Theories of IR
March 18, 2023 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
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The Classical Approaches-R Approaches-Realism ealism and Idealism (Liberalism). The Scientific Scientific RevolutionRevolution- Behavioural Approach, System Approach. Post-modernism, Post-mode rnism, Constructivism, Constructivism, Feminism. Second Lecture 2015
Key Concepts
What is Approach? Approach helps you to achieve your objectives or goals. Approach is used by social scientists for describing accurately and to discipline the things and ideas.
What is Theory?
Theory is speculation about what had happened. Theory is related to something happening or how to explain what
happens. It is an idea, or body of thoughts that attempts to explain, predict, or describe in any field of inquiry. inquiry.
“ A A set of hypotheses guessing a relationship
between variables or conditions advanced to describe, explain, predict a phenomena and make prescription about or how positive changes ought to be engineered”. A theory must contain following constituents; Observation Description
Explanation
Prediction
Model
Model helps you to understand the reality reality,, it helps you to construct your ideas. Anarchy
Literal meaning is ‘absence of government’ government’,, but it is often used as a synonym to ‘disorder’, disarray, confusion, or chaos. chaos. In its formal sense, it designate the lack of a central authority authority..
It is a feature of international system and it defines the socio/political framework in which IR occurs.
Security Dilemma
It arises from the situation of anarchy that states find themselves in.
states strive to increase their security by making alliances or by enhancing military capabilities that causes security dilemma among other states or state, which ultimately attracts rebalancing. Or state ate decreases the security of Steps taken to enhance the security of one st the other state.
Power (ability to influence) Population, Size, Territory, strategic location, source endowment, economic capability, capability, military strength, political stability, stability, technological advancement, skilled human resource, etc.
Balance of Power “An even distribution of power ”. ”.
“The equilibrium of the balance of power among states in such a way that no state has preponderance over other”. Why do we need theories in study of IR?
IR theory is the study of IR in theoretical perspective. It attempts to provide a conceptual framework upon which IR can be analysed. IR theories act as pair of sun glasses that allow where to see anything relevant to the theory.
Realism
Its roots can be traced to the E.H. Carr’s “twenty years crisis 1939”, Hans Morgenthau’s “Politics among Nations 1948”. Early IR was the study for the need of balance of Power system to be replaced by system of collective security, these thinkers were later described as idealists. The leading critique of the school was the realist analysis offered by E. H. Carr.
Realism or political realism is the dominant theory of IR Theory claims its roots with the writings of Thucydides, Machiavelli and Hobbes. Early realism can be characterized as the reaction against the inter-war (1919-1939) idealists idealists thinking. The outbreak of WWII …. Realists saw deficiencies in idealist thinking.
Statism Realists believe the states are the main actors of Int. system.
Realism Defined:
“A paradigm based on the premise that world politics is a struggle among self-interested states for power and position under anarchy , with each competing state pursuing its own national interests”.
International System is anarchical (claim) There is no world government or universal sovereign States have international independence
Basic Assumptions of Realism
A pessimistic view of human nature A conviction that IR I R are necessarily conflictual and conflicts are resolved by war. A high regards for the values of national security, statism, self-help, survival. Sovereign States are main actors, in competition with one another. Rational Decision-making in pursuit of national interest. Int. system is anarchic and conflict-prone where relative gains can be made in zero-sum situations. (Kashmir b/w Ind. Pak)
power to survive All Stateseconomic must pursue , amass resources; military, and political capability.
States balance against threats.
Morality has no place in Int. politics
Int. politics more important than domestic politics.
Value Relative over Absolute Gains
Human are preoccupied with their own well-being.
They desire to be in driving seat.
They love to enjoy edge over others and avoid being dominated by others.
Hans Morgenthau, Morgenthau, views men and women having ‘will to power’.
Especially in politics and Int. politics ‘politics is struggle for power over men’ Int. politics is power politics, arena of ‘rivalry ‘rivalry, ‘conflict conflict’’ and ‘war ‘war’’ among states.
