Typography in Graphic Design

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TypographyinGraphicDesign TypographyisawordthathasitsoriginsintheoldGreeklangu Typographyisawordthathasitsoriginsinthe oldGreeklanguage;typosmeans age;typosmeans formandgraphemeanswritinginGree formandgraphemeanswritinginGreek.Sotypographyisate k.Sotypographyisatechniqueandanar chniqueandanartinthe tinthe sametimethathelpsustocommunicate sametimethathelpsustocommunicatevisuallyourlangu visuallyourlanguage. age. Ino Inord rder ert to oun unde ders rsta tand ndt typ ypog ogra raph phy ywe weh hav ave eto tok kno now wab abou out tty type pefa face ce,,po poin int tsi size ze,,li line ne length,leading,tracking,kerning.There length,leading,tracking,kerning.ThereforIwillgiveasho forIwillgiveashortdescriptionofthe rtdescriptionoftheseterms, seterms, bellow: Typefaceisasetofcharactersthatha Typefaceisasetofcharactersthathaveasimilardesign.Theya veasimilardesign.Theyaresomanytypefa resomanytypefaces ces existingonthemarkettodayandnewon existingonthemarkett odayandnewonesarebeingdevelo esarebeingdevelopedcontinuously pedcontinuously.. Theartandcraftofdesigningtypefacesisca Theartandcraftofdesigningtypefacesiscalledtypedesignand lledtypedesignandthedesignersareca thedesignersarecalled lled typedesigners.Intheworldofdigital typedesigners.Intheworldofdigitaltypography,which typography,whichissomuchdevelop issomuchdevelopedtoday,the edtoday,the typedesignersarealsocalledfontd typedesignersarealsocalledfontdesignersorfontde esignersorfontdevelopers. velopers. •

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Pointsize Linelengthisthewidthoccupiedbyablocko Linelengthisthewidth occupiedbyablockoftypesettext;itismeasu ftypesettext;itismeasuredininches, redininches, picasandpoints.Thetextinsidethelinecanbefl picasandpoints.Thete xtinsidethelinecanbeflushleft(aligned ushleft(alignedtotheleftmargin) totheleftmargin) andraggedright,flushrightandragge andraggedright,flushrightandraggedleftorjustified dleftorjustified–alllinesareequa –alllinesareequalinlength linlength andthetextisalignedalongboththel andthetextisaligned alongboththeleftandrightmargin. eftandrightmargin. Leadingisthedistancebetweenthebaseline Leadingisthedistancebe tweenthebaselinesofsuccessivelinesoftyp sofsuccessivelinesoftype.Inourdays, e.Inourdays, especiallyinwordprocessingsoftware,le especiallyinwordpro cessingsoftware,leadingisknownas“linespacing”o adingisknownas“linespacing”or r “interlinespacing”. Trackingmeansadjustingthespacebetweengr Trackingmeansadjustingth espacebetweengroupsofletters. oupsofletters. Kerningmeansadjustingthespacebetwee Kerningmeansadjustingt hespacebetweenpairsofletters. npairsofletters. Letterformmeanstheshapeofa Letterformmeanstheshapeofaletter;alsomean letter;alsomeansthe“studyanddesigno sthe“studyanddesignof f individualletters”. Letterformsaredesignedformetal Letterformsaredesignedformetalprintorcomputer. printorcomputer.

Theoriginofletterform Intheancienttime,peopleusedpicturestotransmittheirme Intheancienttime,peopleusedpictur estotransmittheirmessagesorto ssagesorto communicate.Theyarecalledpictogram communicate.Theyarecalledpictograms.Aseriesofpicturesfo s.Aseriesofpicturesfoundacoupleo undacoupleof f thousandyearsagoBCdemonstratethat.

2600-1900BC WritingsfromIndus Valleycivilization TheearliestscriptinIndia sofarknownistheIndus Valleypictographicscript. Over4000symbolbearing sealshavebeendiscovered intheIndusValley.

2 Afterawhile,thepictogramswerere Afterawhile,thepictogramswerereplacedbytheide placedbytheideographs.Thesea ographs.Thesearethesymbols rethesymbols thatrepresentanidea,apictureor thatrepresentanidea,apictureoragroupofpictur agroupofpictures.Theywereuse es.Theywereusedespeciallyby despeciallyby theNativeAmericansandEgyptians. SomesaythatChinesealphabetisbasedo SomesaythatChinese alphabetisbasedonideographsorp nideographsorpictographs.Butthisis ictographs.Butthisis wrongbecausemostcharacterscontainph wrongbecausemostcharacterscontainphoneticpartstoo.Th oneticpartstoo.Thereforeitisrecog ereforeitisrecognised nised todaythatChinesecharactersevolve todaythatChinesecharactersevolvedfrom“earlierfo dfrom“earlierformofhieroglyp rmofhieroglyphs. hs. Formanyyearspeopleusedtocommu Formanyyearspeopleusedtocommunicatetheirideasbyd nicatetheirideasbydrawingpicturescalle rawingpicturescalled d “pictograms”. “ASan,orBushman,pictographsfound “ASan,orBushman,pictographsfoundintheTsodiloHillsof intheTsodiloHillsofBotswana.Someo Botswana.Someofthe fthe paintingshavebeendatedas24,000 paintingshavebeenda tedas24,000yearsold,makingth yearsold,makingthisoneoftheold isoneoftheoldestsuch estsuch sitesyetdiscovered.

300,000BC–50,000BCPaleolithic 70,000BC–AfricanPythonGod 70,000BC–PythonWorship 70,000BC–AfricanreligionPredatesHinduism 38,000BC–32,000BCtusk

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InSouthAfrica,intheremoteNgamilandregionofBotswana,itwasfoundtheoldestcult object.Thiswasa“mysteriousrock”thatlookedlike“theheadofahugepython”andwas “sixmeterlong”bytwo-metertallrock.Onittheydiscoveredalsothree-to-fourhundred indentationsthatcouldonlyhavebeenman-made. HieroglyphswerefirstintroducedbyEgyptiansandtheyrepresentsobjects,ideasbutalso sounds.

