The World of Catasetums (Arthur W. Holst)

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Mention of trademark, proprietary product, or vendor does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the publisher or authors and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products or vendors.

Copyright © 1999 by Arthur W. Holst All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-88192-430-X

Printed in Hong Kong

Published in 1999 by Timber Press, Inc. The Haseltine Building 133 S.W. Second Avenue, Suite 450 Portland, Oregon 97204, U.S.A.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Holst, Arthur W. The world of catasetums / Arthur W. Holst. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88192-430-X 1. Catasetums. I. Title. SB409.8.C36H65 1999 635.9'344dc21 98-52376 CIP 2

Contents Foreword by Carl L. Withner…………………………………………………………………………………………4 Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………...6 Chapter 1 Popularity of Catasetums………………………………………………………………………..13 Chapter 2 History of the Genus Catasetum………………………………………………………………...16 Chapter 3 General Characteristics of Catasetums…………………………………………………………31 Chapter 4 The Miracle of Pollination……………………………………………………………………..40 Chapter 5 Environmental Knowledge as the Key to Successful Culture…………………………………46 Chapter 6 Growth Cycle of Catasetums…………………………………………………………………..54 Chapter 7 Culture of Catasetums………………………………………………………………………….59 Chapter 8 Description of Species………………………………………………………………………….86 Chapter 9 Hybrids and Breeding Trends by Gene Monnier………………………………………………………………………………………...249 Chapter 10 Fragrances of Catasetums by Harold G. Hills, Norris H. Williams, and W. Mark Whitten……………………………….264

Foreword The genus Catasetum, with from 50 to more than 100 species or, depending on the source consulted, with 70 species and 10 natural hybrids, is yet unknown ground for most orchidists. 3

But the estimation of species numbers is only one indication of a poorly known genus. Another is the story of male and female plants, or flower stalks with both male and female flowers, that have been described as different species by botanists who struggled to make these plants fit the usual taxonomic orchid cubbyhole. Beside their sexual proclivities, which are as fascinating as the dimorphic flower types found on the same or different plants, catasetums are unusual in the orchid world for their trigger mechanism and forcefully projected pollinia. I have always felt a little sorry for the bees whose eyes and heads become covered with the tightly glued-on pollinaria. How can they possibly do a good job while going from flower to flower? A flurry of interest followed catasetums when Clowesia was segregated as a separate genus, and the hybrid Catanoches Rebecca Northen, registered by J. W. Furrow in 1973, came to the fore. Another and larger flurry developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s in response to Pierre Couret's writings and experiments with the various color forms of the large and spectacular flowers of Catasetum pileatum. Couret's observations were amplified and commercialized first by Jones and Scully in Miami, Florida. For a while other species were tried as parents in hybrids, especially C. tenebrosum for its ability to intensify colors, but the interest in catasetums gradually simmered down to a ground level. A modern resurgence of interest in Catasetum species is happening in Brazil, the major home territory of the genus. Although cata setums are also found in Andean orchid habitats and then northward as far as Mexico, orchidists can now look to Brazil for further information on the genus. In this book we learn of the new Brazilian Catasetum growers association with its 200 enthusiastic members and their activities and promotion of the genus and its near relatives. The association estimates that there are now about 130 species in the genus. Arthur Holst, a linguist who speaks Portuguese among other languages, has traveled many times in Brazil. He also grows orchids in Virginia in the United States and, with Fred Hillerman, is co-author of An Introduction to the Cultivated Angraecoid Orchids of Madagascar published by Timber Press in 1987. Arthur was swept up in the early beginnings of the new Brazilian Catasetum growers association and converted his greenhouse accordingly. He did this not because his previous orchids grew poorly, but because the catasetums grew better and fascinated him completely! Arthur has written the present volume to let the rest of the orchid world know what catasetums have to offer. He has itemized and described about 100 species, including their history, the tales about them, their use in creating hybrids, and how best they may be grown. Whatever your orchid interest may be, you will be on the ground floor with this first book on the 4

genus. But beware, you should read it only if you too are willing to run the risk of converting part of your greenhouse to the culture of catasetums. CARL L. WITHNER

Preface I am not a botanist, much less a taxonomist. I admit only to being a hobbyist who has never been so excited about any orchids in almost 25 years of growing them as I am about these fascinating catasetums. I plead guilty to having shunned them for years, unwilling to spend the 5

time needed to overcome cultural problems, in spite of their obvious merits. My enthusiasm has given birth to the idea of writing this book, although looking back, I vastly underestimated the scope of the project, unaware of the need for a completely new look at the culture of these plants and oblivious to the multitude of stunning species lurking in virtual obscurity. To supplement my growing experience I have spent myriad hours researching the literature, gathering corroborative and supplementary information from Catasetum growers worldwide, and making annual trips to Catasetumland. What I have come up with is a consensus of information, but only after sifting through the many conflicting opinions and even disinformation that have characterized the treatment of these plants in the past. And today, seemingly more than ever, many growers are unwilling to divulge where they found a prize plant. Let me emphasize from the beginning that this volume is only a grower's helpmate. Complete taxonomical coverage of the genus would indeed be a truly daunting task, with nearly 130 species now considered valid, new ones still being described, and reclassification in the offing for several perplexing ones. Consequently, my work makes no claim of covering all aspects of my favorite plants, but focuses rather on matters of specific interest to the grower, with emphasis on identification and culture and touching on history. It was almost comical, while I was researching this project, to see how otherwise knowledgeable, respected botanists erred in their assessments of this strange genus of orchids that defied the traditional hermaphrodism (perfect flowers) of other orchids. Apparently these individuals could not believe their eyes and ears when they observed or heard reports of flowerings that differed so drastically from their preconceived ideas of orchid behavior. As a result, for a century and a half the botanical literature was replete with descriptions of plants placed in one species or genus because of the male flowers and another species or genus because of the female flowers. Thus I had to wade through multitudes of epithets, sorting out and discarding as redundant varieties that appeared to be mere color variations and species that were described because of a solitary, aberrant plant never to be found again. This was no small task. I also searched in Brazil for many intriguing species existing only in the literature. Furthermore, among the plants I had to work with, not every one fit into a neat little category. Many intermediate forms exist and numerous natural hybrids, which add to the disorder in this genus. As a result of this confusion, past and present, the list of synonyms at first seems endless. I soon understood why no one else has attempted a monograph on this intriguing but bewildering genus!

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Because I believe that most orchid enthusiasts read books very selectively and spend the bulk of their time thumbing through pages to locate those with pictures, I have made photos and drawings an important part of my presentation. I also believe that many readers are turned off by anything containing more than a modicum of technical terminology. That is why I have restricted my use of botanical jargon mainly to plant descriptions, where its use is essential for reliable identification. Of course, even there such language can be as tedious and painful as gazing at photos is pleasurable. Every now and then the reader may sense an innate desire on my part to educate, to encourage making an obscure term a part of one's active vocabulary, just as I have forced myself to do. Conversance with a certain amount of terminology peculiar to plant morphology is the only way to gain an adequate understanding of the various processes of growth, flowering, and reproduction of these orchids. I strongly encourage the serious reader to study botany enough to make basic terminology second-nature. I assume in this book that serious growers like to have a basic knowledge of their plants' background, besides information sufficient for identification and successful culture, to enable them to speak with some authority about their favorites. Thus I consider history, geographical distribution, habitat, synonyms, and so forth to be relevant. The suggested pronunciation of species names reflects my preference. Although these suggestions generally are tailored to American speech habits, they follow strictly neither the Reformed Academic nor the Traditional English rules for the pronunciation of Latin. After all, there is no single correct way to pronounce Latin or Latinized words, and no one can be accused of incorrect pronunciation as long as it is understandable. Brazilians are influenced by the standard pronunciation of Portuguese words just as other Latin Americans are by Spanish. Thus Latins do not say "kat-uh-SEE-tum," but rather "kah-tah-SEH-tum," and their speech patterns carry over to species names. For example, perhaps unaware of how the proper name Gardner is pronounced in English-speaking countries, they tend to enunciate the species name of Catasetum gardneri as "gard-NAY-ree." I expect to get some negative comments from my consistent preference for the use of the broad a, as in bar-BAH-tum, but that is my choice, and I usually give an alternative. Since I cultivate most of the species described in this volume, I have based the descriptions on my plants (usually one selected from among several to many), except in a few instances when the flowering of the species did not coincide with my schedule. I much prefer to describe plants I grow, as descriptions in the literature are often unreliable, not infrequently having been based on a specimen of dubious identity or even a natural hybrid.

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Naturally, much time and attention will be paid to those species bearing more familiar names (both those that are beautiful or spectacular and those that are popular due to availability), but equal emphasis will be placed on attractive unknowns. I have tried to weed out alleged species based on aberrations from those that are part of a real population. When growers in Brazil, for example, are unfamiliar with a species described back in the nineteenth century, it is a sure bet that it is not presently considered a valid species, but a brush fire that soon died out. I shall leave to the taxonomists complete freedom to argue the ultimate validity of individual species. Those included and described here are the ones deemed valid by most of the growers consulted. I am equally skeptical of varieties that have been described on the basis of a single specimen rather than an entire population. Thus, for the sake of completeness, I have often listed without comment many formally described varieties, reserving more detailed treatment for those varieties that are known and recognized today. I have found that most growers, especially those in the country where a species was originally discovered, prefer to disregard formal names and instead use terms such as "the yellow form of Catasetum fimbriatum." Many so-called Catasetum varieties were based on plants introduced into cultivation in Europe that showed differences in coloration and nothing more. Vegetative and even floral characteristics of Catasetum species vary so much, depending on the habitat of a particular population in the wild, the climatic conditions prevailing during the previous growing season, the age of the plant, and culture under artificial conditions, that it is often difficult to come up with a description of what could be considered a typical specimen. I have in this volume described plants from my collection that I believe to be typical, and I have indicated major discrepancies with descriptions in the literature and differences in other known clones. I dislike seeing abbreviations used for the names of the orchid authorities appended to species names, as I do abbreviations of orchid journals and other works. Thus in this volume I have endeavored to write these names out in full whenever possible. I am convinced that the abbreviations are meaningless to most non-botanists. For practical reasons, dimensions of small parts such as floral segments are given in centimeters or millimeters. Dimensions of larger parts such as the length of the inflorescence are given in inches and centimeters. Distances are given in miles and kilometers, while altitudes are given in feet and meters. When the dimensions of pseudobulbs, leaves, flower segments, and flowers are provided, the length will always be given first, followed by the width.

