Typology and Morphology

Urban Analysis code 7W565

morphology / typology

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MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS Copyright Technische Universiteit Eindhoven This material is intended for students of the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven only. No part of it may be copied or distributed in any form.

Stedebouw = a non-translatable Dutch / German word meaning approximately: a combination of urban design and planning, research and design.

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urban morphology form (visible, knowable) of a settelment including: meaning, use, transformations, relation to urban processes

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Definition of morphology in stedebouw Important for morphology as a tool of analysis is that it is not just about form. In serious urban design form may never be seen without the its context: the meaning attached to it, its relation to use, the processes of transformations that characterize it, and its relation to urban processes (for instance social and political processes).

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typology characteristic set of form properties* of a building, a space or combinations of both

- a tool to establish relations - ‘model’ - vague delineation, multiplicity

*form & content cannot be seperated

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Definition typology The word type has been derived from the Greek word 'Typos' which means 'impression'. Definition: A type in urban design is a characteristic set of form properties of a building, a space or combinations of both (groupings of buildings or spaces, combinations of buildings and spaces). A type is not a concrete example that can be copied. It is a means of establishing a relation between a large number of comparable objects. Keeping that in mind it can be seen as a kind of 'generalized model' In contrast to a category that has a sharp delineation, the delineation of a type is vague and it is multiple interpretable. This makes it pre-eminently suitable to be used in a design process because it occupies a position in between abstract ideas and concrete forms. In theoretical terms it holds a position between the traditional measure than to the modern measure. The type incorporates quality and quantity, but it is not necessary to revert to pre-rational scientific ideas to use it.

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roots of the morphological approach the generic

modernism

typo/morphology the specific

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modernism versus. typo/morphology The attention for morphology/typology has its origins in a reaction against modernism in architecture Modernism emphasizes the generic and the abstract, those that developed the typo/morphological approach emphasized the specific and the concrete.

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Berlin A small example of the ideas of modernism ais the plan by le Corbusier for Berlin. The purple line in this map is the Friederichstrasse. The purple square is the museum island with its famous museums......

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Plan by Le Corbusier (1957) ... the same Friederichstrasse and museum island in the plan drawn up by le Corbusier in 1957 Modernist considered old urban forms to be obsolete because they where not functional any more in the age of the modern factory and the car. In the view of modernists perception and meaning of the environment played no role at all. 'Image' was reduced to an abstract pattern, an 'image on paper' like a modern work of art. Their believe in the virtues of a 'new men' meant that in there eyes the attachment of people to their built environment was not of importance or even harmfull for the formation of a better society. This also meant the had no remorse in destroying existing urban fabrics.

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Urban analysis in modernism Le Corbusier: “We must build on a clear site” “The city must be constructed geometrical”

(in: ‘Urbanisme’, 1924) 7

Citation of le Corbusier Underpinning his ideas. Translated from an article in 'Urbanisme' (1924)

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Cover of a book by McLoughlin (1969) Modernism did not finish with modernist architecture. In principle its ideas went over to spatial planning. This famous book about planning was of great influence on planners in the 1960's and onwards. The philosophy behind it is that we could have a better society by a rational and comprehensive approach of planning using scientific modeling based on the ideas of natural science. In some circles this idea still prevails. Of course there is nothing against more science or using ratio. In fact ratio is the most important tool of civilization, the problem is that it is great mistake to leave out emotion and meaning altogether (or to consider them to be just categories in a rational approach).

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Morphological research development, directions

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Morphological research development, directions

• Italian ‘school’ (three phases) • French ‘school’ • English ‘school’ • Mixed approach

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Morphological research, directions Although the word 'school' perhaps suggests more than can be justified if we look at morpholgical researchers, it is usefull to distinguish between three main approaches and a mixed approach. The main approaches are strongly related to the developments in architecture in three countries and thus could be labeled in that way. We will start with developments in Italia (Italy) and continue with the subsequent directions.

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Salverio Muratori - Spatial structures are concrete material forms (+ use & function)

- Largely an autonomous system - Carrier of meaning

Salverio Muratori (1910 – 1973) Muratori is considered to be the first systematic and analytic researcher of urban form. He is also seen as the godfather of the morphological approach in architecture and urban 11 design. The 'Italian' approach is often referred to as the typo-morphological approach, because the type plays a central role. Muratori became most known by the publication of his work: “Studi per una operante historia urbana di Venezia” (study into an operative urban history of Venezia) in 1959 Developing morphology as an approach to urban design by studying concrete examples becomes a hallmark of almost all research in urban morphology. This is partly due to the fact that financing fundamental research in architecture and urbanism up until the present day has proven to be almost impossible. On the other hand it is in line with the fundamental notion of the typo-morphological approach that research has to be place specific and that is dangerous to draw conclusions that are supposedly universal to soon. The core of Muratori's approach is: He considers spatial structures to be concrete material forms. He opposes modernistic designers and planners who see spatial structures as abstract forms. (In fact both visions are right in their own way, see the reader for the bachelors course 'Stedebouwkundig Ontwerpen' (7w220, in Dutch only). The rules that govern the transformations of these forms are to a large extend an autonomous system that can be studied separately. This opposes the idea that urban forms are only the result of social processes. A view held by many social scientists. In a cultural sense the system is a carrier of meaning. Forms represent more then dimensions and are more than containers for functions, in it are encompassed the ideas and experiences of the local culture. By studying the forms we are also studying the culture attached to them. The means of studying forms taking into account the three points above is by grouping them into types. This is why Muratori's method is also referred to as the 'Typological method'.

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Salverio Muratori ‘Typological Method’ 4 scale levels building - district - city - territory 4 aspects • elements of the design • internal structure of the elements • relation between form and use • formal aspect (materialisation) 12

Typological method Muratori distinguishes between four scale levels: the building, the district, the city and the territory Detailing and complexity of the types that can be distinguished increase with the scale level. An element on one level can be a type on a lower level For instance: a school with a certain architecture can be an element on the level of a district and a type of the level of a city. For each scale level there are four aspects: The elements -or parts- of its design. For instance: a building consists of building parts, a district consists of buildings and urban spaces, etc. The internal structure of the elements. For instance: what is the disposition of buildings and spaces in a neighborhood. The relation between form and use. The formal aspect. By this Muratori in fact means : the materialization. For instance: on a higher scale level one can talk about a route, but it is important to know how it is materialized. In a building one can talk about a window, again it makes a difference if this is for instance plain glass in a steel frame or stained glass in a wooden frame.