EgyptianhieroglyphstypicaloftheGraeco-Romanperiod, sculptedinRelief . Glyphs:owl,viper,3-strokes(plural),'breadbun',cloth http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieroglyph

4 InGreek,hieroglyphmeans“sacredcarving”asthecharacterswereincravedinstones. Hieroglyphicsarefoundonthewells’caves,insidepyramids,crypts,burialchambers,on papyrusscrolls.ItissaidthatthehieroglyphicswereusedintheAncientEgyptformore than3,000years.However,theyweredifficulttomakeandlearnandbecauseofthis,mainly royalty,scribes,priestandpoliticiansusedthem. Inthe1st centuryA.D.thehieroglyphicsweren’tusedanymore. In1799,duringtheNapoleon’sreign,hisarmyfoundnearAlexandria,inapacecalled Rosetta,abrokenpieceofrockwithcarvedtextwrittenin3differentlanguages,but meaningthesamething. TwoofthoselanguageswereEgyptianlanguagesscripts-hieroglyphicanddemotic(a cursivehieroglyphicstyleofwriting)andoneinclassicalGreek.ThisRosettaStonewas createdin196BCandnotlongafteritwasdiscoveredbytheFrench,theEnglishtookitto theircountryin1802.TodayitcanbeseenattheBritishMuseuminLondon.Thebritish scientistThomasYoungandtheFrenchscholarJean-FrancoisChampollionwerestydying thehieroglyphicscravedonthisstone,tryingtodeciphertheprinciplesofhieroglyphs writing.Thisstoneis114.4cm,72.3cmwideand27.9cmthick,weighingalmost760kg.It wassupposedtobeinitiallyofgraniteorbasaltbuttodaytheysayitismadeofgranodiorite ofadarkgrey-pinkishcolour.

ImageRosettastoneattheBritish MuseumLondon

ImageRosettastonecloseup

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GreekAlphabet

“BelowisatablelistingtheGreekletters,aswellas theirformswhenromanized.Thetablealsoprovides theequivalentPhoenicianletterfromwhicheachGreek letterisderived.Pronunciationstranscribedusingthe InternationalPhoneticAlphabet.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet

6 TheGreekalphabetisover2500yearsoldanditwasborrowedfromPhoenicians.While GreeksweretradingwithPhoenicians,theysawthemwritingthingsdownandthoughtthat wasverycleversotheydecidedtoaddacoupleofvowelstothePhoeniciansalphabetand startusingitthemselves.ThisishowtheGreeksstartedtheirwrittenlanguage.Theyhave leftuswonderfulfables,mythsandlegends,hugeepics,storiesandplays.Theyusedtowrite toeachotherletterstosharetheirdailylife. WhatweusetodayfromtheGreekalphabetarethevowels. Eventheword“alpha-bet”ismadeupofthefirsttwolettersoftheGreekalphabet:alpha andbeta. Inourtimes,peoplechangedtheGreekalphabetsothelettersweusetodaydonotlookthe sameastheoneoftheGreekalphabetandtheyarepronouncedinadifferentwaytoo.The orderoflettersisalsodifferentfromtheoneoftheGreekalphabet. Lookatthepicturebellow:

http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Ancient_Greek

FactsabouttheEvolutionofAlphabets (from“HistoryoftheAlphabet”taughtbyProf.RobertFradkinatUniversityofMaryland) TheevolutionoftheCuneiformcharacterset “Sumerianpicturesevolvedintosyllabicsymbolsusedbymanylanguagesforalmosttwo thousandsyearsbeforethePhoeniciansdevelopedthesingle-soundsymbolsweknowasan alphabet. “Thecuneiformscriptunderwentconsiderablechangesoveraperiodofmorethantwo millennia.TheimagebelowshowsthedevelopmentofthesignSAG"head". •

Stages: 1. showsthepictogramasitwasdrawnaround3000BC 2. showstherotatedpictogramaswrittenaround2800BC 3. showstheabstractedglyphinarchaicmonumentalinscriptions,fromca.2600BC

7 4. isthesignaswritteninclay,contemporarytostage3 5. representsthelate3rdmillennium 6. representsOldAssyrianductusoftheearly2ndmillennium,asadoptedintoHittite 7. isthesimplifiedsignaswrittenbyAssyrianscribesintheearly1stmillennium,anduntil thescript'sextinction.

CuneiformtabletfromtheKirkor MinassiancollectionintheUSLibraryof Congress,ca.24thcenturyBC. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform

AlistofSumeriandeities,ca.2400BC

TheevolutionofThePhoeniciancharactersetfromtheProte-Sinaiticglyphs TherearethepictographsfoundintheSinaipeninsula,ca.1500BCandareassumedtobe thesourceofthesoundsymbolsdevelopedseveralcenturieslaterbythePhoenicians. •

AspecimenofProto-Sinaiticscript containingaphrasewhichmaymean'to Ba'alat'. Thelinerunningfromtheupperleftto lowerrightmayreadmtlbclt . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Bro nze_Age_alphabets

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TheevolutionofTheGreekcharactersetfromitsPhoenicianroots 1.TheeventualevolutionoftheArabicCharactersetfromitsPhoenicianroots 2.NotpicturedarethedevelopmentsofAramicandNabatean,whichledtothe modernArabicscript. ThePhoeniciancharacters,whichisGreekrotated90degrees,orthenonsymmetricalcharactersthatflippedhorizontallywhenthedirectionofGreek switchedfromlefttoright.

9 •

TheevolutionoftheSquareAramaic/HebrewcharactersetfromthePhoenician characterset

WhatwecallsquareHebrewcertainly*was*the Aramaicscript. http://www.ancientsudan.org/images/14_articles_ElephantinePa rusCol6cmh. if

TheHebrewalphabetisadescendantoftheAramaicalphabet, whichisitselfadescendantofthePhoenicianalphabet. http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2010/06/22/the-beautyof-typography-writing-systems-and-calligraphy-part-2/

10 •

TheevolutionoftheModernCyrilliccharactersetfromtheGreekcharacterset

CyrillicscriptspreadthroughouttheEastandSouthSlavicterritories,beingadoptedfor writinglocallanguages,suchastheOldEastSlavic.Itsadaptationtolocallanguages producedanumberofCyrillicalphabets,discussedhereafter.