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To provide the best possible photographs of the various species and their natural habitats, I have received permission from several growers and photographers to use their photos. All illustrations not credited to others are my own. The reader will have to excuse the quality of some photos of rare plants that could be taken only under less than studio conditions. The flowering seasons indicated for the various species are a composite of my observations and those suggested in the literature. These can vary somewhat with the growing conditions. If the culture is to their liking, many species flower unpredictably at almost any time of the year, or again, even successively, after their normal flowering season. Instead of grouping species by affinities, I have chosen to alphabetize them to make it easier for the reader to locate a desired description. Recognizing similarities among species is important, however. Although I do not provide complete lists of species included in so-called alliances or complexes, because these can be highly controversial, I do mention clear affinities. Many authors have attempted to place catasetums in sections based mainly on their flowering season. Germán Carnevali (1990) is one example. Such systems may be generally valid, but because of the many exceptions to the rule and much overlapping, I have decided that individual treatment of the species is preferable. Bringing older spellings of proper names into harmony with accepted modern practice sometimes has been a challenge for me in preparing this manuscript. For example, at least two different versions of the name of the famous orchid collected Josef von Rawicz Warszewicz are found in the literature, and epithets honoring him are spelled in no fewer than seven ways, depending on the preference of the original author. H. G. Reichenbach alone used three spellings. I follow Brummitt and Powell (1992) in the spelling of his name as a person, but have decided to use a more commonly encountered spelling of epithets derived from it. Thus the reader will find Clowesia warscewiczii, a species mentioned frequently in chapter 9, spelled consistently though differently than his name as a collector. My treatment of author names generally follows Brummitt and Powell, while for plant names extensive use has been made of Index Kewensis, of course, and the Gray Card Index. The latter is part of the Index Herbariorum, a Harvard database which also includes other valuable information such as names and dates for plant collectors. The most useful resource of all, however, specifically on catasetums, is Romero and Jenny's 1993 checklist, and the authors are to be commended for their painstaking effort in compiling it. Over the years I have learned to be skeptical of suggestions from others involving radical changes in orchid culture, no matter how well intentioned they may be. As an orchid grower, I always experiment on a limited scale before implementing a new practice. Some - times a new 9

idea pans out, but more often it proves to be a fad that dies young. When I became immersed in growing catasetums, however, I also became convinced that there had to be a better way to grow them than by following the accepted criteria for all plants of the genus, even though the standard guidelines acknowledged the plants' dormancy. It slowly dawned on me that certain species showed a need for different treatment regarding temperature, light, watering, and potting. That realization led to my study of climatic and ecological conditions in the plants' habitats and experimentation with watering and its correlation with potting and other, more exotic forms of culture. I found that some strong-growing species and hybrids usually present in collections were capable of surviving conventional potting and commonly used mixes, while less robust plants often languished. After considerable trial and error, I learned that the root systems of the plants that languished were being smothered. That realization brought forth the new cultural suggestions contained in this volume, although ample coverage of conventional growing practices is also provided. Catasetums are now among the easiest orchids to grow if a few simple rules are followed. If these plants are treated like other orchids or grown strictly following the older cultural precepts, however, they can be among the most frustrating. What was needed is a cultural revolution, and that is what this volume is all about. Catasetums offer an astonishing diversity of flower shapes and colors. Not every species will be the reader's cup of tea. If a given plant seems to have humdrum flowers, it undoubtedly offers other, redeeming qualities. Perhaps the grower's only past familiarity with catasetums has been with artificial hybrids. If so, I will be forgiving if every now and then, in a weak moment, such a grower forsakes purist tendencies and settles for an ''unnatural." After seeing the eyepopping array of species on the menu of this volume, however, I will be surprised if a grower needs anything else. Nonetheless, I have asked hybridizing expert Gene Monnier to present his case in a separate chapter. To me, the realm of orchid fragrances, including those of catasetums, was always a subjective, superficial human reaction to scent. I have been as pleasantly surprised as the reader will undoubtedly be to find that Catasetum fragrances can be identified scientifically. The research of Harold Hills, Norris Williams, and Mark Whitten, presented in a separate chapter, reveals an entirely new world to us. I thank the many hobbyists, growers, and botanists who have contributed to the production of this volume: Pat Brennan of Brennan's Orchids for helpful growing information over the years; Weyman Bussey for providing a piece of the rare Mexican Catasetum pendulum; Eric A. Christenson for his perspective on Peruvian species; Chuck Clouse of Chuck's Orchids for cultural information and plants for trade; Dr. Paulo Criscuolo Jr. for help in obtaining Brazilian and Ecuadorean plants; John German, a Florida grower, for his ideas on 10

culture; Keith Hall, a Florida orchid judge with comprehensive orchid expertise; Mary Hannah for artistic suggestions and drawings; Cheyenne Kim, an expert grower who manages the Smithsonian Institution orchid collection and was a companion on orchid travels to Brazil; Russ LaFollette, a veteran grower who provided helpful suggestions over the years and is also a veteran of field trips in Brazil; John Law, a world traveler and experienced orchidist from the Southwest; Mário Arruda Mendes for providing copies of articles in old Brazilian orchid reviews; Lee Moore for providing first-hand information on, and photos of, the rare Peruvian Catasetum moorei; Tom Nasser of Clemson Orchids for his plants and expertise; Bert Pressman for cultural information and suggestions; Alvin Rothenberger of the Millpond Conservatory and an expert grower and occasional traveling companion; Ruth L. Schallert, a botanical librarian at the Smithsonian Institution, for helpful attention and bibliographic know-how; Steve Shifflett of Floradise Orchids for plants and growing information; William Louis Stern for his advice on botanical terminology; and Jack Webster for his plants and counsel. Special appreciation is extended to Katharine B. Gregg, for her useful suggestions, photographs, and drawing; Harold G. Hills for his wealth of information and for co-authoring the chapter on fragrances; Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. for his generous hospitality and authoritative information on Brazilian catasetums and their habitats, and for first alerting me to the possibility of assigning distinct climatic-ecological zones to Catasetum species; Manabu Matida, talented photographer of the Associação Brasileira de Cultivadores de Catasetíneas (ABRACC), the Brazilian Catasetum growers association, for permission to use his photographs; Lou C. Menezes, Brazilian botanist and my peerless guide on research trips, for many photos, much information, and continuing assistance in interacting with Brazil and its people; Gene Monnier of JEM Orchids for his stockpile of growing and hybridizing knowledge turned into a notable chapter in this book; Fred Paget of Circle Orchids for the use of his many superlative slides and information gained from long experience with growing the Catasetinae; Alexis Pardo Isla for his unique perspective on Venezuelan catasetums and their habitats, and for the use of his exceptional slides; Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos, a founder of ABRACC and editor of its newsletter, for sharing his plants, experience in growing Brazilian catasetums, and photographs; Gustavo A. Romero for sharing his taxonomic expertise in spite of an exceedingly busy schedule, and especially for his invaluable checklist of Catasetum taxa compiled with Rudolf Jenny; Antonio Schmidt of Chácara Bela Vista for plants, an abundance of information on-the Brazilian species and habitats, and hospitality over the years; John Sherwood of Sherwood Forest Orchids for sharing his growing experience and plants; Natalie Warlord for the use of her excellent illustrations of Catasetum pendulum; W. Mark Written for co-authoring the chapter on 11

fragrances; Norris H. Williams for co-authoring the chapter on fragrances; and Carl L. Withner for being my ultimate resource person for botanical wisdom. Special thanks also go to my wife, Judy, who showed uncommon patience and understanding in enduring the long hours devoted to this project and was frequently called upon to contribute her keen appreciation of colors and artistic design.

Chapter 1 Popularity of Catasetums 12

What is it about catasetums that makes them so fascinating? First of all, they are probably the most highly evolved group of plants in existence. They have developed specialization to such a degree that they produce two kinds of flowers, male and female, not to mention intermediate forms, for the obvious purpose of avoiding self-pollination, which can and does occur with other orchids and is generally considered to produce inferior progeny. For a female Catasetum flower to be fertilized with pollen from a male, nature has devised an ingenious scheme of duping unsuspecting bees into becoming unwitting victims of a scam, which will be described in chapter 4. A second persuasive feature of this group of plants is their vigorous growth habitthe air of strength conveyed by their often massive pseudobulbs alone. I remember seeing one catasetum (probably Catasetum integerrimum) with extraordinarily robust cigar-shaped pseudobulbs clinging to a fence post in Belize. How that plant tantalized me and piqued my curiosity! A third reason people find catasetums fascinating is simply because these plants are "different"unique in appearance and in culture and diverse enough to present a real challenge to orchid growers. The flowers, when not eye-catching or even breathtakingly beautiful, are at the very least structurally and functionally appealing. If catasetums are so fascinating, why have they not enjoyed more popularity among hobbyists and growers? Various reasons explain the relative obscurity of these orchids, besides their different cultural requirements. The typical adult Catasetum plant is quite large, though likely to occupy no more space than a large Cattleya or Laelia. Some Catasetum flowers are fairly large, but certainly do not compare in size to those of Cattleya hybrids. A second reason catasetums have not been popular is that their flowers are not as long-lasting, and their colors generally are more subdued than those of other orchids. Finally, and most importantly, I believe, catasetums have not been popular because of the general ignorance about the genus and the limited availability of plants. Yet, without doubt the positive aspects of catasetums more than compensate for the negative. Until today, only about a dozen Catasetum species, at most, had made their way to the United States. Most of the more than 100 species in the genus have simply not been commercially available. Brazil, the largest source of these species, is a vast country with a transportation system that was quite primitive until several decades ago, and consequently enormous areas were little explored. Most of the Brazilian orchids that were exported came from the more accessible species with the showiest flowers and consequently the broadest appeal to orchidists. Perhaps it is no coincidence that these species also were the strongest-growing and 13

therefore capable of surviving conventional pot culture and watering abuse from growers who did not know better. The tide appears to have now turned. It is significant that in Brazil a Catasetinae growers' association was formed in 1995, the Associação Brasileira de Cultivadores de Catasetíneas, or ABRACC. This group publishes a newsletter and is now expanding internationally. In spite of the widespread destruction of Brazil's rain forest, the conversion of other land to agriculture, and the exploitation of various natural resources, new Catasetum species are being discovered and described every year. Of course, catasetums are not typical rain forest plants, so they generally are not affected by forest clearing to the degree that other orchids are. They are, however, endangered by the conversion of the more open savannah country, which they prefer as habitat, into farmland and pastureland. Their safe refuge is becoming more and more confined to populations of palm trees surviving along watercourses after the adjacent land has been cleared. A truly remarkable fact is that new Catasetum species are being discovered in areas thought to have been thoroughly explored previously. Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru are now virtually the only regions where new species are still being discovered, for very rarely is a new species from Mexico or Central America described. Another upbeat note is that, whereas in the past most botanical research was conducted by foreigners, now Brazilians are leading the way in searching for and describing new species and in promoting their cultivation. Kleber Garcia de Lacerda Jr., a medical doctor who specializes in tropical diseases, has made a substantial contribution to the knowledge of Brazilian catasetums. More than a dozen outstanding discoveries are attributed to him, and his collection of Catasetinae plants exceeds 1000. Lacerda is the author of numerous articles in orchid journals and a chapter in the recent Japanese-produced book Brazilian Orchids on the Catasetinae and their habitats mainly in northern Brazil. Other Brazilians instrumental in describing new species and publicizing the Catasetinae are Hamilton Bicalho, Francisco Miranda, Pedro Ivo S. Braga, and Vitorino Paiva Castro Neto. Antonio Schmidt, owner of the orchid nursery Chácara Bela Vista in São Paulo State, is an outstanding proponent of conservation and has long been engaged in the laboratory propagation of Catasetum species and hybrids. Other well-known Brazilian growers are Aniel Carnier and Egel Perazolli. Padre José González Raposo included a chapter on catasetums in his unfinished A Etimologia a Selviço dos Orquidófilos. Outstanding in his knowledge of Brazilian orchids, including the Catasetinae, and their habitats in the Amazon region is João Batista Fernandes da Silva. And of course the name of Álvaro Perreira dos Santos, one of the founders of ABRACC, and an excellent grower and hybridizer, must not be omitted. Lou Menezes, the IBAMA 14

(Brazilian Environmental Institute) botanist and prolific orchid author, also ventures occasionally into the realm of the Catasetinae. With the new interest being shown in the genus, and with the treasure-trove of Brazilian species just beginning to become available, catasetums are basking in the glow of increasing acceptance. New horizons are opening up for the Catasetinae enthusiast.

