CHAPTER I Introduction Plants are the reservoirs of chemicals which have been evolved in response to wide range of selection pressures. Each species might have gone through numbers of mutations and genetic recombinations over millions of generations. The bioactive molecules present in plants have evolved as chemical defenses against predation, infection or adverse environmental changes. Special classes of chemicals produced have been put through severe tests by the forces of natural selection at each generation (Wilson, 1992). Consequently, during evolution plants have synthesized compounds whose structural diversity may be beyond the dreams of even the most imaginative organic chemists. In fact, plant species have evolved chemical pathways to produce compounds that are capable of curing many diseases. For instance, almost all the plants make flavonoids that block Ultra Violet (UV) radiation; the higher the radiation to which plants are exposed, higher the turnover of flavonoids. Experiments suggest that plant flavonoids can resist far more UV radiation than what would be caused by worst case scenario of ozone depletion (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999). Majority of biologically active compounds isolated from plants are secondary metabolites, which are sophisticated arsenal to protect plants from outside dangers. Secondary metabolites perform important ecological functions including defenses against herbivores, bacterial and fungal infections. Many compounds used by the plants for a particular purpose like protection against fungi can be used by humans for a similar purpose. However, secondary metabolites, which have ecological significance for plants, have altogether different effects on humans. For example, in many leguminous plants like Vicia faba, the non-protein amino acid L-Dopa functions as an antifeedant and protects plants from herbivory; but in medicine, it is used as a drug in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999). Plants – the primary producers - have always been the basis of human survival. All forms of hominids probably experimented with plants. Plants have been meeting the basic needs of food, cloth and shelter ever since the emergence of Homo sapiens. Plants are also the source of human health care products. Kautilya’s Arthasastra gives account of many plants that were used to remove hunger. For example, consumption of doses of 1
Albizia lebbeck, Ficus racemosa and Prosopis cinereria mixed with ghee removes hunger for a fortnight; ingestion of a dose of the scum prepared from the mixture of Scripus grossus or Cyperus esculentus, rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera, roots of Saccharum officinarum mixed with Aconitum ferox, Cynodon dactylon, milk, ghee and manda enables one to fast for a month; similarly one can go without food for a month by consuming one dose of the powder of Phaseolus radiatus, Hordeum vulgare, Dolichos biflorus and root of Desmostachya bipinnata mixed with milk and ghee (Sensarma, 1996; Viswanathan and Singh, 1996). World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 80% of the populations living in the developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs, and 85% people in third world use plants or their extracts as the active substances in health care system (Shome et al., 1996; Sheldon et al., 1998). Plants have been used as medicines since beginning of human civilization. There are written evidences of medicinal uses of plants in texts of the ancient Chinese, Indian and other civilizations. India has had a history of ancient traditional medicinal practice based mostly on Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani systems of medicine. Medicinal plants have always been the main constituents of the traditional medicine. Indian Materia Medica includes about 2000 drugs of natural origin almost all of which are derived from traditional system; out of these 400 are of mineral origin and the rest are of plant origin. Ayurveda is based on natural products of nearly 2,000 cultivated and wild plant species. The written records of Ayurveda like Charaka Samhita, Shushruta Samhita and others contain more than 8,000 herbal remedies. There are literally millions of plants, combinations, traditions and household remedies to treat varieties of diseases and to boost health (Pearce and Moran, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002). Traditional knowledge of plants for medicinal purposes was based on observations and personal experiences. This knowledge was handed down from one generation to next generations mostly by word of mouth. In most societies there are no written records of such knowledge. By 19th century active principles of medicinal plants were isolated based on such knowledge base and discovery of quinine from Cinchona bark was the first active principle isolated and characterized (Phillipson, 2001). Reserpine, a drug prescribed for hypertension, was isolated from the root of shrub Rauvolfia serpentina based on ethnobotanical knowledge. Neem tree (Azadirachta 2
indica) has always been considered a miracle tree in India for thousands of years. Its parts have been used for leprosy, urinary disorders, diabetes, skin diseases, jaundice, fevers, infections, as tonic, as blood purifier, to clean teeth, to keep away bugs and insects, as veterinary medicine and for various other diseases. In fact the tree has often been called as the village pharmacy. A variety of neem products are available in markets and most of these have been developed from ethnobotanical data. In 1682, life of the son of King Louis XIV of France, who was dying of dysentery, was saved by a Parisian Merchant who gave him root of ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha). This species is native to Brazil and Bolivia where roots of ipecac is commonly used in treating dysentery and amoebic dysentery (Swerdlow, 2000). It has been estimated that only 20-30% of the world’s flora of approximately 250,000-500,000 species has been subjected to phytochemical investigations (Principle, 1990; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Cordell, 2000; Plotkin, 2001). Of an estimated 75,000 edible plant species known in the world, only 2500 species have ever been eaten with regularity and a mere 150 species have been exploited commercially and only 20 feed the world population. About 9,500 wild plant species used by indigenous people for meeting their various requirements have been documented. Out of 7,500 wild plant species used by indigenous people for medicinal purposes, about 950 species have been found to be useful in health care for the first time; out of about 3,900 plant species used as edibles about 800 have been found as novel food yielding species and 250 species among them have potential to develop as alternative sources of food; out of 525 wild plant species used for making fibre and cordage, about 50 species have potential for commercial exploitation; out of 400 wild plant species used as fodder, about 100 species have potential for wider use; and out of 300 wild plant species used as pesticides and piscicides, about 175 have potential
for the development of bio-pesticides
(Pushpangadan, 1984; Mishra, 1985; Saklani and Jain, 1996; Saini, 1996; Prakash and Singh, 2000; Nautiyal et al., 2000-2001; Satyavati, 2001; Sarin, 2003). The number of flowering plant species known from India is about 15,000 species. 50% of these species are known to possess medicinal properties. Over 8,000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of bryophytes, and 1,159 species of lichens have been recorded from Himalayas and many of these species are rich sources of medicine for millions of people. Indian Himalayan 3
region has over 1,748 plant species (1,685 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 51 pteridophytes) of known medicinal value (Samant et al., 1998). Only 280 Himalayan plant species in 316 formulations are used by the pharmaceutical companies. About 175 species belonging to 79 families are confined to the Indian Himalayan region (Dhar et al., 2000). In Charaka Samhita, Himalayas have been described as home of medicinal plants. Traditional knowledge is available not only for the diversity of plants used in health care but also for the diverse ways in which these plants are administered. Different communities often put a single plant to different uses. Wealth of information on wild plants can be unearthed from the unwritten archives of the traditional people. Loss of unwritten traditional knowledge is like burning of library of Alexandria. In India, as in any other part of the world, Local Community Systems (LCSs) have been severely eroded because of variety of factors (Slikkerveer, 1999) and some of them are: (i)
displacement and devaluation by modern systems, such as the replacement of traditional medical practices by modern medical system, and of community customs of conservation by state-sponsored practices of conservation; local knowledge has of late been appropriated by the state and private sectors in the form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs),
(ii)
institutional take over of resources by the state and private sectors, and
(iii)
over-exploitation of resources by the state or the private sectors and physical displacement of communities by economic development projects. Study of traditional knowledge of plants or ethnobotanical approach is one of the
approaches amongst many that exist for selecting plants for phytochemical studies. One can select an area rich in plant biodiversity and randomly pick a plant for study. The probability of discovering a useful compound from such randomly selected plants is extremely low. However, such random searches may lead to the discovery of new drugs. For example, taxol is one such anticancer drug. It is very difficult to make a truly random selection and collection of plants for phytochemical study. In recent years, ecosystems rich in plant diversity like Tropical Rainforests and the Himalaya have been the focus of exploration for bioprospecting as these contain high proportion of plants that have not yet been chemically screened. Random selection of plants for phytochemical analysis is the only bioprospecting alternative in the absence of documented ethnobotanical information. National Cancer Institute of the United States of America has estimated that there is 4
1:8,000 probability of finding a marketable anti-cancer plant-derived drug using random screens. This ratio is comparable to probability of 1:10,000 associated with drug discovery based on the random screening of synthetic compounds (Shah, 1981; 1982; Vaidya and Antarkar, 1994; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Farnsworth, 1994). The use of ethnobotanical information to select plants for drug discovery or other purposes has high success rates. It has been shown that plants that were selected using ethnobotanical information have provided more active leads than random screenings (Vanden Berghe et al., 1985). It has been reported that 119 compounds found from 90 plants are used as single entity medicinal agents; 70% of which have been developed based on ethnomedicinal use (Cox and Balick, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002; Farnsworth, 1985). At least 1,000 plant species are reported to be in use as medicinal agents in China alone (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Approximately 1,250 Indian medicinal plants are used in formulating therapeutic preparations according to Ayurveda and other traditional system of medicine (Pushpangadan, 1984). Recent advances in isolation, separation, purification and characterization of natural products coupled with ethnobotanical studies have lead to the discovery of several novel drugs. For example, artemisinin from Artemisia annua, podophyllotoxin from Podophyllum peltatum, vinblastine and vincristine from Catharanthus roseus, camptothecins derived from a Chinese tree species Camptotheca acuminata and kaempferol glycoside extracted from Forsteronia refracta found in Amazon rainforests are novel drugs used in the treatment of dreaded diseases such as malaria and cancer. (Ross, 1999; Williamson et al., 1999; Swerdlow, 2000; Moza, 2005) Dharchula ranges of North-West Himalaya are located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude 'and are composed of steep rugged slopes covered with snow for over six months. These ranges are known to harbour medicinal and other useful plants (Duthie, 1885; 1906; Hooker, 1879; Strachey, 1906; Shah et al., 1980; Rawat and Pangtey 1987; Arya, 1991-92; Rawal and Pangtey, 1993; Samant et al., 1993; Samant et al., 2001; Satyal et al., 2002; Samant and Pal, 2003). The local communities not only use plants for their health care system and in fact they earn their livelihoods through trade and commerce of plant resources.There is no documentation of traditional knowledge possessed by the local communities with respect to plants found in the region. It may be noted that wild harvests of medicinal plants used 5
in traditional Indian, Chinese and Tibetan medicinal systems from the region have lead to drastic reduction in wild populations of different species. Further, the potential of traditional knowledge available with locals is not yet put to use for the development of new and novel drugs. The present investigations on “Traditional knowledge of plant resources in Dharchula region: biotechnological potential, conservation and management strategies” were, therefore, undertaken with following objectives; (i)
to explore Dharchula ranges for documentation of traditional knowledge associated with the plant resources and evaluation of their biotechnological potential;
(ii)
to undertake economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources in the region; and
(iii) to assess the conservation status of the species used traditionally by the local communities; (iv) to evolve appropriate Intellectual Property Rights regime for the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotia community and associated plant resources and suitable management strategies for sustainable development in the region. My research investigations will ultimately help initiate plant-human culture, a novel project that was recently launched by Kew and United Kingdom government in association with local community groups in South Asia that use plants in their everyday lives with objectives to bring people and plants together (Simmonds, 2005).
6
CHAPTER II Eco-geographical Aspects of the Area Surveyed Landscape and ecological features have bearing on the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant resources. Keeping this in view eco-geographical features of the area surveyed has been studied. 2.1. Geographical location and major river systems of the area Study area is located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude in Dharchula sub-division of Pithoragarh District in Kumaon Himalaya of Uttaranchal State (Figure 1). The area encompasses over 2200 square kilometers and comprises three valleys namely Darma, Chaudas and Byas with altitude ranging from 1,200 m to over 7,000 m. The area is bordered by Nepal in the East, Tibet in the North, Munshiari and Askot sub-divisions of Pithoragarh Distrct in the West and South (Figure 2). Magnificent groups of Panchachuli, Api and Annapurna peaks are located in this region. These mountains, which are masses of tangled peaks and valleys, are known to be associated with several sacred beliefs and represent one of the most rugged ranges in the region. In the ruggedness of feature they are not surpassed by any inhabited tract in the world. Mountains have such irregular and confused appearance that only the line of river valleys enables one to find a clue to their arrangement. The region consists of succession of deep gorges and steep precipitous hill sides containing Kali, Kuti and Dhauli River systems. Kuti River is tributary to Kali but the total volume of water of Kuti River is more than that of Kali River. All these rivers join and is known as Sarda when it reaches Tanakpur in the foothill, a tributary of the Ganges. Panchachuli, Nampa, Api and Chota Kailash are the main glaciers of this region. 2.2. Geology and soils Perpetually snowcovered zone is separated by the Lesser Himalaya by the Main Central Thrust. The region is largely composed of gneiss and granite. The component rocks have been subjected to severe compressional forces. In several sections this zone is
7
made up of: (i) intrusive granite, (ii) complex schists resulting from the intrusion of granite into rocks which it has partly absorbed, and (iii) old gneiss, schists, granulites and
Figure 1. Map of India showing location of Uttaranchal and forest cover of all the districts of the state (Sourtce: Forest Survey of India, Dehradun) highly metamorphosed crystalline limestones, which may include Precambrian and palaeozoic representations. Northern most belt on the North and North-east of greater Himalaya is made up of highly fossiliferous sedimentary formations ranging from Palaeozoic to the Eocene times and is remarkably uniform in lithological sequence (Joshi, et al. 1983). Dhauli river valley in Darma is characterized by porphyritic gneiss zone with the amphibolitic sills with a tectonic contact passes over to sedimentary quartzite, phyllite and limestone zones. The porphyritic gneiss is overlain by mica schist with multilayered weathered amphibolitic sills in Chaudas. The well marked tectonic zone is exposed with amphibolitic sills physically overthrusted by an unmetamorphic quartzite-limestone 8
phyllites sequence. Byas valley is characterized by quaternary sediments along Kali and Kuti rivers. Kuti River flows through the exposed clay rock with more carbonaceous material. Southern portion of the area consist of crystalline metamorphic rocks and some granite and basic magmatic rocks (Sinha, 1989). Soil is dark grey to dark brown and black in colour and silty loam to loamy in texture. Soil properties and processes are influenced by climate. As climate changes with elevation so do soil characteristics.
Chamoli
TIBET
Byas valley Darma valley
Munshiari
Chaudas valley Bageshwar
Dharchula Askot
NEPAL
Pithoragarh
Champawat
Figure 2. Map of Pithoragarh District in Uttaranchal showing Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys of study area based on Digital Interpretation of IRS ID –LISS – III,2000 (Source: Forest Survey of India) In Darma valley, the organic carbon percentage in the soil decreases with increase in elevation probably due to erosion of litter and low decomposition rates due to sub-zero 9
temperatures. Sand is the predominant constituent of the soils; pH varies from 4.9 to 6.1 and moisture percentage varies between 13.5-34.5% (Ram and Singh, 1994). 2.3. Climate The region experiences heavy rain (37-50 cm) during the monsoon season commencing from end of June to middle of September, with maximum rainfall being in July-September. In the higher reaches the annual rainfall is just about 10 cm. In this region summers are short and winters very severe and the grounds are entirely covered with snow from October to April. Heavy snow fall and frost are common. Melting of snow in April-May provide abundant moisture. Cloud and fog formation is a common feature even in May, well before commencement of monsoon. Clear sky is limited to only few morning hours. Soil erosion is very pronounced in the region. Frequent landslips in the lower valleys and avalanches in the higher regions and natural perturbations create new ecological niches, which are inhabited by characteristic flora and fauna thereby enhancing biodiversity. A rise of 270 m in altitude corresponds to fall of 10 C in mean temperature up to 1,500 m and this fall in temperature is more rapid towards alpine belt. 2.4. Vegetation The study area comprises 12,740 ha of dense forest, 3936 ha of open forest, 1153 ha of scrub, 802 ha of water bodies and 203544 ha of non-forest area, which encompass habitations, villages, farmlands, community lands, snow covered areas, etc (Source: Forest Survey of India). The area is known for its rich biodiversity and many of its plant species are of medicinal importance in traditional systems of medicine: Indian, Tibetan and Chinese. Richard Strachey was the first to explore the area in 1846 and subsequently in 1848 with J. E. Winterbottom. Both plant explorers collected over 2000 species between the years 1846-49. J. F. Duthie explored North-Eastern Kumaon in 1883 and catalogued 2672 flowering plants, 201 ferns and allies, 120 mosses and 50 lichens. This catalogue also includes the plants collected by the earlier explorers (Duthie, 1885 and 1906). The vegetation of the area can be broadly classified in to the following types as per the Champion and Seth Classification (Champion and Seth, 1968) – 1. Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests 10
2. Moist Temperate Deciduous Forests 3. Low Level Blue Pine Forests 4. Kharsu Oak Forests 5. Western Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir Forests 6. East Himalaya Mixed Coniferous Tansen (Tsuga dumosa) Forests 7. Montane Bamboo Brakes 8. Himalayan Temperate Pastures 9. Oak Scrub Forests 10. Hippophae Scrub 11. Sub-Alpine Forests 12. Sub-Alpine Forests 13. Alpine Pastures and Alpine Scrub River Bed 1. Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests – This forest type occurs at altitudes between 1,200 and 2,100 m. Common species are Rhododendron arboreum, Pyrus pashia, Myrica esculenta, Alnus nepalensis, Berberis lycium, Rubus ellipticus, Artemisia nilagirica, Rosa brunenii, etc. with Pinus roxburghii as the dominant species. 2. Moist Temperate Deciduous Forests – This type occurs on deeper and moist soils at altitudes between 1,800 and 2,700 m. Common species are Aesculus indica, Acer caesium,
Fraxinus
micrantha,
Betula
alnoides,
Juglans
regia,
Quercus
semecarpifolia, Taxus baccata, Rubus niveus, Berberis chitria, Impatiens spp., Aconitum spp., Lilium spp., etc. 3. Low Level Blue Pine Forests - This type is found at altitudes between 1,800 and 3,000 m. Common species are Quercus semecarpifolia and Quercus leucotrichophora with Pinus wallichiana as the dominant species. 4. Kharsu Oak Forests - This type occurs on the southern aspects of mountains at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,500 m extending up to tree line. Common species are Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Viburnum nenosum, Rosa sericea, Anemone spp., Rumex spp., Clematis spp., etc. with Quercus semecarpifolia as the dominant species. 5. Western Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir Forests – This type is found at altitudes between 2,700 and 3,700 m. Dominant species of these forests are Abies pindrow, Quercus 11
semecarpifolia, Rhododendron arboreum, Viburnum nenosum, Clematis montana, etc. 6. East Himalaya Mixed Coniferous Tansen (Tsuga dumosa) Forests – These forests are found at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,300 m in the upper reaches of the valleys. It is the eastern limit of Tsuga dumosa. Common species of these forests are Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia, Quercus leucotrichophora, Taxus baccata, Betula utilis, Rosa macrophylla, Viola serpens, Fragaria spp., Clematis montana, etc. with Tsuga dumosa as the dominant species 7. Montane Bamboo Brakes – These are the under-storey found in Oak, Rhododendron and Bamboo forests at altitudes above 2,500 m. Dominant species of these forests are Arundnaria falcata, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Thamnocalamus falconeri, etc. 8. Himalayan Temperate Pastures –These are the pastures that come up as a result of repeated burning and continuous grazing, generally close to the human habitations. Common species are Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylic spp., Agrostis spp., etc. 9. Oak Scrub Forests – This type is developed as a result of degeneration of the Oak forests because of repeated lopping, burning, cutting for firewood and overgrazing. Dead trunks of Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus floribunda are found accompanied with Berberis spp., Crataegus crenulata, Prinsipia utilis, Indigofera spp., Cotoneaster spp., etc. 10. Hippophae Scrub – This forest type is found at altitudes between 2,800 and 3,400 m. Dominant species are Hippophae salicifolia and Thymus serpyllum. 11. Western Himalayan Birch/Fir Forests – This forest type is found at altitude above 3,000 m extending up to tree line. Dominant species are Betula utilis, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rhododendron campanulatum, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Rubus niveus, Rosa secicea, etc. 12. Sub-Alpine Forests – these forests occur at the altitudes between 3,000 and 3,700 m. Abies pindrow, Quercus semecarpifolia, Betula utilis with undergrowths of Rhododendron campanulatum, Rosa sericea, Ribes glaciale, Rubus niveus, Smilax vaginata, Taraxacum officinale, Rumex nepalensis, Senecio chrysathemoides, Anemone rivularis, etc. are common species of these forests.
12
13. Alpine Pastures and Alpine Scrub River Bed – These forests are found at altitudes above 3,300 m and are covered by snow most of the time. Common species are Rhododendron campanulatum, Rhododendron anthopogon, Betula utilis, Juniperus spp., Sorbus foliolosa, Viburnum nervosum, Aconitum spp., Corydalis govaniana, Gentiana spp., Iris spp., Anemone spp., Potentilla spp., Primula spp., etc.
13
CHAPTER III People, Culture and Plant Resource Utilization It is important to understand the ecological aspects of human communities for evolving strategies for sustainable development based on the utilization of plant resources. Keeping this in view people, culture and resource utilization aspects of the study area were studied. 3.1. People and culture People inhabiting Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys of Dharchula areas of Kumaon Himalaya belong to a semi-nomadic ethnic community known as ‘Bhotia’ or ‘Shauka’. Bhotias are of Mongoloid origin and also inhabit the adjoining areas of Nepal. They have distinct dialect, culture and traditions that have been heavily influenced by Hindu and Tibetan cultures. It is difficult to trace the origin of Bhotias. One view is that they came from Tibet long before Buddhism reached Tibet and their culture and traditions evolved in these valleys surrounded by inaccessible mountains for centuries, adapting to the harsh terrains having the loftiest and most perilous passes. Till the beginning of the last century the Bhotias were afraid of going to the plains and even the lower mountains. Physical difficulties surrounding their habitations in the midst of the upper Himalayas were so harsh that they were almost insulated from the rest of the world. High mountain ranges acted as effective barrier for physical mobility. It was only after the Chinese invasion in 1962 that a motorable road was constructed up to Dharchula (during 1965-1966) and movement to the plains became easy and unhindered. Even now the upper reaches are inaccessible and can only be approached on foot. The Bhotias have always been considered as an intelligent and mercantile race. They have traditionally been dependent on trade with Tibet and the plains of India. Because of adverse climatic factors, the Bhotias take up agriculture only as a subsidiary occupation from middle of May to middle of October. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. (locally called palti), Fagopyrum tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn. (locally called phaphar or bhe), Hordeum himalayense Linn. (caeleste) (locally known as chama), Triticum vulgare Linn. (locally 14
known as napal) and potatoes are the main cultivated crops. These crops are grown in flat lands around villages and in terraced fields on mountain slopes. Having remained isolated for centuries, the Bhotias have depended on nature for almost everything. Bhotias believe that the mountains surrounding their settlements are the storehouse of a number of medicinal, edible and other useful plants. It is possible that these unexplored mountains may still have germplasm of many medicinal plants having great economic potential yearning to be discovered to cure humanity of many dreaded and incurable diseases. All high mountains, which happen to be close to Mount Kailash are worshipped as protecting deities by the local communities. The forests and trees around the temples are held sacred and are never felled or lopped. To Bhotias spirituality and holiness are manifested in nature. Local inhabitants show respect for non-living and non-human components of nature (environmental resources that form the life supporting systems) at all times and live every moment in a state of respect and awareness of power of creation as manifested by the surrounding mountains. The Bhotias conceive the world in terms of matter and spirit existing in harmony. The traditional healers worship plants and pray to them before collecting them as they believe that plants have spiritual power. They also believe that plants become more potent when processed both spiritually and materially. The efficacy of the herbal medicines is believed to be enhanced when they are prepared and administered by enchanting mantras. The area falls in the traditional pilgrim route to the holy Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarover. Atkinson (1882) had observed in his writings that, "Each rock and rivulet is dedicated to some deity, or saint, and has its own appropriate legend. Nature in her wildest and most rugged forms bears witness to the correctness of the belief that here is the home of the 'Great God'". After the 1962 Chinese invasion, traditional trade with Tibet got completely disrupted and the Bhotias were forced to look for other means of livelihood. Spread of education, loosening of old taboos and other methods of social control heralded an era when Bhotias looked to fan out onto the outside world seeking modern ways of living. This was the beginning of the end of the traditional way of life. Simultaneously, the traditional knowledge held by them also began eroding. There has never been any attempt to document the traditional knowledge about the plants found in their surroundings and to scientifically study them. 15
3.2. Natural Resource Utilization The area abounds in natural wealth. Trees are, however, cut to meet household requirements like construction of dwelling houses and for agricultural implements, but never for commerce. Only fallen and dead trees are collected for firewood. Probably, lack of communication has been the main obstacle in the commercial exploitation of timber. Abies pindrow (locally known as wuman-shin) is considered a sacred tree. These trees are cut to erect as flag posts in the local temples and around dwelling houses, which are replaced once in two to three years. There are sacred groves around temples and local deities, where trees are never felled or lopped. Harvest of wild medicinal plants was and is one of the major preoccupations of Bhotias. It is their main source of income. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner, Swertia ciliate (G. Don) B. L. Burtt, Corydalis govaniana Wall., Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) John, Angelica glauca Edgew., Juglans regia Linn. root bark, and Paris polyphylla Smith are the most traded species. The quantum of trade in these species is driven by market forces. There is no organized system of sales and collection of plant species in the region. Moreover, Forest Department has banned extraction of many medicinal plant species from wild in Pithoragarh District (Table 1). The trade in plant species that has been in practice since centuries is now facing major hurdles as a result of notification of entire area including villages, farmlands and home gardens as wildlife sanctuary. This legislation did not take into account its likely implications on the livelihood of the people and the regulatory role of the traditional practices followed by the local people in the maintenance of diversity. This might endanger the biodiversity and plant resources for which wildlife sactuary is established. It is likely that there might be major changes in species composition in the area, because of one or few species dominating other species. A similar scenario is seen in the Valley of Flowers in Garhwal where stoppage of grazing has made Polygonum polystychum as an invasive species dominating other species. Banning harvesting of 30 medicinal plant species mentioned below in the district by the Pithoragarh Forest Division, Government of Uttaranchal may also bring about major changes in plant community structure.
16
Table 1. Species prohibited by the Forest Department for extraction from wild in Pithoragarh District (Source: Divisional Forest Office, Pithoragarh Forest Division, Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal) Local name Akhrot chal (root bark) Atees Bach Ban kakri Banapsa Chirayta Dhoopjad Ken jadi Dolu Gandrayani Ginjaru Guchhi Jatamansi Kaphal bark Kakolisir Kilmora Kutki Lahsunia Mahamaida Meetha Nairpati Pasanbhed Patharlong Ratanjot Ridhi-vridhi Salam misri Salampanja Samewa Somlata Thuner
Botanical name Juglans regia Aconitum heterophyllum Acorus calamus Podophyllum hexandrum Viola serpens Swertia chirata Juniperus recurva Dioscorea species Rheum emodi Angelica glauca Slifinia glabra Morchella esculenta Nardostachys grandiflora Myrica nagi Lilium palifilum Berberis aristata Picrorhiza kurroa Myreatylis beolhobee Polygonatum verticillatum Aconitum falconeri Skimmia laureola Bergenia ciliata Didimacarpus pedicilata Anemone obtusiloba Habenaria intermedia Orchis latifolia Dactylorhiza hatagirea Valleriana hardwickii Ephedra gerardiana Taxus baccata
17
CHAPTER IV Materials and Methods Methodologies followed to carry out ethnobotanical surveys in the area were – 4.1. Ethnobotanical Surveys 4.1.1. Questionnaire: A structured and pre-tested questionnaire was developed from preliminary interactions with the local communities and survey of relevant literature in order to obtain traditional knowledge possessed by the local communities. The questionnaire used for the ethnobotanical surveys is given below:1.
Spatial distribution of human settlements and changes over decade.
2.
Local name of the plant
3.
In which type of localities (altitude, hill slopes, valleys, etc.) does this occur?
4.
What are its associates?
5.
Which area is the richest in terms of biodiversity?
6.
What is it used for?
7.
Parts used and how is it used?
8.
How is it collected? – Mode of collection (whether whole plant or part of it).
9.
At what age is the plant normally collected?
10.
Is the method of collection destructive? What would be most appropriate method of collection?
11.
Who are the collectors? (male/female and their specific role – gender aspects)
12.
How are the plants stored and processed?
13.
How is it used?
14.
Is it abundantly available now?
15.
What was the situation about decade ago? How much is it available now?
16.
If it is becoming rare what could be the reasons? What are the threats?
17.
Can the resource base be enhanced through propagation in wild?
18.
Is there any restriction on collection?
19.
Why are local people not cultivating these species?
18
20.
Are the cultivated plants different from the wild ones in terms of quality, price, demand, etc.?
21.
Given an opportunity whether people will prefer to cultivate it?
22.
Why is there reluctance in cultivating the plants?
23.
Is there any effect of site condition on the potency of the plant? (Whether plant of any particular locality is more potent)
24.
How much is used domestically and how much sold?
25.
Extent of demand for the plant
26.
Which species are in high demand? Trend in demand (is there gap?)
27.
What is the sale price? And what is the price in the markets like Delhi, etc.?
28.
Estimated quantity extracted each year.
29.
How much does it contribute towards livelihood or family income?
30.
Who are the buyers – final market, prices at different stages (middle men etc.)
31.
Estimated yearly income of collectors from collection and sale of the plant
32.
Is there any myth associated with the plant?
33.
What sort of govt. intervention or policy would they prefer?
34.
How important is the plant? (Economically, medicinally, spiritually, etc.)
4.1.2. Sampling: A total of 23 Bhotia villages and 10 localities across the study area were sampled (Table 2). Size of the village varied from 10 households to over 100 households and size of each household with 2- 6 adults up to over 80 years old. Table 2. Villages and Localities sampled Village/Locality Byas valley Budhi Budhi-Galja Chiyalekh Garbyang Changru Nampa Gunji Nabi Kuti Jyolingkong
Altitude in meters
Habitat Characteristics
2750 3300 3300 3100 3200 3950 3200 3250 3870 4500
Partially disturbed Undisturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Undisturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Undisturbed 19
Chaudas valley Chipla Pangu Sosa Sirdang Rung Sirkha Narayan Ashram Shyangsthan Karangdang Sumtonker Pungwe Rungling Samari
4380 2250 2550 2600 2300 2550 2600 2700 4000 3100 3350 2900 2400
Undisturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Undisturbed Undisturbed Undisturbed Undisturbed Undisturbed Undisturbed
Darma valley Bungling Sela Nagling Baling Bon Filam Dangtu Dugtu Son Dakar
2250 2150 2700 2900 3300 3250 3300 3300 3250 3300
Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed Partially disturbed
Information was gathered by interacting personally with over 50 persons (on an average 2-5 from each village). These included 5 women and over 45 men in the age group of 40-70 years. Field visits were made to the areas surrounding the villages and those away from the villages which are rich in plant resources used traditionally. For each of the species for which ethnobotanical information was collected, specimens were prepared and were identified in the Herbarium of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD). 80 species were documented (Table 3). Photographs were taken of most species along with habitat and parts used. Botanical name, family, local name, description, phenology, ecology & distribution, propagation, chemical constituents, uses, conservation status, trade, observation and discussions on traditional uses for each species have been given. Descriptions of chemical constituents have been included from available literature. Material in bulk was also collected for chemical studies. 20
Table 3. Species collected and for which traditional knowledge documented 1. Abies pindrow Royle 2. Aconitum balfourii Stapf. 3. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle 4. Ainsliaea aptera DC. 5. Allium stracheyi Baker 6. Angelica glauca Edgew. 7. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 8. Arnebia benthamii (G. Don f.) John. 9. Artemisia maritima Linn sensu Hook. f. 10. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. 11. Berberis chitria Lindl. 12. Bergenia ciliata (Haworth) Sternberg 13. Cannabis sativa Linn. 14. Carum carvi Linn. 15. Cirsium wallichii DC. 16. Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. 17. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. 18. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. 19. Corydalis govaniana Wall. 20. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo 21. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. 22. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke. 23. Elaeagnus umbellata auct non Thunb. 24. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. 25. Fagopyrum tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn. 26. Fraxinus micrantha Lingels. 27. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sw. 28. Gerardiana heterophylla (Vahl.) Decne. 29. Hippophae salicifolia (D. Don) Serv. 30. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. 31. Impatiens scabrida DC.; I. roylei Walp. I. balsamina L. 32. Iris kumaonensis D. Don ex Royle 33. Juglans regia Linn. 34. Juniperus cummunis Linn. 35. Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) Clarke 36. Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker 37. Malva sylvestris Linn. 38. Mazus surculosus D. Don 39. Paris polyphylla Smith 40. Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle
41. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 42. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson 43. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle 44. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. 45. Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don 46. Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) 47. Polygonum viviparum Linn. 48. Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz 49. Prinsepia utilis Royle 50. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. 51. Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don 52. Pyrus pyrifolia Burm. f. Nakai 53. Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner 54. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don 55. Ribes grossularia Linn. 56. Rosa sericea Lindley 57. Roscoea alpine Royle 58. Rubia cordifolia Linn. Sensu Hook. f. 59. Rubus ellipticus Smith 60. Rubus foliolosus D. Don 61. Rubus nutans Wall. 62. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 63. Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don 64. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.-Bip. 65. Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) Clarke 66. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. 67. Silene kumaonensis Williams 68. Solanum nigrum Linn. 69. Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt 70. Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers 71. Taxus baccata Linn. 72. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 73. Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. 74. Thymus serpyllum Linn. 75. Urtica dioica Linn. 76. Urtica parviflora Roxb. 77. Valeriana wallichii DC. 78. Viburnum nervosum D. Don 79. Viola serpens Wall. ex Roxb. 80. Zanthoxylum armatum DC.
21
4.2. Economic Evaluation: For economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources, the following four variables were selected – (i)
market value of species extracted,
(ii)
value of medicinal plants used in local medicine,
(iii)
value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or drugs synthesized based on plant product, and
(iv)
value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction.
The value of medicinal plant resources has been worked out using formula – V = (PE) + (AR) + (DY) + X Where, P = Market value of medicinal plants extracted, E = Quantity of medicinal species extracted annually, A = Population using traditional medicine, R = Rupees saved by one person annually by using wild species for primary health care, D = Value of a medicinal plant species that serve as source for new drug, Y = Number of species giving rise to new drugs, and X = Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction.
22
CHAPTER V Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Conservation Aspects of Plant Resources of Dharchula Region 5.1.
Abies pindrow Royle (West Himalayan Fir/ Pindrow Fir/ Silver Fir)
Family
:
Pinaceae
Local Name
:
Wuman shin (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: A lofty evergreen tree attaining girth of 2.5-4 m and height of 4560 m, with narrow cylindric crown and horizontal or drooping branches. Bark dark grey and brown, rough, furrowed and exfoliating in regular woody scales. Blaze somewhat fibrous, uniform deep reddish-brown or purplish. Leaves variable, 2.5-6.2 cm long, under surface with 2 silvery bands on either side of mid rib, tip notched and dark green in colour. Cones solitary or in pairs, erect, dark blue, situated a little below the tips of the shoots, ripe cones erect, cylindric. Seeds 2.5-3.2 cm long including wing. (Figure 3a & 3b) Phenology: New leaves appear during April-May and these persist for 3-5 years. Cones ripen during October – November. Ecology and Distribution: It is distributed in the northern aspect of the mountains and occur either in pure patches or in association with Quercus semecarpifolia, Taxus baccata, Betula utilis, Pinus wallichiana, Rhododendron anthopogon and R. companulatum at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,700 m. Prefers cool and moist areas in the northern aspects (Figure 3c). At higher elevations it grows on deep and rich soils of all the aspects. It is quite common in Pinkhu forests above Chirkila on way to
23
Chipla, above Baling village in Darma valley, above Budhi village up to Nampa on way to Kuti in Byas valley and in higher localities in Chaudas.
Figure 3a. Young stands of Abies pindrow at Garbyang in Byas valley
Figure 3b. Unripe cones of Abies piondrow near Budhi village of Byas valley Propagation: Abies pindrow prefers a good moist but not water-logged soils. It grows well in heavy clay soils. Trees are very shade tolerant, especially when young, but growth is slower in dense shade. It is intolerant of atmospheric pollution. Prefers slightly acidic conditions down to a pH of about 5. Prefers growing on a north-facing slope. Silver Fir sheds seeds
24
during October-November and seeds germinate in following May-June under fairly heavy shade. The seedlings grow slowly for 3-4 years and afterwards growth is rapid. It attains height of 5-7 m in about 20 years. Seedlings can be produced in the nurseries in beds of fresh, well drained and porous soil under fair amount of sun light. Seeds are sown in the beds in Oct-Nov before snowfall and watered. Seedlings are retained in the beds for 3-4 years before transplanting. Application of nitrogenous and phosphatic manures accelerates the growth. Seedlings are pricked out from the beds when they are about 5 cms tall and planted out in the field at 3 m x 3 m spacing when they are about 30 cm tall. Fortification of seedlings with mycorrhiza is helpful. Young trees are very slow to establish because they are often damaged by late frosts. It is best to grow young trees in high shade to overcome frost. 30-90 cm tall saplings give better growth and higher survival in the field. Larger trees perform badly and hardly put on any growth for several years. This also badly affects root development and wind resistance. Young plants until they are 3-4 years old need protection against livestock which browse on leaves.
Figure 3c. Natural habitat of Abies pindrow at Chiyalekh of Byas valley Chemical Constituents:
A chalcone glycoside (I) along with okanin,
okanin-4’-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, 25
butein-4’-O-beta-D-
glucopyranoside,
8,3’,4’-trihydroxyflavanone-7-O-beta-D-
glucopyranoside was isolated; Friedelin, taraxerol, beta-amyrin and ursolic acid identified in heartwood (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; 1995). A tetracyclic triterpenoid Pidrolactone – 3alpha-hydroxylanosta7,9(11),22E,24-tetraen-26,23-olide isolated from the leaves of Abies pindrow (Tripathi et al.1996). Bornyl acetate, camphene, carvone, limonene, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene isolated in volatile oils of needles and twigs collected from Kalinchok and Rasuwa regions of Nepal (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). On steam distillation leaves yield pale yellow, aromatic oil with balsamic odour. Fresh needles from Jubbal (Himachal Pradesh) yielded oil (0.25%), having following properties: d25 degree, 0.9312; nD 25 degree , 1.4910; [alpha]D
25 degree
, -10025’; acid val., 7.40; sap val., 60.91; sap val after
acetylation, 72.04. The oil contains: alpha-pinene (14.7%); l-limonene (10.6%); delta3-carene (11.8%); dipentene (8.4%); l-bornyl acetate (15.7%); and l-cadinene (9.9%). The needles from Gulmarg (J&K) gave 0.61% oil (d15 degree, 0.8845; nD
20 degree
, 1.4641) which contained pinenes,
sesquiterpenes and ester as bornyl acetate (30.8%). The oil is used for scenting soaps, deodorants, and disinfectants (Anonymous, 1985). Analysis of bark gives following values: extractives (8.1%); tannin (1.58%); carbohydrates (11.1%); lignin (38.0%); and ash (1.64%). Bark also yields 1.7% of a wax-like substance which compares favourably with commercially important waxes (Anonymous, 1985). Comparative suitability of the timber, expressed as the percentages of the same properties of teak are: wt, 60-75; strength as a beam, 55-70; stiffness as a beam, 70-85; suitability as a post, 65-80; shock resisting ability, 60-75; retention of shape, 60-65; shear, 60-80; hardness, 40-65; and nail or screw holding property, 60-75. In strength, as a beam and as a post, and also in hardness the timber is stronger than spruce (Anonymous, 1985).
26
Uses: Fresh leaves are mixed with honey in equal quantities and made into paste. One spoonful of this paste is administered twice a day for the treatment of cough and cold (Pandey and Pande, 1999; Joshi, 1993). Conservation status: Abies pindrow is abundant in Dharchula Himalaya. Natural regeneration is very good particularly in Byas valley. It is not a threatened species in the areas surveyed. Trade: There is no local trade for any parts or products derived from Silver Fir in Dharchula region. There is no restriction on trading the parts or products of Abies pindrow. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Matured cones (Figure 3b) boiled in water and the preparation, which is dark blue in colour, was used as ink in the past. Trees of Abies pindrow are associated with religious beliefs in the whole of Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Consequently, except for the purpose of flag posts to be erected in the local temples and around the dwellings, these trees are not harvested and are well protected in the forests around the Bhotia villages. Temples of the deities are generally built surrounded by Quercus semecarpifolia and Abies pindrow trees. On special religious occasions, mid-sized (up to 15 m tall) silver fir trees are debarked and are erected as flagposts on the temple grounds and around dwellings. These posts are replaced after 2-3 years. The green trees are never felled for the purpose of timber or fuel. Dead and fallen trees are used as fuel. Timber is not considered durable for the purpose of constructions. Since these trees come up rather easily in its natural habitat, they are ideal for plantations in avalanche prone areas. Abies pindrow colonises the areas devastated by the avalanches and also provide protection to lowlying areas against avalanches.
27
5.2. Aconitum balfourii Stapf. Family
:
Ranunculaceae
Local Name
:
Gobrya-bis (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Meetha bish
Description: Erect herb, about a meter tall. Roots paired and tuberous, conic or elongate conico-cylindric, 2–5 cm long and about 1 cm thick with few root fibers, externally grayish-brown.Stem simple and straight. Leaves orbicular, ovate-cordate, lower ones long-petioled, upper ones shortpetioled, palmately 3-partite, segments 3-lobed, surfaces sparsely hairy. Inflorescence up to about 30 cm long. Sepals elliptic, blue, carpels 5 and glabrous. Berry many-seeded, blackish when ripe. (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Plants of Aconitum balfourii in Budhi Galja of Byas valley Phenology: It flowers during August-September and fruits during the same period. 28
Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open grass lands in alpine and sub-alpine regions always in association with other species of Aconitum at altitudes between 2,400 and 4,500 m. It is quite common in Budhi Galja, Kuti, Api, Chiyalekh, Malpa Dhar, Njyang top.
Propagation: Aconitum balfourii thrives in most soils under shade of trees. It grows well in heavy clay soils but prefers moist soil in sun or semi-shade. It inhibits the growth of other species in the community, particularly legumes perhaps due to allelopathy. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown as these give higher percentage of survival. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled soil. Seedlings are allowed to grow in open areas throughout winter. Saplings are then planted in the field during spring or early summer. Tubers are harvested usually after one year growth in the field. It can also be propagated vegetatively through tuber cuttings during spring or autumn (http://www.pfaf.org).
Chemical Constituents:
Norditerpenoids
-8-O-
methylveratroylpseudaconine, balfourine and veratroylbikhaconine isolated
from
roots
together
veratroylpseudacontine, deacetylyunaconitine,
with
indaconitine, bikhaconitine,
neoline
pseudaconitine,
ludaconitine, and
8-
chasmanine;
condelphine, bullatine, neoline, isotalatizidine, 1-O-methyldelphisine, pseudaconitine, yunaconitine, bikhaconitine and indaconitine isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Pseudaconitine and veratroylpseudacontine have been found to be the major constituents of aerial and root parts of Aconitum balfourii (Khetwal, 2004). Uses: In Tibtan medicine tuber is used as anti-inflamatory, analgesic, vermifuge and antirheumatic. It is used to dry up serous fluids. It is also used against all types of pain and inflammations due to gout or arthritis, all disorders
29
due to worms/microorganisms, amnesia, loss of bodily heat, leprosy and paralysis (Tsarong, 1994). Conservation status: It is rather rare in wild but not threatened. The rarity is neither due to over-exploitation nor eradication but it is perhaps associated with community characteristics. This plant is considered undesirable in the grazing lands as it is highly poisonous for sheep and cattle. Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) has listed this species as critical in North-West Himalaya in India (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no commercial extraction of this species in the region. Besides, no portion of this plant is traded in Dharchula areas. Export of plant portions and derivatives of all the Aconitum species obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited vide Notification No. 24 (RE-98)/1997-2002 dated 14.10.1998 of Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Formulations include products which may contain portions/extracts of plants only in unrecognizable and physically inseparable forms. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of Cultivation from the Regional Deputy Director (Wildlife), or Chief Conservator of Forests, or The
Divisional
Forest
Officer.
Further,
all
formulations
–
herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species will be allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. If the affidavit is proved to be false action is liable to be taken under Foreign Trade (Development & Regulation) Act, 1992. 30
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Entire plant including tuberous roots is considered deadly poisonous particularly for sheep and cattle. When human consumes any part of this plant froth is formed in the mouth and may be fatal. It is highly fatal to sheep and cattle. Shephards have to be always on the look out for and guard against this plant. It is likely that shepherds may be weeding these plants out from the grazing lands to avoid fatality amongst the livestock and this may be resulting in this species becoming rare in meadows in the areas surveyed. The most effective antidote for this is the tubers of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle. Tubers of this plant are being used for medicinal purposes elsewhere, though not in Dharchula areas. It can become rare if not extinct if extracted indiscriminately like Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle. Cultivation of the species in the homegardens is the best conservation strategy for this species as demonstrated by a local inhabitant in Budhi village of Byas valley.
31
5.3. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Aconite) Family
:
Ranunculaceae
Local Name
:
Atis (Darma, Byas, Chaudas), Patis
Description: Perennial herb, about 30 - 50 cm tall. Roots tuberous, biennial, paired, tuberous cylindric to cylindric-oblong or conic, 2-5 cm long and 0.5 to 1.2 cm thick with few root fibres, which break off easily, very bitter in taste. Leaves heteromorphus, ovate or orbicular-cordate, amplexicaule at base. Inflorescence a slender raceme, 10-12 cms long. Flowers light greenish blue. Sepals greenish blue, marked with red or violet. Petals glabrous, carpels 5. Seeds smooth. (Figure 5a & 5b). Phenology: It flowers during August-September and fruits during the same period.
5a
5b
Figure 5a. Flower of Aconitum heterophyllum plant growing in abandoned fields along with associated ground flora in Bon of Darma Valley. Figure 5b. Tuberous roots of freshly dug up Aconitum heterophyllum plant.
32
Figure 5c. Abandoned fields with Aconitum heterophyllum together with associated ground flora in Bon of Darma valley
Figure 5d. Cleaned and air dried Aconitum heterophyllum tubers ready for use and commerce Ecology and Distribution: It grows in exposed alpine grass lands on humus-rich soils in the alpine and subalpine zones, and in forests in association with other species of Aconitum (Figure 5c). It is found all over Budhi Galja, 33
Kuti, Api, Malpa Dhar, Njyang top, Bon, Dugtu, Panchachuli and in Byas, Darma and Chaudas valleys in Dharchula Himalayas at altitudes between 2,500 and 4,500 m. Propagation: Aconitum heterophyllum occurs in most soils under the shade of trees. It grows well in heavy clay moist soils in sun or semi-shade. It inhibits the growth of nearby species, especially legumes. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during October. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polybags filled with soil and are allowed to grow through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer. It can also be propagated by division of tuber during spring and also during autumn (http://www.pfaf.org). Tubers are collected in August – October when plant is approximately one year old in the field. After the tubers are extracted smaller ones are set aside for replanting and plumper ones are separated for drying. Chemical Constituents: The roots yield 0.79% of total alkaloids. Following alkaloids isolated: atisine (yield, 0.4%), heteratisine (yield, 0.03%), histisine, heterophyllisine (mp 1780), heterophyllidine (mp 2690), heterophelline (mp 2210), atidine, hetidine (C21H27NO4, mp 218-210), benzolheteratisine (C29H37NO6, mp 213-140),
F-dihydroatisine (mp
159-610), hetisinone (mp 275-780), atisenol and hetisine (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1993; 1998; Anonymous, 1985). Analysis of sample collected from different populations revealed higher alkaloid contents in alpine populations. All identified alkaloids were found higher in mature root tubers harvested in November-December (Bahuguna et al., 2000). Uses: Tuber is used in Tibtan medicine as anti-inflamatory, analgesic, and febrifuge especially from poisoning, for treatment of fever from contagious diseases, inflammation of intestines and as an antidote for snake or scorpion bite. In other parts of Western Himalaya aqueous extract 34
of root is used for indigestion, abdominal pain and malarial fever. In Pindari area tubers are chewed in small quantity, three times a day to get relief from stomachache and ulcer (Kalakoti and Pangtey, 1988). In remote parts of Almora District (Jhuni village) in Uttaranchal one spoonful root paste mixed with honey or sugar is administered for intestinal worms and to increase body strength. Half tea-spoonful paste mixed with honey and ginger juice is given to children for fever caused by cough and cold (Arya and Prakash, 1999). In Ayurveda it is used as expectorant, antipyretic, astringent, antiperiodic, antidysenteric, antiemetic, bitter tonic, stomachic, astringent, aphrodisiac. Root powder is used in acute inflammation, dyspepsia, cough, hysteria, piles and throat diseases, gastric troubles of children suffering from cough, diarrhoea and vomiting. It is prescribed with other drugs in treatment of bites from poisonous snakes and scorpions. Root is considered to be aphrodisiac, digestive, valuable febrifuge and an infertility agent. In Yunani medicine system white and dark varieties are used to strengthen body and to alleviate dysentery. It is considered good in piles, in bilious complaints, in plethoric conditions and in removing gases from stomach (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). It is highly recommended for diseases in children. It is a keen stimulant to digestive system as an appetizer, digestant and astringent. Diarrhea is controlled with a mixture of Atis and Holarrhena antidysenterica bark and seeds administered with honey. The combination of Atis, Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Tinospora cordifolia (Geloh) is good for colitis. The powders of Atis and Embelia ribes (Vaivarang) are an effective remedy for worm infestation. Atis powder with honey alleviates cough and asthma. Atis helps to revitalize the sexual desire and reduce excessive accumulation of fats in obesity; it purifies the breast milk in lactating mothers and is also beneficial in rat poisoning (Paranjpe, 2001).
