Thesis culinary arts

0 DEVELOPMENT AND ACCEPTABILITY OF A HEALTHY GOURMET MEAL USING WILD GREENS

A Thesis Manuscript submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Hospitality Management Philippine Women’s University Taft Avenue, Manila

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Culinary Arts

REDEN COSTA April 2013

1 Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction Gourmet is a cultural ideal associated with the culinary arts of fine food and drink, or haute cuisine, which is characterized by refined, even elaborate preparations and presentations of aesthetically balanced meals of several contrasting, often quite rich courses. The term and its associated practices are usually used positively to describe people of refined taste and passion (McGrath, 2007). Gourmet may describe a class of restaurant, cuisine, meal or ingredient of high quality, of special presentation, or high sophistication (Kamp, 2006). Gourmet cooking is essentially an art. One considers balances between textures and colors, the lasting, memorable effect it has on the diner, and there is an element of striving for perfection that only comes with practice. One uses decorative

garnishes

that

basic

cooking

doesn't

bother

with,

and

variety/uniqueness is the key. Cooking time is much more critical as it affects color, texture, and taste. The ingredients are meant to impress so often they are more rare and/or expensive (Irving, 2009). The world food scene today is focused on local sustainable ingredients. Food grown, cooked and eaten within a reasonable distance of where it’s consumed always tastes better. Many wild edible plants are nutritionally rich and can supplement nutritional requirements, especially vitamins and micronutrients (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2008).

2 Wild greens are traditionally important items of diet in many Filipino homes. Apart from the variety which they add to the menu, they are valuable sources of nutrients especially in rural areas where they contribute substantially to protein, mineral, vitamins, fiber and other nutrients which are usually in short supply in daily diets. Besides, they add flavor, variety, taste, color and aesthetic appeal to what would otherwise be a monotonous diet. They are in abundance in the Philippines (Lugod and de Padua, 1989). Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) continues to constitute a major health problem in developing countries like the Philippines (Faber, Venter and Benade, 2001), with a total of 250 million children suffering from VAD and over 3 million manifesting clinical signs. This is a serious public health problem in the lowincome populations such as the Philippines (Haskell et al., 2004). According to Faber et al. (2001), the essential role of vitamin A in vision and eye health has been recognized as a critical factor in health and survival of individuals. The Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intake (RENI) of vitamin A is 400 micrograms per day for 7-9 year old Filipino children (FNRI-DOST, 2002). Males aged 19 to more than 65 years old have Vitamin A RENI of 550 micrograms per day, while females in the same age group have 500 micrograms (FNRI-DOST, 2002). For pregnant women, the recommended vitamin A intake is 800 micrograms, while for lactating women the recommended vitamin A intake is 900 micrograms. Although an abundance of plant sources rich in

β -carotene is available

to most households, people in developing countries still suffer from VAD. This

3 may be caused by lack of knowledge, lack of care and the apparently lower vitamin A activity of the pro-vitamin ( β -carotene-rich) foods (Louw, 2001). As such, this study emphasized the significance of edible wild greens in supplementing vitamin A deficiency among target consumers of gourmet meal. This research was conducted to develop a healthy gourmet meal comprising of main course, soup, salad and dessert prepared with local wild greens. It is the aim of this study to determine the effect of using alugbati, pako and pansitpansitan on the sensory characteristics, theoretical nutrient content and overall acceptability of the developed gourmet meal.