Chapter 2 History of the Genus Catasetum 15

The genus name Catasetum (pronounced kat-uh-SEE-tum) is a hybrid term derived from the Greek word cata, a preposition indicating "downward" direction, and the Latin saeta or seta, meaning "bristles." The resulting epithet Catasetum, with the neuter ending um, suggests the adjectival form catasetus used as a noun. It refers to the two appendages commonly called ''antennae" that in the male flowers of most species extend downward from the column toward or into the lip cavity and, when touched, trigger the explosive release of the pollinarium to begin the pollination process. According to Robert L. Dressler (1981) and his accepted system of classifying the orchid family, the genus Catasetum L. C. Richard ex Kunth belongs to the subtribe Catasetinae, which in turn is a member of the tribe Cymbidieae. Four Catasetum relatives are included in the Catasetinae. First, the resurrected genus Clowesia includes a few species that have bisexual flowers in which the pollinia are discharged by pressure on the stipe. Cycnoches, the renowned swan orchid, has long-lasting male and female flowers, which, like those of Catasetum, bear little resemblance to each other. Mormodes, the fantastic goblin orchid, has amazingly intricate, separate male and female flowers. Finally, Dressleria includes a few species that have bisexual flowers in which the pollinia are discharged by lifting the anther cap, and the lip is adnate to the column base. The history of orchids dates back thousands of years, and the first recorded interest in them was in Asia. Old writings are extremely sketchy, however, and in our civilization it is customary for only written evidence to be considered valid. Thus orchids are occasionally mentioned in early historical accounts of Asia and the Old World, but catasetums constitute a genuinely American genus that was unknown to all but the aboriginals until the discovery of the New World by Europeans. Modern botany began with the publication of Species Plantarum by Carl von Linné (known academically as Linnaeus) (17071778) in 1753, and the 69 species that he described in eight genera became the building block for the thousands known today. Linnaeus is remembered especially for instituting the now universally accepted system of binomial nomenclature for both botany and zoology, and the first edition of his Species Plantarum is also the basis for the priority system used for scientific plant names. Early Botanical Exploration Linnaeus encouraged botanical exploration, which increased tremendously in the years following publication of his landmark book. Before his time, exploration took place, but then its main goal was the discovery of riches, and plant collecting was an occasional minor adjunct. One 16

example is the voyage of Georg Marcgrave (Marggraf) (16101644), a German explorer, who in the company of Willem Piso (16111688) landed at what is today Recife, Brazil, in 1637 and explored the northeastern region, even traveling up the Itapicuru River by canoe. Marcgrave's trip was an exception to the rule, for Brazil was effectively placed off limits to foreigners by the Portuguese from the time of its discovery by Admiral Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1808. The plants that Marcgrave and Piso collected and described were later examined by Karl (Carl) Friedrich Philipp von Martius (17941868), who is remembered mainly for his major work, Flora Brasiliensis. Martius's botanical travels through Brazil will be recounted later. Only toward the end of the eighteenth century do we begin to read of trips made for the primary purpose of collecting plants, and information concerning what plants were collected is usually sketchy at best. Those fearless plant collectors operated under extremely difficult conditions, having to rough it, with only primitive transportation and without modern medicine. They usually had no time for describing the plants they collected. Their sole aim was to ship them, usually to Europe, where they would be studied by scientists. We can only assume that a few catasetums were included among the plants selected, for more flamboyant orchids would certainly have been the first to catch any collector's eye. José Mariano Mociño (17571820) and Martín de Sessé y Lacasta (17511808) are remembered for their early botanical exploration of Mexico. Mociño was born there and accompanied Sessé after the latter was commissioned by King Carlos III of Spain to lead the expedition. Arriving in Mexico in 1787, the two explored the country's rich flora until returning to Spain in 1804. Their accomplishments and the new plant discoveries were later published in Plantae Novae Hispaniae (18871890) and Flora Mexicana (18911896). Another significant plant-collecting endeavor was that of Spanish botanists Hipólito Ruiz López (17541815) and José Antonio Pavón (17501844). They landed in Peru in 1778 with Joseph Dombey and collected plants extensively there and in Chile for the next 10 years. The first fruit of their work was published in Prodromus Florae Peruvianae et Chilensis in 1794, followed by Systema Vegetabilium Florae Peruvianae et Chilensis in 1798 and by Flora Peruviana et Chilensis from 1778 to 1802. Catasetums were included among the plants. The Guianas were explored between 1754 and 1781 by the Swedish botanists Carl Gustav Dahlberg and Daniel Rolander (17251793). The Frenchman Jean Baptiste Christophore Aublet (17201778) spent 10 years there, and in 1775 wrote four volumes of his Histoire des Plantes de la Guyane Française. The English scientist Sir Joseph Banks (17431820) and a Swedish student of Linnaeus, Daniel Carl Solander (17331782), sailed in the ship H.M.S. Endeavor under the command of 17

Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook, reaching Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in November 1768, en route to the Pacific. They were refused entry by the Portuguese authorities, but managed to collect a few plants in the area, although by some accounts they first collected plants at Tierra del Fuego. Banks was later instrumental in establishing the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. We also know that English Admiral Bligh, of mutiny-on-the-Bounty fame, took 15 orchid plants back to England from the West Indies. At the end of the eighteenth century José Mariano da Conceição Vellozo (17421811) wrote Flora da Capitania do Rio de Janeiro and in 1825 Flora Fluminensis (the word Fluminensis referring to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). The manuscripts were confiscated and taken to France when Napoleon invaded Portugal. Dom Pedro I, the emperor of Brazil, ordered them published in 1827, but most copies were sold by the unpaid publishers as wads for muzzle-loading guns in the Algiers wars. Vellozo's descriptions include those of such plants now known as Catasetum luridum and C. trulla. A monumental scientific exploration trip was undertaken in 1799 by Humboldt and Bonpland. Alexander von Humboldt (17691859), the many-faceted German naturalist, spent five years in South America and Mexico. His traveling companion, Aimé Bonpland (17731858), is the French botanist for whom the review Bonplandia, in which several Catasetum species have been described, was named. Humboldt and Bonpland landed at Cumaná, Venezuela, in mid1799, and in the first seven months collected more than 1600 plants along the coast, including 500 considered new. They then set out for the Apure River, for a journey by canoe to the Negro River in search of a channel linking the Orinoco River with the Amazon. At the Brazilian border they were arrested by border guards, who, in keeping with the Portuguese policy of prohibiting entry to foreigners, imprisoned them overnight. The Portuguese feared the spread of radical new ideas dangerous to the regime that all scientists were suspected of harboring. Later trips by the pair of naturalists resulted in the collecting of more than 60,000 plants, among other things. We know that they collected C. maculatum in Colombia. They returned to Europe in 1804, via Mexico and Cuba, to study the plants and other materials collected. Humboldt is still respected today as a genius of natural science. Bonpland became manager of the Malmaison Botanical Gardens and an intimate of Napoleon and Empress Josephine. He wrote the first four volumes of Plantes Equinoctiales in 1808 and edited the first volume of Genera et Species Plantarum in 1815. He failed to complete his study of the plants that he and Humboldt collected, and lived out his days in Argentina and Paraguay, where he was imprisoned for 10 years by the Paraguayan dictator Francia. Humboldt re-assigned Bonpland's research to German botanist Carl Ludwig von Willdenow (17651812). When Willdenow died, Karl Sigismund Kunth (17881850) was assigned 18

the task of classifying and describing the plant collection of Humboldt and Bonpland. The task required 22 years to complete. The Nineteenth Century As we have noted, Brazil was closed to foreigners for 300 years following its discovery. Only one other major botanist after Marcgrave is known to have been able to collect plants there during that period, and he was Friedrich Wilhelm Siebert, employed by the German Johann Centurius von Hoffmannsegg (17661849), to send back to Europe anything of interest. Siebert arrived in Pará State in 1801 and spent 12 years traveling through the Amazon basin collecting plants. He also received plant material from the states of Pernambuco and Ceará collected by the Brazilians António and Francisco Agostinho Gomes and João da Silva Feijó. The plants were sent to Berlin, where they were studied by Hoffmannsegg, who established the genus Catachaetum, although that name was never accepted as a substitute for Catasetum. Hoffmannsegg worked with plants, including catasetums, although his main interest lay in insects. The German naturalist Georg Heinrich (Baron) von Langsdorff (17741853) sailed around the world in the Russian ships Neva and Nadezhda, which put into the Brazilian port of Florianópolis in late 1803 or early 1804. He managed to collect plants mainly from the island of Santa Catarina and the Rio de Janeiro area, and returned to Brazil in 1813 as the Russian consul. After making one plant-collecting trip to Minas Gerais State, he was ordered by the Russian czar to lead another expedition to São Paulo, Mato Grosso State, and the Amazon region. In Mato Grosso he had a mental breakdown and was sent back to Europe, where he never recovered his mental health. In 1808, when the ban against foreigners entering Brazil was lifted, plant collecting in that country began to increase. Among the collectors, a name that assumes prominence in the early nineteenth century is that of the French botanist and taxonomist Louis Claude Marie Richard (17541821), who collected in French Guiana from 1781 to 1789 and entered Brazil after the turn of the century. He was an excellent botanical artist, and we know that he collected and described catasetums, for his notes and drawings were the basis for the description of the genus Catasetum by Kunth, mentioned earlier. Richard based his classification system mainly on pollen, which he considered the critical feature for identification. The grand exploration and plant-collecting expedition of Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius that we mentioned previously began in 1817. He was commissioned by the king of Bavaria to proceed to Brazil, which he did, in the company of a zoologist named Von Spix. They began at Rio de Janeiro and traversed the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Bahia, Pernambuco, 19

