Theories of Personality Reviewer Summary

Theorist

Sigmund F RE UD

Cha pter 2

Key Concepts

Psychotherapy

Levels of mental life

Application of psychoanalytic theory



Psychoanalysis

Unconscious o

Phylogenetic endowment



Preconscious



Conscious

Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique Freud’s later therapeutic technique Dream analysis Freudian Slips

Provinces of the mind 

Id - (Pleasure)



Ego (Balance)



Superego (Perfection)

Dynamics of personality 

Drives



Sex



Aggression



Anxiety

Defense mechanism 

Repression



Denial



Undoing



Reaction formation



Fixation



Regression



Introjection



Projection



Displacement



Sublimation



Intellectualization



Rationalization

Stages of development 

Infantile period o

Oral phase

o

Anal phase

o

Phallic Phase 



Male Oedipus Complex 

Castration complex



Castration Anxiety

Female Oedipus Complex 

Alfred ADLE R Indiv idual Psychology

3

Penis envy



Latency Period



Genital period



Maturity

FINAL STATEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority.

The Adlerian theory suggests that psychopathology, a mental or behavioral disorder, results from lack of courage, exaggerated feelings of inferiority, and underdeveloped social interest.

2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality



Enhance one’s courage

3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.



Lessen feelings of inferiority

4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.



Encourage social interest

5. Personality is unified and self-consistent. 6. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest. WHAT DISTINGUISHES THIS THEORY FROM ALL OTHER THEORIES?

“Everybody can accomplish everything.” (With the exception set by heredity.) What people do with what they have is more important than what they have.

1. Behavior is goal oriented – PURPOSIV E NE SS 2. Humans are fundamentally social, with a desire to belong and having a place of value as an equal human being – SOCIAL INTE RE ST 3. And the individual is indivisible and functions with unity of personality – HOLISM People are motivated by mostly social influences and by their striving for superiority or success. STRUCTURE AGGRESSION MASCULINE PROTEST STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY STRIVING FOR SUCCESS DEVELOPMENT CREATIVE POWER STYLE OF LIFE The tennets of Adlerian theory: 1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority. STRIVING FORCE AS COMPENSATION Two general avenues of striving: 

Striving for Personal Superiority



Striving for Success

2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. FICTIONALISM

PHYSICAL INFERIORITIES 3. Personality is unified and self-consistent. ORGAN DIALECT Unconscious Conscious 4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest. Social Interest GEMEINSCHAFTSGEFUHL IDEAL MOTHER IDEAL FATHER 5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life. STYLE OF LIFE Psychologically unhealthy individuals Psychologically healthy individuals 3 major problems in life 

Neighborly love



Sexual love



Occupation

6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power. Creative power FREE INDIVIDUAL THREE CONTRIBUTING FACTORS WHICH CAN LEAD TO ABNORMALITY: 

Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies



Pampered Style of Life

Adler believed that a warm, nurturing attitude by the therapist would help the patient to expand their social interest to each of the three problems of life: 

Sexual love



Friendship



Occupation

Adler innovated a method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front of an audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. Adler didn’t blame the parents for a child’s misbehavior he instead worked to win the parent’s confidence and to persuade them to change their attitudes toward the child.



Neglected Style of life

SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES: 

EXCUSES



AGGRESSION



Carl J UNG

4

o

DEPRECIATION

o

ACCUSATION

o

SELF-ACCUSATION

WITHDRAWAL o

MOVING BACKWARD

o

STANDING STILL

o

HESITATING

o

CONSTRUCTING OBSTACLES

LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE 1. PSYCHE

Analytical Psychology

2.

Conscious

4 basic approaches to therapy representing 4 developmental stages in the history of psychotherapy o

-

3. Personal Unconscious 4. Collective Unconscious 

CONFESSION

o

Effective for patients who merely have a need to share their secrets.

