topic2 ppg notes action research

TSL 3133 3133 Action Research I

TOPIC 2

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH APPROACHES

SYNOPSIS Topic 2 provides an overview of the types of educational research available to practitioners and describes the methodology and methods that these approaches use to develop new knowledge through educational research.  According to the literature surrounding educational research there are four primary models that researchers use: basic research, applied research, action research, and evaluation research. These types of educational research serve different purpose in the educational literature and will be described in this module to explain their processes and underlying objectives. These types of educational research will be discussed in detail during t his module.

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you will be able to: t o:  

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define the types of educational educational research available to practitioners distinguish the purpose, purpose, application and value of research research in educational educational practice identify the various various approaches that are located located in the quantitative and qualitative research paradigms Evaluate the purpose, strength and weakness of educational educational research research paradigms

FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

BASIC

APPLIED

Quantative research

ACTION RESEARCH

Qualitative research

EVALUATION

TSL 3133 Action Research I Preview Discussion (10 min) 1. As a teacher, what can I do to become better at my teaching? Write down all the methods that teachers can use to engage in professional development?

2. Write down the aspects of your professional practice are you currently interested in developing?

3. Write down all the reasons that teachers conduct research.

4. What challenges do you anticipate with educational research?

5. Read the following quote by Lawrence Stenhouse (1975: 142-143): “curriculum research and development ought to belong to the teacher.” And “it is not enough that teachers’ work should be studied: they need to study it themselves.” Why do you think Stenhouse advocated teachers should conduct research?

TSL 3133 Action Research I Exercise 1 Work with a partner, read about ONE TYPE of educational research and present that type to another group in class. Next, take notes while the other group explains the purpose, strength and weakness of the educational approach. Research type

Purpose of the

Strength of the

Weakness of the

approach

approach

approach

Basic

 Applied

 Action research

Evaluation research

Basic research Pure research, basic research, or fundamental research is research carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles. It is not intended to yield immediate commercial benefits; pure research can be thought of as arising out of curiosity. However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied research Pure research is mainly carried out by universities (Wikipedia 2012). Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about

TSL 3133 Action Research I the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common (Wikipedia 2012). Pure research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields. Today's computers could not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at that time. Pure research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem.  A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by pure research, but pure research can build new knowledge. In any case, pure research is essential for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the centre of the scientific community conduct most of what is pure research. Pure research, yielding no immediate commercial benefit, in many countries tends to rely on government or charitable funding and is frequently overseen by a national scientific organisation (Wikipedia 2012). Basic (aka fundamental or pure ) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge , not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as: 

How did the universe begin?

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What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

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How do slime molds reproduce?

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What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to

TSL 3133 Action Research I predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did applied research, we would still be making better spears." Applied Research  Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition. For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:   

improve agricultural crop production treat or cure a specific disease improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they f eel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.  Applied researc h expands on basic research findings to uncover practical ways in which new knowledge can be advanced to benefit individuals and society. Here, researchers might use a genetic map to develop gene therapies to treat human diseases or develop new programs to enhance community capital and stability in rural communities.

 Applied research in education is best characterised by the intention to link research with action in a form that generates actionable knowledge. This intention is evidenced in the processes of designing, carrying out, and validating the research findings. It need not necessarily imply a preference for a particular type of knowledge or the methodology associated with its production.

There are no characteristics inherent in some rather than other research paradigms which renders their knowledge outcomes more actionable. In this respect my answer to the question of "what is applied research" is post-paradigmatic. It is educational practitioners or policy-makers who ultimately determine the extent to which knowledge outcomes are actionable within their particular action contexts.