35
Conservation status: It is common in abandoned fields particularly in Bon in Darma Valley (Figure 5c) and Kuti village in Byas. It has, however, become rare in wild due to over-exploitation. It is listed as rare and endangered due to over-exploitation in Indian Red Data Book (Jain and Sastry, 1991). FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in North-West Himalaya in India and has put it in endangered list in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: The trade is not open and is carried out clandestinely. It is one of the high value medicinal plants in the region. Tubers are currently sold for Rs 800 to 1,000 per kg. Export of plant portions and derivatives of all Aconitum species obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited vide Notification No. 24 (RE-98)/1997-2002 dated 14.10.1998 of Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Formulations include products which may contain portions/extracts of plants only in unrecognizable and physically inseparable forms. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of cultivation from the Regional Deputy Director (Wildlife), or Chief Conservator of Forests, or the Divisional Forest Officer. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species will be allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. If the affidavit is proved to be false action is liable to be taken under Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992.
36
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Tuber is considered as one of the most potent medicine and, therefore, valued very highly by the local inhabitants. Dried tuber (Figure 5d) is chewed or root paste or root extraction in water is used as an antidote for poison, food poisoning, stomachache due to overeating and other stomach ailments. It is said to be the only antidote for Aconitum balfourii and Aconitum violaceum. It is considered so useful that locals generally carry it in their pocket while going to the forests to be used in case they suspect any foul play by the enemies or adversaries. The root paste is also administered to the goats, sheep or other animals in case they consume poisonous grasses while grazing. It is one of the important constituent in preparation of local medicine for jaundice and fever and sickness in women after delivery. The root is best harvested in the autumn as soon as the plant dies down and is dried for later use. Roots are cleaned and dried in air to the core till they become brittle, snapping when bent. Once dried these can be preserved for many years. Pure roots when dry break with a short starchy fracture. This plant is often mistaken for poisonous Aconitum, which lookes identical in appearance, only tubers are different Extensive extraction of tuber for medicinal purpose is likely to cause this species to become rare, if not extinct, in wild in very near future. Already, its population in its natural habitat has declined alarmingly. Institutional or Government support for extension, marketing and cultivation in homegardens and abandoned fields is the best conservation strategy for this species. There is plenty of scope for cultivation of Atis and other rare medicinal and economically important plants in the region.
37
5.4. Ainsliaea aptera DC. Family
:
Compositae
Local Name
:
Jaunka usu (Chaudas)
Description: Slender herb of about 60 cm tall with thick rootstock. Leaves mostly radical, triangular, ovate-cordate, 6-14 cm long, 4-10 cm broad. Leafless stems appear in spring bearing slender uninterrupted spikes of drooping white or pinkish flower-heads; later long stalked leaves appear from the root stock; in rainy season a leafy stem is produced with numerous flower heads, which produce seeds. (Figure 6). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during March-June.
Figure 6. Ainsliaea aptera plants together with associated ground flora in its natural habitat in Sirdang in Chaudas. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in grassy slopes in the temperate regions. It is a common herb found throughout Chaudas at altitudes between 1,500 and 3,000 m.
38
Propagation: Ainsliaea aptera seed is sown in spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags. They are planted out in the field in next spring. Chemical Constituents: Stem barks of allied species Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch.-Bip. Syn. A. pteropoda DC. Contains a flavonoid (Anonymous, 1985). Uses: The herb is diuretic (Anonymous, 1948). Root extract with sugar syrup is given in intermittent fever; decoction is used in painful urination (Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: It is found in scattered populations in its natural habitat. Although its occurance is common in Chaundas valley, this species is vulnerable to over-exploitation. Commercial extraction in future may threaten its existence in its natural habitat. Trade: There is no trade of Ainsliaea aptera in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Ainsliaea aptera or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In Chaudas, entire plant is used for deworming in the stomach. Powdered roots are used to get quick relief from acute stomachache.
39
5.5. Allium stracheyi Baker Family
:
Alliaceae (Liliaceae)
Local Name
:
Jumbu (Darma, Byas, Chaudas)
Description: A glabrous herb, 10-20 cm in height. Bulbs small clustered, narrowly avoid. Leaves 3-5, narrowly linear, obtuse, flat, up to 30 cms long remains green even when dry, have pungent smell. Flowering scapes slender, compressed up to 30 cm tall. Flowers purple or yellow, in dense flowered terminal umbels. (Figure 7). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open meadows having well drained, moist, sandy and loamy soils. It grows naturally in dry open meadows and mountain slopes in Byas valley at altitudes between 2,700 and 4,000 m. Propagation: Allium stracheyi is cultivated by the local inhabitants for personal consumption and as cash crop for sale. It can be cultivated by planting bulbs fairly deeply. It prefers sunny and light well drained soil. It cannot grow in shade. It grows well with most plants like roses, carrots and beet, but it inhibits the growth of legumes. Seeds are sown in April- May and leaves are harvested in June-July. Chemical Constituents: Plant contains sulphur compounds, which give them their onion flavour. Uses: Regular consumption of Allium stracheyi with diet reduces blood cholesterol levels. It also acts as tonic to the digestive system and tonifies the circulatory system. Bulbs and leaves are eaten either raw or cooked and flowers are used as garnish on salads. Consumption in large quantities 40
is reported to cause poisoning to some mammals; dogs being particularly susceptible (Cooper and Johnson, 1984). The juice of whole plant is used as insect repellent. The whole plant is said to repel insects and moles (Riotte, 1978).
Figure 7. Allium stracheyi plants cultivated in homegardens in Garbyang in Byas valley. Conservation status: Allium stracheyi is vulnerable to grazing in the alpine meadows in Dharchula Himalaya. It is listed as vulnerable in Indian Red Data Book (Nayar and Sastry, 1987). FRLHT has also put this species in the lsit of vulnerable species in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is very good demand for dry Allium stracheyi. It is sold in the local market for Rs. 120 per kg. There is no restriction or prohibition on export of plant portions and derivatives of Allium stracheyi. Observations and Discussion on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Dried leaves of Allium stracheyi are valued very highly by the local inhabitants; they are used by Bhotias as condiment to season lentils (Dal). It gives typical flavour and is considered very healthy additions to the diet.
41
5.6. Angelica glauca Edgew. (False Pennel) Family
:
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Local Name
:
Chhibi (Darma, Byas, Chaudas), Gandrayan
Description: Perennial, glabrous and aromatic herb of about 100–200 cm height. Root tuberous, aromatic, generally 20-50 cm thick and spongy, externally grayish brown. Stems hollow. Leaves large, 1-3 pinnate; leaflet in threes or reduced to three sometimes to one, ovate or lanceolate. Flowers white, yellowish and arranged in in compound umbels 15-30 cm across. Fruits oblong, ribs conspicuous, lateral ridges expanded into wings. (Figure 8a). Phenology: It flowers during July-August and fruits during September – October. Ecology and Distribution: It is common in Alpine and sub-alpine meadows particularly in moist places at altitudes between 2,700 to 4,000 m. Propagation: Angelica glauca can be cultivated by sowing seeds or vegetatively by planting tubers. It is cultivated throughout Byas and Darma valleys in a small scale (Figure 8a). Seeds are collected in October and then dried in sun under covered clothes and then sown in April. Care is taken not to irrigate the bed with water and water is only sprinkled using rosecans. Plants get ready for harvesting during September-October. Tubers are cleaned and dried in air to the core till they become brittle, snapping when bent. Once dried they can be preserved for about 2-3 years. Chemical Constituents: Following alkaloids were isolated from roots: isoimperatorin (mp 109-100), prangolarin (mp 103-40), coumarin tertO-methyloxypeucedanin
(C17H18O6,
mp
119-200),
angeolide,
angeocolide, furocoumarin – 2’’ –O-acetyloxypeucedanin hydrate; root essential oil contains 2,2-Dimethyloxirane, formic acid, 6-methyl42
bicyclo[3,2,0]-hepten-2-one, 6-propyl-bicyclo[3,2,0]-hept-6-dien-2-one, 6-propylbicyclo[3,2,0]-hept-6-one, [1(S)-(1alpha, 3alphabeta. 4alpha, 8alphabeta)]-1,4-methanoazulene, beta-chamigrene, dehydroledol and elemol; the petroleum ether extract of the fruit contains a lectone (C14H36O3, 0.06%, mp 101-1020) ( Chaudhary et al., 1960; Kapoor et al., 1972; Anonymous, 1985; Khan et al., 1989; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; 1995; 1998). On steam distillation, the roots yield a pale to brownish yellow essential oil (0.4-1.3% dry basis) having following constants: sp gr 16 degree, 1.0190; nD
16 degree
, 1.5306; [a]D 16 degree, +60 92’ ,
acid val. 7.6; sap val. 249.2; sap val. after acetylation, 299.2, The oil contains selinene,
lactones,
sesquiterpenes,
d-a-cadinene,
d-a-pinene,
umbelliprenin
and
d-a-phellandrene, terpene
alcohols
(Anonymous, 1985). Essential oil extracted from the aerial parts collected at flowering stage contains alpha-phellandrene (13.5%), trans-caeveol (12.0%), beta-pinene (11.7%), thujene (7.5%), beta-caryophyllene oxide (7.2%), beta-caryophyllene (7.0%), gama-terpinene (6.7%), nerolidol (6.5%), beta-bisabolene (5.2%) and germacrene D (4.5%) (Agnihotri et al., 2004). Uses: The whole plant is known to be used as stimulant, cordial, in stomach troubles, bilious complaints, in infantile atrophy, menorrhagia, and for treating rinderpest. Root (Figure 8b) is considered cardioactive and stimulant, carminative, expectorant, diaphoretic and cordial and is also used in constipation, flatulence and dyspepsia (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Shah et al., 1974; Singh and Rawat, 2000). One or two spoons of stem or tuber ground and mixed with water is given to children for vomiting (Samal et al., 2004). Roots yield an essential oil; seeds and rootstocks are used to add flavour to edibles; root powder with milk is administered in bronchitis as well as in constipation (Gaur, 1999).
43
Figure 8a. Plants of Angelica glauca with associated ground flora in Nampa
Figure 8b. Roots of Angelica glauca cleaned and air dried ready for use and commerce
Conservation status: Extraction of root is so extensive that its very existence in wild is now threatened. This species, which was common in the past, has become rare in wild all over Byas and Darma valley. It is now found only in inaccessible places. FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in North-West Himalaya and as endangered in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). 44
Trade: Since the entire natural habitat in Dharchula area is under wildlife sanctuary, trading of Angelica glauca root extracted from wild is not permitted. However, it is carried out clandestinely and dry root is sold for about Rs 100 per kg. There is, however, no restriction in trading of plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated variety. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Bhotias value this plant as very useful medicine. Fresh or dried root is chewed to cure acidity and gastric ailments. The odour of stem and root is aromatic and pungent but agreeable with sweet-bitter taste. Stem is edible and is also considered medicinal. Tuberous root is used as condiment to flavour or season lentils (Dal). Extensive extraction of tuber for medicinal purpose is likely to make this species as threatened, if not extinct, in wild in very near future. Already, its population in its natural habitat has declined alarmingly. Cultivation in homegardens and abandoned fields is the best conservation strategy for Angelica glauca. Local inhabitants need to be provided with extension, institutional, financial and marketing support to induce them to take up cultivation of this species.
45
5.7. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Family
:
Araceae
Local Name
:
Yaa (Byas, Darma)
Description: Succulent herb of about 30-60 cm height with underground corm. Leaves usually 2; leaflets 5-7 (or 9), unequal, 7-10 cms long, 2-5 cm broad, lanceolate. Spathe 15 cms long, green with white lines with long up-curved green or dark purple tail like tip. (Figure 9). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-August. Ecology and Distribution: It is common in shrubberies, cultivation fields, meadows, rocky slopes in drier areas of upper forests and lower alpine regions between 2,000 and 4,000 m altitudes. Propagation: Arisaema jacquemontii prefers cool climate and thrives well on moist peaty soils. It tolerates open sun if the soil is moist. It is a very hardy species. It can be propagated by corms collected in October-November. Only full sized corms are used for planting and mulch them with organic matter in the winter. The species is also multiplied through seeds. The seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown in nursery beds under shade during October. Stored seeds remain viable for a year and can be sown in spring. Seeds germinate after 1-6 months. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. These are allowed to grow for couple of years until the corms are more than 20 mm in diameter and then planted in the field while they are dormant. Plants need protection from slugs (http://www.pfaf.org). . Chemical Constituents: An anti-cancer compound – ariseminone – has been isolated from the plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). 46
Uses: The corms contain calcium oxylate crystals, which cause an extremely unpleasant sensation in mouth and tongue when eaten in large quantities; the effect is neutralized by drying leaves or cooking corm or by steeping it in water.
Figure 9. Habitat showing flowering parts of Arisaema jacquemontii at Budhi Galja of Byas valley Conservation status: Arisaema jacquemontii is abundant throughout Byas and Darma valleys. Trade: There is a limited trade in corms of Arisaema jacquemontii in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Corms are are edible. It is considered an important food item by the locals in upper Dharchula region.Corms thoroughly boiled and ground into dough is swallowed with chutney made with Hippophae salicifolia. This was considered poor man’s food. This was consumed as staple food during time of famine in the past. Dried young leaves are consumed as vegetable. Properly dried leaves are eaten after cooking.
47
5.8. Arnebia benthamii (G. Don f.) Johnston Syn. Macrotomia benthamii A. DC. Family
:
Boraginaceae
Local Name
:
Kholi puchni (Byas, Darma), Baljari, Ratanjot
Description: An erect, perennial herb of about 100 cm height, plants densely hairy. Rootstock very stout, covered with bases of old leaves. Inflorescence is a large dense hairy cylindrical spike, flowers purple in axils of long grey haired drooping bracts. Leaves linear to narrow lanceolate. (Figure 10a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows along rocky crevices on open slopes found in alpine regions between 3,000 and 4,500 m. It occurs in Gunji, Rongkong, Kuti, Jeolingkong in Byas valley; in Bon, Dugtu, Filam, Tidang, Dhave of Darma valley; and Karangdang, Chipla of Chaudas. Propagation: Terminal growing points of roots are utilized for vegetative propagation. Basal part of the root, flowering stalks and leaves are used for consumption and trade (Manjukhola and Dhar, 2002). It grows well in well-drained gritty soil on exposed rocky grounds and dry walls. Seeds are harvested when fruits are slightly under-ripe as it is quickly dispersed when ripe. Removal of seed coat by pretreatment improves the germinability of the seeds considerably. Seeds are sown during spring and these germinate within 2 - 8 weeks. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polybags filled with soil and these are allowed to grow throughout winter. Saplings are planted in the field during spring or early summer after the frosts. (http://www.pfaf.org).
48
Chemical Constituents: Arnebin I and arnebin 3 having anticancerous properties were isolated from roots along with napthoquinonous red pigments shikonin (Manjukhola and Dhar, 2002).
Figure 10a. Uprooted plants of Arnebia benthamii from Bon of Darma valley
Figure 10b. Cleaned and air dried rootstock of Arnebia benthamii used in commerce Uses:
Arnebia benthamii is harvested only after seeds set. Only rootstock, inflorescence and leaves are harvested for commerce. The paste made from rootstock is applied on the wounds externally on alternate days for 49
their healing; root powder mixed with hot milk is administered to patients suffering from heart and hysterical disease (Arya and Prakash, 1999). Roots (Figure 10b) are used as antiseptic, in eye complications, fever and headache (Jain, 1991); and also in the treatment of asthma, rheumatic pains and snakebites (Negi and Pant, 1994). Arnebia benthamii possesses stimulant, tonic, diuretic and expectorant properties. Syrup and jam prepared from flowering shoots are considered useful in diseases of tongue and throat, fevers and cardiac disorders (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Anonymous, 1985; Manjukhola and Dhar, 2002). Conservation status: It is rather rare in wild in Dharchula region. Increased harvests from the wild and anthropogenic mediation have made this species vulnerable. The causal factors are overgrazing, landslides and avalanches. Arnebia benthamii has not been considered endangered, rare or threatened in Red Data Book of Indian Plants. However, FRLHT has listed this species as critical in North-West Himalaya and as critically endangered in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: Traffic in parts of this species is common. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Arnebia benthamii or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Rootstock yields excellent purple dye. Mustard oil after soaking with the rootstock is used by the local inhabitants as hair tonic, and is known to give shine and strength to the hairs. This species has biotechnological potential and may yield novel drugs of therapeutic value.
50
5.9. Artemisia maritima Linn. sensu Hook. f. Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Pankhima (Chaudas, Byas, Darma), Safed Purcha
Description: Perennial,
erect,
strongly
aromatic,
profusely
branched,
suffruticose undershrub of about 60 cm height. Plants densely wooly with highly dissected pale grey to almost white leaves. Ultimate leaf segments linear. Bark rough and fibrous. Flowers yellowish. (Figure 11). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-October.
Figure 11. Artemisia maritima growing in the margins of home garden in Budhi in Byas valley Ecology and Distribution: It is found on dry stony slopes in the alpine and subalpine regions between 2,500 and 4,000 m. Propagation: Artemisia maritima grows well in poor dry soils in warm aspects. It can be grown in exposed well-drained soils. Seeds are surface sown in nursery beds during late winter or early summer. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. 30-
1
45 cm tall saplings are planted in field during summer. Smaller seedlings are allowed to grow throughout winter and planted in the field during spring. This species is also propagated vegetatively by planting stem cuttings or by root segments during spring or autumn (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: A sesquiterpene lactone (erivanine, mp 2030) isolated from
flower
sheaths
and
leaves;
5,7,3’4’-tetrahydroxy-6,5’-
dimethoxyflavanone, lumisantonin, mp 1530 , (-) santonin and (-)betasantonin, 1,8-cineole, 1-camphor, alkhanin, alhanol, maritimin along with
a
selineolide
(jeiranbatanolide),
and
vulgarin,
a
artapshin,
germacranolide
a
guaianolide
(shonachalin
A),
peroxysemiketal along with arteincultone, a sesquiterpene oxylactone (alchanene), Shonachalin B, shonachalin C and D were isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; 1995). Lavandulol, nerol and their acetates, a cyclobutane derivative (fragranol) and its esters (I-IV) isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Hydroxy davanone, a germacranolide (gallicin), davanone along with other terpenes, alpha- and beta-santonins and camphor isolated from
essential
oil;
1-oxo-6beta,7alpha,11betaH,14beta-
methylgermacra-4(5)-ene-12,6-olide
(1)
and
6beta,7alpha,11betaH-germacra-4(5),10(14)-dien-12,6-olide
1-oxo(II)
isolated; 1,8-cineole (36.0%), alpha-thujone (28.0%), beta-thujone (12.0%) camphor (7.0%) and p-cymene (0.8%) estimated in oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; 1995); oil from the leaves or inflorescence of immature plants collected from inner valley of Kumaon contained alphathujone (77.0%), beta-thujone (60.2%), and 1,8-cineole (3.3%), whereas from matured plants contained alpha-thujone (60.2%), betathujone (5.5%), and 1,8-cineole (1.5%); Essential oil from the Himalayan plant contains alpha-thujone (63.2%) as major constituent (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998).
52
Uses: The herb is used as deobstruent, stomachic, laxative and tonic. Decoction of fresh plant is used in cases of intermittent and remittent fever. Flower tops are used as anthelmintic. Poultice of flowering tops are used to get relief from pain. Seeds, which are bitter, hot and pungent, are used as stomachic, appetizer, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic and also to cure indigestion, abdominal pain and mucous diarrhea. The whole plant is used as antiseptic, on cuts and to treat gastric complications (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Anonymous, 1985; Joshi, 2000; Jain, 1991). This plant is commercially harvested for santonin and plants growing in different localities show variation in santonin content. For example, plants from extremely dry areas do not contain santonin (Anonymous, 1985). Santoninn shows significant anti-inflammatory activity in acute inflammation and inhibits granuloma formation (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998) and is used as an anthelmintic. It is very effective against round worms and less against thread worms when administered in small doses. In high doses it is toxic and can even cause death due to cardiac arrest and respiratory failure (Anonymous, 1985). The smell of the plant can cause headaches and nervousness in some people. Only flower bearing plants are harvested. Conservation status: Artemisia maritima is common throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Trade: It is not traded in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions or any formulations made out of this species. Observation and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Dried parts of this species is burnt together with dried twigs and leaves of Juniperus cummunis, Rhododendron anthopogon and Nardostachys grandiflora as incense in temples and homes.
53
5.10. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. (Mugwort) Syn. A. vulgaris auct non Linn. var. indica Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Pankhima (Chaudas, Byas), Pati
Description: Perennial, erect, ascending, aromatic, pubescent and suffruticose herb or undershrub of 1-2 m height. Leaves sessile, ovate and less dissected and smaller as compared to Artemisia maritima 16 cm long, pinnatipartite to 2-pinnate, glabrate or thin hairy above, densely white beneath. Stems profuse with woody base. Flower heads 2-3 mm across, ovoid or globose arranged in panicled racemes. (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Plants of Artemisia nilagirica in flowers growing in the margins of field in Sirdang of Chaudas Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on waste lands, along roadsides along bunds of cultivation and abandoned fields in the temperate and sub-alpine regions between 2,500 and 3,500 m.
54
Propagation: This species prefers well drained and exposed moist soils. It often becomes invasive and inhibits growth of other plants perhaps due to allelopathy. Seeds are surface sown in late winter or early summer in the beds. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during summer. Smaller saplings are allowed to grow throughout winter and then planted in the field during spring. Plant can also be propagated vegetatively by planting division of root in spring or autumn (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Trideca-1,3,5-trien-7,9,11-triyne, artemisia ketone, 1acetoxytetradeca-4,6-dien-8,10,12-triyne, a triterpene – fernenol, ()thujone,alpha-amyrin and its acetate, fernenol, stigmasterol and betasitosterol were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991). Acetylenic compounds namely tetradeca-4,6-dien-8,10,12-triyne1-ol,
heptadeca-1,7,9-trien-11,13,15-triyne,
cis-dehydromatricaria
ester, tetradeca-6-en-8,10,12-triyne-3-one and sesquiterpenoid lactones (psilostachyin A and psilostachyin C) isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Plant yields 0.34% essential oil. Artemisyl or santolinyl skeleton; camphor,
beta-eudesmol,
1,8-cineole,
borneol,
artemisia
alcohol,
camphene, alpha-gurjunene, p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol, alpha-pinene, alphathujone, gama-cadinene, caryophyllene, p-cymene, geraniol, linalool, betapinene, alpha-terpineol, beta-thujone, car-3-ene, citral, (+)limonene, linalool and (-)quebrachitol[(-)2-O-methylchiroinositol were isolated from the essential oil; essential oil, camphor and terpinen-4-ol exhibited 90% mosquito repellency; oil from plants collected from lower altitudes contained higher percentage of cineol, thujyl alcohol, thujone and citral, whereas the plant from the higher altitudes contained higher percentage of limonene, tripinoline and aromadendrene (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; 1995; 1998). Freshly extracted essential oil from the air dried leaves shows anti-bacterial and ant-fungal activities in 1:1000 dilutions (Anonymous, 1985). Essential oil also possesses 55
antidermatophytic activity and is fungistatic in nature. An ointment of essential oil prepared in polyethylene glycol is used as herbal antifungal agent against dermatomycosis (Kishore et al., 2001). Arabinose, galactose, glucose, maltose, raffinose, ribose, sucrose and crude protein were obtained from stem; crude protein yielded alanine, cystine, glycine, leucine, lysine and aspartic acid; threonine, leucine and isoleucine, glycine, glutamic acid and arginine present in protein isolated from leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). Uses: The herb is emmenagogue, anthelmintic and stomachic. It is also used as febrifuge. It possesses antilithic and alexipharmic properties. A weak decoction is given to children suffering from measles. An infusion of the leaves and flower tops are bitter, astringent, anodyne, diuretic, aphrodisiac and digestive and it is also given in nervous and spasmodic affections and asthma. Leaves are applied as haemostatic and to allay the burning sensation in conjunctivitis. Roots are used as tonic and antiseptic. Ashe of the plant is used as manure and the compost prepared from this plant is used to control grubs of beetles. This species is also used to keep away fleas and other insects (Anonymous, 1985; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Joshi, 2000; Jain, 1991). Conservation status: It is a least concern taxon and is copious in whole of Byas, Chaudas and Darma. Trade: No parts of this species are traded. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this plant. Observation and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: The juice extracted by crushing leaves and aerial parts is applied to treat skin eruptions, eczema, ulcers and is used as antiseptic. Smoke of the plant on burning coal is used to subside swelling in vagina after child-birth. It is also considered as a sacred and auspicious plant used in the temples. 56
5.11. Berberis chitria Lindl. Syn. B. aristata DC. Family
:
Berberidaceae
Local Name
:
Kilmuru (Darma, Byas and Chaudas)
Description: An evergreen shrub of 1-3 m height with reddish pubescent twigs. Bark rough, blaze bright yellow. Leaves in each whorl of four, 4-8 x 2-3 cm, obovate-oblanceolate, with spine tipped lobes/teeth, glaucous on both surfaces. Flowers bright yellow and arranged in clusters of 3-5. Fruits red or purple and black when ripe. (Figure 13a & 13b). Phenology: It flowers during May-June and fruits during September – October. Ecology and Distribution: It is found along margins of forests, clearfelled forests, forest openings and often as undergrowth in oak forests in gregarious patches It is widely distributed all over Byas, Chaudas and Darma between 2,000 and 3,500 m. Propagation: This species prefers moist loamy soil and light shade. It also grows well in heavy clay soils. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during October. These germinate in late winter or early spring. Seeds from overripe fruits take longer time to germinate. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into poly bags or pots filled with soil. 45-60 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during autumn. Smaller saplings are left to grow through winter and are planted in the field in late spring or early summer of the following year. Berberis chitria can also be vegetatively propagated by cuttings of half-ripe wood in July/August (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Berberine, palmatine, oxyacanthine and an aporphine base (O-methylcorydine N-oxide) along with anti malarial alkaloid 57
jatrorrhizine; hentriacontane, triacontane, cetyl alcohol, betasitosterol, gamma-sitosterol, dihydrokaempferol, quercetin and oleic, stearic, palmitic and linoleic acids; and alkaloids chitrians A, B and C & dihydropalmatine N-oxide isolated from roots and aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; 1998). Root and stem bark have 5% and 4.2% berberine (Anonymous, 1988).
Figure 13a. Plants of Berberis chitria growing along river Kali near Garbyang in Byas valley
Figure 13b. Branches of Berberis chitria showing unripe fruits Uses: Fruits (Figure 13b), which are flavoured, are edible and have sweet taste. Fruits contain protein 2.3%, sugar 12%, ash 2%, tannin 0.6% and pectin 58
0.4%. The amount of vitamin C in fruit juice is is 4.6 mg per 100 ml (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982). Plant is an emmenagogue and is useful in the treatment of jaundice and enlargement of spleen. Fresh berries are useful as laxative and antiscorbutic and useful in piles, sores and eye diseases. Root mixed with stem pieces of Banana are used for green colouring of clothes; roots used in the treatment of jaundice in Uttarkashi (Negi and Pant, 1994). One part each of root extract in water (called Rasaut) is mixed with Aconitum heterophyllum, bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica and flowers of Woodfordia floribunda in the ratio 1:1:1:1 and the mixture is given in bilious diarrhea and indigestion; Two parts each of Rasaut, opium and Terminalia chebula, three parts of alum and four parts of rocksalt are mixed and made into powder and this powder is is applied to treat inflammatory swellings and conjunctivitis (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Berberine, universally present in rhizomes of Berberis species, has marked antibacterial effects. Since it is not appreciably absorbed by the body, it is used orally in the treatment of various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery; it should not, however, be used with Glycyrrhiza species (Liquorice) because this nullifies the effects of the berberine; Berberine has also reported to have antitumour activity (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Dried stem, root bark and wood are alterative, antiperiodic, deobstruent, diaphoretic, laxative, ophthalmic and tonic. An infusion is used in the treatment of malaria, eye complaints, skin diseases, menorrhagia, diarrhea and jaundice (Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1993). The plant provides excellent tannin (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982). This species is useful in restoring the disordered processes of nutrition and restores the normal functions of the system. It induces copious perspiration. Anti-tubercular activity has also been attributed to the plant extract. It is useful in relieving pyrexia and checking the return of intermittent fevers as in malaria when infusion is given in doses of 25-75 grams twice or thrice a day and decoction in doses of 150 gms between the 59
fevers. It is excellent in the treatment of cholera, stomach disorders and dysentery. It arrests excessive blood loss during the monthly periods when administered in doses of 150-250 mg. Decoction of bark and root bark is effective cleanser for ulcers and sores and prevents scar over the wound. Rasaut is mixed with butter and alum or with opium or lime juice cures eye diseases when applied externally on eyelids. Mixed with milk, it can be used effectively as a lotion in conjunctivitis (Bakhru, 1990). Conservation status: It is copious in the region. FRLHT has, however, categorized Berberis aristata as endangered species and Berberis chitria as vulnerable species in North-West India (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Berberis chitria in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Root bark, roots and lower stems are boiled in water, strained and evaporated till it becomes semi-solid mass. This is soluble in water. This preparation is used in affections of the eyelids and in the treatment of other chronic eye problems through local application. Root is also used in dyeing cloths yellow.
60
5.12. Bergenia ciliata (Haworth) Sternberg Family
:
Saxifragaceae
Local Name
:
Bhe-pat (Chaudas, Darma, Byas), Pashanbhed
Description: Perennial herb with a thick creeping rhizomatus rootstock Leaves fleshy, short-petioled, broadly ovate or elliptic, 6-14 cm x 4-12 cm, margins of both surfaces covered with red-brown hairs; obtuse leaf apex. Flowers pinkish or purple, capsule subglobose. Seeds elongate, numerous, smooth. (Figure 14a & 14b). Phenology: It flowers during March-May and fruits during May-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on wet shady rocky hill slopes particularly near cliffs (Figure 14a) in the temperate regions between 1,800-3,500 m. It is distributed throughout Dharchula ranges. Propagation: Bergenia ciliata can be propagated easily by broadcasting seeds on wet rocky areas or by planting rhizome cuttings. Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown in late spring. Fresh seeds have better germination percentage than the the stored seeds. It can also be propagated vegetatively by division of root in late spring after flowering or in autumn. It is quite successful in full sun or light shade or shade in most soils but prefers a deep fertile soil that does not dry out fully. Plants thrive on a medium heavy soil. Plants cannot tolerate cold winds and are sensitive to frost (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Bergenin and its C-glycoside, beta-sitosterol, ()Afzelechin, (+)catechin-3-gallate, and paashaanolactone (1) isolated from the rhizomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; Chandrareddy et al., 1998). 61
Figure 14a. Plants of Bergenia ciliata growing in its natural habitat in Budhi in Byas valley
Figure 14b. Bergenia ciliata growing in Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 14c. Cleaned and air dried rhizomes of Bergenia ciliata 62
Uses: Rhizomes are used in health care (Figure 14c). About 5 gm of root paste with a glass of hot water is taken orally twice or thrice a day for the treatment of pain caused by stones in kidney and gall blader. Fresh rhizomes, which are bitter and acrid, are also chewed and eaten to get relief from urinary problems like painful urination. Tea is prepared from the rhizomes. Decoction of rhizome in water and honey is used in the treatment of piles, asthma, cough, cold and low fever. The rhizomes are used as tonic and febrifuge and also for digestive and cutaneous disorders. Rhizomes possess astringent, tonic, antiscorbutic and laxative poroperties. In Sudh-Mahadeo region of Himalaya it is used against vertigo and headache. It is also used to treat diarrhea, pulmonary affections and as anti-biotic. Root paste is applied on boils to check its sepsis. It is considered good remedy for cough. Rhizome powder with cow’s milk is given for lactation.The acetone extract of the rhizome is cardiotoxic in higher doses, and has depressant action on the central nervous system. Leaves are used as eating plates. Leaf paste is used externally around boils for their cleaning ans as antiseptic (Malhotra and Balodi, 1984; Agarwal, 1986; Rawat and Pangtey, 1987; Annonymous, 1988; Arya and Prakash, 1999; Gaur, 1999; Kalakoti and Pangtey, 1988; Manandhar, 2002). Conservation status: It is a common species in most parts of Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys of Dharchula Himalaya. Excessive harvest from wild may make it a threatened species. FRLHT has listed this species as vulnerable in North-West Himalaya (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is substantial trade in rhizomes of Bergenia ciliata in Dharchula region. During 2003, over 40,000 kg of Bergenia ciliata rhizomes were sold; but the bulk of it came from Nepal. The sale price in the year 2003 was Rs. 13 per kg. There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of Bergenia ciliata.
63
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Rhizomes are valued by the local inhabitants for their medicinal properties especially in the treatment of kidney and gall stones. Clean fresh or dry rhizomes are chewed to get relief from painful urination. It is also a good protection against thirst. Cultivation in homegardens and abandoned fields will help in securing this species. A villager in Budhi has successfully planted Bergenia ciliata in his homegarden. Market demand for its rhizomes can be easily met from the planted stocks.
64
5.13. Cannabis sativa Linn. (Hemp, Marijuana) Family
:
Cannabaceae
Local Name
:
Bhangaw (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Bhang
Description: Annual-perennial, erect, aromatic herb or undershrub reaching up to 2.5 m height. Bark fibrous. Stems grooved, hollow, green, angular, covered with extremely fine but rough pubescence. Leaves palmately 3-7 partite; segments linear-lanceolate to elliptic, 2.5-11 x 0.2-2 cm, serrate, all leaves long-petioled, gland dotted, pale, very finely downy beneath, leaflets variable in size. Plant dioecious; male flowers in lax terminal panicled cyme; female flowers solitary or clustered. Fruit smooth, ovoid, light brownish-grey in colour, and completely filled by seed. Seeds subglobose, smooth. (Figure 15a). Phenology: It flowers during May-august and fruits during August-October. Ecology and Distribution: It is found in abandoned fields near human settlements, waste dumps, roadsides vacant landslands, edges of the cultivation fields and meadows between 2,000 and 3,500 m. Propagation: This species grows well in rich and fertile soils which are retentive of moisture. Crop can be grown in the same plot for several years in succession. Application of farmyard or green manure is helpful in poor soils. Land is ploughed to a depth of 20-23 cm and repeatedly harrowed. Seed is sown in early spring by broadcasting. Plants require weeding in the early stages and thinning if sown thick. Crop is ready for harvesting in 4-5 months. Male plants are harvested when they shed pollen and change colour from deep green to light brown. Male plants yields better quality fibre (Anonymous, 1950; http://www.pfaf.org).
65
Figure 15a. Plants of Cannabis sativa growing on the margins of fields in Garbyang of Byas valley.
Figure 15b. Dried seeds of Cannabis sativa collected from wild Chemical Constituents: Cannabidiolic acid (3-methyl-6-isopropenyl-4’pentyl-2’,6’-dihydroxy-1,2,3,6-tetrahydrobiphenyl-3’carboxylic acid) mp 1270, its acetate, cannabidiol, cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabinol, trans-cinnamic acid, n-nonacosane, eugenol, guaiacol, carbonyl compounds,
cannabichromene,
cannabidivarin,
1-dehydro-tetrahydrocannabinol,
tetrahydrocannabivarin,
dehydrotetrahydrocannabinol,
cannabivarichromene,
19-
dehydrotrans-tetrahydrocannabivarin, a mixture of campesterol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol and proline; orientin,
acyl
derivative 66
of
apigenol,
vitexin, isovitexin,
cannabispiran,
2’’-O-
glucopyranosylvitexin, cannabinoids
–
cannabielsoin,
2’’-O-glucopyranosylorientin
(+)cannabitriol,
and
C3-cannabichromanone,
cannabicoumaronone,
C3-
(+_)8,9-dihydroxy-9a(10a)-
dehydro-tetrahydrocannabinol (VI), and C3-cannaelsoic acid B; C3homolog and C3-homologus acid; 9,10-dihydroxy-6a(10a)dehydrotetrahydrocannabinol
(I);
cannabinodiol,
1-dehydro-3,4-cis-
tetrahydrocannabinol (II), beta-cannabispiranol – 7’-hydroxy-5’methoxyspiro(cyclohexane-1,1’-indan)-4beta-ol; production
inhibitor-
cannflavin;
spiroindans
prostaglandin –
7-hydroxy-5-
methoxyindan-1-spirocyclohexane (I), 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyindan-1spirocyclohexane (II) and 5,7-dihydroxyindan-1-spirocyclohexane (III) – and prenylated flavones – cannaflavin A and cannaflavin B; tetrahydrocannabivarol were isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; 1995). Friedelin, dihydrocarvone,
epifriedelinol,
beta-sitosterol,
carvone,
N-(p-hydroxy-beta-phenylethyl)-p-hydroxy-trans-
cinnamamide, stigmast-4-en-3-one, campest-4-en-3-one, stigmast-4,22dien-3-one,
stigmast-5-en-3beta-ol-7-one,
campest-5-en-3beta-ol-7-
one, stigmast-5,22-dien-3beta-ol-7-one, cannasativine, cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid, 9-dehydro-THC, cannabichroman, cannabicyclol, 8-dehydro-THC, cannabinol and cannabigerol isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995). Longifolene, humulene epoxides I and II, caryophyllenol I, mmentha-1,8(9)-dien-5-ol, n-alkanes ranging from C9 to C39 , 2-methyl alkanes, 3-methyl alkanes and dimethyl alkanes isolated from essential oil; zeatin and zeatin neuclosides and a base –L(+)-isoleucine betain, lignanamides – cannabisin A, B, C and D, Cannabinol and 9dehydrocannabinol isolated from seeds; N-acetylglucosamine and Nacetylgalactosamine isolated from stems and leaves; orientin, flavonoid glycosides – acylated O-glucoside of apigenol, O-glycosides of vitexin, isovitexin and orientin – isolated from leaves; Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), feruloyltyramine along with p-coumaroyltyramine isolated 67
from
seeds,
roots,
leaves
and
resin;
a
grossamide,
N-trans-
caffeoyltyramine, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, N-p-coumaroyltyramine and phloroglucinol-beta-D-glucoside found in shoot laticifer exudates and phloroglucinol identified in glandular trichomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; 1998). Canniprene, dihydrostilbenes, tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid, cannadivarinic
acid,
cannagerovarinic cannabispirenone
cannsbichromevarinic
acid, A,
Canniprene,
cannabispirenone
acid
and
cannabispiradienone, B,
alpha-
and
beta-
cannabispiranols, cannithrene 1, cannithrene 2, canniflavone 1, canniflavone
2,
5,4’-dihydroxy-3-methoxydihydrostilbene,
5,3’-
dihydroxy-3,4’-dimethoxydihydrostilbene and cannabispirone
were
isolated from Thai plant; anhydrocannabisativine, hydroxy and methoxy substituted 1,2-diphenylethanes (III, IV, V) isolated from Mexican marihuana, cannabicitran isolated from Lebanese plant; cannabispirol,
acetylcannabispirol,
cannabispirone
and
cannabispirenone isolated from Japanese plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995). Flowers and leaves contain 0.15 and 0.08% oil; cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabinol, beta-bisabolene, beta-caryophyllene, betacaryophyllene epoxide, alpha-humulene, gama-elemene, trans-betafarnesene and alpha-farnesene found in oils estracted from flowers and leaves; leaf oil also contains alpha-bergamotene whereas flower oil contains alpha-gurjunene, alpha-bisabolol, alpha-pinene, myrcene, limonene and terpinolene; active fraction of plant extract contains choline (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Uses: This species is harvested for fibre. Cannabis fibre is, however, less flexible and coarser, lacks elasticity and does not bleach well. Therefore, it is not recommended for use as fine textile. However, it is more durable and stronger than jute and is used in making ropes. It is often mixed with
68
woolen yarn for making bed sheets, shawls and shoulder bags (Anonymous, 1993). This
species
is
toxic
to
cattle.
It
causes
depression,
unconsciousness and narcosis. Symptomatic treatment cures the poisoned animal. It has insecticidal activity and the alcoholic extract has marked repellent action against flies and mosquitoes (Anonymous, 1993). It has psychotropic effects and hence used as a narcotic.Bhang, ganja and charas are derived from this species. Bhang consists of the dried, crushed matured leaves and flower shoots of male and/or female plants. Ganja is prepared from the flowering and/or fruiting tops of the plant. Charas or Hashish or Marihuana is the resinous matter collected from the leaves and flowering tops of the female plants. Seeds are chewed and swallowed to get relief from pain and disorders of stomach and infusion of seeds is used in gonorrhoea; leaves are heated in flames of fire and held up close to the mouth to get relief from pain; leaf juice is taken internally about 15 ml four times a day to treat diarrhea and dysentery; fresh leaves are crushed and rubbed on the skins for skin infections. Paste of fresh leaves is useful in resolving tumours. Powder of the leaves serves as useful dressing for wounds and sores. This herb is used for easing pain and inducing sleep and for soothing influence on nervous disorders. It does not cause constipation nor affect the appetite like opium. Two grams of dried leaves are taken with sugar and black pepper to treat diarrhea and dysentery. It is useful in digestive disorders like dyspepsia and other bowel complaints. In small doses it also acts like appetizer. Charas in doses of 15 to 60 mg helps in periodical headaches, migraine, acute mania, insanity and delirium, nervous vomiting, nervous exhaustion, convulsions and neuralgia. Juice of the plant removes dandruff and headlice. Smoke from burning ganja is inhaled as an antidote to poisoning by orpiment, an arsenic mineral used as yellow dye and artist’s pigment (Bakhru, 1990; Manandhar, 1998; Joshi and Joshi, 2000; Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003).
69
Leaves are bitter, sharp, hot, astringent to bowels, tonic, aphrodisiac, antidiarrhoeic, soporific, cause thirst and biliousness; water extract anthelmintic; oil good for earache; bark is tonic, good for hydrocele, inflammations, piles; resin is smoked to allay hiccough and bronchitis (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Cannabis is recommended as a psychiatric aid in treating depression and high blood pressure. It is useful in treating glaucoma by reducing intra-ocular hypertension. It is also useful in treating extreme nausea in patients undergoing cancer therapy (Anonymous, 1993). Marihuana smoke and Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are toxic to lung and impair pulmonary antibacterial defence system. An active fraction of plants extract is effective in treatment of intestinal obstructions (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Conservation status: It is abundant through out Byas, Chaudas and Darma valley in Dharchula Himalaya. It is an invasive species. Trade: Trade of seeds or plant portions of this species is strictly regulated all over the country. Open export or import of Cannabis sativa parts or the formulations made out of this plant is prohibited. It can only be done under proper licence and control. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Seeds (Figure 15b) are used in making excellent chutney. Seeds are first lightly roasted and grounded. It is then properly mixed and grounded along with green chilly, garlic, salt, Hippophae salicifolia syrup and a little sugar.This chutney is relished by everyone in the region. Stem fibers are used in making ropes. There is no cultivation of Hemp in Dharchula hills and seeds required are collected from wild plants. The Bhotia community does not use this species as narcotic.
70
5.14. Carum carvi Linn. (Caraway) Family
:
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Local Name
:
Daye, Thawe (Byas, Darma), Shahajira
Description: A perennial or biennial erect herb reaching up to a height of 60 cm. Stems furrowed and branched. Leaves bipinnate, 6-8 cm long, upper leaves smaller and less divided. Flowers white or pinkish, in compound umbels with 8 or rays. Seeds about 5 mm long, pungent and bitter in taste. (Figure 16a). Phenology: It flowers during June-July and fruits during July-August. Ecology and Distribution: It prefers open meadows, fallow arable fields and waste lands between 2,700 and 3,600 m. Propagation: Carum carvi grows well in ordinary garden soil as long as it is not too wet in winter. It prefers moist soil, full sun or partial shade. Plants growing in more northerly latitudes and also in full sun are richer in essential oils and are, therefore, more aromatic (Genders, 1994; Phillips and Foy, 1990). It grows well with most plants; especially those that are shallow rooted (Allardice, 1993). Seeds are harvested from ripe fruits and are sown in situ during spring, late summer or early autumn. Chemical Constituents: Trans- and cis-carveol, alpha-pinene, camphene, beta-pinene, myrcene, 3-carene, limonene, gama-terpinene, p-cymene, cadinene, myristicin, carveol acetate, cuminaldehyde, 4-terpineol and perillyl alcohol isolated in essential oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993). Phytofluence, beta-sitosterol, umbelliferone and scopoletin isolated in seed oil; (+)carvone and (+)limonene comprised 87.5% of 71
essential oil from seed; the other constituents were citronellyl acetate, dihydrocarvone, eugenol, isolimonene, limonene oxide, caryophyllene, dihydrocarveol, linalool, p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol, alpha-pinene, betapinene,
phellandrene,
sabinene,
alpha-terpinene,
terpinelene,
DELTA3-carene, camphene, carveol,p-cymene and myrcene (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; Chowdhury, 2002). Lipids (10.5%) isolated from seeds contain hydrocarbons (0.2), triacylglycerols (66.0), waxes (0.1), free fatty acids (5.1), free alcohols, sterols (0.4) and chlorophyll (0.1%); lipids from roots contain glyceryl esters of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, petroselinic acid in both free and esterified forms also present in seeds (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Per 100 gm seed contains 333 calories, 9.9 gm water, 19.8 gm protein, 14.6 gm fat, 49.9 gm carbohydrate, 12.6 gm fibre, 5.9 gm ash, 689 mg calcium, 568 mg phosphorus, 16.2 mg iron, 258 mg magnesium, 17 mg sodium, 1351 mg potassium, 5.5 mg zinc, 363 IU vitamin A, 0.383 mg thiamine, 0.37999 mg rivoflavin, 3.61 mg niacin; per 100 gm leaves contain 253 calories, 7.2 gm water, 20 gm protein, 4.4 gm fat, 55.8 gm carbohydrate, 11.9 gm fibre, 12.6 gm ash, 1784 mg calcium, 543 mg phosphorus, 48.8 mg iron, 451 mg magnesium, 208 mg sodium, 3308 mg potassium, 3.3 mg zinc, 0.42 mg thiamine, 0.28 mg riboflavin, 2.8 mg niacin and 1.5 mg vitamin B6 (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Uses: In Ayurveda, Carum carvi seeds are considered carminative, stimulant, stomachic, lactogogue and spasmolytic. It is used in children’s ailments and flatulence. Carum carvi bath is recommended for painful swelling of womb, poultice is helpful for painful and protruding piles. Plant parts are used in venereal sores, syphilis, constipation and cholera. Essential oil from seed is antibacterial and is useful in haemorrhoids (Joshi, 2000). Seeds are astringent to the bowels, antiperiodic, antidysentric, anthelmintic, diuretic, expectorant, pectoral, and tonic. The seeds are used to cure inflammations, diseases of head, leucoderma, dysentery, 72
abdominal tumors, hiccough and eructations; seeds also increase appetite and give refief from griping in the stomach and are considered good for eyes. Burnt seed powder is applied to the piles (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Its antispasmodic action soothes the digestive tract and its carminative action relieves bloating caused by gas (Pruthi, 1976; Bown, 1995; Chevallier, 1996). Seed is also used in the treatment of bronchitis and is an ingredient of cough remedies, especially useful for children; the seed also increases the production of breast milk in nursing mothers (Chevallier, 1996).
Figure 16a. Plants of Carum carvi growing along margins of fields at Garbyang of Byas valley
Figure 16b. Dried seeds of Carum carvi 73
Seeds are rich in protein and fat and are often chewed after a meal to sweeten the breath and to relieve heartburn after a rich meal (Phillips and Foy, 1990). Essential oil from the seed is used to flavour icecreams, candy, soft drinks and pharmaceuticals. Crushed seeds are brewed into tea (Facciola, 1990; Bown, 1995). It is also used as tonic. One to four drops of the essential oil of caraway with a pinch of of sugar or in a teaspoonful of water is effective in flatulence and indigestion (http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh). Tablets containing a combination of 100 mg of each of Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaves, Carum carvi, and Foeniculum vulgare (fennel or badi saunf) fruits, and 30 mg gentian root give relief to patients with idiopathic dyspepsia (Uehleke et al., 2002). Conservation status: It is common in Byas and Darma valley. There is no commercial extraction of the plant in Dharchula area. It is also cultivated on a limited scale in some places in Darma, Byas and Chaudas. Trade: There is a limited trade of Carum carvi seeds in Dharchula areas. Locals cultivate it in home gardens There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Carum carvi or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Carum carvi seeds (Figure 16b) are used as condiment and is often used as substitute for common jira.
74
5.15. Cirsium wallichii DC. (Thistle) Syn. Cnicus wallichii (DC.) Clarke Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Nache kulpu, Mancheu (Chaudas, Darma)
Description: Annual-perennial herb reaching up to a height of 1.2m, covered entirely with whitish spine. Stem hollow. Leaves sessile, pinnately lobed with spinecent. Flower heads solitary or clustered, borne on leafless peduncles, purple or purplish white. Achenes glabrous. Pappus hairs palewhite (Figure 17).