INTERPRETATION, EXPLANATION, & ELUCIDATION

ARCHETYPES

-

Used by Freud

Instincts – distinguished `

-

The patient brings to surface certain contents of the unconscious which the therapist clarifies

-

Learning the origins of the problems

a. Persona b. Shadow c. Anima d. Animus e. Great Mother f.

Wise Old Man

g. Hero

o

EDUCATION -

An approach adopted by Adler

-

Incorporation of insights into one’s personality in order to adapt to social environment

-

Includes the education of patients as social beings

-

Often leaves patients merely socially well adjusted

h. Self

TRANSFORMATION

Development 

An interplay between therapist and patient leads to change that move beyond adaptation to environment and towards self-realization

Childhood – Early morning sun 1. Anarchic Phase 2. Monarchic Phase 3. Dualistic Phase



Youth – Mornign sun | puberty – middle life



Middle life – Afternoon sun | 35-40 yo



Old age – evening sun | goal of life

SELF-REALIZATION

Purpose -

To help neurotic patients become healthy and to encourage people to work independently toward self-realization.

Jung sought to achieve this purpose by using dream analysis and active imagination: 1. To help patients discover personal and collective unconscious material 2. To balance these unconscious images with their conscious attitude

DYNAMICS

Transference

CAUSALITY AND TELEOLOGY

-

-

Freud – causality

-

Adler – teleology

-

Jung – both and must be balance

A natural concomitant to patients’ revelation of highly personal information.

Countertransference -

A therapist’s feelings toward the patient.

Progression Regression Both essential Psychological types 



Melanie Reizes K LE IN Object Relations Theory

Attitudes o

Introversion

o

Extraversion

Function o

Thinking

o

Feeling – valuing

o

Sensing

o

Intuiting

5

Klein

Freud

Anne Freud

Consistent pattern Of interpersonal relationships

Biologically based

-

Maternal: Intimacy and nurture

Paternal: Power And control

Prime motive of human behavior

Human contact And relatedness

Sexual Pleasure

Aim

Reduce tension  Achieve Pleasure

Emphasis

Control

drives

Psychic Life of the Infant 

Phantasies o

Good breast

o

Bad breast



Fantasy



Objects



Positions

Resistive to the notion of childhood psychoanalysis

Claimed that young children could not profit from psychoanalytic therapy Melanie Klein BELIEVED: both disturbed and healthy children should be psychoanalyzed •

DISTURBED CHILDREN

-

Therapeutic Prophylactic

•

HEALTHY CHILDREN

-

Treatment Analysis

FREUDIAN DREAM ANALYSIS & FREE ASSOCIATION

BELIEF: Young children express unconscious and conscious wishes through play therapy AIM reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fears and to mitigate the harshness of internalized objects Procedure

o

Paranoid-Schizoid Position

Re-experience early emotions and fantasies, with the therapist pointing out differences between reality and fantasy, between conscious and unconscious

o

Depressive Position

CONNECTION MADE

Psychic Defense Mechanisms 

Introjection



Projection



Splitting



Projective Identification

Internalizations 

Ego



Superego



Oedipus Complex o

Female

o

Male

o

- Less persecuted by internalized objects - Reduced depressive anxiety - Project previously frightening internal objects into the outer world

Karen HORNE Y Psychoanalytic Social Theory

6

Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory

-

to help patients grow in the direction of self-realization

Horney and Freud Compared

-

constructive friendliness

1.) therapeutic practice. 2.)

Objected to Freud’s ideas on feminine psychology.

3.)

Psychoanalysis should emphasize the importance of cultural influences.

FREUD - Pessimistic (innate instincts & stagnation of personality) KAREN - Optimistic (cultural forces that can change) The Impact of Culture The Importance of Childhood Experiences Basic hostility Repressed hostility Basic anxiety Basic hostility  Repressed hostility  Basic anxiety 4 defense against basic anxiety 1.)

Affection

2.)

Submissiveness

3.)

Power, prestige or possession

4.)

Withdrawal

Compulsive drives Neurotic needs 1.

The neurotic need for affection and approval

2.

The neurotic need for a powerful partner

3.

The neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders

4.

The neurotic need for power

5.

The neurotic need to exploit others

6.

The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige

7.

The neurotic need for personal admiration

8.

The neurotic need for ambition and personal achievement

9.

The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence

10. The neurotic need for perfection NEUROTIC TRENDS Basic conflict 

Moving Toward People



Moving Against People



Moving Away From People

-

free association

-

dream analysis

-

self-realization

Intrapsychic Conflicts Idealized self-image Sense of identity Compliant people Aggressive people Detached people 3 aspects: •

Neurotic search for glory

•

Neurotic claims

•

Neurotic pride

Self-hatred Feminine Psychology Erich F ROMM Hum anistic Psychoanalysis

7

Fromm’s basic assumptions



Aim of therapy: Patients to come to know themselves

most basic assumption



Without knowledge of ourselves, we cannot know any other person or thing



Patients come to therapy seeking satisfaction of their basic human needs



Free association



Dream analysis

 Individual personality  only in the light of human history HUMAN DILEMMA

o

Dream symbols are not universal

human ability to reason -

Blessing

-

Curse

existential dichotomies -

Life and death

-

Humans are capable of conceptualizing the goal of complete selfrealization, but we also are aware that life is too short to reach that goal.

-

People are ultimately alone, yet we cannot tolerate isolation.

Human Needs (Existential Needs) 





Relatedness o

SUBMISSION

o

POWER

o

LOVE -

Care

-

Responsibility

-

Respect / knowledge

Transcendence o

Creating

o

Destroying

Rootedness o

Productive strategy

o

nonProductive strategy o (fixation)

o

Incestuous Desires/Feelings



sense of identity



frame of orientation

the burden of freedom 

Basic Anxiety



Mechanisms of Escape Authoritarianism

o



-

masochism

-

sadism

o

destructiveness

o

Conformity

Positive freedom

Character orientations 



nonproductive orientations o

receptive

o

exploitative

o

hoarding

o

marketing

productive orientation o

Productive love - biophilia

o

Productive thinking

Personality Disorders 

Necrophilia



Malignant narcissism



Incestuous Symbiosis

Syndrome of decay

o

Patients are asked to associate their dreams

Syndrome of growth Erik E RIK SON

8

Post-Freudian Theory

Ego

PSYCHOHISTORY

3 interrelated aspects of ego: 1.

Body ego

“the study of individual and collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and history”

2.

Ego ideal

PLAY CONSTRUCTION

3.

Ego identity

-

Used toys to construct elongated objects

-

Girls arrange toys in low and peaceful scenes

Society’s influence Inborn capacities & society

CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

Pseudospecies

-

Limited free choice

-

Motivated by past experiences

-

Either conscious or unconscious

-

Both optimism and uniqueness of individuals

Views on Motivation

-

Aim : Embrace B-values

1.

Holistic approach to motivation

-

Free dependence from others

2.

Motivation is usually complex

-

Interpersonal process

3.

People are continually motivated by one need or another

-

Healthy relationship between client and therapist

4.

All people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs

5.

Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy

-

Satisfy love and belongingness need

Epigenetic principle Stages of Development -

Syntonic

-

Dystonic

-

Basic strength

-

Core pathology

-

psychosocial stages

-

multiplicity

-

identity crisis

stage 1 Infancy

Psychosexual Mode Oral-Sensory Mode

2 Early Childhood 2-3 y. o. 3 Play Age 3-5 y. o. 4 School Age 6-13 y. o. 5 ADOLESCENCE

Anal-UrethralMuscular Mode

6 Young Adulthood 19-30 7 Adulthood 31 - 60 8 Old Age

Genitality

Genital-Locomotor Mode Latency

Puberty

Procreativity

Generalized Sensuality

Psychosocial Crisis Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

Basic Strength HOPE

Core Pathology Withdrawal

WILL

Compulsion

Initiative vs Guilt Industry vs Inferiority Identity vs Identity confusion INTIMACY vs ISOLATION

