Trabajo de Renacimiento Maquiavelo y Giordano Bruno

 

VLI_F^QIM@M L@AIDL@J MF FMVA@AIÑL  Flriquf Buzgàl y _`jjf  @jg` Gàtfr mfj G`bistfrid L`aidl`j 

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Mfs`rrdjjd mfj Ufls`gifltd Oijdsñoiad

Gdldbr`oç` ^fl`aigifltd Qibjd X_ ‑ X_I G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld

Urfsflt`m` pdr3

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Q0 ‑ Aiflai`s Qdai`jfs ‑ Histdri`  _I aiajd Jig` ‑ Ufró >5>>

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^fl`aigifltd Qibjd X_ ‑ X_I G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld

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]`nj` mf Adltflimds

Iltrdmuaaiñl…………………………………………………………………………… Iltrdmuaaiñl………………………… ………………………………………………… pàb. 0 G`rad ]fñriad…………….……………………………………………………………pàb. = A`pçtujd I Puf fs fj ^fl`aigifltd………………………………………………………………. pàb. = 0.0.. Oij 0.0 Oijdsd dsdoç` oç` ^fl ^fl`af `aflti ltist` st`……… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………. ……...p ..pàb. àb. = A`pitujd II Fj Hug`lisgd y su rfj`aiñl adl ^fl`afltisgd ‑ G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld....... pàb. 6 >.0 Ufls`gifltd Oijdsñoiad….………………………..…………………….… pàb.? >.> J`s N`sfs mf j`s Imf`s mf G`qui`vfjd……………………… G`qui`vfjd……………………………………...pàb. ……………...pàb. 2 >.1 Dnr`s mf G`qui`vfjd……………………………………..……………….. pàb. 8 >.1.0 Dnr`s oulm`gflt`jfs……...….…………….………………....…. oulm`gflt`jfs……...….…………….………………....…. pàb. 8 >.1.> Dnr`s pdr `ðd ………….……………….…………………….…..pàb. 8 >.= Fj @pdrtf mf G`qui`vfjd…….……….………………………………..….. G`qui`vfjd…….……….………………………………..….. pàb. 05 A`pitujd III  Bidrm`ld Nruld ‑ ^fl`aigifltd y Ufls`gifltd Oijdsñoiad.………….……………… Oijdsñoiad.………….……………… pàb. 05 1.0 Ufls`gifltd oijdsñoiad mf Bidrm`ld Nruld ……..………………………… pàb.00 1.> Dnr`s mf Bidrm`ld nruld ……………………….………..…………………pàb. 0>  

1.>.0Dnr`s Oulm`gflt`jfs …....…………………………………….……pàb. 0> 1.>.> Dnr`s pdr `ðd…………...…………….….………………………….pàb. `ðd…………...…………….….………………………….pàb. 0>

 

1.1 Fj `pdrtf mf Bidrm`ld Nruld………….……………………………………. Uàb. 0= Adlajusidlfs…………………………………………………………………………. Adlajusidlfs …………………………………………………………………………. pàb. 0=

  Oufltfs..…….………………………… Oufltfs..…….……………………………………..………………………..…………pàb. …………..………………………..…………pàb. 06

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Iltrdmuaaiñl

Fl j` sibuifltf gdldbr`oç` sf mfs`rrdjj`rà adlafptds rfj`aidl`mds `j rfl`aigifltd fl fj sibjd X_ y X_I, `sç adgd fj rdj mf G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld fl fj gisgd. Fj ^fl`aigifltd fs ul` épda` fladltr` fladltr`m` m` quf p`r` guahds rfprfsf rfprfsflt` lt` Juz, p`r` dtrds dsaurim`m, fs quizàs j` épda` gàs adltrdvfrsi`j quf, g`rad ul` ft`p` a`ñtia` p`s`lmd mf j` oijdsdoç` gfmifv`j gfmifv`j tr`lsodrgàlmdj` ` j` oijdsdoç` gdmfrl`, gdmfrl`, ul` épda` épda` mf iltflsd iltflsd gdvigifltd gdvigifltd gflt`j, y mf rfvdjuaiñl mfj pfls`gifltd pfls`gifltd,, quf sf flaufltr` jib`m` prdoulm`gfltf adl fj hug`lisgd y quf ld mfc` ilmiofrfltf fl au`ltd ` jds suafsds daurrimds ` su p`sd , mfspfrtñ ul iltfrés aifltçoiad, `rtçstiad y mf guah`s dtr`s misaipjil`s, pfrd fl j` quf tdm`vç` prfv`jfaç` j` sdgnr` mfj pfls`gifltd fsadjàstiad, mdlmf j` Ibjfsi` A`tñjia` iliai`jgfltf juah`n` pdr h`afr prfv`jfafr fj `ltibud drmfl mf pfls`gifltd n`s`m` fl j` of o f y r`zñl, `sç fs adgd fltr` fl j` histdri` mf fst` épda` mds igpdrt`ltfs oijñsdods mfj ^fl`aigifltd, fstds sdl G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld. G`qui`vfjd oijdsd pdjçtiad ` quifl sf jf `trinuyf fj dribfl mf j` fxprfsiñl ‚g`qui`véjiad‗, mfnimd ` su oijdsdoç` y pfrspfativ` quf rfvdjuaidld, tr`cd ` j` juz ilstruaaidlfs ld adlafnim` adlafnim`ss mf añgd sf mfnf g`ltflfr fj pdmfr y fj éxitd mfj fst`md `ul ` adstf mf tdmd, sfð`j`lmd quf fj  pdmfr sf mfnf mfnf ulioia`r y us`r j` ou oufrz` frz` adgd prila prilaip`j ip`j ilstrugfltd mf vvflt`c`, flt`c`, y mf sf sfrr lfafs`rid `atu`r adl `stuai` y pfroimi` p`r` adlsfbuir fj dncftivd mfj fst`md it`ji`ld, éj sf imfltioia`n` adl ul pfls`gifltd rf`jist` y pfls`n` quf fj `atu`r mf `aufrmd ` j` gdr`j fl au`ltd ` dntflfr j` fst`nijim`m mfj fst`md fr` ilótij, jds quf ld fst`n`l mf `aufrmd sfból su r`zdl`gifltd fr` pdrquf fst`n`l n`s`lmd su r`zdl`gifltd r`zdl`gifltd fl hfahds suncftivds f irrf`jfs, fl  pda`s p`j`nr`s p`j`nr`s fst`n`l frr`m frr`mds, ds, `ul `sç p` p`r` r` guahds éj fr` ul dribil`j y tdmd ul ul rfvdjuaidl`rid. Udr su p`rtf mf j` histdri` Bidrm`ld Nruld fj oijñsdod gàs igpdrt`ltf mf j` épda` rfl`afl rfl`afltist` tist` quf mfoflmiñ sus imf`s sdnrf Mids, fj ulivfrsd, j` ibjfsi`, fj adsgds h`st` fj oil`j , mfc`lmd `sç adgd jfb`md fj jinrf pfls`gifltd, pfls`gifltd, fj mfoflmç` quf tdmd jd quf h`y fl j` ]ifrr` tiflf `jbul` odrg` mf vim` mfltrd mf sç, y sdstflç` `a`jdr`m`s misausidlfs adl su adgp`ðfrds fajfsiàstiads sdnrf j` ‚vfrm`m‗ fxpjia`lmd fxpjia`lmd quf Mids ld fr` adgd j` arfflai` jd miat`n` y sfból éj mfaç` Mids fr` p`rtf gisg` mfj ulivfrsd fxprfsàlmdsf fl tdmd jd quf h`y fl miahd ulivfrsd, fl j`s pj`lt`s, fl j`s `vfs, fl tdmds jds `lig`jfs y fl jds hug`lds gisgds , fl fj tdmd quf ` j` vfs fs uld, sfð`j`n` quf fj hug`ld ld fs fj bu`rmiàl mf j` arf`aiñl li fj sfrvimdr mf Mids, sild quf fs p`rtf p`rtf mfj gisgd, pfrd sus imf`s jinfr`jf jinfr`jfss oufrdl mfg`si`md p`r` j` Ibjfsi` mf j` épda`, prdvda`lm prdvda`lmdd j` ilafs`ltf pfrsfauaiñl mf jds ilquisimdrfs mf ^dg` quf jd prdafs`rdl y jd sfltflaiàrdl ` gdrir qufg`md vivd. Fj pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad mfj ^fl`aigifltd it`ji`ld tiflf fl B. Nruld ul rfprfsflt`ltf mibld quf fxprfs` fj imf`j hug`list` mfj rftdrld ` j` l`tur`jfz` y, `j gisgd tifgpd, j` afltr`jiz`aiñl mfj hdgnrf fl ul adsgds fl fj quf j` imf` afltr`m` fl ]hfd fst`n` pfrmiflmd su hfbfgdlç`. (Uiðdl. O, >555) Fl fstf mdaugfltd `mfgàs sf fxpjia` fl rfj`aiñl adl fj ^fl`aigifltd, gàs fxtflsiñl fj  pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad oijdsñoiad mf `gnds oijñsdods, `sç adgd sus `pdrtfs, ssus us vim`s y dn dnr`s r`s