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Salverio Muratori ‘Typological Method’ Central role for the type • ‘type’ counterpart of ‘standard’ • Method aimed at cohesion • Innerly, intuitive norms • Meticulous study • Usability in design: ‘Storia operante’ 13

Central role for the ‘type’ Muratori's definition of 'type' is: A construct of conventions and norms that exist in a certain region or town and that evolved over time on the basis of experience. Important aspects: Muratori uses the word 'type' as the counterpart of 'standard'. A 'type' is rich in meaning and culure, 'standards' consist of technical norms that are culturally poor. The method is aimed at coherence, as a counterpart of the lack of coherence in modernism. According to Muratori lack of coherence in modern urban design and planning is caused by the devaluation of inner, intuitive forms that used to shape the environment. He tries to overcome the disability of modernism by incorporating culture and meaning but at the same time tries to remain systematic and scientific by developing a new analytic method. Because of this intention many later morphologists sometimes refer to their work as 'rational' to emphasize that the tightrope walk between the tangible and the scientific has not the intention to revert to the 'mythical' and also that the way people act in their environment has its own rationality, be it a different one than the abstract rationality of modernism. Typology is studied meticulously in contrast to the shallow and abstract approach of form in modernism. Muratori had the explicit intention that his method of analyzing could be used as a basis for architectural and urban designs. This is reflected in the fact he uses the word 'storia operante' (operative history). History is not there to satisfy curiosity it should be usefull, it should 'work' in a design process.

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Salverio Muratori theoretical premisses 1.

Building

environment

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part

whole

3.

city

history

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Most important theoretical premisses (In fact the premises of all of the ‘Italian school’) 1. Building and environment can not be separated. They should be taken into consideration together in analysis and design. 2. Parts of the city cannot be considered separately from the whole city. 3. The city can only be understood in its historical dimension because it emerges from a succession of reactions and processes of growth. In other words: the exact opposite of a timeless abstract approach. In the view of Muratori typology is not only about buildings but also about walls, streets, gardens, the construction of the city and everything that determines the form of a city in a certain period. In his work and the works of those that came after him the local, the time specific and place specific are emphasized. This is done by careful study of the development of building types en urban tissues. Based on this studies one tries to formulate an 'archetype' - the 'mother' of all later types - and tries to reconstruct the lines of development from this archetype to later types.

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‘Italian school’ Carlo Aymonino, Aldo Rossi

Gianfranco Cannigia, Gian Luigi Maffei

Bernardo Secchi

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‘Italian school’ 3 successive generations of theorists and researchers can be distinguished in the 'Italian school'. These generations can be linked to the most well known names in a specific period and to the most well known work. The relative meaning of the word 'school' had been explained earlier. 1960 – 1980: Carlo Aymonino, Aldo Rossi 1975 – 1990: Gianfranco Cannigia, Gian Luigi Maffei 1985 – 2010 : Bernardo Secchi

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‘Italian school’ Carlo Aymonino, Aldo Rossi “The architecture of the city”, 1966 “La città di Padova”, 1970 Gianfranco Cannigia, Gian Luigi Maffei

Bernardo Secchi

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Key works of the first generation

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‘Italian school’ Carlo Aymonino, Aldo Rossi “De architectuur van de stad”, 1966 “La città di Padova”, 1970 Gianfranco Cannigia, Gian Luigi Maffei “Il progetto nell ’edilizia di base’, 1984” “Letture di Firenze”, 1985 Bernardo Secchi

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Key works of the second generation

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‘Italian school’ Carlo Aymonino, Aldo Rossi “De architectuur van de stad”, 1966 “La città di Padova”, 1970 Gianfranco Cannigia, Gian Luigi Maffei “Il progetto nall’edilizia di base’, 1984” “Letture di Firenze”, 1985 Bernardo Secchi Articles in Casabella, Plan for Sienna 1989, PRG Prato 1996

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Key works of the third generation

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‘Italian school’ Aymonino, Rossi • Permanence in the city structure • Relating building types to city form • Mainly aimed at the small scale

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Aymonino, Rossi Characteristics: Most important: the notion of 'permanence' in the urban structure. Rossi talks about the importance of 'urban facts': aspects of the urban form (buildings, spaces, monuments) that are of particular value for the identity of a city and that exceed time. Permanence eventually leads to peculiarity of a city. Rossi tries to relate certain building types to the form of the city. Like Muratori his most important subject of attention is typology. The work of the first generation is primarily aimed at streets and squares. Accoring to Aymonino and Rossi the larger scale cannot be described in terms of topologies because the material structure of a city is a continuous process and not a completed form. Rossi's work 'The architecture of the city' was influential throughout the international world of a architects.

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‘Italian school’ Cannigia, Maffei • Developing Muratori’s Theory • Processes of growth • Relation building – city form • Searching for the ‘archetype’

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Cannigia , Maffei: Continue to develop Muratori's theory. Are especially interested in processes of growth, in the city as a dynamic happening Emphasize the relation between building type and city form. Against the idea of autonomous and placeless form they place the idea of autonomous formative processes and place dependency. Introduce the concept of the 'archetype'. In their work they look for what they call a 'basic type' the precedes all later types and try to construct lines along which later types developed. For example the roman 'domus' as the basic type for later medieval types. The aim is to get an in depth insight into the characteristics of a type. This insight can be used to develop new buildings that incorporate the lessons of the past without being a historical pastiche and extend this into the present. It is thus aimed at what could be called 'guided creativity in context' which is something quite different from 'neo-styles' that only imitate examples from the past skin deep.