TheearlyCyrillicalphabet 

Е

Z

І

КЛ

ПР Ѳ Ѵ 

Capitalandlowercaseletterswerenotdistinguishedinoldmanuscripts. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script •

TheevolutionoftheLatincharacterset (http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html)

SomescientistsaidthatGreekadoptedthePhoenicianalphabetatthebeginningofthe8th centuryB.C.,perhapsinEuboca.“EubocaisthesecondlargestGreekislandinareaand population,afterCrete.” Itissaidthatthisislandwasoncepartofthemainlandandanearthquakeseparatedit. TherewerefoundGreekinscriptionsfrom770–750B.C.thatmatchedPhoenicianletter formsofc.800–750B.C. Aneg.IstheDipyloninscriptionandthe“CupofNestor”bothfrom8thcenturyB.C.They belongedtoaprivatepersonandwerededicatedtoGod.

Thetextoftheinscriptionruns: ΗΟΣΝΥΝΟΡΧΕΣΤΟΝΠΑΝΤΟΝΑΤΑΛΟΤΑΤΑΠΑΙΖΕΙΤΟΤΟΔΕΚΛΜΙΝ Literaltranslation: Whoeverofallthesedancersnowplaysmostdelicately,tohimthis... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipylon_inscription

11

The "Nestor's cup" from Mycenae

Theso-calledNestor'scupfromPithekoussai, Ischia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor's_Cup

Thisisaninscriptiononthispotteryvesseldatedtoca.740BC,isoneoftheoldestexample oftheuseoftheGreekalphabet. Itwasfoundin1871,intheancientDipyloncemetery,nearDipylonGate. TodaycanbefoundintheNationalArchaeologicalMuseumofAthens. •

MoreaboutNestor’sCup

This“CupofNestor”fromMycenaeisagoldengobletexcavatedbyHeinrichSchliemannin 1876alongwithotherobjects,oneofgold.Itlooksliketheonefrom“TheIliad”which Homerdescribeditinthisway”  “Besidetheseshesetacup, amagnificentworkNestorhadbroughtfromhome, studdedwithgold.Therewerefourhandlesonit, aroundeachoneapairofgoldendoveswasfeeding, belowweretwosupports.Whenthatcupwasfull, anothermancouldhardlyliftitfromthetable, but,oldashewas,Nestorpickeditupwithease.”

RomanInscriptions BecauseGreekwasspokenintheeasternhalfoftheRomanempire,wehavelefttoday almostthesamenumbersofRomaninscriptionsinGreekasinLatin.Oftentheofficials puttedtheinscriptionsupinbothlanguages.SuchexamplesfoundinCyprusandit’sonan ex-slavewoman’stombstone.HernamewasJuliaDonata.

12

Plaquewith bilingualinscription, EarlyImperial,1st centuryA.D. Roman,Cypriot;said tobefromLarnaca (Kition),Cyprus, Limestone

Thisfuneraryplaqueisunusualinthatithasinscriptions(CILIII,6731=IGRIII,983) inbothLatinandGreek,eachofwhichfollowsconventionsappropriatetotherespective language.ItreadsinLatinabove:"JuliaDonata,thefreedwomanofOlympus,lieshere,"and inGreekbelow:"GoodIouliaDonata,thefreedwomanofOlympos,farewell."

Statuetteofatemple boy,3rdcenturyB.C.; HellenisticCypriot;Said tobefromthetempleof ApolloHylatesatKourion Terracotta

13 Some300statuettesofseatedchildren,likethisone,havebeenfoundinsanctuaries onCyprus.Thegreatmajoritydepictsboysabouttwoyearsold,usuallyseatedwithoneleg bent,andshownnudeorwearingashorttunicthatallowsthegenitaliatobeseen.Manyare bedeckedwithearrings,fingerrings,andpendantamuletsacrossthechest.Thesignificance oftheseseatedchildrenisnotknown,althoughtheyareconventionallyreferredtoas "templeboys"inscholarlyliterature.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheyrepresentchildren consecratedasservantstoadivinity,acustomwellattestedinEasterncivilizations.More likely,however,theywereplacedintemplestomarkariteofpassageinaboy'slifeandto secureforhimdivineprotection.Thisterracottastatuetteissaidtobefromthetempleof ApolloHylatesatKourion.Herakleswouldhavebeenaparticularlyaptprotectorforayoung boy,havingfirstdisplayedhisgreatphysicalstrengthasaninfant,whenhestrangledtwo serpentsinhiscradle. Therewerefoundsomeinscriptionsinotherlanguagestooliketheonefoundongrove stoneinPalmyrene,whichisanancientformofAramaic.Oneofalltheselanguages continuedtoflourishduringtheRomanEmpire.ThatoneistheHebrewlanguage.

BowlFragmentswith Menorah,Shofar,and TorahArk ,4thcentury RomanorByzantine Glass,goldleaf

Thesefragmentsofgoldglass,datingfromthefourthcentury,originallyformedthe decorativebaseofabowlorcup.Thebasewascreatedbyaffixingapatterningoldleafto thebottomofthevesselandthencoveringthedecorationwithanotherlayerofglass.The useofthisgold-glasstechniqueflourishedinthethirdandfourthcenturiesinRome.This fragmentedbaseisamongthefewsurvivingworksthatdepictJewishobjects;most remnantsofsuchdrinkingvesselsaredecoratedwithChristianorsecularmotifs.The majorityofthesurvivingexampleswerefoundintombs,especiallyinthecatacombsin Rome. Thedecorationofthisbase,likethatofotherHebrewexamples,isdividedintotwo semicircularregisters.TheupperregisterdepictssymbolsofJewishculture.Inthecenteris anopenTorahshrine.ThegableofthearkissupportedbytwocolumnswithCorinthian capitals.Thedoorsoftheshrineareopen,revealingfourshelvesholdingsixscrolls.Sevenbranchedmenorotsitoneithersideoftheark.Tothefarrightstandsashofar,orram's horn,andtotheleftaroundobjectwhichmaybematzoh,theunleavenedbreadeatenatthe JewishfestivalofPassover.Surroundingtheleftmenorahareascrollandtheremainsofan

14 etrog—afruitusedintheharvestfestivalofSukkoth—whichcanbeseenontheedge ofthefragment.Althoughlittleofthelowerregisterremains,itdepictsabanquethallwith garlandsonthewallsandcushionssurroundingatableuponwhichrestsasmallerthreeleggedtableholdingafish.SuchbanquetingscenesarealsoseeninChristianandpagan funeraryart.Theyaresymbolicoftheagape,orfellowshipmeal,honoringthedeceased. Boththeupperandlowerregistersaresurroundedbyaninscription,readingIBIBASCVM EVLOGIACOKP(ARARE)—Drinkwithpraisetogether.Theinscription,thesymbolsinthe upperregister,andthebanquetscenebelowsuggestthatthisfragmentofgoldglassmay havebeenthebaseofadrinkingvesselusedduringthePassoverfestivalandburiedwithits ownertoblesshimintheafterlife.