TSL 3133 Action Research I 1

Action research

The aim of an action researcher  is to bring about development in his or her practice by analysing existing practice and identifying elements for change. The pr ocess is founded on the gathering of evidence on which to make informed rather than intuitive  judgements and decisions. Perhaps the most important aspect of action research is that the process enhances teachers’ professional development through the fostering of their capability as professional knowledge makers, rather than simply as professional knowledge users. In an age of centralisation and the proliferation of national guidelines and strategies, action research can help teachers feel in control of their own professional situation (Waters-Adams 2006). What is action research about?  Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation (classrooms, schools, clubs, hospitals). The examples in this component relate to education and are therefore of particular relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in their daily contact with children or students. But professional practice need not be teaching: it may be management or administration in a school or college, or it may be in an unrelated area, such as medicine or the social services. The context f or professional inquiry might change, but the principles and processes involved in action research are the same, regardless of the nature of the practice (Waters Adams 2006). Indeed, action research did not arise in education (see Lewin 1948), but was applied to the development of teaching as its potential was identified. Of particular influence was the work of Lawrence Stenhouse, who famously advocated that ‘curriculum research and development ought to belong to the t eacher’ (Stenhouse, 1975 p. 142). He was most adamant that ‘it is not enough that teachers’ work should be studied: they need to study it themselves’ (p.143).  As its name suggests, action research concerns actors – those people carrying out their professional actions from day to day - and its purpose is to understand and to 1

Originally prepared by Dr Stephen Waters-Adams, Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006.

TSL 3133 Action Research I improve those actions. It is about trying to understand professional action from t he inside; as a result, it is research that is carried out by practitioners on their own practice, not (as in other forms of research), done by someone on somebody else’s practice. Action research in education is grounded in the working lives of teachers, as they experience them. Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about:   

the improvement of practice; the improvement of the understanding of practice; the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.

 Action research can thus be used to: understand one’s own practice; understand how to make one’s practice better; understand how to accommodate outside change in one’s practice; understand how to change the outside in order to make one’s practice better.    

Evaluation Research Weiss defines evaluation as “the systematic assessment of the operation and/or the outcomes of a program or policy, compared to a set of explicit or implicit standards, as a means of contributing to the improvement of the program or policy” (1998, p. 4). In her previous book, Weiss (1972) defines evaluation research as “an elastic word that stretches to cover judgments of many kinds” (p.1). The focus of evaluation research is on evaluating an event and to make judgment about its usefulness. This type of research is probably not truly quantitative due to the elements of value judgment made by the researcher. In terms of methodology, a consensus exists with respect to the fact that both quantitative and qualitative methods have an important place in programme evaluation (Clarke and Dawson, 1999). Impact evaluation uses the canonical research procedures of social sciences. In addition, Clarke and Dawson mention that the importance of systematic evaluative research as a phenomenon across the Social Sciences has been evident in recent years. Evaluation is inherently political: what happens when a new t echnology is introduced is both affected by organizational and implementation processes, as well as affecting them. Evaluation, too, is political in nature because it concerns needs, values, and interests of different stakeholders. Evaluation can be used t o influence system

TSL 3133 Action Research I design, development, and implementation. While results of post-hoc or summative assessments may influence future development, formative evaluation, which precedes or is concurrent with the processes of systems design, development, and implementation, can be a helpful way to incorporate people, social, organizational, ethical, legal, and economic considerations into all phases of a project. Weiss (1998, pp. 20-28) identifies several purposes for evaluating programs and policies. They include the following: 1. Determining how clients are faring 2. Providing legitimacy for decisions 3. Fulfilling grant requirements 4. Making midcourse corrections in programs 5. Making decisions to continue or culminate programs 6. Testing new ideas 7. Choosing the best alternatives 8. Recording program history 9. Providing feedback to staff 10. Highlighting goals Process evaluation focuses on “what the program actually does” (Weiss, 1998, p. 9). Process indicators are somewhat similar to performance measures, but they f ocus more on the activities and procedures of the organization than on the products of those activities.  Any evaluation method that involves the measurement of quantitative/ numerical variables probably qualifies as a quantitative method, and many of the methods already examined fall into this broad category. Among the strengths of quantitative methods are the evaluator can reach conclusions with a known degree of confidence about the extent and distribution of that the phenomenon; they are amenable to an array of statistical techniques; and they are generally assumed to yield relatively objective data (Weiss, 1998, pp. 83-84). Experimental methods usually, hut not always, deal with quantitative data and are considered to be the best method for certain kinds of evaluation studies. Indeed, “the