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‘Italian school’ Cannigia, Maffei Scale levels high

5. city 4. urban quarter 3. urban tissue 2. building block

low

1. parcel

building stone for building stone for building stone for building stone for

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Theory of Cannigia and Maffei In the approach of Cannigia and Maffei lower scale levels are the building stones for higher scale levels. This means the city is explained from the logic of its building blocks. The smallest block being the parcel, seen as a combination of a space and one building. In a sense the approach could be called 'atomistic'.

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‘Italian school’ 1. parcel 2. block 3. tissuel 4. quarter 5. city

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Illustration of the levels

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Ponticelli, Napoli

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Examples of the approch of Cannigia and Mafei Reconstructie of the development of urban tissue Ponticelli (Napoli, Italia) A. Reconstruction of the original situation with one family houses; The 'archetypal' situation. B. Situation in between. More families live on the same parcel. Houses are expanded, buildings are erected in the back yard. C. Present situation. A dense built up area. (From the book ‘Il progetto nell’edilizia di base’, 1984)

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Via de’ Servi, Firenze

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Via de'Servi, Firenze (Italia) On the left a building block that was the subject of a morphological study.

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Via de’ Servi, Firenze

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Typology of a building block in the Via de'Servi. In the upper part of the drawing: Piazza Brunelleschi Present situation and reconstructed 'archetypal' situation. This reconstruction is not as artificial as one might think. The Via de'Servi was developed by the monastry of the Servi in the late middle ages. In modern terms this was 'project development'. It is very likely that the houses originally where erected in a standard style. Over time these original houses were transformed. They 'absorbed' the spirits and activities of the successive times that can thus be seen as being 'stored' in the present structure.

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San Frediano, Firenze Base material

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San Frediano, Firenze (Italia) The faubourgh of San Frediano in Firenze. Examples of the base material used in the research: historic maps, historic drawings, paintings and photographs. cadastre records, whereby the researchers had the advantage that these are very old in Firenze and that pictures of the buildings are part of it. Not depicted: books, written records.

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San Frediano, Firenze Development

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Development of the city quarter San Frediano A1 Development phase at the end of the 13th century. The city wall runs through the neighborhood. Just outside the wall the chapel of Santa Maria del Carmine. A2 A new wall encompasses all of the city quarter The chapel is replaced by a church and a monastry. The space in fornt is transformed into a square (Piazza del carmine) . The street structure develops on the basis of the old paths and parcellation. A3 New building blocks are made, partly as project development by the monastry. There is a new line of bastions to support the ols city wall. One of the bastion is filled with buildings. B Cadastral map 1820

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Borgo San Frediano

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The street Borgo San Frediano View towards the former city gate ‘Porta San Frediano’.

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Borgo San Frediano

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The street Borgo San Frediano

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San Frediano, Firenze Piazza del Carmine

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Piazza del carmine and surroundings Detailed studie encomassing the ground plans of the buildings. This is a typical Italian way of analysing part of a city. Made easier by the fact that these plans are available in city records.

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Piazza del Carmine

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Piazza del Carmine Why are important buildings or spaces always under restauration whe you visit them?

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Piazza del Carmine

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Piazza del Carmine

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Piazza del Carmine

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Piazza del Carmine

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San Frediano, Firenze Big historical interverntions 34

San Frediano: plans and interventions Cannigia talks about traumatic interventions. Most of them are based on ambitious plans, many of them are only partially executed. Sometimes they are not executed at all, but they still have influence on the development of the quarter. Without knowing these plans some aspects of the morphology can not be explained. Therefore studying all plans should be part of a morphological analysis. A. 1914 plan for restructuring San Frediano according to the principles of 'artistic urban design'. B. Plan to transform the Piazza del carmine and to erect market halls. C. Restructuring plan from the beginning of the 1930's. D . 1935 – 1939: redevelopment project for parts of the quarter.

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Piazza de’ Nerli

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Piazza De' Nerli A result of the 1914 restructuring plan.

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Piazza Tasso

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Piazza Tasso Result of the 1914 restructuring plan.

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Via del Drago ‘d Oro

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Via del Drago 'd Oro Result of the 1914 restructuring plan.

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San Frediano, Firenze Clerical posessions 1579 Reconstruction of building blocks designed to plans

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San Frediano: Map of church posessions 1579 (Left below: Piazza del Carmine) Planned developments by the monastry Reconstruction of the building blocks that were planned 1 & 2 A typological reconstruction of a narrow and a wide block. 3 A block that was actually built.

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San Frediano, Firenze Typology of solution for edges of building blocks

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San Frediano: edges Study of the different solutions in the present edges of the buidling blocks

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street

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Example of a street adjoining one of the blocks.

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Housing types

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Different types of houses in a street

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Housing types

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Twee 'archetypes', as identified in the study Left: two windows wide, two story, shop on the ground floor. Right: three strories.

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San Frediano, Firenze Clerical posessions 1579 Development of housing types

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Schema showing the development of the different types from two archetypes. These are related to the development of the city (schematized in the form of concentric circles) Gerelateerd aan de ontwikkeling van de stad A. Continous development B. Developments with 'jumps' and ruptures C. Development of new types from a basic type.

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Building block adjacent to Piazza Tasso

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Building block adjacent to the Piazza Tasso

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Building block adjacent to Piazza Tasso

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Building block adjacent to the Piazza Tasso Theoretical reconstruction of the original building block.

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Building block Via di Camaldoli

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Use of typology in city renewal Building block adjecent to the Via di Camaldoli A. The block in the Catasto Leopoldino (Cadastre map) B Present situation and spots that have to be reconstructed. Gray= reconstruction of the original inner terrain of the block.

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Design of new housing based on the typology of the area. The idea is that going back to the original typology of the block it is possible to make new housing that on the one hand is rooted in the local context on the other hand leaves possibilities for the future. These new house incorporate the essence of the building type but this still leaves enough freedom to interpret the type. This typically shows the role type as a vague category can play. This is approach quite different from making imitations of the present face of the existing buildings.

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Different solution that is also possible based on the typology of the area. Deeper and higher houses.

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Development of housing types in the Apenine mountains near Forli

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Typology of houses in the Apenini mountains near Forli Example of an extensive 'gyneology' of building types going back to ancient times. Most upper row: variants in plot occupation that occur synchronous. Upper left: the ‘archetype’. Left row of drawings: development of the type in flat terrain. Right columns: development of the type in mountainous terrain.

