Theories of Personality Outline

a road oad ma! ma! *or *or ma#i ma#ing ng day day$to$ $to$da day y decisions4 .=0 be internally consistent and have a set o* o!erational de5nitions4 de5nitions4 and .>0 be !arsim !arsimoni onious ous66 or as sim!le sim!le as !ossible2

Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Perso ersona nali lity ty theo theori rist sts s have have had had di3e di3errent ent conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors list list si, si, dime dimens nsio ions ns *or *or com! com!ar arin ing g thes these e conc conce! e!ti tion ons2 s2 Thes These e dime dimens nsio ions ns incl includ ude e deter determin minism ism versu versus s *ree *ree choice choice66 !essim !essimism ism versus versus o!timism6 o!timism6 causalit causality y versus versus teleology teleology66 conscious versus unconscious determinants o*  behavior6 biological versus social inuences on !ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities among !eo!le2 Resear*h in Personality Theory In resear researching ching human human behavior behavior66 !ersonal !ersonality ity theo theorrists ists o*te o*ten n use var various ious measu easurring ing !roce !rocedur dures6 es6 and these these !roce !rocedur dures es must must be both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a measurin measuring g instrumen instrument7s t7s consiste consistency ncy -hereas -hereas validity re*ers to its accuracy accuracy or truth*ulness2

PSYCHODYNA&IC PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS Over Overvi view ew of Fre(# re(#%s %s Psy* Psy*ho hoan anal alyt yti* i* Theory igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, and and aggr aggres essi sion on 9 t-o t-o univ univer ersa sall lly y !o!u !o!ula larr themes6 .10 attra attracte cted d a grou! grou! o* *ollo*ollo-ers ers -ho -ho -ere -ere dedi dedica cate ted d to s!rea !read ding ing !syc !sycho hoa analy nalyttic doctrine6 and .;0 .;0 adva advanc nced ed the the noti notion on o* unco uncons nsci ciou ous s motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations e,!lanations *or the same observations2 -io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# &orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his !rac !racti tice ce as a !syc !sychi hiat atri rist st66 he -as -as mor more intereste interested d in learning learning about about the unconscio unconscious us motives motives o* !atients !atients than in curing curing neuroses neuroses22 "arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud Freud believed that that hyster hysteria ia -as a resul resultt o* being being seduce seduced d during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 o*ten a !arent or other relative2

Levels of &ental Life Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on three three levels: levels: unconscio unconscious6 us6 !reconsc !reconscious ious66 and conscious2 Un*ons*io(s  The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond a-areness but that motivate motivate most human human behavior behaviors2 s2 Bnconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted *orm6 *orm6 such such as drea dream m images images66 sli!s sli!s o*  the the tong tongue ue66 or neur neurot otic ic sym! sym!to toms ms22 Bnconscio Bnconscious us !rocess !rocesses es originat originate e *rom *rom t-o t-o sour source ces: s: ./0 ./0 re!r e!ressi ession on66 or the the bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled e,!e e,!eri rien ence ces s and .10 .10 !hyl !hylog ogen enet etic ic endo-ment endo-ment66 or inherite inherited d e,!erie e,!eriences nces that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal e,!erience2 Pre*ons*io(s  The !reconscious !reconscious contains images that are are not not in a-ar a-aren enes ess s but but that that can can become conscious either ?uite easily or -ith some level o* diCculty2 Cons*io(s 'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas stem stem *rom *rom eith either er the the !er !erce!t ce!tio ion n o*  e,ter ternal nal stimu timuli li .our .our !erc erce!tu e!tua al conscious system0 or *rom the uncons unconscio cious us and !reco !reconsc nsciou ious s a*ter a*ter they have evaded censorshi!2 censorshi!2 Provin*es of the &in# Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2 The I#  The id6 -hich is com!letely unco uncons nsci ciou ous6 s6 serv serves es the the !lea !leasu surre !rin !rinc ci!le i!le and conta ontaiins our our basic inst instin inct cts2 s2 It o!er o!erat ates es thr through ough the the !rimary !rocess2 The E.o  The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is governed by the reality !rinci!le and is res!onsible *or reconciling the unrealistic demands o* the id and the su!erego2 The S(+ere.o  The su!erego6 -hich serves the idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems

a road oad ma! ma! *or *or ma#i ma#ing ng day day$to$ $to$da day y decisions4 .=0 be internally consistent and have a set o* o!erational de5nitions4 de5nitions4 and .>0 be !arsim !arsimoni onious ous66 or as sim!le sim!le as !ossible2

Di)ensions for a Con*e+t of H()anity Perso ersona nali lity ty theo theori rist sts s have have had had di3e di3errent ent conce!tions o* human nature6 and the authors list list si, si, dime dimens nsio ions ns *or *or com! com!ar arin ing g thes these e conc conce! e!ti tion ons2 s2 Thes These e dime dimens nsio ions ns incl includ ude e deter determin minism ism versu versus s *ree *ree choice choice66 !essim !essimism ism versus versus o!timism6 o!timism6 causalit causality y versus versus teleology teleology66 conscious versus unconscious determinants o*  behavior6 biological versus social inuences on !ersonality6 and uni?ueness versus similarities among !eo!le2 Resear*h in Personality Theory In resear researching ching human human behavior behavior66 !ersonal !ersonality ity theo theorrists ists o*te o*ten n use var various ious measu easurring ing !roce !rocedur dures6 es6 and these these !roce !rocedur dures es must must be both reliable and valid2 Reliability re*ers to a measurin measuring g instrumen instrument7s t7s consiste consistency ncy -hereas -hereas validity re*ers to its accuracy accuracy or truth*ulness2

PSYCHODYNA&IC PSYCHODYNA&IC THEORIES FREUD, PSYCHOANALYSIS Over Overvi view ew of Fre(# re(#%s %s Psy* Psy*ho hoan anal alyt yti* i* Theory igmund Freud7s !sychoanalysis has endured because it ./0 !ostulated the !rimacy o* se, and and aggr aggres essi sion on 9 t-o t-o univ univer ersa sall lly y !o!u !o!ula larr themes6 .10 attra attracte cted d a grou! grou! o* *ollo*ollo-ers ers -ho -ho -ere -ere dedi dedica cate ted d to s!rea !read ding ing !syc !sycho hoa analy nalyttic doctrine6 and .;0 .;0 adva advanc nced ed the the noti notion on o* unco uncons nsci ciou ous s motives6 -hich !ermit varying e,!lanations e,!lanations *or the same observations2 -io.ra+hy of Si.)(n# Fre(# &orn in the '8ech Re!ublic in /@=>6 igmund Freud s!ent most o* his li*e in ienna2 In his !rac !racti tice ce as a !syc !sychi hiat atri rist st66 he -as -as mor more intereste interested d in learning learning about about the unconscio unconscious us motives motives o* !atients !atients than in curing curing neuroses neuroses22 "arly in his !ro*essional career6 Freud Freud believed that that hyster hysteria ia -as a resul resultt o* being being seduce seduced d during childhood by a se,ually mature !erson6 o*ten a !arent or other relative2