Background of the Study Consumers now demand higher quality in all aspects of life. Gourmet dishes are developed to produce food with superior sensory qualities and sophistication compared to other cuisines (Novelli, 2004). For centuries, the greens have helped Filipinos endure through lean times, and they still do today, but they are also a beloved food and a delicacy. Many Filipinos keep a knife and a few plastic bags for the spontaneous gathering of wild greens, be it from a river banks, or along a busy roadside. Wild greens form the cheapest source of nutrients. Wild greens also rank among the world's most nutritionally potent superfoods (Afolayan and Jimoh, 2009; De Caluwé, 2010). Alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan are popular wild greens of the Philippines with healing and therapeutic properties which help in combating several diseases and provide valuable source of nutrients. These wild

4 greens have incredible energizing and healing powers and they are generally free. Most Filipinos know these plants already and they are very easy to recognize and find (Lugod and de Padua, 1989). According to modern nutritional studies, the consumption of wild greens brings numerous health benefits (Block, 1991). Wild greens are a source of vitamins, folic acid, antioxidants, carotenoids and many other valuable chemicals (Hasler, 2002; Pieroni et al., 2002; Tapsell et al., 2006). Wild greens may be a particularly rich source of these compounds and are more likely to be free of agricultural pollutants. After being dismissed for many years, wild plants are now being used in some of the best restaurants in the world and people travel long distances to taste them. Wild plants are now celebrated, raised up to become stars of the new cuisine (Irving, 2009). However, the culinary uses of wild edible greens that grow in the Philippines such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan are still unknown in terms of their nutritional content, taste and aroma. Though many of the local wild greens are still unexplored in their culinary potential, modern chefs around the world mainly use wild plants for their diverse and interesting aromas. Incorporating wild greens in various cuisines would result in sustainability and acceptability for providing nutritional security. The researcher believes that this study would encourage chefs to use and learn more about local wild edible greens that would help bring people into a greater awareness of the wild ingredients available in the Philippines. This would help foragers to communicate with chefs and chefs to exchange knowledge with

5 each other, as well as showing people that it is possible to use wild greens as vegetables, herbs, and spices in the development of dishes. Raising people’s awareness about the edibility and palatability of wild greens found in the environment will allow them to see it through different eyes: one’s knowledge makes the natural world meaningful, and this meaningfulness compels one to protect and preserve the larger system of which everybody is a part. The researcher likewise believes that the problem of having not enough food on the table could be addressed. Food producers could be encouraged to include cultivation of wild greens in extensive scale. Furthermore, households and individuals will reflect on their food preparation and consumption practices and habits to eat healthy, thereby improving their overall quality of life. As such, this study utilized local wild greens, namely: alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan in the development of a gourmet meal.

Statement of the Problem This study will be conducted to develop gourmet dishes using local wild greens. Specifically, this answered the following research problems: 1.

What are the sensory characteristics of the developed gourmet meal using different formulations of wild green in terms of the following: a. general appearance, b. color, c. aroma, d. texture, and e. taste?

6 2.

Is there a significant difference in the sensory characteristics of the developed gourmet meal prepared using three local wild greens such

3.

as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan? Is there a significant difference in the ratings of the two groups of panelist such as: a) trained panelists (culinary instructors), and b) experts (chefs) with regard to sensory characteristics and overall acceptability of the developed gourmet meal prepared with three local

4.

wild greens such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan? Are the nutritional contents of the most acceptable gourmet meal meet the recommended vitamin A based on Recommended Energy and

5.

Nutrient Intake (RENI) for Filipino adults? What is the direct material cost in the production of gourmet meal?

Hypotheses To answer the objectives of this study, the hypotheses that were tested are: H1. There is no significant difference in the sensory characteristics of the developed gourmet meal prepared with three local wild greens such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan. H2. There is no significant difference in the overall acceptability of the developed gourmet meal prepared with three local wild greens such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan. H3. There is no significant difference in the ratings of the two groups of panelist such as: a) trained panelists (culinary instructors), and b) experts (chefs) with regard to sensory characteristics and overall acceptability of the developed

7 gourmet meal prepared with three local wild greens such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan.

