Training Theory Book[1]

Dragan Milanović and Colleagues

TRAINING THEORY reviewed teaching materials

University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology

Zagreb, 2013

Publisher: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology For the Publisher: Prof. Damir Knjaz, PhD, Dean Author: Prof. Dragan Milanović, PhD Colleagues: Prof. Sanja Šalaj, PhD Prof. Igor Jukić, PhD Cvita Gregov, Mag.Cin. Peer-reviewers: Prof. Milan Čoh, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Bojan Jošt, PhD, Faculty of Kinesiology University of Ljubljana Prof. Cvetan Željaskov, PhD, National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Translations: Marko Hrvatin, Mag.A. Željka Jaklinović, Mag.A. Lecture: Elizabeth Harrison Paj

Edition: 1st Internet edition URL: http://kif.hr/predmet/trathe Date of publication on the internet: December 2, 2013

ISBN: 978-953-317-020-6 Available in the digital catalog of the National and University Library in Zagreb

Copyright © 2013. University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology. All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopyng, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher. The Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Commission for Science and Academic Literature and Publishing,on its session held on February 15, 2012, reached the decision on approving the publication of this book. Photographs from the archives of the journal Sportske novosti by kindness and permission of Director General Mr. Janko Goleš, or from the authors’ private collections.

FOREWORD In contemporary sport sports training has become an extremely complex process, involving numerous input and output variables. High-quality expert and scientific knowledge is therefore indispensable in understanding, modelling and managing sports training today. The Theory of Training – as a scientific and academic field of study taught within the master university programme for the education of kinesiologists and coaches – has to address numerous questions posed daily by sports experts as well as athletes. Future professionals in the fields of professional and school sport, sport for all, and sport for people with disabilities have many questions, such as: -

Is there a clear delineation between professional and amateur sport?

-

Which abilities, characteristics and motor skills are required to achieve top sport results in a specific sport or sports discipline?

-

Can athletes' abilities, characteristics and motor skills be objectively and reliably measured?

-

Is it possible to choose a sport that best matches the child's sports potentials based on objective indicators? Is the selection of future athletes based on intuition or scientific facts?

-

To what extent is sports talent a genetic feature and to what extent can preparedness components be developed during the sports career?

-

Is the concern regarding premature involvement of children in intensive sports training justified? Is sports training too demanding for them?

-

Which exercises, loads and methods are optimal for the development of abilities, characteristics and skills that determine sports results?

-

When is it recommendable to introduce external loads or weight training without the risk of causing locomotor system injuries?

-

What is the simplest and the quickest way to master correct technical-tactical elements in a specific sport?

-

Is there an optimum technology for the planning and programming of sports preparation process?

-

The number of competitions is increasing. What happens when competitions start to dominate sports preparation?

-

The total load in certain sports has reached over 1000 training hours per year, or over 20 hours per week. Is that not excessive?

-

Are sport and sport preparation based on professional and scientific facts or do intuition, improvisation and experience of coaches and other experts still prevail?

Of course, these are only some of the questions of professionals who want to make their contribution towards the efficiency of the sports preparation process on all levels. These are also some of the key questions that we have attempted to provide the best possible answers to in this handbook intended for the foreign students studying to become Physical Education teachers or coaches. The English handbook The Theory and Methodology of Training is divided into three main parts: 1. The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training, 2. The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training, and 3. Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling. The intention behind the creation of this teaching material was to raise the quality of teaching and to facilitate participation of students in class, as well as to help them prepare for the exam in the Theory of Training and pass it successfully. The complex body of knowledge and information in the area of sport and sports training is delivered in a very simple and succinct manner to students, who need to understand, interpret and learn this information. In order to encourage active participation of students in class, each slide is followed by empty lines where the students can write down additional information obtained in class and, more importantly, their own comments that will help them better understand the presented material. In this way, the student ceases to be a passive observer of the lecture and becomes an active participant. Furthermore, each chapter of the handbook is followed by a list of key questions, which guide the student in preparing the exam and passing it. A list of references is provided at the very end of each chapter, which can be very helpful in expanding the presented information. There are many people I would like to express my gratitude to for their significant contribution in conceptualising and developing this handbook. I would primarily like to thank my closest collaborators, junior researcher Sanja Šalaj, Ph.D., professor Igor Jukić, Ph.D. and junior researcher Cvita Gregov, who have been involved in the development of this teaching material for several years. I also extend my thanks to the peer reviewers, professor Milan Čoh, Ph.D., professor Bojan Jošt, Ph.D. and professor Cvetan Željaskov, Ph.D. for their meticulous work and their valuable suggestions. My special thanks goes to Marko Hrvatin for the valuable translation work and Željka Jaklinović-Fressl for the valuable translation, editing and proofreading work. Even though we are aware of the fact that we could have been more detailed and elaborate in conceptualising and presenting the subject matter of the theory of training, we hope that this handbook will provide impetus for the development of the theory of training as a field of study and facilitate class participation and mastering of this body of knowledge.

This handbook might provide an incentive for the students enrolled in the English language programme to approach this area of applied kinesiology with an increased interest and motivation and to become better prepared for tackling the ever increasing demands of sports and sports training, both as an academic field and profession. Dragan Milanović

CONTENTS 1st chapter: The Theoretical Foundations of Sport and Sports Training 1. TRAINING THEORY 1.1. Basic fields of training theory 1.2. Training theory contents 1.3. Training theory definition 1.4. Training theory subjects 1.5. Training theory tasks 2. SPORT (CURRENT ISSUES OF SPORT IN CROATIA AND ABROAD) 2.1. Definition of sport 2.2. Sports Features 2.3. Why a special social status belongs tosport? 2.4. Sport participation and health 3. SPORT IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union 3.1.1. NGOs in European sport 3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe 3.2. Top level sport in European countries 3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia 3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria 3.2.3. Top level sport in France 3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom 3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland 4. PERSONNEL, MATERIAL, FINANCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF SPORT AND TRAINING 4.1. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport 4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport 4.3. Organization of sport 4.4. Sports facilities and equipment 4.5. Sport funding 4.5.1. Taxes 4.5.2. Sponsorships

5. SCIENCE, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING 5.1. Scientific research area 5.2. Theoretical work area 5.3. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level 6. SPORTS TRAINING (SPORTS PREPARATION) 6.1. Sports training – sports preparation 6.2. Sports training definitions 6.3. The essence of sports training 6.4. Sports training tasks 6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training 7. SPORTS TRAINING – A SHORTHISTORY 7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world 7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia 8. ANALYSIS OF SPORT ACTIVITIES 8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity 8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities 8.3. Anatomical analysis 8.4. Functional (energy) analysis 8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 8.5.1. The structural complexity 8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters 8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification 8.5.4. The dominance of motor - physical abilities 9. ANALYSIS OF ATHLETES’ DIMENSIONS (COMPONENTS OF PREPAREDNESS) 9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes 9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency 9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities) 10. DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT - MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF ABILITIES, FEATURES AND KNOWLEDGE OF ATHLETES 10.1. Diagnostics in sports 10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes

10.3. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 11. SELECTION IN SPORT(ORIENTATION TO SPORTS AND CHOICE OF SPORTS BRANCH) 11.1. System of orientation to sports – first selection 11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection 11.3. System of selection of a sports branch – third selection 11.4. Procedure of selection 12. SPORT AND SPORTS TRAINING OF CHILDREN AND THE YOUNG 12.1. Sports schools 12.1.1. Universal sports school 12.1.2. Elementary sports school 12.1.3. Specialized sports schools 12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young 12.3. Performance factors of a sports career 12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…) 12.3.2. Family 12.3.3. School 12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation 12.3.5. A training program 13. TRAINING FORFITNESSAND SPORT PREPAREDNESS 13.1. Fitness of athletes 13.2. Sport shape / preparedness 13.3. Sport shape development phases 13.4. Sport shape management 13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape 14. SPORTS TRAINING AS A TRANSFORMATION PROCESS 14.1. Definitions 14.2. General model of transformation process in sport 14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions 14.4. Types of transformation processes 15. SPORTS COMPETITIONS 15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions 15.2. Classification of competitions 15.3. Planning and conducting a competition

16. RECOVERY OF ATHLETES: SUPPLEMENTAL FACTORS OF SPORTS PREPARATION 16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes 16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means 16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping 17. BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING 17.1. Introductory observations 17.2. Adaptation in sports 17.3. Continuity of the process of training 17.4. Load progression of training and competition 17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads 18. DIDACTICAL PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING 18.1. Target orientation of training 18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes 18.3. Cyclic nature of training

2nd chapter: The Methodological Foundations of Sports Training 19. METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING 19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training 20. THE MEANS (CONTENTS) OF SPORTS PREPARATION 20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means 20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation 20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application 21. TRAINING LOAD MANAGEMENT 21.1. Training and competition load 21.2. Total load and its components 21.2.1. Energy component of a training load 21.2.2. Information component of a training load 21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre 21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system 21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads 21.5. Training load management–dosage 22. SPORTSTRAININGMETHODS 22.1. Classification and description of training methods 22.2. Exercise methods 22.2.1. Exercise method with respect to load type 22.2.2. Exercise methods with respect to the training mode 22.3. Teaching and learning methods in sport 22.3.1. Teaching methods with respect to the mode of motor information transfer and motor task assignment 22.3.2. Teaching methods with respect to motor task perfomance mode 23. ORGANISATIONAL FORMS AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING 23.1. Organisational training forms 23.1.1. Individual training 23.1.2. Group training 23.1.3. Frontal training 23.2. Methodological forms of training 23.2.1. Station methodological form (station training) 23.2.2. Circuit methodological form (circuit training) 23.2.3. Course training form (course form) 23.3. Methodological aspects of the location, training equipment and training gear use 23.3.1. Training facilities 23.3.2. Training equipment and gear 24. BASICS OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONING METHODOLOGY 24.1. Definition, structure and characteristics of physical conditioning 24.2. The effects of physical conditioning on an athlete’s body 24.3. Physical preparation types 24.3.1. General or versatile physical preparation 24.3.2. Fundamental or basic physical preparation 24.3.3. Specific physical preparation 24.3.4. Situational physical preparation 25. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES 25.1. Methodology of development and maintenance of functional abilities 25.2. Aerobic training methodology

25.3. Anaerobic training methodology 26. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUANTITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY 26.1. Strength training methodology 26.2. Speed training methodology 26.3. Endurance training methodology 26.3.1. Endurance training methods 26.4. Flexibility training methodology 27. TRAINING METHODOLOGY OF QUALITATIVE MOTOR ABILITY 27.1. Coordination training methodology 27.2. Agility training methodology 27.3. Methodology of accuracy training 27.4. Balance training methodology 28. TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PREPAREDNESS OF ATHLETES 28.1. Sports technique 28.2. Sports tactics 28.3. Levels of efficiency of the programme for technical-tactical command 29. TECHNICAL-TACTICAL PREPARATION METHODOLOGY 29.1. Teaching and learning the basics of technical-tactical skills 29.2. Motor learning phases 29.3. Teaching methods 29.4. The coach and athlete in the process of technical-tactical teaching-learning 30. PROGRAMMING OF TEACHING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL SKILLS 30.1. Programme of teaching technical-tactical skills 30.2. Principles of programmed teaching – learning 30.3. Cybernetic model of programmed teaching – learning in sport 30.4. Programming of the teaching process in multi-annual and annual cycles

3rd chapter: Sports Training Planning, Programming and Controlling 31. PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING TRAINING COURSES 31.1. Planning of training 31.2. Periodisation

31.3. Programming of training 31.4. Types of planning and programming of training 31.5. Methods of planning and programming of training 31.6. A plan and programme modelling of training is conducted on five levels 32. LONG-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING: MULTI-ANNUAL CYCLE OF TRAINING 32.1. Long-term sports preparation periodisation 32.2. Long-term sports preparation modeling 32.3. Long-term sports preparation planning and programming 32.3.1. Universal sports school 32.3.2. Elementary sports school 32.3.3. Specialised sports school 32.3.4. Final sports specialisation 33. MID-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (OLYMPIC CYCLE) 33.1. The significance of the Olympic Games 33.2. Organisational and methodical aspects of the Olympic cycle planning 34. SHORT-TERM PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (ANNUAL AND SEMI-ANNUAL CYCLES) 34.1. Annual and semi-annual macrocycle 35. CURRENT PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING 35.1. Periods and phases characteristics 35.2. Preparatory period 35.3. Competitive period 35.3.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in competitive period phases 35.4. Transition period 35.4.1. Guidelines for the programming of training in the transition period phases 36. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (MICROCYCLE) 36.1. Planning and programming training in a microcycle 36.2. Microcycle classification 37. OPERATIVE PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING (TRAINING DAY AND TRAINING UNIT) 37.1. Operative planning and programming of a day of training 37.2. Planning and programming a training unit 38. MODELLING OF PHYSICAL PREPARATION

38.1. Specificities of the competition activity in team sports 38.2. Factorial structure of readiness 38.3. Model characteristics of top athletes 38.4. Diagnostics of individual athletes' characteristics 38.5. Comparison of individual and model preparedness characteristics 38.6. Methodology of physical preparation 38.7. Physical preparation plan and programme modelling in an annual training cycle 38.8. Physical preparation programme modelling in a competitive microcycle 38.9. Conclusion 39. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN SPORT 39.1. Research in the field of sport and the sports training 39.2. Structure of the scientific research in the field of sport and sports training 39.2.1. Research into sports and sports results 39.2.2. Research into characteristics of sports activities 39.2.3. Research into the athletes' dimensions 39.2.4. Research into the competition efficiency factors 39.2.5. Research into the effects of drill and teaching methods 39.2.6. Research into the effects of the programmed sports preparation process 39.3. Applicability of scientific research results in sport

TRAINING THEORY

1.1. Basic fields of training theory: Contemporary sport Theoretical fundamentals of sports training Training methods Planning, programming and control of the training process

1-1

1.2. Training theory contents: SPORT

1st level

Definition Organization Values Social significance Strategic development Sport in Croatia Sport in the EU countries

2nd level

SPORTS TRAINING

TRAINING

TRAINING PURPOSE

Definition

Fitness

Subject

Peak performance

Interdisciplinary approach

Sports results

PRINCIPLES Pedagogical and psychological principles Biological and medical principles Physical foundation

Scientific background

Transformational processes and effects

1-2

3rd level

ANALYSIS OF SPORTS ACTIVITY  Movement structures – sports techniques  Situation structures – sports tactics    

Structural analysis Biomechanical analysis Anatomical analysis Functional / energetical analysis

 Sports classification

4th level

FITNESS COMPONENTS MORPHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS - CONSTITUTION

HEALTH

H

A

PHY

Physical

preparedness

Technical and tactical (informational)

TE preparedness

Conative characteristics - personality

Cognitive abilities – ”cleverness”

C

P

FSS= f(a1H + a2PHY + a3TE + a4P + a5C + a6A + a7E

1-3

5th level

DIAGNOSTICS AND ANALYSIS OF AN ATHLETE’S FITNESS

 selection of athletes (sample of subjects)  selection of characteristics (sample of dimensions)  selection of tests (sample of variables)  testing procedures (protocol)  editing of test results  processing of obtained data  results analysis  presentation of results to coaches and athletes  applying results in sports practice  control of training effects

6th level

SPORTS PREPARATION SYSTEM

Analysis and prognosis of sport activities and sport results Model values of sport activities and athlete’s fitness Selection – directing to and choosing a sport Training system Competition system Recovery methods Coaches and other personnel Sport organization Material and financial conditions Scientific research

1-4

7th level

GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATHLETES LEVELS OF TRAINING PROCESS (AGE CATEGORIES)

LEVELS OF SPORT PREPARATION

(TYPES OF PREPARATION)

◊ children’s training

◊ preliminary (multilateral)

◊ training of young athletes

◊ basic

◊ training of adult top level athletes (peak performance)

◊ integrated (junior to senior category)

◊ training of athletes through a prolonged sports career

◊ maintaining preparation

◊ specific

◊ final preparation for maximum sport achievements

8th level

TRAINING PRINCIPLES       

Adaptation Training specificity Training continuity Interaction of training programmes Load progressiveness Undulating training Cyclic training

1-5

9th level

TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Modelling and evaluation of training operators Means

Loads

Methods

(exercises) Organizational forms

Methodical forms

Training locations

Training aids and devices

Basic methodology of tecnical and tactical training Methodology of integrative preparation of athletes Basic methodology of physical conditioning

10th level

TRAINING PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING

TRAINING PLANNING

TRAINING PROGRAMMING

Goals, tasks, periodization and resources

Selection, distribution, organization and application of training operators

Sport preparation cycles

Sports career

Olympic cycle

Mezocycle Annual cycle

Microcycle

EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTS

1-6

One training unit

1.3. Training theory definition Scientific-educational discipline in which the organization and function of a sport system is studied, as well as kinesiological, anthropological, methodological and methodical principles of planning, programming and control of the process of training, competition and recovery in different cycles of sport preparation.

Analysis of results in the long jump 9.00

X X X X

X X

8.50 X

4 8.00

X X

3

7.50

X X

X

X

7.00

2 6.50

1

6.00

X X

1948

1896 1868 80

92

16

28

40

1-7

1968 52

64

76

1996 88

2000

Diagnostics of individual characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 2004) Variables

Player X (back)

Player Y (wing)

1. Height

cm

192,8

184,5

2. Weight

kg

89,0

83,6

3. Shoulder wideness

cm

43,0

44,5

4. Arm wideness

cm

200,0

183,5

5. Hand wideness

cm

25,4

24

6. Ball throw 800 gr.

m

38,07

32,53

7. Horizontal jump

cm

259,67

269,33

8. Vertical jump – both legs

cm

62,33

68,33

9. Vertical jump – unilateral

cm

62,33

73

10. Lateral stepping

s

7,22

6,35

11. Triangle movement

s

6,17

5,82

12. Abdominal crunches

n

26,33

36,33

13. Bench-press

kg

85

85

14. Shuttle run

s

30,45

29,05

15. 30m sprint

s

4,85

4,51

Basic statistical parameters of motor characteristics of handball players (Milanović et al., 1997) Motor abilities

AS

SD

MIN

MAX

1. MAGKUS

6,92

0,45

6,25

8.25

2. MBKPOP

12,66

1,49

9,79

14.40

3. MFPTAP

33,07

3,38

28,00

38.00

4. MFLPRR

65,64

13,94

38.00

84.00

5. MFABP

77,71

10,60

60.00

95.00

6. MRCTRB

32,07

4,38

21.00

38.00

7. MBF30V

4,19

1,77

3.95

4.50

8. SBFV30

4,35

1,70

4.12

4.73

9. MFEBMR

28,64

1,95

26.00

33.00

10. MFESVM

67,78

5,53

57.00

77.00

1-8

Example of maximum strength training 1. Training purpose:

Development of maximum strength

2. Athletes:

Adult athletes in preparatory and competition period

3. Training methods:

Repetition method – maximum interval training

4. Loads: 4.1. Intensity:

80-90-100% (1RM), 60% warm-up

4.2. Volume:

Number of repetitions (R): 5-3-1 Number of sets (S): 2-4 sets at each load Number of sets (S): 6-12 per exercises

4.3. Rest:

2-4 minutes (sets), 3-5 (load)

4.4. Tempo

Load appropriate

4.5. Activity during rest Stretching and relaxation 5. Exercises

Basic and specific exercises with weights

Structure of microcycle in second part of preparatory period (Grosser et al., 1986) 100%

Load level

IV 80%

Total load

III

Intensity

60%

Volume

II 40%

I M T 1T 2T SpF TeTa SpB SBF SPI

W 1T AeI akO

F Su Th Sa 2T 2T 1T 1T sBKK SpF sBKK akO Te SpB BI SpB SPI aBF

SpF – specific strength, SpB – specific speed, BF – speed power, SPI – specific endurance, AeI – aerobic endurance, akO – active rest, BKK – speed coordination, B - speed, Te – technical training, BI – speed endurance

1-9

1.4. Training theory subjects The first subject of training theory is studying the sport system with respect to historical, cultural, economical and political aspects of structure and activities at state, regional and local level. The second subject of training theory is studying the transformational processes that enable the functioning of an integral system: the athlete, the sport activity and the sport environment in the sport preparation process.

 Thanks to sport science research, we understand the psycho-physical reactions of an athlete and the training adaptation better than 10 or 20 years ago.  It is our constant obligation and challenge to analyze the current principles of training theory and adjust them to the needs of contemporary sport and new technologies.

1 - 10

Today, it is possible to develop certain models of training (for different sports and athletes of different ages and quality) that are based on the newest scientific information concerning means, loads and methods of sport preparation.