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Detailed elaboration Typology does not stop with abstract drawings showing the main principles of the building volumes. The concrete materialization is also part of the typology. Simple example: in parts of the Swiss Alps the houses are made of wood. This is essential for the type.

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Characteristic details for certain types Sometimes even small details are essential. If this is the case and which details are involved varies according to the location. Is in all of typology no general rules can be given for the amount of detailing required to make a good typology.

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Concrete buildings After looking into types in general it is alwys good to go back to cencrete examples to avoid that typology becomes detached from reality. Drawing is most suitable for this purpose as it allows the researcher to emphasize important aspects and leave out unimportant.

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Example of a typology of a modern building block The typological method is not only intended for old buildings and and old areas. It can also be used for modern architecture.

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Typology of the houses inside the block

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The block in their urban tissue

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‘French school’ Phillippe Panerai, Jean Castex, Jean-Charles Depaule

• Social involvement (empowering inhabitants) • City as producer of social and economic relations • Rational = human • Historical structure creates ‘resistance’ • Also attention for experiencing the environment 56

The 'French school' Characteristic for the french approach: French morphologistst are very socially involved. Attention for the form of the city is seen as a bottom up approach to urban design, a way to make the voice of the user heard and to empower users. it is seen as a counter movement against top down planning. The city is considered to be a producer of social and economic relations that are reflected in physical form. Form is seen as less autonomous than by the Italian Morphologists. The 'Real rationality', the way people interact daily with the environment is seen as a better alternative for the alienating rationality of the machine age The value of morphologic permanence of the historic city is that it resists forces that impoverish the urban life like fashionable architectural frills or hastily reconstructions. Analysis is important to discover valuable determents of resistance. French researcher not only look at the formal properties of the environment. like the Italians do, the way the environment is percieved and experienced also has their attention. This is reflected in the fact that they use three dimensional drawings and photographs besides the usual plans, aspects and sections.

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‘French school’ Phillippe Panerai, Jean Castex, Jean-Charles Depaule

“Elements ‘d analyse urbaine”, 1980 (1972 - 1975) Reissue: “Analyse Urbaine”, 1999/2002

“Formes urbaines: de l’ îlot à la barre”, 1977 Dutch translation: “De rationele stad”, 1984, 2003

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Key publications

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‘French school’ Scope of urban analysis • Traces in the environment are indications • ‘Tracking’ uncovers ‘stage’ and motivates • City is more than an abstract array of data

Scope

Attitude

Way of working

Result

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Scope of urban analysis In the book ‘Elements ‘d analyse urbaine’ (Elements of urban analysis) Phillippe Panerai explains the angle of view of the French morphological school. The traces that inhabitants leave in the urban environment tell us more about them. Investigating these traces makes it possible to get involved in the environment and to be enchanted by it, this is motivating for the design process. Urban analysis makes us conscious of the fact that cities are more than a collection of bare facts and situations. Le Corbusier was wrong when he claimed that 'Statistics are the engine of urban design'.

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‘French school’ Attitude • No predetermined position • No quick judgements • Urban analysis = ‘regaining the city’ • No ‘imitation’ but ‘understanding’

Scope

Attitude

Way of working

Result

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Attitude necessary to perform urban analysis The researcher should not have a predetermined moral opinion. First of all he or she should observe and let the situation speak. Keep in mins that opinions can also vary over time. An example of danger of a predetermined position is the opinion of Goethe on the architects that transformed parts of Rome, he said: 'What the barbarians have left of the old Rome is now being destroyed by the architects of the new Rome' He was talking about the baroque architects that are today highly praised for the quality of their work! Don't judge too quickly over processes that occur in an urban context. Urban analysis is to a certain extend 'reclaiming the city', making it more a place for its inhabitants than for planners and so called 'visionaires' in any way of life but especially in architecture. However 'reclaiming the city' does not equal 'imitating what has been'. To copy forms without understanding what lies behind them leads to cliche's and empty picturesque analogies. This reminds us of the ideas of Webers 'Vertehende' science. Pannerai emphasis that we have to find original solutions for our time. One could ask one self if this last statement has been influenced by modernism. The dogma of modernism is that everything has to be new and original, isn't it?

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‘French school’ Way of working

• Comprehending the base of the urban culture; ‘reading the city’ • Carefull, meticulous • The temporal factor • Schould be no ‘obligatory excercise’

Scope

Attitude

Way of working

Result

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Way of working It is important to understand the basis of the urban structure, to interpret the city as a form of organization, to uncover its logic. In the French tradition one speaks of 'reading the city', and the result is a 'reding of the city'. It is important be careful and meticulous in urban analysis and to raise accurate questions. For example: it is not a good attitude to reject the urban building block in general, like modernists did. One has to ask the question: what type of street and what type of building block are rejectable and what exactly where the bad properties. Simple solutions based on inaccurate analysis most of the time do more harm than good. We could add to that: design is part of careful analysis. To use the example of the building block again: design has shown that the objections of the modernists can be overcome by developing new types of solutions for the problems. The plea for asking accurate and meticulous points back to the ideas of Socrates. We should not forget the temporal dimension. Time plays an important role in the urban environment. Urban analysis should not be an obligatory exercise that precedes design because it is 'commonly done'. This also means that we should not distance ourselves from the subject. Discovery, involvement and pleasure are also important ingredients of analysis. Being involved in thrilling 'detective work' and the 'joy of analysis' should be our motivation.

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‘French school’ Result • Insight in order and ‘force fields’ • Lerning from solutions • Value for the future

Scope

Attitude

Way of working

Result

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Results of urban anlysis Urban analysis is interesting and usefull because: It provides the designer with insights into the order and the force fields that eventually will be able to support the work. One has to keep in mind that the social context of urban designs is very complicated. Designs only can be executed if they have enough support in society. To rally support it is of utmost importance to know the context. it provides the posibility to define a theoretical framework for a design project and to extract knowledge from good solutions from the past. lastly it provides the possibility to embed architecture and urban design in history, or to put it differently: to embed it in the context, or different still: to give it value for the future.