Scope and Limitations of the Study The study focused on the development of a complete gourmet meal comprising of a main course (chicken scallopini), clear soup, salad (green salad) and desert (buco smoothies) which will be prepared using different formulations of local wild greens. The wild greens that were utilized were alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan. The gourmet dishes that were tested with local wild greens include chicken scallopine, clear soup, green salad and buco smoothies. Two groups of panelists were invited to participate in this experimental study, namely: 15 culinary instructors from Cavite State University, Indang, Cavite and 15 chefs in Cavite. These two groups of panelist evaluated the sample gourmet dishes for general appearance, color, aroma, texture, taste and overall acceptability. The 9- point hedonic scale was used to evaluate the sensory properties and overall acceptability of the developed gourmet dishes using wild greens. Significance of the Study The abundance of nutritious local wild greens in the Philippines prompted the researcher to find alternative ways of developing gourmet meal using local and abundant ingredients such as alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan. It is hoped that this study would benefit the following:

8 Hotel and restaurant management faculty and students. The results of this study would expand the knowledge of faculty members and HRM students in the development of recipes utilizing local wild greens. Gourmet chefs. It is hoped that the results of the experiment will assist chefs in finding the culinary potential of local wild greens and use them in the kitchen. Consumers. It is hoped that this study would be appreciated by consumers particularly health food lovers on benefits to the immune system these wild greens provide. Local community. The use of local wild greens in the production of gourmet dishes would hopefully help sustain the local economy and upholds the way of life of local farmers. Future researchers. Finally, this study may also serve as valuable reference to students and other researchers conducting related study.

Definition of Terms For the purposes of clarity to establish a common frame of reference for the study, the following terms are defined operationally as they were used in this study:

9 Aroma refers to total (positive) olfactory impression gained from breathing through the nose and from expiratory olfaction of the food. Blind test refer to food samples which are presented without any distinguishing features relating to treatment used. Coding refers to the procedure wherein food samples are given a code and tested with their identity unknown to the subjects in order to eliminate the influences of the type of treatment used and product marking. The code can take the form of a 3-digit random number or a letter. Gourmet meal refers to an elegant meal meticulously prepared with great taste intended for the family. Food expert refers to formally qualified assessor who possesses specialist technical knowledge and experience and who is responsible for testing particular products/product groups. In this study, this referred to qualified gourmet chefs who will evaluate the sensory and overall acceptability of gourmet dishes produced with wild greens. Hedonic test refers to an affective test to evaluate the popularity of an aroma, appearance, taste/flavor, texture or off-flavor impression. Overall acceptability refers to overall sensory assessment based on a combination of all characteristic attributes contributing to sensory quality which influence the acceptability or rejection of food products. Panel refers to group of assessors selected to take part in a sensory test. Sensory evaluation is a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions to those characteristics of foods and materials as

10 they are perceived by the senses. It is a subjective product examination using the human senses. This will be performed by the participants to detect, identify, and evaluate characteristics of the gourmet dishes using wild greens utilizing all of the sensory pathways (olfactory, visual, gustatory, auditory, and tactile). Taste refers to the taste qualities, sweet, sour, salty and bitter. In principal this means all gustatory, olfactory and haptic impressions that occur as a result of taking food into the mouth Taste/flavor refers to the sum of olfactory, gustatory, thermal and haptic impressions. It includes the intensity to which the food taste and smell. Wild greens are leafy greens collected from the wild and used as a substitute for other vegetables eaten raw, boiled, cooked in casseroles, and as herbs. For this study, wild greens will refer to alugbati, pako and pansit-pansitan.

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

A view of the work done by several scholars helps in planning future research in the use of wild greens to various cuisines. Hence, the literature related to local wild greens and studies on the use of wild greens in different

11 dishes are reviewed to substantiate the kind of study undertaken. Keeping in view the objectives set forth in this study, the relevant references available are critically reviewed in this chapter.

