The_Ghurid_Empire_Warfare_Kingship_and_P.pdf

The Ghūrid Empire: Warfare, Kingship, and Political Legitimacy in Eastern Iran and Northern India

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Middle Eastern and African History, Tel Aviv University

by Michael P. O’Neal [email protected] Advisor: Professor Moshe Gammer June 2013

© 2013 by Michael P. O’Neal All rights reserved.

In memory of Professor Moshe Gammer

Contents Abstract Preface & Acknowledgments Technicalities

v vii ix

INTRODUCTION: Themes and Structure

1

PART I: Political and Military History CHAPTER 1: The Study of Ghūrid History: Sources and Historiography 1.1 Sources for Ghūrid History 1.2 Historiography: Interpretations of Ghūrid History

9 9 22

CHAPTER 2: Historical Overview I: The Rise of the Shansabānids 2.1 The Early History of Ghūr 2.2 The Ghaznavid Conquest and Conversion to Islam 2.3 Ghaznavid Decline and Shansabānid Expansion

31 33 43 48

CHAPTER 3: Historical Overview II: The Zenith of the Ghūrid Empire 3.1 Expansion to the East and the Conquests in India 3.2 The Struggle for Khurāsān 3.3 Dissolution of the Empire

58 59 86 100

PART II: Warfare, Kingship, and Ghazā CHAPTER 4: The Ghūrids at War: The Army and Its Components 4.1 Ethic Components: Ghūrīs, Turks, Khalaj, Iranians, and Indians 4.2 Infantry and Cavalry, Weapons and Armor 4.3 Elephants and Castles

105 108 134 147

CHAPTER 5: The Ghūrids and Perso-Arabic Islamic Kingship 5.1 Clan Politics and the Appanage System 5.2 Ghūrid Absolutism and Royal Justice 5.3 The Karrāmiyya, the Ismāʿīlīs, and the Ḥanafī and Shāfiʿī madhhabs 5.4 Ghūrid Titulature and Symbols of Sovereignty 5.5 Indic Forms of Kingship under Muʿizz al-Dīn

154 155 160 172 177 182

CHAPTER 6: The Ghūrids and the “Ghāzī Thesis” 6.1 Wittek’s “Ghāzī Thesis” Revisited 6.2 Ghazā and Jihād: The Concept of Holy War in the Ghūrid Sources 6.3 Early Ghūrid Expansion: A Revival of Ghazā Ideology? 6.4 The Legacy of Muʿizz al-Dīn: Ghazā on Two Frontiers 6.5 Who Were the Ghūrids’ Ghāzīs? 6.6 The Title “Ghāzī”

190 192 195 200 208 217 221

CONCLUSIONS: Warfare, Ghazā, and Political Legitimacy

228

Appendix A Appendix B

233 237

Appendix C Appendix D Bibliography

Glossary of Selected Terms Selected Maps Map 1: Ghūr and Surrounding Areas (ca. 950–1200) Map 2: Central Asia and India in the Ghūrid Era (ca. 1200) Genealogical Chart of the Ghūrid Dynasty A Chronology of Ghurid Titulature, Laqabs, and Epithets

241 243 255

Abstract

The Shansabānid dynasty of Ghūr (ca. 545–612/1150–1216) emerged from the mountains of Afghanistan to become a world power stretching from the Oxus River in Central Asia to the Ganges delta in Bengal. This study seeks to answer a central question in the Ghūrid expansion: How did the Ghūrid sultans seek to legitimate their rule and thus mobilize military support in the creation of their empire? It is commonly assumed that the ideology of ghazā played a central role in this process, but this thesis has not yet been systematically analyzed. The Ghūrids’ claims about their actions are reconstructed through an analysis of epigraphy, numismatics, historical chronicles, and other literary works. A special emphasis is placed on those works produced under Ghūrid patronage or by authors living under Ghūrid rule. The analysis suggests that the promotion of ghazā was a late development incidental to the ongoing wars of conquest. On the contrary, situated within the highly fractured religious and political milieu of the eastern Iranian world and becoming in time rulers of all of northern India, the Ghūrids required multiple strategies of political legitimation that varied in time and place: besides the image of the Muslim warrior-king, the Ghūrid rulers also projected themselves and appeared to their followers as Ghūrī chieftains, as traditional Perso-Arabic Islamic rulers, and as Indian rājas. This thesis contributes both to the debate over the meaning and importance of ghazā in Islamic history and to a growing body of recent research on the Ghūrids which is enriching our knowledge of the various forms of political legitimacy in the medieval Muslim world.