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‘French school’ Phenominas to be analized • Urban structures • Growth • Typology • Urban landscape • Social practices Phenominas to be analyzed French morpholistst define the following types of spatial analysis: 62 Urban structures. Structural analysis. Phenomena of growth Groeifenomenen: ruimtelijke ontwikkeling, sporen van het verleden, processen. Typology. This is presented as a specific method. Urban landscape. This builds on the ideas of Lynch, Cullen and Unwin. Social practices in the urban space. 'Practice' is a notion from sociology. It points towards certain social constellations. The French school interprets is as: the relation between behavior and urban space. Besides this they emphasize the importance of the research fields of: Urban Anthropology. This is a field of research that has much attention today. City populations city are studied in the way that in the past strange populations in far away countries were studied, primarily by observation and analyzing records like written text, artefacts or art. The idea is that life in cities is typified by numerous cultures that can only be understood by close study. Sociology. A classic form of social science that has been brought to life recently after it had virtually died out in the 1980's because its pretences - based on the idea of traditional science - could not be fulfilled. This form of research is still seen by many as a bit suspect. Environmental psychology. Here again the pretences of those trying to work in the classic scientific tradition have not been fulfilled. This does not mean that the results were useless, but the usefullness was very limited, to limited to be the fundament of design. Cognitive psychology. The ideas of cognitive psychology have had a lasting influence on urban analysis and design and rightfully so. The 'godfather' of this line of thinking in urban design is Kevin Lynch. Although in the beginning many of them were highly speculative, gradually there is more proof, for instance from the field of neurology, that they are plausible. Because this course is about spatial analysis from the latter four forms of analysis only the last one will be cover. The first three of research plus some more and their scientific methods are the subject of the course 'Research methods in architecture and urbanism' (7w640).

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‘French school’ Phenominas to be analized • Growth • Typology • Urban landscape • Social practices • Urban structures

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Method for Typology Castex and Panarai have developed a method for typological research that will briefly be described in the following.

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‘French school’ Typology: methodical prepositions • Starting from existing characteristics • Research dependent on situation • General criteria are not sensible

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Methodological prepositions: ‘letting the environment speak to you' Typology should start from the existing environment, not from idealized images. We should not impose predetermined spatial models on the environment. For instance: nowadays among project developers and political decision makers there is an idea of how a riverside development should look. This idea is based on prestigious examples like the Baltimore Harbor project or the Rotterdam Kop van Zuid harbor project that have contributed to a kind of generalized image how such a development should look. The problem is that presently this generalized idea is projected everywhere without knowledge of or insight in local situations This leads to harmful failures. The way of researching and the method used must be dependent on the situation. In fact it can be said that in theory in every situation a specific method will have to be developed, but of course existing knowledge can be used and adapted if necessary. The same can be said about criteria to judge a situation or design. It is dangerous to apply general situation less criteria to a design proposal. Because it makes no sense to provide general criteria and methods the 'method' proposed by Panerai and Castex is limited to general indications. Most important is the way of thinking.

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‘French school’ Typology: sorts of types • ‘Family’, ‘Typical example’ • Base type’, (‘Typ consacré’) • ‘Prototype’, ‘Archetype’ • Levels • Variations / transitions

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Method: different sorts of type Different sorts of types and relations between types can be distinguished Types can be ordered into families. For each family it is possible to look for a characteristic example or 'typical example'. For instance the houses along the grachten in Amsterdam can be grouped into the families: stepped gable, bell gabel, neck gable and frame gable. Each of these types could be represented with a photograph or drawing of the 'most typical 'example. One could look for a type that in many respects is exemplary for a certain period: use, symbolic value, form, etc. The French morphologists call this type the 'type consacré'. This could be translated into 'base type' or 'undisputable type'. In line with the ideas of the Italian morphologists typological research on a historic base can look for a 'prototype' or 'archetype'. The French researchers speak of an idealized model that forms the foundation of the concrete type and of base type that evolved into several types. The 'archetype' can be derived from studying the form of building blocks, the properties of parcels, etc. Typological analysis can have several levels, each with its own level of detailing and influencing each other. Again this builds on the ideas of Italian morphology, however the French do not make a specific choice for the number of levels nor do they postulate explicitly that urban morphology is build up from the smallest components upwards. looking for variations within and transitions between types is also part of typology.

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‘French school’ Phases of typological research A. Definition corpus B. Temporary classification C. Elaborating types D. Typology

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Phases of typological research A. Definition of the corpus (= Latin for: mater to be investigated) B. Temporary classification C. Elaborating the types D. Typology itself

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French school > typological research A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

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Transition slide The four phases on top op the page to keep overview in the next slides.

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French school > typological research A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

A.1 Choice of levels • parts • buildings • parcels • groups of parcels • global level A.2 Delineating the research area 68

Phase A1: definition of the matter to be researched Choice of levels Broadly speaking it is possible to make typologies of the following levels: parts of buildings, but only if this makes sense. In urban analysis these parts could be: gables, courtyards, entrances, etc. buildings. In some urban tissues buildings are the basic unit the combination of parcels with buildings. For many researchers this seems to be the most fruitful level of typological analysis because it brings forward the relation between buildings and space. goups of parcels. According to French morphologists the level of the building block deserves special attention. At this level the devision of space becomes clear (as does the relation of the individual with the collective). However it is also possible to take streets, boulevards, squares, gardens, canals, etc. as a starting point. the global level. It is also possible to make a typology of urban tissues that is as global as possible and to incorporate the studies of underlying levels into it. A good typological study takes the differentiation between different levels into account. Even if it focuses on one level only this should be placed between adjacent levels. It is NOT necessary - and in many cases not desirable - to divide a city into morphological areas or -units that cover all of its surface. Panerai quotes Alexander who has stated that ' a city is not a tree', by which he meant that it is not desirable to take the ideas of natural sciences - with their exclusive categories and strickt hierarchy - as the sole guideline for city planning and urban design.