Levels of &ental Life Freud sa- mental *unctioning as o!erating on three three levels: levels: unconscio unconscious6 us6 !reconsc !reconscious ious66 and conscious2 Un*ons*io(s  The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond a-areness but that motivate motivate most human human behavior behaviors2 s2 Bnconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted *orm6 *orm6 such such as drea dream m images images66 sli!s sli!s o*  the the tong tongue ue66 or neur neurot otic ic sym! sym!to toms ms22 Bnconscio Bnconscious us !rocess !rocesses es originat originate e *rom *rom t-o t-o sour source ces: s: ./0 ./0 re!r e!ressi ession on66 or the the bloc#ing o ut o* an,iety$5lled e,!e e,!eri rien ence ces s and .10 .10 !hyl !hylog ogen enet etic ic endo-ment endo-ment66 or inherite inherited d e,!erie e,!eriences nces that lie beyond an individual7s !ersonal e,!erience2 Pre*ons*io(s  The !reconscious !reconscious contains images that are are not not in a-ar a-aren enes ess s but but that that can can become conscious either ?uite easily or -ith some level o* diCculty2 Cons*io(s 'onsciousness !lays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory2 'onscious ideas stem stem *rom *rom eith either er the the !er !erce!t ce!tio ion n o*  e,ter ternal nal stimu timuli li .our .our !erc erce!tu e!tua al conscious system0 or *rom the uncons unconscio cious us and !reco !reconsc nsciou ious s a*ter a*ter they have evaded censorshi!2 censorshi!2 Provin*es of the &in# Freud conce!tuali8ed three regions o* the mind 9 the id6 the ego6 and the su!erego2 The I#  The id6 -hich is com!letely unco uncons nsci ciou ous6 s6 serv serves es the the !lea !leasu surre !rin !rinc ci!le i!le and conta ontaiins our our basic inst instin inct cts2 s2 It o!er o!erat ates es thr through ough the the !rimary !rocess2 The E.o  The ego6 or secondary !rocess6 is governed by the reality !rinci!le and is res!onsible *or reconciling the unrealistic demands o* the id and the su!erego2 The S(+ere.o  The su!erego6 -hich serves the idealistic !rinci!le6 has t-o subsystems

9 the conscience and the ego$ideal2 The conscience results *rom !unishment *or im!ro im!ro!er !er behavi behavior or -here -hereas as the ego$ ideal ideal stems stems *rom *rom re-a re-ard rds s *or socia socially lly acce!table behavior2 Dyna)i*s of Personality )ynamics o* !ersonality re*ers to those *orces that motivate !eo!le2 Instin*ts Freud eud grou grou!e !ed d all all huma human n driv drives es or urges under t-o6 !rimary instincts 9 se, ."ros or the li*e instinct0 and aggression .the death or destructive instinct02 The aim o* the se,ual instinct is !leasure6 -hic -hich h can can be gained ined thr through ough the the erogenous 8ones6 es!ecially the mouth6 anus6 anus6 and genitals genitals22 The object object o* the se,ua se,uall instin instinct ct is any any !erson !erson or thing thing that brings se,ual !leasure2 All in*ants !osses !ossess s !rima !rimary ry narcis narcissis sism6 m6 or sel* sel*$$ cen center teredn edness6 ess6 but the secon econd dary narcissism o* adolescence and adulthood is not universal2 &oth sadism .re .receivi eivin ng se,ua ,ual !leasur sure *rom *rom inicting !ain on another0 and masochism masochism .recei .receiving ving se,ual se,ual !leasur !leasure e *rom !ain*ul !ain*ul e,!erie e,!eriences nces00 satis*y satis*y both se,u se,ual al and and aggr aggres essi sive ve driv drives es22 The The destru destructi ctive ve instin instinct ct aims aims to retur return n a !erson to an inorganic state6 but it is ordinarily directed against other !eo!le and is called aggression2 An/iety Freud eud beli believ eved ed only only the the ego ego *eel *eels s an,i an,iet ety6 y6 but but the the id6 id6 su!e su!errego6 ego6 and and outside -orld can each be a source o*  an,iety an,iety22 Deurotic Deurotic an,iety an,iety stems stems *rom *rom the ego7s ego7s rela relatio tion n -ith -ith the id4 moral moral an,iet an,iety y is simila similarr to guilt guilt and resul results ts *ro *rom the ego7s relation -ith the su!erego4 and realistic an,iety6 -hich is similar to *ear6 is !roduced by the ego7s relation -ith the real -orld2 Defense &e*hanis)s Acco Accord rdin ing g to Freud6 eud6 de*e de*ens nse e mech mechan anis isms ms o!erate to !rotect the ego against the !ain o*  an,iety2 Re+ression Re!ression Re!ression involves *orcing un-anted6 an,iet an,iety$l y$load oaded ed e,!er e,!erien iences ces into into the unconscious2 It is the most basic o* all de*ense de*ense mechanis mechanisms ms because because it is an active !rocess in each o* the others2

Un#oin. an# Isolation Bndo Bndoin ing g is the the ego7 ego7s s atte attem! m!tt to do a-ay -ith un!leasant e,!eriences and their conse?uences conse?uences66 usually usually by means means o* re!et e!etit itio ious us cer ceremon emonia iall acti action ons2 s2 Isol Isolat atio ion6 n6 in cont contra rast st66 is mar# mar#ed ed by obsess obsessive ive though thoughts ts and involv involves es the ego7s attem!t to isolate an e,!erience by surro surround unding ing it -ith -ith a blac# blac#ed$o ed$out ut region o* insensibility2 Rea*tion For)ation A reaction *ormation is mar#ed by the re!r e!ressi ession on o* one one im!u im!uls lse e and and the the ostent ostentat atiou ious s e,!r e,!ress ession ion o* its e,act e,act o!!osite2 Dis+la*e)ent )is!lacement ta#es !lace -hen !eo!le redir edirec ectt thei theirr un-a un-ant nted ed urge urges s onto onto othe otherr obje object cts s or !eo! !eo!le le in orde orderr to disguise the original im!ulse2 Fi/ation Fi,ation develo!s -hen !sychic energy is bloc#ed at one stage o* develo!ment6 ma#ing !sychological change diCcult2 Re.ression Regr Regressi ession on occurs occurs -henever -henever a !erson !erson reverts to earlier6 more in*antile modes o* behavior2 Pro0e*tion Proj Projec ecti tion on is seei seeing ng in othe others rs thos those e unacce!table *eelings or behaviors that actually reside in one7s o-n unconscious2 Ehen carried to e,treme6 !rojection can become !aranoia6 -hich is char haracte cteri8ed i8ed by delus lusion ions o*  !ersecution2 Intro0e*tion Intro Introjec jectio tions ns ta#e ta#e !lace !lace -hen -hen !eo!le !eo!le incor!orate !ositive ?ualities o* another !ers !erson on into into thei theirr o-n o-n ego ego to reduc educe e *eelings o* in*eriority2 S(1li)ation ublim ublimati ation on involv involves es the elevat elevation ion o*  the se,ua se,uall instin instinct7 ct7s s aim aim to a higher higher level6 level6 -hich -hich !ermit !ermits s !eo!le !eo!le to ma#e ma#e contributions to society and culture2 Sta.es of Develo+)ent