Main objective of FP is to defend and project national interests in the world.
States struggle for domination and security. security.
Essentials of Realism Statism State principle actor Sovereignty is distinguishable trait
Sovereign state is bound to use force “Monopoly of legitimate use of force in given territory”, Max Webber
“We trade our liberty for guarantee of security”, Hobbes Once security is obtained – civil society starts Power cannot be exercised in a vacuum
Survival
In classical realism power is end in itself in neorealism power maximization is a mean to an end and end is survival.
Survival is pre-condition to other objectives. Kenneth Waltz, Waltz, “beyond the survival motive, motive, the aim of state may be endlessly varied”. Defensive realist Waltz believes states have security as their principle interest to ensure survival. Offensive realist J. Mearsheimer says states should go for maximum power to secure survival and hegemony. Machiavelli, “perpetuate rule and survival”.
Self Help
In int. system no state can be relied upon for the security. Realism rejects notion of peaceful co-existence because non-intervention is impossible to achieve. Security dilemma exists when military preparedness of one country creates uncertainties inpreparations the minds of are other Whether those forstates. defensive purpose. States finds it difficult to trust others.
Classical Realism
Is one of the traditional approaches of IR prior to 195060s. (science or non science?) It’s a thought of three outstanding realists of the past; 404 Greek historian Thucydides (Peloponnesian (Peloponnesian war 431 – 404 BC BC) ) Niccolo Machiavelli (Prince), (Prince . ), English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan). (Leviathan) Thucydides Naturalist in character, Aristotle said man is a ‘political animal’. Animals are different in terms of power so as the states. Power politics is law of human nature. Drive for power and will to dominate. Fear is cause of war, fear associated with the shift of balance of power.
Machiavelli Power (the Lion) and deception (the Fox) are the two essential means for the conduct of foreign policy.
Ruler should always seek advantage and defend its interests to
ensure survival. This requires strength, a weak state is easy prey to the aggression of other state.
Ruler must be a lion, cunning, if requires should become ruthless for
the self-interes self-interest. t. (examp (example???) le???) FP of Machiavelli is intelligent calculation of power and interests visà-vis competitors.
Ruler must not operate according according to Christian ethics; ethics; “Love thy neighbour”, beshare peaceful avoid except for a just cause, be charitable, your and wealth withwar others, act itinisgood faith, etc.
Hobbes
He refers pre-civil condition as ‘state ‘state of nature’. nature’.
Human circumstances is in permanent ‘state of war’ of every man against every man’. “War of all against all”. He believes escape route from ‘state of nature’ into a civilized human condition is maintenance of sovereign state.
Morgenthau
Men and women are borne to pursue power and enjoy fruits of the power.
He speaks about “animus “animus dominandi”, (Lust for Power)
Animus dominandi brings human into conflict with each other.
Morality can be compromised for state-craft, noted by Plato’s “noble lie” for the greater good of subjects by the rulers.
Neorealism
“A theory that emphasizes the iinfluence nfluence of the world power structure on the behaviour of the states within the global hierarchy defined primarily distribution of power ”. ”.
Advanced by Kenneth Waltz (Theory of Int. Politics 1979) Gives scientific IR theory, divorcing away from Human Nature by (unlike Morgenthau). Focuses on the structure of the system. Highlights relative distribution of power. States are primary actors in the system and necessarily preoccupied with the balance of power.
Actors are less important because structure compels them to act in a certain way, structure determine actions. (WoT and Pakistan’s inclusion) Basic feature of Int. system is decentralized system of anarchy. All states do the same job; collecting tax, conduct FP etc. despite having different ideologies, constitutions, human resources, and cultures. States differ in their varying degree of capabilities, e.g. US and Nepal.
International change occurs when great powers rise and fall and balance shifts accordingly. (USSR’s demise, from Bipolar to Unipolar) ‘the equal of all the Waltz that each state is formally none others,says none is entitled to command is required to obey’.
