wegener's body was found on May 12, 1931. His suspected cause of death was heart failure through overexertion.

cause wind, storm, rains and other changes in the weather. The winter rainfall in punjab and Tamil Nadu is due to cyclones. They occur in the regions of the Indian Ocean. Anti-Cyclones: They are also winds, which blow in a spiral form. They move when pressure at the centre is maximum and it decreases towards the edges. They do not bring any rain. Rain shadow region is just on the opposite of windward side of the mountain and hence receives little or no rain, e.g., western coast receives heavy rainfall, while the Deccan Plateau receives little rainfall as the latter is in the rain shadow region. Weather: It is the condition of atmosphere at a certain time or period showing pressure, temperature, humidity and rainfall for a shorter duration. Climate: It is the average weather condition of a place for a longer period, say, for a year. A tributary is a small river which confluences a major river and increases its volume of water. It losses its existence after meeting the main river. A distributary is a branch of main river which comes into existence due to the blockade of the main channel by the deposition of silt and mud on its bed. It establishes its existence after it originates from the main channel. El Nino is a warm current in the Pacific Ocean that flows southward along the west coast of South America. It warms the normally cold waters of the coast of Ecuador

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of loose fragments which covers most of the earth’s land area. It contains both decayed plants and animal substances. The four main constituents of soils, present in varying proportion, are: 1. Silica, present in soil in small crystalline grains form, is the chief constituent of sand. 2. Clay is a mixture of silicates and contains several minerals such as iron, potassium, calcium, sodium and aluminium. 3. Chalk (calcium carbonate) provides calcium, the most important element for the growth of plants. 4. Humus is not a mineral, it is an organic matter. It is formed by decomposed plant remains, animal manure and dead animals and is the most important element in the fertility of the soil. 22. Soil erosion is the removal of soil particles by natural agencies such as water and wind and also as a result of human and animal interference. Human and animal interference in a variety of ways leads to soil erosion. Deforestation, over-grazing of pastures, shifting cultivation, faulty method of cultivation, cultivation of dry crops, diversion of natural drainage courses, ruts in roads, ditches, improperly constructed terrace outlets (along which running water is concentrated) etc., are responsible for soil erosion. Consequences of Soil Erosion: Soil erosion leads to loss of soil and badly affects the

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water to the ground water through a pipe so that water table rises by recharging of ground water. 18. Artesian Well: In an artesian well, underground water is reached by sinking a shaft from the surface and water rises up to the surface by hydraulic pressure. It works upon the principle that water keeps its surface level. The Green Artesian basin of Australia is the biggest area of artesian water. In India, these wells are found in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. 19 Condensation is the process in which water vapour in the atmosphere changes into minute droplets of water or icy crystals. Rapid condensation produces rain, drizzle, snow, hail, frost and dew. When small droplets donot come down, they remain suspended in the air and are known as clouds.

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and Peru. El Nino, a spanish term meaning the child, usually occurs around Christmas, and its name refers to the ‘Christ child’. The unusual warmth kills many fish and birds and the rain accompanied by it causes disastrous floods in neighbouring coastal area. La Nino is an another unusual weather pattern that brings unusually cold temperature to the eastern pacific. 16. Auroras are glows of light, hundred of kilometres above the Earth’s surface. They are seen when electrically charged atomic particles, sprayed off the Sun’s surface, collide with atoms in the earth’s atmosphere and make them release energy in the form of flashes of light. Auroras are the most visible effect of the sun’s activity on the earth’s atmosphere. The auroras in the northern hemisphere are called the aurora boralis and those in the southern hemisphere aurora australis. The most common colour in an aurora is green. Auroral displays are associated with the solar wind, a continuous flow of electrically charged particles from the sun. Most auroras occur in far northern and southern regions. 17. Water Harvesting refers to allowing rain water to sweep into ground rather than just letting it flow on the ground. This can help in arresting the decreasing trend of ground water level besides meeting the tremendous need of drinking water. It can be done by connecting the roof top rain

Example: Dew on a spider web

20. Relief (or Orographic) Rain: When moist winds strike against mountains, they rise up, expand, cool down and bring rain. Such rain, as caused by winds striking against mountains, is called relief rain. 21. Soil is the loose material which forms the upper layer of the mantle rock; i.e. the layer

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26. Currents: Ocean currents is the movement of a sizeable body of water as a current for fairly long distances along a specific path. They occur as seasonal and permanent streams flowing horizontally at the surface and at deep levels, they also occur as vertical upswellings of water. Best understood are the surface currents, many of which have long been studied and used, especially in navigation. Causes of Currents: Currents are caused by several interacting forces. One of the prime causes, particularly of surface currents, is wind. As the wind blows over the sea, part of its energy is transferred to the water, which is thus dragged along as a current. Unequal heating of the sea by the Sun is another major cause of the oceans’s circulation, particularly in the deep layers. In polar regions, especially during winter, extremely cold, salty, and dense water sinks far below the surface and moves towards the Equator in very slowly moving layers. At the same time, warm and less dense tropical water in the ocean’s upper layers moves towards the poles. Other factors that influence the ocean’s circulation are the shape and relative positions’ of the continents; the presence of barrier-like island chains; and local winds. The currents wax and wane with the seasons, mainly because of the shifting of the winds. Currents also meander and shift their courses from year to year.

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deflected from their original path. This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis force. Due to this effect winds in the Northern Hemisphere get deflected to the right of their path. It is known as the Ferrel’s Law. The coriolis force changes wind direction but not its speed. It is noteworthy that this deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and it increases as the wind speed increases. 25. Typhoon is the name given for a tropical cyclone in the Far East. Hurricane: is a tropical storm in the Caribbean or West Pacific Ocean, with extremely strong winds. The wind force reaches 12 on the Beaufort Scale. Tornado is a type of whirlwind which is formed by rising air currents associated with large cumulonimbus clouds. It rotates in anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.

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runoff. It causes: (1) heavy floods in rivers; (2) lowering down of subsoil water level; (3) reduction of soil fertility; (4) silting of streams and water courses; (5) disappearance and downfall of civilizations. 23. The International Date line is a zig-zag line that roughly coincides with the 180th meridian. When the date line is crossed from East to the West, the date must be advanced by one day, when the line is crossed from the West to the East, the date must be set back by one day. The International Date line (the meridian 180°) was chosen because it passes through the mid-Pacific, where there are no land masses. It goes zigzag in some places to avoid land and leaves some’ island groups wholly on the same side of the line. 24. The force that drives the winds, results from horizontal pressure differences, which is produced from the region of higher pressure towards the area of lower pressure is known as the pressure gradient force. The greater the difference in pressure between two points, the steeper is the pressure gradient and the higher is the wind speed. Since the direction of the force is from higher to lower pressure area and perpendicular to the isobars, the initial tendency of the wind is to blow parallel to the gradient and at right angles to the isobars. Due to rotation of the earth, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient force directs but get

A tornado in central Oklahoma. The tornado itself is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado’s strong winds at the surface

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near London. It is the zero degree longitude. Local Time or Sun Time of a place is the time which is reckoned according to the time when the sun’s altitude is the highest at that place. At this time the shadow of a vertical rod fixed in the ground is the shortest. If at this time we set our watch at 12 O’clock, it will indicate local time. Standard Time: If every place were to use its own local time that would cause confusion in administration and other activities; so the local time of a place generally in the middle of the country, is used everywhere in that country as the Standard Time of that country and is taken to be uniform throughout. Standard Time of India is the local time of a place near Allahabad situated at 82½o E longitude. Some countries on account of their distances have more than one standard time. Russia has 11 such different timings.

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Spring or Autumn because (a) both the North Pole and the South Pole are inclined equally towards the sun; days and nights are equal everywhere; all points on earth have a 12 hour day and 12 hour night. (b) Sun’s rays fall vertically on the equator. These two positions of the earth are called equinoxes due to the equal length of the days and nights. 28. Equator is an imaginary circle on the surface of the earth midway between the poles. latitude is the angular distance measured North or South of the Equator from the plane of the Equator. Meridian means “Midday line”. It is imaginary line joining North and South Poles, which when any place come directly below the sun, it has its midday everywhere on it. Prime Meridian is the meridian which passes through Greenwich, a place

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27. The change of seasons is mainly due to the revolution of the earth. The earth’s axis is inclined to the plane of its orbit and always points in the same direction. (1) 21 st June: At this time it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere because (a) The North Pole is inclined towards the sun; so days are longer than nights. Near the North pole there is a day of 24 hours. (b) The sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer. This position of the Earth is called Summer Solstice. In the Southern Hemisphere there will be winter season because (a) the South Pole is inclined away from the sun. So days are shorter than nights, the South Pole have continuous nights for 24 hours. (b) the Sun’s rays are oblique. (2) 22nd December: At this time it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere because (a) the North Pole is inclined away from the sun while the South Pole is towards the sun, so days are shorter in the Northern Hemisphere and longer in the Southern Hemisphere. (b) the Sun’s rays are vertical in the South at the Tropic of Capricorn and oblique in the North. This position of the Earth is called Winter Solstice. (3) Equinoxes: On 21st March and 23rd September the season is either

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Savanna

A savanna or savannah is a tropical or subtropical woodland ecosystem. Savannas are characterised by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. It is often believed that savannas are characterized by widely spaced, scattered trees, however in many savanna communities tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forest communities. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of C4 grasses. Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall being confined to one season of the year. Savannas can be associated with several types of biomes. Savannas are frequently seen as a transitional zone, occurring between forest regions and desert regions.

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 Khamsin: The hot, dry wind experienced in Egypt corresponding to the Sirocco of North Africa. ‘Khamsin’ in the Arabic word for 50; the wind is said to blow during the period of 50 days from April to June.  Kurosiwo: Warm oceanic current of the Pacific Ocean which flows near the east coast of Japan and ultimately drifts along the west coast of Canada. It raises the temperature of Canada and Japan.  Smoke Screens: Smoke clouds formed by firing smoke shells, dropping smoking bombs, burning smoke pots or operating mechanical smoke generators in war to conceal their movements from enemies.  Sirocco: A hot, normally dry and dust - laden wind that blows from the deserts of North Africa across the Mediterranean into South Europe. It occurs only in spring. The name ‘Sirocco’ is also applied to any hot oppressive wind.  Stratus clouds: Clouds which are like a dark grey sheet extending from one side of horizon to the other and have uniform base.  Terrain: The physical characteristics and features of any stretch of country.  Troposphere: Troposphere is the lower most layer of the atmosphere. It extends upto 8 km at the equator and 16 km at the poles. The word ‘‘Tropo’’ means ‘‘change’’. This layer acts as a warm blanket to moderate the extremes of outer space. The

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 Anticlines and Synclines: An anticline is a fold with strata sloping downwards on both sides from a common crest to form an arch. The top of the arch, being pressed upward is the loosest and weakest part and as such is quickly eroded. A syncline is a low trough like area in bedrock with rocks inclined together from opposite sides. the rocks at the lowest part are under great pressure from all sides; they become compact and hard and erode slowly.  Atoll: A coral reef in the shape of a horse shoe or ring with a lagoon in the centre, e.g. Murora Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.  Asthenosphere: Soft semifluid layer of rock on which the earth’s continents and ocean floor float. The asthenosphere is a part of the earth’s mantle, the rest of which is solid both above and below.  Attrition: The constant wearing down of pieces of rock into even finer particles as they are carried of along by wind, water or ice.  Bog: An area of water-logged, spongy ground with rotting vegetation lying on the surface. Eventually the layer turns into a layer of peat.  Bora: A cold and dry wind which blows along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and northern Italy in winter.  Cloud Burst: A phenomenon in which a huge mass of

moisture-carrying clouds bursts into a heavy downpour on account of condensation of its entire volume of water vapour at the same time. Coriolis Force: The force exerted on the atmosphere by earth’s rotation. Crater: Is the small mouth of a volcano. It is usually cupshaped and serves as a vent for lava to flow out of the volcano. Creek: A small stream; a smaller inlet or tidal estuary of a river. Escarpment: A steep inland cliff. An escarpment is found where layers of hard rock slope upwards to the surface over softer rocks below. Estuary: A channel formed by mixing of sea and river water, e.g., Thames Estuary. Foehn: A warm dry wind which blows down the iceward slope of a mountain, best known in the valleys of the northern alps. Gale: A strong wind that blows at a speed of 62-101 kmph. Isogonic lines: Contour lines of magnetic declination. Isohyte: A line drawn on a map joining places receiving equal amount of rainfall over a certain period. Isoneph: A line on a map joining places having equal average cloudiness over a certain period. Isostasy: The state of balance or equilibrium that is said to exist between highlands and lowlands of the earth due to difference in the density of their respective rock material.