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French school > typological research A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

A.1 Choice of levels • parts • buildings • parcels • groups of parcels • global level A.2 Delineating the research area 69

A2 delineating the research area The delineation of the study area is dependent odn: the scope and aim of the analysis and the type of questions that have to beanswered available time and means depth of the analysis the material and knowledge that is already available and the usefullness of that material

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French school > typological research B.Temporary Classification A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

Steps: 1. Inventarisation (Survey) 2. Searching criteria 3. First classification 4. Evaluation and corrections 5. Temporary classification (n.b.: no types) type = construction 70

Temporary classification This is an empirical process of induction and itteration. As the amount of material grows preliminary theories can be derived ( = induced) from it. As the evidence mounts the theory can be refined ( = itteration). A certain level of knowledge and experience in morphological research makes this process easier. It also helps if the researcher has a feeling for visual typology, that is to say: if he or she can easily see main characteristics in complex visual information. Steps of this process: Invertarisation. In classical terms: a survey. Describing or recording (photographs, drawings, etc.) the objects to be typified in detail. When a fair number of objects has been observed or recorded the possibility arises to systemize them and to get a first idea of the criteria for a typology. The first cautious criteria can be used to make a first classification by regrouping the objects into families that comply to a number of criteria. The simplest way to do this is by starting with the most clear cases. For instance: if you don't know anything of Dutch urban design and you have seen a few cities you could conclude that there are streets with a canal in the middle and that apparently they form some kind of typological family. In the next step this impression could be confirmed and refined later on the basis of more observations, literature etc. Evaluation and corrections Temporary classification. Please note this classification: this is NOT a typology, it is a grouping. A type is not a cencrete example it is a construct, a in sense a type has to be designed.

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French school > typological research A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

Steps: 1. Clarifiing properties of object within a famlily

2. Defining types based on common properties

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Elaborating the types This can be done in two steps 1. Clarifying the properties of the families/groupings that were found in the previous phase. It is important that not only the properties that conform to the temporary criteria are futher investigated, pone has to look at all properties to avoid predjudice and wrong conclusions. 2. Using common properties of the families of objects found in the previous phase to define the type. The non-common properties are then considered to be the variations of the type.

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French school > typological research A.Definition B.Temp.Classific. C.Elaboration D.Typology

Ordering types in a system • Relations and ‘pedigree’ • Bandwidth of variations • Consensus

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Typlogy Ordering the types into an encompassing system. Investigate relations and 'ancestry', that is: investigate if certain types via development, addition, modification and transition stem from other types. Bandwidth of the variations. Investigate how types change, how far reaching these changes can be without changing the type, etc. Concensus. Investigate what elements form the basis of the social recognition of a type. Which people recognize the type, what is the social basis of the concensus, or why does it diminish and leads to the disappearance of a type. For instance: in the past there were distinctive regional types of farms in Nederland. Although many farmers feel a strong connection with their region, almost no new farms are constructed using the traditional types for several reasons: economics, comfort ,etc.

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French ‘school’ Analysis of Versailles

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Example of a morphological analysis in the tradition of the 'French school' : Versailles

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names of areas

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Plan with names of streets, quarters and areas Names are also part of morphology. They often represent a meaning. For instance 'Downing street' is symbolic for politics in England, 'Piazza San Pietro' for religionamong Catholics, etc. These are examples of very famous elements, but on a local scale elements also can have a strong symbolic meaning. A seperate category are so called 'field names' that refer to former agricultural land use or the original properties of the land. The most famous example is perhaps the Campo (=field) in Siena.

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Morphological units and elements

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Division into morphological unites and elements Division of the town into morphological units, representing parts of the town with grossly the same morphological properties. At the same time it gives an insight into the main structure of the town. For the way this structure can interpreted and classified we point back to the reader of bachelors course: 'Stedebouwkundig ontwerpen' (7w220, in Dutch only). This type of analysis could also be called 'structural analysis'. Structure is seen as seperate object of study. In contrast Italian morphology works bottom up.

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Historic growth

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Historic growth Historic growth of the morphology. In this case in four stages. These type of mophological maps are sometimes referred to as 'figure ground plan' or 'black map', they contain all footprints of buildings in black and in this case all important roads in outline. The maps are based on the available historical maps. These are all translated into a uniform scale, legend and lay out. Processing the information this way is essential. It makes it possible to compare stages in the development and to discover morphological changes. Original historical maps are perhaps interesting but unprocessed not very useful for morphological analysis. Although not explicitly mentioned by Castex and Panerai it should be added that these maps are most effective when they represent the right moment in time. These are moments that are of crucial importance for developments in the morphological development of a town. For instance: when a new harbour interlocal road or railroad were constrcuted, when industrialisation took of, when large housing projects were realized.

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Comparison Vaux le Vicomte - Versailles

1662

1661

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Studying comparable plans and projects Example: a comparison of the design of Vaux-le-Vicomte (1661) with the first plan for Versailles (1662). Some urban forms can only be correctly explained by knowing the planning context in which they came into being. This context can be local plans and designs, but also the influence of ideas form elsewhere. Versailles was strongly influenced by the great innovation that was the design for the garden of Vaux-le-Vicomte, the model for the French baroque palace garden.

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Spatioal relations with the region

Late 17th century

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Spatial relations with the region Versailles and the new division of the territorium west of Paris at the end of the 17th century. As stated in the theory of morphological research: a certain scale level must be seen in relation to the higher and lower level. In the case of Versailles it becomes clear that the design of 1661 is not an isolated case, the whole landscape west of Paris was subjected to interventions whereby large scale geometrical structures were imposed on the landscape as a symbol of man being victorious over nature.

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Analysis Avenue Saint-Cloud

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Plans and sections. The main streets are ordered into types. Not the interesting combination of section and one point perspective

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Analysis Avenue Saint-Cloud

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Typology of buildings and parcels along the Avenue de Saint-Cloud. This is a real type: a construct. The type encompasses the main characteristics of buildings along the avenue, including zoning of the ground use and essential architectural details. So three scale levels that are essential for this specific type are incorporated: the detail level, the level of buildings and parcels and the level of the block (represented in the zoning).