Ceará, and Pará, before following the Amazon River to its headwaters near the Peruvian frontier. It was a trip fraught with perils, for they lost their pack horses and were abandoned by their muleteer. They had to leave behind many cases of mineral specimens and animal skeletons, and they almost died of thirst, surviving only by drinking stagnant, green water from rocky holes in dry river beds, which they made palatable by adding brown sugar. The plants that they collected formed the basis for Martius's Flora Brasiliensis in forty volumes, three of which, on orchids, were among the five completed by Alfred Cogniaux, who will be discussed later. The orchids that Martius collected were sent to John Lindley, who likewise will be considered subsequently. At the conclusion of the expedition, Martius was appointed conservator of the botanic garden in Munich. An account of his Brazilian travels was published from 1823 to 1831; however, he did not begin his monumental work, Flora Brasiliensis, until 1840, and it was not completed until around 1900, after his death. Martius used his own fortune to finance the publication of his book, and when his money ran out, the project was completed with a grant from the Brazilian government. Upon Martius's death, his large private herbarium was sold to the Belgian government, and it formed the basis for the botanical gardens in Brussels, where Cogniaux studied later. In the same period as Martius's expedition was that of the French scientist Augustin François César Prouvensal (also known as Auguste de Saint Hilaire) (17791853). He collected in the Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul regions of Brazil, as well as in Uruguay, and his efforts yielded more than 7000 plants. In 1822 the genus Catasetum was described by Kunth in Synopsis Plantarum, using notes left by Richard, who is credited with authorship of the genus because the information was his. The description was based on the male flowers of two species, C. macrocarpum and C. maculatum, both featuring the two antennae attached to the column that give rise to the genus name. Catasetum macrocarpum is considered the type species. This period saw the emergence of several botanical giants in Europe. One was Sir William Jackson Hooker (17851865), who was the first director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, after teaching botany at Glasgow University, Scotland. His knowledge of plants was vast, and he wrote many books, including his main orchid work, A Century of Orchidaceous Plants, in 1849. He described several Catasetum species, including C. integerrimum, and C. hookeri is named for him. Even more noteworthy was the English botanist John Lindley (17991865), a man of tremendous energy and productivity who made an immense contribution to botany in general and to the knowledge of orchids in particular. In fact, he became known as the "father of modern 20

orchidology." His main orchid works are Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants (18301840), in which he proposed a classification system; Illustrations of Orchidaceous Plants (18301838), and Sertum Orchidaceum (18371842). Blind in one eye since birth, Lindley did his own pencil sketches and both ink and watercolor drawings. After a fabulous career, he finally succumbed to mental exhaustion. Numerous Catasetum species were described by him. Another contemporary of Lindley was Sir Joseph Paxton (18031865). After early employment as gardener at Chadwick and other English gardens, he became editor of Magazine of Botany (18341849) and Flower Garden (18501853), with John Lindley, and was one of the founders of Gardeners' Chronicle in 1841. Numerous catasetums were described and illustrated in those periodicals, and Paxton collaborated with Lindley in describing such notable species as Catasetum fimbriatum. The Englishman James Bateman (18111897) was an orchid hobbyist par excellence and maintained a large collection of living plants. He sent a man named Reginald Colley to Demerara, Guyana, to collect plants for him, and described nearly all the specimens received. Bateman wrote several orchid books, including his monumental work Orchidaceae of Mexico and Guatemala (18371843). He described and illustrated several catasetums and formed a unique partnership with Skinner. George Ure Skinner (18041867) was an English merchant who moved to Guatemala at age 27. Three years later he was still oblivious to orchids, although he collected birds and animals. When James Bateman heard about him, he wrote a letter inquiring whether he would be interested in collecting orchids for him. That letter changed Skinner's life, and thereafter he shipped plants regularly from Central America to Europe and crossed the Atlantic 39 times. A plant of Catasetum integerrimum was included among his shipments to Europe, where it was described by Hooker. Actually, the plant labeled C. maculatum in Bateman's Orchidaceae of Mexico and Guatemala is C. integerrimum. A Belgian, Jean Jules Linden (18131898), was one of the few orchid growers who was also a professional collector and botanist. He spent 10 years traveling about in search of plants. From 1835 to 1837 he collected mostly around Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Espírito Santo State in Brazil, and then his trip through the Amazon basin was considered a marvelous botanical venture. Linden competed with the Sander firm in England and was a master of deception regarding the origin of his plants. He worked closely with H. G. Reichenbach. Eduard Friedrich Poeppig (17981868) was a professor at the University of Leipzig who traveled to Cuba, the United States, Chile, Peru, and Brazil, where he collected at the headwaters of the Amazon and other rivers. 21

Apparently most of the Catasetum plant specimens collected and sent to Europe for scientific scrutiny for several years following the description of the genus produced only male flowers, or else the female flowers were ignored, for the confusion did not begin until 1828, when John Lindley described C. cristatum. He remarked that he found some of its flowers hideous: lip more fleshy and its margins smooth instead of fringed as in the male flowers. What repelled him were undoubtedly female flowers, but the botanist overlooked details that would surely have led him to make a very different assessment. He failed to notice the absence of antennae and the wider, shorter, and fleshier sepals, petals, and column. Several years later Lindley received two other plants that he thought belonged to other genera based on the shape of the lip and their flowers. One he called Myanthus cernuus, which was later reclassified as Catasetum cernuum. In the male flowers the lip is flat and notched in such a way as to have three tips, with other, smaller indentations in the middle. Lindley introduced the other plant as Monachanthus viridis, although its flowers were actually the female form of the same plant material, with a large green, pouched lip. Thus the orchid literature of that time featured three different names for the same genus, thanks to the heterogamy (bearing sexually different flowers) and polymorphism (two or more different forms) of the species. The characteristics proposed to justify this classification were as follows: Monachanthus had a column without antennae and a pouch-shaped nonresupinate lip; Myanthus had a column with antennae and a flat, resupinate lip; and Catasetum had a column with antennae and a helmet-shaped, nonresupinate lip. Since the form of the C. cristatum lip (which is held lowermost) did not fit into any of the foregoing divisions, Lindley considered it an intermediate form between Myanthus and Catasetum, bringing the number of names to four. German botanist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach (Reichenbach f.) (18231889) described even more orchids than did his mentor, John Lindley, and many were published in the Gardeners' Chronicle. Reichenbach's main orchid publication was Xenia Orchidacea, in three volumes (18581900), and the renowned orchidologist made his own drawings. He described many, many catasetums, and the now obscure Catasetum reichenbachianum is named for him. Like others who studied these orchids, he was badly mistaken when in 1861 he divided the genus into two subgenera: Catasetum proper and Monachanthus. According to his will, his herbarium, thought to be destined for Kew, was closed for 25 years after his death, angering his colleagues. During that time many plants bearing his name were unknowingly redescribed. Meanwhile, plant collecting continued. The Scotsman George Gardner (18121849) collected extensively between 1836 and 1841 in many Brazilian states, including Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Maranhão, Ceará, Piaui, Goiás, and Minas Gerais. He collected 22

7000 plants on one journey alone. Catasetum gardneri is named for him. The Frenchman Pierre Auguste Victor Mutel (17951847) described some little-known orchids, including C. deltoideum, and Charles François Antoine Morren (18071858) described Myanthus fimbriatus, later transferred to C. fimbriatum. In the botanical community in 1837 the heterogamy of Catasetum plants was finally confirmed, spurring fresh interest in them by orchidologists. Lindley admitted that he had erred and promised to reduce his three genera to one, but he then made the mistake of including the newly discovered genus Mormodes in Catasetum. Then, as now, identification of Catasetum species based solely on female flowers was fraught with peril. In this same period, Johann Friedrich Klotzsch (18051860) was director of the Imperial Herbarium in Berlin. He described such notable Catasetum species as C. bicolor and C. incurvum in 1854. Another outstanding name in the plant-collecting domain is that of Josef Ritter von Rawicz Warszewicz (18121866), a native Lithuanian, who learned the practical aspects of botany as assistant at the Berlin Botanical Garden. He left for Guatemala in 1844 and collected many plants there for L. B. van Houtte of Ghent, Belgium. As a result, for the first time many seeds and living plants went directly to botanical gardens on the continent, instead of through England. Heading southward from Guatemala, Warszewicz made a grand journey through Central America, living in Indian huts and foraging for food. He collected extensively in Panama and even reached Colombia, but had to return to Europe in 1850 to recover from yellow fever. During that interlude he met and assisted H. G. Reichenbach in describing more than 300 species. In 1851, tired of sedentary work, Warszewicz returned to orchid collecting, this time in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. In Peru he followed the Marañón River and found more new plants that Reichenbach described. Many orchids bear his name, including Catasetum warscewiczii, later moved to the genus Clowesia. The name of Johann Georg Beer (18031873) is associated with several Catasetum species during this period, as he wrote on tropical orchids and the pollination mechanisms peculiar to some of them. Other names with Catasetum overtones are the Dane Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming (18411924), the German Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (17671851), and the Frenchman Jules Émile Planchon (18231888). Anders Sandøe Oersted (18161872), a Danish botanist, taxonomist, and zoologist, was honored with the binomial C. oerstedii, now considered a synonym of C. maculatum. About this time Charles Darwin (18091882) published the observations that made him so famous. Darwin, never robust physically even when young, was a different kind of scientist. He 23

probed natural relationships, problems of pollination, evolution, and mutation. He was intrigued by the sexual organs of orchids such as Catasetum and Cycnoches, in particular. He studied the flowers of Catasetum tridentatum (synonym C. macrocarpum) and concluded that the male flowers represented C. tridentatum, the bisexual flowers Myanthus barbatus, and the female flowers Monachanthus viridis, and that C. tridentatum should therefore be considered trimorphic. He later asserted that his conclusion applied only to C. tridentatum, and that some other catasetums were exclusively male, adding that the Myanthus form of C. tridentatum was sterile! Eventually he realized the truth when one of the Schomburgk brothers told him that he had never seen a Catasetum with seed pods and that Monachanthus had plenty of them. Darwin then discovered that the female flowers, which Lindley placed in the genus Monachanthus, had pollinia, although they were sterile, that the male flowers, placed in the genus Catasetum, had a stigma (called a ''pseudostigma" in the present volume), although it was nonfunctional, and that the hermaphroditic flowers, placed in the genus Myanthus by Lindley, were not viable. Darwin studied their various flowers for years, exposing them to hot water, chloroform, and sulfuric acid. He counted the impulse-transmitting cells of the right-hand and left-hand antennae, and found that the left-hand one is stimulated into producing the ejection impulse and that the slightly smaller right-hand antenna does not transmit that impulse. He also discovered that the glue of the sticky disc could bear a weight of 3 oz. (84 grams) and that it lost its stickiness after a certain time. Darwin corresponded regularly with Sir Joseph Hooker, to whom he professed an interest in orchids surpassing any previous interest. While Darwin was experimenting and expounding his theories, other researchers and collectors were also at work. The German botanist Eduard August von Regel (18151892), director of the botanical gardens in Zurich, Switzerland, and Leningrad, Russia, published the botanical magazine Gartenflora, in which several Catasetum species and varieties were described. Brazil's most eminent botanist and foremost authority on orchids was undeniably João Barbosa Rodrigues (18421909), who in his earlier days collected plants in most of the extensive territory of Brazil and in his later life served as director of the botanical gardens in Manáus and Rio de Janeiro. Throughout his career he produced books and papers on orchids, but his masterpiece, Iconographie des Orchidées, with excellent watercolors, was never published for lack of financing. The Brazilian government was already funding the completion of Martius's major work. Five volumes of Barbosa Rodrigues's original watercolors are in the library of the botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro, and the sixth is at Harvard University, much to the chagrin of contemporary Brazilians. Many of his new species were included in Alfred Cogniaux's orchid 24

portion of Martius's Flora Brasiliensis. Sev eral genera were named for him, and he described many Catasetum species, some of which are still considered valid today. Other influential men of that period were Friedrich Carl Lehmann (18501903), who collected in Colombia; John Henchman, who collected in Mexico between 1835 and 1840; and Albert(o) Loefgren (18541918), who collected around Rio de Janeiro and in the states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo. Loefgren is honored by the name of the botanical magazine Loefgrenia, in which some Catasetum species have been described. Another notable was Otto Buchtien, who collected in Bolivia between 1904 and 1914, and for whom C. buchtienii was named by Fritz Kraenzlin. We have previously mentioned (Celestin) Alfred Cogniaux (18411916), who spent 11 years writing the last several volumes of Martius's Flora Brasiliensis. Of the 20,000 pages in this work, Cogniaux wrote more than 3000 pages on orchids. He used mainly plants collected by Barbosa Rodrigues, as well as his drawings and watercolors, although he added species found in neighboring South American countries. Cogniaux was the curator of the herbarium in Brussels and one of the most prolific orchid researchers of his time. He published several other important orchid works such as Iconographique des Orchidées. In his writings, he used the classification system propounded by the German botanist Ernst Pfitzer (18461906). In the same period, the German-born Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze (18431907) collected in several states of Brazil and specialized in the revision of plant names. In his Revisio Generum Plantarum he gave new names to invalid genera and updated the names of species, including catasetums. Another German, Ernst Heinrich Georg Ule (18541915), collected in the Brazilian states of Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and Goiás, and his plants made their way to various herbaria in Europe. Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler (18441930) published many botanical works and was one of the collaborators in Martius's Flora Brasiliensis. The noted English orchidologist Robert Allen Rolfe (18551921), who described many Catasetum species, once stated that he believed the species concept could not be applied to catasetums, "which might sport into almost anything." He made some significant progress toward solving the puzzle of the different flower forms, but then made the absurd claim that Catasetum flowers are always solely male or female, never hermaphroditic. He considered the appearance of both sexes of flowers on the same inflorescence to be an anomaly and proposed dividing the genus into three sections or groups of species that were dioecious (having male and female organs on different plants) and one that was hermaphroditic: Catasetum with 10 species, Myanthus with 15, Ecirrhosae with 8, and Pseudocatasetum with 3. The Twentieth Century 25