Freud eud sasa- !syc !sycho hose se,u ,ual al deve develo lo!m !men entt as !roceeding *rom birth to maturity though *our overla!!ing stages2 Infantile Perio#  The in*antile stage encom!asses the 5rst < to = years o* li*e and is divided into three three sub$!hase sub$!hases: s: oral6 oral6 anal6 anal6 and !hallic2 )uring the oral phase6 phase6 an in*ant is !rima imarily rily motiv otiva ated ted to rece eceive ive !leasure !leasure through the mouth2 )uring the second year o* li*e6 a child goes through the anal anal phase phase22 I* !are arents nts are too too !uni !uniti tive ve duri during ng the the anal anal !has !hase6 e6 the the child child may may become become an anal anal chara characte cter6 r6 -ith -ith the the anal nal tria triall o* ord orderl erliness ness66 stingines stinginess6 s6 and obstinac obstinacy y2 )uring )uring the  phallic phase6 phase6 boys and girls begin to have di3ering !sychose,ual develo develo!me !ment2 nt2 At this this time6 time6 boys boys and girls e,!erience the Oedi!us com!le, in -hich they have se,ual *eelings *or one !arent and hostile *eelings *or the other2  The male castration com!le,6 -hich ta#es ta#es the *orm *orm o* castr castrati ation on an,iet an,iety6 y6 brea brea#s #s u! the male male Oedi!u Oedi!us s com!le com!le, , and and resul esults ts in a -ell$ ell$*o *orrmed med male male su!e su!errego ego2 For girl girls6 s6 ho-e ho-eve ver6 r6 the the castration com!le,6 in the *orm o* !enis envy envy66 !rec !reced edes es the the *ema *emale le Oedi Oedi!u !us s com!le,6 a situation that leads to only a gradual gradual and incom!let incom!lete e shatterin shattering g o*  the the *ema *emale le Oedi Oedi!u !us s com! com!le le, , and and a -ea#er6 more e,ible *emale su!erego2 Laten*y Perio# Freud eud beli believ eved ed that that !syc !sycho hose se,u ,ual al develo develo!me !ment nt goes goes throug through h a laten latency cy stage 9 *rom about age = until !uberty 9 in -hich the se,ual instinct is !artially su!!ressed2 2enital Perio#  The genital !eriod begins -ith !uberty6 -hen adolescents e,!erience a rea-a#ening o* the genital aim o* "ros2  The term genital !eriodG should not be con*used -ith !hallic !eriod2G &at(rity Freud Freud hinted at a stage o* !sychological maturity in -hich the ego -ould be in control o* the id and su!erego and in -hich consciousness -ould !lay a more im!ortant role in behavior2 A++li*ations of Psy*hoanalyti* Theory%

Freud erected his theory on the dreams6 *ree associations6 sli!s o* the tongue6 and neurotic sym!toms o* his !atients during thera!y2 &ut he also also gather gathered ed in*or in*ormat mation ion *rom *rom histor history6 y6 literature6 literature6 and -or#s o* art2 Fre(#%s Early Thera+e(ti* Te*hni3(e )ur )uring the the /@ /@ s s6 Freud used used an aggre aggressi ssive ve thera! thera!eut eutic ic techni techni?ue ?ue in -hich he strongly suggested to !atients that they had been se,ually seduced as children2 He late laterr dro! dro!!e !ed d his his tech techni ni?u ?ue e and and abandoned his belie* that most !atients had been seduced during childhood2 Fre(#%s Later Thera+e(ti* Te*hni3(e &egi &eginn nnin ing g in the the late late /@ /@s6 s6 Freud eud ado!ted a much more !assive ty!e o*  !sychothera!y6 one that relied heavily on *ree association6 dream inter!re inter!retati tation6 on6 and trans*er trans*erence ence22 The goal o* Freud7s later !sychothera!y -as to uncove uncoverr re!r re!ress essed ed memori memories6 es6 and the thera!ist uses dream analysis and *ree *ree asso associ ciat atio ion n to do so2 so2 Eith ith *ree *ree association6 !atients are re?uired to say -hat -hatev ever er come comes s to mind mind66 no matt matter er ho- irrelevant or distaste*ul2 uccess*ul thera!y rests on the !atient7s tran trans* s*er eren ence ce o* chil childh dhoo ood d se,u se,ual al or aggressi aggressive ve *eelings *eelings onto the thera!is thera!istt and and a-ay a-ay *rom *rom sym! sym!tom tom *orm *ormat atio ion2 n2 Patien Patients7 ts7 resista resistance nce to change change can be seen as !rogre !rogress ss because because it indicate indicates s that that ther thera! a!y y has has adva advanc nced ed beyo beyond nd su!er5cial conversation2 conversation2 Drea) Analysis In inter!reting dreams6 Freud di3e di3errenti entiat ated ed the the mani mani*e *est st cont conten entt .conscious descri!tion0 *rom the latent conten contentt .the .the uncons unconscio cious us meanin meaning02 g02 Dearly all dreams are -ish$*ul5llments6 although the -ish is usually unco uncons nsci ciou ous s and and can can be #no#no-n n only only thr through ough drea dream m inte inter! r!rretat etatio ion2 n2 To inte inter! r!rret drea dreams ms66 Freud eud used used both both drea dream m symb symbol ols s and and the the drea dreame mer7 r7s s associations to the dream content2 Fre(#ian Sli+s Freud believed that !ara!ra,es6 or so$ called called Freudi reudian an sli!s6 sli!s6 are are not chanc chance e accidents but reveal a !erson7s true but unconscious intentions2