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A`pçtujd I ´Pué fs fj ^fl`aigifltd4

Qf fltiflmf pdr ^fl`aigifltd `j oflñgfld aujtur`j aujtur`j quf tiflf jub`r fltrf fj sibjd X_ Y X_I, ouf mf dribfl it`ji`ld y jufbd sf fxp`lmiñ pdr tdmd Furdp`, fj rfl`aigifltd ouf ul pfridmd fl fj quf sf ouf mfc`lmd `tràs j` fm`m gfmi` p`r` m`r adgiflzd ` j` quf sfrç` j` fm`m gdmfrl`, fl fj iliaid mf j` Fm`m Gdmfrl`, rftdg` jds prilaipids mf j` aujtur` mf j` `ltibúfm`m ajàsia`, ajàsia`, `atu`jizàlmdj` `atu`jizàlmd j` ` tr`vés mfj Hug`lisgd, sil rflulai`r ` j` tr`miaiñl aristi`l`, pfrd sustituyflmd j` visiñl rfjibids` mfj gulmd gfmifv`j pdr ul` `oirg`aiñl mf jds v`jdrfs mfj gulmd y mfj hdgnrf. Fj hug`lisgd fs pufs, fj `spfatd oijdsñoiad y jitfr`rid mfj ^fl`aigifltd. Fj hug`list` fs fj fsaritdr, fj pfls`mdr quf ld sf jigit` `j fstumid mf j` tfdjdbç`, adgd fl jds sibjds `ltfridrfs, sild quf m` br`l igpdrt`lai` `j fstumid mf j`s aiflai`s hug`l`s. Fst`gds pufs `ltf ul` aujtur` `ltrdpdaéltria`. `ltrdpdaéltria`. J` nfjjfz` ld v` ` sfr ul rfojfcd mf j` mivilim`m, adgd fl fj `rtf gfmifv`j, sild j` fxprfsiñl mf ul drmfl iltfjfatu`j y prdo`ld (ld rfjibidsd) n`s`md fl j` gfmim`, fj lógfrd y j` prdpdraiñl. J` l`tur`jfz` sfrà fstumi`m` fl sç gisg`, `j g`rbfl mf jd mivild y fladltr`rà fl j` pfrspfativ`, fj gdmd `mfau`md mf su rfprfsflt`aiñl. Qf fstumi`rà fj aufrpd hug`ld mfslumd, nusa`lmd j` pfrofaaiñl adgd rfojfcd mfj `ltrdpdafltrisgd mfj  pfls`gifltd hug`list`. hug`list`. Jds tifgpds tugujtudsds mfj ^fl`aigifltd mfsfla`mf mfsfla`mfl`rdl l`rdl j` tr tr`lsodrg`aiñl `lsodrg`aiñl mf j` sdaifm`m furdpf` ofum`j mf sfðdrfs y sifrvds fl ul` gdmfrl`, gfra`ltij f ilmustri`j

0.0 Oijdsdoç` ^fl`afltist` -

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Qf fg`laip` j` Oijdsdoç`, sfp`ràlmdsf mf j` tfdjdbç`3 Lufv` visiñl aifltçoiad-l`tur`j mfj gulmd adl n`sfs fgpçria`s y g`tfgàtia`s. Vsd mfj gétdmd aifltçoiad. ^fodrg` mf j` Ibjfsi`. tiflf ul bird hug`list` adl rfspfatd ` j` oijdsdoç` gfmifv`j. Qf mfs`rrdjj` j`s ulivfrsim`mfs, fj l`aigifltd mf j` igprflt` y j` prdmuaaiñl mf dnr`s fl jflbu`s vfrlàauj`s. Qf sfp`rñ fj adlafptd y fcfauaiñl mfj drmfl sdai`j mf j` mdatril` tfdaràtia` Qf mfsv`lfaf fj pfls`gifltd mf j` fm`m gfmi`, `rdstfjisgd. Fj sfr hug`ld mfc` mf fst`r n`cd j` sdgnr` mf `jbd, p`r` p`s`r ` ul prigfr pj`ld. J` aujtur` p`s` mfj Ajfrd ` j` Nurbufsç`. Qf prdmucd ul` rfvdjuaiñl aifltçoia`, fl adlsfauflai`, mfj flodquf f iltfrés fl j` aiflai` quf prdmucd fj rfl`aigifltd. Qf jinfr` j` pdjçtia` mf jds mdbg`s, vdjviélmdsf ilmfpflmifltf. @mfgàs, sf prdmucd ul iltfrés fl fj `rtf y su mfs`rrdjjd. Qurbiñ iltfrés y fstumid fl prdpdraiñl fsp`ai`j, j` juz, `l`tdgç`, j` sigftrç`. Y si nifl j`s imf`s mfj rfl`aigifltd tiflfl sus drçbflfs mfsmf j` `ltibúfm`m, ouf fl fj rfl`aigifltd quf fst`s imf`s sf mfs`rrdjj`rdl, arfaifrdl y fst`jj`rdl fl ldt`njfs a`gnids, quf a`usd gdvigifltd j` aujtur`, fj `rtf y j` aiflai`. 6

 

A@UI]VJD II Fj Hug`lisgd y su rfj`aiñl adl ^fl`afltisgd ‑ G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld Nruld