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Important Terms in Geography

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rapid melting of snow. Sometimes, during spring season, it triggers avalanches. It is developed when warm, moist air is drawn towards a mountain range from an area of relative high pressure. This wind blows in Andes and Rockies mountains.  Equatorial Regions: The equatorial region is found between 5o and 10o north and south of the equator. The midday sun is always near the vertical and it is overhead twice a year, at the equinoxes. Uniformity of temperature throughout the year is the most outstanding feature of the region. The relative humidity is very high. Here, annual rainfall is between 160 and 350 cm. It is of the convectional type. Squalls and thunderstorms occur frequently, followed by brilliant sunshine. The four seasons of the temperature zone are unknown.  Tsunamis: It is the Japanese name given to the huge waves caused by an earthquake. Tsunamis are quite common along the coasts of Japan and other regions in the pacific ocean.  Fold mountains: Mountains which have been thrown into massive folds or ridges by the earth movements are known as fold mountains. They are characterised by ruggedness of relief. The higher and more pointed the peaks, the more recently the mountain was formed. Some young fold mountains are the Himalayas, the Alps, the Rockies and the Andes and some old fold mountains are the Pennines, Applachians,

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respect to the mid day position of the sun at that place.  Torrid Zone: which is the hottest zone lies between 23½o north and 23½ o south. ie., between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.  Temperate Zone : lies between 23½o N and 66 ½o N is the North Temperate zone and South Temperate zone lies between 23½ o S and 66½ oS. This zone has a marked annual range of temperature. Frigid zone lies between 66½o N and 90oN in the case of north frigid zone and 66½o S and 90o S in the case of south frigid zone. They are extremely cold regions.  Hurricane Ivan: The Hurricane Ivan is a tropical cyclone. The winds are more violent and cause severe damage to life and property. Recently, it occured in the Carribean Sea, and moved forward to the Gulf of Mexico. Further it went upward and made vast destruction in the U.S.A.  Tropic of Cancer: Tropic of cancer is an imaginary line of latitude of 23½o N. It marks the limit of that portion of the earth where the sun’s rays fall vertically on June 21st.  Tropic of Capricorn: In the southern hemisphere, an imaginary line of latitude of 23½o S is termed as tropic of capricorn. This line marks the limit of that portion of the earth where the sun’s rays fall vertically on December 21st.  Chinook: A very warm, dry wind that descends the mountain slopes causing

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thickness is greater at the equator, because the heated air rises to greater heights.  Stratosphere: Stratosphere lies above the troposphere. It is a region of uniform temperature extending from an altitude of about 11 km above the earth to a height of nearly 50 km. It is free from water vapour, clouds and dust. The upper part of this layer has plenty of ozone which affords protection to human beings on the earth against the fatal effects of UV radiations. It also provides ideal conditions for flying aeroplanes.  Ionosphere: It extends from 65 km to nearly 400 km above the earth’s surface. It is an electrically charged layer characterised by the ionisation of atoms. Due to the presence of electric charge in this layer, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Its also benefits man by absorbing the sun’s deadly rays. Aurora are produced by charged particles from the sun captured by the earth’s magnetic field at a height of about 100 km.  Longtitudes are equi-distant lines drawn east and west of the Greenwich meridian. They denote the angular distances of a place due east or west of the Greenwich meridian. There are 360 meridians of longtitudes. One hour is equal to 15 o of longtitude. Longtitude is an important factor in determining the time in all parts of the world. Local time of a place is calculated with

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 Richter Scale: It is a scale used for measuring the magnitude of the earthquake at its focus. According to it, the magnitude ranging ‘7’ is severe and ‘8’ is devastating.  Seismograph: It is used to measure the intensity and location of earthquake.  Norwesters: Norwesters are violent thunderstorms which occur on the passages of a strong wind that approaches from the west or north-west, hence the name ‘norwesters’. They occur in the Bengal and Assam region during the hot season before the onset of the south-west monsoon.  Rainbows: Rainbows are caused by refraction and internal reflection of light from the sun in raindrops. Each raindrop acts like a tiny prism which breaks up the white light into the primary colours. In the main rainbow the colours are: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). We are able to see a rainbow only when we are facing the falling raindrops with the sun behind us.

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‘prairies’ in North America, ‘pampas’ in South America, ‘veldt’ in Southern Africa, ‘downs’ in Australia, ‘pustaz’ in Hungary and ‘steppes’ in Russia. There is no typical temperature for any one priarie type region. However, as all the grasslands in the northern hemisphere lie in the interior of the large continents the climate is very extreme. Summers are short and quite warm. There is abundant sunshine and the skies are clear. The region falls in the zone of the westerlies. The rainfall in the grasslands are of convectional type, but very light.  Savannah is a region which lies on both sides of the equator roughly between 5 degrees and the tropics. Here summers are hot and moist and winters are warm and dry. Characteristic vegetation is tall grass.  Taiga: This region lies between 55 o and 70 o C in northern hemisphere only. It stretches as an almost continuous belt across southern Canada, Northern Europe and Russia. The Tundra region lies on the north and the temperate grasslands on the south. In the Taiga region, summers are short, lasting for 3 or 4 months and winters are cold and severe. For 6 to 7 months, this region has temperatures below freezing point. In this region lies Verkhoyansk, the ‘cold pole’, colder than Arctic region. Rainfall varies from 25 to 100 cm. Most of the rain comes from cyclonic weather.

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Cape Ranges of South Africa and the Great Dividing Range of Australia. Block mountains: Block mountains are formed when a mass of land was pushed up between parallel cracks or faults in the earth’s crust or by sinking of the land around them. They are usually very steep-sided and are flattopped. Black forest; Meseta are examples of block mountains. Rift Valley Lakes: Lakes formed by the movements of the earth cause subsidence in the earth’s crust and the hollows lying in the bed of the Rift Valley is termed as Rift Valley lake. Lake Baikal in Siberia, the Dead Sea are examples of this type of lakes. Lava Dam Lakes: Sometimes, a lava stream may flow across a valley and form a natural dam. It is called lava dam lakes. The sea of Galilee in Palestine was formed by lava which flowed across the Jordan Valley. Crater Lakes: Crater lakes occur on the extinct volcanoes. They are circular and steep-sided. Mar’s mission space craft ‘spirit’ landed on Gustav Crater. Temperate Grasslands: The temperate grasslands are found between latitudes 40o and 55o N and S. They lie far away from the influence of the sea in the heart of the continents, and most of them are interior lowlands consisting of level, generally treeless, plains. The temperate grasslands are known by different names in different countries. They are known as

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Greenland Greenland is a self-governing Danish province located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. Though geographically and ethnically an Arctic island nation associated with the continent of North America, politically and historically Greenland is closely tied to Europe, specifically Iceland, Norway and Denmark. It is the largest island in the world that is not also considered a continent.

GENERAL SCIENCE New Delhi Sphygmomanometer Charles Darwin Insulin Plants The nervous system chromosomes 206, in fertility

14. drugs prepared from moulds and mould like organisms 15. Carbon Monoxide 16. Stethescope 17. Crocodile 18. 120 days 19. 5-6 20. Genetically modified

Answer in a Word

Nervous system brian Cerebellum Spinal cord Brachial plexus Musculocutaneous nerve

1. Vaccine for influenza has been discovered by: 2. Penicillin was discovered by: 3. Oncology is the study of : 4. The number of chromosomes in a normal human body cell is: 5. Who is known as the father of Genetics? 6. The average length of human pregnancy is: 7. Colour vision is made possible by the cells in the retina called: 8. The naturally occuring anticoagulant in the human body is: 9. The cellular energy is made available in the form of: 10. Osteomalacia symptomised by bone softening is due to the deficiency of: 11. 1 gm of carbohydrate food gives energy which is about : Answers 1. Salk, 2. Alexander Fleming 3. Cancer 4. 46 5. Gregor Johann Mendel 6. 36-38 weeks 7. cone cells 8. Heparin 9. ATP 10. Vitamin D 11. 4.2 k.cal.

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Intercostal Nerves

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Genitofernoral nerve Obturator nerve Ulnar nerve

Common peroneal nerve

Subcostal nerve Lumbar plexus Sacral plexus Formal nerve Pudendal nerve Sciatic nerve

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Median nerve liohypogastic nerve

Muscular branches of femoral nerve Saphenous nerve Tibial nerve

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1. Deforestation has an alarming effect on ............ 2. ‘Sharbati Sonora’ refers to ............ 3. Kisan-Khad is an example of fertilizer ............ 4. Commercial Cork is obtained from the bark of ............ 5. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource is located at ............ 6. Blood-Pressure is measured by using ............ 7. Origin of species was published by ............ 8. The deficiency of ............ in the body leads to diabetis. 9. Botany is the study of ............ 10. Neurology is the study of ............ 11. Genes are located in ............ 12. The total number of bones in human body is ............ 13. Deficiency of Vitamin E results in ............ 14. Antibiotics are ............ 15. A gas which is atmospheric pollutant and most fatal for man ............ 16. An instrument to hear and analyse movements of heart and lungs ............ 17. Largest reptile is ............ 18. Life span of RBC is ............ 19. An adult person will have ............ liters of blood. 20. In GM food, GM stands for ............ Answers 1. Soil erosion, 2. A variety of wheat 3. N-P-K 4. Oak,

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

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Deep peroneal nerve

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The nervous system is a highly specialized tissue network whose principal component are neurons. These cells are interconnected to each other in a complex arrange, and have the property of conducting, using electrochemical signals, a great variety of stimuli within the nervous tissue as well as from and towards most of the other tissues. Thus, neurons coordinate multiple functions in organisms. The classification of the nervous system is mostly similar in humans as in other vertebrates.

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Name the Following

Short Answer Questions

1. Who is the father of cloning? 2. Who invented oral polio vaccine? 3. Name the disease which created panic in Asian countries in 2003. 4. Name the first transgenic crop sown in India. 5. What is exobiology? 6. Write the scientific name of coconut. 7. Name the largest flower in the world? 8. World Environment Day is observed on 9. National Institute of Communicable diseases is located at 10. Name the inventor of mercury thermometer. 11. Name the scientist who prepared smallpox vaccine first. 12. The shortest bone in the human body is 13. Name the disease caused by the deficiency of vitamin C. 14. Name the instrument used to determine altitude. Answers 1. Ian Wilmut 2. Albert Sabin 3. Avian Flu 4. Bt. Cotton 5. Study of life in outerspace 6. Cocus nucifera 7. Rufflesia 8. June 5 9. New Delhi 10. Fahrenheit 11. Edward Jenner 12. Stapes 13. Scurvy 14. Altimeter.

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What is Tissue Culture? What are infectious diseases? What is Cloning? What are anaesthetics ? It is dangerous to sleep in a closed room with coal fire in it. Why ? How are identical twins born ? How is acid rain caused ? What do you mean by test tube baby? Why blood group ‘‘O’’ is called a universal donor? Why do we perspire on a hot day ? Describe briefly the functions of liver. What is Mutation? What is a greenhouse ? What is inoculation ? What are contagious diseases? Mitochondria are called “Power house” of the cell. Why? What is fertilizer? What is “field capacity of water’’? What is Photosynthesis? What is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Why are earthworms regarded as a great friend of the farmers?

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17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

22. What is soil profile? 23. What is food chain? 24. Pituitary gland is also called master gland. Why? 25. Why are chromosomes called heriditary vehicles? 26. What is a gene? 27. What is Balanced Diet? 28. What is pace maker? 29. What is blood pressure? 30. Why excess water must be removed from the body by any means? 31. What is leukemia? 32. What is meningitis? 33. What is Metabolism? 34. What is neurosis? 35. What is haemoglobin? 36. What is hibernation? 37. What are hormones? 38. What is autopsy? 39. What is B.C.G.? 40. What is Bile? 41. What is Biological Warfare 42. What is colour blindness? 43. What is disinfectant? 44. What are proteins? 45. Give the three main constituents of blood. 46. What is aspirin? 47. What is protoplasm? 48. What are the functions of pituitary gland?

Days to remember World Environment day Hroshima Day Nagasaki Day Ozone day National Pollution Prevention Day Bhopal Gas Disaster Day

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5th June August 6 August 9 September 16 December 2 December 3 1984

1. A branch of biology in which living tissues or cells are grown artificially in suitably controlled environments. The cells or tissues may be grown on solid substrates such as

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cells into nucleated infertilized egg in the laboratory. In cloning nucleus of egg is replaced with a nucleus of a body cell which contain the full compliment of chromosomes to tick the host egg cytoplasm to initiate mitosis. Anaesthetics are drugs administrated to patient by surgeons during an operation, so that the patient cannot feel any kind of pain. A prominent anaesthetic used is chloroform. When coal is burnt, carbon monoxide is produced. It is poisonous and injurious to health. Moreover, the fire consume oxygen in the room, so the person sleeping there get suffocated. One sperm fertilises with the ovum and then the zygote divides into two separate cells developing independently. They grow into the identical twins. Acid rain is caused by large scale emission of acidic gases into the atmosphere from thermal power plants, industries and automobiles. The gases mainly responsible for acid rain are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen chloride. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are changed in the atmosphere into sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively by combining with oxygen and water. The effect of acid rain on plants are chlorosis, necrosis, defoliation, dieback etc. It also deposits same toxic minerals in soil which kill the plants. Acid rain has also ruined fresh water reservoirs of most industrialised countries. Acid

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glass or cellophane, or in liquid suspension. The necessary nutrient medium is provided from outside to create ideal conditions for growth. Tissue culture is used to study cell growth, multiplication and differentiation. 2. Diseases which are caused by the attack of diseases causing germs are called infection diseases. Infectious diseases are also communicable.ie. it can be spread from one person to another. The common disease causing microbes are viruses, bacteria, fungus, worms and so on. The common infectious diseases in India are measles, chicken pox, cholera, enteric fever, TB, leprosy etc. Treatment and remedial measures are available for most of the infectious diseases. 3. Cloning is the production of copies that are genetically identical to the parent. It occurs naturally in asexually reproducing lower organism and vegitatively reproducing plants. Naturally it is not possible in higher animals. Artificial cloning can be achieved in such cases. Dolly is the first cloned animal. Cloning generally involves transplantation of a nucleus from body cells or embryonic

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49. What is ‘carbon cycle’ in biology? 50. What are fossils? 51. What is Gene Therapy? 52. What is Noise Pollution? 53. Amniocentesis 54. Biodegradation 55. Endoscopes 56. Transgenic Organism 57. Biochips 58. Hepatitis - B 59. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) 60. Blood Group 61. Food Chain 62. Pasteurization 63. Blood count 64. Bonsai 65. How is a pearl formed? 66. First-aid 67. Plastic surgery 68. Hydrophobia 69. What is Radiocarbon dating? 70. What are Bio-Fertilizers? 71. What is GM Crop? 72. What is National Rural Health Missionb 73. What is Chikunguniya? How it can be Prevented? 74. What is Germ theory of disease? 75. What is Japanese Encephalitis (JE)? 76. What is Insulin? 77. Why should a certain amount of calcium be a necessary content of our food?