TSL 3133 Action Research I classic design for evaluations has been the experiment. It is the design of choice in many circumstances because it guards against the threats to validity” (Weiss, 1998, p. 215). The experiment is especially useful when it is desirable to rule out rival explanations for outcomes. In other words, if a true experimental design is used properly, the evaluator should be able to assume that any net effects of a program are due to the program and not to other external factors.  As is true for basic research, qualitative methods are becoming increasingly popular. In fact, “the most striking development in evaluation in recent years is the coming of age of qualitative methods. Where once they were viewed as aberrant and probably the refuge of those who had never studied statistics, now they are recognized as valuable additions to the evaluation repertoire” (Weiss, 1998, p. 252). Weiss (1998) reminds us that the evaluator should also give careful thought to the best time to conduct the evaluation, the types of questions to ask, whether one or a series of studies will be necessary, and any ethical issues that might be generated by the study. Inconsistent data collection techniques, biases of the observer, the data collection setting, instrumentation, behaviour of human subjects, and sampling can affect the validity and/or reliability of measures. The use of multiple measures can help to increase the validity and reliability of the data. They are also worth using because no single technique is up to measuring a complex concept, multiple measures tend to complement one another, and separate measures can be combined to create one or more composite measures (Weiss, 1998). The basic tasks of data analysis for an evaluative study are to answer the questions that must be answered in order to determine the success of the program or service, and the quality of the resources. “The aim of analysis is to convert a mass of raw data into a coherent account. Whether the data are quantitative or qualitative, the task is to sort, arrange, and process them and make sense of their configuration. The intent is to produce a reading that accurately represents the raw data and blends them into a meaningful account of events” (Weiss, 1998, p. 271). Those questions should, of course, be closely related to the nature of what is being evaluated and the goals and objectives of the program or service. In addition, the

TSL 3133 Action Research I nature of the data analysis will be significantly affected by the methods and techniques used to conduct the evaluation. Most data analyses, whether quantitative or qualitative in nature, will employ some of the following strategies: describing, counting, factoring, clustering, comparing, finding commonalities, examining deviant cases, finding co-variation, ruling out r ival explanations, modeling, and telling the story. Evaluators conducting quantitative data analyses will need to be familiar with techniques for summarizing and describing the data; and if they are engaged in testing relationships or hypotheses and/or generalizing findings to other situations, they will need to utilize inferential statistics (Weiss, 1998).  As part of the planning, the evaluator should have considered how and to whom the findings will be communicated and how the results will be applied. A good report will be characterized by clarity, effective format and graphics, timeliness, candour about strengths and weaknesses of the study, and generalizability (Weiss, 1998), as well as by adequacy of sources and documentation, appropriateness of data analysis and interpretation, and basis for conclusions.

Summary of various types of educational research Quantitative research designs research involving formal, objective information about the world, with mathematical quantification; it can be used to describe test relationships and to examine cause and effect relationships. Experimental research objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables. Quasi-experimental  A quasi-experiment is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its target population. Quasi-experimental research designs share many similarities with the traditional experimental design or  randomized controlled trial, but they specifically lack the element of random assignment to treatment or

