Turkish Music--Karl Signell - Contemporary Turkish Makam Practice

Contemporary Turkish Makam Practice KarlSignell

TheAbstractLevel:MakamTheory The EmpiricalLevel:AlernativeExplanations Individuality RelatedMusics Extramusical Meaning

To the outsider, the Turkish makam is a mystery: is it a scale, a mode, or a melody? But the Turkish theorist defines it, the Turkish performer hears it with the inner ear, and the Turkish music lover often takes it for granted. A musician playing classical Turkish music at the beginning of the twenty-first century usually reads from a score. At the top of its first page, there is almost invariably the name of a makam (figure 1). Names distinguish one makam, or classical Turkish melody classification, from another. We should not compare modal systems indiscriminately; but solely with regard to its use of names for types of melodies, the Turkish makam (plural, makamlar) system resembles European medieval modes (Aeolian, Phrygian), Indian raga (Bhairavi, Todi), and Javanese pater (Nem, Sanga). Historical records list hundreds of makamlar, some known only by their names, since no compositions in these modes survive. The best modern performers can improvise in about fifty makamlar, and even more if a performer has had a chance to study compositions in an unfamiliar makam. The precisely defined characteristics of the Turkish makam hold true for classical compositions and improvisations performed by elite groups of instrumentalists and singers, such as those in government and conservatory'ensembles and at radio stations

in Istanbul,Ankara, and Izmir. Turks call this genre Turkishclassicalmusic (klasik Tiirk miizi i, or klasik Tiirk musikisi) or sometimes art music or learned music (sanat musikisi). The Turkish makam can be understood on two levels: an abstract level that provides theoretical knowledge, and an empirical level that provides knowledge based on performance. The astute student will learn abstract theory but will approach it with a healthy skepticism until practice bears it out.

FIGURE 1" Makam

name--beyati--at

a score. (For the complete

Bey tf Beste

the top of

score, see figure 16.)

Devr-i Keb' r

Zek

0

•

.L

C JLO

...

N GO

.

. I.

Dede

Ztt

47

UNDERSTANDING

48

!

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

THEABSTRACT LEVEL: MAKAM THEORY According to the early twentieth-century Turkish theorist RaufYekta and his colleague H. Saadettin Arel, a makam has six elements: (1) tetrachord and pentachord (scale

types), (2) ambitus,(3) beginning,(4) dominant, (5) tonic (finalis),and (6) movement (seyir). One might reformulate twentieth-century Turkish theory and modify it from a performer's point of view by defining makam in terms of five elements, not very

differentfrom Yekta's(Signell 1986): 1. Scale

2. Melodic unfolding 3.

Modulation

4.

Stereotyped motives

5. Tessitura Any one of these elements might indicate the difference between two makamlar, but most of them are needed to identify a makam clearly, even at the abstract level.

Scale Intervals Western music commonly uses seven notes (do, re, mi, and so on) with five auxiliary notes (sharps and flats), so that twelve notes per octave are available: these are the white keys and black keys in an octave on the piano. Theoretically, any two successive notes are separated by the same interval, 100 cents. A cent is one-hundredth of a Western tempered semitone; a perfect octave contains 1,200 cents. Every musical interval, in all musics, can be represented in cents. Segah ,,0,.,., o %,,.3

.

3Puselik

";3"

L-

Dik ktirdi

L-

,,

Dtigah

o

L-

o

B

B-flat

A

FIGURE 2. whole

Classical Turkish music, which is monophonic,

Kfirdi

Turkish and Western notes between

tones.

has developed subtleties of into-

nation; thus one finds three named pitches between whole tones where Western music has only one (figure 2). In their classical music, Turks recognize and name at least twenty-four notes per octave (Signell 1986:28-29).

Often, a pitch has the same name

as a makam in which it plays an important role (for instance, the pitch segah is important in makam segah). Turkish theorists use the Pythagorean comma (koma), equal to 23.46 cents, as the unit of measure for intervals. However, different methods are used to calculate some intervals, and figures may be rounded to whole numbers; as a result, there can be discrepancies in totals. Turkish theory recognizes five intervals (figure 3), and classical Turkish music notation, for the most part, uses three flats and three sharps (figure 4). Figure 5 compares commas and cents in a widely used makam, beyati. As figure 6 shows, the same notation represents different intervals, depending on Turkish and Western conventions.