BowlBasewithOldand NewTestamentScenes, ca.350–400 Byzantine,saidtohave beenfoundin1715inthe RomancatacombofSaint Callisto Glass,goldleaf

Ayouthwiththeinscription"live"inLatinissurroundedbyimagesofmiracles. ChristappearswithawandbesidetheThreeHebrewsintheFieryFurnace,attheWedding atCana,andCuringtheParalytic.Tobiaspullstheliverfromthelargefishtocurehisfather.

LampwithJewishSymbols, made350–450 Byzantine;Terracotta

Thisisoneofthefewsurvivinglamps decoratedwithJewishsymbols.It displaysamenorahflankedbyan etrog(citron)andalulav(palm branch),bothindistinct.

15

BowlBasewithSaintsPeter andPaulFlankingaColumn withtheChristogramof Christ ,madelate300s Byzantine,fromRome Glass,goldleaf

SaintsPeterandPaul, identifiedbythe inscriptionsinLatin,are shownwiththeshort curlyhairandpointed beardtypicallyassociated witheachman.According toChristiantradition,they werebothmartyredin Rome.

HexagonalBottle,500–629Byzantine;PossiblyfromSyria, Glass,mold-blown

Glassvesselssuchas theseweremadeforJews andChristians,possiblyas tokensforpilgrims visitingtheholysitesin Jerusalemorforusein burialrites.Theyappear tohavebeenmassproducedinasingle workshop,sincethe vesselsforthetwo religionscloselyresemble eachotherinshapeand styleanddifferonlyinthe symbolsdecoratingthem. Thisvessel,intendedfora Jewishpatron,showsa menorah,ashofar,anda lulavinrelief.Ritual elementsusedinJewish festivalsinsynagogues weretypicallyusedto representJudaisminthis periodratherthanthe StarofDavid,which appearsmuchlater.

16 PicturewithTheRomanRepublic

NotmanyinscriptionssurvivedfromtheRomanRepublic.Morewehavefrom Imperialperiod–thetimeofthe1st emperorAugustus(27B.C.–14A.D.)untilthethird centuryA.D. TheremustbehundredofthousandofRomaninscriptionsfoundbythe archaeologists.TheyalltellusaboutthelifeintheRomanWorld. Theseinscriptionshadthreedifferentsizesandweremadeonvariousmediasuchas stone,metal,pottery,mosaic,fresco,glass,wood,andpapyrus. Thelargestonewerededicatedtothegodsoremperors,wereofficialdocuments suchasimperiallettersanddecrees. Themiddlesizeonesweredoneoncoinsand representedthenames,titlesofrulers,theirportraits sometimeswefoundthisinscriptionsonbronze tablets. OnthestreetwallsatPompeiitherewere foundatypeofcasualinscriptionscalledgraffiti. ThesmallsizeRomaninscriptionswereseen onpapyrusletters.Itwasfoundoneinparticularthat containashoppinglist. AnotherinterestingfactisthatRomansused toliketowritedownalotofdetailsaboutaperson whodied,suchastheirage,occupationandlife history.Thesethingswereinscribedonfunerary monumentsandarecalledepitaphs. Anexampleofthiskindofartcalledfunerary artisthealtarmadeofmarbleofCominiaTyche. MarblefuneraryaltarofCominiaTyche

17 Thewomanwhoseportraitbustdominatesthefrontofthisfuneraryaltaris identifiedbytheLatininscriptionbelowher.Itreads:“Tothespiritsofthedead.Lucius AnniusFestus[setthisup]forthemostsaintlyCominiaTyche,hismostchasteandloving wife,wholived27years,11months,and28days,andalsoforhimselfandforhis descendants.”Cominiawearsanelaboratehairstylethatreflectsthehighfashionadoptedby ladiesoftheimperialcourtinthelateFlavianperiod(A.D.69–96).Theinscription,onthe otherhand,emphasizesherpietyandchastity,virtuesthatRomanmatronswere traditionallyexpectedtopossess.Thejugandpatera(shallowbowlwithhandle)onthe monument’ssidesalludetothecommonpracticeofpouringofferingstothedead.Thealtar isknowntohavebeeninahouseneartheForuminRomeinthesixteenthcenturyandto haveenteredthecollectionofCardinalFrancescoBarberiniduringtheseventeenthcentury. (http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/130014064) •

Carvings

“TheRomanslettersderivedfrostonecarvings,areupright,withserifandvariation ofthickandthinstrokes.” TheTimesNewRomanfontweusetodayisaRomantypefaceandhasalsolowercase lettersaddedtotheromanuppercaseletterswehaveinheritedfromourancestors.

http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/mjodonnell//cojo256/pdf/type1.pdf

18

IIIndustrialandtechnologicaladvances •

printingpress,linotype,moveabletype,fonts,hotmetalpress,desktoppublishing, internet Part of the series on the History of  printing

Woodblock printing Movable type Intaglio Printing press Lithography Chromolithography Rotary press Flexography Mimeograph Hot metal typesetting Offset press

200 1040 1430s 1454 1796 1837 1843 1873 1876 1886 1903

Screen-printing Dye-sublimation Phototypesetting Photocopier Pad printing Laser printer Dot matrix printer Thermal printer Inkjet printer 3D printing Stereolithography Digital press

1907 1957 1960s 1960s 1960s 1969 1970 1976 1986 1986 1993

Historyofprinting Aprintingpressisamachineforprintingtextorpicturesonpaperorclothsby applyingpressuretoaninkedsurface.Theinkistransferredintothatpaperorcloth. Itisknownthatthisinventionisoneofthemostrevolutionizingonceofthesecond millennium. In1440,theGermanJohannesGutenberginventedtheprintingpress.Hisinvention wasbasedonscrewpressthatexistedbefore.Ascrewpressis“atypeofmachinepressin whichtheramisdrivenupanddownbyascrew.” ThescrewpresswasinventedbyromansinthefirstcenturyC.E.anditwasusedfor makingthewineandoliveoil.