Green muffler - Growth of green plants along road sides to reduce noise pollution. ODP: Ozone Depleting Potential C P C B: Central Pollution Control Board U N E P: United National Environment Programme.

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3. It synthesis blood clotting factors 4. It stores glycogen, fats and fat soluble vitamin. 5. Destruction of worn-out RBC is taking place in the liver. 6. Detoxification of toxins and elimination of foreign bodies. 7. Production of RBC in the foetal stage. 8. Liver produces heparin, the natural anticoagulant. 9. It synthesis urea from ammonia through ornithin cycle. 12. Mutations are sudden stable heritable changes that occur in the genotype of an organism. Genotype can change due to changes in the chromosome number, chromosome structure and gene mutation. Those mutations that affect at the negetative

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The adult human liver normally weighs between 1.4 - 1.6 kilograms (3.1 - 3.5 pounds), and it is a soft, pinkish-brown "boomerang shaped" organ. It is the second largest organ (the largest organ being the skin) and the largest gland within the human body. It is located on the right side of the upper abdomen below the diaphragm. The liver lies to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder (which stores bile).

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rain corrodes metals, marble, painted surfaces, slate, stone etc. This phenomenon is called stone leprosy. If a woman is unable to conceive and bear children an ovum is taken from the woman and fertilized by the sperm of the male inside a test tube containing nutrient medium. The zygote thus formed is allowed to develop inside test tube until it reaches the 32 cell state. Then it is implanted in the utreus of the female for further development. The babies produced by this technique are called test tube babies. Blood group ‘O’ do not contains both the antigen (A & B). So there is no possibilities to agglutinate and it is safe to transfuse into persons of any blood group. Human body is physiologically conditioned to maintain uniform temperature. When the heat produced in the body becomes excessive and not dissipated properly, the sweat glands inside the body are stimulated to secrete sweat. When sweat evaporates from the body it produces a cooling effect, and temperature is brought down. So sweating on a hot day is body’s natural way of keeping the body temperature normal. Liver is the largest gland in human body. The main functions of liver are 1. It secretes bile which helps in digestion. 2. It synthesis aminoacids, plasma proteins, cholesterol etc.

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cells are called somatic mutations. They are not heritable and disappear with the death of that individual. Mutations occur in the sex cells are called germinal mutations. The genes which mutate frequently are called mutable genes. The physical and chemical factors which bring about new mutations and increase the frequency of spontaneous mutations is called mutagens. The main physical mutagenes are temperature, UV radiations, and ionising radiation. Nitrous acid, alkylating agents etc are chemical mutagen. 13. It is a glass structure of variable size, shape and complexity in which plants are grown under artificially created environment as is necessary for the production of fruits, vegetables or flowers of market value.

Internation Initiative for mitigating Global changs

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Under the control of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) various efforts have been made to find solution for ozone depletion and global warming. 1. Monetreal Protocol (16 September 1987) 27 industrialised countries agreed to limit production of chlorofluoro carbons to half the level of 1986. 2. Helsinki Declaration: (May 1989) montrial protocol was ratified by 82 national Helsinki. They pledged to phase out CFCs by 2000. 3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes (IPCC, 1988) prepared a world climate programme (WCP) 4. Convention on Climate Changes (CCC):- under UN framework the 1991. the multiplicity of its function and also of its control over other endocrine glands. 25. The chromosomes are capable of replication and maintaining the morphological and physiological properties in successive generations. They transmit the contained hereditary material to the next generation and hence are known as hereditary vehicles. 26. The heredirary unit which is transmitted from one generation to the next is called gene. A gene is the fundamental biological unit. 27. A balanced diet is the food stuff which supplies the various constituents needed by the body in proper proportion for its functioning. It consists of (1) proteins - the tissue and flesh building substance of the body. It is found in cheese, milk etc. (2) Carbohydrates - which form the fuel of the body, found in starchy food, sugar and sweets. (3) Fats - the warmth

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measured in terms of B.O.D. BOD is the oxygen in milligrams required for five days in one litre of water at 20°C for the microorganisms to metabolise organic waste. BOD is high in highly polluted water. Earthworms increase the fertility of the soil by taking dead decaying leaves in their burrows which ultimately form the humus content of the soil. Thus they are regarded as a great friend of farmers. Soil profile is a term used to show different layers or horizons of soil for their study in undisturbed state. The horizons may differ in thickness, colour, texture, structure, porosity, activity and composition. A food chain can be defined as a group of organisms in which there is a transfer of food energy through a series of repeated eating and being eaten. Pituitary gland is also called the master gland because of

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14. Introduction of germs of the some disease below the skin, so as to produce the disease in a mild form and thus give immunity from a severe attack of the same disease is called inoculation. inoculation is done to control diseases like plague, cholera etc. 15. These are diseases which are caused when a healthy person comes into actual contact with the sick. Eg: Small pox, tuberculosis are examples for contagious diseases. 16. The energy released during the biological oxidation of carbohydrates and fats is utilised by the mitochondria and synthesize the energy rich compound known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Thus mitochondria mainly concerned with the production of ATP and hence they are called power house or batteries of cell. 17. Any material which when added to the soil, increases the quantity of mineral elements in it, is called a fertilizer. 18. The amount of water retained by the soil after the drainage of gravitational water is called field capacity or the water-holding capacity of the soil. 19. Photosynthesis is a process by which the green plants synthesise organic matter in the presence of sunlight with the help of chlorophyll. During photosynthesis light is converted into chemical energy. 20. Degree of impurity of water due to organic matter is

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count in a normal man ranges from 5000-9000. A mere increase in lecucyte count ie upto 11, 000/cc is known as leucocytosis where as abnormal increase ie above 25,000/cc is leukemia or blood cancer. A decrease in WBC count is called leucopenia. 32. Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges, the covering which lies over the brain and the spinal cord, due to viral or bacterial infection. 33. Metabolism is the chemical change where by, food is changed into living matter and also the transformation by which energy is made available for the use of organism.

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known as sphygmomano meter. 30. Excess water must be removed from the body by any means of excretion because it may result in a serious condition of oedema (swelling of tissue through increase of its fluid content). Over secretion of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) results more reabsorption of water and less output of water. 31. Leukemia is a malignant condition of blood in which there is proliferative, purposeless increase of white blood cells in the blood, along with premature cells. The condition usually ends fatally. The total lecucocyte

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producing and protecting food, found in buffer and animal fat. (4) Vitamins which exert a necessary influence on digestive processes and help in the absorption of food; found in fresh fruits and vegetables. An average person requires daily 12 to 16 oz. of carbohydrates; 3 to 3.5 oz. of proteins and 2.25 to 3 oz. of fat. 28. Pace maker is the region which controls the heart beat which is located in the right auricle. SA node(sinu-atrial node) is the natural pace maker. It has a rich capillary blood supply and is found at the point where superior venacava empties into the right auricle. If the activity of the existing Pacemaker system is disrupted due to any reason leads to heart failure. Such persons are provided with an artificial electronic device which regularly sends small amount of electrical charge for maintaining the rhythmicity of the heart. This device is known as artificial pace maker. 29. The pressure exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels is known as blood pressure or arterial blood pressure. It is in high in aorta near the heart. It is low in the capillaries and veins. The maximum blood pressure is known as systolic pressure and minimum is known as diastolic pressure. In man the systolic pressure is 120 mm Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm Hg. It is generally expressed as 120/80 mm Hg. The pressure can be measured by an instrument

Illustration of blood cells maturing from stem cells

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Environmental Laws for controlling pollution  Environment (Protection) Act, 1986:  Insecticide Act 1968  Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974.  Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

of infectious materials derived from them as weapons to bring about death or diseases in humans, animals or plants. Most of the advanced countries including the USA have biological weapons ready in their arsenal. The use of anthrax by the terrorists against USA is an example for biological warfare. 42. Colour blindness is an inborn condition in which the individual is unable to distinguish between particular colours of red and green. The person suffering from colour blindness has a normal ordinary vision. It is a herditary diseases 43. Disinfectant or germicide is an agent which kills infectious organisms out side the body by direct exposure to chemical or physical agent. They are too corrosive or toxic to be applied to tissues. They are used on inanimate surface. eg. phenol, bleaching powder etc. 44. Proteins are the main chemical substances of living matter, composed of aminoacids. They are a part of every living cell and are found in all animals and plants. It is very essential for growth and maintanance of the body. Lean meat, fish and eggs are almost entirely proteins. Proteins occur in structural matter as bones, tendons, skin, hair and hoof, and in some vitamins and hormones. All enzymes are proteins. Their composition varies with the source, but all proteins are basically constructed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and some contain

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by the thyroid gland controls the growth as a whole where as the secretion of the pituitary gland exerts a powerful influence on the development of skeletal structures. Autopsy is a post-mortem examination of the body. It is done to find out the reason of death. B.C.G. (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) is a vaccine against tuberculosis. Proper and timely treatment with B.C.G. vaccine can control tuberculosis. Secretion of the liver is called bile. It contains two types of pigments, bilirubin and biliverdin. Bile emulsifies fats, prevents food from decomposing and forming gas. It helps the digested food to pass smoothly along the digestive canal. It is partly absorbed by the intestines, get into the blood and helps to keep up the heat of the body. A high level of bile pigments in the blood causes jaundice. Biological Warfare is the use of living organisms such as deadly bacteria or viruses or

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34. Neurosis is a nervous disorder affecting the action but not the structure of the nervous system, specially caused by mental influences and not traceable to physical injury. 35. Haemoglobin is the red pigment present in the blood of man and other vertebrate animals which contains iron and protein. It plays an important part in taking up oxygen from air in the lungs and carries it to various parts of the body where oxygen is required. Haemoglobin also carries CO2 from all the cells to the lungs. 36. Animals like frog, lizards etc. undergo a kind of inactivity during winter as a short-term adaptation. A very low rate of metabolism is maintained just for survival until favourable conditions of the environment return. This phenomenon is called hibernation. During this period the energy for life activities is derived from stored fat. 37. Hormones are the internal secretions of the ductless (endocrine) glands like pituitary, pancreas, suprarenal and thyroid which are passed directly into the blood inside vessels within the gland itself. These hormones exert a great influence upon health and development of the body. Pancreas manufacture a hormone called insulin, which assists in the assimilation of sugar, and thus prevents diabetes. Adrenalin, a secretion of suprarenal glands control blood pressure and tones the nerves. Thyroxine produced

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is measured on the decibel scale (dB). The main sources of noise pollution are industrial machinery, transportation, and community activities and entertainment. Constant exposure to noise levels above 75 decibels can damage the ear and impair hearing. Exposure to noise levels above 120 decibels causes pain in the ear, and continuous exposure to noise levels above 180 decibels may even cause death. Road traffic noise is usually of moderate intensity, but being of continuous nature can be irritating people living along busy streets. Badly maintained vehicle engines and indiscriminate use of horns often make the situation worse leading to various types of physiological disorders such as high blood pressure and heart problems. Loud noise is even known to affect unborn babies. Sudden loud noise such as gunfire or crackers can cause irreversible damage to ear-drums. 53. Amniocentesis is a technique used to determine chromosome abnormalities of the foetus. In this tehcnique, a small sample of amniotic fluid is taken from the mother’s womb (uterus) using a surgical needle without causing any damage to the foetus. The foetus cells obtained from this fluid are examined for chromosomal abnormalities and bichemical defects. 54. It is a process by which living organisms break down complex matter into its simpler constituents. The agents of the process, mainly

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49. Carbon cycle is the circulation of carbon (as carbon dioxide) between living organisms and the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is built into complex carbon compounds by plants during photosynthesis. Animals obtain their carbon atoms by feeding on plants or other animals; during respiration, and by decay and death, some of this carbon is returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. 50. Fossils are the remains of an organism preserved in rocks in the earth’s crust. Usually only hard parts (bones, shells etc.) are so preserved, but occasionally fossils of soft organism have also been recognised. fossils are important to archeologists for their usefulness in the study of pre-historic forms of organisms and subsequent changes with time. 51. It is a potential approach to the treatment of genetic disorders in man. Removal of defective genes and their replacement with normal healthy functional genes is called gene therapy. For eg genetic disorders such as sickle cell anaemia, SCID etc can be cured by gene therapy Currently, its use is restricted to the treatment of somatic cells (which include all the cells of the body), except the reproductive or germ cells the egg and the sperm cells. 52. Any unwanted form of sound, such as noise of vehicles, machinery, jet planes, indiscriminate use of loud speakers, are examples of noise pollution. Just as we measure temperature on celsius scale, the level of noise

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sulphur, phosphorous and iron (haemoglobin). Red blood corpuscles (RBC or erythrocytes), white blood corpuscles (WBC or leucocytes) and blood platelets (thrombocytes). Aspirin is a sedative drug used for relieving rheumatic pains, neuralgia, etc. It is a synthetic drug. It is acetylsalicylic acid. Protoplasm is the living matter present in the cells of animal and, plants. It includes both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the cell. Pituitary is a small Pea shaped gland attached to the hypothalamus by pitutary stalk. Pituitary gland plays an important role in the regulation of many other endocrine glands and influence the physiological functions of the body directly or indirectly. Hence it is also called master gland. But the activities of pitutary gland is regulated by hypothalamus. The important hormones produced by the anterior lobe of pitutary gland is growth bormone (GH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticcotropic hormone (ACTH), and Gonad stimulating hormones (GSH). Dovarfism is a disorder of children due to hyposecretion (low production) of GH and gigantism is a disorder due to hyper secretion (excess production) of GH. In an adult person the excess secretion of GH hormone leads to a particular condition known as acromegaly. The victims have a gorilla like appearance.