Scale: Examples Note that for all the scales discussed here, the tones are represented hierarchically: the finalis as a whole note, secondary tonal centers such as the dominant and the upper

t

tonic as half notes, and the other tones of the scale as stemless black heads. Note also

I=ZGVRU 3 The five intervals recognized in Turkish theory.

Cents value

Turkish name

English translation

bakiye

small half-tone

4

90

kii¢iik miicennep

large half-tone

5

114

biiyiik miicennep

small whole-tone

8

180

tanini

whole-tone

9

204

artk ikili

augmented second

12

271

Comma

value

]l I

/

]

49

CONTEMPORARY

FIGUVa4 The three flats and three sharps of classical Turkish music notation.

TURKISH MAKAM PRACTICE Western tempered

Accidental

Turkish notation

Example

notation

(1 comma)

Figure 5, 9:A-B4 = 180 cents (small whole tone)

lowers 90 cents (4 commas)

Figures 8, 9:A-B4 (large half-tone)

= 114

Figures 6, 7: A-B

= 90

lowers 23 cents

lowers 114 cents (5 commas)

lowers 100 cents

(smallhalf-tone) Figure 8: E-F$ = 114

raises 23 cents

(largehalf-tone)

(1 comma)

Figure 11: E-F# = 180 (small whole tone)

raises 100 cents

raises 90 cents

(4 commas raises 114 cents (5 commas)

F:GURE5

Intervals in makam beyati in commas

cents:

180

114

204

204

90

and cents.

[ r.)(r°unded) ,J commas: 8

FIGURE 6

Acema4iran: Western

tempered

intervals versus Turkish intervals.

p

204

I

m

r 5

Tempered: 100 0

204

O'

200 o

9

9

4

9

9

200

200

100

200

200

cents

_ --

I

";3' Turkish: 90

204

204

204

90

204

¢./ 204

cents

that Turkish notation is a fifth higher than Arab notation; for instance, the Turkish 'ushayrdn makam acemafiran ends on f whereas the Arab 'ajam ends on B-flat. Common

practice in Western classical music relies on two scales, major and

minor. The scale of the Turkish makam acema4iran is close to the Western major scale (again, see figure 6). Makam acema4iran is a "descending" scale, cadencing an octave below the starting point; Turkish theory represents it as descending from left to right. The scale of makam nihavent is close to the Western minor scale (figure 7). The augmented-second intervals of makam ¢ehnaz (figure 8) resemble scales fa"Bacchanale"

miliar to Western listeners from pseudo-Near Eastern music such as the

from Saint-Sa ns's Samson and Delilah; the augmented-second interval is found in various positions in other makamlar. To non-Turkish ears, makam saba (figure 9) is one of the more exotic scales, with its diminished-fourth interval from its finalis to its fourth scalar degree.

HGURE7 Nihavent: Western tempered intervalsversus Turkish intervals.

Tempered: 200 o

FIGURE8

ehnaz: Western tempered intervals

200

200

100

204

204

90

Tempered: 100

300

100

200

100

¢,

k-

.

--

.%11

t3

114

271

114

114

204

/

204

300

•

o J

t)

Turkish:

200

°

90

Z %.k\l

200

-

.

204

Turkish:

versus Turkish intervals.

100

r 204 cents

4i,.

100

,

271

cents

cents

[ 114

cents

UNDERSTANDING

FIGU

9

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

Saba: intervals Theory: 180

114

114

271

114

180

204

271

114 cents

The scale of makam rast differs more perceptibly than makam acema¢iran from the Western major scale because the third degree of rast is clearly flatter than the comparable Western interval. In major scales, the first two intervals add up to 400

(200 + 200) cents; in acemafiran,they add up to 408 (204 + 204); in rast,they add up to only 384 (204 + 180; figure 10). The scaleof makambeyatioverlapsthat of makam rast, beginning on the second degree of rast, except for a consistent f-natural in beyati (figure 11). To the Western ear, beyati sounds similar tO the descending melodic minor scale except for the slighdy lower pitch segah, its second degree.

