TSL 3143 [Nota Kaki]

TOPIC 1

CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN CURRICULUM

1.2.1 Definitions of Curriculum Curriculum is defined as the experiences that someone ought to have in order to become the kind of adult they ought to become Formal Curriculum -

Provides detailed descriptions about what students are expected to know and be able to do. Developed by state and local education authorities and by subject matter organisations.

Planned Curriculum (Overt / Explicit / Intended) -

The overt curriculum is the open, or public, dimension and includes current and historical interpretations, learning experiences, and learning outcomes. the intended curriculum is captured most explicitly in state content standards.

Enacted Curriculum -

Is what is implemented based on the day-to-day choices and decisions teachers make about content and learning experiences for students.

Hidden Curriculum (Invisible / Covert) -

a side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended” such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. Any learning experience may teach unintended lessons.

Null Curriculum -

When a topic is never taught, too unimportant, too controversial, too inappropriate, not worth the time, and not essential.

1.2.3 Forces that influence curriculum construction Political -

who makes the selection

Economic -

new skills were needed in an industrial society students will spend more time using information technology and learn independently

Social -

Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. diversity in the curriculum developing curriculum that is responsive to students’ diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a national identity based on core values and practices.

1.2.4 Concerns of different shareholders in the Malaysian context

Groups Environment al groups

Society

Consumer Health groups Education Crime Prevention Team Governments

Concern Conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. Substance (drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and so forth) abuse prevention programmes Rights and responsibilities as consumers Introduce health programmes Sex education Techniques and prevention activities -

crime

Citizenship education Rights and responsibilities as citizens

TOPIC 2

MODELS, PRINCIPLES AND DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

2.3.2 Models Definition - A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedure for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar than different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. A simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in diagrammatic (graphic) form. Purpose - to provide a structure for examining the elements that go to make up curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate. 2.3.3 Tyler’s Objective Model Instructional Objective - a detailed description that states how an instructor will use an instructional activity , innovation or program to reach the desired learning objective(s). Purpose • To measure students progress towards objectives Method 1. Specify Instructional Objectives 2. Collect performance Data 3. Compare performance data with the objectives/standards specified Consists of four primary steps :    

Development of performance objectives Development of activities Organisation of activities Evaluation

By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources; i. ii. iii.

the subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography, History) the learners (e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs).

2.3.4 Wheeler’s Process Model Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Aims, goals and objectives Selection of learning experiences Selection of content Organisation and integration of experiences Evaluation

Principles of Curriculum Designs Scope – content to be taught Sequence – How content and experience can build on what come before Continuity – Same subjects during primary and secondary school Integration – Integrate Science in English Articulation – Sequence content from easy to difficult Balance – Balance weight to each aspect of curriculum

CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A CURRICULUM

TOPIC 3

Consideration in Curriculum Design Needs analysis Target group Aims and objectives Content Learning theories, approaches and methods Personnel Material selection Monitoring and support Assessment and evaluation Constraints TOPIC 4

CURRICULUM AND THE TEACHER

TOPIC 5

CURRENT ISSUES IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

5.3 Definition of Curriculum Implementation Curriculum implementation refers to how the planned or officially designed course of study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to students. 5.4 Factors That Influence Curriculum Implementation The Teacher The Learners Resource Materials and Facilities Interest Groups The School Environment -Schools located in rich socio-economic environments and those that have adequate human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an extent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments. Culture and Ideology Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum. Instructional Supervision 5.5 Current Issues in Curriculum Implementation Literacy Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analphabetism. Access to Education Access to education is the ability of people to have equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental disabilities. Equity in Education In education, the term equity refers to the principle of fairness. Socio-economic equity in education Income and class Costs of education Tracking

Racial equity in education Higher education Gender equity in education Multilingualism i. ii. iii.

diglossia: if there is a structural functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals,

Technological innovations -

Types of Technology Used In The Classroom 1. Use of computers in the classroom 2. Creating class websites and blogs 3. Use of digital microphones in the classroom 4. Use of mobile devices 5. Use of smart interactive Whiteboards 6. Use of online media 7. Use of online study tools

Unity in Education Special needs

TOPIC 6

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Evaluation Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. ‘Things’ may include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are different even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions on which they may differ are: 1. evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge. Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic. 2. evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has immediate use while research need not. 3. evaluation is a judgment of worth. Evaluation result in value judgments while research need not and some would say should not. Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an activity, project, programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution. As an essential part of the policy development process, evaluation provides timely assessments of the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of interventions. Evaluation is essentially about – are we doing the right thing, are we doing it right and are there better ways of achieving the results? Evaluations should:  provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-makers and inform stakeholders;  -based information that is credible, reliable and useful, enabling the timely incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons;  -making processes as a key component to managing for results;  improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimize the use of resources, provide client satisfaction and maximize the impact of activities; and  interpretation of information to answer specific questions, based on agreed criteria and benchmarks among key partners and stakeholders. Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 1. 2. 3. 4.

Aspects of the curriculum to be evaluated Data Collection Analysis of Information Reporting of Information

Forms of Evaluation i. ii.

Formative evaluation Summative evaluation

Purposes of Evaluation i.

Implement changes to improve teaching learning outcomes of future courses

ii. iii. iv. v.