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disarms the immune system. With its main line of defence shattered, the body now falls an easy prey to even the common infecting agents that it would otherwise ward off. The patient usually dies of these infections. HIV spreads from an infected person to a healthy person through body fluids. Sexual transmission of HIV is most common. Contaminated blood and blood products and improperly sterlized zyringes and needles besides passage of the virus from infected mother to unborn baby are other ways through which the virus spreads. 60. On the basis of the antigens, human blood can be classified into various types or groups. The most common blood group system is the ABO blood group which was discovered in 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. Depending on the presence or absence of the two antigens called A and B, this system divides human blood into four types. Type A blood group has erythrocytes with antigen A on its membrane. Type B has antigen B, while type AB has both antigen A and B. The fourth type called blood group O has neither antigen A nor B. In 1940, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered another antigen called the Rh factor. Most human beings bear the Rh factor on the surface of their red blood cells and are said to have Rh positive blood. Those who lack this antigen have R h negative blood. To avoid clumping of blood cells after blood transfusions

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Sayr has long flavourful shelf life. 57. Use of biotechnology for producing microchips has resulted in the invention of biochips that promise to cope better with the problems such as electron tunneling seen in the use of silicon chips. Biochips have found a number of applications and opened the doors for development of powerful ‘miniscule’ computers or ‘biological’ computers. 58. Hepatitis - B (Hepatitis means inflammation of liver) is an infectious viral disease caused by Hepatitis - B virus. It is a virus that is hundred times more infectious than the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV). Like HIV, Hepatitis - B is passed on through sexual contact, infected needles, blood transfusion and from infected mothers to the infants born. However, unlike HIV, Hepatitis - B can infect another person merely through exposure to body secretions such as saliva, tears, vomit, bleeding, cuts and wounds. 59. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the most devastating and fatal disease of the 20th century. It is a viral disease caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV). What makes it different from other viruses is that it strikes at the body’s own defence machinery (the immune system) that constantly fights to the vast array of microbial enemies invading our bodies. The virus may remain dormant upto 10 years until some event activates it. On awakening, it

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bacteria and moulds, are known as decomposers. Any matter that can be acted upon by these decomposers is known as biodegradable. All organic matter can be decomposed and hence is biodegradable. Biodegradation helps in recycling essential nutrients in a natural way. Non-biodegradable materials are those which cannot be broken down by biological agents. Plastic and other synthetic materials are examples of non-biodegradable matter. 55. Instruments made of optical fibres used to look at the body’s internal organs. Endoscopes are inserted in the body to produce images of the organs that can be viewed on a TV monitor or captured by a camera. This painless method of diagnosis is known as endoscopy. 56.Transgenics or transgenic organisms are Genetically Modified Organism (GMOs) which have been made to incorporate in their genetic make up some useful foreign genes. Transgenic animals with additional gene for increased growth rate can be marked more quickly. Transgenic cattle produce more milk and theuraptic human proteins will secrete through their milk. Transgenic pigs with genes for human antigens can provide various organs for transplantation in human beings without any chance of rejection. Bt cotton is transgenic cotton in which gene for insecticidal protein from Bacillus thurengensis has been incorporated. Transgenic tomato, Flavr

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pollution agriculture. This Bio-organic fertilizer can increase the output, improve the quality and it is responsible for agriculture environment. Today, it has been widely used with excellent results in all kinds of plants and several countries. 71. These are the crops with genetic material from another organism. Genetic materials are introduced in it for the desired qualities Bt cotton was the India’s first GM crop with Bollworm resistant. Genetic engineering allows scientist to develop such plants whch have resistance towards diseases, pests and stress like drought or heat. It can also be used to keep vegetables fresh for long periods with increased nutritive value. 72. The NRHM has following objectives: (a) The Mission adopts a synergistic approach by relating health to determinants of good health viz. segments of nutrition, sanitation, hygiene and safe drinking water. (b) It also aims at mainstreaming the Indian systems of medicine to facilitate health care. (c) To ensure community participation and ownership of assets, induction of management and financial personnel into district health system, and operationalizing community health centres into functional hospitals, meeting Indian Public Health Standards in each Block of the Country.

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within the shell, the mantle secretes calcium carbonate around the irritant body over several years. This encrustation forms the pearls. Treatment that can be given in an accident, injury and sudden illnes, until more skilled persons arrive or the patient is transferred to a hospital is called first aid. It is a branch of surgery devoted to reconstruction or repair of deformity, surgical defect, or the result of injury. Plastic surgery is performed using bone, cartilage and skin from other parts of the body. Hydrophobia is a disease caused by a virus after the bite by an infected animal. Symptoms like headache, fever, difficulty in drinking water and food will be developed 4 to 6 days after the bite by an infected animal. So the patient is extremely thirsty and struggles to drink water. Showing conclusive reaction which may appear as fear of water. The method of finding out the age of fossils by determining the amount of radiocarbon (C14) remaining in them. Since the half life of C 14 is 5,720 years, its amount is reduced to half after so many years and, thus, the age of a fossil can be determined. Bio-fertilizers are those fertilizers in which organic matters are used. Bio-Fertilizers are the most advanced bio-technology necessary to support developing organic agriculture, sustainable agriculture, green agriculture and non-

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it is necessary to crossmatch the donor’s blood type with that of the recipient’s. Food chain is a sequence of organisms in a community which is formed by eating and being eaten. Plants are base of the sequence. In other words, food energy passes from plants to animals in a long chain called the food chain. Each step in the food chain represents a trophic level. The energy from the sun is fixed by the producers and it is then passed through the various trophic levels in the form of food. Pasteurization is the sterilization of food by heating it to a temperature below 1000 C to reduce the number of micro-organisms it contains and so to protect it from decay. For milk, the method involved is heating it to 1610 F/720 C for 15 seconds followed by rapid cooling to 500 F/100 C. The process kills micro-organisms but retains the taste, flavour and nutritive value of milk. Blood count is the counting of the number of white blood corpuscles in blood. In normal state one cubic mm blood contains 10,000 WBCs. If the number exceeds, it will cause leukaemia. Defensive mechanism of the body is affected by the fall in number of WBCs. It is the ancient Japaneese art of growing dwarf trees. Trees are kept small by pruning roots and branches and by restricting growth in pots. Pearl is formed due to an irritation by foreign matter

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76. It is a very useful drug for diabetes and was discovered by Dr.F.G. Banting in 1922. It is a product of unknown nature derived from the pancreas of animals. It regulates the percentage of sugar in blood. If the percentage is too high it converts the excess into starch and stores the starch in liver, muscles and skin. With the help of insulin a diabetic patient leads a normal healthy life. It is generally injected into the patient. 77. Calcium is required for the growth and maintenance of bones and teeth. Calcium is also needed for the activity of the heart and muscles. Hence, a certain amount of calcium must be included in our daily diet. It may be worthwhile to mention here that the daily intake of calcium should be approximately one gram. The rich sources of calcium are milk, milk products, green leafy vegetables, fish, marine products, cereals like millet, ragi, etc.

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74. The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, it is now a cornerstone of modern medicine and clinical microbiology, leading to such important innovations as antibiotics and hygienic practices. 75. Japanese encephalitis is caused by a virus belongs to flavi virus family. This virus occurs along the orient, from korea and Japan in the north and Malaysia in the south. The disease has been recognised in Japan since 1871. The virus was first isolated in Japan in 1935. The principal vector of this disease is Culex mosquito. The disease has an abrupt onset with fever, headache and vomiting. The fever is high and continuous. In India Japanese encephalitis was first recognised in 1955. It occurred mainly between October and November. Preventive measures include mosquito control and locating piggeries away from human dwellings. Maximum cases are reported from A.P., West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Haryana and U.P. JE vaccine has been indigenously developed by Central Research Institue, Kasauli.

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(d) The Goal of the Mission is to improve the availabilityof and access to quality health care by people, especially for those residing in rural areas, the poor, women and children. 73. Chikungunya virus was first isolated from human patients and Aedes aegypti from Tanzania in 1952. The name chikungunya’ is derived from a native word for the diseases in the patient lies doubled up’ due to sever joint pains. The virus first appeared in India in 1963. The disease appears as a sudden onset of fever. Crippling joint pains, lymphadenopathy and conjunctivities. The vector is Aedes aegypti mosquito. The incubation period is 1 to 12 days. They spread only through mosquitoes. Spread from one person to another due to direct contact or touch has yet never been reported. There is no vaccine for Chikunguniya. Symptoms are treated rather than the disease. Following methods can be adopted to prevent Chickunguniya. 1. It has to be ensured that there is no stagnant water. 2. Insect repellent should be used over the exposed parts of the body to avoid mosquito bites. 3. Mosquito repellent or mosquito nets should be used in non-AC rooms. 4. Long sleeved shirts should be worn.

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Important Terms  Antibiotic : A drug derived from living organisms such as fungi or bacteria which kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria or fungi. Medical science is greatly indebted to antibiotic as the treatment of wound and injury is easier with the application of antibiotics. The well known antibiotics are penicillin, streptomycin, terramycin, neomycin, etc.  Antigen : A foreign substance, usually protein in

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It is usually single stranded, unlike the double stranded DNA and consists of a large number of nucleotides stung together, each of which comprises the sugar ribose, a phosphate group and one of four bases (uracil, cytosine, adenine and guanine). Diffusion : The spontaneous and random movement of molecules or particles in a fluid (gas or liquid) from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, until a uniform concentration is achieved throughout. For instance, if a drop of ink is added to water, its molecules will diffuse until their colour become evenly distributed throughout. Ecology : The study of plants and animals in relation to their environment. The term was coined by the biologist Ernest Haeckel in 1866. Electro Cardio Gram(ECG) : A recording of the electric current produced by the contraction of heart (cardiac) muscles. ECG is used in the diagnosis of heart disease. Electro Encephalo Gram (EEG) : A recording of the electric currents developed in the brain. Enzyme : An organic catalyst which accelerates a reaction within a cell. All are wholly or partially protein, with or without a prosthetic group. Most of them are highly specific in their effects. Fertilization : The process of fusion of a male gamete (sperm) with a female gamete (an egg) resulting in the formation of a zygote.

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the information needed to build, control and maintain a living organism. DNA is a ladder like double-stranded nucleic acid that forms the basis of genetic inheritance in almost all organisms. In organisms other than bacteria, it is organised into chromosomes and contained in the cell nucleus.  Diabetes Mellitus : Diabetes is a common metabolic disorder in which there is failure of the pancreas to produce insulin in amounts needed to control sugar metabolism. As a result the blood sugar rises above the normal values and spills over into the urine, causing large volumes to be produced. Treatment is coupled with strict dietary control and application of insulin depending on the type of diabetes. It is estimated that nearly 4% of world population suffers from this disease. To create the awareness and take precaution to prevent the disease November 14 is observed as world diabetes day.  Dialysis : Technique for removing waste products from the blood in chronic or acute kidney failure. The scientific principle applied here is diffusion. The dissolved substances of different molecular weight can be separated by using their rate of diffusion across this layers of material.  RNA : RNA is ribonucleic acid involved in the process of translating DNA, the genetic material into proteins.

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nature, which causes the formation of specific antibodies by the bodies immune system. Antibodies are produced to eliminate the antigens by a number of mechanisms. Biomass : The total mass of living organisms present in a particular habitat. Measurement of biomass can be used for various purposes such as interaction between organisms, variations in population numbers etc. Biological clock : Biological clock is the internal mechanism by which living organisms such as animals and plants keep track of time. It is this tracking mechanism inside them help the clock to announce the arrival of morning and flowers to bloom in spring. Chromosomes : Chromosomes are thread like structure present in a cell nucleus that carry the genes. They are regarded today as the major carrier of genetic material, consisting of DNA and various types of protein. There are 46 chromosomes in a normal human cell. It has the ability to make duplicate copy of its own. Dehydration : Dehydration is the excessive loss of water and salt from the tissues of the body. Excessive loss of saltcontaining fluids as a result of severe vomiting, diarrhoea or excessive urination can affect the circulatary system, pulse rate and blood pressure. DNA : DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. It is the complex giant molecule that contains, in chemically coded form, all

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 Plant breeding: It is the science of producing improved varieties of crop plants by changing their heridity for one or more traits like higher yield, better quality shorter duration, resistance to common diseases etc.  Quarantine: It is checking of incoming plants, seeds, fruits, tissues and other organisms for any harmful effect, which can cause diseases in local plants, animals and humans. Plant quarantine is meant for preventing introduction of exotic pests, weeds, and diseases into the country under DIP Act 1914.  Germplasm: Germplasm is the sum total of all alleles of genes present in various varieties of crop plant, its related species and wild relatives. Germ plasm is the foundation over which all the improved varieties are constructed.  Hybridisation: It is crossing of two or more types of plants for bringing their traits together in the progeny. The individual used in hybridisation are called parents. Hybridisation is the most common method of creating genetic variation.  Animal breeding: It is the science of producing improved breeds of domesticated animal, by improving their genotype through selective mating. The main objectives for animal breeding are increased quantity and improved quality of their products and resistance to diseases etc.