Comparison

FIGURE I0

of major, acema4iran,

700

200

204

2O4

Major

Acema iran

Rast

and rast pentachords.

6OO

500

4O0

300 -2O0

100

(Tempered)

interval 4

m

x=I vv-

II

Overlap

between

rast and

m

interval 3

Makam rast

beyati. •

°

"

tonic

°

r

°

interval2

°

I

dominant

Makam beyati tonic

I dominant

interval1

CONTEMPORARY

51 FIGUmIz

TURKISH MAKAM PRACTICE nonrepeating extension:

Extended saba scale and jump to

j_

octave.

o

o-b

,,-

,1.

•

r

,4-

t,.-

[--

t

I

too0tov0: fL-

Western tempered scale intervals repeat exactly in every octave. By contrast, a Turkish makam often has different intervals in different octaves. Rast repeats the same intervals starting an octave above the finalis, but makam saba, for example, does not, except when a performer deliberately jumps up an octave after establishing the makam to present it in a higher range (figure 12). Beyati commonly uses B-flat (a note called siinbiile) in the upper octave instead of B-comma-flat (called tiz segah; see figure 16 below, m. 17).

Melodic unfolding Tonal centers A scale is an abstract set of pitches that becomes music only when the musician brings it to life. For example: A melody might begin by repeating, holding, or circling around d (neva), showing the importance of this note as a backbone or tonal center of the makam. As the melody descends and begins to emphasize a (diigah), the scale, melodic motives, and tonal centers gradually suggest that makam beyati might be taking shape. Returning to d for a cadence makes it clear that d is the secondary tonal center, or the dominant (gii;1ii). A final cadence on a reveals that a is the primary tonal center,

or tonic-finalis (karar), and confirms that the makam is beyati (figure 13). Other important tones in beyati include f (acem) and c (;argah). In Western music, the dominant is always a fifth higher than the tonic, but the

-2

Turkish dominant can be found on the third, fourth, or fifth degree above the tonic. In makam rast, the dominant is a fifth above the tonic, but the third degree strongly shapes its melodies. Makam beyati uses basically the same scale as rast and has the i,"e_3

same dominant, but in beyati the tonic is the note that was the second degree in rast

(referback to figure 11). Direction If we travel in one direction on a street and then in the opposite direction, we almost seem to be moving along two different streets. Makam hiiseyni begins in the middle of the octave, like beyati, but around e (hiiseyni), a fifth above the tonic (rather than at d, as in beyati). A hiiseyni melody will next descend to establish the tonic, then explore the upper range to the octave and above. Makam muhayyer uses the same scale

FIGU 13 Beyati

seyir(Yekta19201931:3003).Yekta's

0 ;] r....... r, t)

o I

; I '

I ;

I"

tt'

I

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....

IF/

IF/

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I

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? I

1.

I I I I

,

tl

11"

I

II

;-

I

-

}

', ;

II

notation, unlike modern

notation,

assumes B-comma-

flat (that is, onecomma flat) without use of an accidental.

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,.

I"

t

'

I

;

1 I

I F

........

t

Ir

I

Irl

r

I r"

r

I c

,"

, , ¢-

,

,,

I,

I

I/

I

It

.,

r

,Ul

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I r

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, " F

l

,--,

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t""

t

r

F ,I

,

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II

.

r

i ,

I°

F' l I

, t

÷ I

UNDERSTANDING

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

as hi2seynibut begins an octave above the finalis and works its way gradually down to the tonic. These different melodic journeys give the listener an impression of different makamlar. Musicians and theorists recognize this difference by giving these makamlar different names.

Seyir Western music theory simplifies sonata-allegro form for students. In Turkish music theory, seyir (plural, seyirler) is a melody that attempts to capture the essentials of a makam for students. Besides the scale and melodic direction, a seyir might reveal typical melodic patterns, ranges to be exploited, and notes to be emphasized. The repertoire of all compositions in a makam shows the full range of possibilities, but the seyir should give the essential features in brief. Yekta provides a seyir for beyati (figure 13) and twenty-nine other makamlar. The

seyirlerby Yektaand M. N. Beken (figure 14) show a melodic progressionbasically the same as the exposition (up to meyan) of a beyati composition

(see below, figure

16). Since classicalTurkishmusic typicallyrequiresmodulationwithin the exposition of the makam, a realistic seyir would include modulation. Beken's seyir includes a modulation typical of beyati, to hicaz on d.