PURPOSE

Inhibition

COMPETENCE

Inertia

FIDELITY

Role repudiation

LOVE

Exclusivity

GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION INTEGRITY vs DESPAIR

CARE

Rejectivity

WISDOM

Disdain

9 Very old age (Was not finished)

Abraham MASLOW Holistic-Dynam ic Theory

9

Hierarchy of needs Conative need Self-actualization Esteem Love & belongingness Safety Physiological

Other categories of needs Aesthetic needs Cognitive needs Neurotic needs General discussion of needs -

low level need satisfied =

emergence of next level need

-

May emerge gradually

-

Simultaneous motivation of needs

Reverse order of needs Unmotivated behavior Expressive behavior Coping behavior Deprivation of needs Instinctoid nature of needs Instinctoid needs -

-

Noninstinctoid needs

Frustration of need  pathology Persistent For psychological health Species-specific Can be molded, inhibited, or altered by environmental influences Many needs are weaker than cultural forces

-

Frustration of need  no pathology Temporary Not prereq for health

Criteria for self-actualization -

They were free from psychopathology

-

Self-actualizing people had progressed through the hierarchy of needs

-

Embrace the B-values

-

Fulfilled their needs to grow, to develop, & to increasingly become what they are capable of becoming

Values of Self-actualizers B-values -

Being values

1.

Truth

2.

Goodness

3.

Beauty

4.

Wholeness / the transcendence of dichotomies

5.

Aliveness / spontaneity

6.

Uniqueness

7.

Perfection

8.

Completion

9.

Justice & order

10.

Simplicity

11.

Richness / totality

12.

Effortlessness

13.

Playfulness / humor

14.

Self-sufficiency / autonomy

Characteristics of self-actualizing people -

We all have the potential to be self-actualizing people

-

Satisfy other needs

-

Embrace B-values

1.

More efficient perception of reality

2.

Accepting of self, others, and nature

3.

Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness

4.

Problem-centering

5.

The need for privacy

6.

Autonomy

7.

Continued freshness of appreciation

8.

The peak experience

9.

Gemeinschaftsgefühl

10.

Profound Interpersonal Relations

11.

The democratic character Structure

12.

Discrimination Between means and ends

13.

Philosophical sense of humor

14.

Creativeness)

15.

Resistance to enculturation

Love, Sex, and Self-actualization Self-actualizer The Jonah Complex Carl ROGE RS Person-Centered Theory

10

If-then framework

CONDITIONS

Basic Assumptions -

Formative Tendency

-

Actualizing Tendency Self- actualization

o o

Esteem

o

Love and belongingness

o

Safety

o

Physiological

o

Maintenance

o

Enhancement



COUNSELOR CONGRUENCE



UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD



EMPATHIC LISTENING

PROCESS Stage 1 -

Unwillingness to communicate anything about oneself.

-

They do not recognize any problems and refuse to own any personal feelings or emotions.

Stage 2

Psychological growth requirements:

-

Clients become slightly less rigid.

1.

Congruence

-

2.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Clients may talk about personal feelings as if such feelings were objective phenomena.

3.

Empathy

Stage 3

The Self and Self-Actualization

-

Clients freely talk about themselves more, still as an object.

Actualization Tendency

-

Talk about feelings and emotions in the past or future tense and avoid present feelings.

-

Deny individual responsibility for most of their decisions.

Self subsystems 

Self-concept o



Perceived self =/= organismic self

Ideal self

Stage 4 -

They begin to talk of deep feelings but not ones presently felt.

Awareness

-

Accept more freedom and responsibility than they did in stage 3.

Levels of Awareness

-

Allow themselves to become involved in a relationship with the therapist.



Ignored / denied



Accurately Symbolized



Distorted

Denial of Positive Experiences

Stage 5 -

They have begun to undergo significant change and growth.

-

They begin to make their own decisions and to accept responsibility for their choices.

Becoming a Person Barriers to Psychological Health 

Conditions of Worth o



External evaluations

-

They have begun to undergo significant change and growth.