abstract | v

Preface & Acknowledgments

This study arose out of what seemed like a simple question when I first formulated it: in what ways, or to what extent, is the paradigm of Paul Wittek’s famous “ghāzī thesis” on the rise of the Ottomans applicable to another time and place in the Muslim world, sc. the Ghūrid Empire, whose raison d’être has been portrayed by many scholars as the conquest of northern India? Wittek’s thesis has of course been the subject of both criticism and defense over the three-quarters of a century since it was first proposed, with some of the most significant contributions to the debate arising in the last two decades. When Linda Darling suggested that a “comparative context” was needed to frame the debate properly, the Ghūrids appeared to me as an obvious candidate for such a treatment. Professor Darling’s challenge thus seemed like a good idea for a master’s thesis, i.e. a first attempt at demonstrating sufficient “mastery” over a body of secondary literature. And yet it soon became apparent to me that I had begun a much greater undertaking than I had initially anticipated. The types of evidence adduced in the debate over the rise of the Ottomans—the structure of society, the makeup of military forces, the role of popular and orthodox religions, the dynastic claims and official titulature of the rulers, to name but a few—are not easily collected in the case of the Ghūrids and have not been subjected to systematic analysis. The paucity of our sources, literary and otherwise, has been a persistent culprit in this regard. Afghanistan’s inaccessible terrain and unstable political conditions have for more than three decades prevented indepth study of the Ghūrid heartlands, which doubtless hold many important archaeological clues yet to be uncovered. Furthermore, the great geographical expanse of the empire and the multiplicity of traditions within its bounds present particular challenges of their own. The sheer scale of the skills necessary for success in Ghūrid studies is indeed daunting—and well beyond what I have been able to acquire in preparing this thesis. The well-tooled scholar needs proficiency in a number of Islamic, Western, and Indic languages, expertise in numismatics and epigraphy, archaeological and arthistorical competence, deep knowledge of historical geography from the Iranian plateau to Bengal, methodological sophistication, and a broad and sensitive historical understanding of the preceding and succeeding periods in Iran, Central Asia, and India. Given these daunting challenges it is hardly surprising that the Ghūrids still await the masterly synthesis they surely deserve. Needless to say,

preface & acknowledgments | vii

this thesis is not that synthesis but merely a halting, first attempt to come to grips with a small selection of source materials on a difficult subject. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of Professor Moshe Gammer, who served as my advisor up until his untimely death just weeks before I submitted the final version. Professor Gammer was everything one could seek in an advisor; besides his keen interest in my work and his gentle encouragement, he also provided me the opportunity to use this research as a platform to meet many other scholars. The very model of humane and refined scholarship, he is sorely missed. In the course of writing I have naturally and joyfully incurred a number of other debts. Professor Michal Biran, Dr. Yehoshua Frenkel, and Professor Ron Sela all read or heard early versions of parts of this research and provided much needed and greatly appreciated criticism. A special word of thanks is owed to Professor Linda Darling, who not only provided the intellectual impetus for this entire study, but also graciously read and commented on early portions of my research. I must also express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Douglas Streusand, a mentor who introduced me to the delightful complexity and variety of Islamic history, who first showed me the allure and importance of the eastern Persian lands, and who, by his example and encouragement, has been an intellectual beacon ever since. Tremendous assistance has been provided by the staff of the Library of Congress and the British Library. I am especially grateful for the cheerful patience and helpfulness shown to a demanding patron by the Interlibrary Loan department of the Sourasky Central Library at Tel Aviv University. Finally, what I owe to the great number of scholars who have enriched the study of the eastern Islamic lands and northern India in the medieval period will be readily apparent in the following pages. Here I must make particular mention of two scholars whom I have never had the good fortune to meet but without whom this thesis simply could not have been written. Professors C. Edmund Bosworth and Peter Jackson have provided models of erudition and careful scholarship to which I can only aspire, and doubtless much of what may be creditable in this study is simply a result of my following in their paths. Despite having such illustrious guides, I recognize that there are likely many errors and shortcomings in this thesis for which I alone am responsible. I hope one day to have the circumstances to enable me to revisit this whole endeavor. In the meantime, I welcome any comments or criticisms which my work undoubtedly deserves.

viii | preface & acknowledgments

Bibliography This Bibliography contains a listing of all items consulted in the preparation of this thesis. To avoid overly cumbersome footnotes, many journal names and all primary literary sources are abbreviated as set forth below. In those cases where either the full title of a work or its author’s name does not appear in the cited edition or translation, this missing information is listed first beside the abbreviation. Translations into languages other than English are indicated by Fr. for French and Ger. for German. The definite article (“al-”) has been disregarded in alphabetizing both names and titles whereas prepositions (“von”) have not. I. SELECTION OF JOURNALS AND PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED AEMA ASI BGA BSO[A]S CAJ CHIr 4 CHIr 5 CHIn 4:1 CHIn 5 EI1 EI2 EI3 EIn EIr EW HCCA 4:1 HJAS HPL 10 IA IC IGI IJMES IOS IQ Iran: JBIPS IS JA JAOS JASB JESHO JNES JNSI JPS JRAS JSAI RCEA SI TAVO ZDMG

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