Figure 17. Plants of Cirsium wallichii growing in abandoned fields at Filam of Darma valley Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in cultivated areas, abandoned fields, open slopes, forest clearings and along road sides between 2,500 and 4,000 m. It is distributed all over Byas, Darma and Chaudas valleys.
75
Propagation: Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown in the raised nursery beds during autumn or spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. About 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during or before rains. It is also vegetatively propagated by root cuttings. Chemical Constituents: Isorhamnetin-7-glucoside, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside, taraxasterol, luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside isolated from whole plant; an alkaloid (O-acetyljacoline) isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). Conservation status: Cirsium wallichii is abundant in the region. There is no commercial extraction of the plant in Dharchula area. Trade: There is no trade of any other parts or derivatives of Cirsium wallichii in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Cirsium wallichii or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Cirsium wallichii root is used by the local inhabitants for medicinal purposes. The root paste is applied externally on the boils for suppuration. Infusion of mixture of Cirsium wallichii root and Pyrus pashia (locally known as Balin) fruit and leaves in water is poured on the head for cooling at the time of severe headache. It is a first report of medicinal use of this species by a community. Phytochemical studies of this species are urgently needed to find out its potential medical applications and development of new drugs.
76
5.16. Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. (Coleus) Syn. Coleus barbatus (Andr.) Benth. Family
:
Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Local Name
:
Chhyanglang Jari (Darma, Chaudas, Byas)
Description: Annual, erect, aromatic herb, about 1 m high with perennial tuberous root stock. Stem hairy, branched from the woody base. Leaves ovate-cordate, hairy, crenate serrate, pale-green, 3-8 cm long and 2-6 cm broad. Flowers numerous, arranged in cymes, pink or white. Seeds pale and shining (Figure 18a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on dry exposed steep slopes in crevices of rocky outcrops between 1,000 to 2,000 m. It is abundant along the river Kali and river Dhauli between Yelaghad and Mangti of Dharchula areas. Propagation: This species does not grow in loamy or sandy loam soils having pH of 6.1 to 7.9. It can be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers or stem cuttings and also by seed. Tubers are planted in rainy season. JuneJuly are the best months for planting of stem cuttings. Tubers are harvested after 5 to 8 months of planting. Planting with spacing of 40 cm between the plants and 60 cm between the ridges gives high yields of tuber. Application of fertilizers such as 40 kg of Nitrogen, 60 kg of Phosphorus and 50 kg of Potassium also enhances tuber yields (Shah and Kalakoti). Chemical Constituents: Diterpenes coleonol D, coleol, coleonone, labdane diterpenoids (I, II and III), 1,9-dideoxycoleonol B, coleonol C, 1acetoxycoleosol, deoxycoleonol), triterpenoid (coleonolic acid) and 77
forskolin were isolated from roots; coleonol E, barbatusin, coleon F, cyclobutatusin, 16( R ) plectrinon A, plectrinon B, coleon E, coleon F, plectrin and allylroyleanone were isolated from leaves; a phenolic glycoside (coleoside B), antihypertensive labdane diterpenoid (13-epi9-deoxycoleonol), abietane diterpene (20-deoxocarnosol) and secoabietane diterpene (cariocal) isolated from stem; (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; 1995; 1998; Roy et al., 1993). Monoterpene
compounds
(alpha-thujene,
alpha-pinene,
camphene, beta-pinene, p-cymene, 3-nonanone, myrcene, betaphellandrene, 3-decanone, alpha-copaene & bornylacetate) and sesquiterpene
compounds
(cisbergamotene,
humulene,
alpha-
curcumene, beta-bisabolene, beta-elemene, gama-curcumene, deltasedinene, cuparene, alpha-ionone & beta-ionone) were isolated from essential oil extracted from the roots. Bornylacetate (32.25%) and 3decanone (18.65%) are the major constituents of the essential oil (Joshi and Mathela, 1999). It was found that percentage of coleonol was higher in Coleus forskohlii found in South India as compared to those found in Kumaon, Uttaranchal. There was four fold increases in percentages of sugar and starch in southern samples while the protein percentage was almost twice as high in the plants of Kumaon (Srivastava et al., 2002). Pharmacology: Forskolin was found to be the main active constituent of the roots.
It reduces blood pressure. Forskolin activates an enzyme,
adenylate cyclase, which increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in cells, which is the most important cell-regulating compound (Lindner et al., 1978; Seamon and Daly, 1981; Dubey et al., 1981). Activation of cAMP results in inhibition of platelet activation, increased force of contraction of heart muscle, relaxation of smooth muscle, increased insulin secretion and increased thyroid function (http://www.phytomedicine.com.au/files/articles/coleus.pdf).
78
Figure 18a. Plants of Coleus forskohlii in its natural habitat near Ranguti along river Kali
Figure 18b. Cleaned and dry roots of Coleus forskohlii Uses: It is used as a tonic in South India. The roots are also used in treatment of worms. The root paste allays burning in festering boils. Root is ground in mustard oil and the paste is applied on eczema and skin infections. It
is
also used as antiaging and antioxidant agent and as a remedy for heart, abdominal and respiratory disorders (Srivastava et al., 2002).
79
Coleus is currently being used clinically in the treatment of hypertension, congestive heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, thyroid underactivity, chronic obstructive airways disease, poor digestion and psoriasis. It is also being used to assist fat mobilization and weight loss (http://www.phytomedicine.com.au/files/articles/coleus.pdf). Conservation status: Tuberous roots are collected locally for its medicinal value. Wild harvest may threaten this species. It is common on steep slopes of gorge through which Kali River flows. Trade: There is a limited trade for this spcies in Dharchula area. The species is not listed for ban or restriction in trade. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Tuberous roots (Figure 18b) are used by the local inhabitants as one of the most potent medicine. Dried root chewed is regularly for curing intestinal ulcers and cancers. Root paste in water is also applied externally on wounds and tumors and in the treatment of skin diseases. It is quite effective in the treatment of cough and throat infections when taken along with Potentilla sundaica and clove. Its application and efficacy in the treatment of cancer and its usefulness in treatment of other diseases reported in Dharchula area needs to be investigated to find out its potential in development of new drugs. Extensive and increased collection for tuber for medicinal purpose may make this species rare in wild. Cultivation in abandoned fields is the best conservation strategy for this species.
80
5.17. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. (Caterpillar fungus) Family
:
Clavicipitaceae
Local Name
:
Nabu, Keeda (Byas, Chaudas, Darma),Yar-rtsadgun-bu (Tibetan), Dong Chong Xia Cao (Chinese)
Description: Cordyceps sinensis is an entomogenous fungus (Figure 19a). The mycelium of fungus grows in the soils of high altitudes. The mycelium infects the larvae of the moth, Hepialus armoricanus confined to the highlands of Himalaya. The infected larvae hibernate below ground throughout winter and the infected caterpillar becomes mummified by the growth of the mycelium of the fungus. The fungus kills the infected host and grows throughout the cadaver and a rod-like stroma of the fungus emerges out of the mummified shell of the dead host during summer months. The dead caterpillar (Figure 19b) is entirely composed of fungal mycelium (Bok Jin Woo et al., 1999; Shun et al., 2002). In China the Hepialid baimaensis is the major host. This feeds on alpine plants such as Polygonum, Astragalus, Salix, Rhododendron and Arenaria (Shen et al., 1990). The stromata grow up to 5 cm long and are club shaped and solitary. The spores are colourless. Cordyceps sinensis growing on mummified insect is found during April-June. In Tibetan Medicine system it is known as Yar-rtsa-dgun-bu which literally means grass in summer and worm in winter. Ecology and Distribution: It is found in Alpine meadows at altitudes above 3,500 m (Figure 19c). It is abundant in Chipla, Malpa top, Njyang top, Karschila, Budhi Galja, Baling, Bon, Dugtu, Panchachuli, Ngansa Marti, Veena Odyar, Karangdang, Pamayar, Nampa and Api of Dharchula Himalayas.
81
Figure 19a. Stroma of Cordyceps sinensis buried under ground
Figure 19b. Mummified caterpillars with stroma
Figure 19c. Landscape of Chipla at 4200m above sea level showing the habitat of Cordyceps sinensis 82
Propagation: Cordyceps is not yet cultured in vitro in India, but it has been successfully cultured in China. The in vitro grown mycelium yields more active ingredients than that found from mummified caterpillar. Mycelium is grown on specially formulated substrate under controlled conditions of temeperature and Oxygen for optimum bio-activity. Mycelium is dried using low temperature air dryers (Zhu et al., 1998; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002). Chemical
constituents:
Polysaccharides, acid,
nucleosides a
(adenosine,
guanosine,uridine),
cordycepic
cyclopeptide
cordycedipeptide,
ergosteryl-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside,
named 22-
dihydroergosteryl-3-O-beta-D- glucopyranoside, anti-tumor compounds 5alpha,8alpha-epidoxy-24(
R)-methylcholesta-6,22-dien-3beta-D-
glucopyranoside and 5,6-epoxy-24( R)-methylcholesta-7,22-dien-3betaol besides were isolated (Bok Jin Woo et al., 1999; Li et al., 2001; Li et al., 2003, Jia et al., 2005). Cordyceps sinensis exhibits biological and pharmacological actions in hepatic, renal, cardiovascular and immunologicak systems as well as anti cancer activity. The pharmacological functions of Cordyceps sinensis are due to bioactive polysaccharides, modified nucleosides and cyclosporine-like metabolites in the fungus. The extracts of the fungus alters apoptotic homeostasis (Wang Sheng-Yuan and Ming-Shi Shiao, 2000; Buenz et al., 2005). Uses: Cordyceps (Figure 19c) is valued very highly in Tibetan Medicine System. It is used to increase vitality and in restoring regenerative fluids – especially the fertility of sperms and kidney heat (Tsering Norbu, Tibetan Medical & Astro Institute, Gangchen Kyishong). Tibetans drink alcohol soaked with cordyceps or green tea by mixing with cordyceps for vitality and for the treatment of stomach ailments. Cordyceps is a safe drug and can be taken for long periods of time. 83
Cordyceps has been used as tonic, as medicine in the treatment of nephritis and as aphrodisiac since time immemorial. It is used in religious ceremonies in China and Indonesia. About 2000 years ago Chinese used to keep stone effigies of insects with Cordyceps in the mouth of the dead bodies hoping to revive them or to prevent decomposition. Consumption of pork boiled with Cordyceps is known to cure opium habit, poisoning, jaundice and even tuberculosis. It is also used as tonic, astringent, expectorant and anti-asthmatic properties. It is believed to tonify kidney and is also used for weak back and knees, impotence and other kidney disorders. It is also good for chronic cough and cough with blood in the sputum. In China chronic renal failure patients are treated by administering 250 ml of Cordyceps sinensis decoction daily with half in the morning and half in the evening for 4-6 weeks (Xin Zhang-Guo et al., 2002; Hao et al., 2002; Ho et al., 2003; Gui et al., 2003). Cordyceps sinensis is known to be very effective for increasing stamina. Chinese believe that potency of Cordyceps is enhanced when it is cooked with duck (Tierra, 1998). Cordyceptin, an antibiotic developed from this fungus, is very effective against all kinds of bacteria that have developed resistance to other antibiotics. It is effective against tuberculosis, lung and respiratory infections and in the treatment of leprosy. In the Chinese National games in 1993, a group of nine women athletes who had been taking Cordyceps shattered nine world records. In Dharchula region, locals consume Cordyceps with alcohol. They dip Cordyceps in local brew or alcohol for some time before consuming. It is believed that the medicinal properties of Cordyceps sinensis are because of the combined effect of the fungus and the mummified caterpillars. Conservation status: No noticeable decline in its habitat was observed inspite of its extensive harvests from the wild. Locals believe that collections promote its growth and abundance. The species is not mentioned in any Red Data Books or IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
84
Trade: Traders from Nepal and Tibet, pay up to Rs. 25-30 per piece or Rs 90, 000 per kg in Dharchula, one kg has about 3,500 pieces. During May-June, many villages in the region camp in the meadows in search of Cordyceps. Many families earn their livelihood through harvests of cordyceps from wild for about 2 months. There is no organized trade for the product. Cordyceps sinensis extracted from Chipla, Njyang top and Malpa top are known to be of higher grade and larger in size as compared to those harvested from other areas. There has been steep rise in market prices and demand for cordyceps and increase is 15-20% every year. The estimated volume of trade in Dharchula is over 500 kg per year, half of which is harvested from Nepal. It has had tremendous impact on the rural economy of Dharchula areas. During the months of May and June the entire community moves into mountains for collection of Cordyceps. On an average a family of five collects about half a kg in 1-2 months that fetches over Rs. 30,000. There is a competition among villages for extraction of Cordyceps from wild and villagers do not permit outsiders to harvest Cordyceps from habitats situated in their villages. In fact people from one village require permission to collect and have to pay fixed amounts to collect the species from habitat of another village. This competition often leads to fights over ownership rights. Occurrence and tremendous economic impact of Cordyceps were not reported until about 5 years ago (Garbyal, 2001) as it is not known to be used in any Indian system of medicine. Moreover, it has no market in India. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: There has been an apprehension that species may become extinct if the present level of extraction continues. Detailed investigations are required to assess the conservation status of the species. Some Village Panchayats have earned good income for the village through levies/taxes from the extractors. Cordyceps has indeed come as a boon to the high mountain villages, which has made it possible for them to earn sufficient income to 85
see them through and improve the quality of their life considerably (Garbyal et al., 2004). There appears to be a negative correlation between abundance of Cordyceps sinensis and low winter snowfall and early melting of snow in the mountains. For example, during the winter of 2004 snow fall was less and all the snow had melted by the beginning of April. Production of Cordyceps sinensis during 2004 was maximum. The annual income of the family varied from Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 250,000 from the extraction of Cordyceps alone. It has also been observed that the extraction of other medicinal plants in the region has declined considerably after the demand of Cordyceps increased. The extraction of cordyceps has had very positive impact on the population of other rare and endangered species in wild. The key issues that need to be addressed are: (i) development of techniques for rearing large number of caterpillars and mass inoculation of caterpillars with fungus, (ii) development of appropriate habitat conditions required for fungus growth and multiplication of larvae, (iii) development of trading facilities, and (iv) intensive ecological and chemical studies through biotechnological approaches. If these issues are addressed, the livelihood of the communities will be drastically altered and the species as well as ecosystem that nurture not only Cordyceps but all other species associated
with
it
will
develop
on
sustainable
manner.
The
biotechnological potential of this species is enormous, particularly in the development of new drugs.
86
5.18. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. (Mussoorie Berry) Family
:
Coriariaceae
Local Name
:
Yarkhalo (Chaudas)
Description: Deciduous and semi-deciduous shrub reaching up to height of about 4 m. Bark dark greyish or brownish, rough and deeply cracked. Branches quadrangular, young ones tinged with reddish-brown. Leaves 5-10 cm long, 1.5-6 cm broad, opposite, ovate or elliptic. Flowers axillary and solitary or in axillary clusters, greenish-yellow. Berries pinkish or reddish when young and turns blue-black (Figure 20).
Figure 20. Branches of a plant of Coriaria nepalensis growing along stream near Sirdang in Chaudas Phenology: It flowers during March-April and fruits during April-June. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open forests of the southern aspects of temperate zones of Chaudas valley. It is common in Chaudas between 1,500 and 3,000 m. It is a nitrogen fixing pioneer species of landslips (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).
87
Propagation: Coriaria nepalensis prefers a fairly good loamy soil in a sheltered position in open or under light shade. Seed is sown during February/March. It takes 1 - 3 months to germinate. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. These are allowed to grow throughout winter. Saplings are planted out in the field in late spring or early summer after frosts. This species can also be propagated vegetatively by planting cuttings of half-ripe wood (Duke and Ayensu, 1985; http://www.pfaf.org).
Chemical Constituents: Fatty acid - (R) 13-hydroxy-cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid (I) - has been isolated in the seed oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Uses: Most parts of the plant, particularly seeds, are reported to be toxic (Kunkel, 1984). Fruits are used in beverage (Gamble, 1972; Singh and Kachroo, 1976). Leaves and bark are used to intoxicate fishes. Baskets are made from stem (Gaur, 1999). It is one of the food plants of the silk moth Actias selene. Conservation status: It is abundant in Chaudas, particularly near Sirdang, Sirkha. Trade: There is no trade of this species in the region. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Fruits are edible Excess consumption of fruits leads to intoxication and unconsciousness for 2-3 days. But it is not fatal. It is a very fast growing species and is used for firewood and leaves and branches are lopped for fodder. It coppices well and is an excellent soil binder. It is a keystone species as it processes the habitat for ecological succession through enrichment of soil.
88
5.19. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Family
:
Papaveraceae (Fumariaceae)
Local Name
:
Balcham jari (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: Perennial herb about 20-30 cm tall with woody root stock covered with leaf sheaths. Roots yellow and turn blackish when dried. Stem erect. Leaves radical and as long as the stem, long petioled, much-dissected, ultimate segments ovate-oblong, 1-1.5 cm long. Flowers arranged, 2-2.5 cm long, bright yellow (Figure 21a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September. Distribution: It grows in open meadows, grassy slopes and damp places of the alpine region. It is common and widely distributed throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma between 3,000 and 4,500 m. Propagation: Corydalis govaniana prefers moist, well-drained rather light soil, thriving in semi-shade. Seeds are harvested from ripe fruits and are surface sown immediately as they rapidly loses viability on drying. Seeds germinate in 1 - 3 months. Seeds are sown thinly so that the seedlings can grow undisturbed during the first year. The seedlings produce only one leaf in the first year of growth and are very prone to damping off. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil and are allowed to grow under partially shaded area for at least one year. Saplings are planted in the field during winter (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Choline, corlumine (mp 1620), bicuculline (mp 1990) and
isocorydine
(mp
1860)
were
isolated
from
roots;
three
tetrahydroprotoberberine alkaloids – corygovanine, (-)govadine and govanine – along with bicuculline were isolated from leaves and stems; 89
protopine, ochotensine, 13-epiyenhusomine and isocorydine isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1995).
Figure 21a. Harvested plant of Corydalis govaniana from Pungwe of Chaudas
Figure 21b. Cleaned and air dried roots of Corydalis govaniana
90
Uses: Root (Figure 21b) is used as tonic, diuretic, alterative and antiperiodic. It is prescribed in the treatment of syphilitic, scrofulous and cutaneous affections (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). In Tibetan medicine whole plant is used as antitoxin, febrifuge, anti-inflammatory and vermifuge. It is also used as antidote for poisoning and for the treatment of swelling of limbs and stomachic/intestinal pains from worm infestations. It has sweet and bitter taste (Tsarong, 1994). Conservation status: At present the number of populations is fairly large, particularly in Chaudas but continuous harvests from the wild may make this species endangered. Trade: There is traffic in Corydalis govaniana roots from Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Root extract, which is very bitter in taste, is taken as remedy for high fever. It is a very potent medicine and has good commercial value.
91
5.20. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo Syn. Orchis latifolia Linn.
Family
:
Orchidaceae
Local Name
:
Hathajari (Darma, Byas, Chaudas), Salam Panja
Description: Perennial erect herb, about 60 cm tall. Root tuberous, palm shaped. Leaves 3-6, lanceolate, 6-15 cm long, 3-5 cm broad. Spikes cylindric. Flowers with purple lip with dark purple spots, spur stout (Figure 22a & 22b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in alpine and sub-alpine meadows of Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys between 3,000 and 4,000 m (Figure 22a). Propagation: It is often cultivated in home gardens by some villagers of Budhi, Nabi and Kuti. Wildlings were collected during October and these were kept at one place till they were planted in the field during April. It is also propagated vegetatively through tubers. Uses: Root powder along with milk is administered for spermatorrhoea. It is also used as rejuvenating tonic, to augment vigour and as aphrodisiac. 5-10 gm of dry root paste is given orally to women with one glass of milk to stop internal bleeding after childbirth. This species is used extensively in Tibetan Medicine. In Tibetan language the tuber is known as dbang lags (“Wang lag”) meaning hand of Wang po or God Indra, which is associated with longevity and virility (Arya and Prakash, 1999; Tsarong, 1994). Washed, scalded and dry tubers are known as Salep. They yield a lot of mucilage with water and form a jelly, which is nutritious and useful in diarrhea, dysentery and chronic fever. Infusion of tubers is given for 92
hoarseness. Salep is also used as a sizing material in silk industry (Ambasta et al., 1986).
Figure 22a. Population of Dactylorhiza hatagirea growing in grazing grounds of Darma valley
b
c
Figure 22b. Plants of Dactylorhiza hatagirea cultivated at Budhi of Byas valley Figure 22c. Cleaned and air dried roots of Dactylorhiza hatagirea
93
In north Sikkim, the tuber is made into paste (1-2 gm per dose) and is prescribed twice daily for gastric complaints, jaundice, body ache and in bone fractures to help bone marrow formation (Maity et al., 2004). Conservation status: It is abundant in Bon, Filam, Dugtu, Dangtu, Sipu and Dakar villages of Darma valley. In some localities of Darma and Byas it has become rare due to over exploitation. For example, it was common in Budhi Galja, Api, Gankang, Kalapani and Kuti of Byas valley until few years ago, but it is now extremely rare at these localities. It is listed as vulnerable due to over-exploitation in Indian Plant Red Data Book (Jain and Sastry, 1991). FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in North-West India and listed as critically endangered in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: Traffic in dried roots (Figure 22c) is common. Tubers are sold presently at the rate of about Rs. 800 per kg. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Dactylorhiza hatagirea obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of cultivation from the forest officials. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Tubers of more than two year old Dactylorhiza hatagirea plants are used by the 94
local inhabitants for medicinal purposes. It is considered excellent medicine for fractures, wounds and cuts. Root paste with water are applied externally on the wounds, cuts and fractures and then bandaged. This species grows profusely in some parts of Darma valley. Many villagers in Darma valley have taken up its cultivation on a small scale. This species can be successfully cultivated in abandoned fields and home gardens. The natural habitat of the species is meadows where these can be maintained by protecting them against grazing. The biotechnological potential of this species is not yet fully realized. Phytochemical investigations may yield novel drugs.
95
5.21. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Family
:
Dioscoreaceae
Local Name
:
Ken jari (Dharchula), Gun, Tairu
Description: Herbaceous climber with unarmed stems twining to the left. Rootstock horizontal, born close to the surface of the soil; Leaves 5-15 cm long, 3-10 cm broad, alternate variable in shape and size, ovate-lanceolate with acuminate apex and cordate base, basal lobes rounded. Flowers small, unisexual, male spikes 7-30 cm long, female spikes 8-12 cm long. Capsules broadly rounded, winged (Figure 23a & 23b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September. Ecology and Distribution: It is a common climber of broad leaved and scrub forests of the valleys. It grows throughout Dharchula Himalayas between 1,000-2,500 m and prefers humus rich soils.
Propagation: Dioscorea deltoidea is successfully grown on rich organic. It thrives under open or light shaded areas of temperate zones. Seed is sown in March to April under light cover. Seed germinates in 1 to 3 weeks. 1015 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags or pots filled with soil and are allowed to grow for a year. Seedlings are planted in the field during late spring. It can also be propagated by division of rootstock. The plant produces a number of shoots and the top 5 - 10 cm of the root can be potted up for propagation and the lower part of the root can be harvested for use. Rhizome pieces of 50-60 gm in weight carrying 1-2 buds are commercially used for mass propagation of the species. Planting of rhizome is done during rainy season at 35-45 cm row-to-row distance. Vines are supported on coir ropes tied to the wires tied at 5 m apart. A 96
fertilizer dose of 120 kg Nitrogen, 80 kg phosphate and 60 kg potash gives the maximum yield. Three year old crop gives optimum yields and maximum diosgenin content. Timber rotting can be contained by treating the beds with benlate (0.3%) before planting (http://www.pfaf.org).
Chemical Constituents: Rhizomes and other parts of the plants are rich source of diosgenin and its glycoside; diosgenin and their acetates; smilagenone, glucopyranosyl
epismilagenin,
alkanes,
diogenin-3-D-b-D-
(1-3)-0-(b=D-glucopyraqnosyl
(1R4))-3-D
glucopyranoside, cholesterol, B-sitosterol, stigmasterol, deltonin, dioscin, Trioside, tetraoside (I) of furostanol type and a furostan isolated from rhizomes; a steroidal saponin detofolindiosgenin-3-O-1-Lrhamnopyranoside (1-2)-(a =L = rhamnopyronosyl (1-4)-4’-O-bhydroxy-b-methylglulanyl)-b-glucopyranoside, a glycoside deltofolin and dioscin isolated from leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991;1993; 1995). Uses: The tubers were used as detergent in the past. The diosgenin present in tubers is used for the manufacture of cortisones and other steroid-based drugs. These are used as anti-flammatory, anabolic and antifertility medicines and in the treatment of various disorders of the genitary organs as well as in a host of other diseases such as asthma and arthritis. The tubers are poisonous if eaten raw soon after harvest (Foster and Duke, 1990, Chopra et al., 1956). Tubers yield saponin and are used to make soap, which is used for washing silk, wood and hair and to kill lice. The saponin contains good quantity of steroids employed in medicine. Root extract is used for colouring fabrics and is used as fish poison (Agarwal, 1986). Boiled tubers are used for the treatment of urinogenital diseases (Gaur, 1999).
97
Figure 23a. Plants of Dioscorea deltoidea growing in home garden in Dharchula
Figure 23b. Bulbil and fruits of Dioscorea deltoidea growing in a home garden in Dharchula Conservation status: This species is vulnerable to over exploitation. Dioscorea deltodea has been listed under critically endangered category. FRLHT has put this species in the list of critical species in North-West India (Anonymous, 1997). This species is included in Appendix II of the CITES listed flora of India, which means that it is not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in this species is subject to
98
strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival (Anonymous, 2000) . Trade: There is no significant trade of this species in Dharchula areas. This species is in the Negative List of Exports. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Dioscorea deltoidea obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of cultivation. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Leaves are used as febrifuge and the tuber is used as medicine to increase potency. Bulbils are edible and cooked like potato. Many pharmaceutical companies cultivate this species in herbal gardens at lower ranges of Himalayas. Phytochemically higher altitude populations may be different from the populations cultivated at lower elevations. Such comparative phytochemical studies may yield novel genotypes of high biotechnological potential.
99
5.22. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke. (False or Indian Strawberry) Syn. . Fragaria indica Andr. Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Kawwa ganth (Chaudas)
Description: Perennial prostrate stolonoferous herb with rooting at nodes. Stems 10-20 cm long, softly hairy. Leaves 3-foliate; leaflets ovate-oblong, 1-2 cm long, silky, pubescent, toothed in upper half. Flowers yellow, 1-2 cm across, solitary or a few, in axillary or terminal cymes. Fruits red, 10 mm in diameter (Figure 24).
Figure 24. Plants of Duchesnea indica growing wild in Sirdang of Chaudas Phenology: It flowers during May-July and fruits during Sept-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on moist rocky areas covered with thin layer of rich organic soils and also along margins of channels formed from melting of snow. It prefers shady conditions and wet soils of meadows and
100
melting of snow. It prefers shady conditions and wet soils of meadows and occurs throughout temperate and sub-alpine zones of Himalayas. It is common in Chaudas and Darma between 2,000 and 3,000 m. Propagation: Duchesnea indica grows well in moist and well-drained exposed soil or under semi-shade. It also grows in rocky places. Seeds are sown in spring and germination usually takes place within 1 to 6 weeks. About 810 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil and these are then planted in the field during summer. Plants can also be propagated by division of stolons in spring or late summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Methoxydehydrocholesterol isolated (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). The fruit contains about 3.4% sugar, 1.5% protein, 1.6% ash, Vitamin C is 6.3mg per 100ml of juice (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982). Uses: It is a wild relative of strawberry but has very little or no flavour (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982). The whole plant is anticoagulant, antiseptic, depurative and febrifuge. Its fresh leaves are crushed and applied externally as a poultice. It is used in the treatment of boils and abscesses, eczema, burns, ringworm, laryngitis, acute tonsillitis, snake and insect bites and traumatic injuries. A decoction of the leaves is used in the treatment of swellings (http://www.pfaf.org). An infusion of the flowers is used to activate the blood circulation, fruit is also used to cure skin diseases (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Leaf juice is given in the treatment of diarrhea and leucorrhoea (Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: Duchesnea indica is a common herb found throughout Chaudas valley.
101
Trade: There is no trade of fruits or any parts of Duchesnea indica in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Fruits are like strawberry but not edible. When it is consumed, it induces goiter or lumping in the throat (locally called ganth). Leaves are consumed internally to treat skin eruptions and for cough, sore throat and tonsillitis. It is believed that it clears throat. Leaves are dried and are used for medicinal purposes.
102
5.23. Elaeagnus umbellata auct nonThunb. (Autumn Olive) Syn. Elaeagnus Parviflora Wall. ex Royle
Family Local Name
:
Elaeagnaceae :
Saxalu (Chaudas)
Description: Moderate sized deciduous thorny shrub or sometime small tree, up to 6 m tall. Shoots and young branches covered with silvery scales, lateral shoots ending in straight thorn. Leaves alternate, oblong-elliptic, silveryscaly beneath, 3-8 cm long, 1-3 cm broad. Flowers fragrant, dull white in axillary clusters. Fruits fleshy, edible, reddish or orange; nut bony (Fig. 25).
Figure 25. Plants of Elaeagnus umbellata growing near Sirdang in Chaudas Phenology: It flowers during March-June and fruits during August-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open forests and cultivated areas throughout temperate regions of Chaudas between 1,500 and 3,000 m. Propagation: This species grows best on sandy, loamy to moderately heavy clayey, well-drained and moist soils. It does not prefer dry, poorly drained, 103
fine textured or shallow soils. It is drought and disease resistant and is an excellent nitrogen fixer and soil binder. Seeds are harvested from ripe fruits and are sown during October. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags. Two year old saplings are planted in the field (http://www.pfaf.org). Uses: Fruits pickled or eaten in curries. Fruits are used in the treatment of cough and colds and bronchitis. Seeds are used as stimulant in coughs and yield oil, which is used in pulmonary affections. Powdered seeds are used as expectorant. Flowers are stimulant, febrifuge, cardiac and astringent (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Jain, 1991; Ambasta et al., 1986; Tanaka, 1976; Nadkarni, 1908; Gaur, 1999). Chemical Constituents: Seven Tannins elaeagnatins A-G have been isolated from the leaves together with C-glucosidic ellagitannins and related polyphenols (Ito et al., 1999). Fruits are high in the antioxidant carotenoid lycopene and several other cartenoids. Palmitic acid (16.9%), eugenol (11.1%), methyl palmitate (10.5%), 4-methyl anisole (33.0-42.7%) and 4-methyl phenol (10.9-13.3%) were found in the floral volatiles (Potter, 1995). Conservation status: Elaeagnus umbellata is a common shrub found throughout Chaudas valley but not common in Darma and Byas. Trade: There is no trade of Elaeagnus umbellata in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Fruits are edible and are relished by children and birds. It is heavily browsed by goats, deer and rabbits. It can be used in habitat processing as it fixes nitrogen. 104
5.24. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Buckwheat) Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Palti (Byas, Darma), Kotu
Description: An annual herb of about 30-70 cm height. Stem reddish brown. Leaves alternate, hastate, acute, 2.5-7.5 cm long, 2-5 cm broad. Flowers pinkish white and arranged in axillary or terminal cymes, sweet honey flavoured, extremely attractive to bees and hoverflies. Nutt brownish or blackish grey, trigonous, pale brown, smooth with keeled edges. Phenology: It is a short season crop sown in July and harvested in SeptemberOctober. Ecology and Distribution: It is the main cash crop (Figure 26a) cultivated throughout Dharchula Himalayas, particularly in Darma valley, between 2,500 and 4,000 m. It is pollinated by bees and hoverflies. Propagation: This crop prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. It requires well-drained soil but it can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. It prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and it can also grow in very acidic soils. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought but not shade. Buckwheat is cultivated for its grains and leaves. Grains are harvested after 100 days of sowing and leaves are harvested after 8 weeks of sowing. Seeds are sown from the middle of spring to early summer in situ. Seeds usually germinate within a week. Chemical
Constituents:
Kaempferol-3-rhamnosyl
glucoside,
p-
cumaroylquinic and feruloylquinic acids, L-2-(2-furoyl)alanine (I), N5(2-hydroxybenzyl)-allo-4-hydroxyglutamine 105
(II),
N5-(4-
hydroxybenzyl)-L-glutamine (III), a piperidine derivative (fagomine, mp. 1760) (3,4-dihydroxy-2-hydroxymethylpiperidine), Eriodictyol-5O-methyl-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl(1
4)-O-beta-D-
galactopyranoside, dihydroflavonol glycosides (aromadendrin-3-Ogalactoside and taxifolin-3-O-xyloside), quercetin, quercitrin, hyperin, rhamnose, rutin and glucose isolated from seeds (Anonymous, 1956; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995). Brassinolide and castasterone were isolated from pollens (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Antioxidant catechins – (-)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin 7-O-betaD-glucopyranoside, (-)-epicatechin 3-O-p-hydroxybenzoate and (-)epicatechin 3-O—(3’,4-di-O-methyl) gallate isolated along with rutin from
ethanol
extract
(Watanabe,
1998).
A
flavonol-3-O-beta-
heterodisaccharide glycosidase was isolated from the dried aerial tissues (Baumgertel et al., 2003). While total phenolic concentration is nearly same in flour and hulls, flavonoids are more abundant in hulls than in flour. Both in hulls and flour, the main component is the proanthocyanidin dimmer B2, which has antioxidative properties. Epicatechin gallate together with B23’-O-gallate are detected only in flour extracts. Rutin and hyperoside and small quantities of quercetin are found in higher percentage in the hull (Deleu et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2002). Fagopyrum esculentum grain (Figure 26b) contains: moisture, 11.3; protein,10.3; fat, 2.4; minerals, 2.4; fibre, 8.6; carbohydrates 65.0; calcium, 0.07;and phosphorus, 0.30%; iron, 13.2 mg; vitamin B1, 900 gama; and nicotinic acid, 4.4 mg/100 gm. Traces of copper, nickel, cobalt and zinc, cyanide (CN, 7 p.p.m.), iodine (16-155 gama/kg dry wt.), phytin (1.2-2.4%), and riboflavin (0.5 chick units/g) have been reported (Anonymous, 1956). Fagopyrum esculentum globulin contains: arginine, 12.97; lysine, 7.9; cystine, 1.0; and histidine, 0.59%; high percentage of basic amino acids, particularly lysine, as compared to wheat. The glutelin (N. 13.46%) 106
contains glycine, 0.04; alanine, 0.91; valine, 3.70; leucine, 4.42; glutamic acid, 7.89; phenylalanine, 2.51; proline, 2.38; and tryptophane, 1.45% (Anonymous, 1956).
Figure 26a. Crop of Fagopyrum esculentum at Baling in Darma valley
Figure 26b. Grains of Fagopyrum esculentum Buckwheat straw is of low feeding value and causes digestive disturbances if consumed in large amounts. Buckwheat hay contains: moisture, 14.0; protein, 10.5; fat, 2.1; carbohydrate, 35.6;; fibre, 31.4; and ash, 6.4% (Anonymous, 1956).
107
Rutin is used in the treatment of increased capillary fragility with associated hypertension and varities of haemorrhagic conditions which include certain types of purpurea, bleeding from kidney and haemophilia. Rutin affords protection against harmful effects of X-rays, indicating that it may be useful in exposures against atomic radiation. It is useful against gangrene due to frost bite. It also prevents weakening of capillaries (Anonymous, 1956). Quercetin is known to markedly inhibit growth of human gastric cancer cells and proliferation of ovarian cancer cell line (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Use: A good fodder crop and a good soil binder. Young shoots are eaten as vegetable; grains globulin is rich in protein and restorative minerals. Dry hulls are used as fuel, dry leaves as bedding for farm animals and green straw as fodder. Flower is an excellent source of honey. Light colour dye is prepared from hulls. Grain flour is used as emollient and resolvent (Agarwal, 1986). Trade: Fagopyrum esculentum is an important cash crop cultivated in Darma valley. The price of grain is currently Rs. 2,000 per quintal. There is considerable demand for its grain in the plains. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Flour is used for making bread and is devoid of bitterness. Many villagers in Darma valley earn their livelihood by selling beckwheat grains. It is a predominant cash crop of Darma valley. At one time the economy of the villages was entirely dependant upon the cultivation of buckwheat. However as literacy and awareness level increased the villagers have been increasingly depending upon other alternative livelihoods. In this process villagers abandoned the cultivation fields of buckwheat. Consequent upon which the biodiversity which used to flourish in the wilderness has now returned to the abandoned fields.
108
5.25. Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. (Duckwheat Tartary Buckwheat) Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Bhe (Byas, Darma) Tartary buckwheat
Description: An erect slender annual herb about 30-90 cm tall. Stem reddish brown, smooth. Leaves broadly triangular, 2.5-8 cm long, 2-6 cm broad with cordate-hastate base. Flowers pinkish white, arrange in axillary, terminal, 10-20 cm long, pedunculate cymes. Nut trigonous, dark brown, deeply grooved, heart shaped, ovoid-conical with wavy outline, prominantly keeled (Figure 27a & 27b). Phenology: It flowers during July-August and fruits during September-October. Ecology and Distribution: It is cultivated extensively all over Byas valley above 2,750 m. Its cultivation is, however, limited in Darma valley where Fagopyrum esculentum is the main cash crop. Propagation: It is a short season crop. It prefers dry sandy soils but it can also grow on poor, heavy or acid soils. It prefers a cool moist climate but it also does well in dry and arid regions. It is more tolerant to cold than F. esculentum. Seeds are sown from the middle of spring to early summer in situ and these usually germinate within a week. The crop is harvested in September-October.
Chemical Constituents:
Alpha-thujene (14.0), alpha-terpineol (15.8) and
bornyl acetate (17.3%) were isolated in leaf oil; a flavonoid 5,7,3’,4’tetra-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1
6)-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside,
rutin, flavonol 3-glucosidase and isoquercitrin 3-glucosidase were 109
isolated from seeds; rutin and isoquercitrin increased in the seeds during ripening and the rutin concentration remains high in the fully ripe seeds (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; Suzuki et al., 2002 Bonafaccia et al., 2003; 2003). The grain contains: moisture 11.1; protein, 10.2; fat, 2.3; N-free extr., 59.6; fibre, 15.2; and mineral matter, 1.6%. Fagopyrum tataricum is a better source of rutin than Fagopyrum esculentum. It contain 45-80% more rutin than Fagopyrum esculentum (Anonymous, 1956; Sharma and Lata, 2003).
Figure 27a. Crop of Fagopyrum tataricum grown in Bon of Darma valley
Figure 27b. Grains of Fagopyrum tataricum 110
Uses: It is nutritive and considered good in colic, leaves are used as pot herb and green plants as manure (Agarwal, 1986). Broth made of grains and hey is used for the treatment of colic pain (Gaur, 1999). Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: The flour of Fagopyrum tataricum is used for making bread. The crop cultivated in Kuti village located at 4,000 m is dwarf as compared to that grown at lower elevations and mature earlier. The flour is darker, which turns greenish yellow when paste is prepared in water. Bread made out of its flour tastes bitter. Its dough is also eaten raw with chutney made out of Hippophae salicifolia. With increase in altitude the bitterness in the flour decreases. Grain from the crop grown in Kuti village has no bitterness and is considered of superior quality. The grain from the crop grown in Budhi village located at 2,750 m has highest bitterness. This means that there are ecotypes/ecoclines within the species cultivated across the altitudinal gradients. This is also evident from the fact that the bitterness of the grain decreases with increase in altitude. This can be explained on the basis that temperature regulates the synthesis of specific enzymes that are involved in the synthesis of compounds that impart bitterness. It is known that species contains rutin which causes bitterness. In other words, the bitterness of the grain is an excellent example of genotype x environment interaction. Detaile biochemical investigations of the chemotypes may lead to understanding of biosynthetic pathways and the enzymes involved in formation of rutin-like compounds. Fermented grains are considered excellent cattle feed. Paste of flour is applied on the cheeks below ears to check swelling because of ear ache. Young leaves are also eaten as vegetable and stalks are fed to the cattle. Grain is also used to brew liquor and on distillation it produces excellent spirit. Paste of flour in water in light greenish in colour. Its usefulness as dye needs to be investigated.
111
5.26. Fraxinus micrantha Lingels. (Himalayan Ash) Family
:
Oleaceae
Local Name
:
Ango (Chaudas, Byas, Darma)
Description: Deciduous tree reaching up to 20 m high. Bark greyish, blaze pale yellow or orange-brown turning pinkish-brown on exposure. Leaves opposite, 17-30 cm long, imparipinnate, leaflets 5-9, lateral ones smaller, elliptic-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, serrate, caudate-acuminate, hairy along the sides of the main nerves beneath, glabrous when mature, lateral nerves 10-13 pairs. Flowers in terminal drooping panicles, the lower branches axillary (Figure 28a). Fraxinus floribunda is sometimes considered synonymous for Fraxinus micrantha. It has now been established that Fraxinus floribunda grows only in Eastern Himalaya and Khasi hills in North East India and Fraxinus micrantha is found only in the Western Himalaya, particularly in Kumaon and Garhwal ranges of Uttaranchal. Wood belongs to medium refractory class. It is tough, moderately hard and heavy (wt., 47-49 lb./cu ft). Comparative data of timber of Fraxinus micrantha expressed as percentages of the same properties of teak are: wt. 105; strength as a beam, 95; stiffness as a beam, 105; suitability as a post, 90; shock resisting ability, 140; retention of shape, 70; shear, 145; and hardness, 125 (Anonymous, 1956). Phenology: It flowers during in March-April and fruits ripen in July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on rich, moist and shady soils of Oak forests in montane regions of Western Himalaya between 1,500 and 2,750 m. Its associates
are
Quercus
semecarpifolia,
Q.
leucotrichophora,
floribunda, Rhododendron arboreum, Aesculus indica, etc. It
112
is
Q.
found
scattered in Sosa, Rung and Samari villages of Chaudas and in Darma valley.
Figure 28a. Fraxinus micrantha tree growing at Samari of Chaudas Propagation: Fraxinus micrantha seeds are harvested when they are still green before they are fully developed on the tree. These seeds are directly sown in nursery beds during autumn or spring. Seeds germinate after 12 months, i.e. next spring. Two year old seedlings are transplanted during winter. Growth is slow in the first year, but from second year onwards growth is faster (Troup, 1921). Soil, sand and compost mix medium gives higher rate of survival and establishment (Bana et al., 1996). The pericarp acts as barrier to seed germination. The germination improves almost three times if the pericarp is removed (Thapliyal et al., 1989). In some parts of Garhwal it has been observed that Fraxinus micrantha is inhibitory to the growth of crops growing near it, which is due to coumarins present in the leaf litter and its leachates (Joshi et al., 1996). This species prefers light, sandy, medium loamy and heavy clay soils. It can grow in acidic, neutral
113
and alkaline soils. It prefers moist soil and cannot grow under shade. It tolerates strong winds.
Figure 28b. Dried and chipped pieces of inner bark of Fraxinus micrantha
Figure 28c. Hand woven woolen cloth dyed dark blue using inner bark of Fraxinus micrantha
Chemical Constituents: Some species of Fraxinus like Fraxinus excelsior Linn. (European Ash, which reportedly does not occur in India, except where planted) contains several glycosides, including fraxin, a coumarin glycoside, which is actively diuretic. Saccharine exudate, manna, consisting principally of mannitol, is obtained by incising the stems of some Fraxinus species. Some of the Indian species of Fraxinus also yield 114
manna, which may be employed as mild laxative for children (Anonymous, 1956; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). It is not yet known if manna is extracted from Fraxinus micrantha. Uses: Fraxinus species are used in many places for their diuretic and purgative properties as well as for the treatment of dropsy, arthritis, rheumatic pain, cystitis and itching scalp (Calis et al., 1993). Manna obtained from the incisions in the stem is safe and gentle laxative. Leaves and bark extract are used in the treatment of fever and blood dysentery (Gaur, 1999). Timber is used for ploughs, oars and posts and as firewood. Conservation status: It is found in few populations in Dharchula region, although it has been listed as vulnerable in Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry, 1987). The cause for decline in populations is due to its over-exploitation for industrial uses. Trade: There is no trade of wood or any parts of the tree in Dharchula area. There is no restriction on trade of tree portions and derivatives of Fraxinus micrantha. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Infusion of inner bark (Figure 28b) in normal water is used by locals for liver enlargement, jaundice and other liver diseases. In some villages, root of Rubus foliolosus (local name - Kala Hansyalu) is mixed with the inner bark of Fraxinus micrantha for preparing infusion used in the treatment of liver ailments. Fraxinus micrantha infusions are also given to the cattle for stomach ailments and internal injuries. Inner bark of Fraxinus micrantha is also used by Bhotias for dyeing traditional hand woven woolen clothes blue (Figure 28c). The process of dying was always carried out far away from the village. It is not yet known the significance of dying the clothes
115
far away from villages. This art of dying was practiced by very few people in the entire valley of Darma, Chaudas and Byas. Since the Fraxinus micrantha is confined to Chaudas and Darma valley, the area under this species needs to be expanded by planting species extensively. This species has enormous potential not only for its valuable timber, but as a source of natural medicine and natural dyes. Plantations raised in 1990s were not successful and reasons are not yet known. The biotechnological potentials of this species is not yet realized. For example, species may yield novel drugs, dye and even be an important source of mannitol. Some of the drugs may prove to be antitumourogenic as the extract from inner bark inhibits the growth of carcinogenic cell lines. The dye, which chelates iron alone, may be useful in chelation therapy in Thalassemia.
116
5.27. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sw. (Robert Geranium) Family
:
Geraniaceae
Local Name
:
Ratan jyot (Chaudas)
Description: A perennial straggling herb of about 180 cm height. Root stock thick, woody, pink in colour. Stems many branched, erect. Leaves 3-13 cm across, orbicular, palmately 3-5 lobed, segments wedge shaped, acute. Flowers 1.5-3 cm across, mauve, blue or purple in colour (Figure 29).
Figure 29. Plants of Geranium wallichianum in Sirdang of Chaudas Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on moist and shady slopes covered with humus and soil and also along streams and waterfalls. It is common between 2,500 and 3,500 m in Dharchula ranges. Propagation: It grows on soils rich in organic matter. It prefers cool and shaded localities (Huxley, 1992). Seed is sown in spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags filled with soil. Plant can 117
also be propagated by division of rootstock in spring or autumn. Larger clumps can be replanted directly in the field, though it is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them until they are well rooted and then plant in the field during spring. Uses: The herb possesses astringent properties. In some parts of Garhwal it is used as a cure for toothache (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). It is also used for treatment of ear and eye diseases (Jain, 1991; Singh and Kachroo, 1976; Coventry, 1923; Chopra et al., 1956; Ambasta et al., 1986). Root juice is used in ophthalmia; red dye obtained from the roots is used to dye woolen clothes. The root contains 30% tannin (Usher, 1974; Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: It is found scattered throughout Chaudas. This species is rare and may come under threatened category if it is harvested from the wild extensively. Trade: There is no trade of Geranium wallichianum rootstock in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Rootstock is used as tonic and reduces fatigueness. It also gives relief in sore throat, particularly when there is a gurgling sound coming out of the throat. Phytochemical analysis of the species may yield a product that reduces fatigueness.
118
5.28. Gerardinia heterophylla (Vahl.) Decne. (Himalayan Nettle) Syn. Gerardinia diversifolia (Link.) Frus Family
:
Urticaceae
Local Name
:
Fa pachhu (Chaudas), Shishuna
Description: Perennial, tall and robust herb or undershrub with erect stems growing up to 2 m height. The whole plant is covered with stinging hairs and branches furrowed. Root pinkish. Leaves about 10-20 cm long and almost as broad, upper ones variously lobed and deeply cut, pubescent. Flowers pale green and arranged in pedunculate racemose cymes. Achenes ovoid, brown-black, flattened (Figure 30).
Figure 30. Plants of Gerardinia heterophylla growing along margins of fields at Sirdang of Chaudas Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in openings in the forests, disturbed sites, in and around habitations, abandoned areas, garbage dumps, vacant lands and
119
road-sides. It is common in localities between 1,000 and 3,000 m in Chaudas. It is often invasive and has attributes of a weed. Cultivation: Gerardinia heterophylla grows well under semi-shade or in open araes. Seeds are sown during autumn. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil and saplings are planted in the field during summer. This species can also be propagated vegetatively by division of root during spring as soon as new growth commences. Chemical Constituents: 5-hydroxytryptamine and histamine were isolated (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Uses: Leaves are used for headache and for swollen joints; decoction of leaves is given in the treatment of fever (Nadkarni, 1908). Conservation status: Gerardinia heterophylla is common throughout Chaudas and Darma valley. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Gerardinia heterophylla in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the trade of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Stem yields fibre, which is used to make ropes. Root of Gerardinia heterophylla, Rubus ellipticus (Peela hinsalu) and Rubus niveus (Kala hinsalu) are crushed together and the infusion prepared in water is taken internally in the treatment of convulsions and very high fever. It is also applied externally on head to cool. Young stems and leaves are used to beat limbs to treat inflammations and paralysis of limbs and to drive away evil spirits. Prolonged irritation with the leaves and stems induces fever.