1.5. Training theory tasks: Training theory ascertains the principles by which it is possible to identify and analyze: a) Different sport systems in Croatia and abroad b) Resources on which the position and development of sport at local, regional and global level depend c) External characteristics of sport activities (structural, biomechanical, functional and motor characteristics) d) Internal characteristics of athletes (basic, specific and situational abilities and knowledge that affect its success - the success equation in sports)

1 - 11

e) Diagnostic procedures and test results in the function of the selection of athletes and their successful training f) Selection procedure for directing to different sports and choosing sports branches (disciplines) g) Sports training as a transformation process aimed at a full development of fitness components and top level results

h) Peak performance as a state of an athlete’s fitness that allows him/her to achieve top results in major competitions i)

Methodology procedures directed to the full development of fitness components and athletic performance (strength and conditioning and technical-tactical training)

j) Models of plans and training programmes according to the goals, fitness level, competition calendar and conditions for the implementation of sports training.

1 - 12

Lesson 2:

SPORT (current issues of sport in Croatia and abroad)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define sport as an occupation  Discuss contemporary sports characteristics  Define the characteristics of a professional or selective sport and mass sport or sport for all  Explain the special status of sport in society  Discuss the health benefits of sport

2-1

2.1. Definition of sport The law on sport in Croatia defines a sport as an activity that enables children, youth and adults to meet the needs for movement and play, develop qualities, skills and motor knowledge, sports and creative expression, preservation and promotion of health and sports achievements at all levels of competition.

Sport by definition can be: Top level Elite

Selective Quality

Sport for all Mass Non-selective Questionable quality

Sport by definition can be: Professional Olympic In sport clubs Sport of healthy persons

Amateur Non-olympic In schools/high schools Sport of persons with disabilities

2-2

Quality level

TOP LEVEL – SELECTIVE

Types of sport Professional

MASS – NON-SELECTIVE SPORT

++

Amateur

+

++

In sport clubs

++

+

In schools

+*

++

Recreational – SPORT FOR ALL

++

SPORT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

+

++

MILITARY SPORT (CISM)

+

++

* Most succesfull in USA

2.2. Sports Features 1. Sport with a suitable system of training and competition gives children opportunities to meet a large number of biological motives and psychogenic needs, especially gifted children have the opportunity to confirm their creative potential through sport. 2. Sport and sport training must be realized as the union of effective educational influences in the shaping of a 'healthy' personality.

2-3

3. Sport is full of events that enables (top) athletes to experience success, selfactualization through their own activity and effort. In that way, an athlete experiences joy and enjoys training and competition. 4. Sport is an area of ​interest of the broad layers of society.

5. Sport is very encouraging for different forms of communication 6. Sport and sports training should be a child's wish, not pressure from parents or coaches. 7. Sports activities should not harm the school or professional education. 8. It is useful to orient young athletes to sports models 9. Athletes are true idols of young people on all continents. 10. Sporting achievements can not be achieved without scientific research carried out by the best experts, interdisciplinary.

2-4

2.3. Why does a special social status belongs to sport? 1. Sporting activity allows each individual to meet primary human needs: the basic biological need for movement and play, the need for safety, order, belonging and love, esteem and self-actualization. 2. Sport and sport activities significantly affect the desirable psychosomatic development of children and young people, they improve and maintain health.

3. Sport activities raise the quality of life - it is the foundation of mental and physical health and well-being. 4. Engaging in sports is an important factor in preventing various types of addictions. Members of sports teams can be an important support to young athletes. Besides the family, an athlete still has a protective layer that defends him/her against negative environmental influences.

2-5

5. Sport and exercise enhance one’s abilities for coping with stress and trauma. 6. In addition to affirming an individual, sport can promote the state, nation, region or local environment. 7. Sport is extremely encouraging for interaction and communication, regardless of educational, generational, gender or other status - and thus highly affects the current social processes and forms of social awareness.

Medal and other results at the Olympic Games in Athens, 2004. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Total state USA CHN RUS AUS JPN GER FRA ITA KOR GBR CUB UKR HUN ROM GRE NOR NED BRA SWE ESP

G 35 32 27 17 16 14 11 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 6 5 4 4 4 3

S 39 17 27 16 9 16 9 11 12 9 7 5 6 5 6 9 3 1 11

B 29 14 38 16 12 18 13 11 9 12 11 9 3 6 4 1 9 3 2 5

4. 24 16 19 20 6 12 9 4 3 10 4 7 8 5 4 2 4 5 8 7

Results 5. 6. 21 17 8 18 18 11 8 16 10 8 22 23 19 12 12 4 8 5 13 10 4 1 16 9 8 6 7 4 11 7 1 1 9 6 6 1 2 2 14 8

7. 16 17 10 11 7 23 15 11 16 16 3 12 5 8 8 2 2 4 3 13

2-6

8. 15 10 13 12 9 13 9 15 8 8 7 10 4 5 14 1 3 4 5 10

9. 20 17 27 16 8 13 11 9 6 11 5 13 1 4 11 3 6 7 6 7

10. 13 10 10 8 9 8 14 16 5 7 3 14 6 2 5 3 4 4 9

1-3 103 63 92 49 37 48 33 32 30 30 27 23 17 19 16 6 22 10 7 19

Sum of results 4-10 1-10 126 229 96 159 108 200 91 140 57 94 114 162 89 122 71 103 51 81 75 105 27 54 81 104 38 55 35 54 60 76 10 16 33 55 31 41 30 37 68 87

Medals won by Croatian national selections in sports games at the European and World championships and Olympic games HANDBALL

10

BASKETBALL

4

WATERPOLO

7

FOOTBALL

1

VOLLEYBALL (F)

3

25

2.4. Sport participation and health • Longitudinal study (Lee and Paffenbarger, 1994) on sporting activities, social habits and health of 36,500 men who joined Harvard University between the years 1916 and 1950, which resulted in the knowledge of the causes of illness and death.

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• Students who spent more than 2000 kcal per week in sporting activities, were compared to the less active students and had a quarter lower likelihood that they would suffer from cardiovascular disease that could cause death. • "The defensive influence" of early sport participation does not count if one does not continue to lead a physically active life.

• Students who sit a lot, but choose an active lifestyle, have a much lower probability of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease than former student-athletes who have abandoned or reduced physical activity in middle age. • Most at risk were students - athletes who had suddenly stopped any physical activity.

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It is important that athletes never forget that!

Society focused on the future development is aware of the sport potential and provides the conditions for engaging in sports activities for its members. Special conditions for the highest sports achievements society provides for talented and positively selected young athletes.

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Lesson 3:

Sport in European countries

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Distinguish between the non-governmental and the governmental vertical of sport organisation  Define and describe non-governmental organisations in European sport  Discuss physical education in European countries  Describe examples of the professional sport structure and operation in some European countries

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3.1. Characteristics of sport in the European Union  Sport is a major social movement in Europe.  Sport is very important as an element that brings people and nations together.  Interest and willingness to establish cooperation between countries is often stronger in sports than in many other spheres of life.  This means that the sport can be often ahead of politics in the European integration process.  As a result, a complex system of European sports organizations was created.

 They represent “european sport” in institutional frames.  Many countries have adopted or rebuilt legislation in sport by accepting the European Sports Charter.  There is a general increase in attention to different groups in society: people with disabilities, the elite and professional athletes, foreign citizens, the elderly, the armed forces, women and workers (Sport in the workplace or supported by the company).  Attention is directed towards sustainable development in sport (Finland, Great Britain, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Portugal).

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 4 out of 10 Europeans exercise at least once a week  the numbers are rising from year to year  in the Scandinavian countries, most citizens exercise  Men go to training programmes more than women 41%: 35%  There are different interests in sport by age: 15-24 =60%; 25-39 = 41%; 40-54 = 34%; 55 and more = 28%.  More educated citizens are more likely to do sports (completion of schooling to age 15 - 20% with 16-19 years-32% 20 years and more = 50%)  Typically, the modern lifestyle (lack of time) is a reason not to exercise, rather than the cost of equipment, facility or exercise programme.

3.1.1. NGOs in European sport  National sports federation  National sports federations provide a basis for the European sports system, representing about 700,000 sports clubs and approximately 70 million members.

 National Sports Confederation  In almost all European countries in sport, there is one umbrella sports organization: a community of sports federations or a National Olympic Committee

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 European sports federations  Federations of certain types of sports are organized into European federations at the level of the community of the European states. Some of these federations (eg UEFA - Union of European Football Associations) play a major role in the politics of European sport.

 NOC's (NOC - National Olympic Committees)  National Olympic Committees are 1) representatives of the Olympic Movement in their country (eg. NOK, Germany) or 2) act as a national umbrella sports organization (eg. CONI, Italy)

 EOC (European Olympic Committees)  The European Olympic Committee is an umbrella organization of the national Olympic committees in Europe. Formerly called AENOC (Association of European National Olympic Committees) and was founded in Versailles, France in the year 1997.  At this point, the EOC has 48 member organizations.

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3.1.2. Association of Sports Sciences in Europe ENSSEE (European Network of Sport Sciences, Education and Employment)  The European Network of Sport Sciences was founded under the name ENSSHE (European Network of Sport Sciences in Higher Education) that was changed to ENSSEE in 2001.  It was the first step in 1989 towards the europeanization of sports science.

 The primary aims of the network which currently numbers 200 institutes from 30 countries are:  To nourish a comprehensive European cooperation  to promote mobility and increase the number of exchange programmes between educational institutions, persons in employment and students

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ECSS (European College of Sport Science)  ECSS, which was founded in 1995, is another organization that strives to promote sports science in Europe.  Unlike ENSSEE it is not an association of institutes and organizations of sports science, but associations of sports scientists in Europe.  To integrate sport science in Europe, ECSS brings together and publishes new scientific information from various fields of sports science.

3.2. Top level sport in European countries 3.2.1. Top level sport in Slovenia  Under the law of sport in Slovenia, top level sport is specifically classified as a subject of public interest, which the state is responsible to maintain.  Top athletes have established a special system of health insurance.  The State has provided conditions of employment for the top 200 athletes in the state administration.

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 Direct government support for sport, which is determined by the national sports programme divides roughly 8% of public funds for the top level sport.  The fund of the State lottery gives 16-20% for top level sport activities.  Particular attention in Slovenia is placed on supporting talented children and young athletes.

3.2.2. Top level sport in Austria  With little more than 8 million people, Austria is one of the smallest EU member states.  114 medals won at World Championships and 101 medal at the European championships by the athletes of various sports federations and the federation of sport for people with disabilities.  In 2000 a total of 1.2 million euros was allocated to professional sports, and the allocation of resources was based on the principle of promoting competitive sport.

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3.2.3. Top level sport in France  The organization of top sport in France is governed by different sport laws.  The government's responsibility is to facilitate the necessary funds on the one hand, and ensuring social security for the athletes on the other.  To meet the requirements for continuing support athletes train in different groups (elite, seniors, juniors, perspective). Deployment in one of these categories is based on specific national performance criteria.

 During their sporting careers, top athletes (sportifs de haut niveau) receive compensation, aid:  On the one hand, there are special sports boarding schools offered for schooling and/or university education or vocational education.  On the other hand, athletes are provided with assistance to facilitate their reintegration into the sport field of work after their athletic career.  With INSEP there are top sports institutions at the regional level.  Since France has a unique school system, talent identification starts in elementary school.  Well-organized school sports association conducts the selection of potential athletes

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3.2.4. Top level sport in the United Kingdom  Support for top sport in the UK comes in the form of a “World Class” programme and the Sport Institute of the UK.  The programme ''World Class'' has activities at three levels: World Class Performance, World Class Potential, World Class Start.  The first level is strictly related to athletes with the potential to win a medal at the Olympic or Paralympic Games.

 The Sports Institute of Great Britain consists of a network of centers located throughout the UK and a central office based in London.  The aim of the institute is to provide the best male and female athletes the best conditions they need for competition and winning at top level.  The central office in London provides professional knowledge in sport science, sport training, sports medicine, planning of competitions and informational technology. It is concerned with the education of coaches and other professional personnel in different sports.

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3.2.5. Top level sport in Finland 1906: first participated in the Olympics 1600 top level athletes, 35 internationally famous athletes (cross-country running, javelin, marathon, ski jumping, ice hockey, motor racing, orienteering, swimming, aerobics) Now enters as one of the top 10 countries in the winter and summer Olympics

 21% of the population are members of sports clubs in more than 60 sports (football, skiing, ice hockey, swimming, athletics, skating, cycling, football, gymnastics, hiking)  50% of children exercise in sports clubs  50% male and 25% of women attend sports events  90% of the population follows sporting events via television, 58% through the press  Top level sport is considered a good example to young people

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 Support networks to athletes and coaches: National coaching centers, research institutions of Sports Medicine, Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Faculty of Sport and Medical Sciences, Finland sports federations and the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the SOK  10% (550,000) participates at competitions

 Sports Schools: 12 sport high schools (1400 young athletes in 35 sports), professional schools for athletes (14 professional institutions in the form of sports classes), the Finnish Defence Forces School (160 persons per year do military service in the sports school)  Sport buildings and fields (Venues): 28,000 (one for every 180 people)  Finnish sports organizations – constitutes 114 organizations from all areas of sports (advocating competitive and recreational sport, the promotion of cooperation between member states)

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Volunteering in sport  800,000 volunteers work in sports organizations, whose work is estimated at more than $ 800 million annually  A country with a high GDP (more than 30,000 $ PC) allows citizens a better fulfillment of their free time and often they do voluntary work

Sports Centers  In 1909 was founded the first Finnish Institute of Sport  Today: there are 11 national and 3 regional centers for physical education.

 Centers for preparation of elite athletes:  Kurtane Sport Institute (track and field, wrestling, shooting, rhythmic gymnastics),  Finnish Institute of Sport (hockey, basketball, athletics, tennis, golf, squash),  Vuokati Institute of Sport (skiing, ski jumping, Nordic combined, biathlon),  Sports Center Pujalahti (badminton, wrestling, athletics)

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Scientific research in sport  More than 60 years have been spent on research  The headquarters are at the Faculty of Sport and Health at the University of Jyväskylä:  Department of Physical Education (teaching physical culture, training, motor skills, motivation)  Department of Social Sciences in Sport (sports and social phenomenon of social behavior)  Department of Biology and physical activity (structure, operation, control and adjusting the body to move in terms of training),  Department of Medicine (functional ability, health and habits of the elderly)

3 - 13

Lesson 4:

Organizational, material and financial resources in sport and sport training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Understand factors affecting the status and development of sport  Discuss about coaches and other experts in sport  Describe basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport  Discuss on organization of sport, sports facilities and equipment and sport funding

4-1

 Recent sports issues that every country is dealing with, and therefore so is Croatia, are directly connected to people, organizational material and financial resources.  Therefore, it is necessary to determine the standards and criteria for the optimal status of sport, and to prioritize its aspects which are to be developed in order to achieve the main goals.  Developmental strategy and sports programme basics must define its actual status, and interventions for the enrichment of conditions in which the sports activity is carried out

Factors affecting the status and development of sport 1) Government authorities and society in general, take the stand that sport is a profession and include people working in sport, especially physical education/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other sports professionals/experts as well as athletes. 2) Organizational and programme framework in the field of top level sport and quality sport.

4-2

3) Basic material, financial i spatial conditions for sports programmes functioning. 4) Entrepreneurial programmes and marketing that significantly affect the financial status of sport.

5) The number and professional expertise of personnel functioning in sport (PE/kinesiology teachers, sports coaches and other personnel from related fields) 6) Quality of the educational system in qualifying and specialization for sports needs 7) Level of sports results compared with international competition 8) Scientific basis of sport, that is, the application of scientific research results in the selection and preparation of athletes (of different ages and quality levels).

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4.2. Coaches and other experts in sport  Coaching education for higher qualifications in Croatia, is achieved via two professional degrees (undergraduate), two university degrees (graduate) and via the specialized postgraduate degree for the highest qualifications in sport.  Coaches in Croatia are educated via courses for coaches, teachers and instructors.

Educational system of sports experts in the Republic of Croatia (professional degree) 2 year SPECIALIST GRADUATE SPECIJALISTIČKI DIPLOMSKI PROFESSIONAL STRUČNI STUDIJ STUDIES (4 sem.) (Professional (Viši bachelor of specijalista) sport – a specialist coach) trener

Coach in different sports Coach in Track and recreation Coach in field physical Swimming conditioning Archery Wrestling Coach in Judo fitness Handball Coach / Basketball instructor Soccer in police, UNDERGRADUATE Volleyball army Tennis PROFESSIONAL STUDIES etc.

(Professional bachelor of sport – a coach) UNIVERSITY STUDIES

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

4-4

3 years (6 sem.)

 Basic strategic tasks for upgrading the quality of expertise in sport are:  A continuous selection of potential sports coaches candidates,  eduaction of coaches and other experts based on recent discoveries and knowledge which is supposed to improve their coaching efficiency/successes,  providing professional qualifications for coaches through seminars, conventions and other national and international conferences.

 other than coaches, experts of different profiles must be involved in the training process  Their expertise and responsibilities should be strategically defined and distributed  A team of experts, led by a sports coach, in contemporary Croatian sport should be a warranty for achieving the highest sports results.

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4.3. Organization of sport  In order for a sport system to operate efficiently, the tasks and interrelations between key institutions in the organizational scheme which is made up of the Croatian Olympic Committee, Ministry of Science, education and sport and the Croatian Faculties of Kinesiology must be defined.  National and regional sport research and development centres should be added to that scheme, especially the future Croatian Sport Institute.

Relations between governmental and nongovernmental organization of Croatian sport with scientific, educational and research institutions S C H O O L S P O R T

Croatian Olympic Committee National sports federations

Ministry of Science, Education and Sport of the RC District offices for education, science, culture and sport

Municipal offices for education, science, culture and sport

Scientific and educational and research institutions (Faculty of Kinesiology, Research Centres)

Unions of the district sports federations…

Municipal sports federations (Zagreb Sports Federation, e.g. Zagreb Athletic Federation, Athletic clubs)

Other Governmental Ministries of the Republic of Croatia Public, media, sponsors, social institutions…

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T O P L E V E L S P O R T

4.4. Sports facilities and equipment  Sports facilities must comply with standard sizes, qualities and other demands. The lack of sports halls, swimming pools and playing fields in Croatia is evident. It is necessary to review the current facilities’ infrastructure and draw attention to the need for building new ones.  It is very important to implement the required equipment for carrying out the training process. Contemporary apparatus, devices and equipment facilitate the quality of training.

 It is also necessary to ensure considerable financial means for the supply of modern diagnostic and training equipment for top level athletes.  Sports centers must be equipped with diagnostic apparatus that enable an objective assessment of athletes’ preparation/fitness and a continuous control of performance.

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4.5. Sport funding  By sport development activities are determined  Sport funding/financing is the most important resource in all sport systems  It is necessary to additionally motivate investors through tax relief or significant benefits of the invested money. It is also necessary to design different enterpreneurial programmes and sports marketing.

 The Republic of Croatia, local and territorial (regional) governments and the City of Zagreb shall determine the public purpose of sport and, for their implementation, provide funds from their budgets in accordance with the law on sport.  In determining the public needs it is started from the needs and opportunities of society and in the modern world of sports achievements.  The minister responsible for sport, by law sets the minimum standards for the funding of sport in Croatia.

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4.5.1. Taxes  Countries in the transitional stage of development have not provided tax relief in the same way for sports organizations as other European countries have.  Croatia has not yet provided an affordable way to solve the question of tax relief for investment in high-performance athletes. In this sense, a top sport in Croatia has a large reserve.

4.5.2. Sponsorships  Sponsorships are usually included in the toplevel and popular sport.  It is often difficult to achieve an implementation of the financial structure recommended by the European Charter, which does not encourage public and private financial support for sport.

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Lesson 5:

Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to: • Explain the importance of scientific research in sport • Talk about the theoretical work area in sport • Explain the correlation between the coach and an athlete • Present and explain fitness profiles of toplevel athletes • Explain the correlation between training programme and fitness level

5-1

5.1. Scientific research area Scientific research System kinesiology

Biomechanics

Pedagogy Didactics

IT Mathematics

What enables a top level performance in sport? What are the factors enabling a successful selection of future top level athletes?

Sport kinesiology

What are the reasons for the great results of Croatian athletes?

(Research in sport)

Sports physiology

Sports medicine

Sports psychology

Sports sociology

How can one create and evaluate training, competition and the recovery process?

 A scientific work/paper is an original contribution to the knowledge of something general or specific and is oriented towards discovering new universal laws or methods.  In contemporary sport the training process has become so complex and therefore impossible to manage without the implementation of scientific information.  Scientists and their research may contribute greatly to sport and sports preparation enhancement.

5-2

 Constant cooperation between researchers and coaches, as well as keeping up with the new information in professional papers and periodicals, and attending conferences and professional seminars definitely influences the improvement of the coaches’ professional work level.

 “Nowadays, the highest sports results are achieved by extremely talented athletes due to a programmed training process based on scientific knowledge”, Gambetta (1989)  The relationship between sport and science, that was founded a long time ago, has reached its full potential nowadays.