TSL 3133 Action Research I control. Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically allow the researcher to control the assignment to the treatment condition, but using some criterion other than random assignment (e.g., an eligibility cutoff score).[1] In some cases, the researcher may have no control over assignment to treatment condition. Quasi-experiments are subject to concerns regarding internal validity, because the treatment and control groups may not be comparable at baseline. With random assignment, study participants have the same chance of being assigned to the intervention group or the comparison group. As a result, the treatment group will be statistically identical to the control group, on both observed and unobserved characteristics, at baseline (provided that the study has adequate sample size). Any change in characteristics post-intervention is due, therefore, to the intervention alone. With quasi-experimental studies, it may not be possible to convincingly demonstrate a causal link between the treatment condition and observed outcomes. This is particularly true if there are confounding variables that cannot be controlled or accounted for .[2] Survey Survey Research (Sociology) is a means of  analysis involving a respondent and questionnaire to obtain qualitative and/ or  quantitative information in a sociological study. The respondent is a person who provides data for analysis by responding to a survey questionnaire. A questionnaire is a document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis. There are two major types of questions that appear on surveys: open-ended questions and closeended questions.

[1]

Correlational research the systematic investigation of relationships among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.

Qualitative research research dealing with phenomena that are diff icult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols; it may involve content  ANALYSIS.

TSL 3133 Action Research I Ethnography research the investigation of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of the culture; it involves the systematic collection, description, and analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behaviour.

Case study research Historically, case studies have been utilized in a wide range of disciplines including law, medicine, history, government policy, education and other hermeneutic (interpretive) traditions such as anthropology, psychology, political science, social work and management (Burns, 2000). Educational researchers have recognized case study research as a valid means of exploring a particular aspect of teacher or student behaviour, pedagogical practice, social justice issues, or curriculum application (Luck, Jackson, & Usher, 2006). Case study research usually investigates a person, group or policy and involves an examination of a research question in a real life context.

In Stake’s (1995: 4) suggests that one of the most important elements of undertaking case study research is “to maximize what we can understand about that case. We do not study a case primarily to understand other cases. Our first obligation is to understand this one case.” Thus, case study researchers resist the tendency to draw conclusions but instead, allow the case to unfold naturally without preconceptions with respect to the investigation. Stake (1995) also points out that case study knowledge is different from other research knowledge in four key ways: 1. Case study knowledge is more concrete; it resonates with our own experience because it is more vivid, concrete and sensory than abstract. 2. Case study research is more contextual. Our experiences are rooted in context as is knowledge in case studies. This knowledge is distinguishable from the knowledge derived from other research designs. 3. Case study researchers are much more focused on process than outcomes or products. How do things happen? What is the natural history of the activity under study? 4. The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through the human instrument. Traditionally, case studies use “thick” description to provide a full, rich, literal exploration of the incident under investigation (Burns, 2000; Merriam, 1988). However, thick description does not necessarily mean that the educational

TSL 3133 Action Research I researcher sets about describing every observation and nuance at the research event, rather it is designed to enhance reflection, understanding and perceptions of the actors involved in order to further the reader’s knowledge of that case (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995). That is to say, the actor’s views and actions are a source of data in case studies that allows his or her unique voice and ownership of the environment to come through to the reader (Elliot & Lukes, 2008). http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/historical.htm Historical research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past. The process of learning and understanding the background and growth of a chosen field of study or profession can offer insight into organizational culture, current trends, and future possibilities. The historical method of research applies to all fields of study because it encompasses their: origins, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc. Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical information. Once the decision is made to conduct historical research, there are steps that should be followed to achieve a reliable result. Charles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for conducting historical research (91): 1. the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historical knowledge. 2. the gathering of as much relevant information about the problem or topic as possible. 3. if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that tentatively explain relationships between historical factors. 4. The rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its sources. 5. The selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of conclusions; and 6. the recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative. There are a variety of places to obtain historical information. Primary Sources are the most sought after in historical research. Primary resources are first hand accounts of information. “Finding and assessing primary historical data is an exercise in