Fj hug`lisgd rfl`afltist` fs ul gdvigifltd iltfjfatu`j, oijdsñoiad y aujtur`j furdpfd quf sf flaufltr` `t`md `j ^fl`aigifltd ^fl`aigifltd fl j` It`ji` mfj sibjd X_. J` miofrflai` quf r`mia` fltrf fj rfl`aigifltd y fj hug`lisgd fs quf3 Fj rfl`aigifltd fs ul gdvigifltd fspiritu`j floda`md fl tdmd3 gósia`, jitfr`tur`, piltur`, `rquitfatur`, fta., fj hug`lisgd fs sdj`gfltf jitfr`rid-oijdsñoiad. J` rfj`aiñl fltrf fj rfl`aigifltd y fj hug`lisgd r`mia` fl quf fj rfl`aigifltd fs ul gdvigifltd quf fstà n`s`md fl fj hug`lisgd, mur`ltf fj ^fl`aigifltd, fj hug`lisgd sf a`r`atfrizñ pdr rfldv`r jds imf`jfs mf jds brifbds y jds rdg`lds adl rfspfatd `j adlafptd mfj hdgnrf sf rftdg`r fj aujtivd mf jds miofrfltfs fstumids mf j`s hug`lim`mf hug`lim`mfs, s, adgd j` rftñria`. r ftñria`. G`qui`vfjd odrg` p`rtf mf tdm` ul` tr`miaiñl mf pfls`gifltd hug`list` y rfpunjia`ld, a`r`atfrçstiad mfj ^fl`aigifltd Fltdlafs ul hug`list` fr`, fl prigfr térgild, ul` pfrsdl` quf s`nç` j`tçl, o`giji`riz`md adl j` aujtur` mf j` `ltibu` ^dg`, fl fspfai`j adl jds `utdrfs ajàsiads, mfmia`md ` j` flsfð`lz` mf fst` g`tfri` d quf mfsfgpfð`n` mfsfgpfð`n` ul a`rbd pónjiad, y quf  pdr jd bflfr`j sf imfltioia`n` d sigp sigp`tiz`n` `tiz`n` adl j` j`ss ilstituaidlfs pdjçtia pdjçtia`s `s rfpunjia`l`s (B`rai`.^, >509). @ j` vfz fl fj pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad mfj ^fl`aigifltd it`ji`ld flaufltr` fl B. Nruld ul rfprfsflt`ltf mibld quf fxprfs` fxprfs` fj imf`j hug`list` mfj rftdrld ` j` l`tur`jfz` y, ` j` p`r, j` afltr`jiz`aiñl mfj hdgnrf fl fj adsgds.  Liadjàs G`qui`vfjd G`qui`vfjd oijñsdod mfj ^fl ^fl`aigifltd `aigifltd it`ji`ld, hf hfrfmfrd rfmfrd mf j` oijdsdoç` pdjçtia` oulm`m` pdr jds brifbds, fs adlsimfr`md fj oulm`mdr mfj pfls`gifltd pdjçtiad gdmfrld, siflmd uld mf jds prigfrds fl fltflmfr j` pdjçtia` adgd ul` aiflai` d `rtf ld sundrmil`m` ` ul drmfl fxtfrld, hicd mf ul oulaidl`rid mf Ojdrflai`; L`aiñ fl Ojdrflai` (0=?9-im. 06>2), tuvd ul` iltfls` `ativim`m pdjçtia` y gijit`r fl su p`tri`, fstd jf pfrgitiñ tflfr ul adldaigifltd guy adgpjftd y prdoulmd mf jds pdjçtiads, `sç gisgd, mf j`adrruptdr adlmuat` mfj mf jds miribfltfs su épda`, mf jds dnispds, mf `sultds jds a`rmfl`jfs y adldaiñ fj pdmfr milfrd, ouf ulmf  pdjçtiad, fsaritdr y oijñsdod oijñsdod quf ilojuyñ mf g`lfr` g`lfr` mfaisiv` fl fj pfls`g pfls`gifltd ifltd daaimflt`j, sfarft`rid mf j` ^fpónjia` mf Ojdrflai`, `adgftiñ lugfrds`s gisidlfs mipjdgàtia`s y rfdrb`lizñ fj fcéraitd mf Ojdrflai`, sf florfltñ ` j` vifc` gflt`jim`m aristi`ld-gfmifv`j, aristi`ld-gfmifv`j, `j gisgd tifgpd pdlç` j`s n`sfs mf j` lu lufv` fv` gflt`jim`m j`iad j`iad-nurbufs`. -nurbufs`.  Liadjàs G`qui`vfjd G`qui`vfjd p`rtf mf jds pprilaip`jfs rilaip`jfs suaf suafsds sds adltfgpd adltfgpdràlfds ràlfds p`r` mfoilir ul drmfl`gifltd sdai`j miofrfltf `j mf tifgpds p`s`mds, fl fj quf fj dncftivd mfj fst`md tiflf adgd dncftivd j` gfcdr` mf j` sdaifm`m y fj pfrofaaidl`gifltd mfj hdgnrf. G`qui`vfjd fs ul` oibur` igpdrt`ltf, pdrquf `pdrt` `j pfls`gifltd pdjçtiad y ` j` oijdsdoç` ul` mft`jj`m` rfojfxiñl sdnrf jds dncftivds mfj Fst`md y jds oulm`gfltds gisgds mf j` rfpónjia`.

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>.0 Ufls`gifltd Oijdsñoiad Mf G`qui`vfjd3

@ G`qui`vfjd ld jf iltfrfs` fl `nsdjutd adgd mfnfrç`l mf sfr j`s ads`s, adgd mfnfrç`l `atu`r j`s pfrsdl`s, li añgd mfnfrç` sfr fj gulmd, sdjd jf igpdrt` j` rf`jim`m j`s ads`s, éj ouf ul pfrsdl`cf mfst`a`md mfj rfl`aigifltd ojdrfltild, quf, adl sus adldaigifltds fl `sultds mf fst`md, n`sd su pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad fl adlafpaidlfs pdjçtia`s. G`qui`vfjd, ld fs adlsimfr`md adgd ul oijñsdod `tfd, y` quf, sf flaufltr`l prfsfltfs fl sus dnr`s Mids y j` rfjibiñl, pfrd, G`qui`vfjd iltfrprft` j` histdri` adl sfauj`risgd y sfð`j` quf fj Fst`md fs ul pdmfr tfrrfl`j purd y `utñldgd, fj Fst`md l`af fltflmimd adgd ul` fltim`m pdjçtia` sfauj`r, sfp`r`m` mf j` ibjfsi`, quf ld fstà n`cd fj g`lm`td li mf Mids li mf lilbul` dtr` `utdrim`m ‚supfridr‗. @ j` Ibjfsi` quf mfnifr` sfr mfgdaràtia` y ld mfnifr` ilgisauirsf fl fj pdmfr pdjçtiad, h` hfahd y fstà h`aiflmd tdmd jd adltr`rid. Qf h` adlstituimd fl j` vfrm`mfr` pfrturn`mdr` mf j`  p`z. ‚... H`y ul` a`us` fxafpaidl` fxafpaidl`jj mf iltr`lquijim`m y mf misadrmi` mf j`s aium`mfs aium`mfs d mf mf jds rfilds, a`us` da`sidl`jgfltf da`sidl`jgfltf surbim` mfj fofatd fg`l`md mf j` a`us` mivil` y prdmuaimd oufr` mf jd `adstugnr`md fl su dnr` fl j`s ads`s, fj au`j, adgd jd `pult`gds fl j`s prdpdsiaidlfs  prfjigil`rfs, li @ristñtfjfs @ristñtfjfs li lilbuld mf jds oijñsdods mf su su tifgpd d `ltfridr `ltfridr ` éj pumd `ja`lz`r ` vfr...‗ (Mf U`mu`, 09893 p. 059). Qus imf`s rfojfc`lauyds j` rf`jim`m mf j`mfsitu`aiñl mfprdvilai`s j` sdaifm`mnusa`l it`ji`l` quf fstà fl adlst`ltfs bufrr`s iltfrl`s, prçlaipfs pfqufð`s `pdyd mf pdtflai`s fxtr`lcfr`s, pfrd, orfaufltfgfltf tfrgil`n`l a`yflmd n`cd su mdgilid. Fltdlafs mf `aufrmd ` G`qui`vfjd jd quf lfafsit`n` It`ji` p`r` adlvfrtirsf fl ul` sñjim` l`aiñl adgd jd fst`n`l jdbr`lmd Fsp`ð` y Or`lai`, fr` j` prfsflai` mf ul prçlaipf oufrtf  pdsffmdr mf j` virtum, y quf ul ulioiquf ioiquf It`ji`. Qfból G`qui`vfjd U`r` quf ul prçlaipf sf` oufrtf, hànij, quf pufm` mfoflmfr y adlsdjim`r su  pdmfr, mfnf utijiz`r utijiz`r tdmds jds gfm gfmids ids quf h`y` ` su `ja`la `ja`laf, f, ilajuyflmd j` gfltir`, gfltir`, j` tr`iaiñl, j` vidjflai`, fj flb`ðd, pdr fsd sf jf `trinuyf j` sibuifltf or`sf3 ‚fj oil custioia` jds gfmids‗ @oirg` jd sibuifltf3 ‚H`y mds g`lfr`s mf adgn`tir ul` adl j`s jfyfs y dtr` adl j` oufrz`, j`  prigfr` fs prdpi` mf mf jds hdgnrfs hdgnrfs,, j` sfbulm` mmff jds `lig`jfs‗ `lig`jfs‗,, pfrd adgd guah`s guah`s vfafs ld ld v`st`mf j` l`tur`jfz` prigfr` fs vidjflt`. ilmispfls`njf `aumir ` j` sfbulm`, p`r` G`qui`vfjd j` pdjçtia` y fj pdmfr fr`l (a`rr`sad @. >555) Fj prçlaipf mfnf fst`r `m`pt`md p`r` sfbuir mds tipds miofrfltfs mf adlmuat` mf `aufrmd ` jd quf sf lfafsitf3 

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J` tçpia` mf jds hdgnrfs, tfliflmd fl auflt` `spfatds adgd fj mfrfahd, j` r`zñl d j` gdr`j. J` prdpi` mf j`s nfsti`s, tfliflmd fl adlsimfr`aiñl j` oufrz`, y t`gniél j` tr`gp` y fj flb`ðd.