5.2. Theoretical work area Training theory – scientific and teaching discipline Training theory (integration of scientific research results)

Theoretical basics Methodics Programming and control Sports performance

5-3

Sports training

Sports preparation

Sport

 Theory, in general, denotes a system of knowledge which is aimed at the explanation of successful functioning of a certain expertise.  Accordingly, the Training theory systematically explains the functioning of sport and sports training along with all its components.  The training theory contains the broadest generalizations by which the facts and laws of training based on sports practice or scientific research are explained.

5.3. Practical work area 5.3.1. Correlation between the coach and an athlete Fitness level (effects)

Model

Athlete – sports team

Athlete X

Coach – expert team

Training plan and programme

(operators)

5-4

Disrupting variables

 A very important part of the previous figure represents the correlation between the model and an athlete X

 The coach who designed the training programme must be informed about the fitness of a top level athlete (the model), the fitness characteristics and the fitness characteristics of an athlete that is being trained (an athlete X)  Those characteristics are, in fact, the test results obtained by evaluating any athlete’s abilities and skills.

Model characteristics/values of physical fitness in top level football/soccer players (Vazny, 1978) ANTROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL VALUES

1. Body height (cm)

178.0

2. Body weight (kg)

74.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s)

3.30

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

40.0

5. Standing high jump (cm)

65.0

6. Running high jump (cm)

75.0

7. Pull ups (repetitions)

10.0

8. Deep squat (kg)

111.0 kg (150% BW)

9. Slalom run (s)

8.60

10. Slalom run with a ball (s)

10.10

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

68.00

12. Cognitive test 1

6.00

13. Cognitive test 2

70% (+)

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Test results of an X player in the variables to assess their fitness (Vazny, 1978) ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm)

176.3

2. Body weight (kg)

72.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s)

3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

43.2

5. Standing high jump (cm)

56.7

6. Running high jump (cm)

62.6

7. Pull ups (repetitions)

7.0

8. Deep squat (kg)

96.4 kg (134% body weight)

9. Slalom run (s)

8.80

10. Slalom run with a ball (s)

10.71

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

62.78

12. Cognitive test 1

4.40

13. Cognitive test 2

45% (+)

Football player’s (X) test results and model values comparison (Milanović, 2005, according to Vazny, 1978)

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

MODEL VALUES

FOOTBALL PLAYER X’s TEST RESULT

1. Body height (cm)

178.0

176.3

2. Body weight (kg)

74.0

72.0

3. 30 m run FLYING (s)

3.30

3.48

4. 10×30m run p’15 (s)

40.0

43.2

5. Standing high jump (cm)

65.0

56.7

50

6. From a moving high jump (cm)

75.0

62.6

40

7. Pull ups (repetitions)

Points 70 60

10.0

7.0

30

111.0 kg (150% BW)

96.4 kg (134% BW)

20

8.60

8.80

10. Slalom run with a ball (s)

10.10

10.71

11. Oxygen uptake – VO2 (ml/kg/min)

68.00

8. Deep squat (kg) 9. Slalom run (s)

1

2

6.00

4.40

13. Cognitive test 2

70% (+)

45% (+)

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Characteristics and abilities

62.78

12. Cognitive test 1

3

5-6

Top level Croatian basketball players’ results in tests for assessment of basic and specific motor abilities (according to Milanović et al., 1989)

Guards Measuring instruments - tests

Demanded result

Player 1

Player 2

1. Standing high jump (jumping explosive power)

82 cm

82 cm

64 cm

2. Standing triple jump (jumping explosive power)

8,50 m

8.60 m

7.80 m

3. Shuttle run (speed endurance)

25,5 s

25,3 s

27,04 s

4. Chest ball-throw (throwing explosiv power)

18 m

18,5 m

16,30 m

5. Standing 20-m sprint (strating explosive power)

2,85 s

2,86 s

3,03 s

6. Relative oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity)

65 ml/kg/min

70 ml/kg/min

74 ml/kg/min

7. Sit ups (abdominal musculature strength)

40

42

36

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (T.K.) 0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values) Z-values

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

TRB 20VS OSMB TROJ 4*5B VUK SAR2 OSMS 4*5S SPR SMB AEC SAR1 TROS BLG

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Tests

Top level basketball player’s fitness profile (A.K.) 0 = group of top level basketball players’ average results (0 to 1 = model values) Z-values

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

TRB 20VS OSMB TROJ 4*5B VUK SAR2 OSMS 4*5S SPR SMB AEC SAR1 TROS BLG

Tests

5.4. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level Fitness level (effects)

Model

Athlete – sports team

Athlete X

Coach – expert team

Training plan and programme (operators)

5-8

Disrupting variables

 In sports training practice there is a continuous correlation between the training plan and the programme - and the training work and the athletes’ fitness  The training plan and programme change the athletes’ fitness level into the desired direction according to the set goals of a certain sports preparation cycle.  Information regarding the athletes’ fitness level, during any part of the training process, represents a basic resource of information for defining the contents, loads and training methods.

 Training operators, implemented in the training programmes, represent the stimuli that produce quantitative and qualitative fitness level changes in athletes.  The application of certain training operators results in fitness level changes, i.e. training effects. Those effects confirm the correctness and weaknesses of any prevously applied training programme, competition system and recovery methods during a certain sports preparation cycle.

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Correlation between training programmes and training effects TRAINING PROGRAMME Training stimulus Training session

A T H L E T E

TRAINING EFFECTS Functional reaction Acute effects

Microcycle

Prolonged effects

Mesocycle phase

Cummulative effects

Mesocycle period Macrocycle

C O A C H

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Peak performance Fitness (trainability)

Lesson 6:

Sports training (sports preparation)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the relation between sports training and sports preparation  Define sports training  Analyse the essence of sports training  Define and describe sports training objectives  Explain the cybernetic approach in sports training  Define the control and the regulation of the sports training process

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6.1. Sports training – sports preparation Training – trahere (lat.) pull, work; denotes each form of exercise, learning and preparation

Sports training represents a pedagogical and biological process oriented at the acquisition of physical abilities, knowledge, skills and habits (routines). Sports training is a system comprised of all procedures aimed at sports perfomance enhancement.

6.2. Sports training definitions: Sports training, in general, represents a longterm process of athletic preparation for the greatest and highest sports achievements. Specifically, it is physical, technical, tactical, intellectual, psychical and other forms of athletic preparation, it is achieved by practice and activity of the highest possible physicial load on organs and organic systems. Therefore, in athletic circles we can often hear the following slogan: “WITH THE CESSATION OF HEAVY PHYSICAL AND MENTAL WORK, STARTS THE SPORTS TRAINING.”

6-2

D. Harre (1982) has defined sports training as an

organized and longterm process of sports performance enhancement that is based on pedagogical, biological, psychological, sociological, medical, biomechanical and methodical principles. With a planned approach and systematic work it affects the development of such abilities, skills and characteristics which enable the highest sports achievements at the most important competitions.

C. Vittori (1990) defined sport training as a complex, pedagogical process which is manifested in organized and scientifically based exercise - work that is repeated with a specific load in order to ensure the activation of the physioogical processes of supercompensation and adaptation in the human organism. Consequently, a development of athletes’ physical, technical and tactical capacities is achieved. These capacities are manifested in an improvement and stabilization of sports performance results.

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Different loads cause different reactions of the athletes’ organism

MA

SMA

ME

MI

Load: MA

maximal

SMA

submaximal

ME

medium

MI

minimum

6.3. The essence of sports training Ensues from all definitions and theoretical approaches:

1)Causes adaptational changes Adaptation is a characteristic of every living organism. An athlete’s condition is, thereby influenced by training stimuli. It actually represents the changes specific to the different demands of each sport.

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2) It represents a form of work: physical and mental There is always a relation between physical and mental engagement in sports training. More complexed motor tasks increase an athlete’s mental abilities’ activation.

3) It is systematic and regular Training should be continuous without disruptions. Athletes should train on a daily basis, changing only the volume and methods of training. Any longer disruptions in training might put the sports development in jeopardy.

4) It is planned and programmed A plan and a programme minimize all coincidences. We must always be aware of “the place we’re at” and what we want to accomplish in order to determine the procedures which lead to the achievement of the goals.

5) It is longterm and goal oriented To plan perspectively a sports career. To secure the full development of fitness (preparedness) in each phase of a longterm sports preparation. Premature forcing of sports talents never yields the expected performance and

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6) Repetitive Training stimuli, training sessions and training cycles are repetative. A stable and automated performance is possible to achieve only with a large number of repetitions.

7) It is conducted by over-thethreshold loads – maximal efforts

Training loads must be over-thethreshold. It is necessary to provoke very large, but controlled physiological reactions.

8) It is specific regarding the level of sport fitness (preparedness) Age, sex, health status specificity and an athlete’s level must be taken into account. Every sport is determined by a specific structure of dimensions that influence the sports performance and results.

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9) It is oriented at maximizing motor abilities, skills and performance achievements necessary to accomplish sports results. Sport results at competitions represent an indicator of an athlete’s training status, training programme and recovery methods’ quality.

6.4. Sports training tasks: 1) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ specific skills and abilities for performing movement structures which make the SPORTS TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE stands for a biomechanically correct and rational movement structure performance.

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2) Formation and enhancement of athletes’ skills and abilities for the realization of situational structures which makes SPORTS TACTICS. TACTICS – represents optimal movements modes of one or more athletes in situational training or competitive conditions. It is actually an efficient situational problem solving

3) Improvement and stabilization of primary and specific functional/energetic capacities and motor abilities which comprise the athletes’ STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING.

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING stands for an optimal state of the athletes’functional/energetic capacities and motor abilities.

6-8

4) Development and maintenance of athletes’ MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES. Each sport “demands” specific anthropometric measures and somatotypes. 5) To influence an ATHLETE’S PERSONALITY development. It includes self-evaluation and auto regulation, and also self-confidence and selfrespect. 6) Improving the level of mental, COGNITIVE processes functioning which are specific for different ways and levels of technical and tactical behavior in sport.

7) Improving the ability of MICROSOCIAL ADAPTATION. It is actually an adjustment to the rules of conduct in a sports team and a quality emotional and functional positioning of an individual in a group. 8) Positive athletes' ATTITUDES, INTERESTS, SYSTEM OF VALUES and MOTIVATIONAL orientation.

6-9

9) Preserving and enhancing athletes’ HEALTH. A sport in which professional knowledge is implemented, and which is led by qualified coaches, preserves and enhances athletes’ health. An athlete cannot participate in training and competition if a medical team has determined a health disability or danger of deterioration in the health status.

10) Formation of INTEGRAL ACTION EFFICIENCY, always with regard to an interaction between each of the sports success determinants. For an athlete to be motivated and successful in training and competition, he/she must be healthy and have optimally developed physical abilities, morphological features and motor skills of a certain sport. While participating in sports activities, an athlete must find himself/herself in situations in which he/she will achieve success, and cognitively asses his/her abilities and features so high that participation in a certain sport represents a challenge even during the most difficult training periods and competitions.

6 - 10

6.5. Cybernetic approach to sports training  Cybernetics is a science of management

and regulation of interdependent processes occurring in complex systems (Wiener, 1948).

 BRANCHES of cybernetics: – System theory – Information theory – Management and regulation theory – Communication theory – Games theory – Algorithms theory  Sports training is a manageable process. All processes that can be managed may be simply described by the cybernetic approach.

6 - 11

 Management – Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved. (Achievement – reaching peak performance during preparatory period) 100 80

60 1. Phase of entering peak 2. Phase of maintaining 3. Phase of temporary performance peak performance loss of peak performance Preparatory/control competitions

Official competitions

Other competitions (tournaments, meetings)

Preparatory period

Competition period

Transitional period

Mesocycles (phases)

Mesocycles (competiotion seasons)

Mesocycles (phases)

Microcycles

Microcycles

Microcycles

 Regulation – Is a group of momentary actions or actions in time by which a satisfying system functioning is trying to be achieved within demanded or given boundaries. (Peak performance maintenance during a competition period) 100 80

60 1. Phase of ulaska entering of maintaining 3. 3. Phase of temporary 1. Faza u peak 2. 2.Phase Faza održavanja Faza privremenog performance peak performance loss ofsportske peak performance sportsku formu sportske forme gubitka forme Preparatory/control Pripremno-kontrolna competitions natjecanja Preparatory period Pripremni period Mesocycles (phases) Mezociklusi(etape) Microcycles Mikrociklusi

Official competitions Službena natjecanja Competitionperiod period Natjecateljski

Othernatjecanja competitions Ostala (turniri, mitinzi) (tournaments, meetings) Transitional period Prijelazni period

Mesocycles (phases) Mesocycles Mezociklusi (sezone Mezociklusi(etape) (competiotion seasons) natjecanja) Microcycles Mikrociklusi

6 - 12

Microcycles Mikrociklusi

 Cybernetics enables a simplified approach in analyzing complex systems and processes, and represents a special operational method.  Cybernetics in training theory brings mathematics and statistics as operational methods. Sports training science becomes an exact, scientific and teaching discipline.

System approach System: A group of elements with clearly determined characteristics and interrelations  A system is a specification of relations between input, condition and output  System condition is determined by output variables  Change of input variables causes a change in output variables  Input variables represent causes, and output variables represent the consequences of the system processes.

6 - 13

A simple cybernetic model of sports training (modified according to Mraković, 1994) disruptions

INPUT I

ATHLETE

OUTPUT O

Achieved condition

TRAINING PLAN AND PROGRAM

Coach – expert team

Analysis of training effects

(management and regulation)

Expected condition

Cybernetic model of information exchange between coach and athlete Training model given by a coach

Disruptions F I L T E R

Athlete’s/team’s condition model – seen and understood by a coach

Almost no entropy.

Athlete – Sports team

Coach Almost no entropy.

Training model understood by an athlete - team

F I L T E R Disruptions

6 - 14

Athlete’s/team’s real condition model = training effects

Lesson 7:

Sports Training – A Short History

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Describe the beginning of sport development  Explain the developmental stages of sport and define the development indicators  Discuss the new technologies in sports preparation  Define the implicit and the explicit phase of sport development  Talk about the beginning of academic research and the application of research findings in sport

7-1

7.1. A short overview of sport development in the world  Data on horse training were found on a clay plate from the 14th century B.C. and data on athletes’ training on a clay plate from the 7th century B.C.  Ancient Greece: Advanced physical activity in the education of youth. Special attention was given to the preparation for the Olympic Games.

Sport in the Middle Ages  The cult of the spirit prevails over the cult of the body – the influence of medieval Christianity  Physical activity and sport played one of the key roles only in a knight’s education - military training  Knights’ tournaments – a central social event

7-2

Renaissance  Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) – “The Art of Gymnastics” – the book that summarises all knowledge on sport in ancient Greece - in the next three centuries it would have a significant impact on the development of sport in Europe

Age of Enlightenment  Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)  Physical activity is an integral part of education  Swimming, jumping, running, throwing, and games

Gymnastics systems  BEGINNING OF SYSTEMATIC PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN EUROPE - 19th century (German, Swedish, French, Czech)

 Gymnastics systems can be perceived as the precursors of sport, which started to develop rapidly in those countries

7-3

 Since its beginning (19th century) training was under the influence of gymnastics and physical activity systems from Germany, Sweden, the Czech Republic and England.  In England, contours of modern sport start to appear - the concept of training is adapted - to exercise, to train or to repeat mechanically an exercise with the goal of performance improvement - J. Walsh, 1856.

 First research into the correlation between physical exercises and morphological characteristics (Sargent, 1879)  Strength training prevails in the conditioning of motor abilities basic training principles and methods are defined (Blaikie, 1879; Anderson, 1883; E. Sandow 1894)

 1888 - Legrange gives the definition of training: Training refers to the activities whose purpose is to prepare a man or an animal for a certain type of work.

7-4

Modern sport  Developed in England in the second half of the 19th century

The Olympic Games  Pierre de Coubertin (1863 – 1937)

 1. The Olympics in Athens in 1896 played a key role in the development and popularisation of sport in Europe and the world

 Gradually,the first serious analyses of sports training are published, which enrich the training methodology (E. Sandow 1897, Murphy, 1913, B. Kotov 1916/1917)

 After the second and the third Olympics it became clear that results can be obtained only by the employment of multilateral and balanced exercise

7-5

 The American scientist M. Murphy publishes "athletic preparation" and recommends that preparatory training should last 8 to 10 weeks, and that it should be based on specific and "aiding/helping" exercises.

 The Russian scientist B. Kotov (1916/1917) clearly formulates the ideas on continuity and different stages (periodisation) of the training process – he also distinguishes between three periods: general training, basic training, and specific training.

 In Finland the interval training method is used for the first time (L. Pikhala, 1930), which gives excellent results in long-distance and middle-distance running  The first serious articles on training are published - V. Gorinevski «Scientific foundations of training», 1922; G. Birsin «Training essence» from 1925.

 The rapid development of sport in the period between the two World Wars is accompanied by the development of sports training technology.

7-6

 From 1932 to 1936 the participation of other academic and study disciplines can be observed: sports medicine, physiology, psychology, pedagogy. Eventually, the profile of sports specialists is developed.  Interval sports preparation starts to be employed (coach - W. Gerschler, runner – R. Harbig 800m)  By World War II the level of 400 to 500 training hours in the annual cycle of sports preparation is reached and there is a tendency for the employment of two training sessions per day.  The idea of peak performance and its tapering for important competitions is considered.

 After World War II (1948 to 1952), especially at the Olympics in Helsinki, first top sports results are achieved by the athletes from the “Eastern block"  The experts “are aware of/come to realize" the structure of the success factors in different sports disciplines and study the methodological problems connected to each of the sports preparation segments  There is a shift from the level of a general approach to the level of an individual approach

7-7

 The first big athletic stars are P. Nurmi, J. Owens and E. Zatopek - track and field, J. Weismuller - swimming  The importance of physical conditioning in the training structure constantly increases  E. Müller and T. Hettinger introduce new strength training methods (isometrics) in 1953

 In 1959, R. Morgan i G. Adamson propose the circuit training method, which is improved by M. Schölich in the 1960s.  The annual number of training hours is around 800.  Sports preparation systems for important competitions (the Olympics, World Championships and European Championships) are designed  Special attention is given to the functional preparedness and training methods for the development of motor abilities. Interest for strength training in basketball, swimming, and track and field is increasing

7-8

 In the training of Australian (coach P. Cerutty – runner H. Elliot 1500m) and New Zealand (coach A. Lydiard – runner P. Snell 800m and 1500m) (1960 – 1968) track and field athletes, new training methodology is applied (e.g. "complex training") leading to the highest sports results in the world.

 Increasing body of published academic research in all areas of sports training leads to a qualitative leap.

 Important research in the field of sports training periodisation is conducted (S. Letunov, 1959, L. Matveev 1962)  After the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968 the interest for "altitude training" increases among the coaches and sports scientists, and the first specialised centres for altitude sports preparation are built

7-9

 The desire to speed up the recovery process results in the use of prohibited pharmacological substances by the end of the 1970s.

 Conditions for sports preparation are significantly improved and an improved means of recovery are developed

 Science becomes the leading generator of positive change in sport  Commercialisation of sport during the 1990s gives sport its cosmopolitan character and creates conditions for athletes to become professionals  At the beginning of the 21st century sports training becomes an academic system led by specialised teams of experts. This ensures the further development of sports preparation on the basis of the most recent academic findings and technologies

7 - 10

 The intuitive and empirical approach prevails until the end of the 1960s, when the high-quality sports preparation systems are defined, drawing on the experience of the leading world coaches (implicit stage)

 The year 1966 marked the beginning of the dominance of the academic approach. Academic research results are applied in the selection, methodology, programming, and control of the sports preparation process (the explicit stage)

7.2. A short overview of sport development in Croatia  Shooting - the first sport  Popularisation of sports and the establishment of sports clubs - second half of the 19th century  Cycling - most popular in the 19th/20th century  Franjo Bučar 1866-1946  Football in Croatia since 1903

7 - 11

 Between two World Wars:           

Basketball Handball Volleyball Water polo Track and field Boxing Golf Ice hockey Kayaking/canoeing Table tennis Tennis

Croatian Falcon was a well-organised physical activity system  The members cherished proper education (discipline, friendship, devotion) and physical preparedness for serving the nation  At that time, physical education teachers were advocates of the positive role of sport and physical exercise in the education of youth

7 - 12

Croatian sport after World War II  A successful period for sport development in Croatia  The 1948 Olympic Games in London, the first international success of Croatian athletes – the Yugoslavian national football team won the silver medal  While performing for the former Yugoslavia, Croatian athletes accomplished significant results in team sports, tennis, rowing, boxing, swimming, wrestling etc.