Remedy weaknesses of course in progress Explain or confirm existing procedures Establish accountability ( value for money) Extend teacher’s knowledge about practice. (CPD)

Evaluation Methods and Tools i. ii. iii. iv.

Surveys and questionnaires Interviews and questions Observations and check lists Documents

TOPIC 7

CURRICULUM CHANGE

1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Change and Innovation Hoyle (1995) defines change as embracing the concepts of innovation, development, renewal and improvement of a curriculum. Change has magnitude and direction and takes place within a definite time frame. In the context of curriculum, curriculum change is dictated by the changes in the economic, social and technological aspects of a society. Change is a process not an event; it requires time, energy and resources. It is achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills in using new programmes. Change should lead to improvement Harris et al. (1995) describes innovation as “an intentional and deliberate process to bring out desired effects and change”. As such, curriculum innovation refers to ideas or practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed curriculum. Westerly (1969) and Richard (1965), state that curriculum innovation is any improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable and unlikely to occur frequently. Curriculum innovations occurs when human and material resources are created, selected, organised and used in ways where the outcomes are higher achievement of curriculum goals and objectives. The difference between innovation and change is innovation is always planned while change may occur in response to external events. Curriculum innovations become meaningful and effective, if they are planned and organised. It is possible that other types of changes may occur when they are not planned. 1.2.2 Contexts of Curriculum Change Curriculum change and curriculum innovation are made necessary due to a country’s political, social, economic, cultural and technological environments. The education system changes in order to address the needs and demands brought about by these factors. At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy decisions. Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known through a circular. One such example is the introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) or the Primary School Standard Curriculum. Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire of authorities at various levels to deliberately change established practices in order to tackle existing problems or identify new problems and seek ways of dealing with these problems. Curriculum change and innovation can also be a due to development in technology. For example, computers are being used in almost every aspects of our society. Thus, the education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new development. Computers must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also to make the computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the curriculum. Change can be classified as hardware and software types. Hardware types of changes involve the additions to existing facilities such as new classrooms, equipment, books and play grounds. On the other hand, software types affect the content and range of the

curriculum. These may be related to the methods of delivery suggested by curriculum designers and developers. Change can occur in the different forms. In substitution, one element replaces another previously in use. For example new textbooks, new equipment or the replacement of teachers and administrators. Alteration on the other hand involves change in existing structures rather than a complete replacement of the whole curriculum, syllabus or course of study. Addition is the introduction of a new component without changing old elements or patterns. New elements are added to the existing programme without seriously disturbing the main structure and content of the prescribed curriculum. These could be support inputs such as audio-visual aids, workshops and equipment. Restructuring involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in order to implement desired changes. It may also involve the sharing of resources among a group of schools or institutions. 1.2.3 Strategies of Evaluation The strategies for implementing the curriculum must be considered carefully for change and innovation to succeed. A strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures and techniques used in the desire for change. Harris et al. (1978), developed some models to explain how the strategies work. The strategies include are as mentioned below. 1.2.3.1 Participative Problem-Solving. This strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy these needs. The system identifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution and implements the solution if it is satisfactory. Here the emphasis is on local initiative. 1.2.3.2 Planned Linkage. The intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the users of the innovation in this model. 1.2.3.4 Coercive Strategies. These strategies work on the basis of power and coercion by those in authority, using laws, directories, circulars and others. Ministries of Education generally used these strategies. Tanner and Tanner (1980), suggest three principal models which demonstrate how change takes place. 1.2.3.1The Research, Development and Diffusion Model In this model, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre and then fed into the system. This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in which an innovation is: 1. invented or discovered, 2. developed, 3. produced, and

4. disseminated to the user. 1.2.3.2 Problem-Solving Model This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind. The user of the innovation would follow the steps below. 1. Determine the problem. 2. Search for an innovation. 3. Evaluate the trials. 4. Implement the innovation. 1.2.3.3Social Interaction Model In this model, change proceeds or diffuses through formal or informal contacts between interacting social groups. The model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of information, opinion, leadership and personal contact. This model is based on the following: • awareness of innovation • interest in the innovation • trial • adoption for permanent use. 1.2.4 Planning and Implementation For change to be implemented in the curriculum, a process has to take place. This process involves four major factors. According to Bishop (1986), these factors include: • The change agent Change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the Ministry of Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum change in general. • The innovation This involves executing the change itself; in other words putting it into use or operation. • The user system This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is directed. Time Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time. These factors interact with change and are changed by each other during the process of innovation. The curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the planning and the strategies, and is also frequently the user of the innovation. The Innovation Process

Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps: 1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention. 2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need. 3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the most appropriate. 4. Conduct a trial. 5. Evaluate the proposed solution. 6. Review the evaluation. 7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide scale. 8. Adopt and institutionalise the innovation or search for another solution. Innovation Planning Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements are considered in the process: • the personnel to be employed • the specification of the actual task • the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task • the equipment needed • the buildings and conducive environment • the costs involved • social contexts • time involved • sequencing of activities • rationale for undertaking the innovation • evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation. Conditions for Successful Implementation of Innovations Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditions below are met. • The innovation must be relevant to them. • It must be feasible in their particular organizational context. • It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of their system.

• It must pose little or no threat to the user group’s identity, integrity and territory. The innovation must be seen to be tolerable and non-threatening. • The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in social status or recognition may be some of the non-material benefits • It must be flexible and adaptable.