120
5.29. Hippophae salicifolia (D. Don) Serv. (Sea Buckthorn) Syn. Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. Salicifolia (D. Don) Sarv. Family
:
Elaeagnaceae
Local Name
:
Chooku (Byas, Chaudas, Darma), Dharchuk
Description: A small deciduous shrub growing up to about 5m height. Plants often spinescent when young. Bark rough, reddish-brown with deep longitudinal furrows. Leaves 4-12 cm long, 0.6-1.4 cm broad, oblonglanceolate, pubescent on the upper surface and white tomentose beneath with silvery scales on both sides. Flowers small, yellowish, appear with new leaves. Fruits ovoid, about 5 mm long, yellow, succulent and acidic and sour in taste (Figure 31a). Phenology: It flowers during May-June and fruits during August-November. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on open sunny places and moist ravines along river Kali in Byas valley particularly near Garbyang between 3,000 and 3,500 m (Figure 31b). It enriches soil nitrogen through nitrogen fixation and hence plays an important part in processing ecosystem (Beckett, 1979; Huxley, 1992). Propagation: The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. It cannot grow in the shade. Sea buckthorn has an extensive root system and suckers vigorously and, therefore, it has been used in soil conservation schemes, especially on sandy soils. The fibrous and suckering root system acts to bind the sand (Beckett, 1979; Phillips and Foy, 1990). The plant does well in most soils, including poor ones, so long as they are not too dry. It grows well by water and in fairly wet soils. Established plants are drought tolerant. It requires open habitats. The seedlings die if overshadowed by taller plants. 121
Figure 31a. Branches of Hippophae salicifolia showing unripe fruits
Figure 31b. Stands of Hippophae salicifolia along Kali River near Garbyang in Byas valley
Plants are fairly slow growing. Seeds are harvested from the ripe fruits and are sown during autumn. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polybags filled with soil and are allowed to grow through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring. It can also be propagated by stem layering.
122
Chemical Constituents: Sterol glycoside, phytosterols and waxy compounds were isolated from bark (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Uses: Amchis of Ladakh use various parts of the plant in the treatment of fever, cough, cold, headache, eczema, burns of skin, chill, oral mucocitosis and rectal mucocitosis. Fruits are used as tonic for weak, old persons and pregnant ladies. These are also used for treatment of lung diseases, ulcers and wounds. The species in rich in vitamin C (Nadkarni, 1908; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Jain, 1991; Singh et al., 2003). Conservation status: It is abundant along Kali River near Garbyang in Byas. FRLHT has categorized this species as lower risk-near threatened species in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no market for the fruits or syrup of Hippophae salicifolia in the region at present. This species has high economic potential. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Bhotias of Byas valley concentrate juice extracted from the fruit juice of Hippophae salicifolia by boiling till the juice becomes syrup. This syrup can be preserved for many years. The syrup is used in making chutney, as condiment and appetiser and also as medicine for stomachache and for cough and cold. The juice and the syrup are also used in cleaning silver ornaments. Ripe fruits, which are very sour in taste, are also eaten. It is a pioneer species on newly created sites and is an excellent soil binder. It also coppices. Consequently, it is an important species in the rehabilitation of degraded lands and in vegetating landslips and prevention of landslips and soil erosion. It is also used as firewood. Its economic potential is not fully realized.
123
5.30. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. (Henbane) Family
:
Solanaceae
Local Name
:
Langthang (Byas, Darma), Khurasaini Ajwain
Description: An erect, annual or biennial herb reaching up to 1.5 m height, densely. Roots white and thick. Leaves cauline, ovate, oblong, entire or lobed, and woolly. Flowers hollow, yellowish green, solitary with purple vains, emit a foetid odour. Seeds numerous, minute, slightly kidney shaped (Figure 32a & 32b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on waste lands, road sides, and margins of fields and abandoned areas around human settlements. It grows on dilapidated buildings and crevices and stone walls of houses. It is common between 2,700 and 3,500 m particularly in localities between Garbyang and Nabi village in Vyas valley and above Nagling Village in Darma valley. Propagation: Hyoscyamus niger prefers sunny position and dry soil. It succeeds in ordinary garden soil but prefers alkaline soils. It can be cultivated easily by sowing seed in summer after pretreatment with concentrated sulphuric acid for about 75 seconds followed by washing, or exposure to freezing temperatures, which facilitates germination. Seeds can either be sown broadcast in the field or in nursery beds. Seeds germinate in 2 to 4 weeks. About 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted in the field. Frequent irrigation in early stages is necessary. Application of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers and ample sunshine are favourable for the development of active principles. Hyoscyamus niger can also be grown as mixed crop (Anonymous, 1959).
124
Figure 32a. Plants of Hyoscyamus niger growing at Nabi of Byas valley
Figure 32b. Branches of Hyoscyamus niger showing fruits enclosed by persistent enlarged calyx Chemical Constituents: Alkaloid content of leaves increases with maturity and reaches maximum at the time of flowering. Leaves of plants found at high altitudes are richer in alkaloids. Hyoscyamine and hyoscine or scopolamine, skimmianine, apohyoscine, apoatropine, tropine and alpha- and beta-belladonines were isolated from leaves and aerial parts. Atropine, hyoscyamine-N-oxide and scopoline were isolated from roots (Anonymous, 1959; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Lignanamides
–
1,24-tetracosane-diol
diferulate
and
1-
O(9Z,12Z-octadecadienoyl)-3-O-nonadecanoyl glycerol along with 125
grossamide, cannabisin D, cannabisin G, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, 1O-octadecanoyl glycerol, 1-O-(9Z,12Z-octadecadienoyl) glycerol, 1-O(9Z,12Z-octadecadienoyl)-2-O-(9Z,12Z-octadecadienoyl glycerol, 1-O(9Z,12Z-octadecadienoyl)-3-O-(9Z-octadecenoyl)
glycerol,
rutin,
vanillic acid, beta-sitosterol and daucosterol were isolated from the seeds; Grossamide and cannabisin D & G exhibited moderate cytotoxicity in human prostate cancer cells (Ma et al., 2002;). Seeds are colourless and are slightly bitter in taste. They contain amber-coloured oil (25-30%). The component fatty acids are: myristic, 0.3%; palmitic, 6.5%; stearic, 1.6%; oleic, 35.2%; and linoleic, 56.4%. The unsaponifiable matter contains a phytosterol. The oil is non-toxic and edible. The seeds contain gums (6.2%) and resins (Anonymous, 1959). Uses: Henbane has a very long history of use as a medicinal herb. Seeds are used extensively as a sedative and pain killer and is specifically used for pain affecting the urinary tract due to kidney stones and in nervous affections and irritable conditions such as asthma and whooping cough. It is substituted for opium in cases where opium is inadmissible. Its sedative and antispasmodic effect makes it a valuable treatment for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, relieving tremor and rigidity during the early stages of the disease (Chevallier, 1996; Joshi, 2000). The seeds possess anodyne, anthelmintic, astringent, carminative, digestive, narcotic and stomachic properties. Seeds also prevent griping pain when added to cathartics (Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1995). The seeds made into paste with mare’s milk and tied up in a piece of wild bull’s skin are believed to prevent conception if worn by women (Mehra, 1979). Alkaloids are extracted from seeds. Seeds mixed with wine are used in the treatment of gouty enlargements and swellings. A suppository prepared from seeds is used in painful affections of the uterus. Seeds are also employed in poultices for eye troubles. Seeds in large doses produce poisonous effects similar to that produced by datura. All parts of the plant are very toxic and toxic symptoms include dryness of the tongues and 126
mouth, giddiness, delirium, impaired vision, convulsions, coma and even death from heart or respiratory failure (Anonymous, 1959; Chiej, 1984; Altmann, 1980; Stary, 1983; Cooper and Johnson, 1984; Bown, 1995). The leaves scattered about a house is said to drive away mice (Coffey, 1993). Leaves have anodyne, narcotic, antispasmodic, cerebral sedative and mydriatic properties. Leaves are also used in asthma, nervous affections, whooping cough. Extract or tincture is specially prescribed in convulsions, epileptic mania and hiccup (Joshi, 2000). Leaves applied as a warm fomentation are good for swellings of the testicles or women’s breasts. Leaves boiled in wine and when applied assuages the pain of the gout, sciatica and other pains in the joints which arise from the cold cause. Applied with vinegar to the temples and forehead helps the headache in hot fevers. The oil of the seed dropped in ear is good for deafness, noise and worms in the ears. Decoction of the herb or seed kills lice in man or animal. Henbane should not be internally. Goat’s milk, honeywater and mustard seeds are the best antidotes of poisoning due to henbane (www.magdalin.com/herbs). Conservation status: Hyoscyamus niger is common throughout Byas valley of Dharchula Himalayas. FRLHT has categorised this species as lower risknear threatened species in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anpnymous, 1997). Trade: There is no trade of any parts or derivatives of Hyoscyamus niger in Dharchula areas.There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Seeds are used by local communities of Byas valley for medicinal purposes. Seeds are dried before storage and dried seeds retain their viability for several years. Smoke arising by burning of seeds is used for driving away bed bugs and to get relief from tooth ache. 127
5.31. Impatiens scabrida DC.; Impatiens roylei Walp. syn. I. glandulifera Royle; Impatiens balsamina L. Family
:
Balsaminaceae
Local Name
:
Kwal (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: All the three species are suffruticose and grow up to a height of 1.5 m. Impatiens roylei: flowers purple; it is confined to higher elevations; leaves opposite, lanceolate. Impatiens scabrida: much branched; flowers golden yellow; leaves elliptic to lanceolate, long pointed. Impatiens balsamina: flowers white; leaves lanceolate, alternate, sharply toothed (Figure 33a, 33b & 33c). Phenology: These species flower and fruits during May-September. Ecology and Distribution: All the three species occur along road-sides, disturbed sites, abandoned fields, along streams, and other shady damp places near human settlements. These species appear to be weedy and invasive and are abundant in areas which are heavily grazed. These are widely distributed in Darma and Byas valleys. Impatiens balsamina occurs between 1,500 and 2,500 m; Impatiens scabrida is restricted between 2,750 and 4,000 m and Impatiens roylei is found between 2,500 and 3,500 m. Propagation: Impatiens thrive well in soils rich in organic matter. These prefer moist and well-drained humus rich exposed soils of cool sites or under semi-shade. It can also grow well in heavy clay soil. Seeds are sown in spring in beds. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags filled with soil and are planted in the field during summer.
128
Figure 33a. Plants of Impatiens roylei at Budhi Galja of Byas valley
Figure 33b. A plant of Impatiens scabrida in flowering at Bon of Darma valley Chemical Constituents:
2-Hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone was isolated from
Impatiens balsamina plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Beta-sitosterol, a baccharane triterpenoid (hosenkol A), Baccharane glycosides hosenkoside L i.e hosenkol A 3-O-sambubiosyl28-O-glucoside, hosenkoside M i.e. hosenkol A 3-O-sambubiosyl-26O-glucosyl-28-O-glucoside, hosenkoside N i.e. hosenkol C 3-Oglucosyl-28-O-glucoside and hosenkoside O i.e. hosenkol D 3-Osophorosyl-28-O-glucoside,
an
anthraquinone,
five
baccharane
glycosides (hosenkosides A, B, C, D and E) and A monoglyceride – (129
)(R,Z)glycerol-1-octadec-9-enoate isolated from Impatiens balsamina seeds. 2-Methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone has been isolated from the leaves of Impatiens roylei (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; 1995; 1998; Shoji Noboru et al., 1994). Kaempferol 3-rhamnosyldiglucoside i.e. kaempferol-3-O-[2’’O-alpha-D-rhamnopyranosyl-3’'O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl]-P-Dglucopyranoside was isolated from the petals of Impatiens balsamina; 2Methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, apigenin-4’-O-beta-D-xylofuranosy(14)-O-beta-D-glucoside, a kaempferol 3-rhamnosyldiglucoside, palmitic, stearic and oleic acids and their ethyl ester were isolated from whole plant of Impatiens balsamina (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998; 1995; Fukumoto et al., 1994; Shoji Noboru et al., 1994). A bisnaphthoquinone, methylene-3,3’-bilawsone was isolated from the roots of Impatiens balsamina along with naphthoquinones (lawsone
and
2-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone),
two
coumarin
derivatives (scopoletin and isofraxidin) and a sterol (spinasterol) (Panjchayupakaranant et al., 1995). Dinaphthofuran (7,12-dione derivatives named balsaminones A & B) isolated from the pericarp of Impatiens balsamina along with 2-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone which have significant antipruritic activity (Ishiguro et al., 1998).
Uses: Flower buds of Impatiens roylei are used for cooling and seeds are used as tonic (Jain, 1991). Regular ingestion of large quantities of all the three species may lead to toxicity due to high mineral content in plant tissues (http://www.pfaf.org). Cooked and dried plants are safer than raw plants. People suffereing from rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones and hyperacidity are prone to toxicity when these species are consumed (Bown, 1995). A dye is obtained from the whole plant (Polunin and Stainton, 2001; http://www.pfaf.org) and the plant juice is used for dyeing finger and toenails red. 130
Figure 33c. A plant of Impatiens balsamina in flowering
Figure 33d. Dried seeds of Impatiens roylei Conservation status: These species are abundant and widely distributed throughout Darma and Byas valley. In fact some grazing lands are lost due to invasion of these species. Trade: There is limited trade of seeds of Impatiens species in Dharchula areas. Quantity required is usually collected from wild. There is no prohibition in the trade of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Mechanical bursting of ripe capsules result in shooting of seeds far away 131
from the mother plant resulting in their rapid spread in the habitat. Seeds of all the three species are edible. Drunk persons get relief from hang over by eating seeds (Figure 33d), which taste quite bland. Edible oil is extracted from the seeds. Oil is also used for massaging the painful limb joints. Oil extracted from the seeds of Impatiens scabrida is of superior quality. Oil is also applied to the bowls and utensils made of Acer caesium, which gives it bright brownish and natural wood colour. There is good demand for seeds for its oil amongst the Tibetans. The phytochemical analysis of seeds may yield a new industrial product that can be used for polishing wooden furniture. These species can be used to assess the extent of disturbance due to grazing. Consequently, these species can be used as plant indicators for assessing the extent of disturbance caused by grazing.
132
5.32. Iris kumaonensis D. Don ex Royle Family
:
Iridaceae
Local Name
:
Peupu (Byas, Darma)
Description: A perennial herb with thick creeping rhizomes growing up to a height of about 30 cm. Leaves 10-30 cm long, 5-8 mm broad, flat, sword like. Flowers attractive, solitary, appearing with young leaves, bright liliac. Capsule 3-4 cm long, ribbed, enclosed in spathe (Figure 34a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open slopes, grazing grounds, along road sides and river banks between 2,500 and 4,000 m. It is common throughout Darma and Byas valleys. Propagation: Iris kumaonensis is cultivated in the raised beds. It prefers well drained soil, full sun or partial shade. It can, however, grow in semi shade (light woodlands) or shade and tolerate drought. It prefers pH in the range of 6 to 7.5. Seeds harvested from the ripe fruits are sown. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. The saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer. It can also be propagated vegetatively by rhizome cuttings. It is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them on until they have rooted well and plant them in the field in spring. (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: An isoflavone (iriskumaonin) isolated from acid hydrolysate
of
glycosidic
mixture;
iridin
[(7-glucosyloxy)-3’,5-
dihydroxy-4’,5’,6-trimethoxyisoflavone], Iriskumaonin and its methyl ether, irisflorentin, junipegenin A, irigenin isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995).
133
Figure 34a. Habitat showing a plant of Iris kumaonensis with flower at Champu of Byas valley
Figure 34b. Kharak Singh, a practitioner of herbal medicine holding a plant of Iris kumaonensis Alkylated p-benzoquinones irisoquin (A-F) (1-2, 4-7) together with cytotoxic quinone, irisoquin, isoflavones, tectoregenin, iristectorin and irigenin were isolated from the rhizomes (Mahmood et al., 2002).
134
Uses: Root and leaves are given in fever (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Roots of some species of Iris are considered poisonous (Frohne and Pfander, 1984). Plants can cause skin irritations and allergies in some people (Bown, 1995). Seeds are used for the treatment of epilepsy and root is used in urine complications and for fever (Jain, 1991). In Tibetan medicine, flowers are used as analgesic and ophthalmic in the treatment of tinnitus, pain in the ears and weakening of eyesight; seeds are used as analgesic, anthelmintic and vermifuge- they are used in the treatment of colic pain due to intestinal worms, disorders of the stomach and intestines, and pain below the neck and shoulders (Tsarong, 1994). Conservation status: Iris kumaonensis is a common species found in Darma and Byas valleys. Trade: There is currently no trade of Iris kumaonensis seeds or any plant portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Decoction of Iris kumaonensis root in normal water is prescribed by the traditional healers (Figure 34b) as laxative. This species is often cultivated as an ornamental.
135
5.33. Juglans regia Linn. (Walnut) Family Local Name
: :
Juglandaceae Kha (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Akhrot
Description: A large deciduous tree growing up to a height of 90m. Old stems irregularly fluted. Bark aromatic, pale or dark grey, rough with deep vertical furrows, exfoliating in woody scales. Leaves, aromatic, 5-12 cm long, 2-8 cm broad, more pr less tomentose when young, variable in shape, elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, acute or acuminate at apex, glabrous or pubescent along the nerves beneath. Flowers green, unisexual. Fruits ovoid, succulent; rind encloses a woody, wrinkled, 2-valved nut. Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in the inner ranges of mixed deciduous forests and on deep moist soils in northerly aspects in the west but in southerly or westerly aspects in the east of the ranges between 2,000 and 3,000 m. It is distributed throughout Chaudas and Darma valley (Figure 35a). Propagation: Juglans regia requires deep well-drained loamy soil and sunny position sheltered from strong winds. Seeds are harvested from ripe fruits and are sown during October in deep pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Seeds usually germinate in late winter or the spring. Seedlings are planted in the field in early summer. Protection from the cold in the initial stages enhances survival rate. Pruning is done in late summer to early autumn or when the plant is fully dormant. Plants produce allelochemicals which can inhibit the growth of other plants. These allelochemicals are leached out of the leaves by precipitation and enter into sub-soils. The roots also produce substances that are toxic to many plant species, 136
especially apples, members of the Ericaceae, Potentilla spp and some pines. Trees have a dense canopy which tends to reduce plant growth below them (Philbrick and Gregg, 1979; Riotte, 1978; McPherson and McPherson, 1977). Chemical Constituents: Berberine and alpha-tetralone – (-)regiolone were isolated from stem bark; juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), cyclotrisjuglone, beta-sitosterol and 3,3’-bisjuglone were isolated from root and root-bark; estradiol and stigmasterol isolated from pollens (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; 1995). Twenty one monoterpenes, two sesquiterpenes, twenty three hydrocarbons, eugenol, caffeic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, ferulic, gallic,
gentisic,
p-hydroxybenzoic,
p-hydroxyphenylacetic,
chlorophylls a & b, beta-carotene, juglone, protocatechuic, sinapic, salicyclic, vanillic, geranic and syringic acids were isolated from leaves; leaves contained primary alcohols (41.6%), hydrocarbons (3.0%), esters (3.5%), aldehydes (5.5%), and fatty acids (8.4%) (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; 1998). Hydrolyzable tannins – glansrins A-C characterized as ellagitannins with a tergalloyl group or related polyphenolic acyl group were isolated together with adenosine, adenine and 13 known tannins from the n-BuOH extract of fruits (Fukuda et al., 2003). Uses: Bark is used as anthelmintic and detergent; leaves are astringent and tonic. Bark and leaves are considered alterative, laxative and detergent in Europe. These are used in herpes, eczema, scrofula and syphilis. The vinegar of the pickled young fruit makes a very useful gargle for sore throats, even when slightly ulcerated (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Rind of the fruit is used to intoxicate fishes; leaves mixed with stored grains used as fungicide and insecticide (Gaur, 1999). The cotyledons are used in the treatment of cancer. Seeds are antilithic, diuretic and stimulant. These are used internally in the treatment 137
of low back pain, frequent urination, weakness of legs, chronic cough, asthma, constipation due to dryness or anaemia and stones in the urinary tract. About 30 gms of leaves are boiled in about 570 ml of water and is allowed to stand for 6 hours and then the supernatant is decanted off. The residueis then applied externally as poultice to treat dermatitis and eczema. Leaves are anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, astringent and depurative. These are used internally to treat constipation, chronic coughs, asthma, diarrhea and dyspepsia (http://drclarkia.com/juglans_regia.html). Powedered bark taken by infusion is laxative. Leaves taken with onions, salt and honey help the bites of mad dogs, or poisonous bites. Old leaves taken with sweet wine kill the worms in the stomach (www.magdalin.com/herbs).
Figure 35a. Stand of Juglans regia at Nagling in Darma valley
Figure 35b. Air dried root bark of Juglans regia 138
Conservation status: Juglans regia is common in the temperate regions of Chaudas and Darma valleys. Trade: There is a substantial trade in Juglans regia root bark (Figure 35b) at Dharchula. During the year 2003, about 200 quintal of root bark was traded at the rate of Rs. 30 per kg. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts of Juglans regia or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Rind of the fruit is used by the local inhabitants for dyeing woollen cloth reddishbrown. Root bark is used for cleaning tooth and nuts are edible. Wood is used in furniture making. Edible oil is obtained from the seed and it becomes rancid when stored for long period of time. The oil has pleasant flavour and is used for cooking.
139
5.34. Juniperus cummunis Linn. (Common Juniper) Family
:
Cupressaceae
Local Name
:
Pamakshin (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: Evergreen aromatic shrub growing up to a height of 2.5 m with spreading stems. Bark reddish brown. Leaves in whorls 3 and about a centimeter long, linear, sharply pointed, nearly at right angles to the branchlets, convex on the back, concave and glaucous beneath, jointed at the base and continued down the base. Cones axillary. Female cone about a centimeter long, subglobose, blue-black, glaucous. Cones take two to three years to ripen; green when young turning black when ripe and finally blackish when dry (Figure 36). Phenology: Cones appear during April-May and female cones ripen during August-September of the second year. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed areas of dry inner ranges of alpine zones between 3,000 and 4,500 m. It is found throughout Chaudas, Byas and Darma valleys. Propagation: Juniperus cummunis succeeds in hot dry and poor soils and also in well drained soils of any type. Seed is very slow to germinate because of hard seedcoat; it is pretreated by soaking in boiling water for 3-6 seconds. The seeds collected from ripe cones are sown. Some seeds germinate in the following spring but bulk takes one year to germinate. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during early summer when they are well-grown. Dry seeds can remain viable for several years.
140
Chemical
Constituents:
Communic
acid,
longifolene,
juniperol
(longiborneol), beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and diterpene phenol – totarol were isolated from bark (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Neolignan glycosides – junipercomnosides A and B were isolated along with flavonoid glycosides from aerial parts (Nakanishi et al., 2004). Cones contain fermentable sugars (33%), resin (8%), juniperin (0.36%), fixed oil, proteids, wax, gum, pectins, organic acids (formic, acetic, malic, oxalic, and glycolic) and potassium salts. They are good source of ascorbic acid (35 mg/ 100 gm) (Anonymous, 1959; Ochocka et al., 1997).
Figure 36. A plant of Juniperus cummunis showing cone bearing branches at Budhi Galja of Byas valley Uses: Juniper is taken internally by eating cones or making tea from them. It is useful for digestive problems resulting from underproduction of hydrochloric acid, and is also helpful for gastrointestinal infections, inflammations, gout, palsy, epilepsy, typhoid fever, cholera, cystitis, urethritis, rheumatism, weak immune system, sciatica, to stimulate appetite and helps eliminate excess water. It provides relief from inflammation, cramps and sinusitis. It is helpful in the treatment of pancreas, prostate, kidney, and gallstones, leukorrhoea, dropsy, lumbago, 141
hypoglycemia, hemorrhoids, scurvy; it is also used as wormicide, in treatment of snakebites, cancer and ulcers. It regulates sugar levels. The lye made of the ashes cures the itch, scabs, and leprosy. It is used as a diuretic. When juniper oil is used in a hot vapor bath, it is useful to inhale the steam for respiratory infections, colds, asthma, bronchitis, etc. The pure oil is not be rubbed on the skin as it can be very irritating and cause blisters. Its prolonged consumption internally might interfere with iron absorption and other minerals. In large doses or with prolonged use it can also irritate kidneys and urinary passages; therefore it is not recommended for those with bladder and kidney problems. Also large and/or frequent doses may cause kidney failure, convulsions, and digestive irritation. It is not recommended for use if acute cystitis or acute kidney problems are present without consulting a doctor. It is also not recommended during pregnancy or to the nursing mothers, as it is a uterine stimulant and cause abortion. It can, however, be taken during labour and delivery (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Chevallier, 1996: Chopra et al,, 1956; Grieve, 1984; Gaur, 1999; http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh). Conservation status: It is abundant throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Trade: There is no trade of Juniperus cummunis seeds or oil in Dharchula. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Juniperus cummunis is used by the local inhabitants as incense. It is believed that it cleanses and purifies temples and homes. Leaves and young twigs are burnt as incense at homes and temples. It is considered best when mixed with Rhododendron anthopogon leaves and twigs, Artemisia martima leaves and Nardostachys jatamansi.
142
5.35. Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) Clarke Syn. Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Dangtogukhar, Lakkad dhup (Darma, Byas)
Description: A prostrate perennial herb with a dense terminal cluster of large flower heads and a rosette of long spreading lobed leaves with purple midveins. Root long, tuberous. Leaves petioled, oblong, pinnately lobed, lobes toothed or shallowly lobed, white woolly beneath. Flower purple, heads very shortly stalked and arranged in umbellate cluster (Figure 37a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed slopes, rock crevices and glacial moraines in alpine regions between 3,000 and 4,500 m. It is found in scattered populations in Byas and Darma valley. Propagation: Jurinea macrocephala thrives well in ordinary soils under sunny condition. Seeds harvested are sown in the nursery beds. 8-10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil. These are allowed to grow through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer just after the frosts. Plant can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during spring. Uses: Bruised root (Figure 37b) is used as antiseptic and applied as poultice on eruptions and root decoction is given in colic. It is also considered cordial and is given in puerperal fevers. Roots are considered to be stimulant and given in fever after child birth (Jain, 1991; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Anonymous, 1959).
143
Figure 37a. A plant of Jurinea macrocephala at Budhi Galja of Byas valley
Figure 37b. Uprooted plant of Jurinea macrocephala showing root and rosette of leaves Conservation status: Jurinea macrocephala is a rare species of Dharchula Himalayas. FRLHT has categorized this species as low risk-near
144
threatened species in North-West India and as endangered species in Jammu & Kashmir (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no trade of Jurinea macrocephala roots in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observation and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Root of the plant yields an excellent gum. It is because of this the crushed roots are used as binding substrate for making incense made up of Juniperus cummunis, rhododendron anthopogon leaves and twigs, Artemisia martima leaves and Nardostachys jatamansi plant. Roots are collected in summer or autumn. The chemical characteristics of gum need to be investigated before its economic potential is assessed.
145
5.36. Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker Syn. Fritillaria oxypetalum D. Don, Nomocharis oxypetalum (Royle) E. H. Wilson Family
:
Liliaceae
Local Name
:
Sur (Byas, Darma)
Description: A tall, erect herb with stout leafy stem growing up to a height of 60 cm. Bulbs aromatic, fleshy, with overlapping yellowish scales tiped with purple. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, 4-8 cm long. Flower solitary, pale yellow, terminal, subtended by terminal cluster of leaves, petals spreading outwards (Figure 38a & 38b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on open slopes in alpine regions at altitudes between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It is widely distributed throughout Byas and Darma valley. Propagation: Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown in the nursery beds. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or before rains. Conservation status: Although this species is common in Dharchula Himalaya, it may soon become a threatened species due to over-grazing, landslides and avalanches. Trade: There is no trade of any other parts or derivatives of Lilium oxypetalum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in import or export of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. 146
Figure 38a. Stem of Lilium oxypetalum with a flower
Figure 38b. Bulbs of freshly extracted Lilium oxypetalum Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Aromatic bulbs are edible. These are used by the local inhabitants as medicine. Its paste is applied on swellings in the limbs. Its medicinal importance is not yet known. Phytochemical studies may provide chemical constituents of potential economic value.
147
5.37. Malva sylvestris Linn. (Common Mallow) Family
:
Malvaceae
Local Name
:
Kiri chee (Darma), Bis kapadi (Chaudas)
Description: Perennial herb about 1.5 m tall with erect, straight stem. Leaves petioled, 5-7 lobed, reniform to suborbicular, cordate at base, glabrous above, and hairy with prominent veins below. Flowers showy and whitish purple with dark veins. Seeds brownish-black, reniform, glabrous. Plant is rich in mucilage (Figure 39). Phenology: It flowers during June-August and fruits during September-October.
Figure 39. Plant of Malva sylvestris growing along margins of field at Bon in Darma valley Ecology and Distribution: It grows in abandoned fields, margins of fields, vacand and waste lands in the temperate regions between 2,000 and 3,500 m. It is widely distributed throughout Darma, Byas and Chaudas valleys. Propagation: Malva sylvestris is planted by sowing seeds in the beds. It grows well in well-drained moist soil in full sun or semi shade. When grown on nitrogen rich soils, the plants tend to concentrate high levels of nitrates in 148
its leaves (Cooper and Johnson, 1984). Seeds are sown during early spring and germination takes place within two weeks. Chemical Constituents: Mucins from flowers on hydrolysis gave galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid; and leaves gave coline (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Malvidin-3-beta-D-glucopyranoside, anthocyanin (characterized as
malvidin-3-(6’’-malonylglucosido)-5-glucoside),
glucuronide,
isoscutellarein-8-glucuronide,
delphinidin-3-beta-D-glucopyranoside
hypolaetin-8alpha-D-glucan,
(mirtillin),
delphinidin-3,5-
beta-D-diglucopyranoside (malvin), malvidol-3,5-diglucoside chloride, cyanidol-3,5-diglucoside chloride and malvidol-3,5-diglucoside citrate were isolated from flowers. Two flavonol glycosides – gossypin-3sulphate and hypoletin-8-O-beta-D-glucosido-3’-sulphate along with gossypetin-8-O-beta-D-glucuronide-3-sulphate, polysaccharide
–
MSL-P
(composed
of
MSL-M; rhamnose,
galctose,
galacturonic acid and glucuronic acid in molar ratio of 22:6:22:11 containing 7.7% peptide) and two flavonoid glycosides – gossypetin-3glucosido-8-glucuronide and hypolaetin-4-methyl ether-8-glucuronide were isolated from leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; 1998). Palmitic, myristic, stearic, oleic and lauric acids, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from lipid fractions of seeds, leaves, and flowers (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Uses: This species is used as febrifuge and is good for blepharitis and all inflammatory conditions. It is also taken internally for sore throat, chronic bronchitis, jaundice and enlargement of spleen and it is useful in urinary discharges (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Grieve, 1984; Bown, 1995; Chevallier, 1996). A decoction made of equal parts of seeds of Malva sylvestris, Althaea officinalis (marsh mallow), Cucumis sativus (common cucumber, kakri), Citrullus vulgaris (water melon) and Foeniculum vulgare (Indian 149
sweet fennel, Badi saunf) is used in urinary complaints and gonorrhoea. Leaves are made into a poultice as an emollient external application (Nadkarni, 1908). Leaves are used to get relief from the insect bites and stings (http://www.pfaf.org). Leaves are consumed as vegetable. Young carpels and seeds are also edible. This species is reported to possess demulscent, antiseptic and emollient properties. Mucilaginous leaves with mild flavour act as a thickner in soups. Seeds have nice nutty flavour. Flowers are used as a garnish. Flowers and immature fruits are used for whooping cough. An extract of the leaves stimulates the smooth muscles of isolated uterus and intestines. Flowers are used for colouring wine red (Anonymous, 1969; Chevallier, 1996). Cream, yellow and green dyes are obtained from the plant and seeds (Grae, 1974). A fibre obtained from the stems is useful for cordage, textiles and paper making (http://www.pfaf.org). The plant is a good source of vitamin A, calcium and ascorbic acid (Agarwal, 1986). This plant in combination with Eucalyptus globulus makes
a
good
remedy
for
coughs
and
other
chest
ailments
(http://world.std.com/~krahe/index.html). Conservation status: Malva sylvestris is common in all the three valleys. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Malva sylvestris plants in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: After washing, the root is crushed and the infusion is prepared in water. This is then pored on the head when suffering from severe headache and convulsions. Dried roots are also used, but fresh roots are considered the best. In Chaudas, clothes soaked in decoction made from crushed leaves in boiling water is wrapped around swollen limbs is said to get relief. 150
5.38. Mazus surculosus D. Don Family
:
Scrophulariaceae
Local Name
:
Chota banafsa (Chaudas)
Description: Slender stoloniferous herb about 5-8 cm tall. Leaves in a lax rosette; basal leaves broadly ovate, rounded, toothed. Flowers pale blue or white, in short terminal stalked clusters arising directly from the rootstock (Figure 40). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during April-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows along margins of fields, on abandoned cultivation fields and along road sides in the temperate regions between 1,500 and 3,000 m. It is widely distributed throughout Chaudas.
Figure 40. Uprooted plant of Mazus surculosus from Sirdang of Chaudas Propagation: Seeds are surface sown during spring. About 5 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. 151
The seedlings are
allowed to grow through winter and these are planted in the field during next spring. Conservation status: Mazus surculosus is common in and around Sirdang in Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade of Mazus surculosus in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: The entire plant is mixed with Viola serpens and Rubus nutans in equal proportions and is pounded; the mixture is given in the treatment of inflammations of urinary tracts, painful urination or any problem related to urination. Phytochemical investigations may yield new chemicals that are of medicinal value.
152
5.39. Paris polyphylla Smith Family
:
Liliaceae (Trilliaceae)
Local Name
:
Satwa (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: Annual herb of about 60 cm height, dioecious. Rhizome stout, creeping, segmented. Rhizomes of female plants are bigger in size than that of male plants. Flowers solitary, terminal, greenish at the apex, subtended by 4-9 lanceolate long-pointed leaf-like bracts. Fruit globular; seeds scarlet (Figure 41a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows as a undergrowth of forests, bamboo thickets and also in grassy or rocky slopes, streamsides and damp places in the temperate regions of Chaudas valley between 2,000 and 3,000 m. Propagation: Paris polyphylla can be grown in moist humus-rich soils under woodland conditions. It also grows in full or partial shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown in late summer in light shade. Seeds are very slow to germinate. It produces a primary root after 7 months of sowing. Leaves appear after 11 months of sowing. Seed is sown thinly in fairly deep pots so that the seedlings can be grown for the first two years without disturbance. Seedlings require regular fertilizer application after germination. Once the plants are dormant at the end of the second year of growth, individual plants are sorted out and planted in separate pots. These are grown for at least another year in shaded parts before planting them in the field (http://www.pfaf.org).
153
a
b Figure 41a. A plant of Paris polyphylla growing at Sirkha in Chaudas together with associated ground flora Figure 41b. Cleaned and air dried tubers of Paris polyphylla
Figure 41c. Mangal Singh of Sirdang village, a practitioner of herbal medicine holding Paris polyphylla plant Chemical Constituents: Monoglucoside of diosgenin, saponins A (composed of diosgenin, glucose and rhamnose), saponin B (pariphyllin), saponin C (diosgenin-3-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl 154
(1-4)beta-D-
glucopyranoside), polyphyllins A-H (first six spirostanol steroidal saponins and remaining two furostanol steroidal saponins, three steroid glycosides),
3-O-alpha-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)[alpha-L-
arabinofuranosyl-(1-4)]-beta-D-glucopyranoside (I), diosgenin-3-Oalpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-4)-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-4)[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-2)beta-D-glucopyranoside (II), pregna5,16-dien-20-one-3-O-beta-chacotrioside
(III),
dioscin,
a
phytoecdysone (paristerone), five 22geta(25R)22-methoxyfurostanol3,26-O-bisglycosides, pennogenin and diosgenin derivatives isolated from rhizomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993). Uses: The roots are analgesic, antiphlogistic, antipyretic, antispasmodic, antitussive, depurative, febrifuge and narcotic (Grieve, 1984; Yeung, 1985; Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Rhizome possesses anthelmintic and tonic properties. Glycoside present in the rhizome has depressant action on carotid pressure, myocardium and respiratory movements. It produces vasoconstriction in kidney, but vasodilation in the spleen and limbs, and stimulates isolated intestines (Anonymous, 1993; Ambasta et al., 1986). A decoction of the roots is used in the treatment of poisonous snake bites, boils and ulcers, diphtheria and epidemic Japanese B encephalitis ((http://www.pfaf.org). The roots have antibacterial action against Bacillus dysenteriae, B. typhi, B. paratyphi, E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, haemolytic streptococci, Meningococci etc (Yeung, 1985). Conservation status: Paris polyphylla is a common species in Chaudas. However, over-exploitation for its root may make this species a threatened one in future. Trade: There is traffic in rhizomes of Paris polyphylla in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this plant.
155
Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Paris polyphylla rhizome (Figure 41b) is very potent medicine against different kinds of poisoning. Traditional healers (Figure 41c) prescribe paste of dried rhizomes made for the treatment of boils and insect bites. Cleaned and sun dried tubers can be preserved for many years for future use. Decoction of tuber in water is also given to cattle when they are poisoned due to grazing of poisonous grasses/herbs and also in the treatment of intestinal disorders. Phytochemical screening of rhizomes of this species may yield powerful antidotes for food and other kinds of poisoning.
156
5.40. Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle Family
:
Saxifragaceae (Parnassiaceae)
Local Name
:
Nirbisi (Byas, Darma)
Description: Perennial, scapigerous herb, with thick root stock. Roots yellow. Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, 2.5-5 cm long, 2-3 cm broad, narrow towards the base. Scape single, erect, 15-30 cm long. Flowers solitary, white, 1.5-2.5 cm long; capsule obvoid; seeds smooth, reticulate (Figure 42a & 42b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on shady damp rocks and open slopes of subalpine and alpine regions of Darma and Byas between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It is widely distributed in Byas and Darma valleys. Uses: Rootstock is used against food poisoning and snake bite (Jain, 1991). The entire plant is used in Tibetan medicine for treatment of inflammation and fever and for various contagious infections (Tsarong, 1994). Conservation status: It is common in Darma and Byas. Commercial extraction may cause this species to fall under threatened category. Trade: There is no trade of Parnassia species in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. There is, however, a limited traffic in this species from Nepal Himalayas.
157
Figure 42a. Uprooted plant of Parnassia nubicola from Bon in Darma showing rootstock
Figure 42b. Freshly extracted plant of Parnassia nubicola in Champu near Garbyang in Byas valley Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Paste of root in water is applied on the wounds and cuts; it acts as antiseptic. Root is boiled in water and the decoction is given to goats and sheep as an antidote for poisoning due to consumption of poisonous grasses and herbs. It is a very potent medicinal plant. This species may yield active principles that can be used as antidotes for a variety of chemical and biological warfare agents. 158
5.41. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Family
:
Scrophulariaceae
Local Name
:
Katki (Darma, Byas, Chaudas), Kuru
Description:
Perennial herb of about 30 cm height. Rootstock elongate, woody,
stout, as thick as little finger and creeping rootstock; very bitter in taste. Leaves 5-10 cm long, spatulate almost radical, sharply serrate, apex rounded, base narrowed into a winged sheathing petiole. Flowers white or pale blue-purple and arranged in a dense terminal spicate raceme (Figure 43a & 43b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows beneath the boulders of alpine and sub-alpine meadows along rivulets between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It is abundant in Chipla, Budhi Galja, Kuti, Malpa Dhar, Veena Odyar, Karangdang, Karschila, Dudh Van, Ngansa Marti, Gudgudya pani, Tharo Odyar, Bon, Dugtu and Pancha chuli in Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Propagation: Picrorhiza kurroa can be propagated by seed sowing or vegetatively by rhizomes cuttings. It prefers dry or well drained soil and full sun or partial shade. Chemical Constituents:
Picrorhizin, kutkin, apocynin (4-hydroxy-3-
methoxyacetophenone), picroside I (characterized as 6’-O-transcinnamoyl-catalpol), crystalline kutkin (a mixed crystal of picroside I and a glucoside – kutkoside characterized as 10-O-vanilloylcatalpol), picroside II (characterized as 6- vanilloylcatalpol), picroside III (characterized
as
6’-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamoyl)catalpol),
pikuroside, 6-feruloyl catalpol, an iridoid glucoside picroside V 159
(characterized as 6-m-methoxybenzoyl catalpol), cucurbitacin glycoside (characterized as 25-acetoxy-2-O-beta-glucosyl-3,16,20-trihydroxy-9methyl-19-norlanosta-5,23-dien-22-one (I)), veronicoside, minecoside, picein, androsin, beta-D-6-cinnamoylglucopyranose, 1-[2-(3-hydroxy4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-betalaminaribiose,(1R,5R,6S,7R,8S,11S)6,7,8-trihydroxy-2,10dioxatricyclo[6,2,1,0]undecan,
20(R)3beta,16alpha,20,25-tetrahydroxy(I);
2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-10alpha-cucurbit-5-en-22-one
cucurbitacins (characterized as 16alpha-hydroxy-22,23,24,25,26,27hexanor-2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-10alpha-cucurbit-5-en3,11,20-trione (II), 20(R)16alpha,20-dihydroxy-24,25,26,27-tetranor2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-10alpha-cucurbit-5-en-3,11,22trione(III)
and
20(R
)3beta,16alpha,20-trihydroxy-24,25,26,27-
tetranor-2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-10alpha-cucurbit-5-en11,22-dione (IV), 25-(acetoxy)-2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16dihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta-5,23-dien-22-one
(IX),
25
–
(acetoxy)-2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,20-trihydroxy-9methyl-19-norlanosta-5,23(Z)-dien-22-one(X),
2-(beta-D-
glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,20-trihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta-5,24dien-22-one(XI),
2beta-(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16-dihydroxy-
4,49,14-tetramethyl-19-norpregn-5-en-20-one(XII),
2,3,16,20,25-
pentahydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanost-5-en-22-one (XIII) and 2beta-(6O-cinnamoyl-beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,20,25-tetrahydroxy-9methyl-19-norlanost-5-en-22-one(XIV)),
cucurbitacin
glycosides
–
2beta-(glucosyloxy)-3,16,20,25-tetrahydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta5,23,-dien-22-one
(V),
25-(acetoxy)-2beta-(glucosyloxy)-3,16,20-
trihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta-5,23-dien-11,22-dione (VI), 2beta(glucosyloxy)-16,20-dihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta-5,24-dien3,11,22-trione (VII),
cucurbitacin glycoside (I), 2-O-glucosides of
cucurbitacin B, 23,24-didehydrocucurbitacin B, 2beta-(glucosyloxy)16,20,22-trihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanosta-5,24-dien-3,11,dione (VIII), (2beta,9beta,10alpha,20zeta,24zeta)20,24-epoxy-2beta-(beta-D160
glucopyranosyloxy)-16,25-dihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanost-5-en3,11-dione(XV), (2beta,3beta,9beta,10alpha,16alpha,20zeta,24zeta)20,24-epoxy-2beta(beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,25-trihydroxy-9-methyl-19norlanost-5-en-11-one(XVI), (2beta,9beta,10alpha,16alpha,20zeta,24zeta)20,24-epoxy-2beta-(betaD-glucopyranosyloxy)-16,25,26-trihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanost-5en-3,11-dione(XVII), (2beta,9beta,10alpha,16alpha,20zeta,24zeta)20,24-epoxy-2beta-(betaD-glucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,25,26-tetrahydroxy-9-methyl-19norlanost-5-en-11-one(XVIII), (2beta,9beta,10alpha,16alpha,,20beta,24zeta)2beta-(beta-Dglucopyranosyloxy)-16,20,26-trihydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanost-5,24dien-3,11-dione(XIX)
and
(2beta,9beta,10alpha,16alpha,20beta,24zeta)2beta-(beta-Dglucopyranosyloxy)-3,16,20,25-tetrahydroxy-9-methyl-19-norlanost5,24-dien-11-one (XX) – along with 25-deacetyl derivative of (VI) and arvenin III, 25-acetyl derivative of (I) were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995; 1998; Jia et al., 1999; Singh et al., 2004; Mandal et al., 2004). Sample collected at altitude 2,700 meters contained highest percentage (1.89%) of picroside I and the sample collected at 3,200 meters contained highest percentage (1.5%) of picroside II (Basu et al., 1971; Ambika et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004). Pharmacology: Picroliv (a standardized fraction of alcoholic extract of plant) and its major components picroside I, catalpol, kutkoside I and kutkoside bind to hepatitis B virus surface antigen and, therefore, inactivate the virus (Chaturvedi and Singh, 1964; Pandey, 1966; Pandey and Chaturvedi, 1969; Vohora, 1979; Mehrotra et al., 1996; Visen, 1996; Saraswat, 1997; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998).
161
Apocynin, a cardiotonic constituent is responsible for choleretic activity of Picrorhiza kurroa (Suri et al., 1987). Crude extract of the root and picroside II have demonstrated moderate anti-inflammatory activity (Das and Raina, 1967; Jia et al., 1999). Uses: It promotes secretion of bile. Root paste is given orally with tea or cow’s milk for treatment of fever, asthma, stomach disorders, indigestion and jaundice. Drug, Picrorhiza used in jaundice is obtained from dried rhizomes. Root is antiperiodic, cholagogue, stomachic, laxative in small doses and cathartic in large doses; it is reputed to have beneficial action in dropsy. Alcoholic extracts of the roots are active against Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus and Escherichia coli (Anonymous, 1969; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Dried rhizomes are used as a substitute for Gentiana kurroo (Indian Gentian) as tonic, stomachic, febrifuge and in treatment of urinary troubles and are as efficacious as Indian gentian. Root paste is used in scorpion sting, fever and dyspepsia (Kalakoti and Pangtey, 1988). 5-10 gm paste of fresh root with a glass of cow milk is given orally twice a day for a week for jaundice (Bal and Datta, 1945; Arya and Prakash, 1999). Katki works very well in fevers associated with burning sensation of the body. It is also used against malarial fever and efficacy is same as quinine. One gram of root powder is added to 30 ml of hot water and is administered after cooling. It also improves appetite when given with honey in small doses i.e. 0.5 gms twice a day. Its decoction with honey or dry powder with sugar is given in jaundice. It alleviates the oedema in ascites and enlargement of liver (Paranjpe, 2001). It cures periodic attacks of hysteria, epilepsy, and convulsion and promotes secretion of bile. In Ayueveda it is used for cirrhosis of the liver among adults. A teaspoonful of powdered root mixed with equal amount of honey is given thrice daily. In case of attendant constipation, dose is doubled and taken with warm water thrice or four times a day (Bakhru, 1990). 162
Figure 43a. Plants of Picrorhiza kurroa growing near Bon in Darma valley
Figure 43b. Cleaned and air dried rhizomes of Picrorhiza kurroa Conservation status: Rhizomes of Katki (Figure 43b) are in great demand because of its wide use in Indian as well as Tibetan medicine and also in the treatment of liver disorders. It is listed as vulnerable and rare in Indian Red Data Book (Jain and Sastry, 1991) due to excessive extraction of roots for medicinal uses. FRLHT has categorised this species as endangered in North-West India and specifically in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). This
species is listed in
Appendix II of the CITES listed flora of India, which means that it is not 163
necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in this species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival (Anonymous, 2000). Trade: Rhizomes of Picrorhiza kurroa have been subject to illicit trade for a long time in the region. The dried rhizomes are sold to the traders from the plains at the rate of Rs. 170 per kg. Its demand is very high and even people from Nepal bring their stock to Dharchula for sale. A total of 40,000 to 50, 000 kg were traded in Dharchula during 2003, part of which had come from Nepal. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Picrorhiza kurroa obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export. The formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported if only imported plant species are used. Import of seeds of Picrorhiza kurroa for sowing and planting purposes is allowed. Import of seeds for consumption or other purposes is permitted against a licence. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Local medicine made out of Picrorhiza kurroa, Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis) and Saussurea lappa (Kuth) is administered to women for treatment of fever and other illnesses following childbirth. Dried roots and rhizomes are used as blood purifier and liver tonic. Ther is an illicit trade in the species and the true magnitude of traffic is not yet known. The species populations have been declining throughout its distribution range. It may become extinct in most part of localities unless its harvest from the wild is regulated and suitable conservation measures are evolved and implemented. Educating local inhabitants about non-destructive methods of extraction and cultivation in abandoned grazing grounds and fields are the best conservation strategies for this species. 164
5.42. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson (Blue Pine) Syn. Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don Family
:
Pinaceae
Local Name
:
Salli shin, Lhum shin (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: A large tree of about 30 m height. Bark smooth slate coloured on young stems and rough with shallow fissures on old stems. Needles in bundles of 5, up to 20 cms long, greenish, drooping except when young. Cones usually 2-3 together, ripe cones up to 30 cm long, cylindrical. Seeds 5-6 mm long, wings 1.5-2 cm long, membranous (Figure 44). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during April-June.