Modulation

Definition In Western music, modulation establishes a new tonal center, as in the first movement of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, in which Mozart establishes his first theme in G major, then modulates to the dominant (D major) to introduce his second theme. Turks use the word gecki 'modulation' for a shift to another makam, which could mean a shift of scale, tonal center or centers, and seyir. A modulation can be short and transitory-a cins 'taste' of another makam--or longer and even permanent (Signell 1986). Except for the simplest improvisation or composition, Turkish music requires modulation.

Obligatorymodulation Although we expect Mozart to modulate to another key for his second theme, we also expect him to return to the home key by the end of the first movement. We can say that his first movement is in G major although it modulates to other keys; indeed, modulations strengthen the sense of G major by providing a contrast. For most makamlar, the seyir would include an expected temporary modulation to another makam. Makam acema4iranoften modulates temporarily to saba, using a tonal center common

to both, c (¢argah;figure 15). Among other possibilities, makam beyati often includes short modulations to hicaz on d and a taste of other makamlar, and sometimes a more substantial modulation to saba before returning to and cadencing in beyati (figure 16).

Fzcuz z4 Beyati seyir by Yekta and M. N. Beken.

[

hicaz on d

53 FIGUV.E15

CONTEMPORARY

TURKISH MAKAM PRACTICE modulation to saba

Temporary

I

modulation to makam saba within

makam acema4iran.

'. !lJ

'

"-

"

d.

J / -u

I

,

J) -

I

, .

I

I

"rl I

1 '

F /

/;--A

t '

! '

[3 I€

i

cadence in acemasiran

FIGUF.Ei6

Modulations in a beyati composition.

(This is the same

composition as in

figure1.)

5

t

9

lf I"

"

0

r

l

i1

114 i.. ...............

.

,-

V "

,

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rl L.. rI

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......... i

li-i i i,-,ii UL-.41 r--

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LJl

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i',

v

i

"/

_t" ....

fJ

I

taste of

z,,, ,:r:", "t"-.1

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'iF"

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i

li

t;r_rfz,

r

ff t,,"

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hicaz on d '7o,

.

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r,

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le

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t.

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.m

II I

2

p

I

,r

7 4a

I

m

..

[/

I

--

I

.I

I I

p

I

taste of makam saba

t ¢

d

J I t'--

r

.I

J --

K "

,,I

I

r r i r f I

taste of makam hiiseyn[ I

,

i7 t

36

I

II ""

t

i - i -l ,, i I l ...... . . '1 I I I -- • -=::1==t:==i L taste of makam puselik

I

-

I

i,.--

i .. I

I

(Meyan)

"

Fin

t ,-4 l[t'('% " kki2 ,3

r

L$

L taste of makam hiizzam

24

'J

,h_ '

m

.; -

.

I,

L.__

,r

v ,

.

i,

II/

II

IL

I5==.J I II

/J

I

II

II

taste of makam saba

-

II t I I f_l

rJ

I

'1

If

i •

.

....

-

, o

I

J

taste of makam puselik

Compound makamlar When a horticulturist grafts a cutting of a domesticated rose onto a wild stock, the two parts form a new, complex whole. Turkish composers, instead of inventing new makamlar, sometimes graft together two makamlar by starting a composition in one makam, modulating to another, and staying in the second until the end of the piece, creating a new tonal structure and a new ethos. Makam beyati-araban ends with beyati

UNDERSTANDING

54 Hcuv.u z7

The two components

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

of makam

beyati-araban.

÷

begins with araban

ends with beya

but begins with a different tessitura and different tonal materials (figure 17). Whereas beyati establishes its first tonal center a fourth above the finalis on d (neva), beyatiaraban establishes its first tonal center an octave above the finalis on a (the pitch muhayyer). The

araban tonal materials in the upper range are related to the

augmented-second family of hicaz and ¢ehnaz (refer back to figure 8).