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the solvent but not of dissolved substances. Eugenics: The study of the production of better offsprings of human beings by the careful selection of parents. Astigmatism : It refers to a defect of an optical image in which rays passing through the lens focus in different planes. It can be rectified by using cylindrical lenses. Bile : Secretion from the liver. It has a brownish - yellow colour and is bitter to taste. It is helpful in the digestion of food. Blood sugar : Glucose circulating in blood. its normal level is 90-180 mg per 100 ml of blood in man. Fermentation : The chemical changes brought about by living organisms (yeasts, bacteria, etc)in which bigger organic molecules are converted into smaller molecules, e.g., conversion of glucose and sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Genetic code : The code by which inherited characteristics are passed on from one generation to another. The deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) in the chromosomes carry them forward during reproduction. Demography : It is the study of all aspects of population like number, birth rate, death rate, age groups, sex relation, occupation, education etc. in human beings. Morphine : White crystalline, bitter narcotic principal alkaloid of opium. It is used in medicine as hydrochloride or sulphate to dull pain, sedation and induce sleep.

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 Hereditary : Passing by inheritance from one generation to another.  Inflammation : The reactions of tissues to injury, pain, increased temperature, redness and accumulation of white blood cells.  Neoplasm : a new and abnormal formation of tissue as a cancer or tumour.  Obesity : Overweight of the body due to excessive accumulation of fat.  Parasite : An organism that lives in (endo) or on (ecto) another organism, at whose expense it gains nourishment, and, often protection.  Vaccine: A preparation of pathogens or substances derived from them administered to a person in order to establish resistance to an infection. Vaccine is available for most of the diseases caused by bacteria. BCG, triple antigen, polio vaccine are some examples.  Bionics : The study of functions, characteristics and phenomena observed in the living world and the application of this knowledge to the world of machines.  Hypermetropia: It is a defect of eye in which near objects are not distinctly visible. This is also called longsightedness. It can be corrected by using convex lenses (converging lenses).  Hydroponics: The cultivation of plants by placing the roots in liquid nutrient solutions without soil.  Osmosis: The flow of a solvent through a membrane that permits the passage of

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breastbone. The heart is usually felt to be on the left side because the left heart (left ventricle) is stronger (it pumps to all body parts). The left lung is smaller than the right lung because the heart occupies more of the left hemithorax. The heart is enclosed by a sac known as the pericardium and is surrounded by the lungs. The pericardium comprises two parts: the fibrous pericardium, made of dense fibrous connective tissue; and a double membrane structure containing a serous fluid to reduce friction during heart contractions (the serous pericardium). The mediastinum, a subdivision of the thoracic cavity, is the name of the heart cavity. The apex is the blunt point situated in an inferior (pointing down and left) direction. A stethoscope can be placed directly over the apex so that the beats can be counted. It is located posterior to the 5th intercostal space in the left mid-clavicular line. In normal adults, the mass of the heart is 250-350 g (9-12 oz), or about three quarters the size of a clenched fist, but extremely diseased hearts can be up to 1000 g (2 lb) in mass due to hypertrophy. It consists of four chambers, the two upper atria (singular: atrium ) and the two lower ventricles. On the left is a picture of a fresh human heart which was removed from a 64-year-old male.

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Pulmonary veins from right lung Right atrium Aortic valve

Pulmonary artery (to left lung) Pulmonary veins (from left lung)

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Pulmonary artery to right lung

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superior vena cava (blood from the body)

Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Inferior vena cava (blood from the body)

preceptions, standards and principle which regulate our activities in relation to exploitation of biological world particularly in view of the latest break through in biotechnology.  Explant: In tissue culture, part of plant to be cultured.  Radon: A rare radio active gaseous element now found to be emitted from several mineral ingredients causing leukemia, brain tumours and kidney cancers.  Biodegradable plastic: It is being developed from low density polyethylene mixed with starch. The new plastic takes only two months to degrade inside the soil.

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can provide commercial benefits. They are abundant in developing countries which are poor in technology. They are rich in traditional knowledge related to bioresources also. On the other hand developed countries are poor in bioresources. Based on traditional knowledge institutions and companies of industrialised nations are collecting and exploiting bioresources of other nations by getting them patented. Eg: A patent granted in U.S.A. for basmati rice germplasm which has an entire range located in India.  Bioethics: Bioethics is a set of

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 Biopesticide: They are biological agents and their products which can be used as pesticides against seeds, insects and pathogens. Biopesticides can be viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and mites.  Biopatent: It is an official licence to use a particular biological material for commercial exploitations.  Biopiracy : It is exploitation of bioresources of a country by organisations and multinationals for commercial exploitation with or without patent but without any access and benefit sharing agreement (ABA). Bioresource or biological sources are all those organisms which

left atrium Pulmonary valve Mitral valve Left ventricle Septum

Anterior (frontal) view of the opened heart.

In the human body, the heart is usually situated in the middle of the thorax with the largest part of the heart slightly offset to the left (although sometimes it is on the right, see dextrocardia), underneath the

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37. The energy possessed by a body due to its position is called ............. 38. Kinetic energy of a body is due to its ............. 39. ............. is the ability to do work. 40. Fluids flow with zero viscosity is called ............. 41. ............. is used for measuring flow of liquids. 42. As temperature increases viscosity of liquids ............. 43. Surface tension decreases with ............. of temperature. 44. Liquid assumes spherical shape due to ............. 45. study of sound is known as ............. 46. The speed greater than speed of sound is ............. 47. ............. is used to reproduce sound. 48. Rocket propulsion is based on ............. 49. ............. is used to measure atomic distances. It is also the unit of wavelength of light. 50. ............. is the distance travelled by light in one year. 51. Nautical mile is used in navigation. One nautical mile is equal to ............. km. 52. One inch (in) is equal to ............. cm. 53. One yard (yd) is equal to ............. m. 54. One foot (ft) is equal to ............. m. 55. One mile is equal to ............. km. 56. ............. is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water by 1o C. 57. One Acre (a) is equal to ............. m2 58. 1 Hectare (ha) is equal to ............. acres.

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1. Heat engine converts heat in to ......... 2. Diamond is an allotropic form of ............. 3. ............. was the first space ship to land on moon. 4. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is ............. 5. Indian Institute of Astrophysics is in –––– 6. Human eye contains ............. lens. 7. ............. is employed as a moderator in a nuclear reactor. 8. The hydrometer is an instrument used to measure ............. of liquids 9. The laws of electrolysis were propounded by ............. 10. ............. is used to measure angular distances between two objects. 11. ............. is the apparatus for measuring blood pressure. 12. ............. is used to measure the speed of a moving vehicle. 13. ............. is used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their densities. 14. Sonometer is used to study the behaviour of ............. 15. ............. is used to calculate the curvature of spherical objects. 16. ............. is used to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity. 17. ............. is to hear and analyse beats of heart and lungs. 18. ............. is used to record small intervals of time in the laboratory, races etc.

19. ............. is used to convert a photograph into a map. 20. ............. is an instrument used to record speed of aeroplane and motor boats. 21. Tangent galvanometer is used for measuring the strength of ............. 22. ............. is an instrument used to measure the speed and direction of motion of cloud. 23. By winding a watch, we store ............. energy. 24. Beta rays are nothing but speeding ............. 25. The filament of an electric bulb is made of ............. 26. The element most abundantly found in the earth’s crust is ............. 27. The element found on the surface of the moon, which is also described as ‘strategic metal’ is ............. 28. Thermocouple is used to convert heat energy into ............. energy. 29. .............. is an instrument to measure the pressure of gases. 30. The quantities that have only magnitude and not direction are called ............. 31. Rate of change of velocity is called ............. 32. The amount of water vapour in the air is termed as ............. 33. The density of water is maximum at ............. temperature. 34. Weight of a body at the centre of earth is ............. 35. The escape velocity of earth is ............. 36. The force of attraction between like molecules is called .............

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Answers to fill in the blanks

Michael Faraday

4. Barometer was invented by 5. Intensity of an earthquake is measured by6. Raman effect is related with the7. The instrument which is used to measure very high temperatures 8. The instrument which detects the presence of infrared rays is 9. Name the quantity which remains same before and after the immersion of two objects of same weights. 10. Name the energy possessed by the water when it is collected in the reservoir of a dam? 11. Which law states that stress by strain is a constant? 12. Echo and reverberation is due to which phenomenon? 13. Sound travels fastest in which medium? 14. In a doctor’s stethescope, the sound is intensified because of which phenomenon? 15. Why does mercury is used as the liquid in thermometers?

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decreases rise surface tension Acoustics supersonic phonogram Newton’s third law of motion. Angstrom Light year 1.825 2.54 0.914 0.3048 1.609 Calorie 100 2.471

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42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

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Michael Faraday, FRS (September 22, 1791 – August 25, 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of that time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the magnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.

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Mechanical energy Carbon Lunic-II 1 bar Kodai Canal (Tamil Nadu) Convex lens Graphite Specific Gravity Faraday Sextant, Sphygmomanometer Speedometer Salinometer vibrating strings Spherometer Stereoscope Stethescope Stopwatch Stereoplotter Tachometer direct current Nephoscope Potential Electrons Tungsten Aluminium Titanium Electrical Manometer Scalar quantities Acceleration humidity 4o C zero 11.2 km/s or 7 miles/s cohesion potential energy motion energy Super fluids Venturimeter

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Answer in a Word 1. Name the instrument used to measure the strength of an electric current 2. Which metal is called the metal of future? 3. Which is the first nuclear research reactor of India?

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Answers to the sententence or two

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1. Light year is a unit of distance in astronomical calculations. It is the distance that light travels in one year at the speed of about 3 lakh km per second. 2. Radiography is the production of photographs of the internal structure of bodies opaque to visible light, by the radiation from X rays or by gamma rays from radio active substances 3. Lactometer is a scientific instrument for testing the purity of milk. It is based on the principle of floatation. 4. Seismograph is an instrument for recording the intensity and origin of earthquakes. 5. Electric potential difference measured in volts is known as voltage. 6. A conductor of electricity installed in a structure to save it from lightning damage is known as lightning conductor. It neutralises the electric charge of the clouds coming in its contact or carries it to the earth. 7. Rectifier is a device for converting an alternative current into a direct one.

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Explain the following in a sentence or two 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

light year Radiography Lactometer Seismograph Voltage Lightning conductor Rectifier Short circuit

8. The direct flow of current between two points of different potential is known as short circuit.

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Ammeter Titanium Apsara Toricelli Richter scale Scattering of light Pyrometer Bolometer density potential energy Hooke’s law reflection of sound Steel reflection Because it does not wet the glass, high density and high termal expansivity. 16. Unlike molecules 17. Sliding to rolling 18. mass remains constant but weight becomes zero

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Tungsten also called wolfram is a chemical element that has the symbol W (German: wolfram) and atomic number 74. A very hard, heavy, steel-gray to white transition metal, tungsten is found in several ores including wolframite and scheelite and is remarkable for its robust physical properties, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after carbon. The pure form is used mainly in electrical applications but its many compounds and alloys are widely used in many applications, most notably in light bulb filaments, in X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), and in superalloys. Tungsten is the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules.

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Tungsten

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16. Adhesion is the force of attraction between what type of molecules? 17. Friction can be reduced by changing over from which friction? 18. When a man circles round the earth in a spacecraft, what happens to his mass and weight?

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Laser EDUSAT Programme SRE CARTOSAT-2 Fibre Optics Direct to Home (DTH) Resonance Raman Effect Teleprinter Micro waves Cohesion Temperature scales Buoyancy Photo electric effect Fluorescence Super conductivity Super fluidity Piezoelectric effect Remote Control System Viscosity Phosphorescence Teflon Ultrasonics

24. Black Box 25. Escape Velocity 26. Quautum Theory

Light-year

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transmitting data, voice, and images by the passage of light through thin, transparent fibres or some other transparent material of high refractive index. In telecommunications, fibre optic technology has virtually replaced copper wire in longdistance telephone lines, and it is used to link computers within local area networks. Fibre optics is also the basis of the fibrescopes used in examining internal parts of the body (endoscopy) or inspecting the interiors of manufactured structural products. The principle on which this transmission of light depends is that of total internal reflection. 6. It is a system of TV broadcasting where TV signals are transmitted directly to viewers, side stepping the cable operators. The viewer needs decoder to synchronize

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1. A Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam. Laser light is typically near-monochromatic, i.e. consisting of a single wavelength, and emitted in a narrow beam. This is in contrast to common light sources, such as the incandescent light bulb, which emit incoherent photons in almost all directions, usually over a wide spectrum of wavelengths. In 1916, Albert Einstein laid the foundation for the invention of the laser, while the first working laser was made by Theodore H. Maiman in 1960. 2. EDUSAT programme is aimed to provide distance education service using advanced space technology and ground technology of convergence. 3. Space-capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE) is intended for demonstrating the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule. SRE will be launched as a copassenger of CARTO-SAT-2 on board PSLV during the second half of 2006-2007. 4. Cartosat-2, the twelfth in the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite series, is an advanced remote sensing satellite capable of providing scene-specific spot imagery. 5. Fibre optics, also spelled Fiber Optics, is the science of

A light-year or lightyear is a unit of measurement of length, specifically the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one year. While there is no authoritative decision on which year is used, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) recommends the Julian year. Numerical value A light-year is equal to: 9,460,730,472,580.8 km (about 9.461 Pm) 5,878,625,373,183.61 statute miles about 63,240 astronomical units about 0.3066 parsecs

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Answers to the short notes

the signals with TV sets. The DTH system has highest quality visual and audio signals. The system makes use of advanced digital communication and video compression technique. It functions on the basis of KUband transponders. This implies that DTH providers would be in the position to offer value added service like interactive media, teleshopping, etc. 7. Resonance is a phenomenon of forced vibrations due to which sound waves can be produced with a large amplitude or intensity. All bodies have their natural frequency of vibration. When we apply a small signal of the same frequency to the body, the signal is greatly amplified and this is called reonance. 8. When monochromatic light is passed through a transparent medium, it is scattered. The scattered light contains original wavelength as well as lines of larger and shorter wavelengths than the original line, such wave lengths are called Raman lines and the effect is called Raman Effect. 9. Teleprinter is a telegraph transmitter with the help of which we can send more than 50 words per minute to several stations simultaneously without any strain to the operator and none whatsoever to the receiver. The person at the sending station pressesr the key on the key board which is just like that of a typewriter, corresponding to a particular letter. At the receiving station the letter is recorded automatically.