Relate# Resear*h Freudian theory has generated a large amount o* relat elated ed resea esearrch6 ch6 incl includ udin ing g stud studie ies s on de*ense mechanisms and oral 5,ation2 Defense &e*hanis)s eorge alliant has added to the list o*  Freudian de*ense mechanisms and has *ound evidence that some o* them are neurotic .reaction *ormation6 ideali ideali8a 8atio tion6 n6 and undoi undoing0 ng066 some some are are immature and malada!tive .!rojection6 isolat isolation ion66 denial denial66 dis dis!la !lacem cement ent66 and dissociation06 and some are mature and ada!ti ada!tive ve .subli .sublimat mation ion66 su!!r su!!ress ession ion66 humor6 humor6 and altru altruism ism02 02 allia alliant nt *ound *ound that neurotic de*ense mechanisms are success*ul *ul over the short term4 immat immatur ure e de*ens de*enses es are are unsucc unsuccess ess*ul *ul and have the highest degree o*  distortion4 -hereas mature and ada!tive ada!tive de*enses de*enses are are success* success*ul ul over the long term6 term6 ma,imi8 ma,imi8e e grati5ca grati5cation6 tion6 and have the least amount o* distortion2 Oral Fi/ation ome recent recent research research has *ound that aggression is higher in !eo!le -ho bite thei theirr 5nge 5ngerr nail nails s that that it is non$ non$na nail il bite biters rs66 es!e es!eci cial ally ly in -ome -omen2 n2 Othe Otherr resea esearrch *oun *ound d that that !eo! !eo!le le -ho -ho are are orally 5,ated tend to see their !arents more negatively negatively than did !eo!le !eo!le -ho -ere less orally 5,ated2 Criti3(e of Fre(# Freud reud regar regarded ded himsel himsel** as a scient scientis ist6 t6 but many many crit critic ics s cons consid ider er his his meth method ods s to be outdat outdated6 ed6 unscie unscienti nti5c6 5c6 and !ermea !ermeated ted -ith -ith gender gender bias2 bias2 On the si, criter criteria ia o* a use*ul use*ul theory theory66 !sycho !sychoana analys lysis is is rated rated high high on its ability ability to generate generate research research66 very lo- on its o!en o!enne ness ss to *als *alsi5 i5ca cati tion on66 and and aver averag age e on organ organi8i i8ing ng data6 data6 guidin guiding g actio action6 n6 and being being !arsim !arsimoni onious ous22 &ecau &ecause se it lac#s lac#s o!era o!eratio tional nal de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 Con*e+t of H()anity Freud7s conce!t o* humanity -as deterministic and !essimistic2 He em!hasi8ed causality over teleol teleology ogy66 uncons unconscio cious us deter determin minant ants s over over conscious !rocesses6 and biology over culture6 but he too# a middle !osition on the dimension o* uni? uni?ue uene ness ss vers versus us simi simila lari riti ties es amon among g !eo!le2

ADLER, INDI4IDUAL PSYCHOLO2Y  PSYCHOLO2Y  Overview of A#ler%s In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y An original member o* Freud7s !sychoanalytic grou!6 Al*red Adler bro#e *rom that grou! and advoca advocated ted a theory theory o* !erson !ersonal ality ity that that -as -as nearly diametrically o!!osed to that o* Freud2 Eher Eherea eas s Freud7 eud7s s vievie- o* huma humani nity ty -as -as !essimistic and rooted in biology6 Adler7s vie-as o!timistic6 idealistic6 and rooted in *amily e,!eriences2 -io.ra+hy of Alfre# A#ler Al*red Adler -as born in /@ in a to-n near ienna6 ienna6 a second second son o* middle$cl middle$class ass Je-ish !arents2 %i#e Freud6 Adler -as a !hysician6 and in /1 /166 he beca became me a char charte terr memb member er o*  Freud7s reud7s organi8 organi8ation ation22 Ho-ever6 Ho-ever6 !ersonal !ersonal and !ro*essional di3erences bet-een the t-o men led led to Ad Adle ler7 r7s s de!a de!art rtur ure e *rom *rom the the ienn ienna a Psych Psychoan oanaly alytic tic ociet ociety y in ///2 ///2 Ad Adler ler soon soon *oun *ounde ded d his o-n o-n grou grou!6 !6 the the oc ociety iety *or *or Individual Psychology2 Psychology2 Adler7s strengths -ere his his ener energe geti tic c oral oral !res !resen enta tati tion ons s and and his his ins insigh ight*u t*ul abilit ility y to und unders erstan tand *amily mily dyna dynami mics cs22 He -as -as not not a gi*t gi*ted ed -rit -riter er66 a limitation that may have !revented individual !sycholog !sychology y *rom attainin attaining g -orld -orld recognit recognition ion e?ual to Freud7s !sychoanalysis2 Intro#(*tion to A#lerian Theory Although Adler7s individual !sychology is both com!le, and com!rehensive6 its main tenets can be stated in sim!le *orm2 Strivin. for S(**ess or S(+eriority  The sole dynamic dynamic *orce behind !eo!le7s !eo!le7s actions is the striving *or success or su!eriority2 The Final 2oal  The 5nal goal o* either success or su!e su!eri rior orit ity y to-a to-ard rd -hic -hich h all all !eo! !eo!le le strive uni5es !ersonality and ma#es all behavior meaning*ul2 The Strivin. For*e as Co)+ensation &ecaus &ecause e !eo!l !eo!le e are are born born -ith -ith small small66 in*eri in*erior or bodie bodies6 s6 they they *eel *eel in*er in*erior ior and attem! attem!tt to over overcom come e these these *eeli *eelings ngs through their natural tendency to move to-ard to-ard com!leti com!letion2 on2 The striving striving *orce *orce can ta#e one o* t-o courses4 !ersonal gain .su!eriority0 or community bene5t .success02

Strivin. for Personal S(+eriority Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive *or !ersonal su!eriority -ith little concern *or other !eo!le2 Although they may a!!ear to be interested in other !eo!le6 their basic motivation is !ersonal bene5t2 Strivin. for S(**ess In contrast6 !sychologically healthy !eo!le strive *or the success o* all humanity6 but they do so -ithout losing their !ersonal identity2 S(10e*tive Per*e+tions Peo!le7s subjective vie- o* the -orld 9 not reality 9 sha!es their behavior2 Fi*tionalis) Fictions are !eo!le7s e,!ectations o* the *uture2 Adler held that 5ctions guide behavior6 because !eo!le act as i*  these 5ctions are true2 Adler em!hasi8ed teleology over causality6 or e,!lanations o* behavior in terms o*  *uture goals rather than !ast causes2 Or.an Inferiorities Adler believed that all humans are blessedG -ith organ in*eriorities6 -hich stimulate subjective *eelings o*  in*eriority and move !eo!le to-ard !er*ection or com!letion2 Unity an# Self5Consisten*y of Personality Adler believed that all behaviors are directed to-ard a single !ur!ose2 Ehen seen in the light o* that sole !ur!ose6 seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as o!erating in a sel*$consistent manner2 Or.an Diale*t Peo!le o*ten use a !hysical disorder to e,!ress style o* li*e6 a condition Adler called organ dialect2 Cons*io(s an# Un*ons*io(s 'onscious and unconscious !rocesses are uni5ed and o!erate to achieve a single goal2 The !art o* our goal that -e do not clearly understand is unconscious4 the !art o* our goal that -e *ail to *ully com!rehend is conscious2

Human behavior has value to the e,tent that it is motivated by social interest6 that is6 a *eeling o* oneness -ith all o* humanity2 Ori.ins of So*ial Interest Although social interest e,ists as !otentially in all !eo!le6 it must be *ostered in a social environment2 Adler believed that the !arent$child relationshi! can be so strong that it negates the e3ects o* heredity2