TSL 3133 Action Research I detective work. It involves logic, intuition, persistence, and common sense…(Tuchman, Gaye in Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry, 252). Some examples of primary documents are: personal diaries, eyewitness accounts of events, and oral histories. “Secondary sources of information are records or accounts prepared by someone other than the person, or persons, who participated in or observed an event.” Secondary resources can be very useful in giving a researcher a grasp on a subject and may provided extensive bibliographic information for delving further into a research topic. In any type of historical research, there are issues to consider. Harter and Busha list three principles to consider when conducting historical research (99-100): 1. Consider the slant or biases of the information you are working with and the ones possessed by the historians themselves. 2. This is particularly true of qualitative research. Quantitative facts may also be biased in the types of statistical data collected or in how that information was interpreted by the researcher. 2. There are many factors that can contribute to “historical episodes”. 3. Evidence should not be examined from a singular point of view. The resources that follow this brief introduction to the historical method in research provide resources for further in-depth explanations about this research method in various fields of study, and abstracts of studies conducted using this method. Tutorial Exercises (Need to create the exercises in particular for part b) Procedure to use the learning experience approach 1. Have the pupils choose an experience that they would like to write about. For groups, this should be a shared experience such as a field trip or an activity that the whole class had participated in. For individual pupils, it could be anything that the pupil feels is important or interesting, such as a family activity, a story about their pet or favourite toy, or even a television show or movie that they enjoyed. The language experience approach can also be used to create fictional stories.

TSL 3133 Action Research I 2. Discuss the experience with the pupils. This helps them to clarify what they want to write about, organize their thoughts, and come up with specific, descriptive vocabulary. 3. Write the story down as the pupils dictate it. For groups, have pupils take turns dictating sentences describing their experience. Record what they say on large chart paper, repeating the words as they are written. For individual pupils, this can be done on a single sheet of paper, or it can be made into a book. The writing should be done in neat, large print rather than cursive, to make it easier for the pupils to read. Try to stick to the pupils' own words exactly as they are spoken with a minimum of correction for grammar or sentence structure. It is important for pupils to see their own words in print, because they have a personal connection to the words. 4. Read the text aloud. Point to each word as you read it aloud. After reading the text to the pupils, have them reread it aloud. With a group, call on individual pupils to read sentences, or have them read chorally as a group while pointing to each word. Pupils can illustrate their individual texts and read them aloud to the class. Since the words that the pupils dictate are familiar and are used in a meaningful context, pupils will be able to read more difficult vocabulary than they might ordinarily be able to if they simply saw it printed in a book. References Busha, Charles and Stephen P. Harter. Research Methods in Librarianship: techniques and Interpretations. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1980. Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln (editors). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry.  Sage Clarke, A. & Dawson, R. 1999. Handbook of Evaluation Research, An Introduction to Principles, Methods and Practice, SAGE Publications. Weiss, C.H. 1972. Evaluation Research: Methods of Assessing Program Effectiveness. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Weiss, C. H. 1998. Evaluation: Methods for Studying Programs and Policies (2 nd  ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Dr Stephen Waters-Adams © S W aters-Adams, Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006  Altricher, H., Posch, P. & Somekh, B. (1993) Teachers Investigate their Work: An Introduction to the Methods of Action Research, London, Routledge.

