Theories of Development

 

Review of Theories of Development Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development  Development   Piaget said,” The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generation have done. “  “  Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He described four stages of Piaget’s theory cognitive development, namely the sensory motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational and formal-operational stages. Each has characteristics ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive abilities develop.  develop.   Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development  Development   children will not fear life if their elders have Erickson said, “Healthy “Healthy integrity enough not to fear death.”  death.”   He believed the impact of the significant others in the development of one’s view one’s  view of himself, life and of the world. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Socio-cultural Theory Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work development in the child but on tomorrow’s.”  tomorrow’s.”   Vygotsky of social interaction in learning and development.

not on yesterday’s emphasized the role

Scaffolding is the systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner learne r that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill. He believed that guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner to a higher level of performance than if he were alone. This higher level of performance performance then eventually becomes the learner’s actual performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal development. (ZPD) illustrates this. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development  Development  Kolhberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”  society.”   Kolhberg proposed three levels of moral development namely pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional and these are further subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kolhberg believed that one’s cognitive development influenced the development of one’s moral reasoning Freud’s Personality and Psychosexual Development  Development  one- seventh of its bulk of water.” This is of Freud said “The “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when he experience the subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is not what we see in the outside and what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s personality, the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality-centered and the superego, Which is related to the ego ideal or conscience.

 

Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs ,and failure to do so results in fixations . Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory  Theory   Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment. The environment.  The model is composed of microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term “biological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her development. The child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his/her immediate family/community environment and the social landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.

 

Cognitive Development evelopment i n Adol escence escence Perspectives and Advancements in Adolescent Thinking Two Perspectives on Adolescent Thinking 1. Constructivist Perspective - Cognitive improvement improvement is relatively relatively sudden and drastic. 2. Information-Processing Perspective - Cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components. Five Areas Areas of Improvements in Basic Thinking Ab ilit ies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Attention - improvements are seen seen in selective selective attention Memory - Improvements are seen in working and long-term memory Processing S Speed peed - Improves between age five five and middle adolescence Organization - Adolescents are more aware of their own thought Metacognition - Adolescents can think think about thinking itself. itself.

 ADULT  ADUL T LEA RNING THEORIES 1. Andragogy means the art and science of teaching adults, as opposed to pedagogy, which is the art and science of teaching children. 2. Self-directed Learning (developed in 1997 by D.R. D.R. Garrison) - It folds in c concepts oncepts of how adults self-manage, creating a theory with the premise that the adult learner: Takes the initiative to understand what they need to learn. 3. Transformational Learning (Jack Mezirow in 1978)  

This theory, theory, is concerned with with the ability to use le learning arning to transform the way that the learner views the world.

 

This theory posits that that through a teacher introducing new new concepts, challenging assumptions, and disrupting perspectives, a learner:

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4. Experiential Learning ( 70’s by David Kolb)  Kolb) - It centers hands-on learning and uses experiences to demonstrate concepts. 5. Project-based Learning (John Dewey in 1897), centers around the idea of learning by doing, usually as a group. The theory posits that learners: Acquire knowledge in a more holistic and deep fashion when they actively explore a real-world issue. 6. Action Learning ( Reg Revans in 1982) concerned with solving problems while simplifying solutions, often in a group dynamic. In Action learning theory, learners: Follow a process of asking questions about the problem to better understand it, reflecting on what possible po ssible solutions might be, identifying the best one, and then finally taking action. 7. Behaviorism ( B. F. Skinner in the 40’s), behaviorism 40’s), behaviorism theorizes that people learn through being conditioned, using stimulus, reward, and punishment.

 

This theory proposes that the learner:  

Gains information in response to stimuli.

 

Benefits from from instruction instruction that that repeats and reinforces reinforces information information while the learner learner passively receives it.

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8. Cognitivism - Acquires knowledge by combining both old and new information together in a holistic fashion.   Receives information, processes it, and organizes it according to existing knowledge to better be able to recall it later. •

9. Constructivism - This theory states that knowledge is created not by transmission from instructor to the learner, but rather by a learner creating meaning for themselves. 10.Social learning theory ( Albert Bandura in the 70’s), this theory combined behaviorism and   cognitivism. Social learning theory presumes that learners: Will gain information by combining their own o wn experiences with observations of the rewards and punishments that others receive for their actions.