I)+ortan*e of So*ial Interest According to Adler6 social interest is the sole criterion o* human values6G and the -orthiness o* all one7s actions must be seen by this standard2 Eithout social interest6 societies could not e,ist4 individuals in anti?uity could not have survived -ithout coo!erating -ith others to !rotect themselves *rom danger2 "ven today6 an in*ant7s hel!lessness !redis!oses it to-ard a nurturing !erson2 Style of Life  The manner o* a !erson7s striving is called style o* li*e6 a !attern that is relatively -ell set by < or = years o* age2 Ho-ever6 Adler believed that healthy individuals are mar#ed by e,ible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style o* li*e2 Creative Power tyle o* li*e is !artially a !roduct o* heredity and environment 9 the building bloc#s !ersonality 9 but ultimately style o* li*e is sha!ed by !eo!le7s creative !o-er6 that is6 by their ability to *reely choose a course o* action2 A1nor)al Develo+)ent 'reative !o-er is not limited to healthy !eo!le4 unhealthy individuals also create their o-n !ersonalities2 Thus6 each o* us is *ree to choose either a use*ul or a useless style o* li*e2 2eneral Des*ri+tion  The most im!ortant *actor in abnormal develo!ment is lac# o* social interest2 In addition6 !eo!le -ith a useless style o*  li*e tend to ./0 set their goals too high6 .10 have a dogmatic style o* li*e6 and .;0 live in their o-n !rivate -orld2

So*ial Interest E/ternal Fa*tors in &ala#0(st)ent

Adler listed three *actors that relate to abnormal develo!ment: ./0 e,aggerated !hysical de5ciencies6 -hich do not by themselves cause abnormal develo!ment6 but -hich may contribute to it by generating subjective and e,aggerated *eelings o* in*eriority4 .10 a !am!ered style o* li*e6 -hich contributes to an overriding drive to establish a !ermanent !arasitic relationshi! -ith the mother or a mother substitute4 and .;0 a neglected style o* li*e6 -hich leads to distrust o* other !eo!le2 Safe.(ar#in. Ten#en*ies &oth normal and neurotic !eo!le create sym!toms as a means o* !rotecting their *ragile sel*$esteem2 These sa*eguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style o* li*e and !rotect a !erson *rom !ublic disgrace2 The three !rinci!al sa*eguarding tendencies are ./0 e,cuses -hich allo- !eo!le to !reserve their inated sense o*  !ersonal -orth4 .10 aggression6 -hich may ta#e the *orm o* de!reciating others7 accom!lishments6 accusing others o*  being res!onsible *or one7s o-n *ailures6 or sel*$accusation4 and .;0 -ithdra-al6 -hich can be e,!ressed by !sychologically moving bac#-ard6 standing still6 hesitating6 or constructing obstacles2 &as*(line Protest &oth men and -omen sometimes overem!hasi8e the desirability o* being manly6 a condition Adler called the masculine !rotest2 The *re?uently *ound in*erior status o* -omen is not based on !hysiology but on historical develo!ments and social learning2 A++li*ations of In#ivi#(al Psy*holo.y Adler a!!lied the !rinci!les o* individual !sychology to *amily constellation6 early recollections6 dreams6 and !sychothera!y2 Fa)ily Constellation Adler believed that !eo!le7s !erce!tion o* ho- they 5t into their *amily is related to their style o* li*e2 He claimed that 5rstborns are li#ely to have strong *eelings o* !o-er and su!eriority6 to be over!rotective6 and to have more than their share o* an,iety2 econd$born

children are li#ely to have strong social interest6 !rovided they do not get tra!!ed trying to overcome their older sibling2 Loungest children are li#ely to be !am!ered and to lac# inde!endence6 -hereas only children have some o* the characteristics o* both the oldest and the youngest child2 Early Re*olle*tions A more reliable method o* determining style o* li*e is to as# !eo!le *or their earliest recollections2 Adler believed that early memories are tem!lates on -hich !eo!le !roject their current style o* li*e2 These recollections need not be accurate accounts o* early events4 they have !sychological im!ortance because they reect a !erson7s current vie- o*  the -orld2 Drea)s Adler believed that dreams can !rovide clues to solving *uture !roblems2 Ho-ever6 dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be inter!reted by another !erson2 Psy*hothera+y  The goal o* Adlerian thera!y is to create a relationshi! bet-een the thera!ist and the !atient that *osters social interest2 To ensure that the !atient7s social interest -ill eventually generali8e to other relationshi!s6 the thera!ist ado!ts both a maternal and a !aternal role2 Relate# Resear*h Although *amily constellation and birth order have been -idely researched6 a to!ic more !ertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections2 Research sho-s that early recollections are related to a number o*  !ersonal traits6 such as de!ression6 alcoholism6 criminal behavior6 and success in counseling2 Other research has sho-n that a change in style o* li*e may be ca!able o* !roducing a change in early recollections2 till other research suggests that made$u! early recollections may be as meaning*ul as actual ones2 Criti3(e of A#ler Individual !sychology rates high on its ability to generate research6 organi8e data6 and guide the !ractitioner2 It receives a moderate rating on !arsimony6 but because it lac#s o!erational

de5nitions6 it rates lo- on internal consistency2 It also rates lo- on *alsi5cation because many o* its related research 5ndings can be e,!lained by other theories2 Con*e+t of H()anity Adler sa- !eo!le as *or-ard moving6 social animals -ho are motivated by goals they set .both consciously and unconsciously0 *or the *uture2 Peo!le are ultimately res!onsible *or their o-n uni?ue style o* li*e2 Thus6 Adler7s theory rates high on *ree$choice6 social inuences6 and uni?ueness4 very high on o!timism and teleology4 and average on unconscious inuences2

nearly lost contact -ith reality6 Jung emerged to become one o* the leading thin#ers o* the 1th century2 He died in />/ at age @=2 Levels of the Psy*he  Jung sa- the human !syche as being divided into a conscious and an unconscious level6 -ith the latter *urther subdivided into a !ersonal and a collective unconscious2 Cons*io(s Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious2 The ego thus re!resents the conscious side o* !ersonality6 and in the !sychologically mature individual6 the ego is secondary to the sel*2 Personal Un*ons*io(s  The unconscious re*ers to those !sychic images not sensed by the ego2 ome unconscious !rocesses o- *rom our !ersonal e,!eriences6 but others stem *rom our ancestors7 e,!eriences -ith universal themes2 Jung divided the unconscious into the !ersonal unconscious6 -hich contains the com!le,es .emotionally toned grou!s o*  related ideas0 and the collective unconscious6 or ideas that are beyond our !ersonal e,!eriences and that originate *rom the re!eated e,!eriences o* our ancestors2

 6UN2, ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLO2Y  Overview of 6(n.%s Analyti*al Psy*holo.y 'arl Jung believed that !eo!le are e,tremely com!le, beings -ho !ossess a variety o*  o!!osing ?ualities6 such as introversion and e,traversion6 masculinity and *emininity6 and rational and irrational drives2 -io.ra+hy of Carl 6(n. 'arl Jung -as born in -it8erland in /@=6 the oldest surviving child o* an idealistic Protestant minister and his -i*e2 Jung7s early e,!erience -ith !arents .-ho -ere ?uite o!!osite o* each other0 !robably inuenced his o-n theory o*  !ersonality2 oon a*ter receiving his medical degree he became ac?uainted -ith Freud7s -ritings and eventually -ith Freud himsel*2 Dot long a*ter he traveled -ith Freud to the Bnited tates6 Jung became disenchanted -ith Freud7s !anse,ual theories6 bro#e -ith Freud6 and began his o-n a!!roach to theory and thera!y6 -hich he called analytical !sychology2 From a critical midli*e crisis6 during -hich he