Two influential Catasetum botanists to merit attention early in the twentieth century are Fritz Kraenzlin (18471934) and Friedrich Reichardt Schlechter (18721925), and they were competitors. Kraenzlin, a taxonomist specializing in orchids, described many catasetums, including C. tenebrosum and C. buchtienii. Schlechter, a tireless world traveler in search of orchids to be described, produced a prodigious number of publications, his best known being Die Orchideen. He, too, worked extensively with catasetums. It should be noted, however, that many of the Catasetum species that both Kraenzlin and Schlechter described were later reduced to synonymy. In the first half of this century another German botanist, Rudolf Mansfeld (19011960), perpetuated Rolfe's erroneous claim regarding hermaphroditism until F. C. Hoehne (18821959) took a photograph proving the reality of a case of trimorphism observed on a single inflorescence of a plant of Catasetum fimbriatum. Hoehne also asserted in no uncertain terms his belief that, due to the very special characteristics of its flowers, the genus Catasetum should occupy a place of distinction in the orchid family. Hoehne never formally studied botany. He began his career as a gardener at the botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro. Early on, he was appointed to the Rondon Commission, which was laying telegraph lines between Mato Grosso and Amazonas States. His task was to conduct a botanical survey of the areas through which the lines would pass. Former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt participated in the work of the Commission in charting the course of the Juruena River, for which Catasetum juruenense is named. Later, while Hoehne was director of the São Paulo Botanical Institute, he decided to update Martius's Flora Brasiliensis with his own major work, Flora Brasilica. The work was never finished, mainly due to lack of money, assistants, and access to herbaria and type specimens. One of the five volumes on orchids, all written in Portuguese only, contains a complete listing of Catasetum species known at that time and is still a valuable research tool even though some of the included species have been reclassified. Hoehne also wrote Iconografia de Orchidáceas do Brasil. After the trimorphism of Catasetum flowers was finally recognized, Rudolf Mansfeld brought forth his chief claim to fame. He revised the genus into two subgenera: Clowesia, in which the flowers are solely hermaphroditic and have no antennae (corresponding to Rolfe's section Ecirrhosae), and Orthocatasetum, in which the flowers are unisexual and dimorphic or rarely trimorphic. He divided this last subgenus into two sections: Pseudocatasetum, in which the male flowers lack antennae, and Meizocatasetum, the much larger group in which antennae are present. This last section was divided into two subsections: Isoceras, with symmetrical antennae, and Anisoceras, with asymmetrical antennae. 26

In the meantime, Jacques Huber (18671914), who was Swiss or Belgian, depending on which reference one consults, had come to Brazil with a Belgian Mission studying the Amazon, and he founded the renowned Goeldi Museum of Pará in the city of Belém, with Emilio Goeldi. The museum now features a large Catasetum collection. The German Rudolf Walter Richter (19141974) settled in São Paulo and became a specialist in Amazonian orchids, traveling extensively through the Amazon basin. Catasetum richteri is named for him. Other names appear fleetingly in the literature in connection with catasetums, and little information is readily available concerning them. These names include E. S. Rand, for whom Catasetum randii was named, G. Huebner in Brazil, and P. Wolter in Peru. The German Alexander Curt Brade (18811971) came to Brazil in 1910 after spending two years in Costa Rica, where he collected orchids and ferns, his two main interests. He published 15 papers on orchids and was a member of the staff of the National Museum and botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro. Herbarium Bradeanum and its botanical bulletin, Bradea, are both named for him. Several Catasetinae species have been described in Bradea. The great American botanist Oakes Ames (18741950) worked at Harvard University for his entire career. A taxonomist, he assembled a vast amount of information about orchids and came to be considered the leading world orchid authority. He worked at the botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro in 1916 and met the Danish orchidologist Albert Loefgren there. Ames described a few Catasetum species such as C. arachnoides, now considered a synonym of C. callosum. His Orchids of Guatemala and Belize, written with Donovan Stewart Correll, contains descriptions of the few Catasetinae species native to those countries. George A. Black (19161957) was a plant collector for whom Catasetum blackii was named. Catasetum schunkei, discovered in Peru, was named in honor of José Schunke Vigo, who collected the plant and was active in botanical exploration of that country over a period of many years. A collaborator of Oakes Ames, Charles Schweinfurth (18901970), was later curator of the Orchid Herbarium at Harvard University. His Orchids of Peru was the first attempt at a comprehensive treatment of the orchid flora of that country since the works of Ruiz and Pavón. Louis O. Williams (19081991) also worked at the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium at Harvard University and later at the Field Museum of Natural History of Chicago. He produced Orchids of Mexico and finished the Orchids of Panama begun by P. H. Allen (19111963), which cover the few Catasetinae species found in those countries.

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Guido João Frederico Pabst (19141980) was an amateur taxonomist who studied the orchids of Brazil. Trained by Hoehne and Brade, he founded the Herbarium Bradeanum in Rio de Janeiro. He published nearly 200 new Brazilian orchid species, including many catasetums. His two-volume Orchidaceae Brasilienses, written with Fritz Dungs (19151977), contains a wealth of unique, useful information, though it is hard to locate, since the work lacks an index. It features the watercolors of Margaret Mee and Samuel Salvado and the line drawings of Pabst and Brade. Margaret Mee (19091988) was an English-born botanical artist who went to Brazil in 1952 and made 15 trips to the Amazon basin, usually alone at great personal peril, to paint flowers. Her book In Search of Flowers of the Amazon Forests, published in 1988, contains some catasetums. The genus Catasetum was revised again by Calaway H. Dodson (b. 1928) in 1975, when he transferred species of the section Pseudocatasetum to a new genus, Dressleria, and elevated Mansfeld's subgenus Clowesia to genus level. Under Dodson's system, the three genera are differentiated mainly by the mechanism whereby the pollinia are released: in Catasetum by touching the antennae at the base of the column, in Clowesia by pressure on the stipe, and in Dressleria by pressure on the apex of the column. Dodson has described numerous Catasetum species discovered on research forays into Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Guyana. G. C. K. Dunsterville (19051988) made a noteworthy contribution to the knowledge of the orchids of Venezuela. His Venezuelan Orchids Illustrated, written in collaboration with Leslie A. Garay (b. 1924), is based on plants discovered during numerous collecting trips throughout the country and contains several Catasetum species. (See the description of C. barbatum in this monograph for his interest in that species.) Karlheinz Senghas (b. 1928), the editor of the German orchid review Die Orchidee, has described several Catasetum species, and the late Jack Fowlie showed an interest in Mexican species in particular. Hamilton Dias Bicalho, working at the Institute of Genetics of the Luis de Queiroz College of Agriculture in Piracicaba, Brazil, has described several Catasetum species such as C. matogrossense and C. mattosianum. In Espírito Santo State, Brazil, Augusto Ruschi (19151986) combined his interest in hummingbirds with orchids to produce numerous papers and the book Orquídeas do Estado do Espírito Santo. Two of the first photos in that book ostensibly depict Catasetum luridum (actually C. mattosianum) flowers being visited by Euglossa bees. At the present time, an eminent Catasetinae authority is the Venezuelan taxonomist Gustavo A. Romero, who edits two scientific journals. Romero has collaborated with Rudolf 28

Jenny in compiling an invaluable checklist of Catasetum species, varieties, and natural hybrids described through 1992. He works at the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium at Harvard University, has made many field trips throughout Venezuela, and has published many papers and articles on orchids, with much emphasis on catasetums. Romero promises further papers dealing with the revision of the genus. A fellow countryman, Alexis Pardo Isla, has been involved in Catasetum research, conservation, and hybridization for many years. In Mexico, names such as Eric Hagsater, Salvador Rosillo de Velasco, Federico Halbinger, and Glenn E. Pollard (19011976) have appeared frequently in that country's botanical literature, sometimes in connection with the Catasetinae. In Brazil, Francisco Miranda has described several new Catasetum species and written a book on orchids of the Amazon region. Some of Miranda's descriptions have been written with Dr. Kleber Garcia de Lacerda Jr., who has a special interest in the Catasetinae. Lacerda has lived in various parts of northern South America and has a thorough knowledge of catasetums expressed in his descriptions and articles on the genus. He has also worked with Joáo Batista Fernandes da Silva, who has gained a profound knowledge of orchids of the Amazon region through many field trips. Also in Brazil, Antonio Schmidt, an agronomical engineer, is the owner of Bela Vista Orchids (Chácara Bela Vista) in Assis, São Paulo State, one of the world's leading producers of Catasetinae plants. The nursery offers more than 30 Catasetinae species and 100 hybrids, in addition to other Brazilian orchids. Schmidt has long been known as a conservationist, and Catasetum schmidtianum, which he discovered, is named for him. He was among the first to conceive the idea of the Brazilian Catasetinae Growers Association (ABRACC) and is one of its founders. The other founder of ABRACC is Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos, the editor of its newsletter, an excellent grower with almost 3000 Catasetum plants, and hybridizer. Finally, Eric A. Christenson and David A. Bennett are describing new species of Catasetum and other orchids of Peru, to perpetuate the Icones series with Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum. In spite of past efforts, the genus Catasetum is badly in need of further revision. This should be done not solely by taxonomists, but with broad cooperation from growers and those knowledgeable about habitats, who recognize and consider factors that elude armchair botanists.