Stereotyped motives We often infer a person's nationality from his or her accent; people have many other, more complex characteristics, but an accent is something we can quickly hear and recognize. Similarly, one immediately recognizes some makamlar from a single motive that captures important structural notes. Stereotyped motives appear at the beginning or end of a composition or an improvisation. Some are universal; others are associated with a particular composer or performer (Signell 1986:125ff).

When such motives

appear, they are a kind of musical shorthand that quickly suggests the makam (figures 18 and 19). However, one should not expect to find a stereotyped motive in every composition

or improvisation, and one should not jump to a conclusion about the

intended makam before the performer sounds the finalis.

Tessitura Tessitura can refer to the range of a makam. To bring order to a vast accumulation of makamlar, twentieth-century Turkish theorists organized some makamlar by scales 'transposed'

that seemed to be the same, grouping them under the rubric of ¢ed

makamlar. Theorists considered makamlar acema¢iran and mahur as makam ¢argah transposed up a fourth and fifth, respectively. Hicazkar and evcara were considered zirgiileli hicaz transposed down a second and a minor third, respectively. In modern theory these transposed modes differ only in name, but performers recognize subtle differences. Suzidil and ¢edaraban are both described as descending zirgiileli hicaz transposed to different pitches, but each has its own seyir. Tessitura could also refer to the ambitus of a makam. For example, beyati and u¢¢akhave the same basic scale, but beyati quickly rises to the fourth degree and rarely descends below the finalis. U¢¢akbegins--unlike

beyati--by dwelling in the area of

the finalis and often descends one or two degrees below the finalis. Violating this rule runs the danger of violating the boundary between beyati and u¢¢ak. A listener familiar with these five criteria--scale, melodic unfolding, modulation, stereotyped motives, and tessitura--should be able to identify a makam with the reason-

FZCURE z8 Personal beyati motive by Neyzen Niyazi Saym.

FZCURE 19

General

stereotyped

motives

in makamlar segah, ehnaz, and karct ar.

Segah

Beyati

sqehnaz

Karcl ar

.i i

CONTEMPORARY

TURKISH MAKAM PRACTICE

able certainty that most Turkish musicians and theorists would agree. These rules hold within the narrow circle of elite performers in major centers of music in Turkey.

THEEMPIRICAL LEVEL: ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS Performers often find traditional theory puzzling. The makamlar they play and hear show more flexibility than traditional theory would imply. It is common knowledge among performers that pitches in performance vary from the theoretical pitches. PreTheory:

cise measurements confirm that performed intervals vary from one musical context to

114

another and sometimes depart consistently and substafidally from theoretical intervals (Signell 1986: app. A). In makam saba, for example, the fourth degree consistently measures an average of 29 cents higher in practice than in theory (figure 20). Practice: FIGUV, U ZO

143

Performers and many listeners also know that certain pitches are variable (oynak),

Saba interval: theory versus practice

(Signell1977:158).

depending on melodic context. In makamlar beyati and u ¢ak, for example, the performer will lower the b-one-comma-fiat

(the pitch segah) in a descending melodic

line. When descending toward a final cadence, the performer will lower it even more, usually sliding toward the tonic (figure 21). Performers call this "warming" the pitch. One leading performer, Tanburi Necdet Ya#ar, proposed names for three more pitches--making

five in all---known to performers but not recognized in theory (Sig-

nell 1986:41). Further measurements are likely to show other differences between theory and practice. For exarnple, the concept of a "transposed" makam simplifies subtle changes of tessitura, pitch, seyir, tonal color, and instrumental idiosyncracies when one finds a scale rendered at another pitch (Signell 1986: ch. 8). A different paradigm: For larger questions of scale and seyir, an empirical methodology

might help us understand the dynamic nature of the makam. Ignoring

traditional theory, one could analyze data from performances, using the array of notes in each phrase as a building block of melodic development. A sequence of such arrays would make up the seyir of one performance. One could then observe the extent to which the artist uses tonal materials of the theoretical scale, and the extent to which the melodic line behaves in accordance with ideas presented in theory books. Comparing performances, one will find some similar arrays, some different arrays, and some arrays that, although similar, appear at different places in the sequence. Such a comparison offers a transparent basis for determining which elements are required to establish a nominal makam, which are misleading or playful, and which are conclusive in nailing down the identity of the makam. This methodology allows researchers to test one another's conclusions. Anyone can gather and analyze data from other performances in the same makam, or from other makamlar. This type of analysis may offer a more persuasive explanation of Turkish makam than a rigid theory, by showing the relationship between personal choices of individual performers within commonly

accepted boundaries (Beken and Signell, in press). A

more complete understanding of the word makam and its context in Turkish music requires a deeper and fuller explanation of the relationship between the dynamic variability of each makam realization and the relatively static limits accepted by most musicians

over time.