Colle*tive Un*ons*io(s 'ollective unconscious images are not inherited ideas6 but rather they re*er to our innate tendency to react in a !articular -ay -henever our !ersonal e,!eriences stimulate an inherited !redis!osition to-ard action2 'ontents o* the collective unconscious are called archety!es2 Ar*hety+es  Jung believed that archety!es originate through the re!eated e,!eriences o*  our ancestors and that they are e,!ressed in certain ty!es o* dreams6 *antasies6 delusions6 and hallucinations2 everal archety!es ac?uire their o-n !ersonality6 and Jung identi5ed these by name2 One is the !ersona 9 the side o* our !ersonality that -e sho- to others2 Another is the shado- 9 the dar# side o* !ersonality2 To reach *ull !sychological maturity6 Jung believed6 -e must 5rst reali8e or acce!t our shado-2 A second hurdle in achieving maturity is *or men to acce!t their

anima6 or *eminine side6 and *or -omen to embrace their animus6 or masculine dis!osition2 Other archety!es include the great mother .the archety!e o*  nourishment and destruction04 the -ise old man .the archety!e o* -isdom and meaning04 and the hero .the image -e have o* a con?ueror -ho van?uishes evil6 but -ho has a single *atal a-02  The most com!rehensive archety!e is the sel*4 that is6 the image -e have o*  *ul5llment6 com!letion6 or !er*ection2  The ultimate in !sychological maturity is sel*$reali8ation6 -hich is symboli8ed by the mandala6 or !er*ect geometric 5gure2 Dyna)i*s of Personality  Jung believed that the dynamic !rinci!les that a!!ly to !hysical energy also a!!ly to !sychic energy2 These *orces include causality and teleology as -ell as !rogression and regression2 Ca(sality an# Teleolo.y  Jung acce!ted a middle !osition bet-een the !hiloso!hical issues o*  causality and teleology2 In other -ords6 humans are motivated both by their !ast e,!eriences and by their e,!ectations o* the *uture2 Pro.ression an# Re.ression  To achieve sel*$reali8ation6 !eo!le must ada!t to both their e,ternal and internal -orlds2 Progression involves ada!tation to the outside -orld and the *or-ard o- o* !sychic energy6 -hereas regression re*ers to ada!tation to the inner -orld and the bac#-ard o- o*  !sychic energy2 Jung believed that the bac#-ard ste! is essential to a !erson7s *or-ard movement to-ard sel*$ reali8ation2 Psy*holo.i*al Ty+es "ight basic !sychological ty!es emerge *rom the union o* t-o attitudes and *our *unctions2

Attit(#es Attitudes are !redis!ositions to act or react in a characteristic manner2 The t-o basic attitudes are introversion6 -hich re*ers to !eo!le7s subjective !erce!tions6 and e,traversion6 -hich indicates an orientation to-ard the objective -orld2 ",traverts are

inuenced more by the real -orld than by their subjective !erce!tion6 -hereas introverts rely on their individuali8ed vie- o* things2 Introverts and e,traverts o*ten mistrust and misunderstand one another2 F(n*tions  The t-o attitudes or e,troversion and introversion can combine *our basic *unctions to *orm eight general !ersonality ty!es2 The *our *unctions are ./0 thin#ing6 or recogni8ing the meaning o* stimuli4 .10 *eeling6 or !lacing a value on something4 .;0 sensation6 or ta#ing in sensory stimuli4 and .6 but !sychologically6 it begins -hen a !erson is able to *eel both intimacy and lust to-ard the same !erson2 %ate adolescence is characteri8ed by a stable !attern o* se,ual activity and the

gro-th o* the synta,ic mode6 as young !eo!le learn ho- to live in the adult -orld2

-ith their intimate *riend6 a 5nding that suggests that -omen develo! dee!er same$gender *riendshi!s than do men2

A#(lthoo# %ate adolescence o-s into adulthood6 a time -hen a !erson establishes a stable relationshi! -ith a signi5cant other !erson and develo!s a consistent !attern o* vie-ing the -orld2

I)a.inary Frien#s Other researchers have studied ullivanMs notion o* imaginary !laymates and have *ound that children -ho have identi5able eidetic !laymates tend to be more sociali8ed6 less aggressive6 more intelligent6 and to have a better sense o* humor than children -ho do not re!ort having an imaginary !laymate2

Psy*holo.i*al Disor#ers ullivan believed that disordered behavior has an inter!ersonal origin6 and can only be understood -ith re*erence to a !erson7s social environment2 Psy*hothera+y ullivan !ioneered the notion o* the thera!ist as a !artici!ant observer6 -ho establishes an inter!ersonal relationshi! -ith the !atient2 He -as !rimarily concerned -ith understanding !atients and hel!ing them develo! *oresight6 im!rove inter!ersonal relations6 and restore their ability to o!erate mostly on a synta,ic level2 Relate# Resear*h In recent years6 a number o* researchers have studied the im!act o* t-o$!erson relationshi!s6 involving both thera!y and non$thera!y encounters2 Thera+ist5Patient Relationshi+s Hans tru!!6 Eilliam Henry6 and associates at anderbilt develo!ed the tructural Analysis o* ocial &ehavior6 an instrument *or studying the dynamics bet-een thera!ist and !atient2 This grou! o* researchers *ound that !atients tended to have relatively stable behaviors that -ere consistent -ith the -ay their thera!ists treated them2 %ater6 these researchers re!orted thera!istsM !ro*essional training -as less im!ortant to success*ul thera!y than the thera!istsM o-n develo!mental history2 Inti)ate Relationshi+ with Frien#s "li8abeth Laughn and te!hen Do-ic#i studied intimate inter!ersonal relationshi!s in same$gender dyads and *ound that -omen$but not men$had com!lementary inter!ersonal styles -ith their close -omen *riends2 Also6 -omen -ere more li#ely than men to engage in a -ide variety o* activities

Criti3(e of S(llivan )es!ite ullivanMs insights into the im!ortance o* inter!ersonal relations6 his theory o*  !ersonality and his a!!roach to !sychothera!y have lost !o!ularity in recent years2 In summary6 his theory rates very lo- in *alsi5ability6 lo- in its ability to generate research6 and average in its ca!acity to organi8e #no-ledge and to guide action2 In addition6 it is only average in sel*$consistency and lo- in !arsimony2 Con*e+t of H()anity &ecause ullivan sa- human !ersonality is being largely *ormed *rom inter!ersonal relations6 his theory rates very high on social inuences and very lo- on biological ones2 In addition6 it rates high on unconscious determinants6 average on *ree choice6 o!timism6 and causality6 and lo- on uni?ueness2

ERI8SON, POST5FREUDIAN THEORY  Overview of Eri'son%s Post5Fre(#ian Theory "ri#son !ostulated eight stages o* !sychosocial develo!ment through -hich !eo!le !rogress2