Ball-drivescrewpress http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_press

19

ThepressinventedbyGutenbergin1436waswoodenand“itwasthefirstformof printingtousemovabletype”. In1440Gutenbergwasabletoprintslipsofpaper,whichweresoldbytheCatholic Church“toremittemporalpunishmentinpurgatoryforsinscommittedinthislife”. Onlythewealthyclassofpeopleboughttheseindulgences. HereisabriefhistoryofJohannesGutenberg’slifefromthislink: http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/gutenberg.htm

Inventoroftheprintingpress,HenneGänsfleischzurLaden,commonlycalled JohannesGutenberg,wasbornabout1400anddiedin1468atMainz,Germany.Gutenberg wasthesonofFriele(Friedrich)GänsfleischandElseWyrich.Johanneslastnamewas derivedfromthehouseinhabitedbyhisfatherandhispaternalancestors"zuLaden,zu Gutenberg". 888TheDiamondSutra,aBuddhistscripture,wasthefirstdatedexampleofblockprinting. 1041BiShenginChinainventedmovableclaytype 1400JohannesGutenbergborninMainz,Germany 1423Europeansusexylography(artofengravingonwood,blockprinting)toproduce books. 1430GutenbergmovedfromhisnativetownofMainztoStrasburg 1436Gutenbergbeginsworkonhisprintingpress. 1437Gutenbergwassuedfor"breachofpromiseofmarriage"byayoungladyofStrasburg 1440Gutenbergcompletedhiswoodenpresswhichusedmovablemetaltype. 1440LaurensJanszoonKoster(Coster)iscredited,bysome,withinventingmovablemetal type 1444GutenbergreturnstoMainzandsetsupaprintingshop 1446Gutenbergprintsthe"PoemoftheLastJudgment" 1448Gutenbergprintsthe"Calendarfor1448" 1450Gutenberg'formedapartnershipwiththewealthyJohannFust 1450GutenbergbeginsworkonaBible,thefirstis40linesperpage. 1452Gutenbergbeginsprintingthe42-lineBibleintwovolumes. 1454Gutenbergprintsindulgences(notessoldtoChristiansbythePope,pardoningtheir sins) 1455Firstblock-printedBible,theBibliaPauperum,publishedinGermany. 1455Gutenbergcompletedworkonwhatisestimatedtobe200copiesoftheBible 1455Gutenbergwaseffectivelybankrupt.InvestorJohannFaustgainscontrolofprint business 1457Firstknowncolorprinting,aPsalter(acollectionofPsalmsfordevotionaluse)by Faust. 1460GutenbergreestablishedhimselfintheprintingbusinesswiththeaidofConrad Humery 1461AlbrechtPfisterprintedthefirstillustratedbookEdelsteinwhichfeaturedanumberof woodcuts. 1465GutenbergisappointedtothecourtofArchbishopAdolfofNassau 1458JohannesGutenbergdiedFebruary3,inMainz,German 1499Printinghadbecomeestablishedinmorethan2500citiesaroundEurope. 1499Anestimated15millionbookshavebeenpressprinted,representingthirtythousand booktitles CAPs:JohannesGutenberg,JohannGutenberg,BiSheng,LaurensJanszoonKoster,Johann Faust,PeterSchoffer,AlbrechtPfister,ConradHumery,ArchbishopAdolfofNassau,William

20

Caxton,GutenbergBible,42-lineBible,MazarinBible,DiamondSutra,PoemoftheLast Judgment,Calendarfor1448,Psalter,Aesop'sFables (More info at: www.gutenberg.de/english/erfinder.htm)

Lynotype isamachineusedinprinting.Itwasalsocalleda“linecasting”machine. Thismachinemakesonelineatatime.

LinotypemachineModel6,builtin1965(DeutschesMuseum),with majorcomponentslabeled.

Typeslug-Printside

Typeslug, sideview

21

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www.brtitanica.com-ausefulsiteforlinotypeetc watchedavideoonvimeo http://vimeo.com/43462615 Linotypefilm.com Watchedavideoaboutlinotypeat http://archive.org/details/typesett1960 Morevideo–www.linotypefilm.com/resources.html

AddtheposterfromTheMuseumofprinting,NorthAndover www.museumofprinting.org/MOP_poster.pdf  (Ihaveprinted3pageposter) I’vewatchedonYoutubemorevideosaboutmanualtypesetting www.youtube.com/watch?v=5LCESWE1jw0 Thelinotypemachineismadeoffourmajorsections: 1. magazine 2. keyboard 3. castingmechanism 4. distributionmechanism Let’sdescribethesecomponentsnow: Thekeyboardhas10characters,hasn’tgotashiftkeyanduppercaselettersare separatedfromlowercaseletters.Thelower-caselettersareontheleftandarein black;theupper-caselettersarelocatedontherightandareinwhite.Betweenthem therearethebluekeysforpunctuationanddigits. Matrices Anotherimportantcomponentsofthismachinearethematrices.Theyaremoldsfor theletterforms,inaline.Eachmatrixcorrespondstooneletterformforaparticular characterofafontoftype,whichisengravedintoonesideofthematrix. Thecharacter’ssizecanbeupto14pointsoreven16to24points.Thematrixhas twoletterformsonitandtheyaretwopositionsinwhichtheycanbeplaced: ‘normal’or‘auxiliarypositions’(theslantedformofthecharacterknownasItalic) (theuprightformofacharacterknownsRoman) Onceallthematricesareassembledtogethertoformaline,thenthelineiscastedasa singlepiece,calleda“slug”.Aslugisapieceofmetal.Thisprocessisknownas“hot metal”typesetting. Magazine–thisistheplacewhenthematricesarekeptwhennotinuse.Oncethe operatorspressacertainkeyonthekeyboard,itscorrespondingmatriceisrelated. TheyaremanymagazinesforoneLinotypemachinebecausesomehaslargerfonts andothernormalfonts. Themagazineis“aflatboxwithverticalseparatorsthatformchannels”.Eachchanel correspondtoasinglecharacterofafonttype.Ingeneral,themagazinehasgot90channels buttheyaresomewith28channelsalso. [ExtractfromWikipedia] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linotype_machine •