Figure 44. A tree of Pinus wallichiana at Chiyalekh of Byas valley Ecology and Distribution: It forms pure stands or grows in association with other temperate and alpine conifers and broad leaf species between 2,000
165
and 3,500 m. It is widely distributed all over Darma, Byas and Chaudas in Dharchula Himalaya. Propagation: Pinus wallichiana is a light demander and favours northerly aspects, sheltered bays and heavy opening of canopies; hard dry slopes and shallow soils are usually not favoured. Saplings are raised in the nurseries and then transplanted to the field or wildlings can be collected from the dense natural regeneration sites and transplanted in the field. Chemical Constituents: Turpentine from xylem resin of Pinus wallichiana contains alpha-pinene and isomers of undecane, dodecane and tridecane along with abietic, isopimaric and lambertianic acids (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995,). Uses: Turpentine obtained from the resin is antiseptic, diuretic, rubefacient and vermifuge. It is a valuable remedy used internally in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints and is used as a rub and steam bath in the treatment of rheumatic affections. Externally it is a very effective treatment for a variety of skin complaints, wounds, sores, burns, boils, etc. and is used in the form of liniment plasters, poultices, herbal steam bath and inhalers (Grieve, 1984). Turpentine is obtained from oleoresin (xylem resin) by steam distillation, which contains about 20% volatile oil called pinene with a small quantity of limonene and 80% of residue known as calophony. The rectified oil, oleum terebinthinae rectificatum, is used in medicine. Conservation status: Pinus wallichiana is abundant in Dharchula Himalayas and often becomes invasive in areas where oaks are felled. Trade: There is no commercial felling of Pinus wallichiana in the interiors of Dharchula areas. These trees are felled only for the purpose of meeting the
166
homestead requirements. Mostly fallen trees are collected to meet the requirement. State Government of Uttaranchal has prohibited green felling of trees of all the species in the localities above 1,000 m in the entire region and resin tapping has been stopped since long. There is, however, no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Pinus species or any formulations made out of these trees. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Xylem resin of Pinus wallichiana is locally called galchuri. It is considered very useful by the Bhotias for the treatment of swelling of limbs and joints, boils and insect bites. Resin is applied locally on the boils, heel cracks, wounds and other effected parts as a basis for plasters, which is changed every day. The root of the Pinus wallichiana, called machhang, was used in the past as lamp and for lighting fire. Timber is used locally for constructions. Dried needle (locally called Rasa or Darphe) are used as animal bedding, which forms manure after decaying with dung and urine. There is a good regeneration of Pinus wallichiana in the region. Most of the tree species are secured in region because of ban on commercial timber extraction.
167
5.43. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (Indian Podophyllum) Syn. Podophyllum emodi Wallich ex Hook. f. & Thoms.
Family
:
Berberidaceae (Podophyllaceae)
Local Name
:
Burkhalo, Ralbu (Darma, Byas), Ban kakri
Description: A herbaceous, glabrous, succulent herb of about 60 cm height with erect, un-branched stem and with creeping, perennial rhizome bearing numerous roots. Leaves two or three, large, lobed. Flower solitary, long pedicelled, sepals white or pinkish. Sepals caudcous. Berries pendulous, pulpy, scarlet or reddish in colour, oblong or elliptic, 2.5 – 5 cm long, edible and taste bitter-sweet. Seeds many (Figure 45a & 45b). Phenology: It flowers during June-July and fruits during July-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on open slopes of meadows, beneath boulders, moist grounds in ravines between 3,300 and 4,500 m. It is extremely rare in the region and only a solitary population of 5 plants was recorded during the survey of entire area. It generally grows in association with
Aconitum
heterophyllum,
Geranium
spp.,
Corydalis
spp.,
Rhododendron spp., Salix spp., Juniperus spp. and Viburnum spp. etc. This species prefers humus rich and decayed organic matter found on the floor of fir forests (Anonymous, 1969). Propagation: It prefers moist peaty soils and filtered light or shade and grows well in moist open woodlands. It is quite hardy and can withstand extreme cold. It takes some years to become established but is very long lived in suitable habitats. Young plants only produce one leaf each year; older plants have 2 or 3 leaves each year Young leaves may be damaged by late frosts. Seeds are harvested from ripe fruits and are sown during 168
November. The seeds germinate in 1 to 4 months. Regular watering and weeding are done when seedlings are small. No special care is required after seedlings gain height. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil and are allowed to grow on under shade for two growing seasons. Saplings are then planted in the field during winter. Plants are ready for harvesting by October (http://www.pfaf.org).
Figure 45a. A small population of Podophyllum hexandrum with flowers growing at Jyolingkong of Byas valley
Figure 45b. Plants of Podophyllum hexandrum with Berris grown in home garden at Filam of Darma
169
Chemical
Constituents:
Podophyllotoxin,
deoxypodophyllotoxin,
dehydropodophyllotoxin, picropodophyllin and cytotoxic lignans namely
(1R,2R,3R)deoxypodophyllotoxin,
podophyllotoxone,
podophyllotoxin and 4’-demethylpodophyllotoxin were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; Mishra et al., 2004). Lignans
(4’-demethylpodophyllotoxone
demethylisopicropodophyllone), deoxypodophyllotoxin
and
alpha-peltatin,
and
4’-
beta-peltatin,
4’-demethyldesoxypodophyllotoxin;
diphyllin were isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). Aryltetralin
lignans
4’-O-demethyldehydropodophyllotoxin,
picropodophyllone, isopicropodophyllone & dehydropodophyllotoxin were isolated from the leaves of plant of Pakistani origin (Rahman et al., 1995). Pharmacology: Podophyllotoxin derivatives etoposide II, etopophos 12 and teniposide 13 and derivatives of (-)-podophyllotoxin I have been successfully utilized in the treatment of a variety of malignant tumours (Canel et al., 2000). Uses: It is reported to be cholagogue, purgative, alterative, emetic and bitter tonic. It is used for billous complaints and constipation, also for inflammation of liver during typhoid fever (Joshi, 2000). The root is harvested in the autumn and either dried for later use or the resin is extracted. Plant is poisonous and not to be prescribed for pregnant women (Bown, 1995). Roots are antirheumatic (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Root decoction or root paste are used for cancer, cuts, wounds, diarrhea, fever, gastric ulcers, hepatic diseases, skin diseases and as purgative and fruits are used to treat cough (Jain,1991). Podophyllum root stimulates live and, therefore, it is extensively used in digestive disturbances, usually called biliousness. It is a great cathartic. When administered to the healthy individuals, it causes griping pain accompanied with vomiting and persistent diarrhea (Choudhuri, 2002). 170
Podophyllin, which is present in the plant has antimitotic effect- it interferes with cell division and can thus prevent growth of cells. It is used for the treatment of ovarian cancer (Phillips and Foy, 1990). A number of lignans isolated from the plant have shown antitumor, antimitotic and antiviral activities (Rahman et al., 1995). It also has radioprotective properties (Goel et al., 1998) Etoposide, a semisynthetic compound derived by modifying podophyllotoxin extracted from the roots of Podophyllum hexandrum is used for treatment of testicular cancer and small-cell lung cancer (Duke, 1992; Joshi, 1993). Root is used as heart tonic in small doses as it is toxic in large doses; it stimulates peristalsis and is an effective vermifuge. It is also used in allergy and skin inflammations (Agarwal, 1986). Roots are used for urticaria, dyspepsia and to exert destructive action on cancerous tissues. In Chamoli Garhwal, fruits are used in fermenting local liquor; fruit pulp is taken to cure loss of breath (Negi and Pant, 1994). Conservation status: Podophyllum hexandrum is rare in Dharchula Himalayas. Its populations are scattered and confined to few localities. FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in North-East and North-West India and critically endangered in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). This species is on the negative list of exports and is included in Appendix II of the CITES listed flora of India, which means that it is not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in this species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival (Anonymous, 2000). Trade: There is no perceptible local trade of any parts or derivatives of Podophyllum hexandrum in Dharchula areas at present. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Podophyllum hexandrum obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and 171
extracts of the cultivated plants are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of cultivation from forest authorities. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate. Besides, formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. Export of seeds is permitted subject to a declaration in the form of an affidavit from the exporter that the seeds being exported are not of wild variety. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Fruit and root decoction are used in the treatment of fever and stomach ailments. It has been observed that consumption of fruit or root infusion for treatment of stomach disorders induces diarrhoea and sometimes vomiting leading to final cure of the disorders. Although the harvests of Podophyllum hexandrum from wild are restricted, there is illicit trade in the species. In fact, illicit trade that took place during the last decade wiped out most of the Himalayan species making it a classical case of loss of species due to traffic. In some localities statutory regulations on the export of the species has resulted in marginal increase in the number of populations. Since there are localities that are suitable for cultivation of this species, cultivation in abandoned fields in suitable localities is the best conservation strategy for this species.
172
5.44. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. (Whorled Solomon’s Seal) Family Local Name
: :
Liliaceae (Convallariaceae) Khakan (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: An erect, glabrous herb of about 60 cm height. Stems angled or grooved. Rootstock thick and creeping. Leaves sessile, in whorls of 4-8, linear or narrowly lanceolate, 8-15 cm long, 0.5 to 3cm broad, acute at apex. Flowers white and arranged in terminal whorls of leafy raceme. Fruits globose, 5cm across, red, dark purple when ripe (Figure 46a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in shrubberies and exposed moist slopes in the temperate and sub-alpine regions between 2,500 and 3,500 m. It is widely distributed throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Propagation:
Polygonatum verticillatum prefers fertile humus rich moisture
retentive well-drained soil under cool shade or semi-shade. Plants are intolerant of heat and drought. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during early autumn under shade. Seed germination is slow and takes few years for seedlings to reach a good size. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil and are allowed to grow throughout winter under shade. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer after frosts. The species can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during March or October. Larger fragments can be planted out directly in the field and smaller ones are potted up and allowed to grow under shade and these are planted in the field in late spring or early summer (Huxley, 1992).
173
Figure 46a. A plant of Polygonatum verticillatum growing close to the base of Abies pindrow at Budhi Galja of Byas valley
Figure 46b. Cleaned and air dried rhizome of Polygonatum verticillatum
Chemical Constituents: Lysine, serine, aspartic acid, threonine, saponisides A, B and C and saponiside D (a protoglucoside of dioscin) and
174
diosgenin (1.5%) were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1993; 1995). Conservation status: Polygonatum verticillatum is common in Dharchula Himalayas. Commercial extraction may make this species endangered soon if conservation measures are not taken. Trade: There is no trade of Polygonatum verticillatum plant parts in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Young leaves are consumed as vegetable; it is particularly relished by the local inhabitants. Rhizome is also edible and is considered a good tonic (Figure 46b). Phytochemical investigations may yield chemicals of potential economic value.
175
5.45. Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don Syn. Bistorta amplexicaule (D. Don.) Greene Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Van-madua (Chaudas)
Description: Perennial, slender, erect herb of about 40-60 cm height, with tufted stems. Rootstock thick, stout and horizontal. Basal leaves long-petioled; upper ones amplexicaule, ovate-lanceolate or cordate at base, 5-10 cm long, 3.5-5cm broad. Flowers pink, deep red or white and arranged in terminal dense spikes. Fruit trigonous, smooth (Figure 47). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-August.
Figure 47. A plant of Polygonum amplexicaule growing in Kharsu Oak forests at Pungwe of Chaudas Ecology and Distribution: It grows in openings of the forests, exposed moist slopes and marshy places in the temperate and alpine regions between 2,000 and 3,600 m. It is distributed throughout Chaudas, Darma and Byas valleys.
176
Propagation: Polygonum amplexicaule grows well in fairly good soils under sun and or semi-shade. Seeds harvested from plants are sown during autumn. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil and the saplings are planted in the field during summer. Chemical Constituents: Isoorientin-O-arabinoside, isorhamnetin, isovitexin and its O-arabinoside were isolated from leaves; beta-amyrin, chrysophanol, emodin, physcion and stigmasterol were isolated from rhizomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). This species has, on dry matter basis: crude protein, 16.90; ash, 11.02; calcium, 1.38; phosphorus, 0.17; and magnesium, 0.90% (Anonymous, 1969). Uses: Root of the herb is sold under trade name anjubar. The drug contains about 16% tannins and 7.8% non-tannins. The species is used as excellent palatable fodder (Anonymous, 1969). Conservation status: Polygonum amplexicaule is common in Chaudas but the number of populations is limited. This may either be due to grazing by livestock or due to harvesting for fodder. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Polygonum amplexicaule in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export and import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Root is cleaned and consumed during constipation and as tonic and appetiser. Root is also used in making salted tea. Detailed phytochemical studies may yield chemicals that may be useful in the treatment of disorders associated with digestive systems.
177
5.46. Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) Syn. Polygonum somdevai Aswal & Malhotra Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Khyakjari (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: A robust, leafy, perennial herb of about 30-60 cm tall, with stout and un-branched stem. Root tuberous, thick, woody, light brown and very bitter in taste. Leaves short-petioled, undulate, broadly ovate, blunt or almost acute, sparsely pubescent on both surfaces. Flowers greenish-white and arranged in axillary terminal panicles. Nut trigonous, ovate (Figure 48a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in exposed meadows, grassy slopes and damp places in the alpine regions. It is common in Byas, Chaudas and Darma between 3,000 and 4,000 m. Propagation: Polygonum rumicifolium prefers moist, well-drained soil and thrives under sun. Seeds are sown during spring. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. 15-20 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during summer and smaller saplings are planted after frosts in spring. Plants can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during spring or autumn. Larger fragments can be planted directly in the field and smaller fragments are allowed to grow under light shade before planting them in the field during late spring or early summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Uses: Many species of the Polygonum are used as vegetable, but these contain oxalic acid. When consumed it leads to mineral deficiency. Cooking 178
reduces the content of oxalic acid in leaves. These species are not recommended for people with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity (Bown, 1995).
Figure 48a. Young plants of Polygonum rumicifolium in growing at Pungwe of Chaudas
Figure 48b. Cleaned and air dried roots of Polygonum rumicifolium
179
Conservation status: It is rather restricted in distribution in Dharchula Himalayas. This species is vulnerable due to over-exploitation. Continued commercial extraction may make this species extinct in wild. Trade: There is no trade of Polygonum rumicifolium or any of its parts in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export and import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Cleaned and sun and air dried tuberous roots (Figure 48b) are given in high fevers with convulsions and also for treatment of malaria. It has cooling effects. Young leaves are edible and are considered nutritious if taken in moderate quantities. It is considered a very good medicine by Bhotias. This species requires immediate phytochemical studies to find out its potential for development of useful drugs.
180
5.47. Polygonum viviparum Linn. Family Local Name
: :
Polygonaceae Nib (Darma, Byas)
Description: A herb of about 15-30 cm height. Rootstock woody. Basal leaves 10-15 cm long, long-petioled, linear or linear-oblong, leathery, hairy beneath; upper ones sessile, amplexicaule, cordate at base. Flowers pale pink and arranged in recemes. Nuts dark brown, 3-angular or biconvex. It is variable in size and shape of leaves and height (Figure 49a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in exposed alpine and sub-alpine meadows between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It is widely distributed in Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Propagation: Polygonum viviparum grows well in fairly good moist soils under sun or semi-shaded conditions. Seeds are harvested from plants and are sown during late spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during summer. It is also propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during spring or autumn. Larger fragments can be planted directly in field and smaller ones are allowed to grow under light shade till these are planted in the field during spring or early summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Proanthocyanidins isolated (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; Chopra et al., 1956).
181
Figure 49a. A stand of Polygonum viviparum growing at Budhi Galja of Byas valley
Figure 49b. Uprooted pant of Polygonum viviparum with woody rootstock Uses:
In Yunani medicine, roots of Polygonum viviparum (Figure 49b) is considered tonic, styptic; it is useful in the treatment of affections of the chest and lungs, piles, old diarrhea, rhinitis, vomiting, biliousness, chronic bronchitis, wounds, gripping in the abdomen. Root is a useful astringent and is applied in abscesses; a decoction of it makes an excellent gargle to get relief from sore throat, an excellent lotion for ulcers. Mixed with 182
Gentian, it is administered in the treatment of intermittent fevers; it is also useful in passive haemorrhage and diarrhea (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). The young leaves and rootstock are edible; seeds are considered delicacy in Russia; the herb possesses antiseptic properties. Root is used as tonic, astringent and also in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and hemoptysis (Anonymous, 1969; Ambasta et al., 1986). Conservation status: Polygonum viviparum is common throughout Darma and Byas valley. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Polygonum viviparum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: Root is chewed like arecanut and is considered by the local inhabitants as effective against sore throat and mouth ulcers. It also prevents dehydration during long walks in the hills. Detailed phytochemical investigations of this species may yield novel chemicals, which may have potential economic value.
183
5.48. Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz. Syn. Potentilla kleiniana Wight & Arn.
Family Local Name
: :
Rosaceae Goli usu (Chaudas)
Description: A perennial, prostrate herb with stems reaching up to 10-15 cm height. Leaves mostly trifoliate or five-foliate; leaflets ovate, narrowly oblong, 0.5-2 cm long, 0.3-0.6 cm broad, toothed. Flowers 1 cm across, yellow; drupelets subreniform and rugulose (Figure 50a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open meadows, grassy slopes and damp places in the temperate regions between 2,000 and 2,500 m. It is very common in Rung, Sirdang, Sirkha villages and nearby areas of Chaudas. Propagation: Potentilla sundaica can grow under semi-shade (light woodland) or sun. It prefers moist soils. Seeds are surface sown during early spring or autumn. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags or pots filled with soil. These are planted in the field during late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. It can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during spring. Larger fragments can be planted out in the field directly and smaller ones are allowed to grow on under light shade until before planting them during late spring or early summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Ellagitannins – potentillin – and its dimer – agrimoniin – have been isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). 184
Figure 50a. Population of Potentilla sundaica growing in pastures at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 50b. A plant of Potentilla sundaica with flower growing near Rung of Chaudas Uses: In China and Malaya, the entire plant is used as astringent. Fresh leaves are pounded and applied on abscesses; roots and stem are pounded and applied on the bites of snakes and centipedes (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). The whole plant is decocted and used in the treatment of colds, influenza, sore throat etc (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). The plant is astringent, depurative and febrifuge (Chopra et al., 1956). Root and stem are considered antidote for snake bite, leaf paste applied externally on itches and abscesses (Gaur, 1999). 185
Conservation status: Potentilla sundaica is common in Chaudas particularly near Rung, Sirkha and Sirdang. Grazing by cattle may restrict the distribution of species populations and thereby endanger it in the long run. It is neither listed as endangered, nor rare nor threatened in Red Data Book of Indian Plants, nor is it included in the list of endangered or threatened species of CITES. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Potentilla sundaica in Dharchula areas. Most families in Chaudas valley harvest this species in small quantities for personal use. Dried plant can be kept for 2-3 years. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts of Potentilla sundaica or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional uses in the Study Area: In Chaudas it is used as an effective remedy for soar throat, cough and any disorders connected with the throats especially among children. The entire plant (Figure 50b) together with root is cleaned and dried and pounded along with Coleus forskohlii and Eugenia caryophyllus (clove) and made into small tablets (goli). These tablets are used in the treatment of throat disorders. The mixture can also be chewed, which is equally effective. Most of the families in Chaudas use this species as an essential medicine. Plants harvested in October, particularly during full moon days of Dussehara have been considered by the locals as more potent. Since it forms an important component of home remedies, particularly for throat problems which are probably associated with smoking and harsh weather conditions, this species needs to be investigated further for active principles involved in curing throat disorders.
186
5.49. Prinsepia utilis Royle Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Dunthali (Byas, Chaudas, Darma)
Description: A bushy, semi-deciduous shrub of about 3.5 m height. Young branches smooth and green with straight and stout axillary thorns of about 4 cm long. Bark rough, pinkish or grey; blaze yellowish. Leaves lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, glabrous, 2-3.5 cm long. Flowers white, in short axillary racemes. Berries oblong-cylindric, fleshy, purple when ripe. Seeds solitary, large and smooth (Figure 51a). Phenology: It flowers during December to April and fruits during May-June. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in secondary scrub forests along roadsides, wastelands, abandoned areas, vacant lots and disturbed sites throughout temperate regions between 1,200 and 2,700 m. It is widely distributed throughout Chaudas, Byas and Darma in Dharchula Himalayas. Propagation: Prinsepia utilis does well in moderately fertile and well-drained soils under sun. It prefers open sunny conditions. Plants grown in full sun produce more flowers and berries. Seeds are sown during autumn or in late winter or early spring in nursery beds under light shade. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Seedlings are allowed to grow through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer of the following year. The plant can also be propagated vegetatively by cuttings of half-ripe wood during July/August. It grows quite slowly and is affected by defoliators (http://www.pfaf.org).
187
Figure 51a. Branchs of Prinsepia utilis with unripe fruits
Figure 51b. Ripe seeds of Prinsepia utilis being cleaned for extraction of oil
Figure 51c. Dry seeds of Prinsepia utilis 188
Chemical Constituents: A lignan – prinsepiol – along with (-)epicatechin and beta-sitosterol-beta-glucoside was isolated from stem (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Seed kernels yield 37.2% of semi-drying and pale yellow fatty oil. The fatty acid composition of oil is - myristic, 1.8%; palmitic, 15.2%; stearic, 4.5%; lignoceric, 0.9%; oleic, 32.6%; and linoleic, 43.6%. Resin acid (1.4%) is also present. Unsaponifiable matter contains sitosterol (Anonymous, 1969). Uses: Seed oil, apart from being edible, can also be used for lighting (Gamble, 1972; Gupta, 1945). Oil has rubefacient properties and is applied externally in rheumatism and pains resulting from over fatigue; it is also suitable for hydrogenation and soap making (Anonymous, 1969). Conservation status: Prinsepia utilis is common in Byas, Chaudas and Darma. Large scale wild harvests may endanger this species. Trade: There is no trade of Prinsepia utilis seeds or oil in Dharchula areas. Observation and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Local inhabitants extract edible oil from the seeds (Figure 51b & 51c). It is generally considered poor man’s oil. It is, however, quite good in taste. It is believed that this oil is not harmful even to those who suffer from high blood pressure and high level of cholesterol. Massage with oil gives relief to those suffering from rheumatism and joint and body pains due to fatigue. Pericarp of the ripe berries yields deep blue colour. It is, however, not used for the purpose of dye. Phytochemical studies coupled with toxicological assays may make this unexploited plant of potential economic value into a major oilyielding crop. This may bring an economic transformation of the communities. One of the problems of using wild populations for harvests of seeds is that no new populations will establish leading to the extinction of species due to non-availability of seeds. 189
5.50. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. (Bird Cherry) Syn. Prunus padus Linn.
Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Bangbalo (Chaudas, Byas), Jamoi
Description: A medium sized deciduous tree of about 20 m height. Bark rough exfoliating in woody scales, light grey or brown but turning black in old stems. Leaves 1.5-3 cm long, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, glaucous beneath. Flowers white in terminal or axillary drooping racemes. Fruit globose, first red turning black when fully ripe, edible and slightly acidic in taste (Figure 52). Phenology: It flowers during April-May and fruits during July-October.
Figure 52. Branch of Prunus cornuta bearing unripe fruits
Ecology and Distribution: It grows in moist localities of oak and fir forests in the temperate regions of Chaudas, Darma and Byas valleys between 2,500 and 3,500 m. 190
Propagation: Prunus cornuta thrives in well-drained moisture-retentive loamy soils. It prefers some lime in the soil but may become chlorotic if too much lime is present. It thrives either under sun or under partial shade (Huxley, 1992). Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown early in the year. Seeds take up to 18 months to germinate. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. Seedlings are grown through winter. Saplings are planted during late spring or early summer of the following year (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Beta-sitosterol and its glucoside, docosan-1,22-diol, umbelliferone, leucocyanidin, Lignans (ssioriside and prupaside) characterized as (8R,7S, 8’R)5,5’-dimethoxylaticiresinol-9’-O-beta-Dxylopyranoside, polyacylated sucrose esters – 3-O-p-coumaroyl-betaD-fructofuranosyl-2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside, 1O-acetyl-3-O-p-coumaroyl-beta-D-fructofuranosyl-2,3,6-tri-O-acetylalpha-D-glucopyranoside,
1-O-acetyl-3-O-p-coumaroyl-beta-D-
fructofuranosyl-3,4,6-tri-O-acetyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside and 1-Oacetyl-3-O-p-coumaroyl-beta-D-fructofuranosyl-3,6-di-O-acetylalpha-D-glucopyranoside were isolated from bark; a methyl ester of melilotoside (O-coumarate-beta-D-glucoside) was isolated from sap wood (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1998). Uses: Most members of the genus contain amygdalin and prunasin – the cyanogenic glycosides – which break down leading to release of hydrocyanic acid (cyanide or prussic acid) as a result of enzymatic hydrolysis. These glycosides are found mainly in the leaves and seeds of Prunus cornuta and are readily detected by its bitter taste. In small quantities the cyanogenic glycosides are known to stimulate respiration and improve digestion; these are also used in the treatment of cancer. However, respiratory failure and even death may occur if consumed in excess (Bown, 1995; Santamour, 1998). Oil from the kernels is applied on neuralgic pain; flowers are source of honey (Gaur, 1999). 191
Green
dye
is
obtained
from
the
leaves
and
dark grey to green dye is obtained from the fruit (Grae, 1974). Its wood is close and even-grained, takes a fine polish. It is used for construction, tools etc. Conservation status: Prunus cornuta is a common tree found in Chaudas, Darma and Byas. Trade: There is no trade of Prunus cornuta in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Fruits are edible and are relished by children; especially favoured by Himalayan black bears and birds. Leaves are lopped for fodder. This species may be a potential dye yielding plant. The market demands for green colour natural dye is high.
192
5.51. Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Balin (Chaudas), Mehal
Description: A moderate-sized deciduous tree of about 20 m tall. Bark blackish, split into small thick rectangular scales. Branches smooth and dark brown with lenticells. Leaves simple, 5-10 cm long, 2.5-4 cm broad, variable in size and shape, ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, shining and wooly beneath when young. Flowers white and fragrant. Fruit globose, dark brown covered with raised white dots turning black when ripe; fully ripe fruit is sweet (Figure 53). Phenology: It flowers during March-April and fruits during SeptemberDecember. Ecology and Distribution: It grows as underwood of oak and pine forests and is also found around cultivated areas (never in pure patches) in temperate regions between 1,500 and 2,700 m. It is widely distributed throughout Chaudas in Dharchula Himalaya. Propagation: Pyrus pashia prefers a good well-drained loam and thrive under full sun. It grows well in heavy clay soils and tolerates light shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. Seeds germinate during mid to late winter. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil and these are grown under shade for a year. 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer of the following year (Huxley, 1992).
193
Figure 53. A tree of Pyrus pashia with fruits at Pangu of Chaudas Chemical Constituents: Friedelin and beta-sitosterol (0.01%) isolated from bark; n-triacontane, myricyl alcohol as chloride and sitosterol isolated from leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Beta-sitosterol
and
its
glucoside isolated from fruits (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). A mature tree yields about 45kg of fruit per year. The fruit contains about 6.8% sugars, 3.7% protein, 1% ash, 0.4% pectin. Vitamin C is very low, about 1.2mg per 100g (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982). Conservation status: Pyrus pashia is common throughout Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade of Pyrus pashia in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Fruits are relished by children; especially favoured by bears and birds. Branches lopped for fodder and wood is used for fuel and for making small implements.
194
5.52. Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nakai Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Rutaple (Byas and Chaudas)
Description: A medium-size tree of about 10-15 m tall. Leaves white-wooly, elliptic. Flowers wooly in dense clusters, white. Berries juicy and edible, globular in shape, red turning deep red or reddish brown when ripe (Figure 54a). Phenology: It flowers during May-June and fruits during September-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in the open woodlands and partly shaded areas in association with blue pines and Quercus sps. It is found scattered in Chaudas and Byas between 2,500 and 3,500 m. Propagation: Pyrus pyrifolia grows well in exposed, well-drained loamy and heavy clay soils under full sun. It tolerates light shade but does not fruit so well under shade. Established plants are drought tolerant. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. Seeds germinate during mid to late winter (Huxley, 1992). 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil. These are grown under light shade for a year. 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer of the following year (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: The average yield from wild trees in the Himalayas is 83 kg per year, though some trees yield up to 200kg; fruit contains about 4.9% sugars, 3.2% protein, 0.9% pectin (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982).
195
Uses: Fruits are considered antiseptic, astringent, febrifuge, nervine and pectoral (http://www.pfaf.org).
Figure 54a. A tree of Pyrus pyrifolia trees growing at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 54b. Branch of Pyrus pyrifolia with unripe fruits
196
Conservation status: Pyrus pyrifolia is rather rare in Dharchula Himalayas. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Pyrus pyrifolia in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Ripe fruits are used in the treatment of general and amoebic dysentery. Berries (Figure 54b) are sun and air dried and preserved in the form of chapatti (round bread) for future use. It is considered very useful in the treatment of all kinds of stomach ailments.
197
5.53. Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner Syn. Rheum australe D. Don, Rheum palmatum Linn.,
Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Chhirchhya (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Dolu
Description: A perennial herb of about 2 m height, with very stout stems and rhizomes. Radical leaves very large, radical over 50 cm in diameter, rounded. Flowers minute, reddish or dark purple, in dense clusters. Fruit oblong or orbicular, winged, purple (Figure 55a). Phenology: It flowers during June-August and fruits during September-October. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open grasslands of alpine and sub-alpine zones between 2,700 and 4,000 m. It is found at Budhi Galja, Kuti, Api, Chiyalekh, Malpa Dhar, Pama yar, Veena Odyar, Karschila, Ngansa marti, Tharo Odyar, Njyang top, Karangdang, etc . of Dharchula Himalayas. Propagation: Rheum emodi prefers deep, fertile, moderately heavy, humus rich, moisture retentive, well-drained soils and thrive under sun or semi-shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn and stored seeds are sown during spring. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil and these are grown through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during spring. It can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during August-September. Larger fragments are planted directly in the field and smaller ones are planted in pots or polythene bags and these are planted in late spring or early summer (Huxley, 1992).
198
Figure 55a. Plants of Rheum emodi with inflorescence at Budhi Galja of Byas
Figure 55b. Cleaned and air dried roots of Rheum emodi
Chemical
Constituents:
Anthraquinones
(comprised
of
physcion,
chrysophanol, emodin, rhein and aloe emodin), tannins glucogallin and tetrarin, anthraquinone derivatives rheinal 1 and ehwinal-11-O-betaD-glucoside 2 were isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra,, 1998; Joshi et al., 2004). The leaves of the plant contain significant quantities of oxalic acid. revandchinone-2,
an
Oxanthrone esters – revandchinone-1, anthraquinone 199
ether
revandchinone-3,
oxanthrone ether (revandchinone-4), Rheinal and rhein-11-O-beta-Dglucosides were isolated from the rhizomes (Agarwal et al, 1999; Babu et al., 2003). Plants from higher altitude are found to be rich in anthraquinone constituents namely emodin, chrysophanol and physcion as compared to the one that grow at lower altitudes. Some of the anthraquinone contents decreased in plants grown under green-house conditions as compared to the plants found in wild (Joshi et al., 2004). Rhein, physcion, aloe-emodin and chrysophanol isolated from the rhizomes exhibited antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Cryptococcus
neoformans,
Trichophyton
mentagrophytes
and
Aspergillus (Agarwal et al., 2000). Uses: In Ayurveda the rhizome is used as tonic and mild laxative and in the treatment of dyspepsia, anorexia, urticaria and septic wounds. It is one of the most widely used herbs in Chinese medicine. Rhizomes are considered antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitumour, astringent, purgative, stomachic, aperient, cholagogue, demulcent, diuretic, laxative, antifungal, tonic, hemostatic, antihypertensive and anti-inflammatory. It lowers serum cholesterol. It can be used internally and topically on infections (Grieve, 1984; Usher, 1974; Hill, 1952; Bown, 1995; Chopra et al., 1956; Tierra, 1998). Rhizomes are taken internally in the treatment of chronic constipation, diarrhea, liver and gall bladder complaints, haemorrhoids, menstrual problems and skin eruptions due to accumulation of toxins and externally root is used in treatment of burns (Hill, 1952). It is used to strengthen intestine. 2-3 teaspoonfuls of tincture strengthens intestines, whereas two or three ounces (56 to 85 gms) is necessary as purgative (www:magdalin.com/herbs). It has constipating effect when taken in small quantities (http://world.std.com/~krahe/index.html). It is not advisable to eat leaves as oxalic acid present in the leaves can lock up certain minerals, especially calcium. People with rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones
200
or hyperacidity, epilepsy and other diseases associated with uric acid are not advised to use this species (Bown, 1995). Conservation status: Rheum emodi is rare in Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. FRLHT has categorized Rheum australe as vulnerable in North-West India, Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: Illicit trade in rhizomes of this species is common and dry rhizome is sold at the rate of Rs 5 per kg. There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of cultivated Rheum emodi or collected from the areas outside sanctuaries or other prohibited areas. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: This species is valued very highly by the local inhabitants for its medicinal properties and its utility as dye. It is also valued by the Tibetans for dyeing the clothes used by the Lamas (priests). Young stem is edible, tastes acidic. Rhizomes are considered very effective in the treatment of fractures of limbs and wounds in animals. Cotton cloth soaked in root paste in water is bandaged around wounds, cuts and fractures. Dried rhizome is used for colouring wollen clothes and yarns. It gives dark purple – brownish colour. Rhizomes are harvested from mature and preferably more than 5-6 years old plants during October-November or just before flowering. These are then dried in sun or wind for later use (Figure 55b). Dried roots can be used for many years. The species may become extinct if it is harvested from the wild at the present rate. Appropriate agrotechniques need to be developed for cultivation of this species. The species may yield a product, which can be used in healing fractures.
201
5.54. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Family
:
Ericaceae
Local Name
:
Pau, Sunpati (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: A small evergreen shrub of about 80 cm height. Bark slightly rough, pinkish-brown or grey, exfoliating in papery strips. Young shoots pubescent, leaf bud scales deciduous. Leaves crowded towards the end of the branches, elliptic, thick, margins recurved, shining above with scattered yellow scales when young, becoming glabrous on maturity, clothed below with a dense layer of yellow scales on young leaves and becoming ferruginous as the leaves mature; leaves turn purplish brown above during autumn. Flowers less than 2.5 cm in diameter, pale yellowish or whitish and arranged in dense 4-12 flowered corymbs; capsules ovoid (Figure 56). Phenology: It flowers during June-July and fruits during October-November.
Figure 56. A plant of Rhododendron anthopogon growing at Champu of Byas valley
202
Ecology and Distribution: It grows on steep and boulder-strewn grounds usually on northern aspects of the alpine regions above tree lines at altitudes above 3,500 m. It is widely distributed throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma of Dharchula Himalayas. Propagation: Rhododendron anthopogon seeds are surface sown in nursery beds under light shade in late winter or April. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into pots or polythene bags filled with soil. These are allowed to grow on through winter and then planted in the field during spring. It grows in humus-rich lime-free soils. It, however, prefers peaty or welldrained sandy loam soils with pH between 4.5 and 5.5. It also grows well in woodland because of its surface-rooting habit; it does not compete well with surface-rooting trees. Plants require continuous weeding (Chittendon, 1951; Huxley, 1992). Chemical Constituents: Triterpenes, alkanes and beta-sitosterol were isolated from nonsaponifiable portion of oil from stem and fatty acids from saponifiable portions (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Beta-sitosterol, friedelin, ursolic acid, quercetin, quercetin-3O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranoside, kaempferol, its 4-methyl ether and 3O-glucoside were isolated from leaves; 24-methylenecycloartenyl acetate, betulinic acid, ursolic acid, its acetate, epifriedelinol, betasitosterol and rutin were isolated from the whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995). Uses: The smoke of leaves has stimulant properties. Leaves are administered as an errhine to produce sneezing (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Alcoholic extract of stem has cardiac stimulant activity (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Flowers are used in Tibetan medicine as febrifuge, antitussive and tonic. It is used against swelling of body, inflammations, disorder of the lungs and general weakening of the body (Tsarong, 1994). 203
Conservation status: Rhododendron anthopogon is common in Dharchula Himalayas. FRLHT has categorized this species as vulnerable in NorthEast India and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no trade of Rhododendron anthopogon plant portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: It is used as incense. It is mixed with Juniperus cummunis, Artemisia martima leaves and Nardostachys jatamansi. This species is considered auspicious. This species needs to be investigated phytochemically, particularly for finding new chemicals that may be of economic potential value as essential oil.
204
5.55. Ribes grossularia Linn. (Gooseberry) Family Local Name Description:
: :
Grossulariaceae Guldum (Byas, Darma)
An erect, deciduous shrub of about 1.5-2 m height, with straight
strong spreading prickles beneath the buds. Bark dark grey, exfoliating in papery rolls. Twigs furrowed, pubescent or tomentose when young. Leaves crowded on dwarf shoots, orbicular, 3-5 lobed, slightly hairy on both sides. Flowers small, greenish-white tinged with pink. Berries globose, red, green or yellow, glandular, pubescent (Figure 57). Phenology: It flowers during May-June and fruits during August-September.
Figure 57. Ribes grossularia shrub growing along Kali River between Gunji and Garbyang of Byas valley Ecology and Distribution: It grows in the innermost dry ranges of Pine forests of the sub-alpine and alpine regions between 3,000 and 4,000 m. It is widely distributed throughout Byas and Darma valleys.
205
Propagation: Ribes grossularia can be easily grown on moisture retentive and well drained loamys soil under sunny conditions. Plants are quite tolerant of shade but they do not fruit well under shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are allowed to grow through winter and then planted in the field during next spring (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: It contains citric acid, pectuse, sugar and minerals. Pectuse makes the fruit to be excellent for jellies. Ribes grossularia has low tocopherol content and high percentage of gamma-tocopherol. It has gamma-linolenic acid in the seed oil. Gamma-linolenic acid is an essential fatty acid for humans with delta-6-desaturase deficiency. It has anti-inflammatory and anti-tumoral effects (Goffman et al., 2001). Uses: Juice of the berry was considered as ‘cure all inflammations’. Light jelly made from the red berries is considered to be sedentary and plethoric and useful for bilious subjects. Leaves are considered very wholesome and corrective of gravel. An infusion of leaves is useful tonic for growing girls when
consumed
before
the
monthly
period
(http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh). Conservation status: It is common species found all over Byas and Darma. Trade: There is no trade of Ribes grossularia plant portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Fruits, which are sour, are edible and particularly relished by children.
206
5.56. Rosa sericea Lindley Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Shyaple (Byas, Darma), Shedham
Description: Deciduous, prickly shrub reaching up to 4 m height. Leaves 1-3 in clusters; leaflets 5-11, ovate or oblong-ovate, glabrous above, tomentose on nerves beneath. Flowers white, scented, solitary, 5 cm in diameter. Fruits red, ovoid, 4-seeded, edible and sweet in taste (Figure 58a). Phenology: It flowers during May-June and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open exposed alpine slopes, forests and shrubberies. It is widely distributed throughout Byas and Darma valleys between 2,500 and 3,600 m. Propagation: This plant prefers sandy, loamy, clay and well-drained moist soils and sunny conditions. It can grow equally well under partial shade. It grows well in heavy clay soils but does not prefer water-logged soils. Normally seeds take two years to germinate because these require warm weather after a cold spell for embryo to mature and reduce the seedcoat. This period can, however, be reduced by scarifying the seed and then placing it for 2 - 3 weeks in damp peat. Seeds germinate in next four months. Seeds harvested 'green' (when it is fully developed but before it has dried on the plant) and sown immediately germinate in the late winter. If seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn, the germination occurs by spring though it may take up to 18 months. About 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polybags. 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during summer; smaller saplings are
207
allowed to grow through winter and planted during late spring (McMillanBrowse, 1985).
Figure 58a. A shrub of Rosa sericea with berries growing at Dangtu of Darma valley
Figure 58b. Dried chips of roots of Rosa sericea Chemical Constituents: Euscaphic acid 3,4-monoacetonide (1), euscaphic acid (2), 4-O-beta-D-gluco pyranosyl methyl gallate (3), quercetin, oleanolic acid and stigmasterol isolated from the fruits (Chen et al., 1999).
208
Traditional Uses: Flower juice is consumed in bowel complaints; petals are used in flavouring tea; and flowers are source of honey (Gaur, 1999). The fruit is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially rich in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other bio-active compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids. Seed is also a good source of vitamin E; it can be ground into a powder and mixed with flour or added to other foods as a supplement (Tanaka, 1976; Kavasch, 1979; Facciola; 1990). Fruits have potential to be used in reducing incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers (Mathews, 1994). In Har Ki Doon, flowers are used to treat bowel complaints and in opthalmia (Negi and Pant, 1994). Conservation status: This species is coomon throughout Darma and Byas valleys. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Rosa sericea in the region. There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In Byas and Darma valleys, ripe fruits are specially favoured by children. Chips of dried roots (Figure 58b) are used in making tea. Many villagers prefer Rosa sericea tea to other varieties. On boiling in water the root gives light brown colour. This species may yield novel chemicals of potential therapeutic value in the treatment of cancer.
209
5.57. Roscoea alpina Royle Family
:
Zingiberaceae
Local Name
:
Salmisri (Chaudas, Darma, Byas)
Description: A dwarf perennial herb reaching up to about 30 cms height and with papery bracts. Rhizomes 1-2 cm long, greyish white, elliptic. Leaves 2-4, narrow, elliptic - lanceolate, up to 10 cm long. Flowers few, dark purple (Figure 59a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open grassy slopes and abandoned fields in temperate and sub-alpine regions of Byas, Darma and Chaudas valleys between 2,500 and 3,500 m. It is usually found in patches in forest clearings. Conservation status: Roscoea alpina is a common species, but it may become rare in wild due to harvests from the wild. Trade: Illicit trade in Roscoea alpina rhizomes is common in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Tubers of Roscoea alpine (Figure 59b) is used to increase potency in men. Each plant has 3 to 7 tubers which smell like paddy. This species needs detailed phytochemical investigations. It may yield new chemicals of therapeutic value and may lead to novel drugs.
210
Figure 59a. A plant of Roscoea alpina growing with associated ground flora in abandoned field at Bon of Darma
Figure 59b. Cleaned and air dried rhizomes of Roscoea alpina
211
5.58. Rubia cordifolia Linn. sensu Hook. f. Syn. Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Family
:
Rubiaceae
Local Name
:
Majethi (Dharchula), Manjistha, Indian Madder
Description: A herbaceous climber with 4-angled, prickly, brittle stems. Leaves four in a whorl, long-petioled, ovate, acute, base cordate, scabrid or glabrous. Flowers small, pinkish or redish or dark purplish, borne in terminal panicled cymes. Fruits globular, black or red (Figure 60). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in moist shady areas, particularly along streams and near cascades. It is widely distributed throughout Darma and Chaudas valleys between 1,000 and 2,500 m. Propagation: Rubia cordifolia prefers well-drained moist soils and shady areas. It tolerates dry soils but quickly becomes scorched when grown under full sun. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. Stored seeds show delayed germination. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into the polythene bags filled with soil. These are allowed to grow under light shade for a year. Saplings are planted in the field during early summer. Rubia cordifolia can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings during spring or at any time in the growing season. Larger segments can be planted directly in the field and smaller ones are potted up and grown under partial shade and then planted in the field during summer (Huxley, 1992).
212
Figure 60. A climber of Rubia cordifolia with flower bearing branches growing at Sela of Darma Chemical Constituents: Quinizarin – 1,4-dihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone – along with 1-hydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone, nordamnacanthal and physcion,
quinones
[1-hydroxy-2-methoxyanthraquinone,
1,4-
dihydroxy-2-methyl-5-methoxyanthraquinone
(1,4-dihydroxy-2-
methyl-8-methoxyanthraquinone),
1,3-dimethoxy-2-
carboxyanthraquinone methylanthraquinone,
and
rubiadin],
1,4-dihydroxy-2-
1,5-dihydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone,
3-
prenyl-5-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, rubiconmaric acid, rubifolic acid, anthraquinones (I, II and III), mollugin, 1-hydroxy-2-methyl9,10-anthraquinone,
alizarin,
1,3-dihydroxy-2-ethoxymethyl-9,10-
anthraquinone, lucidin primeveroside, ruberythric acid and cyclic heptapeptides – RA-III, RA-IV, RA-V and RA-VII were isolated from roots. Hexapeptides (RA-I, RA-II, RA-III, RA-IV, RA-V, RA-VII, RA-XV RA-XVI, RA-XVIII, RA-IX, RA-X, RA-XI, RA-XII, RA-XIII, RA-IV),
1-acetoxy-6-hydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone-3-O-alpha-
rhamnosyl(1-4)-alpha-glucoside, anthraquinones carbomethoxyanthraquinone, 213
(1,4-dihydroxy-2-
1-hydroxy-2-carboxy-3-
methoxyanthraquinone
and
1-hydroxy-2-methyl-6-
methoxyanthraquinone,
7-
1,3-dihydroxy-2-
methoxymethylanthraquinone, hydroxyanthraquinone,
or
1-methoxy-2-methoxymethyl-3-
4-hydroxy-2-carboxyanthraquinone,
dihydroxy-2-hydroxymethylanthraquinone
and
1,4-
1-hydroxy-2-
hydroxymethylanthraquinone), a fernane derivative (rubiatriol, betasitosterol, scopoletol and oleanolic acid acetate) and 2-methyl-1,3,6trihydroxyanthraquinone were also isolated from roots. 2-carbomethoxy-3-(3’-hydroxy)isopentyl-1,4naphthohydroquinone-4-O-beta-D-glucoside,
2-methyl-1,3,6-
trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-D-glucoside, 2-methyl-1,3,6trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-alpha-L-(3’-Oacetyl)rhamnosyl(1-2)-beta-D-glucoside,
2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-
9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-alpha-L-(3’,6’-O-diacetyl)rhamnosyl(1-2)beta-D-glucoside, 2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-Oalpha-L-(4’,6’-O-diacetyl)-rhamnosyl(1-2)-beta-D-glucoside,
2-
methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-alpha-Lrhamnosyl(1-2)-beta-D-glucoside, anthraquinone,
2-methyl-1-hydroxy-9,10-
2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-
alpha-L-(6’-O-acetyl)-rhamnosyl(1-2)-beta-D-glucoside,
2-methyl-
1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-D-(6’-Oacetyl)glucoside, 2-carbomethoxy-3-prenyl-1,4-naphthohydroquinonedi-beta-D-glucoside, 2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3O-beta-D-xylosyl(1-2)-beta-D-(6’-O-acetyl)glucoside,
2-methyl-1,3,6-
trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-D-glucoside, 1,2-dihydroxy9,10-anthraquinone-2-O-beta-D-xylosyl(1-6)-beta-D-glucoside,
1,3-
dihydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-9,10-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-Dxylosyl(1-6)-beta-D-glucoside,
2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-
anthraquinone, 1-hydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone, 1,2,4-trihydroxy-9,10anthraquinone, rubimallin, alizarin, daucosterol, dihydromollugin, beta-sitosterol,
a
naphthoic
acid
ester
–
rubilactone
–
3’-
carbomethoxy-4’hydroxynaphthol[1’,2’-2,3]pyran-6-one isolated; 3’214
carbomethoxy-4’-hydroxynaphthol[1’,2’-4’-hydroxynaphtho[1’,2’2,3]pyran-6-one, 3’-carbomethoxy-4’-hydroxynaphtho[1’,2’-2,3]furan, dihydromollugin,
3-carbomethoxy-2-(3’-hydroxy)isopentyl-1,4-
naphthohydroquinone-1-O-beta-D-glucoside, naphthoquinones – 2carbamoyl-3-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-carbamoyl-3-hydroxy1,4-naphthoquinone, 3-carbomethoxy-1-hydroxyanthraquinone, 1,4dihydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone, methylanthraquinone,
1-hydroxy-2-
1-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethylanthraquinone,
1,3-dihydroxyanthraquinone,
tectoquinone;
naphthohydroquinone
(I
dimmers
and
two II),
four
naphthohydroquinones – 2’-methoxymollugin, 2’-hydroxymollugin, 1’-methoxy-2’-hydroxydihydromollugin,
1’,2’-
dihydroxydihydromollugin, mollugin, 2-carboxymethyl-3-prenyl-2,3epoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, anthraquinone,
1-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-9,10-
2-methyl-1,3,6-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone,
rubioncolin B, an iridoid glycoside - 6-methoxygeniposidic acid, two macrocyclic neoplasm inhibitors – TPC-A and TPC-B were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; 1995; 1998). Naphthoquinones naphthoquinones
and
–
2-carbamoyl-3-methoxy-1,4-
2-carbamoyl-3-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone
isolated from methanol extract (Koyama et al., 1992). Methanol
and
chloroform
extracts
exhibited
significant
anticancer activity against P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia; bicyclic hexapeptides RA-V, RA-VII, RA-XI, RA-XII, RA-XIII, RA-XIV, RAXV and RA-VI exhibited potent antitumor against P-388 and rubimallin showed antibacterial activity (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; 1998). Active triterpene found in Rubia cordifolia possesses anti-inflammatory analgesic and anti-pyretic activity and strong gastrolesive properties (Kasture et al., 2001). Uses: This species yields reddish brown colour with alum. Root has alexiteric, alterative,
antidysenteric,
antipyretic, 215
analgesic,
astringent
and
anthelmintic properties. It is useful in amenorrhoea, dropsy, renal and vesical calculi. Root paste with honey is applied externally to inflammations, feckles and other skin diseases. Infusion is given to women after delivery to procure copious flow of lochia; decoction given in amenorrhoea and obstructions in urinary passages (Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1995). In Ayurveda, it is used as tonic and to improve the voice and complexion, for treatment of inflammations, diseases of uterus, vagina, eye, ear, blood, leucoderma, ulcers, urinary discharges, biliousness, jaundice and piles. Fruits are used to cure the diseases of spleen (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Jain, 1991; Nadkarni, 1908). In Yunani medicine, roots are used as laxative, analgesic, lactogogue, emmenagogue, diuretic, for treatment of eye sores, paralysis, lethargy, liver complaints, enlargement of spleen, pains in the joints, rheumatism, leucorrhoea, leucoderma, dysentery and uterine pains (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Conservation status: Rubia cordifolia is common in Darma and Chaudas valleys. Trade: There is currently no trade of any parts of Rubia cordifolia plants or portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Root paste of this species is applied on the skin eruptions. Excess harvests of this species from wild may threaten this species. Its phytochemical diversity across the altitudinal gradient needs to be investigated. Phytochemical research coupled with bioassays and pharmacological studies may yield novel drugs,
216
5.59. Rubus ellipticus Smith (Himalayan Yellow Raspberry) Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Jogi lo, Hinshyalo (Chaudas)
Description:
An evergreen shrub of about 4.5 m height with arched and
straggling stems and short, stout, conical and slightly curved prickles on the branches. Leaves trifoliate, long-petioled, 5-10 cm long; leaflets leathery, elliptic or obovate, toothed, glabrous in upper surface, grey woolly beneath. Flowers white arranged in dense axillary and terminal panicles. Fruits yellow, drupelets succulent. A number of new stems are producrd each year from the perennial rootstock, these stems fruit in their second year and then die (Figure 61). Phenology: It flowers during April-June and fruits during in June-July.