Qfból fj pfls`gifltd mf G`qui`vfjd, Igpjia` fj tçpiad cufbd mfj zdrrd y jfñl, mispdlfrsf ` fsadbfr fltrf zdrrd y jfñl ld fs o`vdr`njf, h`y quf sfr zdrrd p`r` adldafr j`s tr`gp`s y jfñl  p`r` mfoflmfrsf mfoflmfrsf mf jds jdnds, sf mfnf puf pufss igit`r ` jds mds. 2

 

J` tflmflai` mf G`qui`vfjd fs fvimfltfgfltf "`nstr`fr j` pdjçtia` mf tdm` adlsimfr`aiñl y fsarinir `afra` mf fjj` adgd si oufr` ul oil" (Q`nilf, 09?83 >66) G`qui`vfjd a`t`jdb` ` j` l`tur`jfz` hug`l` adgd li nufl` li g`j`, y quf oic` j` l`tur`jfz` mfj hdgnrf gàs adgd ul` adlmiaiñl quf ld v`rç` fl fj tifgpd, `t`m` ` ul l`tur`j fbdçsgd, fj hug`ld p`r` pdmfr prfv`jfafr tiflf j` lfafsim`m mf supjir jds rfqufrigifltds quf fxibf su l`tur`jfz` adl `aaidlfs ilmiofrfltfgfltf ilmiofrfltfgfltf mf si fst`s sdl nufl`s d g`j`s. U`r` quf fj prçlaipf ulioia`mdr jdbrf fj hdldr y j` bjdri` mfnf tflfr odrtul` y p`r` fsd mfnf tflfr j` virtó, ( fst`r mispufstd ` `rrfgftfr adl tdmd p`r` jdbr`r fj dncftivd d fj oil, G`qui`vfjd fstà mist`ltf mf j` adlafpaiñl mf virtum, virtumfs d virtó quf sf adldaç`, ld tiflf l`m` quf vfr adl v`jdrfs li gdr`j, y` quf G`qui`vfjd adlsimfr` quf fstf adlafptd mf virtum fs ilótij p`r` ul nufl bdnifrld y p`r` quf fj prçlaipf jjfbuf ` j` bjdri`, adloiriflmd ul lufvd sfltimd n`s`lmd j` virtum mfj prçlaipf fl j` `stuai`, fj pfls`gifltd ‚a`jauj`mdr‗ y fj mf j` fltrfb` tdt`j p`r` jjfb`r `j dncftivd d oil sil igpdrt`r jds gfmids fgpjf`mds fgpjf`mds,, y` quf adgd sf gflaidl`, p`r` G`qui`vfjd ‚fj oil custioia` jds gfmids‗

>.> J`s N`sfs mf j`s Imf`s mf G`qui`vfjd

J`s imf`s oulm`gflt`jfs mf G`qui`vfjd sf n`s`l fl3 -

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Fgpirisgd d l`tur`jisgd pdjçtiad, Fj pfls`mdr ojdrfltild `p`rt` j` pdjçtia` mf  custioia`aidlfs imfdjñbia`s imfdjñbia`s y fxpdl fxpdlff quf jds dncf dncftivds tivds adlarftds mmff j`s `aaidlfs `aaidlfs  pdjçtia`s sdl j` `mquisiaiñl, `mquisiaiñl, j` adlsfrv`aiñl adlsfrv`aiñl y fj il ilarfgfltd arfgfltd mfj pdmfr pdmfr mfj Fst`md fl ul gulmd guy ilfst`njf. N`sf adlafptu`j mfj pfls`gifltd pdjçtiad, tdg` j` histdri` adgd rfsfrv` mf fxpfriflai`s y adldaigifltd adl jds au`jfs sf pufmf `l`jiz`r `j hdgnrf, y` quf fj hdgnrf fs fj gisgd, ld a`gni` su l`tur`jfz` adl fj tr`lsaursd mfj tifgpd, g`ltiflf `sç su fbdçsgd l`tur`j, nusa`lmd sifgprf su nflfoiaid ` adstf mf tdmd. J` lfafssità y j` odrtul`, j` lfafssità h`nj` mf j` `aaiñl mfj hdgnrf `m`pt`md ` hfahds sdai`jfs y pdjçtiads quf ld pufmf adltrdj`r, quf sfból j` `aaiñl y sdnrf tdmd jd odrtul`, sfrà p`r` nflfoiaid d p`r` ilodrtulid, sfð`j`lmd quf p`r` ilojuir mf `jbul` g`lfr` fl j` odrtul` h`y quf tflfr  virtum. J` virtó, ld sf rfoifrf ` adlafpaidl adlafpaidlfs fs gdr`jfs, sdjd fstà floda`md fl aufstidlfs oulaidl`jfs, fj hdgnrf quf pdssf j` virtó fs ul hdgnrf iltfjibfltf quf sf `m`pt`r` y sf `nrirà p`sd h`ai` fj éxitd, quf tiflf fj adr`cf, quf s`nf fj prfaid ` p`b`r p`r` jjfb`r ` ul oil y fstà mispufstd tdt`jgfltf ` h`afr jd quf sf mfn` h`afr p`r` jdbr`rjd. J` rfj`aiñl fltrf virtó y odrtul`, sfból G`qui`vfjd j` vim` rfsujt` mf ul` sçltfsis mi`jéatia` fltrf j` virtó y odrtul`, fj hdgnrf quf pdsff j` virtó, tiflf fl mf aifrt` odrg` ul g`ydr adltrdj mf su odrtul`, ld sf rfsibl`, pfrg`lfaiflmd `tfltd y mispufstd ` su `aaiñl. 8

 

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Fj rfaursd ` j` oufrz`, G`qui`vfjd adlsimfr` ` j` oufrz` adgd fj rfaursd oufrtf f igpdlfltf, fstf fs ul gfmid p`r` ul oil, `ulquf j` vidjflai` a`us` ilfst`nijim`m, p`r` G`qui`vfjd fs fj rfaursd gàs igpdrt`ltf, pdr jd quf fj fcéraitd fs j` ilstituaiñl afltr`j mfj fst`md y j` pdjçtia` fs ul `sultd mf oufrz`, fl j` quf sf nusa` g`ltflfr fj adltrdj y pdmfr.

>.1 Dnr`s mf G`qui`vfjd >.1.0 Dnr`s oulm`gflt`jfs

Qus dnr`s gàs mfst`a`m`s sdl3 -

Fj prçlaipf Fj `rtf mf j` bufrr` Histdri` mf Ojdrflai`

>.1.> Dnr`s pdr `ðd 

0=99 -

 Misaursd sdnrf j` adrtf mf Uis`,

065> 

065? -

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 Mfafll`jf sfadlmd,

0605 -

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 ^ftr`td mf j` adrtf mf @jfg`li`.

0659 -



 Mfafll`jf prigd (pdfg`),

0658-060> -

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 Mfj gdmd mi tr`tt`rf i pdpdji mfjj` _`jmiahi`l` _`jmiahi`l` rinfjj`ti,  Mfj gdmd tflutd m`j mua` _`jfltild lfjj' `gg`zz`rf _itfjjdzzd _itfjji, Djivfrdttd m`  Ofrgd, fta.  Misadrsd sdpr` j` prdvisidlf mfj m`l`rd.

 ^ftr`td mf j` adrtf mf Or`lai`.