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Chapter 3 General Characteristics of Catasetums

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Catasetums are different from other orchids and must be treated differently for them to prosper. Just how are they different? Let's look first at their vegetative components, beginning at the bottom and working up. Roots Catasetums are mostly epiphytes (tree-growing plants), occasionally lithophytic or rupicolous (rock-dwellers), or rarely terrestrials (ground orchids). Their root system can become quite massive, but does not spread appreciably, instead tending to form a nestlike cluster. Their basic roots are light green to white when new, with shiny green tips, and are covered by a thick layer of spongy velamen (Figure 3-1). Unlike the leaves, many of the roots remain viable for more than a year. In fact, it takes longer than a year for a plant to develop a really good root system. The function of the roots is threefold: to absorb nourishment to sustain the plants, to aid in photosynthesis (as evidenced by the green tips), and to anchor the plant to the tree host or, in a few species, to the ground or rocks to which they cling. In nature, the decaying remains of the old basic root system provide nourishment and protection for newly developing roots. Occasionally a new plant arises from one of the main roots. Many species generate a secondary system of slender rootlets called pneumatophores that branch from the main roots and grow upward like little spears, sometimes several inches above the base of the pseudobulbs. These strange filaments are also found in some species of other genera such as Cyrtopodium. Their purpose is to aerate the compact root mass of the plant, although I have heard some growers claim that they are the plant's reaction to harsh growing conditions or abundant water. I suspect that they may help aerate the roots if the plant is potted conventionally and overwatered, but if it is mounted or growing in a basket, I say that pneumatophores are a natural phenomenon and an indication of the plant's happiness, for they commonly occur in natural habitats. In nature, catasetums depend for nourishment on organic material descending upon them from the host tree, on rain water, and on bird droppings. In some instances slowly decaying nuts from the palm trees above have been extracted from inside the root masses along with rocks thrown perhaps many years previously by boys attempting to dislodge the nuts from the trees.

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Figure 3-1. Catasetum roots are fleshy and white with green tips. Pseudobulbs Catasetum pseudobulbs, long-lasting and highly conspicuous moisture-storage organs connected by a short, inconspicuous rhizome, are of several basic shapes, or combinations thereof: fusiform (spindle-shaped), by far the most common; ellipsoid (compressed sphere, broadest in the middle); ovate (egg-shaped, broader at the base), and subconical (almost coneshaped, with a broad base tapering to a point) (Figure 3-2). The size and shape of the pseudobulbs may vary on the same plant, depending on the previous growing season (climate if from the wild, culture if under cultivation), although the pseudobulbs of individual species eventually revert to an inherent size and form. A season of intense light and dry conditions tends to produce short, squat bulbs, while less light and abundant moisture promote the development of long, slender configurations. Indeed, since pseudobulb size and shape vary from year to year within a range for a particular species, a variety of sizes and shapes is likely to be on the same plant at a given time. The pseudobulbs are completely or partially covered by leaf sheaths, which when young and green are connected by slender pseudopetioles to the leaves, but after leaf fall become dry and papery. Between the sheath and the leaf, close to the pseudobulb, is a line of weakness, at which the leaf eventually breaks off. The pseudobulbs have several nodes, which are covered by the leaf sheaths when the pseudobulbs are active. When the leaves fall and the old sheaths finally deteriorate or are removed, they leave prominent rings that encircle the pseudobulb more or less horizontally. The remnants of the sheaths persist on the old pseudobulbs until the grower finally 32

becomes tired of looking at them and being pricked by the sharp spines on their tips, and peels them off. Some species bear exceptionally wicked spikes on their bare pseudobulbs as a defense against foraging animal predators. In nature, leaf sheaths remaining after leaf fall serve to slow dehydration.

Figure 3-2. Catasetum pseudobulb forms: (top, left to right) ovatefusiform, elliptic; (bottom, left to right) fusiform, oblong-fusiform, elliptic-fusiform, ovate, subconical. As the pseudobulbs age, they become deeply furrowed longitudinally, but often persist for years, serving as reservoirs of fluid to keep the plant alive during long dry periods, enabling it to survive the merciless rays of the sun, as when it is growing exposed on an isolated palm tree. In fact, their pseudobulbs enable catasetums to endure austere conditions to which other orchids would surely succumb. As the years pass, the pseudobulbs become ever more wrinkled and furrowed, until finally turning soft and mushy. Leaves Catasetum leaves range in size from short and narrow to as much as 24 in. (60 cm) long and 4 in. (10 cm) wide, and each leaf ends in a sheath corresponding to a ring, or node, on the pseudobulb. The leaves have parallel folds like a fan (plicate) and are narrow at the pseudopetiole that joins them to the sheaths. Their vernation is convolute. In other words, they are rolled up longitudinally and twisted apically in the developing new growth. Most leaves are broader in the middle or toward the tip, but show a range of shapes (see Figure 3-3). A plant may have two or more leaf forms at the same time, and the lower leaves tend to be much shorter and broader. 33

That the leaves of all catasetums are deciduous is beneficial to the grower, for if they become spotted or their appearance is otherwise disfigured by insects or bacterial or fungal blemishes during a bad growing season, the grower can find consolation in knowing that they will eventually fall and provide an opportunity to be more careful with the new set during the next season. The coloration of the leaves ranges from light green, which is sometimes an indication of intense insolation, to medium and dark green. Inherent leaf color varies with the species and usually overrides the amount of sunlight received.

Figure 3-3. Catasetum leaf forms and tips: (top, left to right) oblonglanceolate, ellipticoblanceolate, acute (tip), acuminate (tip), apiculate (tip); (bottom, left to right) linear, ellipticlanceolate, linear-lanceolate, lanceolate, ligulate. Inflorescences Catasetum inflorescences are produced from the first, second, or third ring above the base of the pseudobulb. Occasionally, as in C. rooseveltianum, they appear higher up on the pseudobulb, and rarely even above the middle (as in the genus Cycnoches). They may carry male, female, or occasionally hermaphroditic (bisexual) flowers, in various combinations. Female or hermaphroditic flowers on a basically male flower spike often open before the male flower buds. The peduncle (stalk) of the inflorescence is ordinarily robust and has bracts rather widely spaced apart that seem to serve no useful purpose. The rachis is the terminal, flower-bearing portion of the inflorescence. The flowers are attached to it by stems called pedicels, which are 34

straight or curved depending on resupination (lip held lowermost or uppermost, to facilitate access to the pollinator). In female flowers, the pedicels become ovaries after pollination and develop into seed capsules that become large and heavy, with thick longitudinal ridges and deep furrows. Male inflorescences may be erect, arching, horizontal, or pendent, depending on the species and on the number (or weight) of the flowers that they carry, while the female spikes are almost always few-flowered and more or less erect. In some species the flowers on an inflorescence open simultaneously, while in others they do so successively, commencing with the basal ones. Vigorous plants of many species produce multiple inflorescences, which are racemose (unbranched) and usually multiflowered (Figure 3-4). The factors that determine the sex of the flowers will be discussed in chapter 7 under the heading ''Light."

Figure 3-4. New growth with two emerging inflorescences (Catasetum appendiculatum). Distinguishing between an incipient inflorescence and a new growth may be difficult until the newcomer is 12 in. (2.55 cm) long, although an emerging inflorescence often tends to be more rounded at the apex (Figure 3-5). In some species, however, it is sharp-pointed with a bulge around it just below the tip. A new growth, on the other hand, is usually more slender and tapering without the bulge below the tip, and frequently has a tiny crevice at its apex even in its earliest stage. Normally, however, by the time it is 1 in. (2.5 cm) tall, a new growth can be identified by the developing separation at the apex as the new leaf tips begin to spread ever so slightly. If it turns out to be an inflorescence, it will take weeks or sometimes even months to

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develop fully, depending on the species and the growing conditions. As buds form, little beads of sweet, viscous, sticky fluid are often exuded and cling to them, attracting ants. Male Catasetum flowers are more or less fleshy. The female flowers are even more so because their segments increase in size after the flowers open and because they are meant to remain viable over a longer period of time than the males. Female flowers are amazingly alike in all species.

Figure 3-5. Distinguishing a new growth from an inflorescence is sometimes difficult, as on this plant of Catasetum imperiale. Floral Segments In the male flowers, the sepals and petals are for show only and in the pollination process help to attract the pollinating insect. They are not joined together, but are free. The lateral sepals frequently tend to be reflexed. In some cases, the lateral sepals of different clones of the same species are erect, widespreading, reflexed, or even rolled to the extent of forming tubelike structures. And of course, the lateral sepals tend to become more reflexed as the flowers age. The dorsal sepal usually embraces a portion of the petals and with them forms a sort of canopy over the column (as the lip does in female flowers). In the female flowers these segments are almost always more fleshy, shorter, broader, and flatter. The lip, or labellum, is the outstanding, eye-catching feature of Catasetum flowers, as it is in other genera. Besides acting as the landing pad for the insect pollinator, it is almost always critical to the identification of the species. The lip is fleshy in both male and female flowers, and is sessile (attached directly to the base of the column). It is, with rare exceptions, concave, 36

saccate (pouch-shaped), or galeate (helmet-shaped). In male flowers it is most commonly resupinate (held lowermost), but in some species it is nonresupinate (held in the uppermost position), as the lips of female flowers always are (Figure 3-6). The male flower lip is either galeate and simple (not compound), or else lobed, in which case the column is generally erect. The lip is solidly attached to the base of the column to protect it and its antennae, which hug the surface, from accidental activation. Catasetum fragrance, whether noticeable to the human sense of smell or not, is generated by oil-producing cells in the lip. Bees or other pollinators get no food value from it, but use the scent to attract females. Only male bees congregate around the flowers. The form, structure, and color of the lip vary from species to species, and even from clone to clone in the same species, to the extent that the variations have sometimes given rise to descriptions of new species. In reality the differences would have been better expressed as varieties, forms, or merely color variations. As in all orchids, the column is the structure resulting from the fusion of pistil and stamen, the conventional female and male reproductive organs in other flowering plants. Because catasetums have morphologically distinct male and female flowers, certain features of the male column are inactive, modified, or missing, just as some features of the female column are. In male flowers, the column is usually long and slender, with a prominent beaked anther at its terminal end. Other conspicuous features of the male column are the pseudostigma (nonfunctional stigma) and the antennae.

Figure 3-6. Female flower lips are always nonresupinate (held uppermost).

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In male flowers, the anther always occupies the distal end of the column and contains the pollinarium, which is composed of three distinct parts: a pair of waxy pollinia (pollen masses), which are yellow and hard (noncrumbling); a stipe, consisting of a membrane whose edges are strongly incurved, creating a springlike tension; and a viscidium. (or retinaculum), a gland with its inner side coated with a thick layer of sticky substance serving to attach the pollinarium to the back of a pollinating insect. This viscidium is commonly called the "sticky disc." Caudicles connect the pollinia to the stipe and constitute a weak point that breaks so that the pollinia can remain in the stigmatic cavity of the female flower and the pollinator can go on its way. Near the base of the column lies the stigma, which in male flowers is called the "pseudostigma." It is a sizable, deep depression, over hung by the rostellum, a sterile beaklike stigmatic structure that separates the anther from it and is actually the midlobe of the stigma. The rostellum is the point of origin of the so-called antennae, which flank the pseudostigma. These tubular, filament-like bristles resemble the antennae of insects and are extremely sensitive to touch when the anther is fully mature. They extend from the middle of the column into or over the lip cavity, sometimes parallel or almost so, sometimes touching or crossing. When one is curled behind the other, it is nonfunctional. Calaway Dodson has even divided the genus on the basis of whether one of the antennae is "bashfully" crossed or whether they are parallel to each other (or slightly converging or diverging). The parallel ones form the section Isoceras, and the others, the section Anisoceras. They are always positioned so that the pollinating insect is forced to bump into one of them in the proper stance to receive the sticky disc at the most propitious spot on its body. These antennae are present on the male flowers of most species, sometimes on hermaphroditic flowers, but never on females. While some growers believe that flower longevity is dependent on parallel or crossed antennae, and it may generally be true that flowers with parallel antennae last longer, I prefer to treat the matter of floral longevity on a case-by-case basis. In the male flowers of the few species that lack antennae, it appears that the lip is designed in such a way that when the pollinator makes a certain movement it causes the cells holding the sticky disc and stipe to rupture, triggering the release of the pollinarium. In female flowers, the column is always short, thick, and fleshy. The anther is rudimentary, atrophied, or missing, no antennae occur, and the functional stigmatic cavity replaces the pseudostigma of the male. In catasetums, which bear flowers of two different sexes, as we have said, crosspollination is required, and self-pollination, or "selfing," is virtually impossible.