Figure 61. A plant of Rubus ellipticus with unripe berries growing at Rung of Chaudas Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed slopes, shrubberies, in pine and oak forests, near cultivated areas and along the roads between 1,000 and 2,700 m. It is found throughout Chaudas and Darma valleys. 217
Propagation: Rubus ellipticus can be easily grown on well-drained loamy soils under sun or semi-shade conditions. Seeds are sown in autumn. About 1012 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring of the following year.
This species can also be propagated vegetatively by
planting the cuttings of half ripe woods during July/August. Chemical
Constituents:
Octacosanol,
beta-sitosterol,
its
glucoside,
octacosanoic, ursolic and rubitic acids were isolated from roots; A saponin (1) – 3beta-hydroxyurs-12,18-dien-28-oic acid-3-O-beta-Dglucopyranosyl(1 acid,
tormentic
4)-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside, acuminatic acid,
beta-sitosterol
and
its
glucoside;
24-
deoxysericoside were isolated from leaves of Chinese plant along with niga-ichigoside, F1, sericoside, glucosyl tormentate and kaji-ichigoside F1 (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; 1998). Uses:
Inner bark of the plant is used in Tibetan medicine as renal tonic, for treatment of vaginal seminal discharge and as antidiuretic. It is used against weakening of senses, polyuria and micturation during sleep (Tsarong, 1994). Roots are used in dysentery, malaria, as stomachic and for worms (Jain, 1991). A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit (Grae, 1974). Root extract is used in local beveragers as intoxicating ingredient; flowers are source of honey (Gaur, 1999).
Conservation status: Rubus ellipticus is a common species of Byas and Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade of Rubus ellipticus plant portions in Dharchula areas. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Sweet flavoured fruits having sweet sour taste are edible and are specially chrished by the children and birds. This species has high economic potential as a source of drugs against weakening of senses 218
5.60. Rubus foliolosus D. Don (Ceylon Raspberry) Syn. R. pedunculosus D. Don, R. neveus Wall. ex G. Don var. pedunculosus (D. Don) Hook. f,
Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Kala Hinshyalu (Chaudas)
Description: A decicduous shrub with arching stems and reach to a length of 2 m. Stems yellowish brown or reddish with hooked or straight prickles. Leaves 3-5 foliate, 10-15 cm long, ovate; terminal leaflets often lobed, all leaves serrate, hairy above and, green or white tomentose beneath, nerves prominent on the lower surface. Flowers pink and often solitary. Fruits dull red turning black when ripe (Figure 62a). Phenology: It flowers during April-June and fruits during June-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in the openings of the forests in the temperate regions between 2,500 and 3,000 m. It is common in Chaudas. Propagation: Rubus foliolosus can be easily grown on well drained loamy soils under partial shade or exposed conditions. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. 10-12 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags filled with soil and are allowed to grow through winter. The saplings are planted in the field during late spring of the following year (Huxley, 1992). Chemical Constituents: Labdane-type deterpene glycosides – goshonosides F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6 and F7 were isolated from fruits; F6 and F7 are characterized
as
18-O-alpha-L-arabinofuranosyl(1-6)-beta-D-
glucopyranoside of 13(E)ent-labda-8(17),13-dien-3beta,15,18-triol and 219
3beta,15-di-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside
of
13(E)ent-labda-8(17),13-
dien-3beta,15-diol respectively (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). The fruit contains 7.8% sugar, 0.13% protein, 0.77% ash (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982).
Figure 62a. A branch of Rubus foliolosus plant growing at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 62b. Cleaned and dried roots of Rubus foliolosus Uses: A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit (Grae, 1974). Conservation status: Rubus foliolosus is rather rare in Chaudas. 220
Trade: There is no trade of fruits or any parts of Rubus foliolosus in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Infusion of Rubus foliolosus root (Figure 62b) along with inner bark of Fraxinus micrantha in water is locally used by the local inhabitants for treatment of liver enlargement, jaundice and other liver related diseases. Fruits, which are small and juicy with black raspberry flavour, are eaten raw. These are relished by children and birds. This species may also yield a dye of commercial value.
221
5.61. Rubus nutans Wall. Family
:
Rosaceae
Local Name
:
Teen pat (Chaudas)
Description: A Creeping perennial suffruticose herb with slender stems. Leaves trifoliate with rounded, teethed leaflets. Flowers white. Fruits edible, red (Figure 63). Phenology: It flowers during May-July and fruits during August-September.
Figure 63. A plant of Rubus nutans growing at Sirdang of Chaudas Ecology and Distribution: It grows along margins of fields in vacant lots, wastelands near human settlement, along streams, roadsides in the temperate regions of Chaudas between 2,000 and 3,000 m. Propagation: Rubus nutans can be easily grown on well-drained loamy soils under sunny or under partial sheltered conditions. Plants do not require 222
much care. This soecies does not tolerate drought (Huxley, 1992). Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown in early autumn. 10-12 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags or pots filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring of the following year. This species can be propagated vegetatively by tip layering during July and subsequently planting them in the field during autumn. These can also be propagated by root cuttings in early spring. Larger fragments can be planted in the field directly and smaller ones are potted up and are allowed to grow under light shade through winter and these are then planted in the field during summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Uses: A very well-flavoured and moderate sized raspberry with a little sour taste. A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit (Grae, 1974). Conservation status: Rubus nutans is a common herb of Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade of Rubus nutans in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: The plant is mixed with Viola serpens and Mazus surculosus in equal proportions
and
the
mixture
is
administered
for
treatment
of
inflammations in urinary tracts, painful urination or any problem related to urination. It is potential dye-yielding plant.
223
5.62. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Family
:
Polygonaceae
Local Name
:
Thonkalya (Byas, Chaudas, Darma), Jangli Palak
Description: A Perennial glabrous herb of about 1 m height, with extensive rootstock. Leaves 8-20 cm long, 5-10 cm broad, long-petioled, radical, ovate-oblong or lanceolate, glabrous. Flowers pink or pale green and arranged in verticillate whorls. Nut trigonous, enclosed in the hooked taples (Figure 64). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-August.
Figure 64. Plants of Rumex nepalensis bearing inflorescence growing along the margins of fields at Changru of Byas Ecology and Distribution: It grows on waste lands, road sides, margins of fields, open grass lands and humid places in montane and alpine region up to an altitude of 5,000 m. It is widely distributed throughout Byas, Darma and Chaudas in Dharchula Himalayas. 224
Propagation: It grows well on most soilsunder full sun or partial shade but prefers deep fertile well-drained, moderately heavy soils rich in humus. Seeds are sown in beds during spring. About 10-12 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. The saplings are planted in the field during summer (Huxley, 1992). Chemical Constituents:
Aerial parts of the plant contain 1,8-dihydroxy-3-
methylanthraquinone, 1,6,8-trihydroxy-3- methylanthraquinone, 1,8dihydroxy-6-methoxy-3- methylanthraquinone, lupeol and betasitosterol;
chrysophanol, emodin, physcion, lupeol, sitosterol, its
glucoside,
musigin-1-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside,
methoxy-5,6-methylenedioxybenzaldehyde
(I),
orientalone,
3-
chrysophanol-8-O-
beta-D-galactopyranoside, nepodin and chrysophanic acid were isolated from roots; roots also contain 12.8% tannin (Anonymous, 1972; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995; Chopra et al., 1956) Uses: Plants contain quite high levels of oxalic acid, which imparts acid-lemon flavour to the leaves. It has no adverse effects if consumed in small quantities; the leaves cannot be taken in large amounts as the oxalic acid lock-ups other nutrients in the food, especially calcium leading to mineral deficiencies. The oxalic acid content is reduced by boiling. People with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity are advised not to consume leaves (Bown, 1995). In some parts of Nepal leaf juice in water is gargled to check bleeding in the gums (Joshi and Joshi, 2000). The infusion of leaves is administered for dysmenorrhoea and in stomachache (Gaur, 1999). Paste of leaves are applied on boils and pimples; root is used as cooling agent, diuretic and purgative (Jain, 1991). In Malagasy an infusion of leaves is given in colic and applied to syphilic ulcers. A strong decoction of leaves is used in Transval for bilharziasis (Anonymous, 1972; Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Roots are also used against
225
venereal diseases. Tuberous roots are purgative and serve as a substitute for rhubarb (Anonymous, 1985) Conservation status: Rumex nepalensis is abundant throughout Byas, Chaudas and Darma. Trade: There is no trade of any parts or derivatives of Rumex nepalensis in Dharchula Himalayas. There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of Rumex nepalensis. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Young leaves are edible and are generally used by the local inhabitants for making excellent chutney. Young leaves are also rubbed in skin to get relief from irritation caused by Urtica dioica. Root of Rumex nepalensis gives yellow dye, which is used in colouring woolen clothes. The root of this species has been in demand during recent years because of its medicinal value. In some areas this species has become rare due to wild harvests. It is a potential species for yellow dye, which may be useful in textile industry.
226
5.63. Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don (Snowball plant) Family
:
Asteracea (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Wa Phool (Byas), Phen Kamal
Description: An erect, perennial wooly herb of about 10-20 cm height, with a short hollow stem. Root fusiform. Leaves basal, narrow, 12-15 cm long, pinnatisect, sharply toothed with shiny and black bases. Flower heads purplish. Achenes compressed (Figure 65). This species called “downy plants” evolced as a result of convergent adaptation to low temperatures (Tsukaya, 2001). Phenology: It flowers during July-September.
Figure 65. Plants of Saussurea gossypiphora grown in home garden at Bon of Darma Ecology and Distribution: It grows amongst gravels, boulders and stones of exposed slopes in Dharchula Himalayas between 4,000 and 5,500 m where temperature is low and precipitation is high (frequent rain in summer). It is quite common in stony places at high mountain passes of Lipu, Kuti and Dhave in Byas and Darma valleys.
227
Propagation: Saussurea gossypiphora is cultivated by planting wildlings collected from wild. Chemical Constituents: Umbelliferone, its 7-O-glucoside, scopoletin, betasitosterol, apigenin and its 7-O- glucoside, quercetin, chrysoeriol-7-Obeta-D-glucoside, neohesperidoside,
apigenin
and
ergostan-3,24-diol,
its
7-O-glucoside, 2-hydroxylappaol
7-OB,
tritriacontane, 1-tetracontene, dotriacontanoic acid, beta-sitosterol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol, arctigenin, quercetin, arctin, chrysoeriol-7-O-betaD-glucoside,
apigenin,
its
7-O-beta-D-glucoside,
7-O-beta-D-
neohesperidoside, heptacosane, hentriacontane, nonacosane, alphaand beta-amyrins and their acetates and palmitates, lupeol, its acetate, fructose, glucose, sucrose, beta-sitosterol, 3-stigmastanol, stigmast-7en-3-ol and ergostan-3,24-diol were isolated from whole plant; essential oil from whole plant contains ethyl linoleate (20.0), ethyl palmate (11.0) and methyl 8-cyclopropyl-2-octyloctanoate (8.0%) (Yu et al., 1991; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Uses: Entire plant is used in Tibetan medicine as antitussive, emmenagogue and aphrodisiac. It is believed to purify and increase blood and promote heat in the womb. It is also used against irregular menses, seminal/vaginal discharges, excessive bleeding from the womb and pain of the waist due to loss of renal potency (Tsarong, 1994). Conservation status: Saussurea gossypiphora is restricted to few localities in Byas and Darma. FRLHT has categorized this species as endangered in North-West India and Himachal Pradesh and as vulnerable in Jammu & Kashmir (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: This species is harvested from high mountain passes because of its demand amongst Nepalis and Tibetans; it is sold for about Rs. 20 per plant. Trade is, however, very limited.There is no prohibition on the expot 228
or import of any portions/extracts of Saussurea gossypiphora plants or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: The entire plant is soaked in liquor over night and infusion is then used as stomachic. This species is not used widely in the area. This species is almost extinct in accessible areas and is restricted only in remote and inaccessible localities. It may soon become extinct unless it is brought under cultivation by developing appropriate agrotechniques. Phytochemical studies may yield drugs of potential therapeutic value.
229
5.64. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.-Bip. (Costus) Syn. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipschitz
Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Kuth (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Kut
Description: An erect, robust, perennial of about 2 m tall. Stems pubescent, fibrous. Leaves basal. Root tuberous, stout, up to 60 cm long and about 30 cm in girth, with characteristic penetrating smell, which can be smelt from a distance, with bitter taste, occasionally branched. Basal leaves up to 90 cm long, petiole winged, scaberulous above and glabrous beneath, margin irregularly toothed; cauline leaves sessile amplexicaule. Flower heads dark blue-purple, 2-5 cm in diameter, rounded and arranged in terminal clusters of 2-5. Achenes less than a centimeter long, curved, compressed (Figure 66).
Figure 66. Plants of Saussurea lappa cultivated in a home garden at Nabi of Byas Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. 230
Ecology and Distribution: It grows in alpine and sub-alpine regions of exposed slopes between 2,700 and 3,700 m. It is near extinct in wild in Dharchula Himalayas. Propagation: Saussurea lappa grows well in cool and humid areas of higher altitudes having rich and porous soil. Disused camping grounds and sheep and goat steadings are very favourable for this species. Flower heads are harvested a little before achenes are fully ripe and then stacked in the sun for a week before threshing. The achenes retain their viability for more than a year. Achenes are sown during March-April and more than a year old seedlings are transplanted in the field at a spacing of 30 cms x 30 cms. The plants are subsequently thinned to a spacing of 1 m x 1 m. Shoots die back each winter and recommence growth after melting of winter snow. Direct sowing of seeds also gives satisfactory results. Seeds are sown in small pits at a spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm and later thinned to a spacing of 90 cm x 90 cm. Root cuttings are planted at a spacing of 60 cm x 90 cm. Plants are harvested after five years of growth. Roots are harvested in October. These are dried and cut into pieces (Anonymous, 1972). Chemical Constituents: Roots contain resinoids (6%), essential oil (1.5%), alkaloids (0.05%), inulin (18%), a fixed oil and other minor constituents like tannins and sugars. Roots from aged plants contain higher percentage of oil, and roots collected in September-October give higher yields (Anonymous, 1972). Steam distillation of roots yields 1.2% of the essential oil, which possesses natural aroma (Anonymous, 1972). Oil obtained from steam distillation of powdered roots has following properties: sp. gr.17 degree, 0.952; n17 degree, 1.5045; (alpha)D 17 degree , +112.30; acid val., 9.7; ester val., 58.1; ester val. after acetylation, 161.0; solubility, soluble in all volumes of 90% alcohol. Essential oil contains costunolide (C15H20O2), primary sesquiterpene lactone, dehydrocostus lactone, dihydrocostus lactone, dihydro-dehydrocostus lactone, 12-methoxy dihydrocostunolide
costol,
beta-sitosterol,
231
stigmasterol,
betulin,
aplotaxene, beta-selinine, beta-elemene, alpha- and beta-ionones, a bicyclic sesquiterpenic acid, a C13-ketone and other hydrocarbons, ketones and alcohols (Anonymous, 1972). Sesquiterpenes [(-)alphacostol, (+)gama-costol, (-)elema-1,3,11(13)-trien-12-ol and (+)gamacostal],
(-)alpha-selinene,
(+)selina-4,11-diene,
(-)alpha-trans-
bergamotene, (-)alpha-costal, (+)beta-costol, (-)elema-1,3,11(13)-trien12-al, (-)E-trans-bergamota-2,12-dien-14-al, (-)ar-cur-cumene and ()caryophyllene oxide isolated from root oil; (E)6,10-dimethyl-9methylideneundec-5-en-2-one; Taraxasterol and taraxasteryl acetate, were isolated from leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991). Antimutagenic
costunolide,
dehydrocostus
lactone,
Dihydrocostus lactone, saussureal, costunolide, dihydrocostunolide; 4beta-methoxydehydrocostus
lactone,
sesquiterpene
lactones,
alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehyde, amino acid-sesquiterpene adducts (aussureamines A, B, C, D and E), a lignan glycoside – ()massoniresinol-4’’-O-beta-D-glucoside, phytosterols (lappasterol and 3-epi-lappasterol) and lappalanasterol along with beta-sitosterol-Dglucopyranoside were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; 1998; Singh et al., 1992; Kalsi et al., 1995; Chhabra et al, 1998; Singh and Ali, 2004). Costunolide, dehydrocostus lactone, alpha-cyclocostunolide and costic, palmitic and linoleic acids, besides beta-sitosterol were isolated from roots of Punjab variety, whereas Kashmir variety yielded costunolide, dehydro-costus lactone, alpha-cyclocostunolide, betacyclocostunolide and isoalanto lactone. Isodehydrocostus lactone, isozaluzanin C, guaianolide – 12-methoxy-dihydro-dehydrocostus lactone and 22,23-dihydrostigmasterol were isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; Kalsi et al., 1995). Uses: The root is used in chronic and foul ulcers, headache, toothache, cough, asthma, bronchitis, indigestion, nervous disorders, spasmodic pain (cholic), cholera, dysentery, fever, rheumatism, painful menstruation 232
hysteria, gout and general debility (Anonymous, 2000).Root is also used as tonic, stomachic, carminative and stimulant. Alcoholic extract of roots containing both essential oil and alkaloids has been found effective in bronchial asthma (Ambasta et al., 1986). It is used to get relief in respiratory disorders like bronchitis, bronchial asthma and cough. It, however, does not provide a permanent cure. An infusion made of 3 gm of fresh Kuth, 1 gm of cardamom and 120 ml of water is administered in 30 gm doses every half an hour for cholera. Kuth is also useful for severe ulcerations. Dried and powdered root is used as hair wash, which prevents premature graying of hairs (Bakhru, 1990). In Tibetan medicine, root extract is used as blood regulator, carminative, emmenagogue and antiseptic. It is used against swelling and fullness of stomach, blockage and irregular menstruation, pulmonary disorders, difficulty in swallowing and rotting/wasting of muscle tissues (Tsarong, 1994). Root is used in Kashmir as insecticide to protect shawls and woolen fabrics. The root is also smoked as a substitute for opium. Essential oil extracted from roots has strong antiseptic and disinfectant properties especially against Stretococcus and Staphylococcus. It has marked carminative properties (Anonymous, 1972). Oil obtained from roots is pale yellow to brownish and very viscous. It has a peculiar soft and tenacious odour. Small concentrations of oil induce warm, woody and natural tones to perfumes such as oriental bases, chypres, violet bases and floral fragrances. Oil is valued in high class perfumery and cosmetics where it is used for blending purposes (Anonymous, 1972; Usher, 1974). Oil obtained from root is said to be beneficial in the treatment of rheumatism (Coventry, 1923). Essential oil has a strong lingering scent. The smell is at first like violets but as it ages it becomes more fur like and eventually becomes unpleasantly goat like (Genders, 1994). It is one of the 50 fundamental medicinal herbs used in China. In Chinese medicine, roots are used as carminative, digestant and antispasmodic. It is used to promote blood circulation in spleen and stomach 233
and hence provides relief from abdominal pain, lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting. It is said to regulate and circulate blood in liver and gallbladder and, therefore, it is considered to be effective for jaundice. It is also used for dysenteric disorders. It is, however, not recommended for those suffering from dehydration and anemia (Tierra, 1998).
Root is
anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, stimulant, and vermifuge. It is also used internally for the treatment of chest pains due to liver problem, gall bladder pain, constipation associated with energy stagnation and asthma (Duke and Ayensu, 1985; Chevallier, 1996). Conservation status: Saussurea lappa is critically endangered in Dharchula Himalayas. It is also listed as endangered due to indiscriminate collection and loss of habitat in Indiain Red Data Book of Indian Plants and also by FRLHT (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990; Anonymous, 1997). This specis is included in Appendix I of the CITES listed flora of India, which means that it is threatened with extinction (Anonymous, 2000). It is also included in Schedule VI of the specified plants under Section 2 of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972. Trade: The trade of Saussurea lappa roots in Dharchula area is not significant. The market for this species within and outside the country is very high. Annual consumption by India’s Ayurvedic Industry alone is estimated to be about 200 tonnes (Anonymous, 2000). Export of plant portions and derivatives of Saussurea lappa obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plants are allowed for export. Formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. Export of
234
seeds is permitted subject to a declaration in the form of an affidavit from the exporter that the seeds being exported are not wild variety seeds. This plant is on the negative list of exports. Trade in this species is most restrictive as it is a species included in the Appendix I of the CITES list. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Kuth is an important constituent along with Picrorhiza kurroa (Katki), Viola serpens and Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis) for preparation of local medicine for fever and illness to the women after childbirth. It is one of the Indian medicinal plant species, which is traded illicitly in large quantities. Consequently, this species is extinct in most of the localities and is restricted to inaccessible areas only. Agrotechniques are now available to cultivate this species. Educating local inhabitants about non-destructive and sustainable methods of extraction and cultivation ex-situ in abandoned fields and grazing grounds are the best conservation strategies for this species.
235
5.65. Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) Clarke Family
:
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Local Name
:
Lachar (Darma), Bhutkesh
Description: It is a glabrous aromatic herb of about 30-90 cm height with hollow and finely grooved stems. Leaves 1-2 pinnate, 10-30 cm long, segments lanceolate, irregularly lobed or toothed. Flowers white, longpetioled and arranged in compound umbels. Fruit elliptic-oblong, ridges winged. Roots possess musky odour (Figure 67). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-September.
Figure 67. Plants of Selinum vaginatum growing at Dugtu of Darma Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed slopes, along roadsides and streams between 2,500-3,600 m. It is common in Darma valley.
236
Propagation: Seeds are sown in nursery beds during spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the fields during or before rains. Chemical Constituents: Dry roots on distillation give 1.54% yellow aromatic oil [d20 degree20 degree, 0.8412; nD20 degree, 1.4716; [a]D20 degree, 42.00; sap. val., 0.0 and sap. val. after acetylation, 30.7]. The oil contains alpha-pinene, limonene, camphene, beta-phellandrene, alpha-thujene, fenchyl alcohol, terpinol, ketone - dinitrophenylhydrazone, beta-pinene and fenchone. Plant contains (dry basis): crude protein, 21.2%; ash,14.7%; phophorus, 0.34%; magnesium, 0.64%; and calcium, 1.29% (Anonymous, 1976). A coumarin – selinidin (C19H20O5, mp. 970), a flavanone – selinone, mp. 1510, a sesquiterpene – vaginatin (C20H30O4, mp. 770), a furanocoumarin – vaginol ((C20H30O4, mp. 1640), Coumarins – vaginidin (C19H22O6, mp. 1330), angelicin, oroselol, lomatin and coumarins – anomalin and isopteryxin were isolated from roots; ntriacontane, dotriacontane, triacontanol, 12-tricosanol, sucrose, Dmannitol and elemol (26%) were found in root oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; Anonymous, 1976). A
flavanone
derivative
selinone
-
4’-gamma,
gamma-
dimethylallylnaringenin (C20H20O5, mp. 1510) has also been isolated from whole plant (Anonymous, 1976). Uses: Roots are used as a nervine sedative and serve as poor substitute for Nardostachys jatamansi (jatamansi) and used as an adulterant of jatamansi (Anonymous, 1976). It yields an essential oil with hypotensive, sedative and analgesic properties (Ambasta et al., 1986). Incense of root considered useful in hysteria; decoction of roots mixed with ginger in black pepper used in dysmenorrhoea (Gaur, 1999).
237
Conservation status: Selinum vaginatum is abundant and widely distributed in Darma valley. FRLHT has categorised this species under lower risk-least concern species in J&K and Himanchal (Anonymous, 1997). Trade: There is no significant trade in the species. However, the Tibetans buy small quantites. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussion on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Some local inhabitants use dried roots and leaves as incense. It is believed that it drives away evil spirits. Tibetans also use it as and procure it from Dharchula Himalayas. The species may yield chemicals of potential medicinal value. Consequently, detailed phytochemical studies of the species are needed.
238
5.66. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. Syn. Senecio leatus Edgew.
Family
:
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Local Name
:
Lhed Phool/Kunch phool (Darma, Byas, Chaudas)
Description: An erect annual-binnial herb of about 20-90 cm height. Leaves both radical and cauline; basal leaves ovate-lanceolate; cauline leaves sessile. Flowers heads numerous, yellow and arranged in dense terminal clusters; ray-florets strap-shaped (Figure 68). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows along road sides, in abandoned fields, vacant lands and alpine meadows between 2,500 and 3,500 m. It is abundant in Darma, Chaudas and Byas valley in Dharchula Himalaya. Propagation: This species can be easily grown by direct sowing of achenes in the field or in the beds. About 8-10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into the polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during or just before rains. Chemical Constituents: Jacoline, jacobine, jaconine and seneciphylline isolated from roots; total alkaloids, I-otosenine, renardine, jacobine and eudesmanolides – chrysanthemolide and 1-acetylerivanin were isolated from aerial parts (Mengi et al., 1991; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1998). Essential oil extracted contains germacrene D,1-undecene and anhydrooplopanone (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993).
239
Figure 68. Plants of Senecio chrysanthemoides bearing inflorescences growing at Go of Darma Uses: Leaves are taken to treat inflammation of mouth and sore throat (Jain, 1991). Conservation status: Senecio chrysanthemoides is a widely distributed and common species of Dharchula Himalayas. Trade: There is no local trade of any parts of Senecio chrysanthemoides in Dharchula areas at present. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In Darma valley, infusion of root in normal water is administered for gastric, indigestion and other stomach ailments. Phytochemical studies may yield botanical pesticides, as the species does not harbour any insects.
240
5.67. Silene kumaonensis Williams Family
:
Caryophyllacea
Local Name
:
Khushu (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: Subscandent perennial herb with ascending stems growing up to 1 m tall. Root thick, cylindrical, 3-5 cms in diameter, light brown when dry. Leaves acuminate at apex, lower cauline ones broadly lanceolate to ovatelanceolate,
undulate
along
margins.
Inflorescence
cymose,
long
pedunculate. Flowers greenish subtended by leaf-like bracts; petals narrow, greenish with oblong-linear lobes (Figure 69a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in rock crevices, meadows and fallow fields between 3,000 and 4,000 m and is common in Darma and Byas valleys. Propagation: Planting of root cuttings just before rains or direct sowing of seeds yield high rates of survival and establishment. Conservation status: Silene kumaonensis is neither listed as endangered in Red Data Book of Indian Plants, nor is it included in the list of endangered or threatened species of CITES. This species appears to be endemic to Dharchula Himalayas. Trade: There is no local trade of any parts or derivatives of Silene kumaonensis in Dharchula areas at present. There is no prohibition in the trade of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species.
241
x
y
Figure 69a. Plants of Silene kumaonensis growing along margins of cultivated fields at Garbyang in Byas valley showing habit of the species (x) branches showing flowers (y)
Figure 69b. Cleaned and air dried roots of Silene kumaonensis Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In the past when soap and other detergents were not easily available, its roots were used by Bhotias for washing woolen clothes. Dry roots (Figure 69b) are crushed and powdered and then used as soap powder. It is considered excellent especially for washing woolen clothes. Powdered root is also used for washing hairs. It is considered very effective for removing dandruffs. This is the first report of the use of this species by local communities. Although extensively used in the past, its use has declined considerably in the recent years. Quantity required for personal use is generally collected from wild. Phytochemical studies are urgently needed for finding its potential applications in herbal cosmetics. 242
5.68. Solanum nigrum Linn. Family
:
Solanaceae
Local Name
:
Ninoni, Nallo Chi (Chaudas), Gurkamai
Description: A glabrous or pubescent bushy annual herb of about 45 cm height. Stems erect and much-branched. Leaves alternate, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, toothed, narrowed at the base. Flowers small, white and arranged in terminal cymes. Berries, globose, usually red, purplish black when ripe, with yellow seeds, bitter or pungent in taste (Figure 70a & 70b). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in abandoned field, wastelands, garbage dumps, hedges and disturbed areas near human settlements of tropical and temperate areas up to 2,700 m. It is a common species distributed all over Darma, Byas and Chaudas. Propagation: Solanum nigrum is a profuse seed bearer having high germination rate. It prefers shady places. Seeds are sown in March-April in moist soils and seedlings are transplanted in June-July. This species is weedy and grows at variety of soils. Caterpillars and slugs are the common pests this species (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Aglycones of steroidal glycosides (Solasodine and solasodiene), tigogenin, diosgenin, solasonine, solamargine and betasolamargine, alpha-carotene, steroidal glycosides (SN-O, SN-1, SN-2, SN-3 and SN-4), uttronin B were isolated from berries; alpha-solasonine and alpha-solamargine were isolated from stems and leaves; solasodine
243
was isolated from roots; uttrisides A and B isolated from roots and stems; dry fruits contain chlorogenic (0.06), caffeic (0.02), traces of neochlorogenic and isochlorogenic acids and caffeoylglucose (0.01%); fatty acids isolated from the seeds contain palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids along with linolenic acid (72%) predominating (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1993; Siddiqui, 2000). 12beta-hydroxysolasodine, N-methylsolasodine, solanocapsine and tomatidenol, an alkaloid – 23-O-acetyl-12beta-hydroxysolasodine, quercetin glycosides - quercetin-3-O-[galactosylrhamnosyl(1-2)]-betaglucosyl(1-6)-beta-galactoside, beta-galactoside,
quercetin-3-O-alpha-rhamnosyl(1-2)-
quercetin-3-glucosyl(1-6)galactoside,
steroidal
oligoglycosides – nigrumnin I and nigrumnin II, were isolated from the whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; 1998; Ikeda et al, 2000). Leaves contain moisture 82.1%, protein 5.9%, fat 1%, minerals 2.1%, and carbohydrates 8.9% per 100 gms. The minerals and vitamins include calcium, phosphorus, iron, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. Its calorific value is 68 (Bakhru, 1990). Steroidal glycosides showed inhibition of tumor cells of human uterus (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). Uses: This species is antiseptic and antidysenteric and used in cardalgia and gripe. Infusion of herb is applied to anthrax postules. It is also used as a diuretic and laxative. Freshly prepared extract is effective in cirrhosis of liver. Juice of fresh leaves produces dilation of the pupils. Berries are considered tonic, diuretic and cathartic and are used in heart diseases. Leaves and tender shoots are boiled and eaten like spinach. Ripe fruits are used in pies and preserves and in making jam (Ambasta et al., 1986). Juice of the plant with vinegar used as gargle and mouthwash is good for inflamed mouth, throat and also for ringworm (www.magdalin.com/herbs). In some parts of Nepal, juice of the plant is placed on the forehead to get relief from headache (Manandhar, 1998).
244
Figure 70a. A plant of Solanum nigrum bearing flowers growing at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 70b. Branches of a plant of Solanum nigrum bearing fruits In Ayurveda, berries are considered useful in diseases of heart and eye, in pains, piles, inflammation, leucoderma, itch, worms in ear, dysentery, hiccough, vomiting, asthma, bronchitis, fever, urinary discharges, believed to favour conception and facilitate delivery (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). In Chinese medicine, 3.9 gm decoction of aerial parts is prescribed for treatment of acute hepatitis, acute conjunctivitis, tonsillitis,
245
high fever with convulsions, abscesses, boils, vaginal and scrotal itching, fungal infections and cancer (Tierra, 1998). Leaves are employed as poultice over rheumatic and gouty joints; and also as remedy in skin diseases. Freshly prepared fluid extract from all portions of the plant (berries, leaves and stem) is given in heart diseases, skin diseases, piles, gonorrhoea, inflammatory swellings and chronic cirrhosis (enlargement) of the liver and spleen. Decoction of the berries and flowers is used in cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, fever, diarrhea, ophthalmopathy and hydrophobia. Seeds are useful in giddiness, and inflammations; root bark is useful in diseases of eye, ear, nose and hepatitis; leaves and berries are especially important as a cure for gastric ulcer (Sharma et al., 2001). Death of children after eating berries have been reported in some places - the symptoms of berry poisoning areeing are vomiting, pain in the belly and intense thirst, pupils dilated, impaired vision, headache, giddiness, delirium, convulsions, sleep ending in comma (Nadkarni, 1908). The extract of plant used in liver, piles and dysentery; fruits useful in diarrhea, fever, eye ailments; occasionally roots are added to the local beverage (Gaur, 1999). It is valuable cardiotonic. It corrects disordered processes of nutrition and restores the normal function of the system. It reduces excitement, irritation and pain. It increases the secretion and discharge of urine and, therefore, is beneficial in the treatment of dropsy. It can be used both as decoction and as vegetable to treat dropsy. Syrup of the vegetable is also given as cooling drink. A hot infusion of dried leaves induces perspiration and, therefore, is useful in fevers. Raw juice of leaves either alone or mixed with other juices is used in stomach disorders like flatulence, peptic ulcers and colitis. Fruits of the plant help in removing catarrhal matter and phlegm from the bronchial tubes in asthma patients. Juice of the plant is either given internally in doses of 180-211 ml or applied on affected parts in chronic skin diseases like acne, eczema and psoriasis. Paste of the plant is useful applicant over corrosive ulcers, pustules and suppurating syphilitic ulcers, severe burns, herpes and 246
rheumatic joints. Hot leaves give relief when applied over swollen and painful scrotum and testicles (Bakhru, 1990) Conservation status: Solanum nigrum is abundant throughout lower ranges. Trade: There is no significant trade in any parts or derivatives of Solanum nigrum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: This species is used by the local inhabitants for treatment of varieties of ailments. Crushed leaves are taken internally in moderation for headache, stomachache and general sicknesses. Crushed leaves are also applied externally on the head during severe headaches and convulsions. It is believd that if regular bath is taken in water soaked with Solanum nigrum leaves one would never get sick. There are different cytotypes, which differ in colour of fruits and phytochemical constituents. It is not yet known which of the cytotypes is used in the treatment of liver disorders and which of the cytotype is used as cardiotonic. Similarly, it is also not known which of thwe cytotypes is used as vegetable. Standardisation of the Ayurvedic drugs requires certification of cytotypes.
247
5.69. Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt Syn. Swertia purpurascens Wall. ex C. B. Clarke
Family Local Name
: :
Gentianaceae Chireta (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: Annual-perennial herb of about 1 m tall. Stems terete. Leaves oblong or lanceolate, 2.5-3 cm long, 0.5-1 cm broad with narrowed base. Flowers purplish or yellowish-green and arranged in axillary or terminal clusters. Capsule ovoid. Seeds yellow brown (Figure 71a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in abandoned fields, grasslands and exposed areas between 2,700 and 3,500 m and is common in abandoned fields in Darma and Byas. Propagation: Swertia ciliata grows well in moist humus-rich soils. It prefers areas with cool summers and also succeeds in full sun or partial shade. Seeds are sown in a humus-rich medium during spring. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil and saplings are planted in the field during early summer (http://www.pfaf.org). . Chemical Constituents: Plants of Swertia genus are rich sources of xanthones, flavonoids, irridoid, secoiridoid glucosides and terpenoids. Oleanolic acid,
sitosterol,
swertisin,
swertiamarin,
1-hydroxy-3,5,7,8-
tetramethoxyxanthone (I), bellidifolin, tetraoxygenated xanthone-Oglucosides – norswertianolin (3,5,8-trihydroxyxanthone-1-glucoside), swertianolin (5,8-dihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone-1-O- glucoside) and
248
isoswertianolin (1,5- dihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone-8-O- glucoside) were isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1999). 1-hydroxy-3,4,5,8-tetramethoxyxanthone, methoxyxanthone;
1,3,8-trihydroxy-5-
1,3,7,8-tetrahydroxyxanthone,
1,3,5,8-
tetrahydroxyxanthone, Gentianine, gentiocrucine, enicoflavine and 1hydroxy-3,4,7,8-tetramethoxyxanthone were isolated from the whole plant (Pant et al., 2000; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2001). Uses: It is used as substitute for Swertia chirayita and gentian. It is used as powerful tonic, febrifuge and laxative, intestinal worms and skin diseases (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Dried leaves are used as bitter tonic, liver stimulant in chronic fevers and bronchial asthma. It is also used as stomachic, anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal and given in dyspepsia, debility. This species is also used in dyeing cloth to yellow colour (Agarwal, 1986). The plant extract is used in the treatment of malaria (Gaur, 1999). Conservation status:
Swertia ciliata is harvested extensively for trade and
medicinal use. Apparantly there does not seem to be any decline in the supply. However, if the demand continues to grow it is likely to be harvested unsustainably. This may ultimately lead to local extinction of the species. It is not listed as rare, threatened or endangered in Red Data Book of Indian Plants nor is it included in the list of endangered or threatened species of CITES. Trade: Swertia ciliata is traded extensively and part of it comes from Nepal. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Swertia ciliata obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. Plants and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export.
249
. Figure 71a. Plants of Swertia ciliata together with associated ground flora growing in abandoned cultivation fields at Bon of Darma
Figure 71b. Dried twigs of Swertia ciliata Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: It is one of the most sought after medicinal plant in the tegion. Entire plant is used as medicine. Dried twigs and leaves (Figure 71b), which are very bitter in taste, are used to cure chronic fever. Locals believe this species to be better and more effective than the species found in the lower altitudes. Swertia ciliata may become rare and endangered in wild due to over-exploitation unless corrective steps are taken urgently. Cultivation in abandoned fields is the best conservation strategy for this species.
250
5.70. Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers (Dandalion) Family
:
Compositae
Local Name
:
Beera Phool (Byas, Darma), Karnphool
Description: A Perennial dwarf herb of about 30 cm tall with a basal rosette of leaves and a solitary scape. Rootstock thick, cylindrical, 30-45 cm long and about 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves radical, sessile, glabrous, variable in shape, oblong, irregularly pinnate, segments narrow, linear, acute, totthed and pointing downwards. Flower head solitary, golden yellow. It is a latex bearing species (Figure 72). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-October.
Figure 72. Plants of Taraxacum officinale growing at Bon of Darma Ecology and Distribution: It grows along roadsides, abandoned fields, grazing grounds and disturbed areas near human settlements between 2,500 and 4,000 m and is common in Byas and Darma valleys.
251
Propagation: It grows in most soils, though it prefers well-drained humus-rich soils. It thrives well under sunny or light shaded conditions. It is cultivated as a salad crop and as a medicinal plant. This species provides edible leaves all tear around. It is a valuable bee plant and an important food plant for the caterpillars of many butterfly and moth species. It is a deep rooting plant with roots growing up to 1 m vertically into the soil and it grows well with alfalfa. It is reported to inhibit the growth of nearby plants due to emission of ethylene gas - a hormone that promotes the premature ripening of fruits and also induces the premature fruiting of plants (Hatfield, 1977; Holtom and Hylton, 1979; Philbrick. and Gregg, 1979). Seeds are surface sown during spring. Seeds germinate within two weeks. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polybags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during early summer (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Taraxacum plant contains resin, essential oil, pectose, enzyme, fatty acids including melissic and p-hydroxyphenylacetic acids, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, saponin, taraxasterol, homotaraxasterol, inulin, levulin, sugar and wax (Anonymous, 1976). Main fatty acids in seed oil are C16 (saturated), C18:1 and C18:2 (unsaturated); beta-sitosterol (63.7%) present in nonsaponifiable matter (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991). Eudesmanolide – tetrahydroridentin B, a eudesmanolide-betaD-glucopyranoside and two germacranolide acids (I and II) esterified with beta-D-glucose, glucans, mannan, proteins, scopoletin and esculetin isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). A acylated gama-butyrolactone glucoside – taraxacoside – beta-O-[4’-O-(p-hydroxyphenylacetyl)-beta-D-glucopyranosyl]-betahydroxy-gama-butyrolactone, caffeic, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, phydroxyphenylacetic, protocatechuic and vanillic acids, luteolin and its 7beta-D-glucoside, 7beta-gentiobioside, 7beta-rhamnoglucoside, 3’glucoside and 4’-glucoside, quercetin and its 7beta-D-glucoside, 252
isorhamnetin-3beta-D-glucoside, isorhamnetin-3,7beta-D-diglucoside, 14-O-beta-D-glucosyl-11,13-dihydro-taraxinic acid and 14-O-beta-Dglucosyl-taraxinic acid were isolated from the roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995; Kashiwada et al., 2001). Taraxien, teraxanthin dipalmitate, neoxanthin, luteolin and chrysoeriol
(luteolin
3’-methyl
ether),
lecithin,
violaxanthin,
xanthophyll, taraxanthin and its monoester, pollinastanol, and a number of sterols were isolated from flowers; flavonoid glycosides – luteolin 7-glucoside and two luteolin 7-diglucosides were isolated from flowers and leaves (Anonymous, 1976; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; Williams et al, 1996). Hydroxycinnamic acids, chicoric acid, monocaffeyltartaric acid, chlorogenic acid, flavoxanthin and chrysanthemaxanthin isolated from whole plant. Umbelliferone, esculetin and p-coumaric, caffeic, phydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, vanillic, beta-resorcylic, syringic and p-hydroxyphenylacetic acids isolated from leaves, flowers and roots; 3O-beta-D-glucopyranosides and 3,7-di-O-beta-glucopyranosides of quercetin, luteolin and isorhamnetin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin4’-O-beta-D-glucoside, luteolin-7-O-(6’’-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl)-betaD-glucoside and quercetin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside isolated from leaves and blossoms; cichoriin and aesculin were isolated in leaf (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1998; Kashiwada et al., 2001). Other vitamins in leaves are: thiamine, 0.19; riboflavin, 0.14; and niacin, 0.8 mg/100 gm. Pectic substances (7.81%, as calcium pectate, dry basis), starch, and alpha-amylase are also present in the leaves (Anonymous, 1976). Extracts prepared from pollen has antibiotic activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Taraxacum officinale also contains choline, rubber (0.3%, dry basis) and wax composed of ceryl palmitate and/or ceryl stearate and free alcohol (Anonymous, 1976).
253
Uses: The root is diuretic, tonic, and slightly aperient and is used in kidney and liver disorders (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). In some parts of Nepal, decoction of aerial parts of the plant is taken three spoonfuls a day for asthma; root is pounded and infusion is administered for jaundice (Joshi and Joshi, 2000). Dandalion leaves are considered powerful diuretic. Roots act as blood purifier and helps kidneys and liver to remove impurities from blood. It also acts as mild laxative and improves appetite and digestion (http://world.std.com/~krahe/index.html; www.botanical.com/herbs and aromas/uses, properties). Dandalion roots are also used to make coffee. Roots are thoroughly cleaned, dried and roasted till the tint of coffee is attainesd and then these are ground to powder. Dandelion coffee does not have any injurious effects that ordinary tea or coffee has. In Chinese medicine the aerial portion and root of the Dandalion plants are used as anti-inflammatory, cholagogue, diuretic, mild laxative, galactagogue and antimicrobial. The herb is reported to increase production of mother’s milk and is used to treat hepatitis, red and swollen eyes, urinary tract infections, abscesses or firm and hard sores in the breasts and breasts and liver cancer (Tierra, 1998). Roots of Dandalion are also used as depurative and antirheumatic and in chronic metabolic diseases, particularly gout and liver, hepatic and biliary problems, anorexia, arthritis and chronic skin diseases. The latex sap
is
applied
to
warts
and
skin
cancers
(www.ann.com.au/herbs/monographs/taraxacu.htm). Dandalion root has choleretic effect and it enhances the flow of bile by causing an increase in bile production and its flow to gallbladder. It also has cholagogue effect causing contraction and release of stored bile thereby improving liver function. Tender leaves are used raw in salads and sandwiches. Old and matured leaves are not eaten. Young leaves are, however, eaten as vegetable like spinach. Wine is obtained from flowers (http://www.pfaf.org).
254
It is very effective in removing obstructions of the liver, gall bladder and spleen. Decoctions of roots and leaves in white wine or leaves used as pot herb are quite effective. As a diuretic it is superior to the synthetic drugs because of significant amount of potassium in the herb. It is, therefore, a safe remedy for hypertension, cardiac cedema, congestion in the blood vessels serving the liver, chronic rheumatism, gout and eczema (www.magdalin.com/herbs). Dandelion root is reported to be good for all kinds of liver problems, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, jaundice and toxicity
in
general,
as
well
as
getting
rid
of
gallstones
(
[email protected]). Conservation status: Taraxacum species is abundant and is widely distributed throughout Darma, Byas and Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade of any other parts or derivatives of Taraxacum plants in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the trade of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this plant. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Bhotias, particularly in Darma, consider the roots of Dandalion as very good medicine for liver ailments. After cleaning the roots, its infusion is given in jaundice.