INDIVIDUALITY No two speakers of English use the language in exactly the same way. Aside from gross differences between British, American, Indian, and other varieties of English, every

FIGUR zz

Lowered

second

lower at cadence

degree in makam

12

beyati in descending melody.

t2'l

..

_,

pl

....

L.J-F

bll

56

UNDERSTANDING

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

Each improvisation

by a master musician shows his

knowledge and understanding of the makam and its repertoire, his mood at the moment

of creation, his

personality, his virtuosity, and his musical intelligence.

speaker has a different understanding of words and syntax, based on personal history. Even for one individual, linguistic "performance" varies depending on the day, the year, the context, and the person's mood. No two performers of Turkish classical music understand makam in exactly the same way; nor does a single performer realize makam the same way from one day to the next or from one context to another. Makam exists only in its realization by individual composers and performers at specific times and in specific places. In jazz, the personality and style of the interpreter are all-important. In Turkish music also, peers and listeners judge how well a performer brings the rnakam to life, touching the right bases while putting a personal stamp on it. This tension between the shared and the personal contributes greatly to the vitality of Turkish music. A competent but unimaginative musician will observe all the rules of a makam, with correct intonation, expected modulations, and stereotyped motives at the right places. This musician does the job required, like a bureaucrat. A master musician might create a personal rift for a given makam, a motive that identifies the makam

and the player (Signell 1986:125ff). More subtly, each improvisationby a master musician shows his knowledge and understanding of the makam and its repertoire, his mood at the moment of creation, his personality, his virtuosity, and his musical intelligence. No one can copy this type of performance; like jazz, it is personal and therefore all the more precious.

RELATED MUSICS The nature of makam in contemporary elite Turkish musical circles becomes clearer in comparison with closely related musics. One cannot easily draw a line defining the limits of Turkish classical music. To varying degrees, performers of other kinds of music also participate in the classical tradition. Their interpretation of makam varies from that of the elite in ways that give us a fuller understanding of the contemporary realization of Turkish makam.

Historic repertoire If we examine the classical repertoire in history, we find (as mentioned at the beginning of the article) that some makamlar have survived in name only, with no compositions to tell us what music these names represent. When contemporary performers approach the compositions that have survived from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (the early, anonymous Mevlevi compositions and pieces from the Cantemir and Ufld collections), they can grasp the makam structures intellectually, but the melodic movement may be awkward for someone accustomed to the eighteenth-, nineteenth-, and twentieth-century repertoire. When they are called on to improvise in a makam found only in early compositions, musicians feel that they are on shaky ground. A performer can neither draw on a large and familiar repertoire in the makam nor create a taksim 'improvisation' by analogy to known makamlar. This is like asking a modern actor to improvise in the style of seventeenth-century commedia dell'arte.

57

CONTEMPORARY

TURKISH MAKAM PRACTICE

Gypsymusic Gypsies and Gypsy style dominate Turkish nightclub (gazino, orfasd)

music--a con-

text in which light compositions from the classical repertoire are often played in a

lively stylewith plenty of improvisationand Gypsy intonation. Gypsy intonation often differs from classical intonation. With the augmented-

smaller interval

0

i

,,'

second interval between the second and the third degrees in makam hicaz, for example,

" higher

Gypsies typicallyplace the second degree a little higher and the third degree a little

lower

lower, making the augmented interval smaller than the classical one (figure 22). In

FZCTOVaZ ZZ Smaller augmented second interval in makam hicaz in Gypsy intonation.

any makam, for example beyati, a Gypsy will usually place the pitch segah lower than a classical musician would, approximately one comma flatter, more like the corre-

sponding Arab pitch sfkd.