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Movabletype Movabletypeisasystemusedinprintingandtypography.Itusesmovable componentstorecreatelettersorpunctuationofadocument. Around1040ADinChina,duringtheSongDynasty,BiSheng(990-1051)createdthe firstmovable-typesystemintheworld. •

Around1230,inKorea,duringtheGoryeo typesystemforprinting.

22 Dynastyappearedthefirstmetalmovable

In1377wasprintedJikji–abookusingthesamemovabletypesystem,just78yearspriorto JohannesGutenberg’s“42timeBible”(1452-1455).ThisbookisaKoreanBuddhist documentanditstitlemeans“AnthologyofGreatBuddhistPriests’ZenTeachings.”In September2001UNESCOconfirmedJikjiasbeingtheworld’soldestmetalloidtype”and includeditintheMemoryoftheWorldProgramme. Thesemovable-typesystemswasveryexpensivebecausethethousandofceramicormetal tabletsneededforthescriptswerehardtocarry,especiallyinthecaseofChinesewriting systemthathasthousandsofcharacters. ThegreatinventionofJohannesGutenbergaround1450oftheprintedpresswasagreat help.AfterthatthemovabletypesystemspreadinwholeEuropeandinmanycountriesthe typewascastedbasedonamatrixandhandmould.Gutenbergwasthefirsttocreatehis typepiecesfromanalloyoflead,tinandantimony. Lead(asoft,malleablepoormetal,Pb,plumbum,aheavymetalusedinbuilding constructions) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lead •



Metallic, gray, lead

Asampleofrecentlysolidified lead(fromamoltenstate) •

Galena,lead

Tin(Sn,stannum,silvery,malleablepost-transitionmetal,noteasilyoxidizedinair, usedtocoatothermetalstopreventcorrosion)

Silvery (left, beta) or gray (right, alpha)

Dropletofsolidifiedmoltentin

23

Sampleofcassiterite,themainoreoftin.

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A21stcentury reproductionbarn lanternmadeof punchedtin.

Antimony(stibium,Sb,atoxicchemicalelement,alustrousgraymetalloid;inancient timeswasusedforcosmetics)

Antimony,silvery,lustrous,gray

Nativeantimonywithoxidationproducts

Stibnite Woodblockprintingwasaslowprocessespeciallyforalphabeticscriptswhereasmovabletypeprocesswasquicker,moredurableandtheletteringwasmoreuniform,leadingto typographyandfonts. IfwethinkofthelowpriceoftheGutenbergBibleandofitshighquality,wewillunderstand whythemovabletypeandprintingpressspreadsoeasilyinEurope.

24 TheHotmetaltypesetting Inthe19thcenturyanewinventioncalled“thehotmetaltypesetting”mademovableto decline. Hotmetaltypesetting(1886) “Thismethodinjectsmoltentypemetalintoamoldthathastheshapeofoneormoreglyphs. Theresultingsortsandslugsarelaterusedtopressinkontopaper.” Inthe19thcenturytheyweretwodifferentsystemsoftype-settings: - monotypecompositioncastersystem - super-caster Monotypecompositioncastersystemmeansthatthelinesoftextsarecastedanddelivered withtheaidofperforatedpaper-ribbonsproducedonthekeyboardandallcharactersare castseparate.Thetextsproducedcouldbeupto36pointsin“large-composition.” TheSuper-caster,“anothermachineproducedbyMonotype,wassimilarinfunctiontothe Thompson,bath,pivotalandotherscastersbutdesignedtoproducesingletype(including evenlargersizes)forhandsetting.” Anotherwayofprintingthetextswastocastawholelineasoneslug.Thissystemwasused byatleastfiveenterprises: - Linotype - IntertypeCorporation - theTypograph,producedinGermania - TheMonoline,averybasicmachine •

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Desktoppublishing TheabbreviationofDesktoppublishingisDTP. In1983,JamesBessendevelopedaprogramcalledTypeProcessorOne,thatrunonaPC usingaGraphiccardforWYSIWYGdisplay. In1984thisprogramwassoldonthemarketbyBestinfo. In1985ApplecreatedtheLaserWriterprinterwhomadeDTPflourishevenmore.Soon AldusintroducedPageMakersoftware,whichbecametheDTPindustrystandardsoftware. BeforeDTPappear,weknowthatpeoplecouldproducetypeddocumentsonlywitha typewriterwhichwaslimitedintermsofthesizeandtypeoffontthatcouldbeused.Astep aheadwasmadewhenwiththehelpofdesktoppublishing;peoplecouldprintpageswith textandgraphicelementsat300dpiresolution.Thiswasarevolutionforboththe typesettingindustryandthepersonalcomputerindustry. In1980mostnewspapersandprintcompaniesstopusingsystemslikeAtexandstart workingwithDTP–basedprograms. TheuseofthePageMaker–LaserWriter-Macintosh512ksystemwasatatimean importantdiscoverybutithadalsoitsfaultslike:sufferedmanycrashes,thedisplayonthe Mac’stiny512x3421-bitmonochromescreenwasn’tgood,couldn’tcontrolwelltheletter spacing,kerning(thespacebetweencharactersinproportionalfont). TheAmericanmultinationalcomputersoftwarecompanyfoundedin1982,havingits headquartersinSanJose,California,USwasstartedtodevelopreallygoodtechnologiesthat tookDTPevenfurther.NowAdobemadescalablePostScripts-fontswhichweresavedinto ROMmemoryoftheLaserWriterandLaserWriterPlusprinters.BecauseofthesePostScripts thedesignercouldtesttheirfilesonalocalprinterandthengotoaDTPservicebureauto printthematahigherresolution(opticalresolution)600+dpionprinterslikethosefrom Linotronic.Linotronicarehigh-qualityprintersthatpermittedtoprintfilesatupto2540 dotsperinch(dpi).InthiswaythequalityofthefilesprintedonLinotronicexceededthe qualityofthemajorityofphototypesettingsystems.TheLinotronicprintingwastoo expensivetobeusedathomeoratofficesbutwereabletofulfillthedreamsofmany designerintermofprintingverygoodwork. ThetechnologyadvancedevenmorewhentheMacintoshIIwasreleased.Thiswasthe1 st  personalcomputeroftheMacintoshIIseriesintheAppleMacintoshlineandofferedcolour