255
5.71. Taxus baccata Linn. ssp wallichiana (Zucc.) Pilger (Yew) Family
:
Taxaceae
Local Name
:
Nhare shin (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Thuner
Description: Moderate-sized evergreen tree of about 24 m tall. Bark rough, reddish-brown, exfoliating in irregular thin papery scales. Blaze soft and somewhat fibrous and pinkish. Leaves 2-3.5 cm long, linear, flattened, acute dark green and shining above, pale yellowish and rusty beneath. Male cones axillary; catkin-like. Female cones solitary, axillary. Mature cones red, fleshy, one seeded. The wood is hardest of all the coniferous species (Figure 73a). This species exhibits very strong resistance to insect pests; its needles are attacked by very few insects e.g. yew scale (Lecaniinae) and some mites (Eriophyoidea), and the wood is not affected by woodworm (Daniewski, 1998). Phenology: Male and female cones appear during June-October. Ecology and Distribution: It growsoccurs in moist and shady montane forests and is an associate of Quercus semecarpifolia, Juglans regia, Aesculus indica and Abies webbiana. It grows singly or in clusters along the banks of mountain streams and in deep gorges and ravines between 2,100 and 4,000 m.. It is usually found on the limestones. It is common in Pinkhu forests above Chirkila, Sirdang, Sosa and Himkhola of Chaudas, between Garbyang and Rongkong of Byas valley and along river Dhauli of Darma valley. Propagation: Seeding in Taxus baccata is observed every year. However, seed takes about one and half to two years to germinate. It is an extremely slow growing conifer taking about 20 years to reach a height of 5 m. It tolerates 256
cold and heat, sunny and shady conditions, wet and dry soils, acidic and alkaline soils. Seedlings are required to be kept in polythene bags for two years or more before these are large enough for planting out. Uttaranchal Forest Department has been employing clonal technology for production of seedlings in the nurseries. It can also be propagated vegetatively by cuttings, grafting and air-layering. Mist chambers are made use of for rooting the cuttings in the root trainers. February- March are considered best for planting the rooted cuttings in the field so that these get fully established before the onset of Monsoon. Chemical Constituents: Flavonoid, similar to sciadopitysin, two biflavones isomers of sciadopitysin (I) and sotetsuflavone (II), isotaxiresinol, secoisoariciresinol;
betuloside,
sciadopitysin,
ginkgetin,
sequoiaflavone, 4-p-coumaroyl-myo-inositol, shikimic and quinic acids, taxol and two cytotoxic taxane congeners, three taxane derivatives (19-hydroxybaccatin III, 10-deacetylcephalomannine and 10-deacetyltaxol), taxagifin, a tetraol (I), amentoflavone, mono- and diO-methylamentoflavones and sciadopitysin, a taxane (14beta-hydroxy10-deacetylbaccatin III), two oxetane-type taxane diterpenoids (I and II), 13-deacetylbaccatin VI, 13-acetylbrevifoliol, 7,13-diacetyl-7debenzoylbrevifiliol, 7-debenzoyl-10beta-hydroxybrevifoliol, 7-acetyl10-deacetyl-7-debenzoylbrevifoliol,
14-beta-hydroxy-10-
deacetylbaccatin III, 1beta-hydroxybaccatin I, a taxoid (wallifoliol), cephalomannine,
10-deacetylbaccatin
III,
brevifoliol,
2-
acetoxybrevifoliol, a lignan – (-)3-demethyl-secoisolariciresinol, a phenolic
glucoside
(characterized
as
–
taxuside,hydroxylated deglycosylicariside
dehydrodeglycosylicariside
B4),
apocarotenoids
B4
dehydrovomifoliol,
and
12-
vomifoliol,
Taxoids 19-acetoxylated taxoid 1, a brevifoliol derivative 3 and ponasterone were isolated from needles; needles also contain a benzoate containing
cytotoxic
taxine
–
5alpha
O-(3’-dimethylamino-3’-
phenylpropionyl) taxinine M (1) together with 7-O-acetyltaxine A(2) 257
and 2alpha-acetoxy-2’-beta-deacetylaustrospicatine (3), hydrocyanic acid, formic acid, reducing sugars, resins, tannins, ephedrine, a glucoside taxicatin, taxiphyllin, ferredoxin and ecdysterone, ginkgetin, sequoiaflavone
and
sciadopitysin;
eschscholtzxanthone
isolated
from
rhodoxanthin fruits;
and
beta-sitosterol,
methoxytriterpene (baccatine i.e. C31H48O4), lignans – conidendrin, hydroxymatairesinol and isoliovil – were isolated from roots, stems and needles; beta-sitosterol also isolated from wood, bark and needles (Anonymous, 1976; Chopra et al., 1956; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1991; 1993; 1995; 1998; Parmar et al., 1993; Rojatkar et al., 1996; Rojatkar et al., 1997; Prasain et al., 2001; Nadeem et al., 2002). Taxine, a lignan taxiresinol and seven taxane derivatives – taxa4(20), 11-diene-5alpha,9alpha,10beta,13alpha-tetraol tetraacetate (I), taxa-4(20),
11-diene-5alpha,9alpha,10beta,13alpha-tetraol-
9alpha,10beta-diacetate
(II),
taxa-4(20),
11-diene-
2alpha,5alpha,9alpha,10beta,13alpha-pentaol pentaacetate (III), taxa4(20),
11-diene-5alpha,7beta,9alpha,10beta,13alpha-pentaol
pentaacetate
(IV),
taxa-4(20),
11-diene-
2alpha,5alpha,9alpha,10beta,13alpha-hexaol hexaacetate (V), taxa4(20),
11-diene-2alpha,5alpha,7beta,10beta-tetraol-5alpha,
7beta,
10beta-triacetate, 2alpha-methyl butyrate (VI), and taxa-4(20),11diene-2alpha,5alpha,7beta,9alpha,10beta-pentaol 7beta,9alpha,10beta-triacetate-2alpha-methyl butyrate (VII) – were isolated from heartwood; (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). All parts of the tree, except the fleshy aril, are poisonous due to presence of of an amorphous basic fraction, named taxine, from which two components, taxine A (1.3%,C35H49O10N; mp 204-060) and taxine B (30%; C33H45O8N; mp 1130) have been isolated (Anonymous, 1976). Taxicatin, (+)-abscisic acid, ursolic acid, cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin and beta-sitosterol glucoside were isolated from seeds (Chattopadhyay et al., 2002). Rhodoxanthin, lycopene, beta-carotene,
258
zeaxanthin, eschescholtzxanthone are present in fruits (Anonymous, 1976). Rare phenyl propanoid 2-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-propane1,3-diol 1 and (+)catechin 3 were isolated from the bark; Taxols – taxol 1, baccatin III 2, baccatin IV 3, taxusin 4, a C-14 oxygenated taxoid 5, 1beta-hydroxy baccatin I 6, pentacetoxy taxadiene 7, a dibenzoylated rearranged taxoid 8, 7-xylosyl-10-deacetyl-taxol C9 and three phenolic compounds (-)seco-isolariciresinol 11, taxiresinol 12 and isotaxiresinol 13 were isolated from the roots; Abeobaccatin IV derivative isolated from the stem barks (Chattopadhyay et al., 1994; 1996; 1996; 1996; 1997; 1999; 1999; 1999). Uses: The wood is valued for its strength, durability and decorative character. It is used for wood-carving, furniture, veneers, flooring and penelling. It is also used for the purpose of posts. The sap obtained from the tree is poisonous and is purified by mixing with cow’s urine and lime water. It is further purified by adding distilled water and is then used for treatment of asthma and constipation (Pandey and Pande, 1999). Medicinal tincture made from the young shoots is used for the treatment of headache, giddiness, feeble and falling pulse, extreme coldness, diarrhea and severe biliousness. Leaves are believed to have emmenagogue and antispasmodic properties. These are employed for the treatment of hysteria, epilepsy and nervousness, and as a lithic in calculus complaints (Anonymous, 1976). The non-poisonous and fleshy aril is eaten. It is believed to have carminative, expectorant and stomachic properties. Extracts of Taxus baccata can be added in cosmetics, such as hair lotions, rinses, beauty and shaving creams (Anonymous, 1976). All parts of the tree, except the fleshy fruit, are antispasmodic, cardiotonic, diaphoretic, emmanagogue, expectorant, narcotic and purgative (Chiej, 1984; Lust, 1983). The leaves are used internally for the
259
treatment of asthma, bronchitis, hiccup, indigestion, rheumatism and epilepsy (Chopra et al., 1956; Moerman, 1998).
Figure 73a. A tree of young Taxus baccata at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 73b. Chips of dried bark of Taxus baccata Needles of Taxus baccata contain 10-deacetyl baccatin III, which is used for the semi-synthesis of antitumor drug taxol, which is effective against ovarian cancer. In ancient times wood of the tree was used to make arms and poisons as its wood is practically imperishable. The wood is poisonous because of presence of taxine (Joshi et al., 1995; Daniewski et al., 1998). 260
Conservation status: Taxus baccata is common in Dharchula Himalayas. In early 1990s large number of trees were felled in the region due huge demand for its bark and needles, which almost wiped out the species from many localities. FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in NorthWest India (Anonymous, 1997). This species is also included in Appendix II of the CITES listed flora of India, which means that it is not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in this species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival (Anonymous, 2000). Trade: There is no perceptible local trade in any parts or derivatives of Taxus baccata in Dharchula Himalayas at present. There is, however, heavy demand for this species in Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. Export of plant portions and derivatives of Taxus baccata obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export. Formulations made out of imported species are allowed to be exported freely without any restriction This species is on the negative list of exports. Import of seeds of Taxus baccata for sowing and planting purpose is allowed. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Bhotias use dried stem bark (Figure 73b) to make salted tea especially in winter; it is believed to provide warmth to body during extreme winter. Many local inhabitants prefer this tea. Timber of this tree is also used for constructions. Large-scale plantations of this species can be established in the country. The species is extinct in many localities across Himalayas. Detailed studies are required for correct species identification. It is likely that there may be several chemotypes across the latitudinal and altitudinal gradient.
261
5.72. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Family
:
Ranunculaceae
Local Name
:
Pel jari (Chaudas), Mamira
Description: A perennial herb of about 2 m height; stem erect, glabrous. Rootstock rhizomatus bearing fibrous roots, yellowish and extremely bitter in taste. Leaves pinnate; leaflets suborbicular, 1-2 cm across. Flowers white, pale green or purple, in much-branched panicles. Achenes oblong, ellipsoid, ribbed (Figure 74a). Phenology: It flowers during July-August and fruits during October-November. Ecology and Distribution: It grows along shady, damp places, along streams and in openings of the forests in temperate regions of Chaudas between 1,800 and 3,000 m. Propagation: It grows well in fairly good soils under sun and or semi-shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. The saplings are planted in the field during summer.The seed can also be sown in outdoor seedbeds during spring and seedlings are planted in the field during following spring. This species can also be propagated vegetatively by rhizome cuttings during spring. Larger fragments can be planted directly in the field and the smaller ones are planted in the pots or polythene bags filled with soil and grown on under light shade until these are well established. These are planted in the field during summer.
262
Figure 74a. A plant of Thalictrum foliolosum plant other associated ground flora at Sirkha of Chaudas
Figure 74b. Cleaned and air dried roots of Thalictrum foliolosum Chemical
Constituents:
Magnoflorine
thalrugosaminine,
thalisopine,
–
thalictrin,
thalrugosidine,
thalirugidine,
oxyberberine
(berlambine), noroxyhydrastinine, an aporphine alkaloid – N,O,Otrimethylsparsiflorine,
thalicarpine,
thalidasine,
thalrugosidine,
reticuline, magnoflorine, berberine and palmatine; thalifendine, columbamine,
jatrorrhizine,
thalidastine,
dehydrodiscretamine,
rugosinone, tembetarine, xanthoplanine and magnoflorine isolated from rhizomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1993). 263
Uses: Rhizomes are bitter and pungent tonic with a slight purgative action. These are used for improving eyesight; these are also used in toothache, in acute diarrhea, piles, nail troubles, and discolouration of the skin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Rhizome is antiperiodic, diuretic, febrifuge, purgative, stomachic and tonic. It is a good remedy for atonic dyspepsia (Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1976). Conservation status: Thalictrum foliolosum is a common herb found throughout Chaudas and Byas in Dharchula Himalayas. Trade: There is no trade of roots or any parts of Thalictrum foliolosum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Infusion of root (Figure 74b) in water, which is very bitter, is used internally for high fever, inflammation, sickness to women after delivery. It is also used in constipation and as appetiser. Paste of the root in water is applied on wounds, cuts, insect bites and injuries. It is used as a part of therapy after surgical removal of tumours.
264
5.73. Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. Family
:
Siphulaceae
Local Name
:
Rakasdad (Byas, Darma)
Description: A fruticose lichen, prostrate to erect podetiate, vermiform, simple to branched with a tapering thallus; milky white to pale grey, hollow inside (Figure 75).
Figure 75. Cleaned and air dried Thamnolia vermicularis Ecology and Distribution: It grows on rocks and stony slopes and soils of alpine meadows between 4,000 and 5,500 m. This lichen is abundant in undisturbed places throughout Chaudas, Byas and Darma in Dharchula Himalayas. Chemical Constituents:
A lentinan-type gel-forming beta-glucan, Ths-2 has
been isolated from the alkali extract, which was found to be consisting of a (1
3)-beta-D-glucopyranosyl main chain with branches of a
(1
6) linked glucopyranosyl unit on every third unit of the main
chain (Olafsdottir et al., 2003). This species has been reported to possess 265
bacomycesic, thamnolic and squamatic acids and D-arabitol (Upreti and Negi, 1996; Upreti et al., 2001). Uses: In Garhwal it is considered to be very effective in stopping bleeding when it is crushed and applied on the cuts and wounds. In remote tribal village of Garhwal, smoke of this species is used for killing worms by directing it to inside of mouth. It is also reported to possess antibacterial and antiviral properties (Upreti, et al., 1996). Conservation status: It is common in high altitudes meadows of Chaudas, Darma and Byas. Commercial extraction may put this species under threatened category. It is not listed under threatened or endangered category so far. Trade: There is no trade of Thamnolia vermicularis lichen or its portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: It is used by local inhabitants as galactagogue. It is believed that cows lactate well when they are made to inhale the smoke of the burning dried Thamnolia vermicularis (Figure 75). This species is generally considered very auspicious. Lichens are the least sustainable amongst all the natural products. They are extremely slow growing. They are very sensitive to environmental changes; being most vulnerable to habitat destruction. Any disturbance in its life cycle can have long lasting effects on its growth.
266
5.74. Thymus serpyllum Linn. (Wild/Creeping Thyme) Syn. Thymus linearis Benth. Family
:
Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
Local Name
:
Balma chee (Chaudas), Banajwain
Description: A suffruticose, aromatic herb of about 10-25 cm tall. Root about 30 cm long, fibrous. Stems branched, slender, woody. Twigs have short white hairs. Leaves subsessile, opposite, bright green, ovate-oblong, gland dotted on both sides. Flowers pale purple, in small whorls crowded into terminal spikes. Nutlets smooth (Figure 76a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-July. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed dry grassy slopes, rocky grounds, clearings, abandoned fields and roadsides of temperate regions between 2,000 and 3,000 m. It is common in Chaudas and Byas valleys. Propagation: Thymus serpyllum can grow on any soil. This species, however, prefers light, sandy or gravel ground exposed to the sun. It is propagated either by seeds or stem cuttings or root cuttings. It needs regular weeding, manure in autumn or winter and nitrates in spring. Plants are harvested when in full flower in July and August and dried in air and sun (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, camphene, limonene, pcymene, beta-caryophyllene, humulene, beta-bisabolene, bornyl acetate, camphor, carvacrol, thymol, linalool, borneol, cineole, geraniol, thymohydroquinone, gamma-cadinene, terpinene-4-ol, 3octanone, 1-octen-3-ol, Car-3-ene, alpha-terpinene, gamma-terpinene,
267
terpinolene, citronellal, trans-beta-terpineol, eucalyptin, 1-hepten-3ol, geranyl acetate and 4-terpineol were detected in essential oil; Apigenin-4’-O-beta-D-(6”-p-coumaroyl)glucoside and scutellarein-7O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl(1-4)-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranoside
were
isolated from stems (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995; 1998). Triterpenic glucosides thymusursenolide, thymuslanostenolide, thymusoleanenolide),
thymusisolanostenolide,
(thymuslanostenyl,
heptanoate,
thymusterephthalic
ester,
triterpenic
thymusditerpenic
thymuslanostenyl
ester
esters ester, and
thymuserphyllumyl ester), a sterol lactone – thymuscholesterolactone, a tetraterpenic ether – thymustertraterpenyl ether, a sesquiterpenic acid namely thymusesquiterpenoic acid, thymusesquiterpenoic acid, thymuslanostenyl ester and thymuserphyllumyl ester isolated from whole plant (Sharma et al., 2003). Thymus serpyllum herb has following characteristics- moisture7.1%; protein-6.8%; fat 4.6%; crude fibre-24.3%; carbohydrates-44%; mineral-13.2%; calcium-2,1%; phosphorus-0.20%; iron-0.14mg/100gm; sodium-0.08%; potassium-0.9%; vitamin A-175 IU/100 gm; vitamin B151 mg/100 gm; vitamin B2- 0.4; vitamin C- 12.0; niacin-4.9 mg/100 gm; calorific value-340 calories /100 gm.Crushed thyme on steam distillation yields about 2.5% volatile oil with following characteristics – sp. gr. 150 C: 0.905-930; opt. rot. At 200 C: 0 to 4; ref. index at 200 C: 1.480-1.498; solubility: 1 part in 2 parts of 80% alcohol; chief constituent of the oil is thymol (about 45%) (Pruthi, 1976). Essential oil isolated by steam distillation of aerial parts of Thymus serpyllum before flowering and at full flowering stage contains 34 compounds of which major compounds are gama-terpinene (21.9% and 22.7%), p-cymene (21.1% and 20.7%), thymol (18.7% and 18.7%) and germacrene D (6.0% and 5.1%) before flowering and full flowering stage respectively (Loziene et al., 1998; Sefidkon et al., 2004).
268
Figure 76a. A population of Thymus serpyllum at Sirdang of Chaudas
Figure 76b. Yeasts grown on medium supplemented with extract of Thymus serpyllum and other ingredients Uses: It is considered emmanagogue, alexiteric, anthelmintic, good in liver complaints, useful in asthma, bronchitis- thins phlegm and blood; leaves are laxative, stomachic, tonic, good for kidney and eye, and is used as blood purifier (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). Drinking as tea is not only pleasant but is also an effective remedy for headache, giddiness and nervous infections. It is a remedy for ‘nightmare’. The herb is anti-spasmodic, carminative, and tonic. It is also a good remedy for flatulence. Infusion of 1 oz (28 gms) of dried herb to 1 pt (568 ml) of boiling water is given in tablespoonful doses for whooping 269
cough, sore throat and catarrh. It can be sweetened with honey (www.magdalin.com/herbs). Thymus serpyllum is used to produce essential oil called serpolet. Thyme oil is used in the treatment of digestive complaints, respiratory problems and prevention and treatment of infections. Oil is used for muscular joints for circulation, rheumatism, muscular aches and pains, cellulites, arthritis and sprains; for skin problems namely insect bites, lice, scabies, dermatitis, eczema, cuts, bruises, acne, abscess, gum infection, athletes foot wounds; for respiratory problems like asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tosilitis, flu, whooping cough and throat infections; digestive problems namely diarrhea, dyspepsia and flatulence; problems of genito urinary systems namely cystitis and urethritis; problems of nervous system like headaches, insomnia, nervous debility, neurasthenia and stress related complaints; problems of immune system like infectious diseases, staphylococcus and physical and psychological weaknesses; general debility and vaginitis. Red Thyme oil, serpolet, thymol and carvacrol type oils contain large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacol and thymol). These can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. It is always advised to be used in moderation and in low dilution. These are, however, not recommended for pregnant women. Essential oil of Thymus serpyllum has been found to possess bactericidal properties (Rasooli and Mirmostafa, 2002). Mycotoxic effects of Thymus serpyllum oil on the asexual reproduction of Aspergillus species was observed (Rahman et al., 2003). Conservation status: Thymus serpyllum is a common herb found throughout Byas and Chaudas. Trade: There is no trade in any parts of Thymus serpyllum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. 270
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Thymus serpyllum is used by Bhotias for culture of yeast (Figure 76b) to be used in fermenting grains, fruits etc. for brewing liquors. Barley is first roasted and it is then mixed with Jaiphal/nutmage (Myristica fragrans Hout), cloves (Eugenia caryophyllus (Spregal) Bullock et Harrison) and elaichi (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). The mixture is then ground into flour and is kneaded with the infusion of Thymus serpyllum in water. The dough is divided into small flat balls. A small quantity of yeast is spread over it and then it is left to dry in air. Only a few families practice the art of culturing yeast using this species. This is the first report of use of Thymus serpyllum in culture of yeast. Detailed phytochemical studies may yield new products of commercial value.
271
5.75. Urtica dioica Linn. (Stinging Nettle) Family
:
Urticaceae
Local Name
:
Pachhu (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Bichu-ghas
Description: A perennial erect herb of about 45-60 cm tall. Rootstock thick, creeping. Stem branched from base. Bark fibrous. Stem branches, petioles and leaves covered with stinging hairs. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, base sub-cordate. Flowers dioecious, small, greenish arranged in axillary clusters. Achene compressed, ovoid, sub-orbicular (figure 77). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September.
Figure 77. Plants of Urtica dioica growing at Kalapani of Byas valley. Ecology and Distribution: This species grows on waste lands, road sides, and margins of fields, open grass lands, streams and river banks. It prefers rich soil and avoids acidic soils. It often forms dense stands. It is found all over montane and sub-montane regions of Himalayas up to 5,000 m. 272
Propagation: Urtica dioica prefers a soil rich in phosphates and nitrogen. Plants grown on deep rich soil yield good quality fibre. Seeds are sown during spring. Chemical Constituents: Sodium chlorophyllin, a neutral and an acidic carbohydrate protein polymer, beta-carotene, hydroxy-alpha-carotene, luteoxanthin, lutein epoxide and violaxanthin were isolated from fresh leaves;
kaempferol,
isorhamnetin,
its
its
3-O-glucoside
3-O-glucoside,
and
3-O-rutinoside,
3-O-rutinoside
and
3-O-
neohesperidoside, isoquercitrin, rutin, quercetin, its3-O-glucoside and 3-O-rutinoside were isolated from flowers and foliage; homovanillyl alcohol,
its
4’-monoglucoside,
neoolivil-4-O-beta-D-glucoside,
sitosterol, 7alpha- and 7beta-hydroxysitosterols, sitosterol-3-O-beta-Dglucoside, 24( R ) ethyl-5alpha-cholestane-3beta,6alpha-diol, vanillin, vanillic acid, (+)isolariciresinol, (-)secoisolariciresinol, neoolivil, lignan glucoside (I to VI), three terpenediols (XII, XIII and XIV) and their glucosides (XV, XVI and XVII), lignan glucoside (VII to XI) obtained; caffeoylmalic,
chlorogenic
acids,
9-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-
octadecadienoic acid, (+)-neo-olivil and a flavonoid 5,2’,4’ trihydroxy 7,8-dimethoxyflavone were isolated from roots (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 199; 1995; 1998; Schottner et al., 1997; Chaturvedi, 2001). Anthocyan glucosides viz. pelargonidin monoxyloside and pelargonidin xylobioside were isolated from the aerial parts (Kavtaradze et al., 2003). Uses: About 5-10 ml juice of young leaves and twigs is given daily for 3-5 days to women during menstrual disorders. Juice is also given for the treatment of diabetes and urinary disorders. Young and soft stem is applied locally into the anus of small children in case of chronic constipation (Arya and Ved Prakash, 1999). In some parts of Nepal, leaves are pounded and applied externally on joints to get relief from rheumatic pains; decoction of leaves are taken four spoonfuls three times a day to check excessive 273
menstrual flow; young leaves are soaked in water and then brushed against paralysed parts of the body in initial stages (Joshi and Joshi, 2000; Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003). Seed oil is edible and is also used as medicine in sciatica, rheumatism, and several skin ailments; hair-wash from leaf extract prevents baldness (Gaur, 1999). Roots are anthelmintic; aerial part of the plant arte antiseptic; leaf and bud paste applied on wounds, boils, sprains and swellings (Jain, 1991). In Russia, folia urticae is used in the preparation called Alochol, which is used in therapy for chronic hepatitis, cholengitis, cholecystitis and
habitual
constipation;
Nettle
extract
inhibited
Shigella
paradysenteria, S. ambigua, S. sonnei, Pasteurella aviseptica and particularly the anti-biotic resistant strains of Micrococcus pyogenes var. autreus, but was ineffective against Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The herb is credited with powerful diuretic properties. A warm infusion of the plant is administered, lukewarm, to control excessive menstrual flow. An infusion of the leaves and roots has been used in Europe as an expectorant and as a blood-purifier. Ethanolic extract of Urtica dioica along with those of Arctium lappa, Thymus serpyllum and Matricaria chamomilla forms an ingredient of the preparations used for hair and scalp. A massage preparation is made from cut roots and leaves for relaxation of muscles after sports (Anonymous, 1976). Only young leaves are consumed because older leaves develop gritty particles called cystoliths which act as irritant to kidneys. Leaves when cooked loose their stinging properties. Plant contains all the essential amino acids and the amount of bound amino acids is reported to be twice as high as alfalfa and clover and, therefore, it is recommended as a valuable chiken (http://www.pfaf.org). Nettles are very valuable addition to the diet as these are nutritious, easy to digest and high in minerals, especially iron and vitamin A & C (Phillips and Foy, 1990).
274
In Russia the plant was tried as a source of green pigment for use in confectionery. Tea made from leaves has traditionally been used as a cleansing tonic and blood purifier (Chevallier, 1996). The species is harvested commercially for extraction of chlorophyll, which is used as a green colouring agent in foods and medicines (Bown, 1995). Juice of the leaves is used in curdling milk (Facciola, 1990). The whole plant is antiasthmatic, antidandruff, astringent, depurative, diuretic, galactogogue, haemostatic, hypoglycaemic and a stimulating tonic. An infusion of the plant is very valuable in stemming internal bleeding; it is also used to treat anaemia, excessive menstruation, haemorrhoids, and eczema (Grieve, 1984; Bown, 1995).
Fresh
leaves
are rubbed onto skin in the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis and sciatica. This practice, called urtification, acts as counter irritant, bringing more blood to the area to help remove the toxins that cause rheumatism and the formic acid in the nettle is believed to help rheumatic joints (Moerman, 1998). Roots or leaves or juice of them, boiled and mixed with honey and sugar are taken to open the passages of the lungs by expectorating phlegm. As a gargle it helps in curing the swelling of the mouth and throat. A decoction
of
leaves
expels
stones
from
kidneys
(www.magdalin.com/herbs). Juice of the plant, or decoction formed by boiling herb in a strong solution of salt curdles milk. The juice, if rubbed into small seams of leaky wooden tubs, coagulates and makes the tub watertight. A green dye is obtained from a decoction of the leaves and stems; a yellow dye is obtained from the root when boiled with alum (Grieve, 1984). Conservation status:
Urtica dioica is abundant all over Byas, Darma and
Chaudas in Dharchula Himalayas. Trade: There is no trade in any parts or derivatives of Urtica dioica in Dharchula Himalayas.There is no restriction on trade of plant portions and derivatives of this species. 275
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Young leaves are used by the local inhabitants for making thick soups. Aerial parts of the plant are used to excite activity in paralysed limbs and for the treatment of haemorrhages by slapping in the affected parts with fresh twigs. This plant is used to drive away the evil spirits. Person affected by the spirit is beaten by the aerial parts of the plant. Stem bark yields fibre, which is used for making ropes. The stinging and irritating properties are neutralized by heat or by thorough drying. Irritation on the skin caused by the stinging hairs is neutralized by rubbing the effected parts with Rumex nepalensis leaves.
276
5.76. Urtica parviflora Roxb. Syn. Urtica ardens Link. Family
:
Urticacea
Local Name
:
Khee Pachhu (Chaudas), Bichhu, Shishona
Description: A perennial, erect, glabrous or pubescent herb of about 2.5 m height. Stems slender, sparingly branched with stinging hairs. Leaves 8-12 cm long, 3-7 cm broad, membranous, wrinkled, ovate or ovate-cordate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate. Flowers small, pale-green arranged in paniculate cyme. Fruits ovoid, pale-brown, hairy (Figure 78).
Figure 78.A young plant of Urtica parviflora growing at Sirdang of Chaudas Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-January. Ecology and Distribution: It grows in openings of forests in temperate regions of Chaudas, Darma and Byas valleys between 1,500 and 3,500 m.
277
Peopagation: Urtica parviflora prefers nitrogen-rich soils. The best fibre is produced when plants are grown on deep fertile soils (Huxley, 1992). Seed is sown during spring. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during summer. It can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings at any time during the growing season. These are planted straight in the field (http://www.pfaf.org). Chemical Constituents: Histamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine and acetylcholine were found in the leaves (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Uses: The species forms a very nutritious food, rich in vitamins and minerals, it makes an excellent spinach substitute and can also be added to soups and stews. Only young leaves are eaten because older leaves develop gritty particles called cystoliths which act as an irritant to the kidneys (Tanaka, 1976; Kunkel, 1984).A strong fibre is obtained from the stems, which is used for making string and clothes; it also makes a good quality paper. It is harvested in autumn as the plant begins to die down and is retted before the fibres are extracted (Huxley, 1992; Turner, 1979). Hair wash from leaf extract prevents baldness (Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: Urtica parviflora is common in Dharchula Himalaya. Trade: There is no trade in any parts of Urtica parviflora in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Young leaves are edible. Root paste is applied on boils for suppuration. Infusion of root is given for treatment of convulsions and high fever. Young stems and leaves are used to beat the limbs during inflammation and paralysis and to drive away the evil spirits. 278
5.77. Valeriana wallichii DC. Syn. Valeriana jatamansi Jones Family
:
Valerianaceae
Local Name
:
Jaunka-usu (Chaudas)
Description: A perennial scabigerous, pubescent herb of about 10-30 cm height. Rootstock rhizomatus, thick and horizontal. Roots bitter uin taste and yield foetid smell. Radical leaves crowded, long-petioled, broadly ovatecordate, 2.5-5 cm long, 1-3 cm broad; cauline leaves, few, linearlanceolate; basal leaves long-petioled, usually toothed, sharp-pointed. Flowers dioecious, white or pink-tinged, arranged in terminal clusters on erect leafless stems. Fruits small, pilose, tipped with pappus like calyx (Figure 79). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-September. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on exposed surfaces, open slopes, roadsides and wastelands in the temperate regions. It is distributed all over Chaudas and Darma valleys between 1,500 and 3,000 m. Propagation: It grows well on good moist soils under sun or partial shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn.
Seedlings are
transplanted into polythene bags filled with soil during summer. Plants can also be propagated vegetatively by root cuttings. Larger segments are planted directly in the field and smaller ones are planted into the polythene bags to be planted in the field later (Huxley, 1992). Chemical Constituents: Isovaleric, caproic acids, hydroxyvaleranone, acetoxyvaleranone and a flavanoid – linarin isovalerate, iridoids –
279
valtrate and acevaltrate, a naphthoic acid – 4-methoxy-8-pentyl-Inaphthoic acid, heptadecanyl eicosanoate, methyl eicosanoate, betasitosterol
and
its
glucoside,
homoacevaltrate,
6-methylapigenin,
1-homoisoacevaltrate,
Iridoids
–
111-
homohydroxyldihydrovaltrate, 10-acetoxy-1-homovaltrate hydrin and 10-acetoxy-1-acevaltrate hydrin isolated from roots (Pande and Shukla, 1993; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1995; 1998; Wasowski, et al., 2002; Tang et al., 2002).
Figure 79. A plant of Valeriana wallichii bearing inflorescence growing at Sirdang of Chaudas An iridoid glucoside (I) isolated; a sesquiterpene analogue of alpha-fenchene – sesquifenchene – isolated from root oil; a bicyclic sesquiterpene
–
9(gamma,gamma-dimethylallyl)-alpha-fenchene,
valerosidatum, didrovaltratum and an acylated linarin – acacetin-7-Obeta-rutinoside isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Essential oil from root contains alpha-pinene (14.5), limonene (0.8), 1,8-cineole (0.3), p-cymene (1.2), borneol acetate (7.2), borneol (4.5), nerolidol (1.0) and maaliol (11.6%) (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993).
280
Valtrate is cytotoxic to hepatoma cells in culture and inhibited synthesis of DNA and protein in tumor cells (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Uses: In Ayurveda, the root is used to cure epileptic fits, head troubles, diseases of eye and blood, and also used in suppression of urine, poisoning and swooning (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). In Yunani medicine the root is used as laxative, astringent, carminative, antiperiodic, emmenagogue, hypnotic, aphrodisiac; it is also usedfor affections of eye and hair, pains in joints, and diseases of liver, spleen and kidney; it is considered good for gleet and clearing voice (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935).
Valeriana
wallichii
is
considered stimulant and anti-spasmodic. The ethereal valerianic diminishes the irritability of the brain and spinal marrow. It is given in disorders of the spinal marrow and the nerves; nervous debility and failing reflexes and in spastic disorders like chorea and gastropasms. Large doses of valerian are likely to produce central paralysis, inhibition of the cardiac function and of intestinal movements (Nadkarni, 1908). Conservation status: Valeriana wallichii is common in Chaudas and Darma valleys. Trade: There is no trade in any parts of Valeriana wallichii in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Traditional healers of Chaudas administer infusion of leaves of Valeriana wallichii in water to be taken internally for deworming especially for small white worms in intestine locally called Fua jaunka. There is an illicit trade in the species from lower ranges of Himalayas. The species may enter into Red Data Book, if wild harvests continue.
281
5.78. Viburnum nervosum D. Don Syn. Viburnum cordifolium Wall ex DC. Family Local Name
: :
Caprifoliaceae (Adoxaceae) Feralo, Kutpale (Chaudas, Byas)
Description: A deciduous shrub of about 6 m height. Leaves 5-13 cm long, elliptic oblong, acute, serrate, glabrous above, hairy on the nerves beneath. Flowers deliciously fragrant, pinkish white. Fruit ellipsoid, reddish turning blue-black when ripe; ripe fruits have sweet flavour and tastes sweet and pleasant (Figure 80). Phenology: It flowers during April-May and fruits during June-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on open moist slopes, along streams and relatively wetter places in the temperate regions of Chaudas and Byas valleys between 2,500 and 3,500 m. Propagation: This species grows well on most soils but is ill-adapted for poor soils and dry conditions. It prefers a deep rich loamy soil under sun or partial shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. Seeds germinate after more than 18 months (McMillan-Browse, 1985). 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. 30-45 cm tall saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer of the following year. Plant can also be propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings (Huxley, 1992). Chemical Constituents: Beta-sitosterol isolated from aerial parts and bergenin from roots; cetyl alcohol, ceryl alcohol, alpha- and beta- amyrins,
282
oleanolic,
ursolic
and
2alpha-hydroxyursolic
acids,
quercetin,
scopoletin and glucose also isolated (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991; 1995).
Figure 80. A branch of a plant of Viburnum nervosum bearing unripe fruits growing at Sirdang of Chaudas Uses: Decoction of bark of the shrub is used in menorrhagia (Jain, 1991; Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: Viburnum nervosum is a common shrub found in Chaudas and Byas valleys. Trade: There is no trade of Viburnum nervosum in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Fruits are edible and are especially relished by children. Birds and bears also feed on the fruits.
283
5.79. Viola serpens Wall. ex Roxb. (Violets/Pansies) Syn. Viola pilosa Bl. Family
:
Violaceae
Local Name
:
Tin chee (Chaudas), Thungtu, Banafsha
Description: A glabrous herb with leafy, short and distinct stem or stolons. Leaves in rosettes, basal, 2-6 cm long, 1-5 cm broad, ovate to deltoid, base cordate, serrate and glabrous. Flowers solitary, pale violet, 3-6.5 cm broad. Capsule ellipsoid, 8-12 mm long, glabrous (Figure 81). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during June-August.
Figure 81. Plants of Viola serpens and other associated plants growing at Sirdang of Chaudas Ecology and Distribution: It grows along roadsides, crevices and in moist slopes of temperate regions between 2,000 and 2,700 m. It is common in Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys.
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Propagation: Viola serpens is harvested only after seeds have set. The plants are first raised in the raised beds in the nurseries. About 10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into the polythene bags filled with soil. The saplings are planted in the field during late spring or before or during the rains. Chemical Constituents: Active principle of the herb is alkaloid violine (Anonymous, 1976). Uses: The herb constitutes a part of commercial banafshah and is considered to possess medicinal properties more or less similar to Viola odorata. The whole plant is considered antipyretic and diaphoretic; flowers are used as bilious, purgative, for cold cough, fever and lung diseases (Jain, 1991). Fresh flowers boiled with tea are used to get relief from cough and cold. Flowers eaten raw; leaf paste is used for headache and jaundice (Gaur, 1999). Viola sepens is generally used as substitute for Viola odorata as medicinal properties of both are considered similar. A medicinal oil, Roghan-i-banafshah, is prepared from this plant. In the Unani system, this plant is the main ingredient of Joshanda, which is used for treatment of cough and cold in the form of decoction; decoction of flowers is used for improving complexion (Anonymous, 1976). Conservation status: Viola serpens is a common plant found in Darma and Chaudas valleys. Trade: There is no trade of any parts of Viola serpens in Dharchula areas. Elsewhere, it is mixed with V. cinerea, V. biflora and sold as substitute for V. odorata. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Viola serpens or any formulations made out of this species.
285
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Viola serpens is an important constituent along with Picrorhiza kurroa (Katki), Saussurea lappa (Kuth) and Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis) for preparation of local medicine for fever and illness to women following childbirth. It is also mixed with Aconitum heterophyllum (Atis) tuber and root of Corydalis govaniana (Balcham jadi) in equal proportion and used as a potent and effective medicine for jaundice. In some localities the species is extinct due to excess harvests from the wild. Detailed phytochemical analysis of the plant may yield chemicals of therapeutic and economic value.
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5.80. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Syn. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. Family
:
Rutaceae
Local Name
:
Yenna (Chaudas, Byas, Darma), Timur
Description: An evergreen or subdeciduous shrub or small tree reaching up to 5 m tall. Young shoots glabrous. Bark deeply furrowed, corky, pale brown; petioles armed with long straight spines. Leaves 10-15 cm long, pinnate, leaflets 3-13, acute or acuminate, dark glossy green above and pale beneath. Flowers pale-yellow, 1-2 cm across, in lateral clusters. Fruits globular, 3-4 mm in size, red, wrnkled, aromatic. Seeds shining black, sweetish, bitter and hot (Figure 82a). Phenology: It flowers and fruits during April-August. Ecology and Distribution: It grows on open grazing lands, shrubberies, scrub forests and near cultivated areas between 1,200 and 2,400 m. It is less common in Chaudas and Darma valleys. Propagation: Zanthoxylum armatum prefers deep well-drained moisture retentive soils and grows under sun or partial shade. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during autumn. Seeds germinate in late spring or may even take 12 months. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual pots or polythene bags filled with soil. The saplings are planted in the field during early summer. This species can also be propagated vegetatively by planting the cuttings of half ripe woods during July-August. Root cuttings, about 3 cms long are planted horizontally in pots or polythene bags.
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Chemical Constituents: Spilanthol (2,6,8-decatrienoic isobutylamide) isolated from roots; essential oil extracted from fruits; essential oil contains limonene, sabinene, linalyl acetate, citral and geraniol (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990). Lignans – sesamin, fargesin, eudesmin, epieudesmin - and furoquinoline alkaloids - dictamine, 8-hydroxydictamine and fagarin along with a lactone – pluviatide – isolated from whole plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1991). Linalool, limonene, methyl cinnamate, cineole, arginine, glycine, histidine, threonine, tyrosine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid isolated from fruits; hydrocarbon, acid and phenol content of oils from plants collected in summer and winter is 24.3%, 4.5% and 0.90% and 17.2%, 4.14% and 0.18% respectively; contents of 1,8-cineole (13.4% and 34.7%), limonene (12.4% and 7.2%) and citronellal (4.3% and 11.4%) in oils from summer and winter plants respectively (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; Jain et al., 2001). Beta-sitosterol, pinoresinol dimethyl ether isolated from aerial parts; monoterpenetriol – 3,7-dimethyl-1-octene-3,6,7-triol, transcinnamic acid, nevadensin, umbelliferone, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside isolated from fruits; linalool, limonene, alloaromadendrene, methyl cinnamate, myrcene, alpha-thujene, alpha-fenchol, p-cymene, beta-caryophyllene, alpha-terpineol, camphor, 1,8-cineole, carvone, tagetonol, cis-ocimene, and gamma-terpinene isolated from fruit oil; (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1995). 6-hydroxynonadec-4(Z)-enoic, 8-hydroxypentadec-4(Z)-enoic, 7-hydroxy-7-vinylhexadec-4(Z)-enoic and hexadec-4(Z)-enoic acids isolated from seeds (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). An amide armatamide – N-(4’-methoxyphenyl ethyl)-3,4methylenedioxy cinnamoyl amide - along with asarinin, fargesin, alpha- and beta- amyrins, lupeol and beta-sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside isolated from barks (Kalia et al., 1999).
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Figure 82a. A branch of the plant of Zanthoxylum armatum bearing unripe fruits growing at Pangla of Chaudas
Figure 82b. Dry Zanthoxylum armatum seeds Uses: Fruits are used to intoxicate fish. It is considered to have stomachic and carminative properties (Atkinson, 1882). In Ayurveda fruit is considered appetizer, anthelmintic and gives relief from pain, tumours and abdominal troubles; it is also considered useful in eye and ear diseases, disease of lips, headache, heaviness, leucoderma, asthma and troubles of spleen (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). The seeds and the bark are used as an aromatic tonic in the treatment of fevers, dyspepsia and cholera (Chopra et al., 1956). In some parts of Nepal, fresh seeds are chewed to treat stomach disorders and seeds are also taken as pickles during meals (Joshi and 289
Joshi, 2000). It is believed that walking sticks made from the stem kept in the house doors keep the evils away; flowers important source of bee forage (Gaur, 1999). Conservation status: Zanthoxylum armatum is found only at few localities of Chaudas and Darma valleys. It is, however, not listed in Red Data Book of Indian Plants, nor is it included in the list of endangered or threatened species of CITES. Trade: There is no significant trade in Zanthoxylum armatum plant portions in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition on export or import of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species. Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Aromatic seeds of Zanthoxylum armatum (Figure 82b) are used by the local inhabitants as condiment to season thick soups particularly made out of Eleusine coracana Gaertn. (Mandwa) flour locally called kalang, which is consumed in winter. It is considered a useful tonic and good for cough, cold and sore throat. Seeds and thorns are used to get relief from toothache; and small branches are used as toothbrush. Seeds are also used in making chutney together with green pepper, garlic and salt. Seeds are crushed and paste in water is applied on the skins of the cattle to remove lice, ticks and other insects. This species need detailed phytochemical studies as it may yield chemicals with potential drug value.
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CHAPTER VI Biotechnological Implications of the Traditional Knowledge associated with Plant Resources in Dharchula Region Recent developments in physico-chemical methods of isolation, purification and characterization of chemical compounds coupled with rapid bio-assays of these chemicals using biotechnological tools have led to development of a new discipline interfacing traditional plant taxonomy, chemistry and biotechnology called bio-prospecting. My observations and discussions on 80 species used by the Bhotias of Dharchula region have led to identification of 13 plant species that may have biotechnological implications in terms of development of new products that may have immense value as drugs in the treatment of diseases or as products of industrial importance. Traditional knowledge associated with these 13 species is enumerated below. It may be noted that traditional knowledge listed below has not yet been otherwise documented. 6.1. Cirsium wallichii DC (page 75) Bhotias use root of this species for a variety of purposes. The root paste is applied externally on the boils for suppuration. It is also used as cooling agent. Infusion of mixture of Cirsium wallichii root and Pyrus pashia fruit and leaves in water is poured on the head for cooling at the time of severe headache. It is a first report of medicinal use of this species by a community. Phytochemical studies of this species are urgently needed to find out its potential medical applications and development of new drugs. 6.2 Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. (page 77) Root of this species has several applications in local health care. Bhotias use it for treatment of cancer, intestinal ulcers and apply externally for healing of wounds. It is also mixed with various other plant extracts for effective treatment of other diseases. For instance, when taken along with Potentilla sundaica, it enhances the efficacy of the later. Its application and efficacy in the treatment of cancer and its usefulness in treatment of
291
other diseases reported in Dharchula area needs to be investigated to find out its potential in development of new drugs. 6.3 Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsheim (page 112) The inner bark of this species is used by Bhotias for treatment of liver diseases of human as well as of livestock. The inner bark extract in water is taken internally for the treatment of liver diseases, particularly for enlargement of liver. The inner bark extract appears to be quite efficient in chelating iron. Its usefulness in chelation therapy for Thalassemia needs to be investigated. The inner bark is also used for dying traditional woolen cloths dark blue by using iron vessels. The preliminary investigations have shown that the inner bark extract inhibits the growth of cancer cell lines. The inner bark has also been found to have anti-inflammatory properties. This species may yield novel drugs, dye and may even be an important source of mannitol. 6.4 Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) C. B. Clarke (page 143) The root of this species yields an excellent natural gum, which is used as the binding agent in making incense materials. The chemical characteristics of gum need to be investigated before its economic potential is assessed. 6.5 Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker (page 146) Aromatic bulbs of this species are edible. The paste of the bulbs made in water is applied on the swellings in the limbs. Its medicinal application is not yet known. Phytochemical studies may provide chemical constituents of potential economic value. 6.6 Mazus surculosus D. Don (page 151) Entire plant mixed with Viola serpens and Rubus nutans in equal proportions is pounded and is given to treat inflammations in urinary tracts, painful urination or any problem related to urination. Detailed phytochemical investigations may provide new drugs.
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6.7 Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle (page 157) It is an important medicinal plant of the region. Paste of roots made with water is applied on the wounds and cuts; it acts as an antiseptic. Roots are boiled in water and the decoction is given to livestock as an antidote for poison. This species may yield active principles that can be used as antidotes for a variety of chemical and biological warfare agents. 6.8 Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) (page 178) Young leaves are edible and are considered nutritious if taken in moderate quantities. Rootstock of this species is used for the treatment of high fevers with convulsions; it is also used as cooling agent. This species requires immediate phytochemical studies to find out its potential for development of useful drugs for treatment of diseases like drug resistant malaria. 6.9 Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz. (page 184) Many Bhotia families of Chaudas valley store this species in their homes and use it for cough and throat infections especially amongst children. The entire plant is cleaned and dried and pounded along with Coleus forskohlii and clove and made into small tablets (goli). These tablets are used as home remedy for throat infections. It is quite effective even when administered alone. The efficacy of the plant collected during October is said to be higher as compared to the material collected in other seasons. This species needs to be investigated further for active principles involved in curing throat disorders. 6.10 Prinsepia utilis Royle (page 187) Edible oil extracted from the seeds is found safe for consumption by people who suffer from high blood pressure and high level of cholesterol. Massage with oil gives relief to those suffering from rheumatism and joint and body pains due to fatigue. Pericarp of the ripe berries yields deep blue colour. Its economic potential for development as dye needs to be explored. Phytochemical studies coupled with toxicological assays may make this unexploited plant of potential economic value into a major oil-yielding crop. This may bring an economic transformation of the communities. 293
6.11 Silene kumaonensis Williams (page 241) The dried roots of this species were used as detergent to wash the woolen clothes and hairs. In fact this was the only detergent available to the local inhabitants in the past. Use of dried roots washing woolen clothes is still prevalent among Bhotias. It can also cure dandruffs when used as shampoo. Phytochemical studies may yield products having potential applications in herbal cosmetics. 6.12 Thamnolia vermicularis (Swartz) Ach. in Schaerer (page 265) This species is considered very auspicious. It is used as galactagogue. If the cows are made to inhale the smoke of burning dried Thamnolia vermicularis, the lactation is enhanced. This species requires detailed phytochemical investigations. 6.13 Thymus serpyllum Linn. (page 267) It is widely used by Bhotias for making local brew. Proper fermentation of grains, fruits, etc. does not occur without multiplying yeasts by adding infusion made of this species. This may probably be due to the fact that it contains some growth promoting factor that stimulates multiplication of yeast during the fermentation process. This observation is novel and thus, the species has wide potential in making liquors and may also be a substitute for hops. Detailed phytochemical studies may yield new products of commercial value. In addition to the above species, Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. (page 81), which is harvested extensively, has potential to transform the economy of the region if managed appropriately. It is valued very highly in Tibetan and Chinese medicine. It is used as antibiotic and also used to enhance vitality and potency. The key issues that need to be addressed are: (i) development of techniques for rearing large number of caterpillars and mass inoculation of caterpillars with fungus, (ii) development of appropriate habitat conditions required for fungus growth and multiplication of larvae, (iii) development of trading facilities, and (iv) intensive ecological and chemical studies through biotechnological approaches. The biotechnological potential of this species is enormous, particularly in the development of new drugs.
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CHAPTER VII Economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources An attempt has been made here to evaluate the traditionally used plants in Dharchula Himalayas covering about 261 km2 comprising Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys. There are 50 inhabited villages in the area having a total population of 14664 (including Bhotias and others) as given in Table 4. Table 4. Resource base and population sizes of the Villages inhabited by Bhotia and non-Bhotia communities (Source: Divisional Forest Office, Pithoragarh Forest Division) Name of Village
Sipu Khimling Marchcha Tidang Go Dangtu Filam Dugtu Bon Baling Chal Nagling Sela Kuti Nabi Gunji Rongkong Naplcheu Garbyang Budi Bungbung Gala Jipti Sirkha Sirdang
Revenue Area (in ha.) 206.40 79.73 133.55 417.25 398.22 292.19 105.63 333.07 280.86 219.75 135.98 221.37 177.66 252.24 242.01 195.87 235.54 102.39 572.25 246.46 215.30 118.58 160.67 301.50 292.19
Area under Civil Forests (in ha.) 169.01 NA 94.84 370.91 286.61 238.28 19.88 247.87 191.50 20.00 110.36 170.43 148.99 120.00 149.26 118.99 40.00 11.32 12.00 40.00 155.69 40.00 29.95 231.04 181.59
Area under Panchayat Forests (in ha.) 456.60 NA 94.00 235.60 24.80 19.40 84.00 13.20 185.20 111.60 202.80 217.20 60.58 106.00 186.00 8.00 102.80 74.80 98.80 15.60 24.00 100.80 136.25 112.40 78.40(Kurila) 295
Population as per Forest Area Department records under Reserve (Figure within bracket as per Census of India Forests - 2001) (in ha.) 143 (70) 1 143 (90) 92 (115) 268 (124) 139 (66) 118 (37) 312 (170) 309 (152) 178 (83) 104 (117) 269 (82) 146 (104) 264 (111) 217 (95) 374 (96) 177 (163) 186 (58) 357 (210) 250 (285) 490 (390) 130 332 (392) 351 (310) 787 (667)
Himkhola Pangu Sosa
172.00 133.55 329.43
-
Tantagaon Rongto Chalma Chilason Baungling Umchya Dar Watan Suwa Khela Syankuri Tankul Pangla Sobla Neu Khet Jamku Rung Bidang Dakar Rungling Samari Sumdum Jyungtigad
111.29
20.00
26.40(Lankari) 72.00 140.00 260.80 42.00 (Jaikot) NA
76.49
2.89
171.14 125.01 309.19 178.07 335.50 468.24 938.50 124.24 127.48 209.23 376.37 200.33 214.90 NA NA NA -
40.00 19.33 1.56 45.47 NA 16.00 NA NA 22.67 40.45 51.58 20.00 8.00 166.25 -
Total
10887.62 3652.72 ha ha
-
219 (240) 496 (183) 349 (301) (Jaikot – 723) 150 (126)
92.00
-
312 (333)
NA 994.40 58.80 156.80 121.20 412.00 NA 21.60 NA NA 101.20 71.20 25.10 20.06 370.00 -
2804.00 1135.10 1862.00
117 (117) 292 (394) 517 (544) 72 (75) 546 (648) 1612 (1957) 1164 (1384) 174 (289) 721 (1010) 199 (155) 200 (231) 467 (644) 447 (730) 473 (473)
5734.39 ha
5801.10 ha
14664
As already mentioned in Chapter I, the area is known for herbal wealth of medicinal importance. The plant species that are traded most in the region and their value according to 2003 sale prices are given in Table 5. A total of 80 species have been documented for their traditional uses (Chapter V). While some of these species are not threatened, yet a few of them have become rare in some localities, which are easily accessible.The total area covered for economic valuation is 260.75 km2 (say 261 km2 ).