Medals won by Croatian athletes at the Olympic Games since 1992 G

S

B

T

Athletics

-

1

0

1

Handball

2

-

-

2

Basketball

-

1

-

1

Water polo

-

1

-

1

Tennis

-

-

3

3

1

1

2

1

2

2

2

Rowing

-

Weightlifting

1

Taekwondo

-

-

Swimming

-

1

-

1

Alpine Skiing

4

5

-

9

Biathlon

-

-

1

1

Shooting

-

-

1

1

Gymnastics

-

1

-

1

Total

7

11

9

27

7 - 13

 Significant features of the contemporary Croatian sport are:  Croatian athletes achieve significant results at important competitions. This is the result of great talent and motivation  A strategy and a national programme for the development of sport do not exist  Croatia hosts important competitions in various sports disciplines  There is a lot of room for improvement regarding the education of coaches, the structure, international cooperation, material and technical conditions and academic research

7 - 14

Lesson 8:

Analysis of sport activities

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Distinguish between the movement structures and      

the situation structures, i.e. technique and tactics elements Define a structural analysis and explain the structural properties of a sports activity Define the biomechanical analysis and explain the biomechanical properties of a sports activity Explain muscle contraction types Define an anatomical analysis and explain the anatomical properties of a motor activity Define a functional analysis and explain the energy processes in sports activities Describe the criteria for a sports activity classification

8-1

8.1. Structural analysis of a sport activity Two components define a sport activity:

Movement structures

Sport technique

Situation structures

Sport tactics

Sports are differentiated by the number and complexity of movement structures and situations: that is, the technical and tactical elements.

a)Phases b) Subphases

c) Structural elements

 There is a definite number of structural elements in each sport.  Success in sport is dependant on a correct performance.  A motor learning process enables constant learning and improvement of technical and tactical knowledge.

8-2

Typical sport activities in which technical and tactical actions appear A - approaching, B - jump, C – flying and kicking the ball in a dual action

A structural analysis of a sport activity implies four steps: 1) Identification of typical structures of movement and structures of situations 2) Registration of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition 3) Determining the frequencies (successful, unsuccessful) of structures of movement and structures of situations during a competition 4) Determining the value of structures of movement and structures of situations for sport results

8-3

Distances covered by soccer players from different positions (Verheijen, 1997)

Level / Posit ions Country

Study

N

Distance in meters Walk

Jogging

Side movement

Sprint

2100

300

Bangsbo al.

et 1st league/ Denmark

14 3600

5200

Knowles Booke

& 1st league/ England

40 1703

2610

Mohr et al.

1st league/ Italy

D W L A

9 11 13 9

Reilly T.

1st league/E ngland

D W L A

8 7 11 14

2292 1777 2029 2309

2902 2910 4040 2771

Backward movement

250

2460 1690 2230 2280

650 640 440 440

1583 1898 2159 1755

783 830 1059 1066

668 651 510 495

Legend: D- defence; W-wing; L-line; A-attack

8.2. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities  Biomehanical analysis enables an evaluation of

the movement structure qualities.  Gives us numerical values of movements  In motor teaching coaches must use understandable biomechanical terms  Based on the biomechanical parameters during the performance of athletes and a model, motor errors can be determined

8-4

Kinematic parameters:  spatial (path, trajectory, angle relations)  time (duration) and  space - time (speed, acceleration)

Dynamic parameters:



 muscle forces,  the forces of resistance,  reactive power

 Electromyographic parameters

Speed curves of sprinters of different quality compared to the model (according to Letzelter and Letzelter, 2002)

Running velocity



Model Top level sprinter Medium quality sprinter Lower quality sprinter

Distance

8-5

Speed curves of body parts of a young football player while kicking the ball (Kollath, 1990 according to Milanović, 1997) Velocity m/s

Ball contact

Top of foot

Ankle

Knee

Hip

Top level basketball players results in a modified Sargent test from a tensiometric platform (Milanović et al., 1999) Kinematics

Subjects V.S. K.T. D.V. P.Ž. Z.J. Č.Z. C.D. R.Z. R.Z.

Maximu m reach in jump (cm) 352 341 334 321 318 314 310 306 305

Kinetics Measured

Maximum reach (cm)

Take-off force (N)

75 75 70 56 70 60 59 69 66

3580 2685 3246 2320 2762 2570 2682 2856 2608

8-6

Calculated

Duration Force/body of takeweight off (ms) 220 240 250 200 200 220 190 210 170

3,1 3,1 2,9 2,3 3,2 2,7 2,9 3,3 3,2

m. ext. carpi

m. flex. carpi m. biceps brachii

Electromyographic activity during a jump shot in handball

m. triceps brachii

m. deltoideus

(Muller et al., 1992)

m. trapezius m. pectoralis major

Types of muscle contractions

1.

2.

1.

3.

1. ISOMETRIC – placing feet on the ground 2. ECCENTRIC – amortization 3. CONCENTRIC – take-off

8-7

3.

8.3. Anatomical analysis The performance of motor actions involves different: topological regions of the body (arms and shoulder girdle) muscle group (flexor muscles / flexor forearm) muscles (flexor / flexor forearm m. biceps brachii)

Analysis of muscle strain in abdominal crunch (Delavier, 2001)

8-8

Analysis of muscle strain in the forearm flexion (Delavier, 2001)

Dominant muscle groups in various sports disciplines

muscles and muscle groups - extensors

muscles and muscle groups - flexors

8-9

The order of activation of leg muscles during cycling 1. m. quadriceps femoris 2. m. triceps surae

5. m. biceps femoris

3. m. flexor digitorum

6. m. tensor fasciae latae

4. m. gluteus maximus

7. m. tibialis anterior

8.4. Functional (energy) analysis In different sports activities various energy processes are activated : Aerobic (O2) mixed (aerobic - anaerobic) Anaerobic - glycolitic (LA) Anaerobic - phosphate (ATP / CP)

These energy processes can be measured by a number of physiological - biochemical parameters in a laboratory and in the field heart rate body temperature lactate concentrations

8 - 10

The involvement of energy processes in different sports in % (by Bompa, 1994) SPORT

Kayak: K1 1000m Rowing Rugby Archery

ATP/CP

LA

O2

20

50

30

2

15

83

30-40

10-20

30-50

0

0

100

Skiing: alpine slalom

40

50

10

giant slalom 70’’-90’’

45’’-50’’

30

50

20

super G 80’’-120’’

15

45

40

downhill 90’’-150’’

10

45

45

Skiing: nordic

0

5

95

Soccer

60-80

20

0-10

Swimming 100m

23.95

51.10

24.95

10

20

70

Tennis

1500m

70

20

10

Volleyball

40

10

50

Waterpolo

30

40

30

Wrestling

90

10

0

Heart rate during a football match (a) the relationship between HR and VO2 in the treadmill run test (b)(Bangsbo, 1994) At the mean HR of 171 and 164 r / min in the first and second half the achieved VO2 is: 51.1 ml / mol / kg (78% VO2 max) and in the second 46.2 ml / mol / kg (72% VO2 max)

VO2 max = 65,3 ml/min/kg

8 - 11

8.5. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 8.5.1. The structural complexity Monostructural sport activities Activities in which there are one or more movement structures of a cyclic or acyclic character, which are successively repeated. Defined as standard forms of motion with the lowest variability of biomechanical parameters.

Monostructural cyclic sports activities In their basis are simple structures of movement: closed or semi-open type. It is a repetition of the same movement, or cycles, such as a step in walking, running,a stroke in swimming or rowing, a cycle in cycling…

8 - 12

Monostructural acyclic sports activities More complex structures of movement, and semi-open and open type, consisting of several phases. Activities are performed in the standard forms with respect to biomechanical principles for overcoming one's own body space, missile, or with the help of an external force (athletic jumps and throws, alpine skiing, weightlifting, sailing ...)

Polystructural sport activities Semi-open and open movement structures that are performed in variable conditions. They are dominated by the complex structure of an acyclic movement character in which there is a direct, - wrestling opponents (wrestling, judo), or indirect - kicking, countering the opponent (boxing, karate, taekwondo, fencing)

8 - 13

Complex sports activities Characterized by simple and complex movements in terms of cooperation, cooperation between members of sports teams during the game. The aim of this cooperation is to achieve supremacy over opponents - individuals or teams. It may vary from one-subject (tennis, table tennis) to multisubjects (team sports games). In these activities maximum demands on the type of tactical decision-making and action are set.

Conventional - aesthetic sports activities Contain aesthetically designed and choreographed sets of movement structures which are performed under standard conditions. There are obligatory and free competition programmes, with a subjectively assessed value of technical and artistic interest (diving, figure skating, gymnastics ...). Ski jumping is evaluated in jump distance and quality of performance.

8 - 14

8.5.2. The complexity of the biomechanical parameters  Control of kinematic and dynamic parameters (sports, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming)  Control of dynamic parameters (track and field, rowing and swimming)  Sports with a high variability of biomechanical parameters (martial arts and sports games)

8.5.3. The dominance of energy processes - physiological classification  Aerobic sports (long-distance running, cross country skiing)  Mixed sports (athletic decathlon, triathlon)  Lactate - glycolytic anaerobic sports (martial arts, running the middle distance, sports gymnastics)  Phosphate anaerobic sports (sports games, sprint running, diving)

8 - 15

8.5.4. The dominance of motor physical abilities      

Sports Sports Sports Sports Sports Sports

dominated dominated dominated dominated dominated dominated

by by by by by by

power speed and agility endurance balance coordination precision

8 - 16

Lesson 9:

Analysis of athletes’ dimensions (components of preparedness)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Explain the hierarchical structure of the factors of athletes’ fitness;  Define and describe basic anthropological characteristics of athletes;  Define and describe athletes’ specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills;  Define and describe situation-related efficiency (performance) indicators of athletes;  Define and explain competition results (achievements) in sports

9-1

9.1. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes IV. Competition result Indicators of performance in the phase of defense

Indicators of performance in the phase of offense/attack

Other performance indicators

III. Performance efficiency of athletes Specific physical conditioning fitness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge – technical preparedness

Specific abilities, skills and knowledge – tactical preparedness

Specific theoretical knowledge

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, knowledge and skills Health status

Morphological Work capacities characteristics (Functional abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits (innate)

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

9.1.1. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes Health status

Morphological characteristics

Work capacities (functional abilities)

Motor (physical) abilities

Cognitive abilities

Personality traits (innate)

I. Basic anthropological characteristics of athletes

 Health status – Sports and sport training should never jeopardize health of athletes. – To fight against substance abuse in sport is an obligation of each and every participant.

9-2

 Morphological characteristics of athletes - These are body composition indicators, somatotype characteristics of athletes – important sport performance factors. - Variuos sports require various somatotypes (ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph) - For high achievements in certain sports morphological characteristics are crucial, decisive.

Skinfold measurements (Beachle & Earle, 2009)

Anthropometric characteristics of athletes: body height, body mass, somatotype of basketball players (Milanović et al., 1989) (M - Mean, SD - standard deviation)

Player Test

/

01 02 03 04 05* 06 07 08 09 10* 11 12 M SD

Height (cm)

Mass (kg)

Somatotype

198.3 204.9 212.9 187.0 207.6 205.5 206.5 190.7 187.6 208.5 217.7 194.4 201.7 10.03

91.3 97.0 110.3 81.8 85.7 101.0 97.6 81.0 85.7 110.8 117.4 86.0 95.5 12.31

4.5/2.6/4.5 2.5/2.9/4.0 3.0/4.0/4.0 3.5/4.5/3.0 2.0/1.0/6.0 3.0/3.4/3.0 3.0/2.9/4.5 1.5/4.0/3.5 2.5/4.1/2.5 4.5/4.4/3.0 2.0/3.9/4.0 2.5/3.8/3.5 2.9/3.5/3.8 0.93/0.98/0.94

9-3

 Work capacities / functional (energy supply) abilities of athletes – Related with the efficiency of the oxygen transport system (aerobic ability) and anaerobic energy supply capacities (phosphogenic and glycolitic metabolic processes). – Athletes may significantly differ among themselves by the aerobic abilities as well as by anaerobic capacities. – In certain sports the anaerobic glycolitic energy production process prevails, whereas in others theaerobic metabolic process is predominant.

Characteristic metabolic processes in various performance time intervals of high intensity sport activity (Bompa, 1994) Energy intensity of the activity

A

100%

P

G

anabolic (A) phosphogenic (P) gliycolitic (G) 50%

aerobic

seconds 30

60

90

9-4

120

150

• Each sport event can be described in terms of particular energy supply mechanisms: anabolic (A), - phosphogenic (P), glycolitic (G) and aerobic (oxydative; O).

Aerobic and anaerobic energetic processes in sports events of various duration (Bompa, 1994) Anaerobic

Energy supply system

Alactic

Basic energy sources

Phosphate system (ATP and CP from muscles)

Duration

0s

Sports events

10s

Aerobic Lactic

Lactic system (glycogen  lactic acid) 40s

70s

Glycogen (completely burns outin presence of O2)

2 min

6min

25min

Fats

1h

Proteins

2h

200-400m

800 m

Medium distance (running, speed skating, swimming)

Long distance (running, swimming, speed skating, kayak-canoe)

Throwing events

500m speed skating

100 m swimming

1000m kayakcanoeing

Cross-country skiing

Jumping events

Artistic gymnastics

500m canoeing

Boxing

Triathlon

Weight lifting

50m swimming

1000m speed skating

Wrestling / Combat sports

Cycling, road race

Ski jumping

Floor routine (artistic gymnastics)

Figure skating

Diving

Alpine skiing

Rowing

Vault (art. gymn.) Sports games, individual (net&wall) games, sailing

Activity

3h

100m track sprinting

Acyclic

Acyclic and cyclic

9-5

Cyclic

• The differences between test results in rest and parameters obtained under competition loads are frequently analysed to determine specific work (functional) responds/capacities of athletes. Functional indicators of elite rowers in rest and in competition (Körner & Schwanitz, 1985, according to Milanović, 1997)

FUNCTIONAL (WORK CAPACITY) PARAMETER

VALUES IN REST

VALUES IN COMPETITION

HR (heart rate)

40

200.0

Respiratory volume (l/min)

8.0

200.0

Oxygen consumption (O2l/min)

0.5

6.5

Lactate (mmol/l)

1.0

20.0

Average values of maximal oxygen uptake in athletes of various sports (Bangsbo, 1994)

mlO2/min/kg

soccer team handball

80

medium distance running untrained individuals

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 women

men

9-6

Values of absolute and relative oxygen uptake (VO2) of Australian athletes (Pyke, 2001)

Average absolute VO2max L/min)

Range

Average relative VO2max (ml/kg/min)

Range

M

4.9

3.9-5.7

75

65-80

W

3.5

2.9-4.2

65

55-70

M

4.8

4.3-5.1

65

55-70

W

3.4

3.1-3.8

52

45-60

M

5.8

4.8-6.4

80

65-85

W

3.7

3.0-4.0

63

55-70

M

4.8

4.4-5.2

60

55-65

W

3.1

2.8-3.5

50

45-55

M

4.6

4.0-5.2

60

55-65

W

3.1

2.8-3.5

50

45-55

Sport

Running Rowing Cycling Canoeing Soccer

 Motor abilities of athletes – Represent efficiency of the neuro-muscular system responsible for intensity, duration and regulation of movements. – They enable either powerful, quick, longlasting, accurate, coordinated, or combined performance of various motor tasks.

9-7

 Motor abilities are the aspects of intensity and extensity (volume) of any motor activity that can be described with the same parameter system and measured with the identical group of measuring instruments; onset of analoguous physiological, biochemical, morphological and biomechanical mechanisms is typical for each of them.  McCloy (1886-1959) defines motor, i.e. physical potential of athletes as the maximum limit of physical work ability which an individual reaches, or realizes his/her potential with sports training.

• According to Meinel (1977, in Milanović, 1997), it is a complex structure of quantitative (STRENGTH/POWER, SPEED, ENDURANCE and FLEXIBILITY) and qualitative (COORDINATION, AGILITY, BALANCE and ACCURACY) motor abilities.

9-8

 The quantitative motor abilities enable a high level of work intensity and extensity, whereas the qualitative motor abilities enable an athlete to perform work of high structural and biomechanical complexity of any sports activity.

 Bompa (2006) defines the structure of motor abilities as consisting of BASIC BIOMOTOR CAPACITIES, like strength/power, speed, endurance, coordination and flexibility.  The derived motor abilities are also important to sport performance. They are a result of the correlation of the basic motor abilities.  Therefore, there are POWER/EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH (interaction of strength and speed), SPEED ENDURANCE (interaction of speed and endurance), and SPEED COORDINATION (interaction of speed and coordination).

9-9

Interdependence among biomotor abilities (modified according to Bompa, 2006)

Strength/Power

Endurance

Repetitive strength

Speed

Speed endurance

Coordination

Agility

Flexibility

Dexterity

Power

Maximal strength

Anaerobic endurance

Aerobic endurance

Speed strength

Speed coordination

Dynamic mobility

Results of soccer players of different standards in tests of motor abilities Tests

Standard levels of soccer players A

B

C

D

E

30m dash from the standing start (s)

3.85

3.85-3.98

3.99-4.12

4.13-4.26

4.26 >

30 m dash from the flying start (s)

3.15

3.15-3.27

3.28-3.40

3.42-3.53

3.53 >

SAR vertical jump (cm)

43.0

40.0-43.0

36.0-39.0

32.0-35.0

35 <

COOPER test (km)

3.35

3.26-3.35

3.16-3.25

3.06-3.15

3.06 <

10m dash from the standing start (s)

1.66-1.70

1.69-1.73

1.71-1.77

1.75-1.78

1.78 >

9 - 10

 Cognitive abilities of athletes – Enable reception, processing, retention and utilization of motor information resulting in quick and correct decision making during training and competition activities. – Their influence is higher in the more complex sports activities.

 Conative characteristics/ personality traits – Crucial for the efficient adaptation to strenuous work conditions of sports and sport training. – Personality traits are responsible for athletes’ behaviour and their engagement level/ commitment and drive during training and competition.

9.1.2. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes Specific and situational physical condition/fitness

Specific abilities, Specific abilities, Specific skills and knowledge skills and knowledge theoretical – technical – tactical knowledge preparedness preparedness

II. Specific abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge

9 - 11

 Specific and situational physical condition/fitness – It is manifested within specific movement patterns and game situation patterns of a particular sport. – Integration of physical condition/fitness and technical (specific) preparedness as well as of physical condition/fitness and tactical preparedness (situational). – Considerable influence of physical fitness abilities on performance of technical elements and correlation of physical fitness and technical skills with the quality of tactical performance

Indicators of basic and specific physical fitness of elite basketball cadets (C) and juniors (J) (Milanović et al., 1997) Mean - C S.D. - C

Mean - J S.D. - J

SAR cm

70.02

7.57

74.08

6.55

TRO cm

754.60

40.80

764.42

53.44

BLG cm*

1513.30

135.10

1560.70

119.52

CAT rps.

27.87

2.53

32.06

2.27

VS20 s*

3.23

1.83

3.06

0.18

DO30 rps.*

22.73

0.15

24.42

2.53

S4×5 s*

5.26

0.50

5.34

0.51

OSMS s*

9.09

0.44

8.93

0.63

KUS s

7.69

0.35

6.82

0.32

SMB s*

29.46

1.52

27.56

1.54

TRB rps.

29.60

2.44

31.23

3.91

Mean – arithmetic mean, S.D. – standard deviation * - tests of specific physical condition/fitness

9 - 12

Technical, tactical and theoretical preparedness  A high level and integrated utilization of technical-tactical skills and knowledge by athletes provide successfull situational problem solving during sports training and competition.  It is a consequence of a correct, adequate longlasting TE-TA training with a myriad of repetitions

Efficiency levels of TE-TA activity programs  Sports technique and tactics consist of a repertoire of motor programs embracing clusters of edited and hierarchically arranged motor information.  Performance efficiency depends the number and quality level of the stored motor information and on the athlete’s ability to harvest and apply them timely.

9 - 13

Motor programs can be at various efficiency levels: Level one:  Inicitial information are adopted,  Fragmetary knowledge,  Rough performance,  Poor movement control,  Constant interventions of a trainer are needed,  The program often needs to be reconstructed,  Consciuos control over all movement phases,  A high activity level of cortical part of the central nervous system,  A good basis for further learning.