Although he di3ered *rom Freud in his em!hasis on the ego and on social inuences6 his theory is an e,tension6 not a re!udiation o*  Freudian !sychoanalysis2 -io.ra+hy of Eri' Eri'son Ehen "ri# "ri#son -as born in ermany in /1 his name -as "ri# alomonsen2 A*ter his mother married Theodor Homburger6 "ri# eventually too# his ste!$*atherMs name2 At age /@ he le*t home to !ursue the li*e o* a -andering artist and to search *or sel*$identity2 He gave u! that li*e to teach young children in ienna6 -here he met Anna Freud2 till searching *or his !ersonal identity6 he -as !sychoanaly8ed by (s2 Freud6 an e,!erience that allo-ed him to become a !sychoanalyst2 In mid$li*e6 "ri# Homburger moved to the Bnited tates6 changed his name to "ri#son6 and too# a !osition at the Harvard (edical chool2 %ater6 he taught at Lale6 the Bniversity o* 'ali*ornia at &er#eley6 and several other universities2 He died in / to /1 or /; years o* age is called the school age6 a time o* !sychose,ual latency6 but it is also a time o* !sychosocial gro-th beyond the *amily2 &ecause se,ual develo!ment is latent during the school age6 children can use their energies to learn the customs o* their culture6 including both *ormal and in*ormal education2 The !sychosocial crisis o*  this age is industry versus in*eriority2 'hildren need to learn to -or# hard6 but they also must develo! some sense o*  in*eriority2 From the conict o* industry and in*eriority emerges com!etence6 the basic strength o* school age children2 %ac# o* industry leads to inertia6 the core !athology o* this stage2 A#oles*en*e Adolescence begins -ith !uberty and is mar#ed by a !erson7s struggle to 5nd ego identity2 It is a time o* !sychose,ual gro-th6 but it is also a !eriod o*  !sychosocial latency2 The !sychose,ual mode o* adolescence is !uberty or genital maturation2 The !sychosocial crisis o* adolescence is identity versus identity con*usion2 Psychologically healthy individuals emerge *rom adolescence -ith a sense o* -ho they are and -hat they believe4 but some identity con*usion is normal2 The conict bet-een identity and identity con*usion !roduces 5delity6 or *aith in some ideological vie- o* the *uture2 %ac# o* belie* in one7s o-n sel*hood results in role re!udiation or an inability to bring together one7s various sel*$ images2  Yo(n. A#(lthoo#  Loung adulthood begins -ith the ac?uisition o* intimacy at about age /@ and ends -ith the develo!ment o*  generativity at about age ;2 The !sychose,ual mode o* young adulthood is genitality6 -hich is e,!ressed as mutual trust bet-een !artners in a stable se,ual relationshi!2 Its !sychosocial crisis is intimacy versus isolation2 Intimacy is the ability to *use oneMs identity -ith that o* another -ithout *ear o* losing it4 -hereas

isolation is the *ear o* losing oneMs identity in an intimate relationshi!2 The crisis bet-een intimacy and isolation results in the ca!acity to love2 The core !athology o* young adulthood is e,clusivity6 or inability to love2 A#(lthoo#  The !eriod *rom about ;/ to > years o*  age is adulthood6 a time -hen !eo!le ma#e signi5cant contributions to society2 The !sychose,ual mode o*  adulthood is !rocreativity6 or the caring *or oneMs children6 the children o*  others6 and the material !roducts o*  oneMs society2 The !sychosocial crisis o*  adulthood is generativity versus stagnation6 and the success*ul resolution o* this crisis results in care2 "ri#son sa- care as ta#ing care o* the !ersons and !roducts that one has learned to care *or2 The core !athology o* adulthood is rejectivity6 or the rejection o* certain individuals or grou!s that one is un-illing to ta#e care o*2 Ol# A.e  The 5nal stage o* develo!ment is old age6 *rom about age > until death2 The !sychose,ual mode o* old age is generali8ed sensuality4 that is6 ta#ing !leasure in a variety o* sensations and an a!!reciation o* the traditional li*estyle o* !eo!le o* the other gender2  The !sychosocial crisis o* old age is the struggle bet-een integrity .the maintenance o* ego$identity0 and des!air .the surrender o* ho!e02 The struggle bet-een integrity and des!air may !roduce -isdom .the basic strength o* old age06 but it may also lead to disdain .a core !athology mar#ed by *eelings o* being 5nished or hel!less02 Eri'son%s ðo#s of Investi.ation "ri#son relied mostly on anthro!ology6 !sychohistory6 and !lay construction to e,!lain and describe human !ersonality2 Anthro+olo.i*al St(#ies "ri#sonMs t-o most im!ortant anthro!ological studies -ere o* the iou, o* outh )a#ota and the Luro# tribe o* northern 'ali*ornia2 &oth studies demonstrated his notion that culture and history hel! sha!e !ersonality2

Psy*hohistory "ri#son combined the methods o*  !sychoanalysis and historical research to study several !ersonalities6 most notably andhi and %uther2 In both cases6 the central 5gure e,!erienced an identity crisis that !roduced a basic strength rather than a core !athology2 Play Constr(*tion "ri#sonMs techni?ue o* !lay construction became controversial -hen he *ound that /$ to /1$year$old boys used toys to construct elongated objects and to !roduce themes o* rising and *alling2 In contrast6 girls arranged toys in lo- and !eace*ul scenes2 "ri#son concluded that anatomical di3erences bet-een the se,es !lay a role in !ersonality develo!ment2

Criti3(e of Eri'son Although "ri#sonMs -or# is a logical e,tension o* FreudMs !sychoanalysis6 it o3ers a ne- -ay o* loo#ing at human develo!ment2 As a use*ul theory6 it rates high on its ability to generate research6 and about average on its ability to be *alsi5ed6 to organi8e #no-ledge6 and to guide the !ractitioner2 It rates high on internal consistency and about average on !arsimony2 Con*e+t of H()anity "ri#son sa- humans as basically social animals -ho have limited *ree choice and -ho are motivated by !ast e,!eriences6 -hich may be either conscious or unconscious2 In addition6 "ri#son is rated high on both o!timism and uni?ueness o* individuals2

Relate# Resear*h "ri#sonMs theory has generated a moderately large body o* research6 must o* it investigating the conce!t o* identity2 In addition6 some researchers have loo#ed at "ri#sonMs conce!t o* generativity2

I#entity in Early A#(lthoo# A longitudinal study by Jenni*er Pals and Ravenna Helson *ound that identity established in early adulthood is associated -ith stable marriage and high levels o* creativity2 Additional research by Helson and Pals *ound that -omen -ho had solid identity and high creative !otential at age 1/ -ere more li#ely than other -omen to have had a challenging and creative -or# e,!erience at age =12 2enerativity in &i#life Peo!le high in generativity should have a li*estyle mar#ed by creating and !assing on #no-ledge6 values6 and ideals to a younger generation6 and should bene5t *rom a !attern o* hel!ing younger !eo!le2 Research by )an (cAdams and colleagues *ound that adults at midli*e -ho contributed to the -ell$being o* young !eo!le had a clear sense o* -ho they -ere and -hat li*e had to o3er them2 Other research *ound that !eo!le high in generativity are ty!ically concerned -ith the -ell$being o* others2