Classical realists view power as end in itself, whereas for neo-realists it is a means to the end and eventual end is state survival. Security competition, inter-state rivalry in the absence of overarching authority (anarchy).
Vicious cycle 1 Anarchic Structure
4 B.O.P
Internation al Structure
3 Power Maximiz ation
2 Security Dilemma
Offensive Realism
This rests on the assumption that great powers are always searching for opportunities to gain power over their rivals, with hegemony as their final goal. of great power politics) John Mearsheimer (tragedy agrees with Waltz on the question of Anarchy
However, he argues states seek regional hegemony.
Monroe Doctrine 1823.????
Hegemon states try hard to prevent the peer competitor in order to stay firm in its sphere of influence. (US V/S China)
US confronted Imperial Germany in WWI
Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in WWII
Soviet Union during Cold-War.
If any of these power had gained hegemony in Europe it would be free to intervene in Western Hemisphere. By this theory US will counter the t he rise of China in Asia Is US pursuing the containment policy for China????
Defensive Realism
Kenneth Waltz is a defensive realist who believes that state must and do seek power in order to be secure and survive.
But excessive power accumulation in counterproductive.
It provokes hostile alliances by other alliances that bring you down on your knees.
Therefore, it is fool hardy to strive for excessive power beyond that which is necessary for security and survival.
Revisionist States States that intend to change the balance of power Status Quo States
States that intends to live in the status quo
Liberalism
An optimistic approach to global politics based on the perfectibility of humankind, free trade, and democracy; focuses on individuals rather than states. Neoliberalism the school of liberals that believes in the critical role of international institutions in promoting global change, cooperation, peace and prosperity through collective programs. Idea Idealism lismliberals /utopianis /utopianism a termincoined by realistsof to ridicule whombelieve the importance international law, treaties, morality, and international institutions.
Liberals Assumptions and Liberal Strands Assumptions
Positive view of human nature Conviction cooperativethat human nature can be Belief in progress Liberal Strands
Sociological Liberals
Highlights transnational non-governmental ties among societies, individual and groups.
Interdependence Interdepend ence Liberals
Pay particular attention to economic ties of mutual exchange and dependence between people and governments
Institutional Liberals
Underscore the importance of organized cooperation
between states Republican Liberals
Argue that liberal democratic institutions and forms of government of vital importance cooperative are relations among states for peaceful
Roots of Liberalism
John Lock in 17th century saw great potential for Human progress, Civil society, Capitalist economy
Modernization started after scientific / industrial
revolution That was re-inforced re-inforced by liberal intellectual revolution that had faith in reason and rational.
Germy Bentham, “Greatest happiness for greatest number ,”. ,”.
Liberals have positive views, have faith in reason, and are convinced that rational principles be applied to Int. politics.
Also believe, that individuals share many interests and thus engage in collaborative and cooperative social action domestically and internationally. Conflict and war is not inevitable. When people employ reason they can achieve mutual benefits. Reason can triumph over human fear and lust for power Long term cooperation will prevail based on mutual trust. Because modernization continuously increasing the scope of cooperation.
Progress is core belief of Liberalism
Early Liberals (1920-30) were utopianists (LON)
WWII muted this optimism, Ke Keohane ohane noted that liberals were at the minimum belief at least cumulative progress.
Yet another surge came in 1945 (UNO)
Again Cold-War ended this euphoria.
Another tide of resurgence observed with the demise of USSR and end of cold-war. And propelled by Francis Fukuyama’s End of History – a universal victory of liberal democracy.
9/11, 7/7, Madrid Attack was set back for liberal optimism.
Liberal progress = Individual progress
Happiness and contentment of individuals.