-

They begin to make their own decisions and to accept responsibility for their choices.

Incongruence o

Vulnerability

o

Anxiety and Threat



Anxiety and Threat



Defensiveness



Stage 6

o

Distortion

o

Denial

Disorganization

Stage 7 -

They become fully functioning "persons of tomorrow"

-

They become congruent, possess unconditional positive self-regard, and are able to be loving and empathic toward others.

Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change -

They are freed to listen to themselves more accurately.

-

To have empathy for their own feelings.

-

Their perceived self becomes more congruent with their organismic experiences.

OUTCOMES -

Congruent client who is less defensive and more open to experience.

-

Become more realistic.

-

They become more accepting of others, make fewer demands, and simply allow others to be themselves.

Person of Tomorrow Rollo MAY Existential Psychology

11

BACKGROUND OF EXISTENTIALISM

-

Should make people more human; that is, helping them expand their consciousness so that they will be in a better position to make choices

EXISTENTIALISM -

that existence take precedence over essence

-

The purpose is to set people free

-

existentialists oppose the artificial split between subject and object.

-

-

search for meaning in their lives.

Must be concerned with helping people experience their existence, and that relieving symptoms are merely a by-product of that experience

-

each of us is responsible for who we are and what we will become.

-

most take an antitheoretical position, believing that theories tend to objectify people

Basic Concepts 



Existential therapists: 

Must establish a one-to-one relationship that enables patients to become more aware of themselves and live more fully in their own worlds



Have empathy for the patient’s experience and is open to the patients subjective world



“Our task is to be guide, friend, and interpreter to persons on their journeys through their private hells and purgatories... Our patients often, toward the end, are understandably frightened by the possibility of freely deciding for themselves...”



May was more likely to ask questions, to delve into a patient’s early childhood, and to suggest possible meanings of current behavior

Being in the world o

DASEIN

o

simultaneous modes in their being in the world 

Umwelt



Mitwelt



Eigenwelt

Nonbeing

The Case of Philip Anxiety 

Normal Anxiety



Neurotic Anxiety

Guilt Forms of ontological guilt 

Umwelt



Mitwelt



Eigenwelt

Intentionality Care, Love, and Will Will vs wish Personality Types



Neo-Puritan - will & x wish



Infantile -  wish & x will



Creative -  will & wish

Union of love and will Forms of love 

Sex



Eros



Philia



Agape

Freedom and destiny Freedom 

Existential Freedom



Essential Freedom

Destiny The power of myth Myths The Oedipus myth 

Gordon ALLPORT Psychology of The Indiv idual

12

Birth



Separation or exile from parents and home



Sexual union with one parent and hostility toward the other



Assertion of independence and the search for identity



Death

What is Personality? -

Dynamic Organization

-

Psychophysical

-

determine

-

characteristic

-

behavior and thought

What is the Role of Conscious Motivation? What are the Characteristics of a Healthy Individual? -

Proactive Behavior

-

Six Criteria for the Mature Personality o

Extension of sense of self

o

Warm relating of self to others

o

Emotional security or Self-acceptance

o

Realistic perception of their environment

o

Insight and Humor

o

Unifying principle of life

structure of personality Personal Disposition Common Traits Levels of Personal Dispositions 

Cardinal Dispositions



Central Dispositions



Secondary Dispositions

motivational stylistic dispositions 

Motivational dispositions



stylistic dispositions

Proprium non-propriate behaviors Motivation propriate striving

Peripheral motives A Theory of Motivation Functional Autonomy 4 Requirements of an Adequate Theory of Motivation 1. will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives. 2. It will be a pluralistic theory— allowing for motives of many types. 3. It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes. 4. will allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives. LEVELS OF FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY 