Alugbati Alugbati (Basella rubra Linn., B. alba Linn.)

also known as ‘arogbati’;

‘dundula’; ‘grana’; ‘ilaibakir’; ‘libato’; Ceylon spinach, Malabar spinach, Indian spinach, Climbing spinach (Eng.); and ‘Lok’uei’ or ‘luo kui shu’ (Chinese) is one of the most popular indigenous leafy vegetables in the Philippines. Originally from India, it is usually found in settled areas, in hedges, old cultivated areas throughout the Philippines. It is extensively grown in market gardens and home gardens and is being sold even in supermarkets in Visayas and Mindanao. It is also cultivated in tropical Asia, Africa and the Malaya (DTI, PCCARD and DOST, 2009). Its leaves are somewhat fleshy, ovate or heart-shaped. The fruit is fleshy and stalkless, which turn purple when mature. The young stems, shoots, and leaves are usually blanched. The edible species Basella rubra has red flowers and bright purple-red stem while Basella alba, which is more popular, has green leaves and stems (DTI, PCCARD and DOST, 2009). Alugbati production in 2006 was 32,303 tons from 2,482 hectares. It is grown almost anywhere, but major producers were Iloilo, Zamboanga del Norte and Negros Oriental (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2006).

Varieties

12 There are three common types of alugbati: Basella alba with green stern and oval to almost round leaves; Basella rubra with red stems and green, oval to round leaves; and a third type, which is a hybrid of the two. The Institute of Plant Breeding of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (IPB-UPLB) has released two stopgap varieties in 1981 through its Germplasm Registration and Release Office: the red-stemmed ‘Pulahan’ and the green-stemmed ‘Luntian’.

Uses and Nutritional Value Alugbati has a pleasant, mild spinach flavor that some may find earthy. It is slimy when overcooked, which makes it an excellent thickening agent in soups and stews. The purplish dye from the ripe fruit is used is used as food color and as rouge for the face. The cooked roots are used to treat diarrhea, while cooked leaves and stems are used as laxative. The flowers are used as antidote for poison. A paste of the root is used as a rubefacient or applied to swellings. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to treat boils.

Per 100 grams edible portion, alugbati leaves contain the following: Properties Water (g) Energy (kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g) Crude Fiber (g) Ash (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorous (mg)

Amount 92.5 23.0 2.0 0.3 3.0 0.9 2.2 128.0 40.0

13 Iron (mg) Beta-carotene (µg) Vitamin A (RE-µg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg)

4.9 2735.0 456.0 0.04 0.12 0.50 89.0

Source: The Philippine Food Composition Tables (1997). Food and Nutrition Research Institute- Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST)

Pansit-pansitan The pansit-pansitan (Peperomia Pellucida) is an herb also known as ‘ulasiman-bato’, ‘olasiman-ihalas’ and ‘tangon-tangon’ in the Philippines. It belongs to the family Piperaceae, comprising of about 5 genera and 1,400 species. The genus Peperomia represents nearly half of the Piperaceae. Peperomia pellucida herb can be commonly found in many South American countries, and in Asia. The plant grows 15 to 45 cm, its shiny light-green leaves are succulent, well-spaced, and heart shaped. This herb thrives in loose, humid soils under the shade of trees, especially during rainy seasons, (dos Santos et al., 2001). Uses and Nutritional Value Peperomia pellucida has been used for treating multitude of disease like abdominal pain, gout, headache, renal disorders, acne, and abscess. It has been used in salads or as cooked vegetable to help in the treatment of rheumatic joint pain (Khan and Omoloso, 2002).

14 There are numerous chemical investigations, primarily focusing on the essential oils of the plant, one study identified 71 compounds from the essential oils of piperaceae species with Sesquiterpenes was found to be the major constituent. Cartotol was the major hydroxylated sesquiterpene in the chemical analysis of P. pellucida. Flavonoids, phytosterols, arylpropanoids, substituted styrenes, and a dimeric ArC2 compound or pellucidin A has been isolated. These compounds have a documented anti-inflammatory, chemotherapeutic, and analgesic properties found in P. pellucida in crude form (dos Santos et al., 2001). Peperomia pellucida is one of the 10 recommended herbal medicines promoted by the Department of Health (DoH). This herb particularly used to treat gout and arthritic conditions, this is also being advocated by the Philippine medicinal plant website, (DoH). The leaves and stalk of pansit-pansitan are edible. It can be harvested, washed and eaten as fresh salad. Taken as a salad, pansit-pansitan helps relive rheumatic pains and gout. An infusion or decoction (boil 1 cup of leaves/stem in 2 cups of water) can also be made and taken orally - 1 cup in the morning and another cup in the evening. It can be used as facial rinse for complexion problems. It is also good for kidney problems as it cleanses the kidneys (dos Santos et al., 2001). Per 100 grams of edible portion of pansit-pansitan or ulasimang bato, it contains the following:

Properties Water (g)

Amount 97.2

15 Energy (kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g) Crude fiber (g) Ash (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorous (mg) Iron (mg) Beta-carotene (µg) Vitamin A (RE-µg) Thiamin (mg) Niacin (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg)

11.00 0.5 0.5 1.1 0.7 0.7 94.0 13.0 4.3 1250.0 208.0 0.01 0.1 2.0

Source: The Philippine Food Composition Tables (1997). Food and Nutrition Research Institute- Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST) Pako Pako is part of the Athyrium genus and its scientific name is Athyrium esculentum. It is known as linguda in northern India, referring to the curled fronds. It is an edible fern found throughout Asia and Oceania. It is probably the most commonly consumed fern (Kagyung et al., 2010) It is a terrestrial fern with a creeping rhizome and stout black roots on the undersurface. The rootstocks are stout, the caudex erect, woody thickened, bearing many blank, wiry roots, and the tip clothed with brown linear scales. The stipes are green and somewhat smooth, 20 to 50 cm long. The fronds are 2- or 3- pinnate, 50 to 80 cm long, about half as wide as long. The pinnules are lanceolate, 2 to 3 cm long and rather coarsely toothed. The sori are superficial, arranged in pairs on the side of the veins, or veinlets (DENR, 2003).

16 Pako is a characteristic plant on gravel bars and banks of swift streams. It is widely distributed in the Philippines. It is propagated vegetatively and by spores (DENR, 2003). Variety Pako and its variations is a local name shared by many medicinal plants: (1) Pako - Athyrium esculentum; (2) Pakong-alagdan - Blechnum orientale; (3) Pakong-anuanag, pako, buhok-virgin, dila-dila - Onychium siliculosum; (4) Pakong-gubat, pakong kalabao, Pityrogramma calomelanos; (5) Pakong-parang

-

Pteris

ensiformis;

(6)

Pakong-roman

-

Ceratopteris

thalictroides; (7) Pakong-tulog, pakong-cipres, Selaginella tamariscina; (8) Pakong buwaya - Cyathea contaminans (DENR, 2003). Uses and Nutritional Value The young fronds of this fern are much desired and are eaten in all parts of the country, either raw or cooked. They are used as a leafy vegetable, or as an ingredient in salads or stews and they are even pickled. Pako is a fair source of calcium, a very excellent source of phosphorous and a good source of iron and vitamin B (DENR, 2003). Decoction of the rhizomes and young leaves, simple or sugared, used for hemoptysis and coughs. In India, boiled young fronds taken with boiled rice as vegetables for laxative effect. In gardening, wiry roots sold as "osmunda roots" for growing orchids, esp. Cattleyas. Mature fronds used as fodder in livestock. Per 100 grams edible portion, pako leaves contain the following:

17

Properties Water (g) Energy (kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g) Crude Fiber (g) Ash (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorous (mg) Iron (mg) Beta-carotene (µg) Vitamin A (RE-µg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg)

Amount 89.9 44.0 3.8 1.7 3.3 1.3 1.3 36.0 76.0 3.0 3100.0 517.0 0.1 1.9 10.0

Source: The Philippine Food Composition Tables (1997). Food and Nutrition Research Institute- Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST)

Vitamin A as an Essential Nutrient for Human Health Promoting dietary change to improve vitamin A intake has been recommended as a feasible long-term strategy in combating vitamin A deficiency (VAD) among humans (WHO, 1994). Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and an essential micronutrient for humans, because the body cannot produce it (Tompson et al., 2005). According to Hands (2000), vitamin A comprises a large family of fat-soluble compounds, including retinoids (animal foods) and carotenoids (plant foods). There are three active forms of vitamin A in the body, namely retinol, retinal and retinoic acid.