Historical roots of Classical Liberalism
John Lock (1632-1704)
Bentham (1748-1832)
Kant (1724-180 (1724-1804) 4)
The rule of Law
Liberal States
Republics will establish
Respect Int. Law
perpetual peace
Neo-Liberalism
In contemporary Neo-liberalism debates David Baldwin (1993) identifies four Variants of Liberalism
Neo-Liberal Variants Commercial
Advocate free trade, market or capitalist economy, the way towards peace and prosperity. Promoted by MNCs. The neo-liberal orthodoxy is championed by Thomas Friedman (2005), he argues free trade, and private property rights will lead to a richer, innovative and more tolerant world.
Republican
Democratic states are more inclined to respect the rights of their citizens and are less likely to go to war with democratic neighbours. Democratic peace theory Republican and commercial liberalism combined form the FP of many major powers.
Sociological The notion of community and process of independence are important.
As transnational activities increase, people are linked and
they become interdependent. It becomes more difficult for states to act unilaterally.
Example, globalization dealing with popular culture and society. Liberal Institutionalism or Neo-liberal institutionalism This believes that independent states are required to have peace and prosperity so they can pool their resources and even surrender some sovereignty to create integrated communities, E.g. (EU)
EU regional community for the production of coal and steel.
EU regional community for the production of coal and steel.
The Scientif Scientific ic Revo Revolutio lutionn- Beh Behaviou avioural ral Approach and System Approach
Behaviouralist approach
Taking place in the 1960’s, this was essentially a methodological debate revolving around the belief of Behaviouralist that natural science method should be used in IR.
They [beh] believed that the field was too dominated by historians, who they labelled Traditionalists (or Classicists).
Behaviouralist focus was on the observation of systems under study, and any subsequent hypotheses and/or implying testing. of causality, should be subject to empirical
It has roots in i n positivism (natural science + social science) The debate was sparked because of fears amongst IR
community that their field of study was losing its battle to acquire the status of a science.
This debate brought traditionalists against Behavioura Behaviouralist, list, History V/S sciences. Historical approach traditionalists traditionalists and the scientific approach Behaviouralist.
Systems Approach
It places more emphasis on the complex interaction between and within states combining normative and empirical approaches to study IR. It does so by focusing on international systems which are interdependent interdepende nt and interrelated interrelated..
E.g. The UN system, individual nations, ethnic groups, individual voters, political parties, MNCs etc.
Post-modernism What is related to modernism?
Pre-modernism (Beginnings up to 1650's) few say pre 1500 era Epistemology. Revealed knowledge from authoritative
sources. In pre-modern times it was believed that Ultimate Truth could be known and the way to this knowledge is through direct revelation from God or gods.
Sources of Authority. The church, being the holders and interpreters of revealed knowledge.
Modernism (1500-1950's)
Epistemology. The first was empiricism (knowing through the senses).
The second epistemological approach of this period was reason or logic. Often, science and reason were collaboratively or in conjunction with each other.
Sources Authority . As theand shiftuniversities in power moved away from the of church to politics (scholars, professors).
Post-modernism (1950's to current times)
Epistemology. Post-modernism brought with it a questioning of the previous approaches to knowing.
Instead of relying on one approach to knowing, they advocate for an epistemological pluralism which utilizes multiple ways of knowing. (revelation revelation))
(science & reason) reason)
(intuition, relational, and spiritual) spiritual).
Defining Post-modernism
Jean Francois Lyotard “simplifying to the extreme, I define post modernism as incredulity (scepticism) towards meta-narratives” (1984: XXIV) ‘meta-narratives’ means any theory that asserts, it i t has clear foundation.
Post-modernism is essentially concerned with deconstructing and distrusting any account of human life that claims to have direct access to ‘the ‘the truth’. truth’.
It is an approach that is based above all on the claims, and focused on questioning of knowledge claims, exposing the linkages between knowledge creation and power. This is a concern that reflects the work of the postmodernist philosopher Foucault, who discussed the way in which power and knowledge create each other (they are mutually supportive).