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Development of the building block

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Development of a building block As was the case on the level of the town as whole, again a number of moments in time are chosen to show crucial turning points in the development of the block, and again use is made of a 'figure-background plan'. As it is virtually impossible to study every block in a city in this way blocks that are representative for a development over a larger area must be chosen carefully. They act as a kind of 'samples'. In this sample we see a building block that originally was spacious contained three type of parcels related to the wealth and position of the owners involved. Ranging from large free standing to small row houses. As the need for more room inside the houses grew, the block became more densely build. Gradually the wealthy people moved out. this was exellerated by the French revolution when personnel for the royal palace was no longer in demand (as was royalty). On a certain moment in time the parcels were no longer occupied by one family, some parcels became divided. Density increased over time until the block was almost built over except for some courtyards.

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Detailed study of the composition of a block

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Detailed study of the way the block is constituted. This type of study can give more insight into the typology of the block and the buildings, especially the relation between the buildings and the way space in and around the block is used. This is related to the social structure.

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Detailed study of the disposition of buildings

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Typology of appartment buildings Left: analytic axonometric drawings of three concrete buildings. These drawings are a means of studying the buildings before a typology can be drawn up. The drawings show that details are also incorporated in the analysis before further abstraction takes place. Right: One type with variations. This typology how the type that was shown in the slide ' Typology of buildings and parcels along the Avenue de Saint-Cloud' was adapted to increasing density and to several depths of parcels. Three zones can be distinguished: the zone of the original house, a zone for extensions and courtyards that do not cover the whole width of the parcel and a zone with buildings that do cover the whole width. This zone exemplifies what French morphologists call the 'logic of use' .

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Typology villas

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Typology of villa’s Originally the building stock of Versailles consisted of a considerable percentage of free standing houses or villas. This was due to the fact that it was a town for dignitaries and servants working at the court of the French king. The drawings show several transformation of a base type. After showing the examples of the research in Versailles it should be remarked that the succession of the several stages of a morphological research as the one shown need not be - and in fact will always never be -'neat and logical', whatever the ordering of the results in hindsight may suggest. It is normal that several aspects of the research overlap in time and that the research sometimes jumps from one aspect to the other and back. This has everything to do with the availability of material and practical aspects that can be as mundane as bad weather obstructing observations. But it also has an methodical reason: levels and aspects are interlinked.

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Coquard 1712

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Drawing technique Detail of a map of Versailles. Engraving by Coquard, 1712. The 'French school' emphasizes the importance of the drawing and of drawing technique. This is understandable as there methods of analysis are more comprehensive than the Italian. The importance attached to drawing is reflected in this quote of Panerai (from 'Elements d'analyse urbaine, 1972): 'Drawing technique is not neutral. Te be interested in the city means using means by which it can be shown in its 'fullness' with its streets, closes, buildings, walls and trees'

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Fortier late 1980s

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Bruno Fortier, Atlas de Parijs (late 1980's) Illustration: the passages between Rue du Faubourg Montmartre and Rue du Quatre Septembre. Bruno Fortier worked on an atlas showing the historical morphology of Paris, among others by beautiful and clear 3-d drawings like the one shown. The atlas was only partly completed. The project proved to be to big and expensive.

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‘ English school’ M.R.G.Conzen, Birmingham School

• Geographical approach • Tends towards classical natural science • Aimed at detailed descriptions • Parcel as ‘engine’ of the city structure

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'English school' The 'English school' is founded by - and to a certain extend synonymous with M.R.G.Conzen*. The works of Conzen and his colleagues are also referred to as the 'Birmingham school‘ Characteristics: A geographical approach. This means it is related to thinking in terms of ground use and functions and to spatial planning. This reflects the Anglo Saxon attitude towards architecture and planning, with urban design being a bit of an 'orphan'. Conzen works form the parcels and the ground plan rather than from buildings like the Italian and French schools. Consequently drawings are in 2-D and the properties of the environment are more or less seen as a kind of 'data' that could also be subjected to calculations. In fact the ideas of the 'English school' lend themselves to be incorporated in a G.I.S. system. Steps in this direction have been taken by American researchers . The approach tends more towards classical natural science: more from a distance and abstract than the other approaches. It tries to describe and analyze the spatial aspects of a city scientifically. Much of the research is performed as isolated research, not aimed at implementation. In contrast almost all Italian and French research has the intention of being usable in planning and design, however scientific it may be in other respects. It is aimed at detailed descriptions and meticulous study. In this respect all morphologists seem to agree, whatever their other approach. The parcel is seen as the 'engine' of the city structure. There are similarities with the Italian ideas of the smallest unit as the basis for all processes. However for the Italians the buildings and their use are of greater importance. * His son Michael Conzen continued in the footsteps of his father. So if you see a publication by 'Conzen', check who is involved.

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‘ English school’ 3-levels • City form • Urban tissue • Use of ground and buildings Maps - City form - Dispersion of building types - Dispersion of ground use 88

Conzen distiguishes three levels in morphology: City form . A 2-dimensional cartographic representation of the spatial characteristics of the town. Urban tissue. The compostion of buildings and spaces Use of ground and buildings in detail These three levels are related to each other. + Every one of the three levels is represented by three maps that help to explain the form of the city form: A map of the city form. In practice this is a map showing buildings and spaces. A map with the dispersion of building types. A map with the dispersion of ground use. Conzen considers the city to be a palimpsest of society and culture. Elements of certain periods remain while others are written over in the course of time.