060>-0602 -

 Misaursds sdnrf j` prigfr` méa`m` mf ]itd Jivid, 1 vdjógflfs, 9

 

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0601 -

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060= -

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ailad `atds, adl prñjdbd fl vfrsd,

 Mfj `rtf mf j` bufrr`

06>5 -

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 J` g`lmr`bdr`, adgfmi` fl prds` mf

0609-06>5 -

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 @lmri`, adgfmi`, 0602  @sild m'drd (pdfg`)

0608

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 Nfjo`bdr `raimi`vdjd (ldvfj`)

0602 -

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 Mfjj` jilbu` (miàjdbd)

0606 -

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 Fj prçlaipf

 Misadrsd sdpr` ij riodrg`rf jd st`td mi Oirflzf Qug`rid mf j` adrtf mf j` aium`m mf Juaa`  J` _im` mf A`struaaid A`str`a`li,

06>5-06>6 -

 Histdri` mf Ojdrflai`, 8 jinrds, 06>5-06>6  Histdri`s ojdrfltil`s  (06>0-06>6) Ajizi`, adgfmi` fl prds`, 06>6

>.= Fj @pdrtf mf G`qui`vfjd

Q`ad ` rfjuair au`jfs sdl jds `spfatds quf ld fst`n`l siflmd rfadlsimfr`mds, pdliflmd pdliflmd fl tfj` mf cuiaid `jbul`s odrg`s mf prdafmfr quf éj ld fladltr`n` foiaifltf fl tfg`s mf j` pdjçtia`,  pdr t`ltd, fj oijñsdod `l`jizd `l`jizd y fstumid fstumid fstds `spfa `spfatds, tds, jufbd mfsariniñ mfsariniñ mf odrg` aj`r` ilstruaaidlfs p`r` dntflfr fj pdmfr y adlsfrv`rjd fl odrg` o drg` mf Fst`md fst`njf y pfrg`lfltf. Fl Udjçtia` fj g`ydr `pdrtf mf G`qui`vfjd, adgd jd sunr`y` Bfll`rd Q`ssd, fs su fxajusivim`m,, su `utdldgç`, m`md quf ‚fs j` prigfr` rf`jim`m mf j` vim` hug`l`, fj óliad oil, fxajusivim`m quf, usàlmdjd t`gniél adgd gfmid, fj hdgnrf lfafsit` pfrsfbuir adl fj s`arioiaid, si fs lfafs`rid, mf su prdpi` `jg`. 05

 

Adl fj `pdrtf mf G`qui`vfjd sf `nrf jds hdrizdltfs ` j` gdmfrlim`m fl gàrbflfs pdjçtiads y ` ul` rffstruatur`aiñl sdai`j, h`nré j`s pufrt`s `j rf`jisgd jfcds mf j`s illugfr`njfs imf`jiz`aidlfss mf jds hdgnrfs. imf`jiz`aidlf

A@UI]VJD III Bidrm`ld Nruld ‑ ^fl`aigifltd y Ufls`gifltd Oijdsñoiad

Bidrm`ld Nruld, Oijñsdod It`ji`ld gàs igpdrt`ltf mfj ^fl`aigifltd prfaursdr mf ul` adlafpaiñll lufv` y prdbrfsiv` mfj gulmd, Nruld a`jioiañ ` su épda` mf ‚`urdr`‗ quf adlafpaiñ mfspult`n` tr`s ul` j`rb` ldahf, j` vfrm`mfr` juz mfj adldaigifltd hug`ld. Nruld `p`rfltfgfltf sugd ` j` mfnijit`aiñl mfj `ltrdpdafltrisgd gfmifv`j, j` ilbflu` v`lim`m mfj hdgnrf odrg` fj odlmd mfj fspçritu rfl`afltist`, `mfgàs t`gniél `n`lmdl`lmd j` imf` mfj hdgnrf adgd `gd mf j` arf`aiñl pdr g`lm`td mivild y ` j` vfz mfc` fj hdgnrf mf sfr  ul hugijmf sfrvimdr ilsiblioia ilsiblioia`ltf `ltf mf Mids Mids,, t`gniél `oirg`n `oirg`n`` nruld quf ‚Qñjd `jbuifl `jbuifl a`rfltf mf r`zñl pdmrç` arffr‗, ‚quf fsds fsp`aids iloilitds, h`nit`mds pdr aufrpds v`stds y g`blçoiads, oufrdl misfð`mds sdjd p`r` m`rlds juz ‚adgd `jumç` j` arfflai` rfjibids`. Adlodrgf ` Bidrm`ld Nruld (06=8-0?55 a`m` sfr hug`ld fs `j gisgd tifgpd ‚ul aium`m`ld y fsaj`vd mfj gulmd, ul hicd mfj U`mrf Qdj y G`mrf ]ifrr`.‗ (Vlim`m Izt`p`j`p`, >55?) (Vlim`m Izt`p`j`p`, >55?) Fj ulivfrsd l`tur`j jf h` m`md ul` ilgfls` f iladgp`r`njf jinfrt`m mfriv`m` mfj adldaigifltd, adl fj quf fj hdgnrf pdmrç` adltrdj`r sus `aaidlfs y sus p`sidlfs adlodrgf ` j`s `aaidlfs y p`sidlfs mf j` l`tur`jfz`. @sç, fl vfz mf mfbr`m`r `j hdgnrf, Nruld jd fx`jtñ fpistfgdjñbia`gfltf adgd ul sfr a`p`z mf fxtflmfr su vist` gàs `jjà mf j` fxpfriflai` ofldgélia`; ofldgélia`; jd quisd jinfr`r mf o`jsds çmdjds y `sflt`r aifltçoia`gfltf jds oulm`gfltds mf su br`lmfz` prdofs`n` Nruld Bidrm`ld ouf ul `stdgd, oijñsdod, tfñjdbd y pdft` it`ji`ld, quf adgn`tiñ j` oijdsdoç` fsadjàstia`,, l`aiñ afra` mf Làpdjfs fl 09=8, auy` mr`gàtia` gufrtf mid ul siblioia`md fsadjàstia` fspfai`j ` su dnr`, ouf adlmfl`md ` sfr qufg`md vivd (j` hdbufr`), mfnimd ` su imf`jfs y  pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad, oijdsñoiad, `j mfsaun mfsaunrir rir su oil`j fxaj`gd3 ‚Fj gifmd quf sfltçs `j igpdlfrgf fst` sfltflai` t`j vfz sf` g`ydr quf fj quf sifltd yd `j `afpt`rj`‗

 Guriñ fj 02 mf ofnrfrd mf 0?55, adgd sf gflaidl` pdr sus r`zdl`gifltd y `oirg`aidlfs tfdjñbia`s quf oufrdl a`t`jdb`m`s adgd hfrfcfs pdr j` rfjibiñl A`tñjia`, mfsmf sus iliaids `j ilbrfs`r ` j` drmfl mf prfmia`mdrfs adl jds quf fstumid j` oijdsdoç` `ristdtéjia` y tdgist`, sf a`r`atfrizñ pdr su adltrdvfrsi`j `atitum fl ssuu `mdatril`gifltd, rfah`z`lmd rfah`z`lmd igàbflf igàbflfss mf s`ltds y sdjd `afpt`lmd fj aruaioicd, `ltfridrgfltf ` su adlmfl` mf gufrtf ouf `aus`md pdr sdspfah`s mf hfrfcç`, pfrd miah` `aus`aiñl ld prdspfrd, fl 062? `n`lmdld j` drmfl fajfsiàstia` p`r` fvit`r ul lufvd cuiaid pdr mfsvi`aidlfs mdatril`jfs, mdatril`jfs, `j `n`lmdl`r jds hànitds micd quf ‚tdm` j` tifrr` fs p`tri` p`r` ul oijñsdod‗ y fgpfzñ ` huir pdr mivfrsds p`çsfs mf Furdp` mf sus pfrsfbuimdrfs, n`cd j` prdtfaaiñl mfj fgpfr`mdr or`laés. 00

 