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13.

to near absolute zero or very low temperature. 17. All liquids have viscosity at room temperatures. However, as the temperature goes down, helium, which is available in gas form, gets transformed into liquid form and its viscosity becomes zero. This means no aperture is too narrow for it to flow through. This property is called super fluidity. 18. The production of current when mechanical pressure is applied on certain dielectric (electrically non-conducting) crystals such as quartz and Rochelle salt. The application of stress distorts the arrangement of ions in these crystals and an electric field is built up. This effect is known as direct piezoelectric effect and is used in devices like electronic gas lighters, microphones, phonograph pick-up needles, etc. Conversely, application of an electric field across certain faces on the crystal results in mechanical distortion of the crystal. This effect is known as reverse piezoelectric effect and is used in devices which convert electric signals into mechanical vibrations. 19. A system in which the operations of a unit are controlled from a distance, in other words, there is a substantial distance separating the operating unit and the controlling unit. The operating unit may range from a television set to guided missile and the distance may vary from a few meters to a few hundred kilometres. There are three essential components in a remote control system - a controlling quantity, a transmission medium and a

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Fahrenheit to Celsius C = (F-32) x 5/9 Celsius to Fahrenheit F = C x 9/5 + 32 A body seems to weigh less when immersed in a liquid, but the moment it comes out of water, the same body seems too heavy to be easily lifted. We conclude that a liquid exerts an upthrust on a body immersed in it. The tendency of a liquid to exert an upthrust on a body immersed in it is called buoyancy and the upthrust is called buoyant force. When visible light, ultra violet rays, X-rays etc., fall upon certain metals (caesium, rubidium, pottassium) electrons are liberated from them. This phenomenon is known as photo electric effect. The luminescence obtained when certain substance absorb radiation of one wave length and emit light of another wavelength is known as fluorescence. Super conductivity is a phenomenon of complete disappearance of electrical resistance and appearance of diamagnetism in certain solids when they are cooled

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10. High frequency radio waves whose wavelength is less than about one metre are usually designated as microwaves. These are electromagnetic waves travelling with the speed of light, i.e., 3 × 108 m/s. 11. The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force and this property is called cohesion. Due to this property the molecules of the substance are held together. Cohesive force is maximum in the case of solids, less in liquids and minimum in the case of gases. The definite shape of a solid body is due to cohession. 12. Three systems of temperature measurement are now in usethe Celsius scale, the Fahrenheit scale and the Kelvin Scale. The Celsius scale was worked out by the Swedish Physicist, Anders Celsius in 1742. The Fahrenheit scale was devised by the German born Physicist, Gabriel Daniel Fahreinheit around 1715. The Kelvin scale was devised by the British Physicist, William Thompson Kelvin. Conversion Formula Celsius to Kelvin K = C + 273.16

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Anders Celsius Anders Celsius (November 27, 1701 – April 25, 1744) was a Swedish astronomer. Celsius was born in Uppsala in Sweden. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France. Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His thermometer had 100 for the freezing point of water and 0 for the boiling point. The scale was reversed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1745, to how it is today.

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having energy h is called photon.

Scientific Reasons

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 Blotting paper absorbs ink. Why ? The blotting paper is porous and has a number of capillaries of very fine pores. When a portion of the blotting paper is brought in contact with the ink, it enters the capillaries due to the surface tension. . Why does carbon dioxide is used in extinguishing fire? Carbon dioxide being heavier than oxygen acts as fire extinguisher by cutting off its oxygen supply to a burning object.  Why do the stars twinkle ? Stars appear to twinkle because its light travels through different layers of space of varying densities. As a result the light from the stars bends and makes them appear to blink on and off.  Why is it not possible to see the stars in the day light ? The blazing light of the sun during daytime prevents the less intense light of the stars from being seen distinctly.  Why does the ice float on water while it sinks in alcohol? The specific gravity of ice is less than that of water but the same is more than that of alcohol, hence ice floats on water but sinks in alcohol.  Why is mercury used in thermometer ? Mercury is the only metal which is in liquid state even at the ordinary room tempe-

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ultrasound is used to detect and diagnose tumours, gallstones, heart diseases, distinguish between diseased and healthy tissues, monitor the development of the foetus, destroy diseased tissue etc. In industry, ultrasound is used to measure the thickness of pipes,detect cracks or leakeages in pipes, flaws in metal castings and in sonar devices. 24. The black box is a term used for a self contained unit of electronic circuit which is orange in colour. In aeronautics, this device is known as flight recorder. It records data on the functioning of an aircraft and its systems on a tape. The recorder is contained in a crash - proof, floatable box which is ejected in case of an accident and is usually fitted with a homing radio beacon and flashlight to reveal its presence. In routine flights of airliners it traces faults for maintenance control. By analysing the data stored in the black box the cause of the failure of the aircraft can be known. 25. It is the velocity that a projectile, space probe etc., must have in order to escape the gravitational field of a planet or the moon. It depends on the mass and diameter of the planet. The escape velocity is about 11.2 km/s for the earth and escape velocity of moon is 2.37 km/s 26. According to this theory, changes of energy in atoms and molecules occur only in discrete packets, each an integral multiple of a fundamental quantity (h) generally referred to as quantum. Light packet

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controlled quantity. Most controlling quantities send signals to the controlled quantity through infrared rays or radio waves or lasers or ultra sonic waves. The common TV/VCR remote control systems use infrared pulses. The property of a liquid by virtue of which it offers a resistance to the flow is called viscosity. Viscosity is internal friction of a fluid. Viscosity is due to the cohesive forces between the molecules of the liquid. Greater the cohesion or cohesive forces between the molecules of a liquid, larger is the opposition of the liquid. Thus honey which has more cohesive forces than water displays greater viscosity than water It is the form of luminescence in which a substance emits light of higher wavelength after absorbing an electromagnetic radiation. Phosphorescence may continue even after the source of light is cut off. An organic substance made by the polymerisation of tetrafluoroethane, CF2 = CF2. The chemical name of teflon is polytetra fluoroethane. Because of its properties high resistance to heat, chemical etc. It is used to coat non-stick cooking materials, electrical insulation etc. The Science of sound waves of frequency greater than the audible range, i.e., greater than 20,000 Hz (20 KHz). The vibrations of certain crystals (quartz, zinc oxide, barium litanate etc) under the influence of an applied alternating voltage produces ultrasound or ultrasonic waves up to well above 20 KHz. In the medical field,

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 What is a breeder reactor ? A breeder reactor is such a reactor which produces more fissionable material than it burns.  What does a moderator do in a nuclear reactor? The number of nuclei split by the impact of neutrons is regulated by a moderator in a nuclear reactor.  Why is a small space left at the joint between the two rails? To permit the expansion of rails due to heat generated by friction of the moving train in summer.  A glass tumbler is filled to the brim with water and a piece of ice is floating on it. As the ice melts, will the water overflow or not? Give reason for your answer. Level of water remains unchanged because the volume of water produced by the melting of ice is exactly the same as that of the piece of ice. On melting, the water will be equal to the volume of water displaced by the ice.  When a moving train slows down quickly, will a passenger tend to fall backward or forward? Explain why? The passenger will tend to fall forward because the lower portion of his body which is in contact with the seat will come to rest quickly whereas the upper portion of the body continues to be in a state of motion. Hence, the person is thrown forward, due to inertia.  Explain why it takes more time to cook meat and vegetables at hill stations? At higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is low

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our feet, and thus the equilibrium is kept stable. Why are lightning conductors fixed at the top of high buildings ? When an electric discharge takes place from the cloud, the lightning conductor provides it an easy conducting path to the earth without damaging the building. Why does a parachute must have a hole ? A hole in the centre of parachute is made to avoid oscillation of the parachute while descending owing to the changing currents of wind. The hole allows the air to run out of the parachute regularly. How does a flute produce different sound notes? A flute produces different sound notes because air particles passing through it are vibrated with different frequencies with the closing and opening of the holes. Why do we use a fuse in an electric circuit? A fuse is used in an electric circuit because when excess current flows through the circuit the fuse melts and breaks the circuit and prevents the damage to any of the electrical goods used. What causes wind ? Winds are caused by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface and rotation of earth. Why does a drop of liquid assume a spherical shape ? A drop of liquid assumes a spherical shape due to surface tension. A sphere has the least surface area for a given volume.

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rature. Also, it uniformly expands when heated and does not stick to the walls of thermometer. Its high boiling point and low freezing point is the main reason for using it in ordinary thermometers. How can bats fly in the dark avoiding obstacles? The ultrasonic waves produced by bats during flying are reflected back when they hit the obstacles. Hence, bats can find their path without any difficulty. Why does water pipe often burst in cold countries? In winter, the water in the pipes freezes. On freezing into ice the water increases in volume, which results in bursting of water pipes. Why is cooking quicker in pressure cooker ? In a pressure cooker, boiling point of water is raised by increasing pressure with steam. Food gets high temperature and so cooking becomes quicker. We bring our hands close to mouth while shouting to somebody at a distance. Why? By bringing the hands close to our mouth, the sound energy is not allowed to spread in all directions, rather being made unidirectional (i.e. directed in a particular direction). Hence the sound produced becomes louder. Why do we lean forward while climbing a hill ? Leaning forward enables us to keep the line passing through the centre of gravity vertically downward, within

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a system of their own. Planets, on the other hand, are bodies which revolve around a star and shine by the reflected light of the stars. What is the difference between supersonic and ultrasonic sounds? Sounds of frequency higher than 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasonic and are inaudible. The speed greater than the speed of sound is referred to as supersonic. Copper wire cannot be used as a heating element in electric heaters. Why? Copper has less melting point and if we use it in electric heater it cannot withstand high temperature. What would happen if the force of gravity were to disappear suddenly ? In the absence of gravitational force, all living objects on the earth will be practically in a floating condition. They will be thrown away because of the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of earth. After a certain time the whole earth will disintegrate. Radio reception improves slightly during the night. Why? During day time due to sunlight the radio broadcasting is affected to a certain extend. Due to the absence of sun during night radio reception improves slightly. We perspire on a hot day. why? Human body is physiologically conditioned to maintain in form the temperature. When the heat produced in the body becomes excessive and not dissipated properly,

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and they contain water droplets. Water droplets act like prisms. Sun’s rays falling on water droplets suffer dispersion and produce a spectrum. The different colours are viewed in the form of a rainbow. What causes the rumbling sound of thunder? Air is heated instantly when an electrical charge of lightning passes through it. The heat causes the molecules of air to expand in all the directions. As the molecules seek more room, they collide violently with layers of cool air, and set up a great air wave that has the sound of thunder. Why are mornings and evenings less warm than noon? In the mornings and evenings, the rays of the sun falling on earth are slanting and their distance is more. The earth gets heated up only slightly. At noon, the rays of the sun falling on the earth are nearly vertical and the distance is also less, with the result that the earth gets heated up considerably. Hence mornings and evenings are less warm than noon. The sky appears blue. Give reason. Violet and blue light have short wavelength and are scattered more than red light waves. While red light goes almost straight through the atmosphere, blue and violet are scattered by particles in the atmosphere. Thus we see a blue sky. What is the difference between a planet and a star? Stars are self-luminous celestial bodies and they have

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as compared to that in the plains and, therefore water boils below 1000C. Hence sufficient heat is not supplied for cooking the meat and vegetables at hill stations. When we drink soft drinks through a straw, why does the liquid go up into our mouth? When a person sucks air from the straw, the pressure of the air inside the straw is reduced as compared to the atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. Therefore, the soft drink rushes up into the straw and to the mouth. Explain why the moisture (water droplets) gathers on the outer side of a glass tumbler containing ice-cold water? The water vapour present in air gets cooled and appear as droplets of water on coming in contact with the cold surface of the glass tumbler. Why does a metal seen colder in winter and hotter in summer compared with a piece of wood? Metals absorb and transmit heat more rapidly than wood. A thick glass tumbler often cracks when a very hot liquid is poured in it. Why? The inner surface of the thick glass tumbler coming in contact with the hot liquid expands more in comparison to the outer surface which is relatively at a lower temperature. The uneven expansion of inner and outer surface may produce cracks. How does a rainbow form? Explain the phenomenon. After rain, some clouds continue to linger in the sky

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 Microtome : Used to cut an object into thin parts for microscopic inspection.  Periscope: It is used usually by the crew of a submarine to survey the ships etc., on the surface of the sea while the submarine is under water. It also enables the sailors to observe objects on the other side of an obstacle without exposing themselves.  Photometer : An apparatus used to compare the illuminative power of two sources of light.  Pyrometer : Thermometers used to measure high temperature from great distance by making use of the law of radiation.  Quadrant : For measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.  Quartz clock : A highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision works.  Refractometer : To measure refraction indices.  Resistant : Used for determining the electrical resistance of conductor.  Saccharimeter : Used for determining the amount of sugar in a solution.  Anemometer : It measures the power and speed of air.  Audiometer : It measures the intensityof sound.  Hygroscope : An instrument to measure the height above sea level.  Internal Combustion engine : It is an engine in which heat supplied to the working substance is produced by combustion taking place

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 Accelerometer : An instrument that measures the rate of which the velocity of a body is changing.  Altimeter : The instrument used in aircraft for measuring altitudes.  Audiophone : Used to improve the imperfect sense of hearing.  barograph : For continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.  Binocular : To see the distant object.  Callipers : An apparatus for measuring the inside or outside diameter of bodies.  Chronometer : An instrument kept on ships for measuring accurate time.  Carburettor : An apparatus for charging air with petrol vapours, in an internal combustion engine.  Clinical thermometer : For measuring temperature of human body.  Cardiogram : Instrument used to trace the movements of hearts.  Commutator : An instrument to change or reverse the direction of an electric current.