18 These are collectively known as retinoids (Tompson et al., 2005; Ensminger et al., 1999). Vitamin A is essential for the health and well-being of an individual and performs many essential functions in the human body. It helps to keep all the cells on the inner and outer surface of the body healthy so that it is difficult for microorganisms to enter the body. Vitamin A also plays a major overall role in the body’s immune system. The eyes need vitamin A in order to function properly, to maintain their health, and to see in dim light. Thus, vitamin A plays an importan role in maintaining good eyesight (Tompson et al., 2005; Ensminger et al., 1999; Hands, 2000; Reddy, 1999). Vitamin A can be obtained from foods naturally rich in vitamin A, pro-vitamin A, vitamin A supplements and foods fortified with vitamin A (WHO, 1994; Faber et al., 2001). Vitamin A is needed by the human body for many physiologically important functions, the most obvious deficiency symptom being blindness, preceded by night blindness (XN) and Bitot's spots (X1B). These and other ocular manifestations are termed xerophthalmia or "dry eye". Xerophthalmia affects 2.8 to 3 million children under five years of age. Vitamin A is also of great importance for growth and development of bone tissue, normal function of skin and mucous membranes, normal reproductive health and in the immune defense (Ross, 1992). The non-ocular manifestations are largely hidden from view and do not provide a ready basis for specific clinical diagnosis. However, subclinical deficiency affects an estimated 251 million children under five years of age. The results of a meta-analysis of studies performed on vitamin A supplementation and

19 young child mortality concluded that improving a low to marginal vitamin A status will reduce the risk of death due to infectious diseases by 23% (Beaton et al., 1993).

Gourmet Gourmet food is a style of cooking that is found in any type of food, whether it is Italian, French, Modern American, Asian, or any other cuisine. Gourmet food, by definition, is a high-quality food that is more sophisticated and takes greater preparation. But it is also a state of mind. There is no one ingredient that one can add to turn a simple dish into a gourmet one. There is certainly no one way to cook a standard meal so that it becomes gourmet. There are many methods, many styles, and many recipes that one can use to make a simple food into a gourmet food (Kendrick, 2012). Brinlee (u.d.) stated that many people associate gourmet food with great taste. However, taste is not everything there are other factors that make a food gourmet. One of the things that make a food a gourmet food is meticulous preparation. Often, a cook will have to carefully monitor a dish as it cooks in order to get it just right. Many gourmet foods are designed to be served under the right conditions so over-cooking or under-cooking can ruin a gourmet dish (Brinlee, u.d.). Quality and price of the food is also a big factor in what classifies food as gourmet. Certain foods have always been more costly than others. That is because these foods are high in quality and more expensive (Brinlee, u.d.).

20 But preparation and quality are not the only things that make a food a gourmet food. Ingredients play a big role. Generally, the cook is going to need more than a dash of salt and pepper to turn a simple dish into a gourmet dish. It all depends on what kind of cuisine one is preparing. Some of these ingredients might not be used more than once or twice a year. They can also be quite expensive. Sometimes, the ingredients might also be hard to find (Kendrick, 2012). The business of gourmet cuisine is more than just cooking a dish and slapping it down in a big mess on a plate. Many cooks and critics view gourmet food as an art. It is about creating something unique that is not seen at the dinner table every other night. It is about putting one’s soul into what he cooks. Gourmet dish at some of the finer restaurants is often presented on a plate with a bit of artistic flair. When preparing gourmet food, it is often like creating a masterpiece work of art that appeals to one’s vision as well as one’s taste (Kendrick, 2012).