Fl j` ulivfrsim`m mf ]dujdusf sf br`muñ fl ]fdjdbç` y fcfraiñ mds `ðds, j`s `oirg`aidlfs tfdjñbia`s mf Nruld quf pdstfridrgfltf sf adlsimfr`rdl hfrétiads oufrdl quf3 ‚aristd ld fr` Mids si ld ul g`bd gfr`gfltf‗ y ‚quf fj Mi`njd sf s`jv`rç`‗ @mdptd fj sistfg` mf Liadjàs Adpérliad jd quf jf a`usd sfr adgn`timd t`ltd pdr jds a`tñjiads adgd pdr jds prdtfst`ltfs, sf mfmiañ ` fsarinir guahds tr`n`cds fl j`tçl sdnrf `strdldgç`, oçsia`, fta. Mf fstf gdmd oufrdl bfrgil`lmd fl j` gfltf mf Nruld imf`s fldrgfgfltf `trfvim`s, quf  pdlç`l fl aufstiñl aufstiñl j` mdatril` oijds oijdsñoia` ñoia` y tfdjñbia` doiai`j doiai`j mf j` Ibjfsi`. Nruld rfah`z`n` rfah`z`n`,, adgd Adpérliad, quf j` ]ifrr` oufr` fj afltrd mfj adsgds; ld sñjd fsd, jjfbñ ` sdstflfr quf vivigds fl ul ulivfrsd iloilitd rfpjftd mf gulmds mdlmf sfrfs sfgfc`ltfs ` ldsdtrds pdmrç`l rflmir aujtd ` su prdpid Mids.  Nruld tflç` t`gniél ul` adlafpaiñl g`tfri`jist` mf j` rf`jim`m, sfból j` au`j tdmds jds dncftds sf adgpdlfl mf àtdgds quf sf gufvfl pdr igpujsds3 ld h`nç` miofrflai`, pufs, fltrf g`tfri` y fspçritu, mf gdmd quf j` tr`lsgut`aiñl mfj p`l fl a`rlf y fj vild fl s`lbrf fl j` Fua`ristç` a`tñjia` fr`, ` sus dcds, ul` o`jsfm`m.  (L`tidl`j Bfbr`phia, >5>0)

1.0 Ufls`gifltd oijdsñoiad mf Bidrm`ld Nruld3

Fl fj a`gpd mf tfdjdbç`, Bidrm`ld nruld mfoflmiñ fj p`ltfçsgd, ul` adrrifltf oijdsñoia` fl mdlmf j` l`tur`jfz` y fj ulivfrsd sdl jds gisgd, fl fstf pfls`gifltd oijdsñoiad ld sf arff fl Mids fspfaçoia`gfl fspfaçoia`gfltf. tf. Fl su dnr` Mf j` a`us`, fj prilaipid y fj uld, rfojfc` ul ‚ul p`ltfçsgd `tfd‗, l`tur`jist`, l`tur`jist`, adl g`ra`s mfj p`l-psiquisgd. Nruld arfç` quf j` ]ifrr` bir`n` `jrfmfmdr mfj Qdj y quf j` rdt`aiñl miurl` `p`rfltf mf jds aifjds fs ul` ijusiñl a`us`m` pdr j` rdt`aiñl mf j` ]ifrr` `jrfmfmdr mf su fcf. Nruld t`gniél sdstuvd quf, pdrquf Mids fs iloilitd, fj ulivfrsd pdmrç` rfojfc`r fstf hfahd, adgd uld sdjd, iloilitd, ilgñvij Qdstiflf quf fj adldaigifltd aifltçoiad mf j` l`tur`jfz` mfnf oulm`rsf fl j` fxpfriflai`, y rfah`z` rfsufjt`gfl rfsufjt`gfltf j` fsadjàstia` adl sus mfoiliaidlfs hufa`s g`rbfl mf j` l`tur`jfz`. Cultd ` j`tffxpfriflai`, j` fstérij r`zñl hug`l` mfnf mfsfgpfð`r ul`jp`pfj igpdrt`ltf  Ld fxistf fl fj fj pfls`gifltd mf Nruld, j` sfp`r`a sfp`r`aiñl iñl fltrf fj ulivfrsd ulivfrsd y Mids, Mids y fj gulmd sdl uld sdjd, iloilitds, fj uld tdt`j, ul sdjd sfr y Mids sf flaufltr` fl tdm`s j`s ads`s mfj gulmd, Qi Mids fs iloilitd, fj ulivfrsd fs iloilitd, pufmf sfr `jbd iloilitd `sç gisgd adgd Mids, si ld fs fj gisgd Mids, pdr flmf, Mids fs fj ulivfrsd gisgd fxprfsàlmdsf, Fj ulivfrsd fs iloilitd, fl éj sf flaufltr` iloilitds gulmds, h`nit`mds adgd fj lufstrd. Fj gdvigifltd mfj gulmd sf mfnf ` ul prilaipid fspiritu`j, j` g`tfri` fs `ativ` adl gdvigifltd prdpid. Adltr` fj mu`jisgd fsadjàstiad sdstuvd j` hdgdbflfim`m oçsia` mf jds gulmds tdmds fjjds adgpufstds pdr `bu`, `irf, tifrr`, oufbd y étfr.

0>

 

Qfból Nruld miaf quf fj quisifrf adldafr j` l`tur`jfz` quf adltfgpjf jds gçligds y gàxigds mf j`s adltr`miaaidlfs y jds pufstds, pj`ltf` quf j` r`zñl fs oufltf sfbur` mf adldaigifltd. Fl j` o`sf oil`j mf su oijdsdoç`, Nruld afltrñ su `tflaiñl fl j` sust`lai` `ativ` ilmivimu`j d j` ulim`m gçlig` fl j` l`tur`jfz`, fstds àtdgds `ativ`mds pdr fj `jg` mf miofrfltfs br`mds fst`n`l prfsfltfs ld sñjd fl jds aufrpds g`tfri`jfs sild fl jds sistfg`s pj`lft`rids, fl fj ulivfrsd, fl fj uld tdt`j, fs mfair fl tdmd. 1.> Dnr`s mf Bidrm`ld nruld 1.>.0Dnr`s Oulm`gflt`jfs3

-

 Mf ugnris imf`rug (mf 068>)

J` afl` mf j`s afliz`s (068=). Mf j` a`us` prilaipid y uld (068=). Mfj iloilitd ulivfrsd y jds Gulmds (068=).

1.>.> Dnr`s pdr `ðd3 

068>3

imf`rug  A`ltu A`ltuss Aira`fus Aira`fus ,  Mf adgpflmid adgpflmids` s` `rahitfatur` `rahitfatur`,    @rs gfgdri`f, Mf  ugnris imf`rug A`lmfj`id d A`lmfj`cd Adgfmi` 

06813

 @rs rfgiliaflmi ]ribilt` Qibijji, Fxpjia`tid tribilt` sibijjdrug, Qibijjus sibijjdrug 

068=3

 J` Afl` mf jf Aflfri,  Mf j` a`us`, prilaipid, ft Vld Mf  Mf j'iloilitd ulivfrsd ft Gdlmi , Qp`aaid mf j` Nfsti` ]ridlo`ltf   

06863

  A`n`j` mfj a`v`jjd Ufb`sfd - @sild Aijjfliad , Mf bji hfrdiai ourdri  ,  Oibur`tid @ristdtfjiai @ristdtfji ai  Uhysiai`umitus 

068?3

 Mi`jdbi mud mf O`nriaii Gdrmfltis Q`jfrlit`li,  Imidt` triugph`ls tr iugph`ls,  Mf sdgli iltfrprft`tidlf adl j' Ilsdgl Ilsdgliul iul,, Afltul Afltul ft vibilt vibiltii `rtiau `rtiauji ji mfl`tu mfl`tur` r` ft gulmd gulmd `mvfrsu `mvfrsuss pfrip` pfrip`tét tétiad iadss ,  @lig`mvfrsidlfs aira` j`gp`mfl jujji`l`l jujji`l`l, J`gp`s tribilt` st`tu`rug 

06823

 Mfj`gp`mf adgnil`tdri` Jujji`l` Jujji`l`, Mf prdbrfsu ft j`gp`mf vfl`tdri` jdbiadrug jdbiadrug 

06883 01

 

Dr`tid v`jfmiatdri`, A`gdfr`aflsis @ardtisgus,  Mf spfaifrug sarutilid,  @rtiauji afltug ft   sfx`bilt` `mvfrsus huius tfgpfst`tis g`thfg`tiads `tquf Uhijdsdphds,  Mf vilaujis il Bflfrf  

06893

Dr`tid adlsdj`tdri` 

 06953

 Mf g`bi`  

06903

 Mf tripjiai giligd ft gflsur`,  Mf gdl`mf lugfrd ft oibur`,  Mf illugfr`nijinus, iggflsd, ft iloibur`niji, Mf ig`bilug, sibldrug ft imf`rug imf`rug adgpdsitidlf 

06963

Qugg` tfrgildrug gft`phisiadrug 

0?0>3

 @rtioiaiug pfrdr`lmi 

Ofah` mfsadldaim`3

 Jinri physiadrug @ristdtfjis @ris tdtfjis fxpj`l`ti ,  Mf g`bi` - ]hfsfs mf g`xi`   Mf g`bi` g`thfg`tia` ,  Mf rfrug prilaipiis ft fjfgfltis ft a`usis, Gfmiail` Jujji`l`

H`y dnr`s quf `ól ld h`l simd punjia`m`s fl fsp`ðdj, dtr`s sf pifls`l fstàl pfrmim`s y `jbul`s dtr`s quf su mistrinuaiñl dribil` mum`s.