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Hermaphroditic flowers exhibit the characteristics of both male and female flowers in varying degrees, even on the same inflorescence. Some may look more like male flowers, some more like females, but with complete unpredictability. Many hermaphroditic flowers are sterile. The position and appearance of the segments of Catasetum flowers change as they age. The lateral sepals in particular shift position with respect to the lip, and both petals and sepals often curl and/or become reflexed as the flower passes its prime. Seedlings Catasetum seedlings have a reputation of being fast-growing, and many have flowered for me at the age of two to three years. As with other orchids, the offspring of species are more consistent than hybrid progeny.

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Chapter 4 The Miracle of Pollination A Cartoon from an old New Yorker magazine, I believe, depicts a society lady showing her prize plant to a friend and saying, with hesitant pride, "It's an orchid, but it doesn't do anything." Well, she certainly was not talking about catasetums, for they are where the action is, showcased by the pollination process described below. We all like to believe that beautiful flowers were created solely for human enjoyment. The Creator undoubtedly did have us in mind, but of more immediate concern was the perpetuation of the species, and His solution to that problem was other little creationsinsects. Everything has been perfectly planned by the Master Builder. The flowers have been tailored to reproduction, and the enthralling sight of their beauty by humans is merely a fringe benefit. Most, if not all, catasetums exude a fragrance that the pollinators can detect from a remarkably long distance, even though the human sense of smell may not. The sepals and petals are flamboyant enough to catch the insect's eye, and the lip, a unique orchid adaptation of the third petal, is the platform for the insect's access to the essential feature of the pollination complex, which is the column. The lip in male flowers varies from species to species, and sometimes even in the same species, not only in coloration but also in size and form. These variations seem to relate directly to the type of desirable euglossine bee (species Euglossa and Eulaema) pollinator present in the area, and it has even been said that cosmic rays help to establish propitious relationships. Lip calli and the depth of the cavity are highly variable in some species to drive the wrong pollinator away from the lip or to induce the right pollinator to assume the proper position to receive the pollinarium at the optimum spot on its back (Figure 4-2). The lip is so firmly attached to the base of the column that even the strongest wind cannot change its natural position unless the lip is broken off at its base or the entire flower is blown away. Most orchids have "perfect" flowers (that is, they contain both male and female sexual organs) so a pollinator (for example, bee, moth, hummingbird) can carry the pollen to the stigmatic cavity (female component) of another plant or even the same one (self-pollination, or selfing). Self-pollination is generally considered to produce offspring inferior to those resulting from the infusion of "new blood," which occurs when another, rather than the same, plant is pollinated.

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Figure 4-1. Eulaema cingulata bee carrying pollinia from a Catasetum expansum male flower to a female flower. Drawing by Katharine B. Gregg. In catasetums, selfing is not possible, for a different twist has been added: their flowers are not "perfect," but rather male, female, or rarely hermaphroditic, so the male pollen must be transported to a female flower on a different plant. The male column is constructed to permit a miracle of nature to take place (Figure 4-3). When the male flower is mature, the entire column is under extreme tension, like a trap waiting to be sprung. The sticky disc, or viscidium, is imprisoned at the upper edge of the pseudostigma, the springlike stipe is also held tightly in place by the "roots" of the antennae, and the pollen masses are nestled in their pockets in the anther, all ready for action. All that is needed to spring the trap is for any part of a functional antenna to be nudged, especially its hypersensitive tip. These hairlike bristles protrude over the cavity of the lip in precisely the right posture to effect the process.

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Figure 4-2. Eulaema polychroma bee carrying pollinarium from a Catasetum pendulum male flower. Drawing by Natalie Warford. At just the right moment, numerous bees of the proper persuasion for that species appear as if by magic, from as far as several miles away, attracted not by nectar but by the fragrance of a waxlike musky-sweet-smelling substance present in the cells of the surface of the lip and in its cavity. That substance, which contains aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile terpenes, attains its maximum potency at precisely the moment when the anther becomes fully developed. It tantalizes the bees to such an extent that they crowd around, trying to partake of it. They collect the attractants from inside the lip with their front legs, then hover while transferring them to a hollow in their hind legs. Then one of them inadvertently bumps into an antenna with its head or proboscis, springing the trap. It happens in the twinkling of an eye. The stipe is released from its prison. Its curled edges develop a spring-like motion, causing the entire pollinarium to be thrown forward (at a speed measured at more than 10 ft. or 300 cm per second), while flinging the anther upward and backward. Due to the greater weight of the pollinia and the sudden release of the sticky disc, the flexion of the stipe causes the missile to make a somersault before it reaches its target. Thus the sticky side of the disc strikes the insect precisely in the smooth area of its back 42

behind its head. The disc carries with it the stipe and pollinia, while the anther is thrown behind the flower. The considerable force involved in the impact serves a dual purpose: to cause the sticky disc to adhere firmly, and to frighten the creature away to go to another, but this time female, flower, still half inebriated by the smell of the wax and yearning for more.

Figure 4-3. Catasetum pendulum floral segments of female (AC) and male (DJ) flowers, to the same scale. A: Perianth dissection of a female flower. B: Profile view of a female flower with sepals and petals removed. C: Ventral, 3/4, and lateral views of a female column without the pseudopollinarium and anther. D: Perianth dissection of a male flower. E: Profile view of a male flower with sepals and petals removed. F: Longitudinal section of a male flower without the anther and pollinarium, with the false stylar canal, and without an ovary. G: Profile, 3/4, and ventral views of a male column with the anther and pollinarium. H: Ventral view of a bare male 43

column, with a back view of the anther (to the left). I: Longitudinal section of a male column and untriggered pollinarium. J: Front, back, and lateral views of a fresh pollinarium. Drawing by Natalie Warford from live materials. Loaded bees almost never visit another male flower, having ''learned their lesson." When the insect encounters a female flower, it finds that flower in its typical lip-uppermost position that facilitates pollination. The female flower has in its pouch-shaped or helmet-shaped lip much wax to attract the pollinator, and it produces its own special perfume several days after opening. The female flower has no antennae, which the bee would undoubtedly avoid after its experience with the male flower, and it remains open and viable for a much longer period of time than the male flower, providing a much larger window of opportunity for pollination.

Figure 4-4. Eulaema polychroma bee visiting a Catasetum pendulum female flower. Drawing by Natalie Warford from a flower preserved in alcohol. Because the female flower is nonresupinate, the bee has to forage inside the lip upside down (Figure 4-4). The stigmatic cavity of the female flower is better concealed than the pseudostigma of the male, but the column on which it lies is positioned in such a way that the insect must back off to exit. The insect finds exiting difficult to do without depositing the 44

pollinia in the stigmatic cavity in the process. When this happens, the sticky substance inside the cavity is so strong that it holds the bee to the flower until it succeeds in breaking the caudicles connecting the stipe to the pollinia. Catasetum pollinia retain their viability for several weeks provided that the sticky disc has been attached to the bee in a favorable area on its back behind the head. If it impacts with another part of its body, it almost surely causes the bee to die, robbing it of sufficient mobility to survive. If the pollinarium fails to strike the insect because it has moved away, or if the release was triggered by a foreign object, the missile flips over and over until it hits something or until the force with which it was propelled by the sudden spring action of the stipe is spent. It can fly as far as 36 ft. (12 m) if it encounters no obstacle in its path. The whole process takes place with lightning speed when the antenna tip of a fully ripe flower is touched. If the grower is a practical joker and wishes to have a little harmless fun with a visitor to the orchidarium, he or she may coax the unwary guest to "smell the flowers" of a male inflorescence, thereby touching one of the antennae. What a surprise awaits the sniffer when the trap is sprung! The result of a successful act of pollination is the fertilization of the stigma of the female flower. The pollenless male flower fades almost immediately, and the female flower fades after a few days and the pedicel begins to enlarge as it forms the ovary, which in turn becomes the seed pod, or capsule. The million or so seeds contained in the capsule ripen over a period of months, the exact time depending on the species. In nature, the seeds are blown far and wide by the wind. A few of them may end up on the rotting wood of a log, trunk, or branch of a tree, where they may germinate due to a symbiotic relationship with certain fungi in the wood. Of course, decomposing wood eventually reaches a very low pH (acid condition) that can kill the plant. Nowadays human hands can, and often do, substitute for this miracle of nature. The pollinia from a male flower can be introduced into the stigmatic cleft of a female flower of the same or different species by means of a toothpick or other object, to perpetuate the species or to create an artificial hybrid, but such an act is not as awe-inspiring as the intricate process devised by nature.

Chapter 5 45

Environmental Knowledge as the Key to Successful Culture Before even beginning a discussion of the cultural requirements of catasetums, we must understand the climatic and ecological conditions to which these plants have become accustomed over the eons of time in the various parts of their natural range. In fact, a major thrust of the present volume lies in this unique knowledge, which now makes it possible to discontinue lumping all catasetums under one cultural blanket. Several generalizations can be made about Catasetum habitats: they are definitely not found in forests dark and dreary, and they always occur in regions with distinct rainy and dry seasons, although these may be short or very long. Another truism is that whenever you see palm trees, especially along a riverbank, suspect that catasetums are growing half-hidden beneath the leafy palm fronds. I have divided the Catasetum world into five climatic or ecological zones. Each zone has environmental conditions that are translatable into distinct artificial cultural requirements. These zones are named after five colors, as shown in Plate 90. The climatic or ecological zone in which a Catasetum species originates affects especially its growth cycle, light exposure, and temperature and humidity requirements. Catasetums from the Gold and Gray Zones can adapt readily to the Red and Green Zones, but not vice versa. Since plants from the Gold and Gray Zones generally will be grown in the greenhouse under typical Red or Green Zone conditions, the description of the rather austere habitat conditions given below is primarily for background information and to shed some light on the ability of species from those zones to withstand harsh treatment during emergencies. Furthermore, it should be clearly understood that a Catasetum species assigned to a specific climatic zone may also occur in microclimates in other zones. More detailed information on these climatic zones can be found in Pabst and Dungs (1975, 1: 3543). I have made a slight change in the colors used in that work to represent the various zones, and have modified the scope of the map, but the basic information still applies to catasetums and other orchids. Red Zone The climate in this zone is evenly hot, moist, and tropical. It is typical of coastal lowlands and the vast Amazon River basin. This climate is almost the same year-round, with high