Its significance in relation to IR
At the core of postmodernist thinking is a belief that the person studying international relations cannot be separated from the object of their studies. Post-modernists claim that neutrality can never be attained. Things like the social class, race and ethnicity, gender author all impinge i mpinge in some way on and how nationality knowledgeofis the created.
Constructivis Constructivism/Social m/Social Constructivis Constructivism m
It is not a theory, it is a set of assumptions, and it is an approach. Definition “Ideas define international structure, how structure shapes identities, interests, and foreign policy of states and non-state actors, and how state actors and states reshapes the structure”.
Constructivism on reality Reality does not exist independent of our understanding.
Reality is created and constructed. (Iraq WMDs, Taliban from Mujahedeen to Terrorist)
Logic on Anarchy “Anarchy is what states make of it.” Alexander Wendt
Constructivism
Anarchy is an effect of practice Neo-realism
Leading to conflict
neo-liberalism
leading to cooperatio cooperation n
According to Alexander Wendt, fundamental principle of this thought t hought is that people act towards objects and people on the basis of the meanings
that the objects have for them. E.g. battle Tank States act differently towards enemies and friends
Enemies are threatening and friends are not.
Anarchy is insufficient to tell us that. E.g.. N. Korean Atomic device and UK’s device what E.g it means to US.
Assumptions
Neither anarchy nor interdependence
Ideas, norms, identities, and beliefs
Identities are not determined by Int. structure rather it i t is produced by interaction and institutions.
Core Claims
States are principle unit of analysis
Structure in partly materialistic and partly made of Ideas.
State identities and interests are constructed by these social structures
Re-envisioning Security Before 1989, the United States felt threatened by the Soviet military. Today, this threat is perceived to be much lower. Why???
Realism: Russia is objectively weaker. Liberalism: Economic ties mitigate conflict. Constructivism: Nuclear weapons have not disappeared, but the threat perception (ideas) about them.
Ideas help construct a social environment, not just brute material forces.
US example … they are liberal by heart, believe in progress and democracy They act according to realpolitik and justify policies in terms
of liberal ideology.
Constructivism rejects materialistic world view (neorealism)
Realism and Liberalism claim to be the rational rati onal decision
making theories. Both realism and liberalism ignore social system
Rationalism also blinds us for the importance i mportance of norms and values Constructivism believes that we are not just making rational choices rather it depends on agents (people and groups) making decisions on their own.
It is human consciousness and its role in International life. Emerged after realism and liberalism failed to predict
Example;
1. Gorbachev terminated the cold war by withdrawing wi thdrawing from the contest or US defeated it?
Neorealism believes in the latter. The Soviet Union disappeared, because people stopped believing in it.
Neo realism “nature of the structure shapes actors’
behavior”. Liberalism “Behavior of the actors shapes the nature of Int. System”. Constructivism “Actors and system are mutually
constituted .
What are the implications of taking
Feminism
gender seriously in International Relations?
Terminologies
“Sex Sex” ” is the biological difference between “male” and “female” human.
“Gender Gender” ” is the social difference “between males’ and females’ roles or men’s and women’s personalities”
(Connell 2002:33)
FEMINIST THEORY
Feminism as an academic discipline grew out of Feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s- a movement dedicated to achieving po poli liti tica cal, l, so soci cial al an and d ec econ onom omic ic eq equa uali lity ty fo forr wo wome men. n.
Wom omen en ex expe peri rien ence cess ar are e sy syst stem emati atica calllly y di diff ffer eren entt fr from om men’s.
Alll so Al soci cial al re rela lati tion onss ar are e gendered.
Build Bui ld ema emanci ncipat patory ory Kno Knowle wledge dge..
Feminist IR scholars have also emphasized the importance of looking at how gender shapes the current global political economy.
women It Its expl dia ny astitoone ,n wdhiic istt in varying degree ins aex ll splai oains cins etie s, and tso ssueb eo krw t.h exis
Empirical Feminism
focus on women and /or explore gender as an
empirical dimension of international relations; Documented how male bias in the development process has led to poor implementation policy outcomes.of projects and unsatisfactory
Women are not only victim they are empowered by it.