1.1 Fj `pdrtf mf Bidrm`ld Nruld

Fj gfcdr `pdrtf mf Bidrm`ld Nruld ouf fj jinrf pfls`gifltd pfls`gifltd..  Qu adlmfl` pdr p`rtf mf j` ibjfsi` `j ld afmfr y `n`lmdl` `n`lmdl`rr su oijdsdoç` d imf`jfs sirviñ mf ilspir`aiñl p`r` dtrds mfspués mfj fj, sdnrf tdmd fl fj a`gpd mf j`s aiflai`s. Mfoflmiñ fj gdmfjd hfjidafltrist` fl su dnr` j` afl` mf j`s afliz`s Fl fj a`gpd mf j` ]fdjdbç` mfoflmiñ fj p`ltfçsgd Nruld, supfrd fj adlafptd mf Adpérliad rfspfatd ` j` afltr`jim`m mfj Qdj fl ul ulivfrsd oilitd, sfð`j`lmd ` j` tifrr` adgd uld mf jds iloilitds gulmds oilitds mf ul ulivfrsd iloilitd Mfgdstrñ, `mfgàs, `ulquf adl ul gétdmd fquivda`md quf fj sdj fr` gàs br`lmf quf j` tifrr`. 0=

 

]uvd ul `pdrtf igpdrt`ltf fl oçsia`, adl j` rfj`tivim`m mfj gdvigifltd y fj `tdgisgd Bidrm`ld Nruld mfs`rrdjjñ rfojfxidlfs dribil`jfs sdnrf n`sfs lfdpj`tñlia`s y gdlist`s, tçpia`s mf su tifgpd rfl`afltist` r fl`afltist`,, adl oufrtfs ilojuflai`s mfj gçtiad Frgftf ]rigfbistd y su Adrpus Hfrgftiaug, `sç adgd mf Liadj` Aus`ld (0=50-0=?=), Nfrl`rmild ]fjfsid (06590688) y ]dgg`sd A`gp`lfjj` (06?8-0?19) ‑fltrf dtrds, fl su g`ydrç` pfrsfbuimds, fla`rafj`mdss d fcfaut`mds. fla`rafj`md Fs ` Nruld ` quifl jf pfrtflfaf j` imf` mf j` histdri` mf jds gulmds fl fj tifgpd, fj `mfj`ltñ j` hipñtfsis mf jds a`gnids bfdjñbiads pfrpftuds mf lufstrd pj`lft`, `ndl`lmd ` j` imf` mf mfs`rrdjj`r fstf mdgilid.  Mfgdstrñ j` miofrflai` fltrf j` `p`riflai` mf j`s ads`s y j` vfrm`mfr` rf`jim`m. ]dmd fs rfj`tivd y tdm`s j`s ads`s mfpflmfl mfj dnsfrv`mdr, fstd au`lmd Bidrm`ld Nruld micd quf fj sdj ld bir`n` `jrfmfmdr mf j` tifrr`, quf fj `p`rfltf gdvigifltd mfj sdj fl fj aifjd ld siblioia`n` quf fj sdj bir`sf `jrfmfmdr mf j` tifrr`, si ld quf fr` fj gdvigifltd mf j` tifrr` fj quf a`us`n` quf p`rfaifr` quf fj sdj bir`sf `jrfmfmdr mf j` tifrr`, y `mfgàs quf, quf `j `afra`rsf ` j` jul` fst` sf vfrç` gàs pfqufð` quf fj sdj. Bidrm`ld Nruld adgpflmi`lmd jds `rbugfltds lfdpj`tñliads y fstdiads, fxtflmiñ j` milàgia` dpdsiaiñl nàsia` nàsia` mf jd orçd y mf jd a`jifltf ` j` tfdrç` bflfr`j mf ul prdafsd mi`jéatiad. Fl su ‚Qp`aaw mf j` Nfsti` ]ldlo`ltf‗(U`rçs, ]ldlo`ltf‗(U`rçs, 068=) Adlajusidlfs

Fj rfl`aigifltd ouf ul` épda` igpdrt`ltf pdr tdmd fj gdvigifltd, fj mfs`rrdjjd mf mivfrs`s aiflai`s, `mfgàs t`gniél fj mfs`rrdjjd mfj `rtf quf prdvda`rdl a`gnids mf imf`jfs y ul`  nósqufm` gàs gàs r`aidl`j y aif aifltçoia` ltçoia` p`r` fxpjia` fxpjia`rr j`s ads`s, sf aufstidlñ jds ``ltibuds ltibuds gdjmfs mf pfls`gifltd, sf fxpfrigfltñ y sf `trfvifrdl ` mum`r mf jd quf adldaç`l, mfltrd mfj rfl`aigifltd sf mfs`rrdjjñ fj hug`lisgd quf flodad flodad ` j` aiflai` y oijdsdoç` mf odrg` quf fj hdgnrf tdgd dtrd jub`r, ul afltrd y ul prigfr pj`ld, mdlmf sf mfc` mf vfr `j hdgnrf adgd ul sfr fl j` quf su ólia` l`tur`jfz` fs mf sundrmil`aiñl mivil` mf ul sfr supfridr, mdlmf sf  pufmf pfrainir pfrainir añgd a`gni` ràpim ràpim`gfltf `gfltf j` adlafpaiñl adlafpaiñl mfj hdg hdgnrf, nrf, mfj gulmd mfj mfj ulivfrsd y mf Mids,rfj`aidl`rlds Fl au`ltd ` G`qui`vfjd y Bidrm`ld si nifl ld h`yrdl ilodrg`aiñl mdlmf  pdm`gds rfj`a idl`rlds mf `jb `jbul` ul` odrg` fltrf sç,Nruld, il ilojuflai`rdl ojuflai`rdl y mfc`rdl mfc` hufjj` fl fl j` éépda` pda` mfj ^fl`aigifltd adl fj mfs`rrdjjd mf ul pfls`gifltd adltrdvfrsi`j, adltrdvfrsi`j, G`qui`vfjd fl j`  pdjçtia` y tda`lmd tda`lmd j`s oinr`s mf j` yy`` fst`njfaim` gdr`j mfj sfr hug` hug`ld, ld, mdlmf fls flsfð` fð` au`j fs j` l`tur`jfz` mfj hdgnrf y quf ` vfafs fs lfafs`rid p`r` supjir j`s lfafsim`mfs d jdbr`r fj oil afmfr ` g`lfr`s ld gdr`jgfltf pfrgitim`s p`r` jdbr`r fj éxitd, fj niflfst`r y j` sfburim`m,  pdr jd t`ltd fst` `aaidlfs ld pufmfl pufmfl d ld mmfnfrç`l fnfrç`l sfr a`t` a`t`jdb`m`s jdb`m`s li cuzb`m`s cuzb`m`s adgd g`j`s g`j`s d  nufl`s, y` quf p`rtf mf ul ul`` lfafsim` lfafsim`mm l`tur`j mfj sfr hug hug`ld `ld mf prdtfbfrsf prdtfbfrsf f ir fl adltr` mf su mfrrdt`, fj ld ir fl j` nósqufm` mf j` sfb sfburim`m urim`m y fj niflfst`r fs igpdsinjf, igpdsinjf, fs ir fl adltr` mf j` prdpi` l`tur`jfz` hug`l`, si nifl fj sfr hug`ld pdsff ul r`zdl`gifltd supfridr ` au`jquifr dtr` fspfaif p`r` misafrlir fltrf fj nifl y fj g`j, h`y situ`aidlfs fl j` quf fs lfafs`ri` pdlfr pdlfr pdr fl flaig` aig` mf td tdmd md fj dncftivd, mf mf jd adltr` adltr`rid rid sf suorirç` br`lmfs adlsfauflai`s, adlsfauf lai`s, pfrmim`s, d lula lula`` sf jdbr`rç` fl fstf a`sd j` dntflaiñl dntflaiñl y rftflaiñl mfj pdmfr  p`r` j` fst`nijim`m fst`nijim`m pdjçtia` mf It`ji`. 06