Turkishfolk music MustafaKemalAtatiirk,founder of the modern republicin the 1920s, exaltedTurkish folk music as purely Turkish, even Central Asian. He suppressed Turkish classical music as alien--as Middle Eastern. This policy led twentieth-century Turkish theorists to seek ways to make Turkish classical music seem more Turkish by drawing parallels to folk music. They looked for makam in folk music, matching classical scales with similar scales in folk song. However, they ignored the specifics of microtonal intonation, modulations, seyir, and even tonal centers so minutely prescribed by classical rules. This exercise reminds us that the borders of makam are permeable and that defining terms remains a crucial aspect of making comparisons.

EXTRAMUSICAL MEANING Do not look for extramusical meanings of Turkish makamlar in the secular classical tradition in modern times. Vestiges linger in makam names such as saba (a light zephyr from the east) and hicaz (the H.ijiz, formerly a kingdom, now a region of Saudi Arabia), but one would be hard-pressed to find a Turkish musician or theorist who would say that these makamlar still have any meaning associated with breezes or with Arabs. Twentieth-century treatises on makam mention no extramusical meanings. In 1972, an informal survey of musicians regarding extramusical meanings for makamlar received no consistent responses. Nor did secular classical performance practice in the last decades of the twentieth century prescribe any makam for times of the day, days of the week, or special occasions. However, the mosque and Turkish Jews represent an exception with regard to extramusical meaning.

Mosque Turkish mosque music has preserved extramusical meanings that have disappeared from classical music. According to the noted liturgical singer Khai Karaca, the first

call to prayer(ezan,Arabic adhan) of the day should be sung in makamsaba,and the other four ezan throughout the day should each be sung in specific makamlar (Signell 1970-1972:

interview). This statement may apply only to an elite group, however,

since no general agreement with it has been found. Professionally trained reciters seem to conform to published descriptions of specific makamlar for specific chapters of the Mevlit 'Nativity Poem' and Miraciye 'Ascension Poem' (Signell 1986:120-121).

TurkishJews In addition to the evidence from mosque music, there is indirect historical evidence from other ethnic groups in Turkey suggesting that there were stronger extramusical associations with makam in the past. Jewish cantors (hazanim) in urban centers such as Istanbul, Izmir, and Edirne were intimately familiar with Turkish classical music for centuries: they include Isak Fresko Romano ("Tanburi isak"), a noted composer of the eighteenth and nineteenth century; Isak Algazi, one of the greatest singers of early twentieth-century Turkish classical music; and Jewish emigrants from Turkey to

UNDERSTANDING

MUSICS OF THE MIDDLE EAST

the United States in the late twentieth century. Like their coreligionists in many other parts of the world, Turkish Jews adopted local music practice for their liturgy.

The Jewishliturgyin Istanbulprescribedspecific makamlarfor specific timesof day, for specific days, and for specific texts. Tradition prescribed a different makam for each of the Ten Commandments. A cantor who had been trained in Izmir and

had studiedwith Algazi said, "As a matterof course, SephardicJewryrecited all the passages of the Sabbath prayer in the specific maqam adapted to each particular Sabbath" (Seroussi 1989b). This small subset of contemporary Turkish makam practice preserved extramusical meanings that possibly link the history of Turkish music to that of Indian and Iranian classical music. Makam is a word, like music, Turkish, love, or God. The meaning of words is elusive, ever-changing with time, place, context, and personal interpretation. To define such a word is to deny the very nature of words as representations--dynamic,

rich markers

of complex phenomena. When we talk of "Turkish music," then, we must say whether

we mean music of the Ottoman Empire (which century?) or the TurkishRepublic (which decade?), and what kind of music we mean--classical (in which circles?), folk, religious, Gypsy, military, arabesk, Turkish pop, Euro-pop, and so on. We can discuss makam in terms of well-documented theory and well-known practices that apply to a small cadre of elite musicians, but we must take into account a wide array of related musics, some as far apart as medieval Europe and contemporary India.

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makamlar rast, beyati, hicaz, saba, and beyatiaraban.)

Beken, Miinir Nurettin, and Karl Signell. In

Mastersof TurkishMusic, Vol. 2. 1996. Rounder Records 1111. (Compact disk. Earlytwentieth

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Shiloah, Amnon. 1992. JewishMusical Traditions. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press.

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