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Table 5. Details of harvests and trade involving some medicinal plants of Dharchula region in 2003 (based on enquiries with the local traders). Name of the plant
Cordyceps sinensis (Keeda) Picrorhiza kurroa (Katki) Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Hathajari / Salam panja) Rheum emodi (Dolu) Allium stracheyii (Jambu) Bergenia ciliata (Pashanbed) Nardostachys jatamansi (Mansi) Juglans regia (Akhrot root bark)
Sale price (2003, in Rs. per kg)
Value (Approximate) Rs. In lakhs
90,000
225 - 315
40,000 – 50,000 100 - 200
170 900
68 - 85 0.9 – 1.8
4,000 – 5,000 500 - 600 40,000 – 50,000
10 120 13
0.4 - 0.5 0.6 – 0.7 5.2 – 6.5
10,000 – 20,000
125
12.5 - 25
10,000 – 20,000
30
3-6
Quantity (Approximate) in kg 250 - 350
Total value
315.6 – 440.5
The extent of harvests of species depends upon the demands and price offered for the products, both of which vary from year to year. For example, Picrorhiza kurroa (locally known as Katki) was not extracted much for five years up to 2003 due to low demand and less price offered. However, due to heavy demand and very attractive prices offered after 2003, its extraction was very heavy; about 400 – 500 quintals in 2003 alone. Similarly, due to heavy demand for Cordyceps sinensis from Tibet and its high price of Rs 90,000-100,000 per kg offered, about 250 – 350 kg was extracted in 2003. The total value of various species harvested and traded in Dharchula area during 2003 was in the range of Rs. 315 – 440 lakh. For the purpose of valuation of area from the point of view of traditionally used plant species of medicinal importance, the following variables were used(i) market value of species extracted, (ii) value of medicinal plants used in local medicine,
297
(iii) value of medicinal plants as source for new plant-based drug or synthesized drug based on plant product, and (iv) value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction. (i) Market value of species extracted During the year 2003, Cordyceps sinensis (Keeda), Picrorhiza kurroa (Katki) Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Hathajari / Salam panja), Rheum emodi (Dolu), Allium stracheyii (Jambu), Bergenia ciliata (Pashanbed), Nardostachys jatamansi (Mansi) and Juglans regia (Akhrot root bark) were the major species traded extensively in Dharchula. Since harvesting in wild is not legally permitted in India, these were shown to have been bought from Nepal. However, almost all of them had come from Indian part of Dharchula as informed by the traders and extractors. The total value of all of these species as per 2003 prices was Rs. 315.6 – 440.5 lakh. Extraction and trade in other species were not significant. Recently the extraction of these species has shown a downward trend as compared to earlier years because of high earnings from Cordyceps sinensis, whose extraction requires considerably lesser physical effort and give higher remuneration in a short period. For example, the amount earned by the locals from the extraction of 800 pieces of (about 250 gms) Cordyceps sinensis is about the same as that earned by trading 150 kg of dry Picrorhiza kurroa roots. (ii) Value of Medicinal Plants used in local medicine/health care Almost all the villages situated in the study area do not have hospitals and health care facilities. Every inhabitant of the area has to depend upon wild plants and other species for remedies of non-serious disorders and primary health care. For major illnesses the patients have to be taken to Dharchula or bigger hospitals after trekking some times for three days. Therefore, the entire populations of 14664 are dependent on herbal medicine as an alternative for primary health care. During discussions and enquiries from the villagers it was revealed that the minimum saving in health care by using herbal medicine is Rs. 50-100 per person per year. The value of medicine on account of this is of the tune of Rs. 7.33-14.66 lakh annually. This is the indirect value of the medicinal herbs.
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(iii) Value of medicinal plants as source of new plant-based drugs or synthesized drug based on plant product Total number of flowering plant species in Kumaon is 2673 as described by J. F. Duthie. Pithoragarh District which includes Dharchula is generally considered historically the richest within Western Himalaya (Duthie, 1885; 1906; Osmaston, 1994). The conservative estimate of the number of flowering plants in Dharchula is 2,500 species. Out of 80 species documented for their traditional uses, 13 appear to have potential and leads for useful compounds have been found in two species – 2.5% probability of hitting a new compound from the plant resources documented. As per the National Institute of Health (NIH) criteria it is inferred that that the probability of a successful prescription drug is somewhere between 1:1000 and 1:10,000 (Principe, 1991 and 1996; Kumar, 2004). Therefore, the probability of new plant based drugs expected from the area is between 2.5 and 0.25, a value that fits with 2.5% arrived at from present study. Principe’s estimate of value of a medicinal plant in USA is $ 390 million. This value will vary from country to country. It is evident from the fact that market value of single commercially useful species in USA is considered to be $ 200 million and the corresponding figure for the OECD countries is $ 600 million. In the Indian context the value of medicinal plants is taken as 10% of Principe’s estimate, i.e. $39 million or Rs. 17550 lakh ($1=Rs. 45). Therefore, considering that plant wealth in Dharchula would lead to at least one new drug, its value would be Rs. 17550 lakh. Higher estimates for medicinal value has been given in other studies. For example, Mendelsohn and Ballick have estimated that the value is $449 million per drug (Mendelsohn, 1995 and 1997). (iv) Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction WWF and IUCN estimated that between 1991 and 2050 25% of all the plant species may become extinct. This means 625 species may become extinct in 60 years in Dharchula area. This amounts to loss of 10 species per year. 0.01-0.001 new drugs expected from these 10 species are lost (probability being 1:1000 to 1:10,000). Considering the value of Rs. 17550 lakh per plant in terms of formulation of new drug, the value of potential drugs lost due to extinction would be Rs. 17.55 – 175.5 lakh. There would be no addition to the value from the extinction of species whose contribution towards development of new drugs has already been taken into consideration. 299
The value of medicinal plants of Dharchula area is, therefore, estimated by – V = (PE) + (AR) + (DY) + (X), Where, P = Market price of medicinal species extracted E = Quantity of medicinal species extracted annually A = Population using traditional medicine R = Rupees saved by one person annually by using wild species for primary health care D = Value of a medicinal plant species that serve as source for new drug Y = Number of species giving rise to new drugs X = Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction The value (V) of medicinal plant species of Dharchula area is – V = Rs. 17890.48 – to - 18180.66 lakhs Since the extent of study area is 261 km2, V becomes V = Rs 68.54 – 69.65 lakh per square km. i.e. Rs. 68540 – 69650 per ha. These results substantiate the fact that Dharchula area is rich in medicinal plant resources. The value of over Rs. 68,000 per ha per year makes it justifiable for evolving strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of the valuable plant resources of Dharchula area. It may be noted that the value of the medicinal plants in terms of their ecological and ecosystem services have not been taken into account in the present economic evaluation. It may also be noted that this is a first report of economic evaluation of medicinal plant resources of the region.
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CHAPTER VIII Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights issues Ethnobotanists and others have been seeking information free of cost from the local people who are knowledgeable about processes, practices and the traditional uses of natural products that were accumulated through several generations of experimentations and adoption. Generally, information gathered pertains to the uses of plant species, location and habitat preferences of individual species, time and mode of harvest, and preparation, processing and formulations. The information collected and subsequently published are often patented without giving credit for the leads provided by or giving compensation or reward to the communities or traditional practitioners. The findings are generally shown as original discoveries. This is in fact not true at least in some cases. Pharmaceutical industries investigate the efficacy of medicines used by the indigenous people. Useful substances are known to the indigenous people and based on such traditional knowledge the pharmaceutical companies isolate active principles and market them as drugs directly or design new drugs with modifications or synthesize them. While companies patent the products and earn huge profits, the information provided by the indigenous people is ignored by treating the traditional knowledge as mere tradition, folklore or public property. Large numbers of patents have been granted on genetic resources and traditional knowledge without the consent of the possessors of the resources and knowledge. For example, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in India had asked for re-examination of US Patent No. 5, 401, 5041 granted for the wound healing properties of turmeric. The US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) revoked this patent after ascertaining that there was no novelty. This knowledge has been in use in India for centuries. Similarly, the patent granted to Neem was also revoked on the grounds that it is the intellectual property of the Indians who have been using it for centuries. Protection of the traditional knowledge of local and indigenous communities is a very contentious issue. Traditional knowledge has always been treated as knowledge in the public domain, which is freely available for exploitation without acknowledging the efforts made by the communities. Need to protect the traditional knowledge has captured the attention of the world community only after modern biotechnological advances have 301
demonstrated the usefulness of traditional knowledge in the development of new products of commercial importance. Benefits of new technology have not reached the custodians of knowledge. The process of globalization is threatening the appropriation of elements of collective knowledge of communities into proprietary knowledge for the commercial profit of a few (Dashaco, 2001; Tripathi, 2003). Since the knowledge held by the practitioners of a community is not known to other communities or societies it must be considered as private and not something which comes within public domain or as something which is a human heritage available free of cost. Goodwill of the communities or societies is taken advantage of by the ethnobotanists, researchers or scientists whose motives may be personal gain or profit maximization. The gathering of knowledge and collection of biological resources from traditional people by outsiders is intense ‘bio-prospecting’ (search for and collection of biologically active materials for commercial use). Many communities are now aware of such motives and have, therefore, taken upon themselves to protect their traditional systems, ideas, information and innovations. There is increasing realization amongst the traditional communities regarding the mining of their knowledge by the outsiders without any respect to the rights of the local inhabitants. The local communities do not come forward easily to share or divulge information unless commensurate returns are guaranteed. For example, a person known to possess antidotes for snakebite never discloses the source of antidote. At present, indigenous or traditional knowledge passed down orally over many generations are not rewarded in the absence of community Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). The intellectual properties that have been in existence in the ancient cultures since ages are still extant. Without the appropriate safeguards in the current IPR laws situation may arise where unauthorized commercial exploitation of biological resources may be encouraged thereby legitimizing bio-piracy. Patenting of products derived by following leads from traditional knowledge and bioprospecting are not only exploitative but also violate the spiritual values of many traditional people (Dutfield, 1999). As has been mentioned elsewhere, there are nearly 5000 ethnic communities in India. And there are as many diverse traditional practices, home remedies, recipes and formulas practiced by them; these have been handed down orally from generation to generation. The relevance of local herbal health traditions have not diminished despite 302
progresses made in the field of modern medicine. The economic value of traditional knowledge can never be truly evaluated because their contribution is unquantifiable and can never be adequately measured. Traditional knowledge needs to be protected. The following considerations proposed by Correa may be taken into account for evolving effective IPR regimes for traditional knowledge (Correa, 2001) – (i)
Ethical and moral considerations – For providing knowledge for evolving and promoting noble cause; in finding solutions to global health and other problems facing humanities.
(ii)
Sustainable development considerations - Benefits from use of traditional knowledge can be used to sustain economic development activities.
(iii)
Conservation considerations – Use and importance of traditional knowledge of biological resources has potential to highlight the importance of conservation and sustainable utilization of natural biological resources.
(iv)
Preservation of traditional lifestyles – Traditional knowledge provides framework to encourage the maintenance of practices and knowledge embodying traditional lifestyles. Preservation of traditional knowledge becomes conditional to continuation of traditional lifestyles. The crisis affecting the world’s diverse cultures and languages is as great as the crisis of biodiversity loss. According to some estimates, 90% of 9,000 currently spoken languages may become extinct in the next 100 years. Possibility of economic returns from use of traditional knowledge will be an incentive to continue to engage in traditional practices.
(v)
Prevention of unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge (biopiracy) by unscrupulous parties – Improving the quality and quantity of information made available to various patent offices can help in examination of novelty, inventive steps and processes.
(vi)
Promoting use of traditional knowledge – Protection of traditional knowledge does not mean limiting access to it. Use of traditional knowledge needs to be promoted with adequate measures to prevent misappropriation. Government of Philippines has made provisions in their relevant Acts with an aim to accelerate the development of traditional and 303
alternative health care by improving the manufacture, quality control and marketing of traditional health care materials. Traditional knowledge has to be treated as underutilised “intellectual resource”. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ratified in 1992 by over 170 countries in the world has three objectives - (i) conservation of biological diversity, (ii) sustainable use of its components, and (iii) fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Article 8(j) of the Convention provides that – “ Each contracting party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and promote the wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices”. CBD contains 42 Articles. The basic commitments of the CBD, therefore, are as follows– •
Recognition of sovereign rights of the states over their biological resources.
•
Stipulation that access to biological resources can only occur with the prior and informed consent of the states.
•
Protection and promotion of the rights of communities in terms of their biological resources and traditional knowledge.
•
Establishment of access to the biological resources of developing countries on a quid pro quo basis with technology transfer from the developed countries.
•
Equitable sharing of benefits arising from the commercial use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge.
•
IPRs must not conflict with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
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Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) agreement (1994) also has some provisions having limited application to the protection of traditional knowledge. Many countries including India have suggested few preconditions while granting patent rights (Bellman et al., 2003). These include – (i)
Disclosure of the source and origin of the resource and of the traditional knowledge used in the invention. For example, process and use of a medicinal or aromatic plant to make products or extracting vegetable dye from certain minerals and plants.
(ii)
Evidence of Prior Informed Consent (PIC) before using the biological resource.
(iii)
Evidence of fair and equitable benefit sharing (both monetary and nonmonetary) from the use of traditional knowledge.
(iv)
The onus of providing compliance (burden of proof) to be upon user agency, which will have to prove that all conditions of disclosure and benefit sharing have been met.
Only inventions that can be dated and attributed to an individual or small group of people can be patented. In theory, traditional knowledge may be patentable as sources of knowledge could be attributed to individuals, kinships or communities. Collective nature of most traditional knowledge poses complicated problems about the attribution and exercise of rights. It is often impossible to trace traditional knowledge to a specific community or geographical area, and hence it becomes ineligible for patent protection. Further, once traditional knowledge is recorded and published its use and application is beyond the control of the original knowledge providers and there is no way to protect their IPR. No one discounts the importance of documentation. However, once published, novelty on the disclosed information cannot be claimed. If a scientist or researcher improves upon published traditional knowledge and develops a new product or comes out with a formula satisfying the requirements for patentability, he obtains patent for the product or formula and not for the herbs used. The people who are using and applying traditional products may technically become patent violators (Dutfield, 1999). Presently, the existing patent laws do not work for traditional knowledge holders because of following reasons (Anonymous, 2002) –
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•
Individual inventors can not be identified as traditional knowledge is collective in nature.
•
It is often impossible to attribute traditional knowledge to any particular geographical location.
•
Since traditional knowledge has been in existence over a long period of time, it is often impossible to present it as novel.
•
There is no recorded documentation of traditional knowledge as it has been passed on orally.
In India, section 36(iv) of the Biodiversity Bill provides for the protection of knowledge of local people relating to biodiversity through measures such as registration of such knowledge, and development of a sui generis system. For ensuring equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge. Section 19 and 21 stipulate prior approval of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) before their access. NBA will impose terms and conditions while granting approval. One of the functions of NBA is to take measures to oppose the grant of IPRs in any country outside India on any biological resource obtained from India or knowledge associated with such a biological resource. Thailand has developed a comprehensive sui generis regime for Traditional Medicine, which is called “Thai Medicinal Intelligence Act” (Correa, 2001). The Act distinguishes three different categories of “Traditional Formulations”. Certain formulas of traditional Thai Medicine, which have significant benefit or special medicinal value, have been designated as national formula. Rights of such formulas belong to the state. The commercial use of a national formula for the production of drugs or for research and development is subject to permission from the Government. Private formulas are those which can be used freely by the owner. Whereas, third party has to obtain permission from the owner of the formula. This Act provides for registration of private formulas by an inventor or developer of such formulas. The rights over a registered personal formula subsist throughout the life of the owner and for a further 50 years from the date the applicant dies. Third category of formula is “general formula”, which is well known traditional formulas that remain free to use by anybody. One of the important feature of this law is that all three types of formulas can continue to
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be used free domestically by the traditional healers or Thai communities on a limited scale. The law also provides for the conservation and sustainable use of the medicinal plants. A “Thai Traditional Knowledge Development Fund” has also been created. Any strategy to protect traditional knowledge must take into account the rights of indigenous and local communities with regard to informed consent procedures. Prospecting of biological resources has to be allowed only with the prior consent of the local communities in accordance with the customary laws of the concerned communities. The laws should not only prevent biopiracy, these laws must also provide the basis for sharing benefits arising out of use of traditional knowledge. Mere documentation of traditional knowledge will not ensure benefit sharing with the holders of such knowledge. It may even foreclose that possibility as documented knowledge is deemed part of the prior art. Another equally important factor that prohibits the communities to go for patents is the cost of application for patents and pursuing patent infringement cases. Considering above mentioned aspects of traditional knowledge and IPRs and the present studies on the traditional knowledges possessed by the Bhotias of Dharchula region, in my view, following strategies may ensure rights of local communities which will ensure sustainable development and conservation – 1. Laws must provide for, as far as possible, patenting the traditional knowledge, processes and practices in the name of persons or communities who hold this knowledge, either singly or jointly. If necessary, the requirements of inventive steps in the existing patent laws must be done away with. Indigenous people will then be entitled to full ownership, control and protection rights over their intellectual property. 2. A minimum of 25% or even 50% of the income realized from use of new products developed by following leads derived from the traditional knowledge should be provided as royalty to the local communities possessing the knowledge and this should be made mandatory while patenting new products. When traditional knowledge is used for curing a disease or developing new processes or products it is expected that there would be disclosure only if there are commensurate returns. 3. All the communities should be made to register their practices or knowledge and the patent for a product should not be granted unless consent of the 307
concerned community has been obtained for research, investigation and development. 4. Entire spectrum of traditional knowledge or practices of all the communities should be documented so that they come within private domain. This would ensure that the information is not lost and that information will come within the ambit of ‘prior art’ i.e. disclosure of contents of the claim prior to application for patent. 5. Collective rights of indigenous and local communities to freely use, exchange and develop biodiversity and to access their territories must be recognized as a prior right and be placed over and above private IPRs. 6. Collective invention must be recognized to protect communities from biopiracy. There are genuine concerns that many companies may be unwilling to share their intellectual property rights with traditional communities or resource providers and pay adequate compensation. 7. Customary laws, rules and traditions must be accommodated in the national laws. Many communities have their own laws and traditions to conserve, protect and utilize their biological resources. 8. Above concerns have to be reflected in legislation and national policies by making necessary amendments or insertions in the provisions of the relevant acts and rules.
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CHAPTER IX Sustainable utilization and Management of traditional plant resources and the knowledge associated with them Based on the data presented in the thesis, it is important to suggest management plan for the sustainable utilization of traditional plant resources and knowledge associated with them 9.1. Stakeholders, issues and concerns Livelihoods of local inhabitants have always depended on free access to the wilderness for collection of natural plants and other resources. In order to devise strategies to evolve policies and management plans, interests of all the stakeholders have to be taken into account for the sustainable utilization of plant resources. The Table-6 gives the different strategies proposed under different interests/motivators and demotivators – Table 6. Management strategies for sustainable utilization of plant resources under different conditions StakeHolders
Interests/motivators
Demotivators
Strategy
a. Fundamental rights a. Free and easy access a. Excessive Local control and of local inhabitants to inhabita to resources. use resources for b. Removal of archaic regulatory nts religious, medicinal or regulatory mechanism. mechanism. ritual purposes to be c. Continuous demand respected. and good local market and b. Depleted price. resource base. b. With the d. Optimum level of facilitatory role of resource base. government the locals e. Increase in resource c. No market. use resources on base to meet the increased sustainable basis to level of demand. improve their living f. Availability of standards. institutional support. g. Traditional knowledge kept alive and availability 309
of demand of new plant resources. Forest Deptt
a. No depletion resources.
of a. Unsustainable use of resources.
of b. Sustainable utilization b. Depletion resource base. of resources. c. Equitable distribution c. Infringement of income/benefit sharing. of Acts or Rules. d. No infringement of d. Monopoly of some local Acts and Rules in vogue. inhabitants or e. Compliance with CBD communities. objectives.
c. Govt to formulate guidelines and plans along with communities for harvesting and marketing.
f. Continuous availability of local and international markets. g. Enhancement of resource base through new technology and ex situ propagation.
d. Govt to lease out plant collection rights to local communities in perpetuity but renewable every 2 - 3 years depending upon the status of stock of plants.
h. Exploring the possibilities of developing new drugs or products by having linkages with universities or pharmaceutical companies leading to generation of new demands. Local Bodies (Local Commun ity/ van Panchay at, etc.)
a. Govt to facilitate use of natural resources by the local inhabitants for traditional purposes. b. Govt to provide financial and technical support so that local inhabitants do not indulge in overexploitation of the resources to meet market demand.
e.
a. Control over market.
a. Excessive control by b. Control over resources. government over resources. c. Equitable distribution of b. Lack of benefit. transparency in policies and d. Access to resources by plans. the members only. c. Appropriation e. Participation in of benefits by 310
Prioritization species.
of
a. Local bodies like Van Panchayats to be given control over plant resources so that they get some sense of ownership. b. Arrange local markets and negotiate prices.
preparation of plans and Scientists, guidelines and researchers and companies by implementation. using traditional f. Participation in decision knowledge. Misappropriation making processes. of the traditional g. Protection of intellectual knowledge results denial of property rights of local in traditional knowledge benefits to those who deserve holders. them.
c. Seek Govt assistance to educate local inhabitants about sustainable extraction and scientific cultivation of species. d. Make people aware of their responsibilities towards environment and society; Institutionalise long term links with the markets. e. IPR in the name of community or local inhabitants with provisions for adequate compensation.
Market
Encourage and Continuous supply of raw Non-availability material at reasonable of species in motivate brokers not only to give demand. prices. commercial value for the plants traded but also to introduce new species that are in demand.
Forests/ a. Healthy biodiversity. Environ b. Environment in which ment all the components of ecosystem are at balance.
a. Presence of invasive species that will not allow other species to come up in the area. b. Destructive and nonsustainable extraction of plant resources resulting in adverse impact on biodiversity.
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a. Management plan that will conserve biodiversity by maintaining harmonious relationship between local inhabitants and nature. b. Continuous mapping of the area in order to prepare baseline data to assess the status of resource and health of ecosystem.
The first step in the development of appropriate management policies is to put in place a system where the interests of all the stakeholders can be adequately and properly addressed. While formulating a policy the basic premise is to keep in mind that human presence or some human interference is not necessarily adverse for the health of biodiversity. My observations in Darma valley clearly suggests that some biotic interference helped biodiversity to flourish (Garbyal et al., 2005). Every species whether rare, endangered or threatened has equal right to exist along with local inhabitants in the region. People of the region are no longer dependent on nature for their livelihood. There is no food scarcity, which used to be quite common in the past; modern medical facilities can be accessed though with little difficulty at places; downhill migration of the people has brought prosperity to the people. These socio-economic developments in the region lead to breaking of the age-old balance or link with the nature. The system in which interests of all the stakeholders can be rightfully addressed will be the one in which local bodies like Van Panchayats or Village Panchayats or any other local body play the central role. Role of the Government agencies must be limited to exercising regulation or control and channelising assistance to the local inhabitants through these bodies. The local bodies in turn help Government agencies by formulating guidelines for extraction of species and in making plans that will be acceptable to all. The local bodies inter alia also ensure that local traditions and values are respected. 9.2. Inadequacy of legal provisions There are three main Acts of Law that deal with wild plant resources used by the local inhabitants for traditional purposes. These are Indian Forest Act, 1927; Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The wild plant diversity in the region is available in notified forests and sanctuaries as in other parts of the country. This being the case, all the wild plant materials used are included under the definition of ‘forest produce’ as defined under Section 2, sub-section 4(b) of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and ‘wild life’ under Section 2(37) of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972. The harvests, transportation and trade of forest produce are governed by the Sections 39, 40, 41 and 42 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Similarly, specified plants are given protection by Sections 17-A, 17-B, 17-C, 17-D, 17-E, 17-F, 17-G and 17-H of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972. Under these Acts the controlling agencies are the Forest and Wild 312
Life departments of the states. Under the recent Biological Diversity Act, 2002 access to the biodiversity found in the forests and wildlife sanctuaries/national parks is controlled by the National Biodiversity and State Biodiversity Authorities. However, roles of Forest and Wild Life departments, who are the custodians of the biological diversity according to the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 have not been specified. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 has, therefore, sown the seeds of conflicts of interests, which is bound to affect the management of biological resources and ultimately the local communities whose livelihood depends upon these resources. Multiplicity of controlling agencies will only hamper the implementation of regulation/control necessary for conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources. There are already stifling restrictions and controls, which were put in place in the past without taking into account the age old links between the communities and nature. One more restrictive authority imposed by the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is bound to compound the miseries of the local inhabitants and encourage flagrant violation of the laws. In these Acts, traditions, customary laws and customary rights have been ignored and subjugated. The members of the Biodiversity Authorities may not be familiar with the traditions, customary laws and rights of the local communities that are not documented and remain unwritten. In fact, the local communities should have been the first regulatory authority for access to their biodiversity and their intellectual property. Rather than having plethora of Acts dealing with one resource, there should have been one comprehensive Act, which inter alia empowers the local communities and in which traditions, customary laws and rules are provided statutory recognition. Natural resources can only be comprehensively managed if a forum is established where stakes of local inhabitants are developed and properly addressed. 9.3. Proposed Action Plan for Sustainable utilization and Management of traditional plant resources Dharchula region Based on the above mentioned facts, the following actions are proposed for the management of plant resources and the traditional knowledge associated with it -
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1.
Surveys to prepare baseline data to assess the current status of natural
resources in the area and to prioritise the sites and species on the basis of distribution, status, trade and their potential for development of new drugs or products of commercial interests. This can be outsourced to the botanists familiar with the area. Biennial monitoring of data may act as watch dog on the status of resources. 2.
Traditional knowledge about the plant resources is slowly loosing ground. The
base of traditional knowledge is gradually narrowing down as dependence on wild plants for livelihood is coming down. It is, therefore, imperative that Traditional knowledge is documented, standardized, disseminated, protected and shared. People’s interest in traditional knowledge will arouse only if its practice becomes means of livelihood for the local inhabitants. Documentation of knowledge and its dissemination amongst fellow inhabitants have to be part of the management plan. 3.
Leasing out plant collection rights to the communities in perpetuity, but
renewable every two years depending upon stock of resources available in wild to ensure sustainable utilization. 4.
Rights of the local inhabitants to use resources for religious, medicinal or
ritual purposes to be respected. 5.
Memorandum of understanding (MOU) between pharmaceutical companies/
traders and local communities on trade matters including the kinds of species and quantities required. These MOUs will ensure appropriate returns to the local communities which in turn will regulate sustainable harvests. This would also remove the uncertainties such as the present scenario where the local collectors are at the mercy of agents and middlemen. They do not have any bargaining power since they do not have knowledge of or access to the market information. In the past there were cases where local communities cultivated some medicinal plants but there were no buyers for them. A villager in the village Filam of Darma valley had
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cultivated Podophyllum hexandrum in 2003 in his home garden on the advice of some government officials. But no one came to purchase his harvests. 6.
Preparation of guidelines in consultation with the local communities/local
bodies regarding method of extraction of plant species and their portions. Access for the collection of plant species to be free for the local inhabitants as per the guidelines. This will give sense of ownership and control over plant resources to the local communities. 7.
Natural plant resources alone cannot sustain demand over a long period of
time. Therefore, ex situ propagation of species has to be promoted. Ignorance, overharvesting and increase in commercial trade have threatened many species in the wild. There are large chunks of abandoned fields available in almost every village in the region. These together with common village lands can be utilized for ex situ propagation. Moreover, there are local inhabitants who have knowledge and are ready to take up cultivation provided necessary institutional and financial supports are made available to them. What they need is financial support, quality planting material or seeds and assured markets for their products. Schemes supported by government agencies or financial institutions or pharmaceutical companies need to be prepared for this purpose. There are already examples of companies like Dabor, etc. to whom lands have been leased for cultivation of threatened medicinal plant species. 8.
It may be noted that cultivation of medicinal plants can become a profitable
economical proposition for those species that are used extensively by the pharmaceutical. For instance, out of more than 500 medicinal plant species used by the Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals about 70 species only are used in substantial quantities. Further, there are species such as Cordyceps sinensis for which the technology and knowledge for cultivation or controlled multiplication is not available at present. Therefore, collection from wild has to be made viable and sustainable. As long as harvests are need based, they will always be sustainable, but when they are regulated by the demands of national or international markets, they 315
may become unsustainable. The local inhabitants must be educated about sustainable and non-destructive extraction methods from wild. 9.
Control and regulatory regimes for harvests, access and trade to be put in
place in consultation with the local communities/ local bodies. 10.
Local community leaders to be educated about existing laws and provisions,
which need to be respected, followed and complied with. They must also be educated about new laws enacted, new rules and regulations imposed and any changes brought about in the existing rules and regulations. Any proposed changes in the policy and their implications should be brought to the notice of the local communities. Ideally, local communities must be consulted before bringing in new rules and regulations. There must be transparency in intent and action. 11.
Intellectual property rights of local inhabitants have be protected by
appropriate amendments in the existing IPR laws. 12.
Government policies and actions must be based on the understanding of the
livelihoods of local communities. 13.
Government’s initiatives to the local communities by way of providing
alternative livelihoods that are contrary to their cultures and values should be discouraged as these may have profound adverse impact on biodiversity. This assumes importance because of the fact that area is ecologically very fragile and sensitive.
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CHAPTER X Summary and Conclusions Ethnobotanical information is of paramount value not only in the drug discovery and documentation of traditional knowledge but also in evolving appropriate IPR regimes and sustainable management strategies for plant resources. Plants have been used for varieties of purposes by traditional communities, particularly in health care, food and in a number of household utilities. Some of the recently discovered plant-based drugs, in fact, owe their origin to traditional knowledge of the communities. Increased harvests of plants in wild, particularly those used in the health care systems, have threatened many plant species. Dharchula ranges in North-West Himalaya include temperate, sub-alpine and alpine ranges with altitudes varying from 1,200 m to over 7,000 m are located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude. These Himalayan ranges are known for their rich diversity in plant resources that form the basis of livelihoods of local communities. Depletion of these resources due to excessive harvests from wild is not only threatening the livelihoods of local communities but also leads to loss of traditional knowledge, which is yet to be documented. The present work, “Traditional knowledge of plant resources in Dharchula region: biotechnological potential, conservation and management strategies” was, therefore, undertaken to: (i) document the traditional knowledge associated with the plant resources of the region, (ii) undertake economic evaluation of the plant resources, (iii) assess conservation status of plant species and trade involved in the species, and (iv) develop suitable IPR regime and appropriate management strategies for sustainable utilisation. To document the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotia community with respect to plant resources, a questionnaire was prepared. The questionnaire was formulated in a way that the information sought covers the objectives of the investigations. A total of 23 villages were sampled not only for documentimg the ethnoboatanical information but also for collection of plant species and record their distribution and abundance. In addition to these villages, 10 localities located across 261 sq. km. were also surveyed. For each species used by the Bhotia community, ethnobotanical information, magnitude of trade, the distribution range of the species 317
within the area, the abundance of the species, the characteristic features of the habitat were recorded. Specimens were also collected for all the species investigated. For each species documented the following information were provided: latest botanical name, family to which it belongs, local name, taxonomic description, phenology particularly flowering and fruiting timings, ecology and distribution, known methods of propagation, a brief account of known phytochemical investigations, traditional uses, conservation status, trade practices and notes. A total of 80 species used by the Bhotia community was documented. These species belong to 40 families. Most of these species are perennial herbs with underground perenating rhizomatus/bulbous/tuberous/cormatus rootstocks. The product of commerce in most of the species is rootstock. Use of 80 species belonging to 40 families suggests that high taxonomic diversity form the basis of livelihoods of Bhotia community. Most of the species documented prefer highly specialized ecological niche. For example, Bergenia ciliata prefers exposed wet rocks and cliffs, Coleus forskohlii prefers exposed dry rocky outcrops, Silene kumaonensis prefers rock crevices, Podophyllum hexandrum and Arnebia benthamii prefer ground under rocks, Saussurea gossypiphora prefers gravels and boulders, and Hippophae salicifolia prefers open and moist ravines. Similaly, Paris polyphylla prefers shade Potentilla sundaica prefers open meadows. This indicates that ecological diversity is essential for sustenance of high taxonomic diversity. Flowering and fruiting timings of the species belonging to different families are similar suggesting that there is convergence with respect to reproductive biology. For example species belonging to Ranunculaceae family flower and fruit during AugustSeptember, most of the species belonging to Compositaea family flower and fruit during July-September and species belonging to Liliaceae family flower and fruit during JuneAugust. This is perhaps due to adaptation to short growing season as the mountain ranges remain covered under snow from October-November to March-April. Phytochemical data of different species suggest enormous diversity in natural products. The range of compounds isolated from the plant species documented is very high. Phytochemical diversity is perhaps associated with the taxonomic diversity. The distribution patterns of some of the compounds, particularly alkaloids and terpenoids, can be used as taxonomic markers. These taxonomic markers can be of enormous utility in
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standardization of drugs, in detection of adulteration of drugs particularly in trafficking and in formulating quarantine measures. Of the different species documented, 54 species were used for general disorders, liver diseases, jaundice, cancer, debility, ulcers, wounds and other ailments (Table 7). Nine species namely Cordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Dioscorea deltoidea, Geranium wallichianum, Picrorhiza kurroa, Polygonatum verticillatum, Polygonum amplexicaule, Thalictrum foliolosum and Roscoea alpine were used as tonic and for potency. Three species namely Aconitum heterophyllum, Paris polyphylla and Parnassia nubicola were used as antidote for poisons. These observations suggest that species documented have wide range of application ranging from stimulating body immune system to function as antibiotics and to prevent tumerogenic/cancerous growth. Besides, six species namely Arnebia benthamii, Fraxinus micrantha, Juglans regia, Rheum emodi, Rubia cordifolia and Rumex nepalensis were used for dyeing clothes. These results suggest that some species may have a great potential for developing remedies for a wide range of health disorders and products of economic importance. Table 7. Traditional medicinal uses of the species documented Name of the Spcies
Medicinal Uses in the Study Area
1. Aconitum heterophyllum 2. Ainsliaea aptera 3. Angelica glauca 4. Artemisia nilagirica 5. Berberis chitria 6. Bergenia ciliata 7. Cirsium wallichii 8. Coleus forskohlii 9. Cordyceps sinensis 10. Corydalis govaniana 11. Dactylorhiza hatagirea 12. Duchesnea indica 13. Fagopyrum tataricum 14. Fraxinus micrantha 15. Geranium wallichianum 16. Gerardiana heterophylla 17. Hippophae salicifolia 18. Hyoscyamus niger 19. Impatiens species 20. Iris kumaonensis
Food poisoning De-worming Acidity and gastric ailments Skin eruptions, eczema, as antiseptic Eye infections Kidney and gall bladder stones Suppuration and as cooling agent Ulcers, cancers Stomach ailments High fever, malaria Cuts, wounds, fractures Skin eruptions, cough, throat problems Swelling in cheek below ears Liver diseases, internal injuries Sore throat Convulsions and high fevers Stomach ache, cough, cold Tooth ache Relief from hangovers Laxative 319
21. Lilium oxypetalum 22. Malva sylvestris 23. Mazus surculosus 24. Paris polyphylla 25. Parnassia nubicola 26. Picrorhiza kurroa 27.Pinus wallichiana 28. Podophyllum hexandrum 29. Polygonum amplexicaule 30. Polygonum rumicifolium 31. Polygonum viviparum 32. Potentilla sundaica 33. Prinsepia utilis 34. Pyrus pyrifolia 35. Rheum emodi 36. Rubia cordifolia 37. Rubus foliolosus 38. Rubus nutans 39. Rumex nepalensis 40. Saussurea gossypiphora 41. Saussurea lappa 42. Senecio chrysanthemoides 43. Silene kumaonensis 44. Solanum nigrum 45. Swertia ciliata 46. Taraxacum officinale 47. Taxus baccata 48. Thalictrum foliolosum 49. Thamnolia vermicularis 50. Urtica dioica 51. Urtica parviflora 52. Valeriana wallichii 53. Viola serpens 54. Zanthoxylum armatum
Swelling in limbs Severe headache, convulsions and as cooling agent Inflammations of urinary tracts Boils and insect bites Cuts, wounds and as antiseptic Sickness after childbirth, blood purifier Swelling in limbs, antiseptic, boils, insect bites Fever, stomach ailments Constipation Convulsions, high fever, malaria Mouth ulcers, throat problems Throat problems Rheumatism, body and joint pains General and amoebic dysentery Fractures and wounds Skin eruptions Liver diseases, jaundice Inflammations of urinary tracts Skin irritations Stomach ailments Sickness to women after childbirth Gastric, indigestion, stomach ailments Dendruffs Stomach ache, convulsions, headache Fever, malaria Jaundice, liver ailments For warmth in extreme winter High fever, inflammations, constipation Galactagogue Haemorrhages and to excite activity in paralysed limbs Boils and suppuration De-worming Fever, jaundice Cough, cold, sore throat
Based upon the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the conservation status of species documented was assessed. Out of a total of 80 species nearly 50% species are threatened making the region as one of hottest hot spots. Of these, 3 species are critically endangered, 2 species are endangered, 15 species are vulnerable and 18 are near threatened. The causal factors for high percent of threatened species are over-harvesting from wild, destructive methods of
320
harvesting, changes in landuse patterns, anthropogenically mediated landslides, glacial movement and grazing. There is reduction in the area occupied by the species populations as well as number of populations for most of the threatened species. For example, Aconitum heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, Rheum emodi, Arnebia benthamii, Picrorhiza kurroa, Podophyllum hexandrum, etc. were widely distributed in the entire range at one time, but all of them are restricted to specific niches in inaccessible areas. Besides, the medicinal uses of plants, many species were used as food and other utilities. For example, Arisaema jacquemontii was used as food, Rheum emodi root was used as a dye, Artemisia nilagirica and Juniperus cummunis were used in religious rituals and Thymus serpyllum was used in fermentation of grains and fruits for making beverages. Of the total of 80 species investigated for ethnobotanical information, new information was documented for Cirsium wallichii, Coleus forskohlii, Fraxinus micrantha, Jurinea macrocephala, Lilium oxypetalum, Mazus surculosus, Parnassia nubicola, Polygonum rumicifolium, Prinsepia utilis, Silene kumaonensis, Thamnolia vermicularis and Thymus serpyllum for the first time. For example, use of Fraxinus micrantha as a source of medicine and dye, use of Potentilla sundaica in combination with Coleus forskohlii in local medicine, use of Thymus serpyllum in making beverages and use of Silene kumaonensis roots as detergent and shampoo have been documented for the first time. Based upon the documentation of the ethnobotanical information, 13 species have been identified as potential sources for new and novel products of high commercial value. In other words, these species may be new sources for exploitation through biotechnological tools and may provide some benefits to the local communities. Chemical compounds isolated from 69 species documented belong to diverse groups of natural products, such as: flavonoids, coumarins, lactones, iridine, cartenoids, irigenins, quinines, alzarins, iridoids, lignans, tannins, esters, ethers, alkanes, resinoids, xanthones,
catechins,
polysaccharides, stigmasterols,
glucans,
cyclopeptides, flavones,
polyphenols, sesquiterpenes,
spiroindans,
alkanes,
saponins,
triterpenes,
diterpenes,
nucleosides,
sterols,
labdanes,
sitosterols,
monoterpenes,
monoglucosides, steroid glycosides, amides, peptides, biflavones, cholesterols, anthocyanins, phenylpropanes, terpenoids, essential oils, etc. 12 species namely Ainsliaea aptera, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Fraxinus micrantha, Geranium wallichianum, Jurinea 321
macrocephala, Lilium oxypetalum, Mazus surculosus, Parnassia nubicola, Polygonum rumicifolium, Pyrus pyrifolia, Roscoea alpine and Silene kumaonensis used by the Bhotias need detailed phytochemically investigation. These observations also indicate high biotechnological potential of plant resources of Dharchula region. Economic evaluation of entire Dharchula region was carried out by taking into account the area surveyed and the population sizes of the villages sampled, the quantity of material of plant species traded, the value of the traded material, the value of the medicinal plants used in local medicine/health care, potential value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or drugs synthesized based on plant product and potential value of medicinal plants lost due to extinction. The total area covered for economic evaluation was 261 sq. km. and population size was 14,664 comprising both Bhotias and non-Bhotias. The total market value of 7 major species traded in 2003 was Rs 315.6 – 440.5 lakhs. Savings due to use of medicinal plants for health care by local communities was estimated as Rs. 50-100 per person per year and, therefore, the value medicinal plants used in local health care was Rs. 7.33 – 14.66 lakhs annually.The potential value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or drugs synthesized based on plant product was Rs. 17,550 lakhs and potential value of species lost due to extinction was Rs. 17.55 lakhs. The economic value of traditionally used medicinal plants in Dharchula ranges was found to be Rs. 68,000 per ha per year in the year 2003. To provide appropriate Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) regime to the traditional knowledge possessed by Bhotia community and the associated plant resources, the existing IPR laws were evaluated keeping in view the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It has been realized that increasing globalization has been a threat to the appropriation of elements of collective knowledge of communities into proprietary knowledge for the commercial profit of a few. There are numerous instances where multinational corporations amassed wealth through biopiracy. Patenting of products developed from following leads from traditional knowledge and bio-prospecting are not only exploitative but also violate the spiritual values of many traditional people. Large numbers of investigators have attempted to evolve effective IPR regimes for traditional knowledge. For example, Correa (2001) used considerations of: (i) ethical and moral, sustainable development and conservation aspects, (ii) preservation of traditional 322
lifestyle, (iii) prevention of unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge by unscrupulous parties, and (iv) promotion of use of traditional knowledge for evolving effective IPR regimes. CBD also mentioned the following protective measures: (i) protection and promotion of rights of the communities in terms of their biological resources and traditional knowledge, and (ii) equitable sharing of benefits arising from the commercial use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge. Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement has also provided some provisions for protecting the traditional knowledge from exploitation by unscrupulous parties. All these IPRs have limitations when applied to the traditional knowledge holders. For example, (i) individual inventors cannot be identified as traditional knowledge is collective in nature, (ii) it is not always possible to identify geographical area from which the knowledge has emanated, and (iii) it is neither possible to attribute knowledge to anyone nor there are any documentation. The effective IPR for the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotias and its associated plant resources should include elements such as: (i) traditional knowledge to be patented in the name of the community or persons singly or jointly with provisions for adequate compensation, (ii) collective rights of the community to freely use the plant resources to be recognized and institutionalised, (iii) documentation of traditional knowledge and practices and their registration, (iv) use of knowledge possessed by the communities to be used for research and commerce only with the prior permission of the community, and (v) to suitably amend the existing IPR laws to accommodate the interests and requirements of the community (Anonymous, 2002). To evolve sustainable management strategies that ensure livelihoods of local Bhotia community and at the same time conserve the plant resources which form the basis of their livelihoods, a number of motivators and demotivators were identified for different stakeholders. The stakeholders were local inhabitants, Forest Department, local communities / Van Panchayat etc., markets and forests / environment. Depending upon the nature of the motivators and demotivators a number of strategies have been formulated. For example, when stakeholders are local inhabitants, the motivators are free and easy access to resources, continuous demand, optimum level of resource base, easy access to markets, and availability of institutional support. On the other hand demotivators are excessive control, restrictive regulatory mechanism, depleted resource 323
base and absence of markets. And the strategy suggested includes facilitatory role of government, respect for customary and traditional rights of the local inhabitants. Multiplicity of authorities and too many acts and regulations often result in loss of resources rather than to conserve them. Further, none of the Acts in India takes into account the delicate and harmonious quasi symbiotic relationship between local communities and nature. Limited biotic interference promotes sustainability and prevention of such interference lead to loss of resources and even threatens ecosystems. This quasi-symbiotic relationship is gradually diminishing because of abandonment of traditional lifestyle by the local inhabitants in Dharchula region. For example, due to increased migration from the traditional villages to the plains coupled with reduced level of biotic interference, many rare plant species have made remarkable comeback in the abandoned cultivation fields and grazing grounds in some of the valleys of Dharchula range. At the same time limited and greatly reduced level of biotic interference has put a check on spread of invasive species. A number of action plans were outlined for the sustainable management of plant resources in Dharchula region, some of them include: (i) plant collection rights to be leased out to the community in perpetuity with a provision to renew them every 2-3 years depending upon status of the resource in wild, (ii) local communities to be given control over the plant resources so that they get sense of ownership and, therefore, responsibility towards them, (iii) control and regulatory regime to be put in place in consultation with and with active participation of the community, (iv) government to act as facilitatory agency in bringing the communities and pharmaceutical and other companies together and assist in signing Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between them to remove uncertainties in the market for the products, and (v) necessary arrangements to be made available to train local inhabitants in sustainable non-destructive harvesting methods and in identifying markets for new species that are used traditionally. Conclusions Based on the observations and investigations provided in the thesis, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. The ethnobotanical studies of Dharchula range revealed that over 80 species belonging to 40 families form the basis of livelihoods of Bhotia community. This 324
indicates high taxonomic diversity is essential for sustaining the livelihood of community and the loss in the taxonomic diversity may endanger the unique plant culture of the region.
2. Many of the species documented are confined to highly specialised ecological niches. Ecological diversity of the region is very high, which is essential for maintaining high taxonomic diversity. Any disturbance in ecology may endanger many species which in turn endanger the livelihoods of the community. In other words, ecosystems of these ranges are ecologically fragile.
3. There is a convergence in traits associated with plant species belonging to taxonomically divergent families due to adaptation to short-growing season in alpine and sub-alpine ranges. 4. Phytochemical diversity amongst the plants species used by the Bhotia community is extremely high and this diversity is perhaps associated with the taxonomic diversity. The chemical constituents isolated from plant species documented belong to large number of varied groups of natural products. Consequently, some of the compounds can be used as taxonomic markers which may be useful in standardization of drugs, in detection and prevention of adulteration and traffic in plant species. 5. Information documented on the therapeutic value of plant species suggests that remedial functions of the plant species are also diverse. This provides a broad base for the development of wide range of pharmaceuticals through biotechnological tools. 6. Out of the total 80 species, 38 species fall under threatened category. This indicates that Dharchula range is one of the hottest hot spots. Unless immediate steps are taken to secure these threatened species, there may be genetic wipe out caused by anthropogenically mediated activities like excess and destructive harvesting coupled with management strategies conceived without the knowledge of biology of the species and without understanding plant culture.
325
7. The new information has been documented for 16% of the species. This implies that the economic potential of the plant resources of the region is very high and the probability of discovering a new drug or product of industrial values through biotechnological approach is extremely high. Therefore, rich plant diversity of Dharchula range not only forms the basis of livelihood of Bhotia community but it is also a treasure that can provide new remedies for diseases for which no drug is available. In other words, the region has high biotechnological potential. 8. The value of medicinal plants in Dharchula ranges in terms of direct benefits is of the tune of Rs 68,500 – 69,600 per ha per year. And the value in terms of their ecosystem services and ecological goods, particularly with respect to prevention of soil erosion and landslides, moisture retention and nutrient cycling may be of the tune of several hundreds of crores. In other words, the economic potential of the region is very high and require sustainable management strategies for not only the practical realization of the economic potential of the resources but also their conservation. 9. There are inherent limitations in the existing IPR regimes when applied to the traditional knowledge. Any IPR regime aimed at protecting traditional knowledge possessed by the communities must incorporate customary laws and collective rights of the communities and must have provisions for patenting of knowledge in the name of communities with adequate compensation provisions. 10. The sustainable strategies for utilization and management of plant resources and associated traditional knowledge in fragile ecosystem like Dharchula alpine and subalpine ecosystems must take into account appropriate motivators and demotivators for all the stakeholders. Therefore, a single strategy does not ensure sustainable management of resources. This is because of unique interdependence or strong interactions amongst the stakeholders and different type of motivators and demotivators. Consequently, action plans suggested involve active, not passive, participation of the communities in decision making, formulation of plans and in their implementation and also in formulation of guidelines and control regimes besides giving the communities control over resources. 326
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