 

Gifltr`s t`ltd Bidrm`ld Nruld n`sd su oijdsdoç` ` ul adldaigifltd gàs prdoulmd mf j` fxistflai`, mf j` l`tur`jfz` hug`l` rfj`aidl`m` adl fj dribfl mivild mfj hdgnrf y mf jds adsgds, j` rfspufst` orfltf ` j` oijdsdoç` mf Bidrm`ld Nruld h` mfpflmimd y sifgprf mfpflmfrà mf j` pfrafpaiñl pfrafpaiñl fl j` quf sf girf su pfls`gifltd y oijdsdoç`, si fj arçtiad tiflf `rr`ib`m`s oufrtfs adlafpaidlfs adlafpaidlfs mf l`tur`jfz` rfjibids`, fj pfls`gifltd mf nruld ld fs gàs quf imf`s irr`aidl`jfs quf ld tiflfl lilbul` rfj`aiñl, y` quf pifls` ` tr`vés mf imf`s y`  prfmftfrgil`m`ss pdr ul mdbg`, ffll a`gnid si fj aarçtiad  prfmftfrgil`m` rçtiad fstà jinrf mf tdm tdm`` `t`mur` mdbgàtia` mdbgàtia` y mf pfls`gifltd y gir` mf g`lfr` quizà fgpçria`, pufmf oil`jgfltf dnsfrv`r y fltflmfr j`  prdoulmim`m mf jd miahd pdr fstf oijd oijdsdod sdod Bidrm`ld Nruld, Nruld, adl j` quf ssff rfoifrf Nruld `j `oirg`r quf Mids fstà fl tdmd y quf fs fj uld adl tdmd fj Vlivfrsd, y` ld h`y sfp`r`aiñl , sdjd fxistf fj uld.

^fofrflai`s

-

^dwj`lm, I., Bidrm`ld Nruld, oijñsdod y hfrfcf. @rifj. >505.

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 Aijinfrtd, Giahfjf. (>509). Bidrm`ld Nruld f j` oijdsdoç` mfj ^il`saigfltd. BFMI Bruppd Fmitdri`jf. ^dg`.

-

-

Fxistf y pifls`… Vl fsp`aid p`r` jds jinrfpfls`mdrfs. (>509). Bidrm`ld Nruld3 Gàrtir pdr arffr quf fj Qdj fs ul` fstrfjj` y fj Vlivfrsd

Aulh` Ndtfjhd.D, Culid >509 ,Bidrm`ld Nruld ‚Frr`ltf mfj ulivfrds iloilitd, mf ^fsf`rahB`tf3 https3//www.rfsf`rahb`tf.lft/punjia`tidl/1 1199859?TBidrm`ldTNruldTfjTU `ldTNruldTfjTUrdoft`TFr  rdoft`TFr  https3//www.rfsf`rahb`tf.lft/punjia`tidl/11199859?TBidrm r`ltfTmfjTVlivfrsdTIloilitd

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Bdlzd. S, 00 mf G`rzd mfj >508, Bidrm`ld Nruld y su _isiñl mfj Vlivfrsd,  [_imfdW https3//www.ydutunf.adg/w`tah4v7PVNsvVolwz=

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Bidrm`ld `ld NruldNruld- Oijdsdoi`-@ Oijdsdoi`-@fmua` fmua`aidl, aidl, @FMVA @FM VA@I @IDL DL,, >2 mf @n @nri rijj mfj >5>5, 5>5, Bidrm https3//www.ydutunf.adg/w`tah4v7d .adg/w`tah4v7dPmsA`]kCm= PmsA`]kCm= [_imfdW https3//www.ydutunf

0?

 

-

-

 L.B, 02 mf Ofnrfrd mfj >5>0,  Oijdod quf mfs`oid ` j` Ilquisiaidl, mf   L`tidl`j Bfdbr`phia3   Bfdbr`phia3 https3//histdri`.l`tidl`jbfdbr`phia.a https3//histdri`.l`tid l`jbfdbr`phia.adg.fs/`/bidrm`ld-nruld-oijds dg.fs/`/bidrm`ld-nruld-oijdsdoddodquf-mfs`oid-`-ilquisiaidlT2>21 Kwi`tkwdsk`.],( s.o), J` L`tur`jfz` fl fj ^fl`aigifltd, oijf3///A3/Vsfrs/pa/Mdwljd`ms/Mi`jlftJ`L`tur`jfz`FlFj^fl`aigifltdYJ` J`L`tur`jfz`F lFj^fl`aigifltdYJ`_isidlfMfBidrm`l _isidlfMfBidrm`ldNr-2?=?502.pmo  dNr-2?=?502.pmo 

fl3

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Nruli`l` & A`gp Nruli`l` A`gp`lfj `lfjji`l` ji`l` _dj. =, Ld. > (0998) (0998),, pp. 1=1-1?8 (>? p`bfs)Uunjishfm Ny3 @aa`mfgi` Fmitdri`jf3 https3//www.cstdr.drb/st`njf/=612165?

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@vfjj`l. G, 02 mf ofnrfrd mfj >5>5, G`qui`vfjd,  G`qui`vfjd,  https3//ughs`pifls.adg/g`qui`vfjd-fl-fj-sibjd-xxi/

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Ofrl`lmfz C.@ , G`mrim >506, J`  J` Oijdsdoi` Udjitia` Qfból G`qui`vfjd,Fmitia`ri`j

mf

Q`pifls3

  https3//fprilts.uag.fs/im/fprilt/122>6/0/J`% Fsp`s` A`jpf Q.@bu%AA%80l%>5G`qui`vfjd.%>5Bui% https3//fprilts.uag.fqui`vfjd.%>5Bui%AA%80`%>5mf s/im/fprilt/122>6/0/J`%>5Oijdsdoi%AA%80` >5Oijdsdoi%AA%80` %>5pdjitia`%>5sf %>5pdjitia`%>5sfbu%AA%80l%>5G` AA%80`%>5mf %>5fstumids%>5p`r`%>5fstumi` %>5fstumids%>5 p`r`%>5fstumi`ltfs%>5mf%>5Br` ltfs%>5mf%>5Br`md%>5fl%>5O md%>5fl%>5Oijdsdoi%AA ijdsdoi%AA %80`.pmo 

-

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^uiz.C, Flfrd >5>5, J` Oijdoi` mf Liadj`s G`qui`vfjd y j` ^fjibidl, mf Fstumids mf Mfrfahd3 https3//rfvist`s.umf https3//rfvist`s.umf`.fmu.ad/ilmfx `.fmu.ad/ilmfx.php/rfm/`rtiajf/vifw/>55 .php/rfm/`rtiajf/vifw/>5500#3~3tfxt7Ld 00#3~3tfxt7Ld %>5sf%>5pufmf%>5a`jioia`r%>5 %>5sf%>5pufm f%>5a`jioia`r%>5`,rfjibi%A1%N1l%>5a `,rfjibi%A1%N1l%>5adgd%>5ul%>5hf dgd%>5ul%>5hfahd ahd %>5pdj%A1%@Mtiad.. %>5pdj%A1%@Mtiad

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