Level two:  The motor program has not been completed yet,  Additional information are constantly needed,  The trainer must control performance strictly,  The program needs to be upgraded constantly,  “Fine” movement coordination is required,  Athletes’ active mental participation is needed

9 - 14

Level three:  Stabile performance is resistance to hindering environmental influences,  Movement parameters selfcontrol,  Kinestetic sense,  High achievement,  Individual style specific performance is tolerated (conditioned by individual features of athletes),  Subcortical movement regulation

Level four:  athletes’ reflex reactions in movement performance and in game situations solving,  movement automatization,  any kind of a signal is enough (from outside, or from any part of the CNS) to activate the motor program,  almost nothing can impede quality performance,  unconscious movement performance control (athletes do not think about the action, they “feel” it)

9 - 15

9.1.3. Performance of athletes / situation-related efficiency Indicators of Indicators of performance in the performance in the phase of phase of defense offense/attack

Other performance indicators

III. Performance of athletes

Registration and analysis of situationrelated efficiency indicators in sports  In contemporary sports the structure of competition activity parameters is the basis to a comparative analyses of performance of athletes and teams. It is especially important for the efficient programming of sports preparation.  One of the research directions in the kinesiology of sport is oriented towards the analysis of standard indicators of competition situation-related efficiency.  During observation (monitoring) in the real time of sports “combat” their frequency and effects can be noted (notation analysis) or registered  The influence of these indicators on the final sport result in competitions can be investigated

9 - 16

Parameters of situation efficiency of athletes in certain sports branches (standard and derived) – Each competition/game offers information about types, amount and quality of activities performed by individual players and teams (e. g. In basketball: the number of assists, rebounds, 3-point throws made …) – They are the basis for the performance comparison analyses of individual athletes and teams, quality selection of tactical behaviour in relation to the opponent strength, and for the sports preparation efficacious programming

 Every bout in combat sports is an opportunity for the registration of many efficiency indicators. The following can be noted and evaluated: diverse types of holds, throws, punches, kicks, evasions, defensive blocks, counterattacks, etc., which “award” certain points to a fighter and so determine the final outcome of the bout.

9 - 17

 In sports games every match offers a lot of data on types, amount and quality of competition activities of individual players and teams (e.g. in volleyball: the number of serves made, serve receptions, blocks and spikes, evaluated on a scale of +2 to -2)

 Performance indicators/parameters in the phase of defense and the phase of offense/attack can be separately analysed, as well other parameters pertaining to the fields of tactical responsibility, drive, commitment and behaviour.  Registration and analyses of situation parameters can result in the model values of team efficiency / performance and in model patterns of individual performance of individual players in the phases of defense and offense/attack

9 - 18

Basic indicators of situation efficiency of the Croatian water polo team at the 1996 OG Opponent

FSTBRK

BP

CP

UU/PG

%

POWER PLAY

%

RESULT/ SCORE

Team A

0

3

2

20/8

40

4/3

75

8:5

Team B

0

2

2

21/11

52

12/7

58

11:6

Team C

0

0

0

23/8

35

16/8

50

8:10

Team D

2

4

2

37/16

43

9/8

89

16:8

Team E

0

4

1

21/10

48

10/3

30

8:10

Team F

1

2

0

21/8

38

9/5

56

8:6

Team G

0

0

0

19/7

37

10/5+2 4m

50

7:6

Team H

1

2

0

24/5

21

9/2

22

5:7

Total

4

17

7

202/71

35

79/41+2 4m

52

 The Croatian water polo national team at the 96 OG won the silver medal  The team was most efficient in scoring from the back/perimeter positions – 17, whereas from the hole set (central position) only 7 goals were scored  Too few goals were scored from fastbreaks – 4  The realization of the attacks with man-up was satisfying (41 goals scored + 2 penalties) – over 50% of the total number of the goals scored

9 - 19

Basic indicators of competition activity in basketball Distances covered (expressed in metres) by various kinds of ambulatory movements during a basketball match RESEARCH

SAMPLE OF SUBJECTS

Gradowska (1972) Cohen (1980) Colli & Faina (1985) Moreno (1988) Janeira & Maia (1998)

National team (Poland) First league (France) First league (Italy) First league (Špain) First league (Portugal)

TOTAL (m)

WALKING

JOGGING

RUNNING (MEDIUM SPEED)

SPRINT

942

1542

991

3809 3890 3475 5763

828

3091

1577

267

4955

1838

1905

734

478

Basic indicators of competition activity in team handball Distances players covered by running in a handball game (Bon et al., 2002) first half

2560

second half

2230

entire match

4790

0

1000

2000

3000

9 - 20

4000

5000

6000

Basic indicators of competition activity in soccer / assoc. football Distances covered by players (Verheijen, 1997) Walking

Jogging

Running

Sprint

Total

1st league

3.2km

2.0km

1.4km

1.4km

8.4km

3rd league

4.2km

1.7km

0.7km

0.5km

7.6km

1st league

2.6km

5.2km

1.8km

1.1km

10.9km

3rd league

3.1km

3.3km

1.0km

0.6km

9.0km

1st league

3.4km

2.0km

1.6km

1.8km

9.8km

3rd league

4.0km

1.4km

1.0km

0.9km

7.6km

Defenders

Midfielders

Attackers

Table of various activities of players by playing positions (Verheijen, 1997)

Slide tackles

Jumps

Shots on target

Duels

Total

Defenders 1st league

9x

15x

24x

34x

82

3rd league

19x

23x

19x

37x

98

1st league

6x

11x

37x

56x

110

3rd league

19x

9x

32x

42x

102

1st league

6x

17x

32x

36x

91

3rd league

7x

22x

19x

24x

72

Midfielders

Attackers

9 - 21

Lactic acid concentration in blood of top-level soccer players during game Country

Research study

N

Agnevik

Sweden

10

Bangsbo

Denmark

14

Brower & Davis

Sweden

6

Ekblom

Sweden

Gerish et al.

Germany

Smaros Smith et al.

Lactates in the first half-time (mmol/L)

Lactates in the second halftime(mmol/L)

During

During

Post

Post 10.0

4.9

3.7

4.4

5.1

4.6

9.5

7.2

59

5.6

4.7

Finland

7

5.1

3.9

England

6

4.9

4.1

Basic statistic indicators of shots taken by the winning (WIN) and the defeated (DEF) teams at the 2000 European Handball Championship for Men (Vuleta et al., 2003) VARIABLES

MEAN WIN

S.D. WIN

MEAN DEF

S.D. DEF

SHO7MMADE

3.26

1.62

3.40

1.88

SHO7MMISSED

1.00

0.91

1.77

1.50

SHOT6MMADE

4.91

2.20

4.00

2.44 1.47

SHOT6MMISSED

1.63

1.77

1.71

SHOTWINGMADE

4.11

1.95

3.20

2.11

SHOTWINGMISSED

3.40

1.50

3.49

2.01

SHOT9MMADE

8.26

3.64

6.94

2.63

SHOT9MMISSED

10.86

3.45

14.4

4.83

SHOTFASTBRMADE

3.66

2.38

3.31

2.23

SHOTFASTBRMISSED

1.29

1.56

1.26

1.38

SHOTPRMADE

2.09

1.72

2.09

1.34

SHOTPRMISSED

0.69

0.87

0.63

0.94

9 - 22

Game statistics of the elite NBA basketball player (D.P.)(absolute and relative) 5

5

4

4

3

3

2

2

1

1

0

0

-1

-1

-2

-2

-3 ZFG 2p

ZFT 1p

-3 ZFG3 ZREB ZAST ZSTL ZVTD ZPTS ZBLK RANG 3p rebound assists turnovers points screens steals

0 = NBA average in particular variables

Comparison of average values of male and female 100m runners

Speed of running (m/s)

(according to Letzelter & Letzelter, 2002)

Male sprinters Female sprinters

Distance (m)

9 - 23

Z- scores relative

Z- scores absolute

(absolute – total; relative – total through minutes in play)

 Experts in sports practice ask frequently why is so much attention paid to these indicators of competition activity and efficiency?  There are several answers among which are the following:  The determination of the criteria of successful competition performance,  The determination of the standards of sports training,  The possibility to obtain / create the model of competition activity of the opponent,  An objective, unbiased evaluation of actual performance (quality) of individuals and teams.

9.1.4. Competition result / achievement (the final outcome of sports activities)  Situated at the top of the pyramid of athletes’ abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge is competition result / achievement  It depends on both the level and structure of all the factors situated at the lower pyramid levels

9 - 24

 In competition result the entire system of sports preparatin is reflected and work effects of trainers and members of the professional coaching team  Within a sports career there is a peak, a period when an athlete achieves his/her best results.  Within an annual cycle sport shape/form should be taperred and peaked for the best achievements at the biggest competitions

 Since the beginning of modern sports, Olympic games in particular, a constant progress in achievements is obviouse as well as in performance quality in most sports disciplines and events.  Development trend of abilities and results of world class elite track-and-field athletes has such a progressive character which is considerably higher than the same trend in general population.

9 - 25

Development trend of abilities in population vs. elite athletes Level of physical abilities

x

Development trend of abilities of the top-level track-and-field athletes

x

x

d3

d2

d1

x

Development trend of abilities of population Time

Trend of results in discus throwing (Harasin, 2002) Model: dis1=b0+b1*v1+b2*v1**2 y=(-6134.747)+(6.0039726)*x+(-0.0014508)*x**2 75 SYD2000 SEO1988ATL1996 MON1976 MOS1980 ANG1984 BAR1992 MEX1968 MUN1972

65

TOK1964 ROM1960 MEL1956 HEL1952 LON1948

55 DIS1

BER1936 ANG1932 AMS1928 PAR1924 STO1912ANT1920

45

LON1908 LOU1904 PAR1900

35 ATH1896

ATH1896 PAR1900 LOU1904 LON1908 STO1912 ANT1920 PAR1924 AMS1928 ANG1932 BER1936 LON1948

PREDICTED VALUES 33,48 35,46 37,41 39,3 41,15 44,7 46,41 48,08 49,69 51,26 55,69

HEL1952 MEL1956 ROM1960 TOK1964

57,07 58,41 59,7 60,95

MEX1968 MUN1972 MON1976 MOS1980 ANG1984 SEO1988 BAR1992

62,14 63,3 64,4 65,46 66,47 67,44 68,36

ATL1996 SYD2000 ATH2004

69,23 70,06 70,77

25 1896 1904 1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952 1960 1968 1976 1984 1992 2000 2008 GOD

9 - 26

Lesson 10:

DIAGNOSTICS IN SPORT

Measurement, assessment and evaluation of abilities, features and knowledge of athletes

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the position and relevance of diagnostic/assessment procedures in the process of sports preparation;  Define Müller’s model of sports preparation process optimization;  Specify the stages of a diagnostic procedure and explain them;  Understand the potential of the abilities and characteristics of the athletes to be tested;  Talk about the possibilities of test results application to the planning and programming of training;  Graphically present the test results of an athlete x and compare them to a top-level athlete model.

10 - 1

10.1. Diagnostics in sports  The primary goal of any sports training is the improvement of competition efficiency, performance and achievements.  Therefore, it is important to have an insight into the state of fitness / readiness of athletes: what is the developmental level of performance relevant abilities, characteristics and skills in any stage of long-term sports preparation?

 Based on the diagnosed values, i.e. the determined fitness, as in the strong and weak sides of one athlete or a sport group, it is feasible to set goals and assignments of a training procedure and design training programmes for particular cycles through which sports preparation is realized.

10 - 2

 Training effects are unbiasedly detectable only by testing, i.e. by the measurement of the dimensions and their changes, that have been the targets of the influence of training.  The efficacy of an executed training procedure is determined with the application of the objective diagnostic procedures (testing, measurement) and with subjective assessments.

Model of the sports preparation process optimization (modified according to Müller, 1999)

Planning (goals and periodization)

Programming Training of training implementation (procedures) Interpretation (application) of the results of sports diagnostics

10 - 3

Training efffects

Sports diagnostics

 Training optimization requires the knowledge of fitness relevant characteristics’ actual, current state  Assessment of fitness/preparedness is realized through the measurements in laboratories and in the field.  Specified dimensions are tested or measured according to the determined methodological rules (kinesiometry)  Diagnostic procedures in sport are a part of everyday practice and routine

Levels of motor abilities of an elite ATP tennis player (Müller, 1999) 3 2 1 0 -1 (12 min running)

Endurance

(shuttle running)

Endurance

Strength (left leg)

Strength (right leg)

Strength (fist grip)

Agility (side steps)

(shuttle running)

Power (jump)

norm x sd

2.98

42.75 23.85 13.02 32.80 47.95 81.75 81.75 72.25

0.12

2.50

2.30

0.83

2.00

5.90

8.50

8.50

4.50

190

1996 1995

2.98

42.80

24.80

12.03

34.90

49.00

90.40

83.70

73.96

3420

3.01

36.10

23.80

13.60

35.20

53.00

91.30

87.60

74.50

3350

Agility

Sprint

Power (throwing)

-2

10 - 4

3105

10.2. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes  The application of measurement procedures makes it feasible to establish the features due to which elite athletes, who accomplish the highest results, stand out and distinguish themselves

 A model of a top-level athlete is, in fact, a reproduction of the selected main relevant characteristics of a contemporary extra class quality athlete in a particular sports discipline.  Model characteristics are test results, scores achieved by elite athletes in the primary and secondary anthropological variables and indicators of situational efficacy/performance.

10 - 5

Results of a top-quality basketball player in the tests aimed at assessing motor and functional/ cardiorespiratory and metabolic abilities (Milanović, 1997) TEST

SCORE (actual value)

MODEL (required values)

1. SAR

79 cm

82 cm

2. DSM

260 cm

280 cm

3. 20M

2.99 s

2.85 s

4. 20Y

4.57 s

4.30 s

14 throws scored

15 throws scored

59.04 s

52.00 s

75 kg

100 kg

8. NAB

82.5 kg

120 kg

9. TRB

38 rep

60 rep

5. 3L 6. 300Y 7. BP

10. SKL 11. 2400

15 rep

40 rep

10.02 min

8.30 min

Model results in the test 20m sprint, registered at the Australian Sport Institute (Pyke, 2001)

Sport Basketball

Cricket

Softball

Soccer

Group

5m sprint (s)

10m sprint (s)

20m sprint (s)

Adult (w)

1.04

1.95

3.38

Adult (m)

1.05

1.81

3.12

Adult (w)

2.07

3.52

Adult (m)

1.76

2.99

M - U-19

1.04

1.79

3.09

W - U-19

1.16

1.98

3.43

M - U-18

1.08

1.79

3.02

W - U-18

1.16

1.96

3.32

10 - 6

 In the everyday life of sports, coaches and expert teams continuously measure and evaluate the condition of the components of fitness/preparedness and performance and sport achievements of athletes participating in the process of training.  The focus of preparation should be directed primarily on the components most responsible for competition efficiency/performance and on the characteristics of the athlete most distant from the model values.

10.3. Diagnostics in sports

(10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 1. Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification (based on either an expert assessment or/and research findings). The hierarchical structure of the performance factors in a particular sport should be respected.

10 - 7

Soccer Strength /power 20%

Endurance 30%

Coordination 15%

Flexibility 10%

Speed 25%

2. Selection (choice) of athletes – a sports group 3. Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed

4. Selection of measuring instruments/ tests aimed at assessing the abilities, features and skills/knowledge of athletes

10 - 8

5. Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or in field conditions) 6. Procedure of processing the collected data

7. Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation

Points 70

60 50

8. Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the expert team

40

30

20

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Abilities

10 - 9

13

Model anthropological characteristics and test results of two handball players (X & Y) ANTHROPOLOGICAL VARIABLES

1. Body height 2. Body mass

MODEL VALUES

BACKCOURT PLAYER X, RESULTS

LINE PLAYER Y, RESULTS

192.0

192.8

184.5 83.6

90.0

89.0

3. Shoulder width

44.30

43.0

44.5

4. Arm span

195.0

200.0

183.5

5. Palm span 6. Throwing the ball (800gr) 7. MSD

25.2

25.4

24

32.59

38.07

32.53

262.42

259.67

269.33

8. Two-legged vertical jump

59.42

62.33

68.33

9. One-legged vertical jump

65.71

62.33

73

7.57

7.22

6.35

6.6

6.17

5.82

10. Sit-ups

29.17

26.33

36.33

11. Bench-press

88.13

85

85

12. “Suicide-running” (shuttle running)

30.78

30.45

29.05

13. 30 m running from a standing start

4.82

4.85

4.51

9. Side steps 11. Two-triangle defensive stance movement

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3 PLAYER X

9. Results application to the planning and programming of training 10. Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics of fitness or final readiness state)

10 - 10

PLAYER Y

10 stages of diagnostic procedure 1) Defining and using the equation of success in sport specification 2) Selection (choice) of athletes – a sports group 3) Selection of abilities, characteristics and knowledge/ skills to be diagnosed 4) Selection of measuring instruments/ tests 5) Procedure of measurement/ testing (in either a laboratory or in field conditions) 6) Procedure of processing the collected data 7) Presentation of the obtained results and their interpretation 8) Presentation of the results to the coach and members of the expert team 9) Results application to the planning and programming of training 10)Control of the sports preparation process effects (diagnostics of fitness or final readiness state)

10 - 11

Lesson 11:

Selection in sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch)

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the importance of the selection of future athletes  Define and describe the system of orientation to sports  Define and describe the system of orientation to a group of sport branches  Define and describe the system of selection of a sport branch  Differentiate among the criteria (model characteristics) for the selection of a particular sport branch  List the orientation age terms for the beginning of a systematic training of selected young athletes  Determine the importance of both the chronological and biological age in the process of selection  Talk about all phases in the process of selecting future elite athletes

11 - 1

 A quality system of sports training for children and the young consists, in most countries, of a well defined procedure of potential toplevel athletes’ selection.  Sports schools should be places of a high concentration of those talented for sports. In countries where sports are well developed their advantage is in their well organized sports schools, centres or camps, where high quality training programmes are executed with selected groups of athletes.

11.1. System of orientation to sports - first selection  It is a procedure of selecting children generally talented for sports.  The orientation system should be applied as soon as it is possible to establish the existence of the most important abilities and characteristics of potential athletes as well as their interest to be involved in sport.  This is a time when neither the group of sports nor sports branch is known, in which a child might have the greatest opportunities to be successful.

11 - 2

 Within the programmes of a universal sports school a child participates in diverse motor/ sporting activities, i.e. he/she gains elementary experiences in various motor activities and sports.

11.2. Orientation to a group of sports branches – second selection  As a selection interphase it is useful to execute orientation to a group of sports branches (combat sports school, or team games sports school, or water sports school…)  This phase is a substantial one because in young athletes-to-be it is sometimes hard to establish with certainty their potential for a particular sports event/discipline. It is much easier to determine this for a group of sports branches/events/disciplines.

11 - 3

Orientation terms for the beginning of a systematic training programme in particular sports disciplines (modified by Martin, 1982) Age

Sports disciplines

6-7

artistic gymnastics (w), figure skating

7-8

rhythmic gymnastics, swimming, tennis

8-9

artistic gymnastics (m), alpine skiing, diving, table tennis

9-10

football/soccer, basketball, volleyball, karate

10-11

athletics (running - sprint, jumps), kayaking – canoeing, handball, rowing, judo, wrestling, taekwondo, equestrian events, rugby, luge tobogganing, speed skating, badminton

11-12

athletics (throwing), ice hockey, field hockey, water polo, cycling, fencing, shooting, nordic skiing

12-13

weight lifting, athletic heptathlon & decathlon, athletics (middistances running), boxing, boccie, golf, baseball

13-14

athletics (long-distance running, walking), bowling crosscountry skiing

11.3. System of selection of a sports branch - third selection  It is the procedure to select talented individuals for the highest sports achievements in a particular sports branch or discipline.  The selection of children is based on the similarity of the child’s anthropological profile with dimensions from the structure of the specification equation of the sports discipline in question.  An expected trend must be predicted of the sports results the individual would most probably be able to achieve in the future.

11 - 4

Normative scores in basic and specific exercises of boys and girls in handball (Milanović, 2006) Age Exercise / motor test

Boys

30m running (s)

Girls

10

12

13

9

10

11

5.4

5.0

4.9

5.8

5.6

5.4

5×30m – average time (s)

5.3

5.2

5.0

5.4

5.3

5.2

2× running in a triangle (s)

18.5

18.3

18.0

21.0

19.0

18.5

60m running (s)

10.1

9.4

9.0

10.9

10.5

9.5

30m slalom with the ball (s)

11.0

9.4

8.7

12.3

11.4

10.7

Long jump (m)

3.30

3.80

4.05

2.90

3.10

3.40

Vertical jumping ability – SAR (cm)

27

40

47

Small ball throwing (m)

24

37

43

Handball throwing (m)

21

27

12 min running (m)

25

30

21

23

26

13

16

19.5

2100 2300 2400

2000

Results in running 12 minutes (Cooper’s test) of children and young people of various ages (according to Hahn, 1982)

Girls – young women Age

7/8

9/10

11/12

13/14

15/16

17/18/19/20

Low limit score

1500m

1700m

1900m

2100m

2300m

2500m

Good score

1800m

2000m

2200m

2400m

2600m

2800m

Boys – young men Age

7/8

9/10

11/12

13/14

15/16

17/18/19/20

Low limit score

1700m

1900m

2100m

2300m

2600m

2800m

Good score

2000m

2200m

2400m

2600m

2900m

3100m

11 - 5

11.4. Procedure of selection  To provide a high certainty of selection it is crucial to determine the tempo of the biological development of potential elite athletes.  A certain lagging of motor preparedness/ fitness of individual athletes at any time point does not necessarily mean a resulting lower level of fitness in the later stages of sports progression.