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 Cinematograph : Instrument used to reflect the image of picture on a screen.  Compass needle : For knowing approximately the northsouth direction of a place.  Drinkers apparatus : To help breathing in infantile paralysis.  Electro encephalo graph (EEG) : It is a technique of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of brain. Records of the electrical activity of the brain, ‘brain waves’ are called electro encephalograms.  Electroscope : To detect the presence of electric charge.  Eudiometer : It is a glass tube for measuring volume changes in chemical reactions between gases.  Galvanometer : For measuring currents of small magnitude.  G.M. counter : For detecting the presence of radiation and counting certain atomic particles.  Gravimeter : For recording measurement under water and to determine the presence of oil deposits under water.  Hydrometer : To calculate the specific gravity of liquids.  Hydrophone : For recording sound beneath water.  Hygrometer : For measuring humidity in air.  Lactometer : To find out the purity of milk.  Magnetometer : To measure the intensity of earth’s magnetic field.  Microphone : Used to convert sound waves to electrical vibrations.

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the sweat glands inside the body are stimulated to secrete sweat. Therefore, we perspire on a hot day.  The gun kicks back when a bullet is fired. Why? According to Newton’s third law of motion, to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. So the gun kicks back when a bullet is fired.

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Important Terms

 Absolute Zero: It is the lowest temperature theoretically possible and is equal to (–273o C). At absolute zero all molecular motion comes to a stop.  Alternating current : It is an electric current that periodically reverses its direction in the circuit, with a frequency independent of the constants of the circuit.  Boiling point : Boiling point is the temperature of a liquid at which visible evaporation occurs throughout the bulk of

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rough surfaces than between smooth or oiled surfaces. Gamma Rays : They are electromagnetic radiations emitted spontaneously by certain radioactive substances in the process of a nuclear transition. Horse power (Hp) : It is a practical unit of power which is equal to 550 foot-pounds per second or 746 watts. Hydrogen Bomb: Bomb that works on the principle of nuclear fusion. Large scale explosion results from the thermonuclear release of energy when hydrogen nuclei are fused to form helium nuclei. The first hydrogen bomb was exploded at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific ocean by the US 1952. Inertia : It is a property of matter by which it resists change in its state of rest or in its direction of motion. Newton’s first law gives the definition for inertia. Integrated circuit : An integrated circuit can be defined generally as an arrangement of multifunction semi conductor devices. It consists of a single crystal chip of silicon, nearly 1.5 mm in cross section, contained both active and passive elements and their interconnections. Kelvin temperature scale : It is a scale used to measure temperature. On the kelvin scale absolute zero is 0K, ie. in Kelvin scale 0oC corresponds to 273.16 K and 100oC corresponds to 373.16 K. It is named after the British Scientist, Lord Kelvin.

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the liquid and at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the external atmospheric pressure. It is the temperature at which liquid and vapour can exist together in equilibrium at a given pressure. Centripetal force : The inward force that keeps body, such as a satellite, moving in a circular path. The centripetal force is directed towards the centre. Conduction : It is the process in which heat or electrical energy is transmitted from one particle to another nearby particles without actual motion of the particles. In solids, heat is transmitted by conduction. Convection : It is a process by which heat is transferred by actual motion of the particles themselves. In liquid and gases, heat is transmitted by convection. Critical Temperature : The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied, no matter how great a pressure is exerted. Doppler effect : It is the change in frequency of a wave (sound or light) due to the motion of the source or observer. For example, the pitch of a police car siren appears higher when the car approaches the listener but lower as the car moves away from listener. It was named after the Australian physicist, Christian Doppler (1803-55). Friction : The force that opposes the relative motion and produces heat, when two surfaces are rubbed together. friction is greater between

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inside the cylinder. eg. petrol engine, dieasel engine. Odometer : An instrument used to determine the distance covered by wheeled vehicles. Seismograph : An instrument used to record the intensity and distance of an earthquake. Tachometer : An instrument that determines speeds of aeroplanes, motor boats etc. Telex : It helps in direct exchange of information between two countries. Thermocouple : An instrument based on thermo electricity used for measuring temperatures. Ultra sonoscope : It is an instrument used to determine the viscosity of liquids. Venturimeter: It is a device based on Bernoulli's theorm, for measuring the quantity of a liquid flowing through the pipe. Wireless : It is an instrument which can send messages from one place to another without the use of wire.

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alternating current into direct current. Generator: It is a device by which mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. The electrical energy received by us from the power house is produced by the generator. Radar: Radio detection and ranging employs high frequency radiowaves for detecting objects like ships and aeroplanes. A rotating aerial sends out pulses which are reflected from objects on which they fall. The time interval between transmission and reception of pulses helps determine the distance of the object. Seismograph: An instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake. Soldering: It is a means of joining together two pieces of material usually metals, by melting a third metal into the joint. Transformer: It is a device which converts low A.C. voltages to high or high A.C. voltages to low. The transformer which converts high A.C. voltage to low is called step-down transformer. The transformer which converts low A.C. voltage to high is called step-up transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction that is electromagnetic induction. Chain reaction: It is a series of nuclear transformations initiated by a single nuclear fission. Chain reaction is caused by neutrons.

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harm living being. Nuclear reactors are used to produce electricity. Potential energy : The energy that an object has because of its position. An object on a high shelf has potential energy that is released as it falls to the ground. Water in an elevated reservoir possesses potential energy. Quartz : It is a double refracting crystal optically uniaxial and positive and rotating the plane of polarization to the left or right according to the variety, and to a different extent for different colours. Radioactivity : It is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus accompanied by the emission of alpha, beta and gamma radiations. Nucleus having 93 or more protons are unstable and is radioactive. Robot : It is a machine which can do a job that is usually done by a human being. Robots are used on factory assembly lines to do one particular job that is continually repeated. Surface tension : It is the property of a liquid that its surface behaves like elastic film and has a tendency to contract. This causes small droplets to become spherical. Some insects like pond skater can walk on water because the surface tension holds them up. Commutator: It is an instrument to change or reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo, it is used to convert the

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 Kinetic energy : It is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion. A moving bullet or a moving stone possesses kinetic energy.  Latent heat : It is the quantity of heat required to convert a unit amount of a substance from one state to another without changing its temperature. Unit is calories per gram.  Mariner’s Compass : It is a device for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The ‘‘N’’ point on the dial indicates north pole and the ‘‘S’’ point, the south pole. It helps the sailors to determine the North-South direction.  Mirage : It is an optical illusion often observed in deserts due to total internal reflection and atmospheric refraction.  Nuclear fission : It is the nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus disintegrates into nearly two equal fragments releasing a large amount of energy. Atom bomb is based on the principle nuclear fission reaction.  Nuclear fusion : It is a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei fuse together to form a heavy nucleus releasing a large amount of energy. Stellar energy is due to fusion reaction. The principle of hydrogen bomb is nuclear fusion.  Nuclear reactor : It is an atomic pile in which nuclear chain reaction is controlled for the production of nuclear energy. These are well protected so that the radiations they emit do not

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IMPORTANT SPORTS CHAMPIONSHIPS AND CUPS Agha Khan Cup : Hockey, India

Kings Cup: Air Races, England

Ashes : Cricket, Australia and England

Lady Ratan Tata Trophy: Hockey, India

Augusta Masters: Golf, International

Liners Open: Golf, International

Australian Open: Lawn Tennis, International(Hosted by Australia)

Malaysian Open: Badminton, International Meredka Cup: Football, Asia

Azlan Cup: Hockey, International

MLS Cup: Soccer, America

Bama Belleck Cup: Table Tennis, India

Moinuddaulah Gold Cup: Cricket, India

Beighton Cup: Hockey, India

Nehru Trophy: Hockey, India

Bombay Gold Cup: Hockey, India

Radha Mohan Cup: Polo, India

British Open: Golf, International

Ranji Trophy: Cricket, India

Burdwan Trophy: Weight Lifting, India

Rangeshwari Cup: Hockey, India

Champions Trophy: Hockey, International

Scindia Gold Cup: Hockey, India

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Davis Cup: Tennis, International

Subrato Mukherjee Cup: Football, India

DCM Trophy: Football, India

The Scottish Cup: Football, International

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Dhyanchand Trophy: Hockey, India

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Swaythling Cup: Table Tennis, International

Derby: Horse Racing, International

Dr. BC Roy Trophy: Football, India

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Duleep Trophy: Cricket, India

Santosh Trophy: Football, India

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Colombo Cup: Football, International

Rovers Cup: Football, India

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Calcutta Cup: Rugby, England and Scotland

Thomas Cup: Badminton, International U. Thant Cup: Tennis, International Uber Cup: Badminton (Women), International

Durand Cup: Football, India European Champion Clubs' Cup: Football, Europe

UEFA Champions League: Football, Europe US Maters: Golf, International

Ezra Cup: Polo, India

US Open: Lawn Tennis, International

FIFA World Cup Trophy: Football, International

Webb Ellis Cup: Rugby, World Wellington Trophy: Rowing, India

French Open: Lawn Tennis, International(Hosted by France) Heineken Cup: Lawn Tennis, International Hopman Cup: Lawn Tennis, International IFA Shield: Football , India

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List of Important Books and Authors One Life is not enough - Kunwar Natwar Singh

Venkaiaha Naidu – Karnataka (Rajya Sabha) Nitin Gadkari - Nagpur

Munger through the Ages - Late Devendra Prasad Yadav Not Just an Accountant - Former CAG Vinod Rai Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi: An Inside Job? - Faraz Ahmed

DV Sadananda Gowda - North Bangalore Uma Bharti - Jhansi Najma Heptullah - Madhya Pradesh (Only Muslim in Cabinet) Ram Vilas Paswan - Hajipur

The Vijay Mallya Story - K Giriprakash

Maneka Gandhi - Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh

India Junction – A Window to the Nation Arunendra Kumar, Chairman of Railway Board

Ananth Kumar - Bangalore South

The Lives of Others - Neel Mukherjee

Ashoke Gajapati Raju Pusapati Vizianagaram , Andhra Pradesh

The Substance and the Shadow - Uday Tara Nayar - Autobiography of Dilip Kumar

Narendra Singh Tomar - Gwalior

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Jual Oram - Sundargarh

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Train to Pakistan - Khuswant Singh A Bend in the River - V.S Naipaul

Ravi Shankar Prasad – Bihar (Rajya Sabha)

Thawar Chand Gehlot - Shajapur, Madhya Pradesh

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What Young India Wants - Chetan Bhagat

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My Unforgettable Memories-Mamata Banerjee

Half Girlfriend - Chetan Bhagat - Unreleased

Kalraj Mishra - Deoria, Uttar Pradesh Radha Mohan Singh - Purvi Champaran, Bihar Harsh Vardhan - Chandni Chowk, Delhi

ModiNomics: Inclusive Economics, Inclusive Governance - Sameer Kochhar.