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‘ English school’ Analysis • Streets Basis

• Parcels

Seamless

• Buildings Compositeness Plan Units Stratification Fringe belt

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Conzen distinguishes three elements: -Streets -Parcels -Buildings These elements fit together like a puzzle. Conzen analysis the morphology of a city seamless. This shows the geographical character of his approach and the tendency to take natural science as an example. In contrast in Italian and especially in French morpholgy is not deemed nescessary to be 'complete' in the sense that all of the surface of a city should be equally covered by research. Basis of the analysis is the parcel. According to Conzen the pattern of parcels forms the 'historic frame' of the town. In the eyes of the other schools of morphology it is strange that he does not incorporate the form of the buildings in the base units, only their foot print. For collection of the patterns and variations in form and use that can be found in the city Conzen uses the word 'compositeness'. Other morphologists would probably call this simple the 'structure' or the 'totality' of the city, represented for instance by a figure-ground plan. According to Conzen the totality of the city form is built up from 'plan units'. This could be translated as 'morphological units', parts of the city with the same morphological properties. The units have characteristic properties as concerns street patterns, buildings and configurations of parcels. Plan units reflect the social economic backgrounds of the periods in which they were formed. A plan unit can be seen as a piece of urban tissue. Depending on the detailing of the criteria used an analysis can result in a 'patchwork' of small units. Conzen is not clear about criteria. In contrast the French morphologists point at the importance of choosing criteria. It is clear that when a lot of criteria are used the number of buildings complying to a certain type will be very small whereas limited criteria lead to large units. A very simple example: if the only morfphological criterium is 'flat or inclined roof' then the totality of a town will only have two units. Another problem is highlighted by this simple example: in many instances there are areas where both forms of roof exist, what to do with them? Plan units contribute to what Conzen call the 'stratification' of the urban landscape. With this he means what is also called he layering of the city: the amalgamation of contributions to the city form over time and the traces they leave. Contributions can either be additions or the disappearance of elements. Information is stored in the layers of the urban landscape. The concept of the 'layered approach' has played an important role in urban analysis since the 1990's For areas that do not comply to clear morphological rules -for instance by having a clear urban tisue- and/or are in a state of transition Conzen introduces the word 'Urban fringe belt'. These often are an indication of changes in the morphological structure of a city. Sometimes fringe belts used to have a clear structure that disapeared. After a certain period they might obtain a new clear structure again. So theay are also an indication of the dynamichs of the morphological structure.

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Basic elements according to Conzen

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The basic elements of the city form according to Conzen -Streets -Parcels -Buildings As can be seen these are represented by two fairly abstract maps and one map showing streets, parcels and buildings. In this case the later map is an existing base map of the city. One could also imagine that this would be a figure-ground map.

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Compositness and units

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Compositeness and units A. Map of Ludlow (England) showing streets, parcels and buildings. B. Left: the topography, right: the plan units. Together these maps give an indication of the compositeness of the town. The form of Ludlow is a result of the topography and the plan units (morphological units). The present form has evolved over time.

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‘Burgage cycle’ :Level of the parcel

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Cyclus of building and use Study of a parcel in Alnwick (1960). The deep parcel ('burgage') is gradualy built over and then cleard because the buildings have become bad and dangerous. These type of cycli occur in many old towns. They could repeat several times over time. For this phenomenon Conzen introduces the term 'burgage cycle'.

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‘Burgage cycle’ Bouwblokniveau

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The same cycle on the scale of the building block (example: Newcastle, study: 1981). Over time the block is completely chocked with buildings. The block is then opened up by new roads.

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Conzens ideas have not only been applied on old cities. His successors also have used them to analyze modern towns and suburbs. American suburbs Study by Anne Vernez Moudon of the typology of buildings, parcels and street networks of American suburbs.

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Analysis of a concrete suburb 1 Network type 1 combined with house type A

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Analysis of a concrete suburb 2 Network type 2 combined with house type B

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Evaluation classical morphological approach Attention to: • uniqueness and richness of the place

+

• permanence / sustainability • ‘form’ in planning processes • relation architecture - urbanism • relation form - use

Evaluation of the classical morphological approach

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Positive points: Attention to - uniqueness and richness of the place as opposed to an abstract and distancing approach. This makes it possible to connect with peoples daily experience and to incorporate these in plans and designs. The researchers and designers are the persons that order and process the information using their skills, general knowledge and knowledge acquired by analysis of the context. The is quite different from the idea that the ideas and opinions of inhabitants should be incorporated in a design process via interviews using lists of questions that are scored and processed. These may be more representative for a limited number of items (at least if the ideas of natural science are the benchmark for the quality of research) but they impoverish information. - permanence and sustainability. These represent the 'remembrance' of the city and define its image. It makes it possible for people to get attached to a place and to feel at home. Sustainability in another meaning of the word point towards care for the environment. Permanence as an aspect of this. Not having to change the environment of being able to adapt it easily to changes of use contributes to the environment by saving materials and energy. - it as a way to introduce the aspect of 'form' in planning processes by taking it out of the realm of arbitrariness. The methodical approach links up with methodical approaches in planning without disregarding the non-rational aspects of form. It makes it possible to discus form on the basis of founded arguments. - it relates architecture to urbanism to the benefit of both. - it relates form and use. Thus avoiding the pitfall of either basing designs only on form or only on function. The last two points mean that morphological research can be a means to approach the spatial environment as

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Evaluation classical morphological approach Attention to: • uniqueness and richness of the place

+

• permanence / sustainability • ‘form’ in planning processes • relation architecture - urbanism • relation form - use

-

• time consuming and labour intensive • little attention for structure • integration in design process

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Evaluation of the classical morphological approach Negative points: - Thorough morphological research is time consuming and labor intensive. In principle this is a problem with all good quality research in urban design and architecture. In practice those who commission designs or research in most cases do not want to spend large amounts of money on research. Alas the world of architecture and urban design is haunted by the false idea that design decisions are largely a question of either taste or politics, both being irrational. In other technical domains it has been recognized for long that research pays off. There is no reason to believe why this would not be the case in architecture and urban design. Good research may cost money in short term, but in the end it saves money for the project as a whole. - Most morphologists pay little attention to structure. The Italian and English 'schools' see cities as an aggregation of parcels and buildings. The human mind always structures information, including information about the environment. So paying attention to structure should be part of communication about the environment. Structure is also an important tool of urban design (see the bachelors course in Urban design 7w220, Dutch only). - Although morphology can be a way of integrating 'form' into the planning process, using the results in design is not as easy as one would think. First of all some approaches by their nature provide little clues for design, in particular the English approach. Secondly, knowing about the morphological structure and processes gives no direct answer to the question what to do with the knowledge. Only very simplistic designers would say for instance: 'by definition restore a historical structure', or: 'use the historic types as a model for new buildings'. This of course is a risk of all 'methods' and 'instruments' in design, that they become a 'template' in stead of a way of thinking.

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