Analytical Feminism
Uses gender as a theoretical category to reveal the gender bias of international Relations concepts and explain constitutive aspects of international relations.
Deconstruct the theoretical framework of IR Undermines the division between individual, state and international system
Normative Feminism
That reflects on the process of theorizing as part of a normative agenda for global social and political change.
Brings the experiences of women’s activism to bear on debates international ethics, humanitarian aid about and intervention and human rights instruments.
Foundation Work
Implications of taking gender seriously in International Relations
It dispels the assumption that Powers comes out from barrel of the gun, or ensues from the declaration of the statesman.
Feminism reconceptualization of power and attention to the margin of global politic have allowed IR to recognize and comprehend new political phenomena's More inclusive view of globalization
Being concerned to look for women in politics leads to gender-sensitive research designed to change the sort of knowledge produced about politics. Examples include:
evaluating the role of women in third world development; the effect on women of changed social policies in industrial societies; the gender-particular effects of the activities of international organizations; and the re-institutionalization of rigid gender divisions in the
post-Communist societies of central and east Europe.
Are the Key concepts of IR theory gendered?
Man, State, Power, Security……
1. Man. As you know, Realism and Liberalism see people as ratio ion nal, self-maximiz iziing acto torrs. But
is this an accurate model of humanity, ask feminist IR thinkers, or is it actually a model made by men about how some men operate in a particular context of relations between genders?
2. The State. Rather than conceive of the state as a reflection of sovereignty, some gender theorists see states as reflective of gender power, which acts on men an and d women to socialize narrow ve verrsions of gender iden id enti titi ties es in into to th them em..
Men are identified with the public realm as bringers of order, while women are id ide entified with private thinking or anarchy, which, of course, is in principle the source of threats to the international system in Realist and Libera Lib erall tho though ught. t.
3. Power. This is typically conceived as "powerover" in most IR theory: the ability of A to get g et B to do something B would not otherwise have done. But, say feminist IR theorists, this rests on the male-centered assumption that autonomy equals being free from the direct influence of others.
An alternative view of power is to focus on the ways in which the rules of the game are organized in advance of 'power-over'. Power is then a much broader and more significant
thing altogether in feminist IR theory.
role le of deterr terren ence ce in creat reatin ing g stab tabililit ity y 5. Se Secu curi rity ty. The ro in anarchy is rejected as an adequate definition of security by feminist IR theorists. Realism is seen as endangering by elevating a male concern with power-over to the supreme value of the global system.
Security: Defined broadly in multidimensional and multil mul tileve evell terms. terms. Securrity Secu ity of in indi divi vidu dual alss is rela relate ted d to na nati tion ona al and and internation inter national al politics politics Security threats include: domestic violence, rape, poverty, gender subordination, ecological
destructi destru ction, on, war Those at the margins of states may be rendered more mo re in inse secu cure re by the their state’s sec securi urity ty polici policies es
War and Feminism
Much of the legitimacy of war is i s based on the cultural construction that men fight wars to protect ‘vulnerable people’ Yet, women and children constitute a majority of casualties in recent wars Feminists highlight: Militaries are often threats to individuals’ (particularly women’s) security and competitors for scarce resources on which women may depend more than men Wartime rape as a deliberate military strategy
Conclusion
The three most important about feminist IR theory in general:
1. the central claim is that gen gender der is a soc social ial issue issue and not a biological one; 2. the rejection of fixed elements or structures in IR theory (such as anarchy); and 3. passionate interest in the possibilities for change in world politics.
Questions for probing
Why do Realists claim that states must pursue power or that morality has no place in world politics?
Why is international politics seen as more important than domestic politics by Realists?
Why states are obsessed with Balance of Power?
Does Anarchy really make conflict inevitable?
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