Perseverative Functional Autonomy



Propriate Functional Autonomy

Criterion for Functional Autonomy -

A present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new goals

Processes that are not Functionally Autonomous 

Biological drives: Eating, breathing, sleeping



Motive directly linked to the reduction of basic drives



Reflex actions such as eye blink



Constitutional equipment namely, physique, intelligence and temperament



Habits in the process of being formed



Patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement



Sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires



Some neurotic or pathological symptoms

The Study of the Individual Morphogenic Science Hans Jurgen E YSE NCK Biologically Based Factor Theory

14

Criteria for Identifying Factors 

Psychometric Evidence for the factor’s existence must be established



Must possess heritability and must fit an established genetic mode



Must make sense from a theoretical view: deductive method of investigation



Must possess social relevance

Hierarchy of Behavior Organization

Dimensions of Personality Three Personality Dimensions Four Criteria for Identifying Personality Dimension:

1.

Strong Psychometric evidence exist for each, especially Factors E and N

2.

For each of these three superfactors there are strong biological base

3.

It make sense theoretically

4.

Related to such social issues as drug use, sexual behaviors, criminality. 

Extraversion (extraversion/ introversion)



NEUROTICISM (neuroticism/ stable)



PSYCHOTICISM (psychoticism/ superego)

Measuring personality Eysenck evolved 4 personality inventories that measures his superfactors: -

The Maudsley personality inventory

-

Eysenck personality inventory

-

Eysenck personality questionnaire

-

Eysenck personality questionnaire – revised

Biological bases of personality Personality as a predictor Personality and behavior Personality and disease

Albert BANDURA Social Cognitiv e Theory

17

Learning

The ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation

Observational learning

Levels of Therapy

Modeling Processes governing observational learning 1. Attention 2. Representation 3. Behavioral Production 4. Motivation

1. instigation of some changes in behavior 2. generalization of specific changes 3. maintenance of those changes by preventing relapse Basic Treatment Approaches 1. Overt or Vicarious Modeling

Enactive learning

2. Covert or Cognitive Modeling

Consequences as a response

3. Enactive Mastery

Triadic reciprocal causation



Behavior



External environment



Person

Chance Encounters Fortuitous Events Human agency Core Features -

Intentionality

-

Forethought

-

Self-reactiveness

-

Self-reflection

Self-efficacy What Contributes to Self-Efficacy? 

Mastery Experiences - PAST PERFORMANCES



Social Modeling



Social Persuasion



Physical and Emotional States

Proxy Agency Collective Efficacy Techniques for Measuring Collective Efficacy Several factors that can undermine collective efficacy Self-Regulation External Factors in Self-Regulation Internal Factors in Self-Regulation 

Self-Observation



Judgmental Process



Self-Reaction

Self-Regulation through Moral Agency Two aspects of moral agency: 1. doing no harm to people 2. proactively helping people Selective activation Disengagement of Internal Control 4 Mechanisms 1. Redefine the behavior 2. Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior 3. Dehumanize or Blame the Victims 4. Displace or Diffuse Responsibility Dysfunctional Behavior 

Depression



Phobias



Aggression o

Five common reasons for aggressing:

1. enjoys inflicting injury on the victim 2. avoid or counter the aversive consequences of aggression by others 3. receives injury or harm for not behaving aggressively 4. lives up to their personal standards of conduct by their aggressive behavior 5. observes others receiving rewards for aggressive acts or punishment for nonaggressive behavior George K E LLY Psychology of Personal Constructs

19

Kelly’s philosophical position

The rep test

Person as a scientist

Repertory grid

Scientist as a person Constructing alternativism Personal constructs Basic postulate Supporting corollaries 1. Construction corollary – similarities among events 2. Individuality corollary – differences among people 3. Organization corollary – relationships among constructs 4. Dichotomy corollary – dichotomy of constructs 5. Choice corollary – choices between dichotomies 6. Range corollary – range of convenience 7. Experience corollary – experience and learning 8. Modulation corollary – adaptation to experience | permeability 9. Fragmentation corollary – incompatible constructs 10. Commonality corollary – similarities among people 11. Sociality corollary – social processes Core role Applications Abnormal development 4 common elements is most human disturbances 

Threat



Fear



Anxiety



Guilt