Sensory Evaluation Sensory analysis uses human senses to consistently measure such food characteristics as taste, texture, smell, and appearance in a controlled environment. The information collected assists the food industry in addressing consumer demands and introducing new and improved products (Stone and Sidel, 2004). According to Stone and Sidel (2004) sensory evaluation can be divided into two categories of testing: objective and subjective. In objective testing, the

21 sensory attributes of a product are evaluated by a selected or trained panel. In subjective testing, the reactions of consumers to the sensory properties of products are measured. The power of sensory evaluation is realized when these two elements are combined to reveal insights into the way in which sensory properties drive consumer acceptance and emotional benefits. Linking sensory properties to physical, chemical, formulation and/or process variables then enables the product to be designed to deliver optimum or appropriate consumer benefits. Descriptive sensory evaluation identifies, describes and quantifies the sensory attributes of a food material or product using human subjects (Einstein, 1991). These human subjects are trained to describe the complete profile of food products in all sensory parameters such as appearance, taste, aroma, smell or odor and texture/mouthfeel characteristics. A descriptive sensory panel comprising of people trained to consistently and reliably identify and quantify individual sensory characteristics of a particular food material (Meilgaard, Civille, and Carr, 2007). Consumer sensory evaluation is a process for evaluation personal opinions of current or potential customers of a particular product in terms of specific sensory attributes or overall liking (Resurreccion, 1998). Meilgaard and colleagues (2007) emphasized that sensory testing can determine the impact of scaling up kitchen and/or pilot samples to large-scale production and is invaluable in determining whether raw ingredient changes or

22 modifications to the production process, e.g. for cost reduction or change of supplier, will impact on sensory quality and/or product acceptability. In terms of quality assurance, it can be used as part of a QA programme on raw materials. In addition, sensory testing can set consumer acceptability limits for sensory specifications used during quality testing (MacFie, 2007). For those products susceptible to taints, sensory testing can ensure substandard products are not released onto the market. For many products, the sensory properties deteriorate ahead of microbial quality and so, in tandem with microbial tests, sensory testing can be used to determine shelf life and product variability through the supply chain. From a marketing perspective, sensory and consumer testing can inform understanding concerning product preferences and acceptability. It can provide the data to support marketing claims such as ‘best ever’, ‘new creamier’, and ‘most preferred’. It can also ensure that sensory properties work in synergy with brand communication and advertising. Moskowitz et al. (2006) purport that sensory and consumer testing is widely employed in the research arena. It is used at a more fundamental level to investigate new technologies to aid product development and to understand consumer behavior. Furthermore, multidisciplinary investigations linking sensory testing with, for example instrumental analyses, brain-imaging techniques, psychophysical tests and genomics provide a wider understanding of the mechanisms involved in

23 sensory perception and the variations that exist within the population (MacFie, 2007). Successful sensory testing is driven by setting clear objectives, developing robust experimental strategy and design, applying appropriate statistical techniques, adhering to good ethical practice and successfully delivering actionable insights that are used to inform decision-making. Appropriate training is crucial to ensure that the sensory professional has the necessary technical capability and interpersonal skills (Moskowitz et al., 2006).

General Appearance Appearance is the visual quality of a food. It is one of the five dimensions used to evaluate food. Overall appearance includes all visible sensory attributes such as color, size and shape as well as surface texture (Cardello, 1994). Appearance is commonly used by consumers to infer food product quality; frequently this is the only cue available, especially at the moment of purchase (Schröder, 2003). Flavor involves sensory attributes like taste, specific flavor, aroma and sweetness. It can be defined as “the complex combination of the olfactory, gustatory, and trigeminal sensations perceived during tasting” (Shröder, 2003).

Aroma Aroma is the smell that emanates from food. Along with appearance, texture, flavor and taste, aroma is one of the five dimensions used to evaluate a

24 product. Aroma is the odor of a food, resulting from the process that involves the course of volatiles through the nasal passages located in the nose, when a person inhales them (voluntarily or otherwise) (Meilgaard et al., 1999). It is believed that aroma is more important than taste in determining the overall appreciation of food (Taylor and Linforth, 1996). Volatile compounds that are perceived by the odors receptors either directly through the nose (nasal reception) or indirectly through the pharynx during eating or drinking (retro-nasal perception) are called "aroma compounds" (Pierce and Halpern, 1996). Furthermore, it has to be emphasized that changes in stimuli occur when a food is ingested or masticated. This affects the rate of release and concentration of both tastants and odorants (Halpern, 1977).