Developmental dynamics of motor abilities according to different tempos of biological development of potential elite athletes (Hofmann & Schneider, 1985)

Motor ability (m) Normal biological development

Early biological development

Late biological development

A – time point of selection

A

Chronological age (d)

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 Both age indicators – of the chronological and of the biological age should be always taken into account in the execution of selection.  Namely, late developers are sometimes, with no substantial reason, negatively selected, although their chances of being successful are bigger than the chances of their peer counterparts exhibiting a higher level of abilities in the earlier stages of the training process.

Fitness development tempo in two athletes: although in the beginning (t1) the b athlete may be weaker than the a athlete, the latter catches up with the athlete b (t2) and later becomes even better (t3) Fitness indicators

a

t1

t2

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t3

b

Developmental phases

System of sports selection – repeated activity with a constant monitoring of the development of childrenfuture athletes

Selection Sports selection

Natural selection Positive prognosis

Tendencies to the positive prognosis

As regards elite sports

As a rule, lost for sports

Negative prognosis

Monitoring of athletes’ development

Mass sport, recreation sport, leisure-time sport

Elite sports

In order to understand better the selection system and to implement it successfully the following is necesssary:   

To identify the abilities and characteristics of athletes that are under a high influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-resistant. To identify the abilities and characteristics that are under a smaller influence of genetic factors, thus being training-influence-sensitive. To recognise the level of interest and willingness to become involved in the systematic and demanding programme of long-lasting sports preparation

11 - 8

Algorithm of the process of selecting potential top-level athletes (the defined criteria should be satisfied prior to a positive selection) Is there an adequate level of transformation-resistant abilities ?

yes

Is there an adequate level of transformation-sensitive abilities?

yes

no

yes

Is there adequate motivation to be subjected to elite sports training?

no

no yes Any compensation possibility?

Any possibilities to correct or compensate for sport-related drawbacks?

no

Any possibility to correct drawbacks?

no

no Positive selection

To be oriented to any other sporting activity/branch

yes

yes

Prognosis of max. potential Target of long-term preparation stages Prospective training plan

11 - 9

Lesson 12:

Sport and sports training of children and the young

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and analyse a pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation  Talk about the aims and characteristics of a universal sports school  Talk about the aims and characteristics of an elementary sports school  Talk about the aims and characteristics of a specialised sports school  Analyse the association of biological factors of sports development and training effects  List and describe the fundamental rules of sports training for children and the young  List and describe the performance factors a of sports career (social environment, family, school, sports club, trainer)

12 - 1

Pyramid-like system of long-term sports preparation (according to Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985)

Area of elite selective sports

High performance training

SPORTSRECREATION GROUPS

SCHOOL SPORTS CLUBS (SECTIONS)

Final sports 11-12 god perfection Specialisation sports schools 15-16 Specialised training 7-8 god C) CRITERIA FOR Commence of sports SPORTS EVENT 13-14 specialisation AND TEAM Elementary POSITION sports schools SELECTION 11-12 Directed sports preparation 3-4 god B) SPORTS BRANCH D) SELECTION CRITERIA FOR APPEARANCE AT THE MAIN WORLD COMPETITIONS

SELECTION CRITERIA

9-10

A) ORIENTATION TO SPORTS 7-8 CRITERIA

Versatile-basic sports priprema Universal sports schools Preliminary sports preparation

Population of non-trained girls and boys

12.1. Sports schools 12.1.1. Universal sports school  Children of superior motor abilities, positively evaluated in the process of orientation, join a universal children sports school that most commonly embraces age categories from 6-7 to 10 yrs.  The duration of this school is shorter for future gymnasts and rhythmic gymnasts since the selection for these sports commences earlier.

12 - 2

ADOLESCENTS’ TRAINING

17-18

CHILDREN’S TRAINING

SPORTS CLUBS OF LOWER QUALITY RANKING

(maximum 19-20 realisation, effects)

ADULTS’ TRAINING

Area of mass sports

Suitable age of children and the young when starting with training in certain stages of sports improvement (modified according to Martin, 1982) Start of the systematic training in the chosen sport (years)

Start of the elite adult athletic training principles application (years)

Figure skating

6-7

15

Artistic gymnastics (w)

7-8

14

Swimming

7-9

15-16

8

14-15

Sports discipline

Rhythmic gymnastics Diving

8-9

16

Tennis

8-9

16-17

Skiing

9

17

Artistic gymanstics (m)

9-10

15-16

Football / Soccer

10-11

17-18

Basketball

10-11

18

Athletics (jumps and throws)

10-12

20-21

Volleyball

11-12

18-19

Ice hockey

11-13

19-20

Endurance sports disciplines

12-14

20-21

12.1.2. Elementary sports school  From the fifth primary school grade at the latest, i.e. for the children of 10 or 11 yrs of age, which have satisfied the selection criteria for the inclusion in the systematic sports training process of most sports disciplines, elementary sports school starts.

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 For stage one (age group 10-12 yrs) the beginning is characteristic of the directed sports preparation, whereas for stage two (age group 13-14 yrs) the beginning of sports specialisation is characteristic.

12.1.3. Specialized sports schools After primary school (age 14 yrs), young quality athletes start their involvement in the systematic club training, first as cadets (14-16 yrs), and afterwards as juniors (17-18 yrs).

12 - 4

12.2. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young  Detection and development of children talented for sports is performed by their constant selection in the universal and elementary sports schools.  For each child the “right” sport should be found, i.e. the one in which his/her chances for success are greatest.

 The process of sports preparation of children and the young is executed, in accordance with the chronological and biological characteristics of their age, through several developmental stages (stages of long-term sports training).

 It is indispensable to provoke children and young athletes into action and to insist on their need – habit to learn and exercise regularly, persistently and ‘hard’

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 There is no doubt that nowadays premature specialisation in many sports and forced participation in competition starts at an early age.  However, lively discussion is going on about which age is suitable, beneficial to start with a pronounced/ enhanced sports specialisation.  The forcing of sports talents too early does not have the wanted effects. Parents, trainers and sports scientists are unanimous in this opinion.

 Every exercise must be repeated many times. Yet, any repetition with an error must not be allowed. An already acquired erroneous performance is very hard to correct later.  The development of abilities and the teaching/learning of motor skills/knowledge is executed by means of adequate contents, loads and variable training methods.  In the first years of the training process the sports development of children is predominantly influenced by biological determinants, whereas the later progressive influence of training effects becomes obvious.

12 - 6

FITNESS LEVEL (SIZE OF CAPABILITIES)

Fitness development of children and the young is influenced by both biological determinants and the training process (Hoffmann & Schneider, 1985) DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS OF BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

INTEGRAL TRAINING EFFECTS

AGE – TRAINING EXPERIENCE OF ATHLETES

 Prior to the systematic training a young athlete should be subjected to a detailed and comprehensive orthopaedic and medical check-up.  With as high certainty as possible the following should be excluded: any possible negative findings and degenerative changes in the active and passive parts of the locomotor system and cardio-pulmonary system, which can present a danger for a young athlete.

12 - 7

 When working with children and young athletes a trainer must invest his/her maximum effort and engage his/her entire body of knowledge and all his/her abilities.  One must be extremely careful not to jeopardize the health and entire development of young athletes due to his/her insufficient or ‘obsolete/out-ofdate’ knowledge.  A coach should contact, refer to professionals and scientists to find help from those who have renown expertise in the interdisciplinary area of sports preparation.

12.3. Performance factors of a sports career SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (community, peers, neighbourhood…)

SCHOOL

CHILD ATHLETE • sports talent • health status • basic and specific abilities • knowledge, skills, habits • personal strategies of problem solving • personality traits • emotional states (moods)

TRAINING

12 - 8

SPORTS CLUB / SPORTS FEDERATION

FAMILY

12.3.1. Social environment (community, peers, neighbourhood…)  It respects and acknowledges a child’s involvement in sports and evaluates positively his/her abilities and characteristics;  A milieu in which a child can satisfy his/her need for belonging and respect despite his/her differences;  Where a child can satisfy his/her interests and needs he/she cannot satisfy in a sports club.

12.3.2. Family  family members, by their attitude towards a child-athlete, encourage his/her talent and support his/her participation in the process of sports training and competition by providing: - adequate living conditions (accommodation, nutrition, rest, etc.) - adequate psychological (emotional) support - material and other conditions necessary for training and competition.

12 - 9

12.3.3. School should provide children’s successful involvement in sports by the following: - adequate system of schooling; - adequate academic work loads; - support when the missed parts of the school programme due to training and competition have be caught up with - to provide in general a positive class and school atmosphere supporting the expression of special qualities

12.3.4. Sports club – sports federation is organised and financed in a way so as to be able to offer to every athlete the following: - material and humane support in training and competition; - stability as regards the engagement of a coach and other working conditions in training and competitions - correct reviewing and evaluation of an athlete’s sports achievements

12 - 10

12.3.5. A training program should be designed and executed so as to ensure: - the correctness of work – work adequate to the trainees’ individual and age features/characteristics; - adequate training loads (stimuli duration and intensity); - adequacy of sports achievements (correspondence of aims and results).

In the training process for children special care should be devoted to the following:  working conditions of sports preparation (arriving at and leaving the training premises, time between two training sessions);  expert competency of trainers and other members of the expert coaching team guarantees the security of young athletes in the training process, during competition and recovery;  trainer’s relationship with his/her trainee in which they both strive to achieve the same aims.

12 - 11

Lesson 13:

Training for fitness and sport preparedness

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to: Define and analyse training fitness levels Understand and describe the condition of sport shape Define the characteristics of conditions of sport shape Talk about the developmental phases of sport shape Define the regularities of sport shape management and be able to analyse its characteristics in relation to sport-specific characteristics, to the athlete and to its dynamic of development and maintainance  Determine the specificities of the prolonged (delayed) training effects in a preparation period     

13 - 1

13.1. Fitness of athletes  Sports training fitness is a very complex category. It denotes the optimal condition and functioning of an athlete in the process of training and competition.  It implies:  a superb health status  the highest level of physiological functions (energy supply capacities) and motor abilities (physical condition)  technical and tactical effectiveness  adequate mental stability of an athlete  high motivation/drive  the best structure of morphological characteristics.

 The optimal state of an athlete means his/her ever possible functioning in relation to his/her individual characteristics and the working conditions of the process of training and competition.  Fitness determines the level of the specific work potential of an athlete, his/her potential, capability and actual quality to accomplish high sports achievements/results.  Sports fitness is a product of diverse (all) sports preparation programmes and traits of any (living) organism to change/ transform and improve (adaptation) under the influence of certain environmental stimuli, incitements.

13 - 2

13.2. Sport shape / preparedness  Sport shape is the heighest level of sportspecific fitness; it enables the athlete to perform at his/her best, to accomplish the best results at the most important, main competitions.

 Sport shape is a period of athletes’ heighest sports achievements in their sport within the perennial (lifetime sport shape) and the annual (targeted sport shape) training cycle.

General attributes of an athlete in a high-achievement sport shape:  the sense of being healthy is pronounced,  expresses an urge, a need to work out,  the drive to perform his/her best at a competition is clearly manifested,  quick adaptation to all training and competition demands.

13 - 3

Biomotor indicators of a good sport shape:  Biochemical state of the organism (blood lactate and urea concentration, status of glykogen and catecholamine…)  Physiological state of the organism (heart frequency, spiroergometric indicators, body temperature, blood pressure…)  Motor condition of the athlete (motor abilities tests) Economical functioning of all the organ systems is manifested as a lower energy consumption in a work unit; it facilitates and accelerates the process of restoration and recovery.

Psychological indicators of a good sport shape:  High level of mental stability under stressful competition conditions  Pronounced maximal mobility of mental processes  Enhanced range of motivation responses which provides excessive physical loads tolerance  Optimism  Achievement drive

13 - 4

13.3. Sport shape development phases In the dynamic process of developing high achievements sport shape within one macrocycle three typical phases can be recognised:  Phase 1: entry into the high achievement sport shape (preparedness for high results)  Phase 2: stabilization and maintenance of peaks (peaking of sport shape for the main

competitions)

 Phase 3: temporary underperformance / loss of sport shape (temporary loss of sport shape at

the end of one macrocycle, detraining).

Development phases of sport shape % 100 90

80 70 Phase 1: level of sport shape gained

Phase 2: sport shape maintenance

Phase 3: sport shape loss; detraining

Preparation-control competitions

Main official competitions

Other competitions (meetings)

Preparation period

Competition / Inseason period

Transition period

Mesocycles (stages)

Mesocycles (competition season(s))

Mesocycles (stages)

Microcycles

Microcycles

Microcycles

13 - 5

 For sports practice it is of the outmost importance that the so defined phase-like form of high achievement sport shape can be manifested in a curve-like form with one, two or more peaks, depending on the following:  (prolonged) duration of competition period or  specific distribution of competitions in the competition period,  multicycle training periodization of the annual cycle.

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (prolonged competition period duration in an annual cycle) (according to Platonov, 1997) % 100 90 80 70 60

A Preparation period

B

C

Competition period

Transition period

B

C

Competition period

Transition period

% 100 90 80 70 60

A Preparation period

13 - 6

Development curve of high achievements sport shape (multicycle annual training periodization) % 100

(according to Platonov, 1997)

90 80 70 60

A

B

PP

CP

C

TP

A

B

PP

CP

C

TP

% 100 90 80 70 60

XI

A

B

PP

CP

XII I

II

C

TP III

IV

A

B

PP

CP

V

VI

C

TP VII

A

B

PP

CP

VIII

C

TP IX

X

13.4. Sport shape management  Sport shape should be managed because an athlete does not always need to perform his/her best (and he/she cannot), but when it is most important  The determination of orientation curves of training loads is a crucial part of sport shape management  Extensity (volume) (stimulus duration, number of repetitions, work duration)  Intensity (stimulus potency, force magnitude, strength/power, tempo, speed)

13 - 7

 In the first part of the preparation period the volume of training work prevails, to which intensity is added in the second part.  Intensity of workouts is the component of physical training loads that, together with the application of situation-like exercises and competition-like models of loads, provides a quick and safe gain of high achievements in sport shape.

Orientation curve of training loads and sport shape dynamics within the annual training periodization of soccer players (according to Bauer, in Grosser et al, 1986) 100

90

80

Last round

First round

70

Sp. shape Volume Intensity

60

1 VI

High results sport shape Periods

2 VII

3 VIII

4 IX

5 X

6 XI

7 XII

8 I

9 II

III

11 Mesocycles

10 IV

V

Sp. shape building

1st wave of high sport shape

Shape 2nd wave of high loss sport shape

Shape loss

Preparation period

1st competition period

Transition period

Transition period

13 - 8

2nd competition period

Months

 In small cycles sport shape (peaking) follows the competition participation rhythm (7-day or threeday rhythm)  According to the competition participation rhythm work ability of the CNS varies like “the ebb and flow of the tide”.  In the moments of “flow, high tide” the athlete is able to accomplish the greatest sports results.

13.5. Dynamic attributes of sport shape  The FIRST attribute of sport shape is: every sports branch has its specific model of high sport shape gain and maintenance.  Diverse competition calendars – various training periodizations  Specific structures of competition activities of various sports branches and the respective anthropological characteristics of preparedness of athletes

13 - 9

Development curve of sport shape within an annual training cycle (a – one cycle, b – two cycle) 100%

70%

a XI XII

I

II III IV

Preparation period

V

VI

VII VIII IX

Competition period

X

Transition period

100%

70%

b VI

VII VIII IX

PP

X

CP

XI XII

PP

I

II III IV

CP

V

TP

 The SECOND attribute of sport shape is: its individual character as regards the abilities and traits of individual athletes.  Individual characteristics determine the development dynamics of sport shape  Some athletes gain their high achevements sport shape earlier, others later – heterochronicity.  Some athletes are able to maintain a high level of their sport shape longer than others.  General condition of training fitness is in the function of sport shape development dynamics.

13 - 10

 The THIRD attribute of sport shape is its dynamic character.  Sport shape may vary within acceptable boundaries. % 100

5%

90 80 70 60

A

B

C

 However, if performance crosses the boundaries of the oscillation-allowed space and becomes lower than the wanted one (underperformance), the coach/trainer must apply managing actions in order to restore performance to the wanted level as soon as possible. % 100

?!?

90

Alarming condition

80 70 60

A

B

13 - 11

C

 The FOURTH attribute of sport shape is the occurrence of the delayed - prolonged transformation (training) effects.  Training effects can be manifested either simultaneously with an increase of training loads (A), or later (B and C).  The phenomenon of the delayed - prolonged training effects is not a negative, unwanted one in the training process; it is associated with peaking.

If after the application of input (training stimulus) the resulting changes (trainee’s responses) are analysed in certain parts of the system or in the entire system, then the following becomes obvious: 1. Responses are simultaneous with the training itself, or they occur immediately after the training application % 30 20 10 1

2

3

4

5 months

% 140 120 1

2

3

100

4

5 months

80

13 - 12

 According to Siff and Verkhoshansky (1999), in sports practice training effects can occur later, i.e. some time after the period in which the training with high and overlaping loads has been applied during a preparation period (PTE).

Occurrence of the prolonged transformation effects (Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1999) % 30 20 10 1

2

3

4

5 months

%

Competition period starts

140 120 100

1

2

3

4

5 months

80

13 - 13

Onset of the prolonged transformation effects in certain sports branches Specific takeoff abilities

% 130 120 110 100 90

HIGH JUMP

1

Absolute strength

2

4

3

5

months

6

Power/ explosive strength

% 130 120 110 100 90

VOLLEYBALL

1

2

3

Absolute strength

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

weeks Power / explosive strength

%

140 130 120 110 100 90 80

11

Absolute strength

TENNIS

X

XI

XII

I

13 - 14

II

III

months

Lesson 14:

Sports training as a transformation process

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define and describe a general model of the transformation process in sports;  Talk about and compare the diverse types of trajectories of fitness/preparedness condition during a training process;  Describe the vectors of fitness condition of athletes  Talk about the deterministic and the stochastic process  Define and discuss the importance of the process of sports training management and regulation

14 - 1

14.1. Definitions  Sports training is a programmed transformation process by means of which the initial condition, described with a set of fitness/preparedness indicators, transforms into the new desired condition in line with training periodization, the competition calendar and acceptable recovery measures

 The transformation process is a change of input, condition and/or output of any system over a period of time. The change is a result of material, energy and information communication with the environment or among system parts.

14 - 2

14.2. General model of transformation process in sport

So Tf = Sf So – the condition of an athlete at the beginning of the training process (starting, opening, or initial)

Tf – the training operator which produces

transformation (which changes) the known condition of the athlete described with the So vector

Sf – the condition of the athlete at the end of the training process (finishing, closing, or final)

SoT1= St1

(initial state x 1st training operator = 1st transition statue)

St1T2= St2

(1st transition state x 2nd training operator = 2nd transition state) (2nd transition state x last but one training operator = last but one transition state)

St2Tf-1= Sf-1 Sf-1Tf= Sf

(last but one transition state x final training operator = final state of fitness /preparedness)

f

T =  Tt t=1 f

S =  Ss s=1(i)

T = T1,T2,T3,Tf-1,Tf Training operators S = Si,St1,St2,St3,Sf-1,Sf States of preparedness

14 - 3

Conditions of athletes are interdependent (correlated): S1 S3

S2 S2

S3 S1

The condition of athletes at any point of the transformation process depends on his/her condition at previous points, and the final condition of athletes depends on all the previous ones (the Markov chain, i.e. process)

Response of an athlete’s organism to the training operators Response is a timely function (response time) (t). It is obtained as the output value of the system (training effects) if its input (training programme) has been any standard function U(t)

U(t)

Input

S Condition

14 - 4

I(t) = f((u(t))

Output

It practically means that, if the chracteristics of an athlete are known at the beginning of the training process (So) and if a set of management actions is also known (from To to T1), the characteristics of the future condition (St1) can be determined with a high level of certainty

P Si – p Sf = MAX The aim of training is to maximize the distance between the measured initial condition and the achieved final condition of an athlete within the specified time interval P Sf – o Sf = MIN The aim of training is also to minimize the difference between the achieved final condition and the desired final condition of an athlete

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Vectors of athletic conditions

(to assess particular conditions the same sets of measuring instruments should be used) Zi1 Zi2 Zi3 Zi4

Si = Zi5

Zi6 Zi7 Zin-1 Zin

Zf1 Zf2 Zf3 Zf4

Sf =

Zf5 Zf6 Zf7 Zfn-1 Zfn

Zf1 Zf2 Zf3 Zf4

– – – –

Zi1 Zi2 Zi3 Zi4

Sf – Si = Zf5 – Zi5

Zf6 – Zi6 Zf7 – Zi7 Zfn-1 – Zin-1 Zfn - Zin

14.3. Types of trajectories of preparedness conditions

Progressive type of preparedness condition trajectory Fitness indicators

Si T1

(Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Reinforcing environmental influences

St2

Sf-1

Tf-1

Tf

Sf

St1

T2

Tf+1 Cycles of sports preparation

14 - 6

Prolonged type (prolonged transformation) of preparedness condition trajectory (Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Fitness indicators

Reinforcing environmental influences

Sf Si T1

Sf-1

St1

St2

T2

Tf-1

Tf

Tf+1 Cycles of sports preparation

Unfavourable type (alarming condition) of preparedness development trajectory (Si to Sf) (Milanović, 2010) Fitness indicators

Reinforcing environmental influences

Sf

S

St1

?!