25 display.ItwasdesignedbyhardwareengineerMichaelDhuey(computer)andBrian Berkeley(monitor).It’sSCSI(SmallComputerSystemInterface)allowedtheusersto attachedhigh–capacityharddrivestoit. Macintosh–basedsystemcontinuedtobethemostusedcomputeronthemarket.However, inthistime,appearedanewDTPsoftwarecalledVenturaPublisherforIBMPCcompatible computersrunningtheGEMextensiontotheDOSoperatingsystem.Thishappenin1986. ThelastversionofVenturaSoftwareInc.was4.1.1.andappearedin1993. VenturawassuperiortothePageMakerbecauseofferedthedesignerthepossibilitytouse tags/stylesheets,generatedinchessowasusedmainlyforlong–formatdocuments. “DesktopPublishing”movedintothehomemarketin1986withProfesionalPageforthe Amiga,PublishingPartner(nowPageStream)fortheAtariST,GST’sTimeworksPublisheron theOCandAtariSTandCalamusfortheAtariTT030,evenfor8-bitcomputerslikethe AppleIIandCommodore64softwarewaspublished:HomePublisher,theNewsroomand geoPublish. Thoughinthebeginningdesktoppublishinghadabadreputationbecausethedesignerwere professionallytrainedandcreatedbadlayouts.ThesamehappenwithearlyWeb-Publishers. But,slowlyDesktopPublishingbecameacarrierandpeoplewhowantedtobecomeacarrier andpeoplewhowantedtobecomeadesktoppublisherhadtolearnthetechnicalskillsand thecreativeskillstoo.DTPisalsoasecondaryskilltoartdirectors,graphicdesigners, multimediadevelopersandmarketingcommunicators. Pagelayoutmeansthewayinwhichthetext,theimagesaredisplayedonthepage. Sometimesimagescanonlybemodifiedasanexternalsource.Embeddedimagescanbe modifiedwiththelayoutapplicationsoftware.Thetextalsocanbelinkedtoanexternal sourceoftext.Inthiswaymorethanoneeditorcanchangeitinthesametime. Graphicdesignstylessuchascolour,transparencyandfiltersmayalsobeappliedtolayout elements.” “Typographystylesmaybeappliedtothetextautomaticallywithstylesheets.”Theyarealso stylesheetsforimages,notonlyfortext.Theycanreflecttothebordershape,colour, transparency,filtersandparameterdesignatingthewaytextflowsaroundtheobjectcalled “wraparound”or“runaround”. ThewordprocessorsweusetodayoffersusmorethenDTPsoftwareusedinthepastin termsoflayout,marginsandlinespacing,indexing,spellchecking. TherearesomecommonaspectsbetweentheDTPpublishingandHypermediapublishing (i.e.Webdesign,Kiosk,CD-ROM).Thelayoutengineusedbysomeofthewebdesignerswho usedWYSIWYGeditors(likethoseinDreamweaverorMicrosoftFrontpage)aresimilartoa DTPprogram. Still,theprofessionalweb-designerswillprefertowriteHTMLcodebyhandbecauseifthey useWYSIWYGeditors,theycanexperiencecodebloat.(long,slowcodewithcompilation errors)

Fonts Ialsolookedatthewebsite:www.namethatfont.net wheretheyareacoupleoflogosthat belongtofamouscompaniesonthemarketandIhavetoguesswhattypeoffonttheyare using. Eg.Whattypeoffontisusedinthegooglelogotype? Thefontusedinwritingtheword“google”isCatullandit’sacommercialfontandcanbe boughtfromthiswebsite: www.myfonts.com/search/catull/fonts Afontiscomposedbya“setofcharactersofasinglesizeandstyleofaparticular typeface”. Thetypefaceisa“setofcharactersthatsharecommondesignfeatures.”Theyare designedbytypefacedesigners. •

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26

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface

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AnimportantlinkfromwhereIalsodidmyresearchis: www.planet-typography.com/news/typeface/anselm.html http://abc.planet-typography.com/20th/index.html

27 Startingwith1980,computersfonts“broadened”thedefinitionfortheterm“font”.These fontsweremadeofvectorshapesthatcouldbescaledfreelysodifferentsizesthatcouldbe scaledfreelysodifferentsizesofasinglestyleweregenerated.Anexampleisthetypeface Bulmerthathadfontslike“Bulmerroman”,“Bulmeritalic”,“Bulmerbold”and“Bulmer extended”.Thistypefontwasdesignedin1792andwasnamedaftertheprinterwhoused themsowellinhisShakespearePresseditions.ItsdesignerwasWilliamMartinwhowanted tocreate“theEnglish”answertothesharp,fineletterformsofItaly’sBodoniandFrance’s Didottypefoundries.” Becausetypedidmorethanimitatethestarknessofthemodern-styleDidot-Bodonitypes. Bycondensingtheletterforms,givingthestrokeshighercontrastandbracketingtheserif slightly…” EtymologyThefontcomesfromtheFrenchword“fonte”whichmeans“somethingthathas beenmelted”.Thisisbecauseoftheoldwaythetypewasproduced:castingmoltenmetalat atypefoundry..” MetaltypeLetterpresswasaformofprintingthatstartingwiththefirstinventionof JohannesGutenberginthemid.15thcenturyandcontinuedtillthe19thcentury. Iwatchedthevideo“LetterpressprintingprocesswithaHeidelbergWindmill”fromYoutube accountof“ajalonprinting.” Anothervideoabutletterpressis: “UniquetipsfortheWeidelbergWindmillfromtheYoutubeaccountofboxcarpress” metaltypewasusedintraditionalmanualprintingtotypesetanentirepage.Linespacing called“leading”becausethestripsforthelinespacingweremadeofleadratherthanthe harderalloyusedforotherpieces. In1880s–90s,“hotlead”typesettingwasinvented.Thismeantthatthetypewascastasit wasset,eitherpiecebypiece(asinMonotypetechnology)orinentirelinesoftypeatone time(asinLinotypetechnology). TheMonotypetechnologywasinventedbyGiovanniBenedettoCastiglione(1609-1664).He wasanItalianpainterandetcher,theonlyItaliantohaveinventedaprintmakingtechnique. Whenhestarttomakethemonotype,henormallyworkedfromblacktowhite. FontWight Whenwearetalkingaboutafontweightwearereferringtothe“thicknessofthecharacter outlinesrelativetotheirheight.” Whenadesignercreatesatypefacehecanproducedifferentweightsforthatfont:ultralight,extra-bold,normal,bold. Thefontsdesignedtobeusedinposterwereoftenquitebold;thoseforwritingthetextwere light. Othertermstodescribetheweightofafontare: - hairline - Demi-bold/semi-bold - Thin - Bold - Ultra-light - Extra-bold/extra - Extra-light - Heavy - Light - Black - Book - Extra-black - Normal/regular/roman/plain - Ultra-black/ultra - Medium •