Texture Texture is another important parameter which affects shelf life of food and consumer acceptance (Pomeranz and Meloan, 1994). When a food generates a physical sensation in the mouth (hard, soft, crisp, moist, dry), the consumer uses these sensory attributes as reference parameters for judging food quality (fresh, stale, tender, ripe). Texture is referred as the tactile feel properties, measured as geometrical, mechanical and moisture properties by the tactile nerves in the surface of the skin of the hand, lips, or tongue (Piggott, 1988). Overall liking can be defined as a complex expression of liking of the product as a whole.

Taste

25 Taste in this study is experienced exclusively by the tongue, and not in conjunction with the sense of smell. The non-volatile compounds that are perceived by the tongue are called taste compounds (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, astringent and pungent) (Frank et al., 1989). The interaction between substances that contribute to the taste of food, e.g. acids or salts is very important for the perception of aroma compounds. The appreciation of food is very much depending on the synergy between taste and aroma (Pomeranz and Meloan, 1994).

Studies on the Use of Wild Greens in Dishes A study was conducted by Kulkarni (2003) to explore the utility of underutilized leafy vegetables to enrich routine diets for nutrition security. Five underutilized leafy vegetables were selected on the basis of the micronutrient profile (drumstick, chakramuni, bengal gram leaves, chandanabatta leaves and sambar soppu) and 14 value added traditional foods were developed by incorporating these at different levels (10 or 25 or 50%). The products were evaluated for sensory characteristics using nine point hedonic scales by 10 semi trained judges. The results showed that coconut chutney with sambar soppu scored highest for all sensory attributes followed by bisebilebath and little millet upma with drumstick leaves and the least scores were obtained for barnyard millet upma with drumstick leaves. Kaur and Kochar (2005) carried out a study on organoleptic evaluation of preparations using underexploited greens (greens of cauliflower, radish, turnip

26 and carrot). To evaluate the products for sensory attributes Hopkin’s seven point scale was used. The study revealed that the most acceptable level for prantha with radish and cauliflower greens was 30 percent whereas; in case of carrot and turnip greens it was 50 per cent. The respective scores for overall acceptability ranged from 5.42 (cauliflower greens) to 6.02 (radish greens). Bhurji prepared by using cauliflower greens scored highest (6.08). Puri with turnip and carrot greens was scored 5.54 and 6.52 at 50 and 60 per cent incorporation respectively. Acceptable pulav could be developed by incorporating carrot and turnip greens at 30 and 40 percent with scores 5.78 and 5.52 respectively. Pakora prepared by incorporating cauliflower and radish leaves at 40 per cent was best acceptable with scores of 5.42 and 6.30, respectively. Nande et al. (2007) studied acceptability of recipes prepared from different varieties of betel leaves. Three recipes namely coconut burfi, cutlet and muthia were developed and the recipes prepared from spinach served as control. Sixty grams of leaves was incorporated in coconut burfi and cutlet whereas, 70 g leaves was incorporated in muthia preparation. Coconut burfi prepared from sweet betel leaves was given high scores ranging from 4.17 (color) to 4.34 (taste) on five point scale followed by kapuri betel leaves (3.61 to 4.17) and bangla betel leaves (2.54 to 3.50) respectively. Burfi with spinach received high scores of 4.5. Cutlets prepared from kapuri betel leaves (3.83 to 4.49) were highly acceptable and very close to spinach cutlets (4.17 to 4.61) for all sensory characteristics followed by cutlets prepared from sweet betel leaves (3.67 to 4.34) and bangla betel leaves (2.45 to 4.17). Muthia with betel leaves and control

27 showed significant difference for their overall acceptability (t = 3.1, P