TSL 3133 Action Research I Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: education, knowledge and action research. Lewes, Falmer. Cohen, L ; Manion, L & Morrison, K (2000) Research Methods in Education (5th edition), London, RoutledgeFalmer Corey, S. (1953) Action Research to Improve School Practices. New York, Columbia University, Teachers College Press. Ebbutt, D. (1985) Educational Action research: some general concerns and specific quibbles, in: Burgess, R. (ed.) Issues in Educational Research: qualitative methods. Lewes, Falmer. Elliott, J. (1981) Action research: a framework for self -evaluation in schools. TIQL working paper no.1., Cambridge, Cambridge Institute of Education. Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change, Buckingham, Open University Press. Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge. Brighton, Harvester. Gibson, R. (1985) Critical times for action research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 15 (1): 59-64. Hamilton, D. (1981) Generalization in the Educational Sciences: problems and purposes. In: Popkewitz, T.S. and Tabachnik, B.R. ( eds.) The Study of Schooling: field based methodologies in educational research and evaluation, New York, Praeger. Hollingsworth, S. (ed.) (1997) International Action Research: a casebook for educational reform. London, Falmer. Hollingsworth, S., Noffke, S.E., Walker, M. & W inter, R. (1997) Epilogue: What have we learned from these case on action research and educational reform? in: Hollingsworth, S. (ed.) International Action Research: a casebook for educational reform, London, Falmer. Hopkins, D. (1993) A Teacher’s Gui de to Classroom Research, 2nd edition, Milton Keynes, Open University Press. Hustler, D., Cassidy, A. & Cuff, E. (eds.) (1986) Action Research in Classrooms and Schools, London, Allen and Unwin. Jennings, L. & Graham, A. (1996) Postmodern perspectives and action research: reflecting on the possibilities. Educational Action Research, 4 (2): 267-278. Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (1982) The Action Research Planner . Victoria, Deakin University Press.

TSL 3133 Action Research I Koshy, V. (2005) Action research for improving practice. A practical guide. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Lewin, K. (1948) Resolving Social Conflicts. New York, Harper. Lewis, I. (1987) Encouraging reflexive teacher research. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 8 (1): 95-105. Lyotard, J.F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: a report on knowledge. Manchester, Manchester University Press. McKernan (1991) Curriculum Action research: a handbook of methods and resources for the reflective practitioner . London, Kogan Page. McNiff, J. (1988) Action Research: Principles and Practice, Basingstoke, Macmillan. Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York, Basic Books. Somekh, B. (1988) The role of action research in collaborative inquiry and school improvement. Paper to CARN conference, Cambridge, 25-27 March. Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development . London, Heinemann. Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: theory and practice. New York, Harcourt, Brace and World. Wallace, M. (1987) A historial review of action research: some implications for the education of teachers in their managerial role. Journal of Education for Teaching , 13 (2): 97-115 Whitehead, J. (1985) An Analysis of an Individual’s Educational Development: the basis for personally oriented action research, in: Shipman, M. (ed.) Educational Research: principles, policies and practices, Lewes, Falmer. Whitehead, J. (1989) Creating a living educational theory from questions of the kind ‘How do I improve my practice?’ Cambridge Journal of Education, 19 (1): 41-52 Whitehead, J. & Lomax, P. (1987) Action research and the politics of educational knowledge. British Educational Research Journal , 13 (2): 175-190. Winter, R. (1987) Action Research and the Nature of Social Inquiry . Aldershot, Gower. Winter, R. (1989) Learning from Experience: principles and practice in action research. Lewes, Falmer. Woods, P. (1996) Researching the Art of Teaching: ethnography for educational use. London, Routledge.

TSL 3133 Action Research I Zeichner, K.M. (1993) Action research: personal renewal and social reconstruction. Educational Action Research, 1 (2): 199-219. Websites Teacher TV United Kingdom: https://www.education.gov.uk/schools/toolsandinitiatives/teacherstv/ Evaluation research article downloaded from the world wide web Sept 28, 2012: http://adhi301126117.wordpress.com/.

http://www.open.ac.uk/cobe/docs/AR-Guide-final.pdf This site presents training material for Open University Associate Lecturers. It deals with key theoretical and practical aspects of action research and would be particularly useful for tutors in FE or HE who were thinking of undertaking research into their own practice. There are examples of past projects, highlighting procedural stages and outcomes. http://www.bath.ac.uk/~edsajw/ Jack Whitehead's website at Bath University. Contains much information regarding the process of action research, along with a selection of extracts from theses that have used action research as their methodology.

http://www.did.stu.mmu.ac.uk/carn/ The Collaborative Action Research Network site at Manchester Metropolitan University. A vast amount of information about action research in education. Follows the developmental work in the Ford Teaching Project (1976), pioneered by Lawrence Stenhouse. Also has conference proceedings, publications, newsletters and links to other sites.