Sf-1

St2

T2

Tf-1

Tf

i

T1

14 - 7

Tf+1 Cycles of sports preparation

14.4. Types of transformation processes Deterministic process The process is a deterministc one if the programmed management actions transform the known athletic condition into the only one possible condition. Stochastic process The process is a stochastic one if the programmed management action transform the known athletic condition into one out of many from a set of potential conditions.

When any input or management action (training) has an influence on a system (status of an athlete), then changes in its function, i.e. his/her sports performance are caused.

14 - 8

Lesson 15:

Sports competitions

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define sports competition as a component of sports preparation;  Talk about the fundamental characteristics of sports competitions;  Describe and compare particular types of competition;  Talk about the process of planning and carrying out a competition  Discuss the set standards, i.e.qualification criteria for participation in big competitions

15 - 1

15.1. Definition and characteristics of competitions  Thiess (1978), Željaskov (2004) and Bompa (2006) define a competition as the process of comparing sports condition between individuals and teams according to the defined rules and norms. They define it as a social phenomenon.  Sports competitions are sports performances or events. They are crucial components of the sports condition and sports form management.  In competitions there are always two individuals or two teams in a state of opposition to each other. One of the opponents tries, by their actions, to destroy the actions of the opponents, that is, to overpower the rivals.

A competiton presumes civilized behaviour of all the participants: athletes, referees, trainers and spectators.  The foundation of every competition is the equality principle of all the participants, meaning also that opportunities should be the same for every sports contestant in order to enable an unbiased comparison of an individual and/or team sports condition.

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 However, equal opportunities objectively do not exist due to diverse training programmes, work and material conditions, but, unfortunately, also due to manipulations (doping, etc.).  Even the impact of referees and a different interpretation of the rules contribute to a bias in competition conditions.

 The competition system must be in the function of the development of the sports branch in question.  Competition experience induces ideas to introduce changes of competition rules which then in turn incite changes in the sports training of individuals and teams (e.g. a quick throw-off in team handball, a point counting change in volleyball, etc.)

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 Much more intensive stimuli occur in a competition than in a training session, which is caused by environmental, extrinsic factors (limited time, sports adversary, spectators, referees, behaviour limiting factors, etc.)

15.2. Classification of competitions  Sports competitions can be classified according to various criteria. There are, for example, cup competitions, then control preparation competitions, or doubles competitions.  In every sports branch there are competition systems developed in line with the sports characteristics, age categories and historical factors.

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INTRODUCTORY/ PRELIMINARY

C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

C O M P E T I T I O N

BY COMPETITION CALENDAR

PREPARATION CONTROL OFFICIAL MAIN ROUND-ROBIN SYSTEM

BY COMPETITION SYSTEM

CUP SYSTEM TOURNAMENT SYSTEM MEETINGS OCCASIONAL REVIVAL COMPETITIONS COMBINED SYSTEM

BY COMPETITION TYPES

INDIVIDUAL, SINGLES PAIRS, DOUBLES TEAM SELECTIONS

15.3. Planning and conducting a competition  An athlete should perform, participate in a competition only if he/she can satisfy the set standards with his/her physical, TE-TA abilities and personality features.  Only athletes who have met the participation standards can appear at big competitions.

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 There are norms, i.e. participation criteria, determined in advance, for every big competition (ECs, WCs & OG).

 A definite number of participating countries (national teams) is usually defined for any big competition (in the basketball Olympic Games’ tournament 12 teams participate from every continent).  In the world competitions in track-and-field and swimming only athletes who have met the result norms (e.g. for men, 20m in shot put or 5.50m pole vault) can participate.

 The plan and programme of sports preparation should be defined with the optimal ratio of training and competition activities.  It is one of the crucial preconditions for sports preparation effects to be accomplished and for the full expression of an athlete’s potential (abilities and skills) at qualification and main competitions.

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Competition days and appearances of top-level athletes in an annual cycle (Platonov, 1997) NUMBER OF COMPETITION DAYS SPORTS

NUMBER OF STARTS (appearances)

Adult athletes

Young athletes

Adult athletes

Young athletes

ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS

25-35

20-25

210-250

180-210

DIVING

25-35

20-25

275-360

250-275

FENCING

30-40

25-30

415-480

350-400

SOCCER

70-85

60-70

70-85

60-70

TABLE TENNIS

75-80

60-75

380-420

300-360

WATERPOLO

60-65

50-60

60-65

50-60

 Event programs should ensure the atmosphere of strong competition to participants, thus enabling the complete mobilization of athletes’ biological and mental reserves as well as TE-TA skills and knowledge.  That will further enable athletes to perform at their best, and therefore to accomplish their best records.  Each competition is a demonstration to both the trainer and athlete of the extent of improvement in performance (results) and how efficient the sports preparation done for the target competition has been.

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Lesson 16:

Recovery of athletes: supplemental factors of sports preparation

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the recovery of athletes as a component of sports preparation.  Describe and represent graphically the importance of recovery in sports.  Compare the time line of a training programme with and withot recovery measures.  List all the recovery methods and means.  Talk about some of the forbidden pharmacological substances as the greatest danger for sports and athletes.

16 - 1

16.1. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes  An enhanced volume of work, especially a high intensity of workloads in training and competitions require adequate recovery during rest time.  Recovery implies the application of diverse procedures that can enable the quick regeneration of athletes and the re-establishment of homeostatis which the previous exertion has disturbed.  Simultaneously with the development of training methods recovery methods have also been developed. By the application of these methods one can prevent the onset of overload and overtraining.

Application of efficacious recovery methods contributes considerably to the enlargement of the number of training sessions within a time unit (Platonov, 1997)

a

b

T

T

T

T

o

T

T

o

T

o

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o

Main functions of recovery are:  Normalization of biological functions in an athlete’s organism  Normalization of the homeostatic balance  Restoration of energy supply reserves with the establishment of temporary supercompensation  Reconstructional effects in relation to cell structures and enzymic systems The first and the second function are realized within several minutes, rarely several hours (quick recovery), whereas the third and fourth are realized over a longer period of time, up to 72 hours after the work-out.

fatigue

The next work-out a is the most efficient if it comes at the moment of the reestablished, or, even b better, enhanced work capability. Recovery methods c considerably contribute to that.

recovery time

time

fatigue

recovery time

time

d

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 Correct training programming with adequate means, methods and workloads should provide a proper recovery of an athlete’s organism, which is manifested in the readiness of the athlete to perform well in training and competition on a day to day basis:  “I don’t care at all whether Ančić performs poorly in the next

tournament, whether he will lose or win. I am only interested in his capability to train normally the next day. If he were not be able to do so, if he needed much more for his recovery, then we would have done nothing.” (Freddy Rossengren, SN, 2007)

In practice special recovery measures are applied prior to a work-out aimed at the development of a particular ability (e.g. anticatabolic agents) (Platonov, 1997) 1

2

3

AN

A

B 2

o

1

o

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3

 Gambetta (1989) asserts that 20% of training contents and 30-35% of workload must be automatically reduced when training is conducted without a pharmacological means aid.  These substances atheletes can use under the strict supervision of a physician.

16.2. Classification of recovery methods and means

Recovery level control -tests-

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Pedagogical means

Motivational methods

Suggestive techniques

Psycho-pedagogical methods

Autogenic training

Pharmacological means

Technical means

Bio-medical methods

Physical means

Nutrition

Social status

Life style/regime

Primary methods

Types of means aimed at the recovery of athletes 1. Pharmacological means  Energetic substances  Anabolic substances  Catalysers and regulators of metabolism: metabolites, enzymes, minerals  Pharmacological doping: hormonal preparations !?!

2. Physiotherapeutical means      

Massage Sauna Hydrotherapy: baths Application of warmth Cryotherapy, application of cold Other procedures

3. Psychological means    

Psycho-regulative training Autogenic training Suggestive techniques, hypnosis Attractiveness of programme

4. Special means    

Altitude * mountain training Hypoxia * hyperoxia Hyperthermia * hypothermia Electro-stimulation * stretching

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16.3. Illicit pharmacological means: doping

(the greatest threat to athletes and sports)  Doping is the use of the forbidden chemical and other substances during sports preparation with the sole intention of artificially increasing sports or work performance and improving sports results.

 It is forbidden to give illicit substances (doping) to athletes and persons connected to them. They must not take any illicit substance or they may contravene the rules of the Croatian Olympic Committee and International Olympic Committee.  The National Antidoping Agency in sports is the specialized institution responsible for monitoring and the implementation of the Croatian antidoping legislation and international antidoping conventions in the Republic of Croatia.  World Antidoping Agency; WADA

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1. Stimulants  Medications, prescription drugs: amphetamines, ephedrines – increase natural human fatigue tolerance in athletes, i.e. prolong the onset of the sense of exhaustion 2. Opiates (narcotics, opioids)  Derivates of opium: codeine – causes the “stop reflex” to be switched off in the central nervous system 3. Anabolic substances  Hormonal preparations – testosterone  Anabolic steroids – enhance protein synthesis and voluminosity of muscles in power sports.

4. Corticosteroids 

Hormones of the adrenal cortex – improve performance in continuous intermittent workloads

5. Blood autotransfusion 

800-1200ml of blood + erythrocytes (haemoglobin)

6. Beta-blockers (beta- adrenergic blocking agents) 

Improve concentration and alertness

7. Sedatives/tranquilizers 

Substances induce sedation and relaxation

8. Local anaesthetics 

Increase pain tolerance

16 - 8

Lesson 17:

Biological principles of sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the recruitment levels of the energy supply reserves of athletes.  Talk about the principles of adaptation.  Discuss the principle of training continuity.  Analyse and graphically present the supercompensation (overcompensation) occurrence.  Talk about the principle of load progression in training and competition.  Talk about the wavy shape (undulation) of training and competition load programming and define the law of progressive intermittent load and the law of contrast loads.

17 - 1

17.1. Introductory observations  In any activity that is to be successful, one has to define and strictly respect its regularities and principles.  Such behaviour enables a quality construction and implementation of sports preparation programmes and a safe accomplishment of the wanted effects.  Principles and rules are the results, findings of scientific research studies and of the corroborated experience of coaches and “their” athletes.

Recruiting levels of athlete’s functional reserves (diverse loads induce different levels of fatigue and exhaustion) Vital protective reserves of the organism

100% 90%

Area of life-threatening exhaustion Area of borderline exhaustion Area of great physical, mental & emotional fatigue

Area of considerable fatigue Area of moderate fatigue

80%

Life threat

doping

fear

Training influence-action efficiency of athletes Mobilization threshold

Simple recruiting levels of functional reserves

Physiological fitness /readiness for sport effect

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T R A I N I N G

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Strength development training (A) and strength level maintainance with training sessions of variable frequency %

(according to Hettinger, in Melerović & Meler, 1975)

Daily training regime

100

No training (B1)

Strength progression

50 0

Individual training session

100

Insufficient frequency of trainng sessions (B2)

50 0 100

Optimal frequency of training sessions (B3)

50 0 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Tjedni

17.2. Adaptation in sports  Adaptation is a process of transformation, the changing of an athlete’s characteristics and abilities, relevant to his/her best, or at least, acceptable functioning in either standard or variable conditions of athletic work.

 The nature of sports adaptation is clearly manifested in the mechanism of homeostasis – always at a higher, i.e. more efficient level of activity or functioning in sports.

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 By means of training athletes achieve the state of fitness (optimal condition), which ensures high efficiency / economy,a rationality of psychomotor performance and the accomplishment of the wanted competition results.  This includes structural, metabolic and functional changes in an athlete’s organism.  We are dealing with the long-term

adaptation of particular organs and organic systems to certain programmes of motor actions and to certain types of neuro-muscular activities and energy processes.

 In sports practice adaptation finds its expression in the specific transformations of an athlete’s conditions under the influence of training effects, competition system and recovery measures.

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 In the area of top-level sport the basic issue is an individual course of the process of adaptation to the requirements of the highlevel sports activity (sports can be differentiated one from the other by these requirements).  For each stage of the long-term sports specialization clearly defined levels or phases of adaptation processes are characteristic.

17.3. Continuity of the process of training 

Sports training is a long-term process of improvement which should proceed continuously, with no interruption, through an incessant alternation of the intervals of work and of rest.

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

The interval of work is a stimulation part of the process, whereas the interval of rest ensures regeneration, recovery for a new training experience.



Work causes exhaustion, whereas rest enables the re-establishment of work ability first and then it elevates the work ability to a higher level. In that way an athlete prepares for a new training session.

The occurrence of supercompensation is a basic acute, immediate functional response of the organism on which effects accumulation and the development of sports shape are based. A correctly prescribed load causes corresponding fatigue and exhaustion, whereas a correct recovery produces the corresponding course of restoration and occurrence of elevated work ability, required for the next training session.

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Supercompensation in the process of training (Milanović, 2005, according to Weineck, 1988, and Željaskov, 2004)

TRAINING

RECOVERY

Starting condition level of an athlete’s organism

Returning to the starting level Compensation Exhaustion of the organism

Supercompensation

Supercompensation can be monitored through the changes of biochemical parameters (Grosser et al., 1986) Load

Enlargement of energy reserves – supercompensation (glycogen is here an ability enhancement factor)

I

Decrease of energy reserves (after 1- 2 days)

Starting level

E Time (day, week…)

Consumption of energy substances (glycogen here)

Exhaustion of the organism

Time interval of recovery – compensation (during 1- 2 days) through diverse biochemical processes Training application time interval (prescribed intensity and volume of load)

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Physiological and biochemical reactions during load and recovery intervals (Neumann, 1993) % 400

Heart rate

300

Cortisol

200

100

Urea in blood

+

Free fat acids

Lactates Athete’s condition prior to the game or training

Training or game course

-

Recovery course Weight Insulin

%

Creatine kinase

Acute protein synthesis

Glycogen

100 150 1

2

3

4 5 min

1 h

Load training

3 h

1

2

3

4

5

day

Rest- recovery

 The trainer must recognize the dynamics and intensity of the particular recovery phases separately in each athlete because it is optimal, as a rule, to apply the next training session simultaneously with the peak of the supercompensation wave.

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I. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too late

(Milanović, 2006, according to, Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

II. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes too early (subcompensation)

(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

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III. Supercompensation dynamics when the next training session comes at the best moment

(Milanović, 2006, according to Hahn, 1982, Weineck, 1988, Matvejev, 2000)

When constructing several microcycles (MC), the dynamics of supercompensation processes should be respected (modified according to Željaskov, 1998) 3 MC 2 MC

1 MC

There is a possibility that the next few work-outs may “fall” in the period of subcompensation. If that is the case, an extended rest should be planned to induce the occurrence of supercompensation.

17 - 10



Training sessions of diverse goal orientation produce very specific dynamics of exhaustion and recovery (supercompensation). After a work-out aimed at, e.g. speed development, three compensation waves are manifested for: 1. the repeated speed training 2. the repeated anaerobic training 3. the repeated aerobic training.

Dynamics of supercompensation waves after the training sessions aimed at the development of speed (B), anaerobic (AN) and aerobic abilities (A) (Platonov, 1997)

B

Speed training Aerobic training

Anaerobic training 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours

A

AN

hours 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 hours

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6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48



Known data about the total load and time needed for a complete recovery (induced occurrence of supercompensation) after various types of physical conditioning training sessions.

Load

MA SMA ME Motor abilities

Coordination

Speed

Strength/ power

Recovery (h)

6 12 24 48 72



The influence of the next training session is based upon traces of the previous training session (training effects). This postulate is valid for the selection of training contents, loads and training methods evenly.

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Endurance

Strength endurance

Speed endurance

17.4. Load progression of training and competition 

During a long-term process of sports preparation loads constantly grow and become ever greater.



In one developmental stage loads are at the highest border of absolute total load (volume+intensity) and at the upper limit of an athlete’s cardio-respiratory, motor and psychological capacities.

Increment dynamics of training load indicators in sports preparation of athletes of diverse age categories Stages of perennial sports preparation in sports games

Indicators of absolute training load volume (%)

A

6-10 years Universal sports preparation

30 – 45 %

B

11-14 years Oriented sports preparation

45 – 60 %

C

15-17 years Sports specialization

60 – 75 %

D

18-19 years Highly specialized sports preparation executed by the rules of the training for adult top-level athletes

75 – 90 %

E

20 and more years Stage of high performance/high sports achievements (training of adult top-level athletes)

90 – 100 %

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

Requirements of a training process are continuously increased; every load stagnation causes a stagnation in the fitness/training condition and top performance/sports achievements



In every new stage of sports development an athlete’s organism is subjected to the requirements that are close to his/her upper functional capacity limits.



Load level is a relative category.



The same volume/intensiy load will over some time produce ever smaller functional changes due to the adaptation responses of the organism and the athlete will subjectively experience them as lower loads.



Further increments of certain components of total load are expected in the future.

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Standards of weekly and annual work volume within certain stages of long-term sports preparation (modified according to Platonov, 1997) 23-26 18-22 1200-1400

14-16

Weekly training volume (hours) Annual training volume (hours)

900 - 1100

8-12 600 - 800

3-6 350 - 500 100 - 250

E1

E2

E3

E4

Stage of the Stage of Stage of Stage of first max. initial basic special individual preparation preparation preparation performance

E5 Stage of the max. individ. performance maintenance

Stages of sports perfection

Progressiveness is realized in a perennial cycle through:  increases of the total annual volume of work from 250-400 hours to 1300-1500 hours and more;  increases in the number of training hours within a weekly microcycle from 3-6 to 14-20 and more;  increases in the number of individual training sessions from one to three within one training day with high load;  increases in the number of high impact training sessions within a microcycle up to 5 or 6 or more  increases in the number of competitions.

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 In a perennial cycle a constant progression of

the relative total load is obvious.  In any following macrocycle the load is bigger than it was in the previous one – the preparation, competition and transition/ closing period.  Each year, we should start with a greater load.  The maximum load level is in any following year higher than it has been ever before.

These postulates are distinctively valid for young athletes’ preparation programmes

17.5. Undulation of training and competition loads 

The process of sports training is characterized by the permanent wavy dynamics of loading and unloading. There are periods of enhanced and periods of decreased total load.

17 - 16



Periods of high total load volume and their components in mesocycles and microcycles alternate constantly with the cycles of lower training load. Thus, favourable conditions are created for recovery and the efficacious flow of adaptation changes in the function of producing accumulation effects.

Wavy shape curve of load intensity (A) and volume (B) in an annual cycle A load intensity

General preparation exercises Competition-like exercises Specific exercises

B load volume

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

MONTHS

I

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Precomp.

STAGES PERIODS

PREPARATION

17 - 17

1st comp.

OP 2nd comp.

COMPETITION

TRANSITIONI

 The distribution of loads and relaxation is a very important component of sports training programming. The distribution of loads follows the curve of a progressive intermittent character The expression 3:1 means that after 3 training sessions of enhanced load, a reduced load follows in the fourth training session, or after 3 days of a high-impact work, on the fourth day’s work-out the intensity should be reduced.

Wavy shape of load (Matvejev, 1999) opt

’ minutes

4

opt 4 3

3 2 2 1 1

30’

45’

15’

45’

30’

T Mon

Training unit

T Tue

T T T Wed Thu Fri

Microcycle

opt 4 3 2 1

1st week

2nd week

Mesocycle

17 - 18

3rd week

T Sat

O Sun

 After a period in which the load has been enhanced, it must be reduced all of a sudden. The law of contrast in load distribution. An athlete is not able to sustain continuously high and the highest loads.  After a few training sessions or microcycles of large load, the controlled reduction of training work volume and intensity follows.

17 - 19

Lesson 18:

Didactical principles of sports training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Talk about the goal orientation principle.  Talk about the sensitive phases’ specific attributes of certain dimensions constituting the fitness/preparedness of athletes.  Analyse and present graphically the association among sports preparation programmes in perennial and annual cycles.  Describe the principle of the cyclic nature of training and present graphically the distribution of sports preparation cycles.

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 Didactical principles are based upon scientific research findings and inferences and upon corroborated professional experience and knowledge of high quality/expert coaches/trainers.  They facilitate a deeper understanding of expert-coach work in the area of a methodological design of training programmes and training work organization.

18.1. Target orientation of training  The focus orientation of the process of sports training is based upon the specific associations between the goals that are to be accomplished, and the training programmes that should provide the accomplishment of the required set goals.