Harsimrat Kaur Badal - Bhatindha, Punjab

God of Small things- Arundhati Rai

Anant Geete - Raigarh, Maharasthra Smriti Irani - Amethi(lost to Rahul Gandhi)

Cabinet Ministers and their Constituency Narendra Modi - Varanasi, Vadodara Rajnath Singh - Lucknow Sushma Swaraj - Vidisha Arun Jaitley - Gurarat(Rajya Sabha)

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IMPORTANT NATIONAL DAYS

Independence Day - August 15

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas - January 9

Sadbhavana Day (Birth anniversary of RajivGandhi)- August 20

National Youth Day - January 12

National Sports Day (Dhyanchand’s Brithday) - August 29

Army Day - January 15 Netaji Day - January 23

Teachers Day (Birth anniversary of Dr. Radhakrishnan) - September 5

India Tourism Day/ National Voters Day January 25

Hindi Day - September 14 Deaf Day - September 26

Republic Day - January 26

National Blood Donation Day - October 1

Martyr’s Day - January 30

Gandhi Jayanti Day - October 2

Panchayat Day - February 19

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Wild Life Week - October 1st to 7

Central Excise Day - February 24

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Air Force Day - October 8

National Science Day - February 28

Azad Hind Day - October 21

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Ordinance Factories Day (India) - March 18

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National Postal Day - October 10

National Security Day - March 4

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Orissa Day - April 1 National Maritime Day - April 5

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Jallianwala Bagh Day - April 13

National Rededication Day (Death anniversary of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhai Patel) October 31 Legal Service Day - November 9

National Technology Day - May 11

Transport Day - November 10

National Mother Security Day - April 11

Childrens Day - November 14

Sikkim Day - May 16

National News Paper Day - November 16

Anti Terrorism Day (Death anniversary of Rajiv Gandhi) - May 21

Indian Citizen Day - November 19

Everest Day- May 29

NCC Day - November 24

Doctor’s Day - July 1

National Law Day - November 26

Kargil Vijay Day - July 26 Quit India Day - August 9

Navy Day - December 4 Armed Force Flag Day - December 7 National Mental Disorder Day - December 8

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Conservation Day - December 14

March 23 – World Meteorological Day

National Energy Protect Day - December 14

March 24 – World Tuberculosis Day

Vijay Divas - December 16

April 2 – World Autism Awareness Day

National Minorities Rights Day - December 18

April 6 – International Day of Sport for Development and Peace

Kissan Day (Farmer’s Day) - December 23

April 7 – World Health Day National Consumer Day - December 24

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL DAYS

April 12 – International Day of Human Space Flight April 22 – International Mother Earth Day April 23 – World Book and Copyright Day

February 4 – World Cancer Day

April 23 – English Language Day

February 6 – International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation

April 25 – World Malaria Day

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January 26 – International Customs Day

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April 26 – World Intellectual Property Day

February 13 – World Radio Day

April 28 – World Day for Safety and Health at Work

February 21 – International Mother Language Day

April 29 – Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare

March 1 – Zero Discrimination Day

April 30 – International Jazz Day

March 3 – World Wildlife Day

May 1 – May Day, International Workers' Day

March 8 – International Women's Day

May 3 – World Press Freedom Day

March 20 – International Day of Happiness

May 15 – International Day of Families

March 21 – International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

May 22 – International Day for Biological Diversity

March 21 – World Poetry Day

May 23 – World Turtle Day

March 21 – World Down Syndrome Day

May 29 – International Day of UN Peacekeepers

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February 20 – World Day of Social Justice

March 21 – International Day of Forests and the Tree

May 31 – World No-Tobacco Day

March 22 – World Water Day

First Tuesday of May – World Asthma Day

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Second Saturday of May – World Fair Trade Day

August 29 – International Day against Nuclear Tests

Second Sunday of May – Mother's Day

September 8 – International Literacy Day

A weekend in May – World Migratory Bird Day

September 15 – International Day of Democracy

June 1 – International Children's Day

September 16 – International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer

June 5 – World Environment Day September 21 – International Day of Peace June 8 – World Oceans Day September 27 – World Tourism Day June 12 – World Day Against Child Labour September 28 – World Rabies Day June 14 – World Blood Donor Day September 29 – World Heart Day

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June 17 – World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought

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October 1 – International Day of Older Persons

June 18 – Autistic Pride Day

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October 1 – World Vegetarian Day

June 20 – World Refugee Day

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June 23 – International Widow's Day

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October 2 – International Day of NonViolence

June 21 – World Music Day

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3rd Sunday of June – Fathers' Day

October 2 – World Cerebral Palsy Day

October 4 – World Animal Day

July 11 – World Population Day

October 5 – World Teachers' Day

July 12— Malala Yousafzai Day

October 9 – World Post Day

July 17 - World Day for International Justice

October 11 – International Day of the Girl Child

July 18 – Nelson Mandela International Day October 16 – World Food Day July 28 – World Hepatitis Day October 24 – United Nations Day July 29 – International Tiger Day November 12 – World Pneumonia Day July 30 – International Day of Friendship November 14 – World Diabetes Day August 12 – International Youth Day August 13 – International Lefthanders Day

November 16 – International Day for Tolerance

August 19 – World Humanitarian Day

November 17 – International Students Day

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November 20 – Universal Children's Day

2007-08 – Year of the Dolphin

November 21 – World Television Day

2008 – International Year of Languages

November 29 – International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People

2008 – International Year of the Potato 2008 – International Year of Sanitation

Third Thursday in November, November 15 – World Philosophy Day

2009 – International Year of Astronomy

December 1 – World AIDS Day

2009 – International Year of Natural Fibres

December 2 – International Day for the Abolition of Slavery

2009 – International Year of the Shark 2010 – International Year of Biodiversity 2010 – International Year of Youth

December 7 – International Civil Aviation Day

2011 – International Year of Forests

December 9 – International Anti-Corruption Day

2011 – International Year of Chemistry

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December 3 – International Day of Persons with Disabilities

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2014 – International Year of Crystallography

December 11 – International Mountain Day

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INTERNATIONAL YEARS

2014 – International Year of Solidarity with the Palestinian People

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December 10 – Human Rights Day

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1970 – International Education Year 1974 – World Population Year

2015 – International Year of Soils

2015 – International Year of Light and Lightbased Technologies 2016 – International Year of Pulses

1975 – International Women's Year

INTERNATIONAL DECADES

1979 – International Year of the Child 1981 – International Year of Disabled Persons 1986 – International Year of Peace

1976–1985 – United Nations Decade for Women

1990 – International Literacy Year

2001–2010 – International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World

1992 – International Space Year

2003–2012 – United Nations Literacy Decade

2004 – International Year of Rice

2005–2014 – United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

2005 – World Year of Physics 2005–2015 – Water for Life Decade

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2010–2020 – United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification 2011–2020 – United Nations Decade on Biodiversity 2011–2020 – United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety 2014–2024 – United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All

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2015–2024 – International Decade for People of African Descent

Page 186 of 191

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION & HEADQUARTERS

A African Development Bank ADB - Abidjan (Cote d’Ivoire) Asian Clearing Union ACU - Tehran Asian Development Bank ADB – Manila

C Commonwealth Foundation - London

E European Council EU - Brussels, Belgium

F Food and Agriculture Organization FAO - Rome

I

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N

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International Atomic Energy Authority IAEA - Vienna International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD - Washington International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO - Montreal International Court of Justice- Hague, Netherlands International Chamber of Commerce - Paris International Development Association IDA - Washington International Finance Corporation IFC - Washington International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD - Rome International Labor Organization ILO - Geneva International Maritime Organization IMO - London International Monetary Fund IMF - Washington International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) - Vienna, Austria International Criminal Police Organization InterPol - Lyon, France International Telecommunications Union ITU - Geneva

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North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO - Brussels, Belgium New Development Bank (BRICS Bank) – Shanghai, China South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC Kathmandu (Nepal)

U

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO - Paris Universal Postal Union UPU - Berne United Nations UN - New York United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD - Geneva United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund UNICEF - New York

W West African Economic Community WAEC - Ouagadougou World Customs Organization (WCO) - Brussels, Belgium World Health Organization WHO - Geneva World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO – Geneva

Page 187 of 191

Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in A

Burundi – Bujumbura

Egypt - Cairo

Afghanistan - Kabul

C

El Salvador - San Salvador

Albania - Tirana

Cambodia - Phnom Penh

Equatorial Guinea - Malabo

Algeria - Algiers

Cameroon - Yaounde

Eritrea - Asmara

Andorra - Andorra la Vella

Canada - Ottawa

Estonia - Tallinn

Angola - Luanda

Cape Verde - Praia

Ethiopia - Addis Ababa

Antigua & Barbuda - Saint John's

Central African Republic Bangui

F

Argentina - Buenos Aires

Chad - N'Djamena

Armenia - Yerevan

Chile - Santiago

Australia - Canberra

China - Beijing

Austria - Vienna

Colombia - Bogota

Azerbaijan - Baku

Comoros - Moroni

Finland - Helsinki France - Paris

G

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Gabon - Libreville

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Congo - Brazzaville Costa Rica - San Jose

Bahamas - Nassau

Cote d'Ivoire - Abidjan

Bahrain - Al-Manamah

Croatia - Zagreb

Bangladesh - Dhaka

Cuba - Havana

Belgium - Brussels Belize - Belmopan Bhutan - Thimphu

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Cyprus - Nicosia Czech Republic - Prague

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Belarus - Minsk

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B

Barbados - Bridgetown

Fiji - Suva

Djibouti - Djibouti City

Botswana - Gaborone

Dominican Republic - Santo Domingo

Bulgaria - Sofia Burkina Faso Ouagadougou

Germany - Berlin Ghana - Accra Greece - Athens Grenada - Saint George's Guatemala - Guatemala City

Guyana - Georgetown

Denmark - Copenhagen

Dominica - Roseau

Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan

Georgia - Tbilisi

Guinea - Conakry

D

Bosnia & Herzegovina Sarajevo

Brazil - Brasilia

Gambia - Banjul

Democratic Republic of the Congo - Kinshasa

E

H Haiti - Port-au-Prince Honduras - Tegucigalpa Hungary - Budapest

I Iceland - Reykjavik India - New Delhi

East Timor - Dili

Indonesia - Jakarta

Ecuador - Quito

Iran - Tehran

Page 188 of 191

Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in Iraq - Baghdad

Malawi - Lilongwe

P

Ireland - Dublin

Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur

Pakistan - Islamabad

Israel - Jerusalem

Maldives - Male

Palau - Melekeok

Italy – Rome

Mali - Bamako

J

Malta - Valletta

Palestinian State – Ramallah(Administrative) & Jerusalem(Claimed)

Jamaica - Kingston

Marshall Islands - Majuro

Japan - Tokyo

Mauritania - Nouakchott

Jordan - Amman

Mauritius - Port Louis

Papua New Guinea - Port Moresby

K

Mexico - Mexico City

Paraguay - Asuncion

Micronesia - Palikir

Peru - Lima

Moldova - Chisinau

Philippines - Manila

Monaco - Monaco

Poland - Warsaw

Kiribati - Tarawa Atoll Korea North - Pyongyang

Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar

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Kenya - Nairobi

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Kazakhstan - Astana

Panama - Panama City

Montenegro - Podgorica

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Korea South - Seoul

Morocco - Rabat

Kosovo - Pristina

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Mozambique - Maputo

Kuwait - Kuwait City

Portugal - Lisbon

Q Qatar - Doha

R

Myanmar (Burma) Rangoon (Yangon); Nay Pyi Taw (Administrative)

Romania - Bucharest

N

Rwanda - Kigali

Namibia - Windhoek

S

Lebanon - Beirut

Nepal - Kathmandu

Saint Lucia - Castries

Lesotho - Maseru

Netherlands - Amsterdam

Saudi Arabia - Riyadh

Liberia - Monrovia

New Zealand - Wellington

Senegal - Dakar

Libya - Tripoli

Nicaragua - Managua

Serbia - Belgrade

Liechtenstein - Vaduz

Niger - Niamey

Seychelles - Victoria

Lithuania - Vilnius

Nigeria - Abuja

Sierra Leone - Freetown

Luxembourg - Luxembourg

Norway - Oslo

Singapore - Singapore

M

O

Slovakia - Bratislava

Macedonia - Skopje

Oman - Muscat

Slovenia - Ljubljana

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Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek

Laos - Vientiane Latvia - Riga

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L

Russia - Moscow

Solomon Islands - Honiara

Madagascar - Antananarivo

Page 189 of 191

Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in Somalia - Mogadishu

Vatican City - Vatican City

South Africa –Cape Town

Venezuela - Caracas

South Sudan - Juba

Vietnam - Hanoi

Spain - Madrid

Y

Sri Lanka - Colombo

Yemen - Sanaa

Sudan - Khartoum

Z

Sweden - Stockholm

Zambia - Lusaka

Switzerland - Bern

Zimbabwe – Harare

Syria - Damascus

T Taiwan - Taipei

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Tajikistan - Dushanbe

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Tanzania - Dodoma

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Thailand - Bangkok

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Trinidad and Tobago - Port of Spain

Turkey - Ankara

U Uganda - Kampala

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Turkmenistan - Ashgabat

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Tunisia - Tunis

Ukraine - Kyiv United Arab Emirates – Abu Dhabi United Kingdom - London United States of America – Washington D.C. Uruguay - Montevideo Uzbekistan - Tashkent

V Vanuatu - Port-Vila

Page 190 of 191

Important Currencies List by ExamPundit.in A

Iraq : Dinar

Sri Lanka : Rupee

Afghanistan : Afghan Afghani

J

Switzerland : Franc

Japan : Yen

Syria : Pound

L

T

Lithuania : Euro

Thailand : Baht

Libya : Dinar

Turkey : Lira

M

U

Malaysia : Ringgit

Ukraine : Hryvnia

Maldives : Rufiyaa

UAE : Dirham

Mexico : Peso

UK : Pound

N

USA : Dollar

Australia : Dollar Austria : European euro

Bhutan : Ngultrum Brazil : Real

C Canada : Dollar Chile : Peso China : Yuan Cuba : Peso

V

Nepal : Rupee Netherlands : Euro Norway : Krone

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Bangladesh: Taka

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Argentina : Peso

Denmark : Krone

P

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North Korea : Won

D

F France : Euro

G Germany : Euro

H Hong Kong : Dollar

Philippines : Peso Portugal : Euro

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Egypt : Pound

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Pakistan : Rupee

E

Q Qatar : Riyal

R Romania : Leu Russia : Ruble

S

I

Saudi Arabia : Riyal

India : Rupee

Singapore : Dollar

Indonesia : Rupiah

South Africa : Rand

Iran : Rial

South Korea : Won

Page 191 of 191

Vatican City : Euro

Z Zimbabwe : Dollar