Afont’sslopeistheangletowhichthefontwasslanted.Regularfontsareuprightbutifthey areslantedtotheright,theybecomemorecursiveinstyle,inthiscasetheyarecalleditalic fonts. (www.typesoffonts.com/font-characteristics.html)

28 Whenafontisitalic,theedgesofcharactersbecomesoclosedthattheytouchotherand thereforeligaturesmayappear.TheUpper-caseitaliclettersmayhaveextraswashes.

Swashesmarkedwithredcolor.

Aswashisatypographicalflourishonaglyph,likeanexaggeratedserif. FontWidthMosttypefaceshaveproportionalcharacterwidthsoraremonospaced. Thewidthofafontdescribeshowmucheachcharacterhasbeenstretchedorcompressed. Whenwenameafontfromitswidthperspective,wecansaythattheyare:compressed, condensed,ultra-condensed,narrow,wide,extendedorexpended. FrontMetrics Whenwetalkaboutthefontmetricswegivedetailsaboutthex-height,capheight,ascender height,descenderheight,boundingboxoftheoverallfont.Thesebasicallyarethevaluesfor thesizeandthespaceofthatfont. OpticalfontSize Thefontisdesignedtomeetdifferentpurposes:eitherforawritingabookoraposter.We cansayeitherforreadingordisplay. Thereforethefontsizescanbeclassifiedas: -Poster(largerthan72point) -Display(19–18points) -Subhead(14–18pints) -Regular(10–13points) -Smalltext(8–10points) -Caption(6–8points) •

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Serif

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serif_font

Serifsarethedetailsontheendofsome ofthestrokesthatmakeuplettersand symbols. Atypefacewithserifsiscalledserif typeface. Atypefacewithoutserifiscalledsansseriftypeface.“Sans”comesfromthe Frenchword“sans”thatmeans “without”.

Sometimessans-seriftypefacesarecalled“Grotesque”(InGerman“grotesk”)or“Gothic” andseriftypefacesarecalled“Roman”. (Theyarethreelatin-scripttypefaces:roman,blackletteranditalic). Verywellknownromantypefacesare:Bembo,Baskerville,Caslon,Bodoni,TimesRoman andGaramond. Itissaidthatlowscreenresolutionmakesseriffontsveryhardtoreadbutthesetypeof fontsareusedintraditionalprintedmaterials(books,newspapers).Someofthemagazines usesansseriftypefacesstatingthattheyare“cleaner”becauseofthelackofserifs.

29

Legibilityandreadability Legibility“referstoperception”andreadability“referstocomprehension”.Agood typographeraimstoachieveexcellenceinboth. “Thetypefacechosenshouldbelegible.Thatis,itshouldbereadwithouteffort.Sometimes legibilityissimplyamatteroftypesize.Moreoftenhowever,itisamatteroftypeface design.Ingeneraltypefacesthataretruetothebasicletterformsaremorelegiblethan typefacesthathavebeencondensed,expanded,embellishedorabstracted. “However,evenalegibletypefacecanbecomeunreadablethroughpoorsettingand placement,justasalesslegibletypefacecanbemademorereadablethroughgooddesign.” Inourdayswereadmorefromthecomputerormobilescreen,fromourKindle,Nooks,or tablets. Goodtypographycannotbehandcraftedanymorethereforweneedtodaybetterskilled typesettersanddesignerswhocanadoptthethousandsoftypefontsfortheweb. Atypographerordigitaldesignerdesignsfortheweb,hastotakeintoconsiderationthetype ofbrowserthatwillbeusedfordisplayingthepageswiththefontsthathecreated. In1996,Microsoftreleasedthe“CorefontsfortheWeb”programs:Arial,Georgiaand Verdana. IwouldliketoendmyessayontypographyingraphicdesignwithacollectionofquotesI foundonthewebthisweekend: “Asthesayinggoes,typeisabeautifulgroupofletters,notagroupofbeautifulletters.” —MatthewCarter “Typographyhasoneplaindutybeforeitandthatistoconveyinformationinwriting.No argumentorconsiderationcanabsolvetypographyfromthisduty.”—EmilRuder “Facesoftypearelikemen’sfaces.Theyhavetheirownexpression;theircomplexionand peculiartwistsandturnsoflineidentifythemimmediatelytofriends,towhomeachisfullof identity.”—J.L.Frazier “Wouldn'titbeinterestingiftherewereonlyonetypefaceintheworld?Designerswould reallyhavetothinkabouttheideabehindtheirdesignsinsteadofcoveringirupwithfancy typefaces.One,universaltypefacewouldreallystripawayalltheflashyemptinessindesign. And,ofcourse,thatonetypefacewouldhavetobeHelvetica.”—ErikKessels “Anyonewhowouldletterspaceblackletterwouldstealsheep.”—FrederickGoudy