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Criteria for goal orientation of training: There are certain prerequisites for encouraging the training to the wanted goals, i.e. for setting the goals. First, one must know:  The equation of sports performance specification: i.e. the hierachical structure of performance factors in a particular sport event or discipline.  Goal orientation of training denotes a tendency for the development and perfection of athletes’ abilities, especially those significant and relevant to sports performance and achievements in a particular sport branch (equation of specification)

Diverse abilities (e.g. A – strength/power, B endurance, C - coordination) have various influences on performance in different sports

C B

B

A

A

C

A

C

B

SPORT 2 SPORT 3 SPORT 1 A, B, C = abilities relevant to sport achievements

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b) Individual features of athletes:  Especially those abilities and skills when an athlete does not meet the model (required) values.  The training programme should address the “weak spots” in the chain of an athlete’s fitness/preparedness.

c) Age-related characteristics of individuals and groups and the possibilities of developing the components of athletes’ preparedness/fitness in particular age periods.

Table 1. Sensitive phases for the development of diverse physical condition, coordination and other dimensions. “Every dimension has its optimal development time.” (Martin, 1982)

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Ability of an athlete

Age of an athlete (year)

Coordination abilities

9

10

11

12

Ability to differentiate movement parameters Reactibility to auditive and visual stimulans

. : : .

Motor rhythm

. . : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . : : . . : : . . . :

Motor educability/trainability

Ability of space orientation

Physical cond.abilities

8

. : : . . . . : : . . . . : :

Balance

Other dimensions

7

Endurance Strength/power Speed Motor learning Cognitive functions Emotional reactions

. . : . : : : :

. : : : : : : .

13

14

15

17

18

: : : : : . . . . .

: : : : . . .

: : : : . . :

: : . : . :

e) Sex differences f) Quality level of athletes g) Competition rank h) Work conditions and material foundation for sports preparation

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16

: : : : : : . : . . . .

18.2. Interaction of sports preparation programmes a) There is a clearly defined correlation of global programmes of sports preparation:   

training programme competition programme recovery programme

Interaction of the systems of training, competition and supplemental factors in sports preparation (according to Matvejev, 1999)

System of competition Supplemental f a c t o r s

Training system

preparation

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o f s p o r t s

There is also a clearly defined association among the b) fundamental programmes of sports

preparation:   

Physical conditioning (functional and motor preparation) Information preparation (technical, tactical and theoretical preparation) Psychological preparation (motivation, microsocial adaptation)

Relationship among fundamental sports preparation programmes Physical conditioning

Technical preparation

Psychological preparation

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Tactical preparation

Integral preparation of athletes:  Coordination of all elements of physical conditioning, technical, tactical and psychological preparation is the most important component of the long-term sports improvement of athletes.  A synthetic mode of training unifies the individual factors into comprehensive and unique competition efficiency (performance).  Therefore the method of situational training is the best way of an integral perfection of athletes’ performance.

The principle defines also the association of c) targeted programmes of sports preparation that are defined as follows:    

Versatile or global preparation Basic or fundamental preparation Specific preparation Situational preparation

The relations of the programmes are determined by the characteristics of a perennial and annual training cycle planning and programming.

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Distribution of sports preparation programmes across the stages of a perennial training cycle (modified according to Platonov, 2004)

900-1400

2

600-900

25%

250-600

2 40%

100-250

2

2 1 15%

20%

1 15%

60%

1 20%

65%

3

3

40%

45%

3

35% 1 2

1400-1100

20% 40%

3

50% 1

1. Universal preparation programme 2. Basic preparation programme 3. Specific-situational preparation programme

10% 3

Stage of preliminary preparation

Stage of basic preparation

Stage of specializing preparation

Stage E ta p a mofa maximal s m a ln ih sports s achievements o rt k ih o s ig n

ć

E ta p a d r ž a v a n ja Stage of osports s p o r t s k ih achievements maintenance d o s tig n u ć a

Optimal relationship among particular sports preparation programmes in an annual cycle (C – physical conditioning, T – technical-tactical, B – basic, S – situational, D – supplemental, N – competition)

C

75% C 60%

S

T 40% T 25%

B

S

D N

B

D

T 60% C 40%

D C 80%

S

N

Stage 1 Stage 2 Preparation period

N

B Competiton period

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S B

T 20%

D

Transition period

18.3. Cyclic nature of training 





The cyclic nature of training means that the process of training is executed thtrough defined units as regards time and contents, which follow and complement each other. Training programming within various cycles enables an efficacious systematization of training work tasks, assignments, means and methods.

The cyclic principle of training is manifested especially in training planning and programming, where the starting point should be the necessity of a systematic repetition of particular cycles.

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The division of sports preparation cycles (modified according to Grosser et al., 1986) A bigger cycle

contains

several shorter cycles

A sports career (1)

several Olympic cycles

Olympic cycle

4 annual cycles

An annual cycle macrocycle

3 mesocycles - periods (preparation, competition, and transition)

A mesocycle - period

2- 5 mesocycles - phases

A mesocycle - phase

3-8 microcycles

A microcycle

3-14 training days

A training day

1- 4 individual training sessions

An individual training session

4 parts (introductory, preparation, main and closing)

A part of an individual training session

training operators (18)

Cyclic organization and load curves across an annual cycle (Matvejev, 1999)

volume intensity

MONTHS

I

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

STAGES PERIODS

PREPARATION

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COMPETITION

TRANSITION

QUESTIONS 1. Basic fields of training theory 2. Training theory definition 3. Training theory tasks 4. Definition of sport 5. Sports features 6. Why a special social status belongs tosport? 7. Sport participation and health 8. Characteristics of sport in the European union 9. Top level sport in european countries 10. Most important factors affecting the status and development of sport 11. Science, theory and practice of sport and sports training 12. Correlation between the training programme and fitness level 13. Sports training – sports preparation 14. Sports training definitions 15. The essence of sports training 16. Sports training tasks 17. Cybernetic approach to sports training 18. Sport development in the world 19. A short overview of sport development in Croatia 20. Structural analysis of a sport activity 21. Biomehanical analysis of sport activities 22. Anatomical analysis 23. Functional (energy) analysis 24. The criteria for the classification of sports activities 25. Abilities, characteristics, skills and knowledge of athletes 26. Diagnostics in sports 27. Fitness model characteristics of top-level athletes 28. Diagnostics in sports (10 stages of diagnostic procedure) 29. Selectionin sport (orientation to sports and choice of sports branch) 30. Sport and sports training of children and the young 31. Fundamental rules of training for children and the young 32. Performance factors of a sports career 33. Fitness of athletes 34. Sport shape / preparedness 35. Sport shape development phases 36. Dynamic attributes of sport shape 37. Sports training as a transformation process 38. Sports competitions 39. Classification of competitions 40. Plannin gand conducting a competition 41. Definition and significance of recovery for athletes 42. Classification of recovery methods and means 43. Illicit pharmacological means: doping 44. Adaptation in sports 45. Continuity of the process of training 46. Load progression of training and competition 47. Undulation of trainin gand competition loads 48. Target orientation of training 49. Interaction of sports preparation programmes 50. Cyclic nature oftraining

Lesson 19:

Methodology of Sports Training

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define the methodology of sports training  Define and describe the training (transformation) operator  Describe the methodology procedure and answer the questions: “what to train?”, “how much to train?” as well as “how, where, by means of what and when to train?”.  Discuss a training operator to improve a specific physical ability or acquire a certain motor skill

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19.1. Definition and Elements of the Methodology of Training  The methodology of sports training is an academic discipline that studies the patterns of the methodological structuring of training or modelling of training and means of recovery.  It deals with the selection, organization and implementation of training stimuli or training operators and the management of a training load.

 A training (transformation) operator is a stimulus that produces adequate quantitative and qualitative changes in an athlete’s status.  A methodological procedure in professional sport refers to the implementation of selected training operators that comply with the desired, operationally defined objectives.  It refers to a controlled process of physical exercise (physical conditioning) and/or a controlled process of learning-teaching (technical-tactical training).

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 In such a methodological procedure training operators that have the highest transformational power in achieving the desired training outcomes are chosen from the virtual system of potentially useful training operators.  Methodological knowledge is the fundamental source of information for a successful programming of training.

 In everyday practice, after defining the objective of training (e.g. development of explosive power for jumping), the coach must answer the questions: WHAT? HOW MUCH? HOW? WHERE? BY MEANS OF WHAT? WHEN? to train, in order to achieve, in cooperation with the athlete, the desired outcomes in the safest possible way.

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WHAT TO TRAIN? WHERE TO TRAIN?

HOW MUCH TO TRAIN?

METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING: modelling of training operators

BY MEANS OF WHAT TO TRAIN?

HOW AND WHEN TO TRAIN?

MEANS OF TRAINING

TRAINING LOCATIONS

ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS

TRAINING LOADS

METHODOLOGY OF SPORTS TRAINING: modelling of training operators

TRAINING METHODS

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TRAINING EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES

METHODOLOGICAL FORMS OF TRAINING

 Means of training:  motor (competition and training activities)  non-motor (additional means and activities)

 Training loads: - Components of the total training load:  ENERGY COMPONENT (intensity and volume)  INFORMATION COMPONENT (reception, retention and use of motor information) Training parameters for the development of maximum speed (Pyke, 2001) Intensity

95-105%

Distance

20-40m

Rest

Complete(3 min.+)

Type of Start

Flying start

Reps / Sets

4/2

Session Frequency/weekly

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2

 Training locations:  facilities (halls, gyms, fitness centres, swimming pools, outdoor playing fields)

 Training equipment and devices:  Training equipment (weights, balance boards, ropes, medicine balls)  Apparatuses (gymnastics apparatuses, Swedish boxes and benches)  Exercise machines (classical and isokinetic)  Special training devices (electrical stimulator, vibration platforms)

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 Organizational forms of training:  individual  group  frontal

 Training methods:  physical conditioning training methods (energy)  technical-tactical training methods (information)

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 Methodological forms of training:  stations  circuits

 circulars  courses Intensity: High: Low:

start

running backward

running

running

running

running sideways

slalom

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running

Lesson 20:

The means (contents) of sports preparation

After attending the class and mastering this lesson students will be able to:  Define training contents (means)  Classify and describe motor (training and competition) means  Classify and describe non-motor means  Define criteria for the selection of training exercises  List and describe exercises for the development of each of an athlete’s abilities  Discuss the effects of the implementation of a specific training exercise over a period of time

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20.1. Classification and characteristics of training means  The means (contents) of training or sports preparation are systems of motor (competition and training) exercises and non-motor means implemented in training, competition and recovery in accordance with the desired outcomes of the sports preparation and characteristics of the expected training procedure.

MOTOR MEANS

Competitions are an indispensable means of sports preparation

BASIC PREPARATION EXERCISES

SPECIFIC EXERCISES SITUATIONAL EXERCISES

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TACTICAL EXERCISES

GENERAL PREPARATION EXERCISES

TECHNICAL EXERCISES

TRAINING MEANS

PHYSICAL CONDITIONING EXERCISES

COMPETITION MEANS

NON-MOTOR MEANS Implemented in all stages of sports preparation, especially when the athlete is in the rest-recovery stage

LIFESTYLE NUTRITION PHYSICAL MEANS

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATE MEANS TECHNICAL MEANS PHARMACOLOGICAL MEANS PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANS

 A training means or contents are activities or exercises implemented in the training and adjusted to match the training objectives.

Different activities and exercises significantly differ in transformational power (value) which they have on the development of a specific athlete’s ability, characteristic, or the acquisition of certain motor skill.

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 It is of the utmost importance to know which functional and motor structures or body systems are stimulated by the exercise implemented as a part of a certain training operator.

Weight training exercises are used for the development of strength.

Quantitative and qualitative changes occur in the muscular system.

Exercises involving changes of direction and speed of movement are used for the development of agility and speed.

The efficiency of the central nervous system and motor programmes is increased. Cyclic exercises with extended duration are used for the development of endurance.

Functions of cardiovascular and respiratory systems (oxygen transport system) are improved.

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The selection of training means aimed at the development of physical abilities or the stabilisation of technical-tactical skills depends on the equation of value for each exercise, since each exercise or set of training activities triggers precise motor reactions.

Equation of value for training or competition activity Aj in the n-dimensional space

n

Aj =

  F + ij=1 i

i

i(n+1)

Ej

i – coefficients of participation of the psychosomatic dimensions Fi in activity Ai, Ej – efficiency estimation error in activity Ai if dimension Fi is known

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20.2. The effects of training exercise implementation  Coaches very often “throw in” new exercises in each training session  That is ineffective since the effects of the implementation of a selected set of exercises are proportional with the duration of its implementation  A selected set of exercises must be repeated frequently in order to generate the expected effects  The effects of implementation for each exercise or set of training exercises can be monitored in four dependent stages

Effects of implementation for each training exercise can be monitored in four dependent stages Effects of training exercise implementation

(modified according to Vazny, 1978)

Peak impact stage

A

Decreasing impact stage

Significant impact stage Non-significant impact stage

A – Point of significant impact on the development of one of the preparedness t0 components

Negative impact stage

t1

t2

t3

t4

t5

Training exercises implementation stages

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 The first thing is to learn how to perform the exercise correctly. Useful effects can only be achieved if the exercise is mastered and performed correctly (1st stage).  The period of time during which the implementation of a mastered exercise (maximum number of repetitions) generates positive effects is limited (2nd stage).  After the period of the implementation of the same exercise or set of exercises only then is it possible to maintain the achieved effects (3rd stage).

 In the next stage a decreased impact of the selected exercises on the expected effects is noticeable (4th stage).  At one point of the implementation of an exercise or a set of exercises a negative tendency of the effects may be noticed. The exercise or the set has or have “been worn out” (5th stage).

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20.3. Selection and order of training exercises application  Training methodology first defines the criteria for the selection and then the order of using each exercise or a set of exercises.

 After the training objectives of one set of exercises have been achieved, move on to the next one.

 The order of training exercises in the

training for jumping abilities may be determined in relation to the expected effects by age groups.

 Deciding on the training means, i.e. the selection of training exercises, relies on the fact that only certain exercises are effective in each stage of an athlete’s development and that certain motor and non-motor means have a maximum effect in a certain part of the annual cycle.

 This is crucial information for programming training sessions.

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Sequence of training exercises in technology for the development of jumping abilities Development of jumping ability

Phases of long- term development

 On the basis of experience and published research, coaches have selected a large number of potential means, i.e. motor exercises that they use daily.  Each coach should compile his/her own “encyclopedia” of training exercises.  Depending on the set objectives, the means that completely matches the characteristics of a trained group or individual should be selected and used.

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Exercises for the development of sprint abilities using various additional loads (vests, tyres, weights) on a flat surface, slope, steps…

Exercises for the development of jumping abilities using hurdles, boxes of various heights and/or without props on a flat surface, slope, steps…

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Exercises for the development of explosive power for throwing

Free weight exercises for the strengthening of the upper and the lower body

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Stretching exercises for leg muscles

Stretching exercises for leg muscles

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Passive stretching in pairs

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Lesson 21:

Training Load Management

After attending the class and mastering this lesson the students will be able to:  Understand the concept and the importance of the training load management  Define the total training load and its components  Classify training loads and describe each type  Explain the effects of a training load on an athlete’s body  Determine the training load in modelling training operators for the development of various abilities and motor skills  Discuss the endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) factors of training and competition load tolerance

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21.1. Training and competition load  The management of a training load has a central role in the technology of sports preparation of top athletes.  In professional sports, only the athletes who successfully absorb progressive training and competition loads can achieve top results.  Stagnation in a training load leads to the incomplete preparedness of the athlete.

 Due to the adaptation of the body over a period of time the same amount of load (the same stimulus) will generate increasingly weaker functional reactions, since the athlete will respond as if the load has been reduced.  The total load, as well as its components intensity and volume, must be adapted according to:      

specificities of each sport, athlete’s age, athlete’s individual characteristics, level of athlete’s preparedness, stage in the multi-annual sports preparation cycle, period and stage in the annual sports preparation cycle.

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Training load and recovery characteristics of athletes of various levels of preparedness (Platonov, 1997)

REACTION LOWER-LEVEL ATHLETE TOP ATHLETE

RECOVERY

LOAD

Reaction of athletes at various levels of preparedness to the same total training load (Platonov, 1997)

REACTION 2nd CATEGORY ATHLETE 1st CATEGORY ATHLETE TOP ATHLETE

RECOVERY

LOAD

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Load leads to fatigue – exhaustion of athletes in the training process LOAD LEVEL

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF TRAINING LOAD

1

EXTERNAL FATIGUE SIGNS ATTENTION

PRESPIRAT ION

FACE

TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE

Loads absorbed effortlessly

Steady

No change

Normal

No change

2

Loads absorbed with effort, without complaining

Steady

Medium

Blushe d

No change

3

Loads absorbed with difficulties, fatigue in arms and legs

Weakened

Significant

Red

Movement rhythm slightly altered, minor mistakes

4

Loads absorbed with major difficulties, complaining of fatigue and body pain, especially in the legs

Weak

Increased

Very red

Diminished movement quality, mistakes in details, poor performance

5

Loads barely absorbed, tottering, refusing to continue with the training, general weakness

Intense ly red

Non-coordinated movements, diminished movement quality, very poor performance

Very weak

Heavy

21.2. Total load and its components TL = f (a1En+a2In+a3e) Total load (TL) is a function of the energy component – a1En (prevails in the physical conditioning training), information component – a2In (prevails in the technical-tactical training) and the estimation of error – a3e.

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21.2.1. Energy component of a training load En = f (a1I+a2E+a3e) The energy component of a training load comprises two elements: intensity of training load – a1I (force, velocity, pace, weight of external load) and volume of training load – a2E (repetitions, duration, sets)

 Training load intensity consists of:  force, defined by the weight of the external load (e.g. 90% 1RM),  and velocity, defined by the speed of performance (e.g. 90% of the maximum speed).

 External load is crucial for the first element (weight training) and the maximum speed of performance for the second one (e.g. running down a slope).

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 Training load volume also comprises two elements:  number of repetitions (e.g. 3 sets × 10 reps, 50% RM with a 1’ rest between sets),  and duration (e.g. running 5×60’’ , rest 1’ between reps; or in stations 5 x 30” with 30” rest after each set and 60” rest after each station).

 For the development of physical condition the total load and the ratio of its components need to be determined.

In determining the energy load component, all elements contribute proportionally : F = force, V = velocity, R = number of repetitions, D = duration En = f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a5e) Taking into account the interaction of all the components and elements of a training load, the total energy training load is defined as follows: En= f (a1F+a2V+a3R+a4D+a1Fa2V+a1Fa3R+a1Fa4D +a2Va3R+a2Va4D+a3Ra4D+a1Fa2Va3D…)

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21.2.2. Information component of a training load ITL = f (a1BI+a2DI+a3TEI+a4e)

The information component of a training load comprises three elements :  number of emitted motor information units – NI (amount of data, messages)  amount of decoded motor information units – DI (amount of processed data)  duration of the emission of information– DEI (duration of time during which the motor information was sent and received)

21.3. Effects of a training load on an athlete’s body 21.3.1. Effects of a training load on the muscle fibre  Use of an adequate load for the development of strength and power over an extended period of time leads to an adaptation which affects the muscle fibre by causing its expansion (hypertrophy), proliferation (hyperplasia), or a combination of the two.

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However, numerous studies have shown that muscle fibre reacts to the training and competition load with hypertrophy only. The occurrence of proliferation (hyperplasia) as a result of adaptation to training has not yet been proven.

21.3.2. Effects of a training load on the nervous system  Exertion of maximum voluntary force of contraction depends on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the agonist muscles as well as the level of the ability of the nervous system to innervate those muscles. This refers to the number of active motor units.

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A training load affects the functioning of the nervous system by causing specific adaptation changes. The nerve conduction velocity and its synchronization are improved. The specificity of adaptation changes relates to the characteristics and the mastery of the movements being trained.

21.3.3. Effects of a training load on the oxygen transport system 

A well-balanced training activity forces the body to a range of functional and regulation adjustments in order to ensure:  

Proportional amount of energy and energy for the elimination of the excess of metabolites and heat.

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In order for the oxygen transport system to meet the increased energy demand during a vigorous sports activity, an immediate adjustment of a range of its functions proportional to the energy demand of the given activity - to a higher level of activity must occur.

21.4. Classification (characteristics) of training loads

SPECIALISATION

SPECIFIC LOAD

NON-SPECIFIC LOAD

ENERGY FOCUS

AEROBIC

MIXED

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYTIC

COORDINATION COMPLEXITY

LEVEL

BODY INVOLVEMENT

HIGH

MAXIMUM 90-100

GLOBAL (multiple joints)

MEDIUM

SUBMAXIMUM 75-90

LOW

REGIONAL (two joints)

MEDIUM 60-75 LOCAL (one joint)

ANAEROBIC CREATIN PHOSPHATE

MINIMUM 30-60

ANABOLIC

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Relation between intensity and volume in the total load LOAD INTENSITY % (force, velocity)

Maximum total load may be achieved by stressing the intensity, volume or both components of a training load

100 90

75

60

45 30

LOAD VOLUME (repetitions, duration)

20 10