LEARNIN2 THEORIES

KIDD"R: &"HAIORA% ADA%LI Overview of S'inner;s -ehavioral Analysis Bnli#e any theory discussed to this !oint6 the radical behaviorism o* &2 F2 #inner avoids s!eculations about hy!othetical constructs and concentrates almost e,clusively on observable behavior2 &esides being a radical behaviorist6 #inner -as also a determinist and an environmentalist4 that is6 he rejected the notion o* *ree -ill6 and he em!hasi8ed the !rimacy o* environmental inuences on behavior2 -io.ra+hy of -< F< S'inner &2 F2 #inner -as born in us?uehanna6 Pennsylvania in / years2 "ysenc# -as trained in the !sychometrically oriented !sychology de!artment o* the Bniversity o* %ondon6 *rom -hich he received a bachelorMs degree in /;@ and a Ph2)2 in /= -hen he joined the *aculty at &randeis2 He died t-o years later at age >/2 8elly;s Philoso+hi*al Position Kelly believed that !eo!le construe events according to their !ersonal constructs rather than reality2 Person as S*ientist Peo!le generally attem!t to solve everyday !roblems in much the same *ashion as scientists4 that is6 they observe6 as# ?uestions6 *ormulate hy!otheses6 in*er conclusions6 and !redict *uture events2 S*ientist as Person &ecause scientists are !eo!le6 their !ronouncements should be regarded -ith the same s#e!ticism as any other data2 "very scienti5c theory can be vie-ed *rom an alternate angle6 and every com!etent scientist should be o!en to changing his or her theory2 Constr(*tive Alternativis) Kelly believed that all our inter!retations o* the -orld are subject to revision or re!lacement6 an assum!tion he called constructive alternativism2 He *urther stressed that6 because !eo!le can construe their -orld *rom di3erent angles6 observations that are valid at one time may be *alse at a later time2

Personal Constr(*ts

Kelly believed that !eo!le loo# at their -orld through tem!lates that they create and then attem!t to 5t over the realities o* the -orld2 He called these tem!lates or trans!arent !atterns !ersonal constructs6 -hich he believed sha!e behavior2 -asi* Post(late Kelly e,!ressed his theory in one basic !ostulate and // su!!orting corollaries2  The basic !ostulate assumes that human behavior is sha!ed by the -ay !eo!le antici!ate the *uture2 S(++ortin. Corollaries  The // su!!orting corollaries can all be in*erred *rom this basic !ostulate: ./0 Although no t-o events are e,actly ali#e6 -e construe similar events as i* they -ere the same6 and this is KellyMs construction corollary2 .10 The individuality corollary states that because !eo!le have di3erent e,!eriences6 they can construe the same event in di3erent -ays2 .;0 The organi8ation corollary assumes that !eo!le organi8e their !ersonal constructs in a hierarchical system6 -ith some constructs in a su!erordinate !osition and others subordinate to them2 .0 The range corollary states that constructs are limited to a !articular range o* convenience4 that is6 they are not relevant to all situations2 .0 KellyMs e,!erience corollary suggests that !eo!le continually revise their !ersonal constructs as the result o* their e,!eriences2 .@0 The modulation corollary assumes that only !ermeable constructs lead to change4 concrete constructs resist modi5cation through e,!erience2 .0 The *ragmentation corollary states that !eo!leMs behavior can be inconsistent because their construct systems can readily admit incom!atible elements2

./0 The commonality corollary suggests that our !ersonal constructs tend to be similar to the construction systems o* other !eo!le to the e,tent that -e share e,!eriences -ith them2 .//0 The sociality corollary states that !eo!le are able to communicate -ith other !eo!le because they can construe those !eo!leMs constructions2 Eith the sociality corollary6 Kelly introduced the conce!t o* role6 -hich re*ers to a !attern o* behavior that stems *rom !eo!leMs understanding o*  the constructs o* others2 "ach o* us has a core role and numerous !eri!heral roles2 A core role gives us a sense o*  identity -hereas !eri!heral roles are less central to our sel*$conce!t2 A++li*ations of Personal Constr(*t Theory KellyMs many years o* clinical e,!erience enabled him to evolve conce!ts o* abnormal develo!ment and !sychothera!y6 and to develo! a Role 'onstruct Re!ertory .Re!0 Test2 A1nor)al Develo+)ent Kelly sa- normal !eo!le as analogous to com!etent scientists -ho test reasonable hy!otheses6 objectively vie- the results6 and -illingly change their theories -hen the data -arrant it2 imilarly6 unhealthy !eo!le are li#e incom!etent scientists -ho test unreasonable hy!otheses6 reject or distort legitimate results6 and re*use to amend outdated theories2 Kelly identi5ed *our common elements in most human disturbances: ./0 threat6 or the !erce!tion that oneMs basic constructs may be drastically changed4 .10 *ear6 -hich re?uires an incidental rather than a com!rehensive restructuring o* oneMs construct system4 .;0 an,iety6 or the recognition that one cannot ade?uately deal -ith a nesituation4 and .0 used a revised *orm o* the &arrett$%ennard to determine i* RogersMs *acilitative conditions related to success during cou!les thera!y2 He *ound that client$centered cou!les7 thera!y can bring about !ositive changes in cou!les6 and that some o* these changes lasted *or at least seven years a*ter thera!y2 Criti3(e of Ro.ers RogersMs !erson$centered theory is one o* the most care*ully constructed o* all !ersonality theories6 and it meets ?uite -ell each o* the si, criteria o* a use*ul theory2 It rates very high on internal consistency and !arsimony6 high on its ability to be *alsi5ed and to generate research6 and high$average on its ability to organi8e #no-ledge and to serve as a guide to the !ractitioner2 Con*e+t of H()anity Rogers believed that humans have the ca!acity to change and gro-$!rovided that certain necessary and suCcient conditions are !resent2 There*ore6 his theory rates very high

on o!timism2 In addition6 it rates high on *ree choice6 teleology6 conscious motivation6 social inuences6 and the uni?ueness o* the individual2

&ASLO%S HOLISTIC5DYNA&IC THEORY  Overview of &aslow;s Holisti*5Dyna)i* Theory Abraham (aslo-Ms holistic$dynamic theory holds that !eo!le are continually motivated by one or more needs6 and that6 under the !ro!er circumstances6 they can reach a level o*  !sychological health called sel*$actuali8ation2 -io.ra+hy of A1raha) H< &aslow Abraham H2 (aslo- -as born in De- Lor# in /@6 the oldest o* seven children o* Russian  Je-ish immigrants2 A*ter t-o or three mediocre years as a college student6 his -or# im!roved at about the time he -as married2 He received both a bachelorMs degree and a Ph2)2 *rom the Bniversity o* Eisconsin -here he -or#ed -ith Harry Harlo- conducting animal studies2 (ost o* his !ro*essional career -as s!ent at &roo#lyn 'ollege and at &randeis Bniversity2 Poor health *orced him to move to 'ali*ornia -here he died in / at age >12 &aslow;s 4iew of &otivation (aslo-Ms theory rests on 5ve basic assum!tions about motivation: ./0 the -hole organism is motivated at any one time4 .10 motivation is com!le,6 and unconscious motives o*ten underlie behavior4 .;0 !eo!le are continually motivated by one need or another4 .