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humidity at night, even in the dry season, which is relatively short. Temperatures range from a maximum 86°F (30°C) to a minimum 59°F (15°C). From mid-Mexico southward, the Red Zone hugs the hot, humid coast on the Gulf of Mexico side, interrupted by the dry northern half of the Yucatan Peninsula. From the southern half of that peninsula southward, it includes all coastal Belize, then continues through the narrow littoral of Honduras, the broad Atlantic coastal lowland of Nicaragua, the coastal jungles of Costa Rica with rainfall nearly year-round, and Panama, where the rainy season lasts from midMay to mid-December. The Red Zone ends at the Colombian border, but resumes on the Venezuelan coast and then extends into most of the Amazon basin and far into south-central Brazil. The Brazilian coastal strip from Pernambuco State southward is also part of the Red Zone. A large portion of the species for which I have given detailed descriptions originate in this Red Zone: Catasetum albovirens, C. arietinum (also found in the Gray Zone) C. ariquemense, C. barbatum, C. bicolol, C. callosum, C. complanatum, C. confusum, C. cristatum, C. denticalatum, C. discolor, C fimbriatum (also found in the Gold Zone), C. galeritum (also found in the Gold and Gray Zones), C. gardneri, C. garnettianum, C. gnomus, C. imperiale, C. integerrimum, C. kleberianum, C. laminatum, C. lanceatum, C. longifolium, C. longipes, C. macrocarpum (also found in the Gray Zone), C. macroglossum, C. maculatum, C. microglossum, C. moorei, C. multifidum, C. napoense, C. ochraceum, C. parguazense, C. pileatum, C. planiceps, C. rivularium, C. rolfeanum, C. saccatum, C. semicirculamm, C. tabulare, C. tigrinum, and C. viridiflavum. Taking a cue from the description of climatic conditions in this Red Zone, growers of these species will give their plants all the warmth and moisture they can tolerate during their active growth cycle, which often lasts much of the year. Green Zone The climate in this zone is subtropical. The terrain is hilly, with hot, humid air collecting at the base of the hills, then rising and condensing into mist or rain usually late in the day. The forest becomes saturated, with low temperatures at night, but in the morning the sun's rays and drier breezes promote evaporation. The dry season in winter is short, and nighttime humidity is high throughout the year. Temperatures range from a maximum 86°F (30°C) to a minimum 50°F (10°C). The Green Zone in Central America occupies a strip inland of the dry Pacific coastal belt. Away from the coast, it passes through a region of increasing altitude, from about 650 to 4900 ft. (200 to 1500 m), that draws moisture from the clouds. On the Pacific (western) side of South America, the Green Zone features moderate elevations on the eastern slopes of the Andes. On 47

Brazil's east coast, it covers hillsides overlooking the Atlantic tropical coastal lowlands, in addition to a couple of pockets in the inland portion of northeastern Brazil. Green Zone Catasetum species include C. atratum, C. cernuum, C. incurvum, C. luridum, C. rodigasianum, C. tenebrosum, C. triodon, and C. trulla. Since high humidity and somewhat cooler temperatures typify the Green Zone, growers of these species will want to treat their plants accordingly. Green Zone catasetums do not appreciate Red Zone heat, which can even be oppressive to humans. Gold Zone The climate in this zone is essentially continental. The dry season is long and the humidity is very low throughout much of the year. Days are hot and dry, while nights are fairly cool. The terrain is typically tropical to subtropical savannah country, with the surface soil shallow and incapable of sustaining large trees. This gently rolling terrain is characteristic of Brazil's Central Plateau, with elevations of 1650 to 3300 ft. (500 to 1000 m). Temperatures in the Gold Zone fluctuate more than in any other zone and range from a maximum 102°F (40°C) to a minimum 50°F (10°C.). The Gold Zone is exclusively Brazilian, covering parts of the states of Maranhão, Piaui, Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul. Gold Zone Catasetum species include C. appendiculatum, C. aripuanense, C. fimbriatum (also found in the Red Zone) C. fuchsii, C. galeritum (also found in the Red and Gray Zones), C. juruenense, C. osculatum, C. pulchrum, C. rooseveltianum, C. schmidtianum, C. spitzii, and C. vinaceum. Growers of these species should bear in mind that the plants are accustomed to, and can if necessary withstand, greater temperature extremes than those from the other zones. Gray Zone The Gray Zone is much like the Gold Zone, but more so. The climate is tropical to subtropical, with dry, near desertlike conditions, even along the Pacific coast. It has an even longer dry season and low humidity almost year-round. Most of the moisture results from nighttime dews. In this zone catasetums are found mainly in gallery forests and isolated palm groves. Temperatures range from a maximum 102°F (40°C) to a minimum 59°F (15°C.). The Gray Zone includes a narrow strip along the entire Pacific coast of South and Central America, northward into Mexico. It also includes large areas in the eastern, northern, and southcentral portions of South America. Gray Zone Catasetum species include C. arietinum (also found in the Red Zone), C. carolinianum, C. expansum, C. galeritum (also found in the Red and Gold Zones), C. hookeri, C. macrocarpum (also found in the Red Zone), C. naso, C. pendulum, C. punctatum, C. purum, C. 48

sanguineum, and C. uncatum. Growers of these species will not want to try to reproduce the dry conditions prevailing in the Gray Zone for much of the year, for as stated previously, most plants of this group will readily adapt to, and even thrive under, much moister conditions. Blue Zone The Blue Zone consists of land that is mostly too high for catasetums. On this elevated terrain the temperatures are more nearly constant and the humidity is quite elevated. Only one Catasetum species is found in this forbidding (for catasetums) zone, C. costatum. Temperatures range from a maximum 86°F (30°C) to a minimum 50°F (10°C).

Figure 5-1. Palm tree hosting a Gold Zone Catasetum with seed capsules. Photo by Fred Paget.

Figure 5-2. Seedlings of Catasetum fimbriatum, a Red Zone species that invades the Gold Zone, in a tree called ipê-amarelo in Brazil. My Greenhouse: An Outgrowth of Environmental Knowledge 49

After reading about and assimilating the climatic and ecological conditions under which catasetums grow in the wild, would-be growers of these orchids are ready for the next step, namely, simulating nature and creating artificial conditions under which the plants will not just survive but really thrive. I can say from personal experience that extrapolating from the natural to the artificial is the key to success. More than 20 years have passed since I succumbed to the bite of the orchid bug. I have gone through four greenhouses, all the while becoming increasingly convinced that enlightened greenhouse culture comes the closest to providing optimal conditions for growing orchids, at least for those of us who do not live in tropical or subtropical climates. The physical plant in which our orchids are grown is the cornerstone, and considerations such as mounts, pots, substrate, and the like are subsequent refinements as we build upon the basic structure. I attached my present greenhouse to my newly built house in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia on a slightly down-sloping hillside, facing south-southeastward, exposed to full sunlight. In fact, the practically treeless house lot was selected specifically with a view to the positioning of the greenhouse. I strongly believe that the grower should begin with maximum sunlight, and then reduce it as desired, rather than vice versa. Furthermore, all greenhouse facilities and arrangements should be the result of thoughtful, careful planning, based either on the grower's personal experience, the best recommendations of the experts, or a combination thereof. The facilities should, of course, be tailored to the specific plant-growing lifestyle of the grower and preferences as to types of plants. Growing preferences change with time, so planning should allow as much as possible for potential future interests, expansion, and the like. Granted, all greenhouse solutions are a compromise, since some otherwise desirable features are mutually exclusive, but I was determined to combine the best features of previous structures, while eliminating arrangements that had disappointed (an overhead misting system, for example). All that glitters is not gold! My greenhouse is an acrylic/fiberglass structure 18 ft. (5 m) wide and extending 32 ft. (10 m) out from the house (Figure 5-3). The 24-in. (60-cm) foundation consists of concrete block veneered with brick matching that of the house. Consistent with a conviction that interior height is conducive to good orchid growing, the arch peaks at about 11 ft. (3.4 m).

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Figure 5-3. Author's greenhouse in winter. The bench arrangement remedies a pet peeve: greenhouses that have excessively narrow aisles that constantly force a visitor to duck and wend past rampantly growing plants. After building temporary wooden benches as a stopgap, I decided, for a permanent arrangement, to lay concrete blocks to support 5-ft. (1.5-m) lengths of 1 1/4-in. (3-cm) metal conduit, which in turn sustain tiered shelves consisting of 1 × 2 in. (2.5 × 5 cm) mesh welded galvanized fencing. The concrete block supports are painted with cement paste for aesthetic considerations. The fencing is sufficiently rigid when adequately supported and provides an environment similar to that of hanging pots. It permits virtually unrestricted air circulation, blocks very little light, and offers little surface for harboring insect pests. Some growers object to shelves one above another, believing that plants on the lower level receive excessive water and insufficient light. I turn those very objections to advantage by placing shade- and moisture-loving plants on the lower shelves and also using them as a temporary home for catasetums about to spike when male flowers are desired. Concrete walkways laid on a 4-in. (10-cm) layer of gravel spread over the entire floor are of ample width for effortless walking. The overhead space is fully utilized by a system of 3/4-in. (2-cm) metal conduit from which light-loving specimens, plants with pendent flower spikes, and those with long aerial roots, are suspended. At the house end of the greenhouse I reserve 7-ft. (2.1-m) high shelves for dormant conventionally potted catasetums where they receive only enough water to prevent their pseudobulbs from shriveling and their root systems from dying.

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Winter heat is provided by a thermostatically controlled propane-fired water heater (inside the basement wall of the house) that circulates hot water through finned copper tubing around the perimeter of the greenhouse. I increased the footage of tubing in the house end to create a warmer zone for catasetums and other warm-growing plants, while progressively cooler temperatures prevail toward the far end of the structure. I strive for night temperatures in winter no lower than 65°F (18°C) in the warm end, 60°F (15°C) in the intermediate zone, and 55°F (13°C) in the cool end. On sunny winter days, no matter how low the outside temperature, the greenhouse level normally rises to 7084°F (2129°C). For summer cooling, I built a 10 × 2 ft. (3 × 0.6 m) section of cool cell pads into the foundation of the far end of the greenhouse. The pads are saturated with cistern water by a submersible pump that functions while the first of two individually thermostated exhaust fans at the house end of the greenhouse is operating. Summer temperatures in the warm end, where most of my catasetums reside, usually reach 85°F (30°C) on warm, sunny days. I cover the ''sunny" (southwestern) side of the greenhouse with 50-percent shade fabric during late spring and summer, for the sunlight can be very bright indeed in such an exposed situation. I use no shade fabric on the eastern side, for mornings are frequently cloudy. During the cold season a blower-inflated polyethylene bubble covers the entire greenhouse to facilitate maintaining warm conditions inside. I water my plants with rainwater collected from the house roof and stored in a 1000gallon (3785-liter) cistern buried in the hillside below. The water is pumped from the cistern by a jet pump into a pressure tank and then into 50 ft. (15 m) of 3-in. (8-cm) PVC pipe suspended under the perimeter benches on one side of the greenhouse. Storage in the PVC pipe brings the cold cistern water to greenhouse temperature so as to avoid shock to warm-growing plants. I use a simple proportioner for fertilizing. I check the pH of the cistern water frequently and acidify it as needed to ensure a slightly acid condition. Periodic checks of the water for electrical conductivity reveal, on the average, 57 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved solids, which I consider highly acceptable. My well water is hard and forms calcium deposits on the leaves of the plants, so I use it only to wet down under-bench space to increase humidity. Since air movement is extremely important, three ceiling fans are spaced evenly through the greenhouse, and they run continuously. Six muffin fans cover the dead space. I am able to maintain 65 to 75 percent humidity by plant watering, wetting down walkways and under-bench space, and cool-cell operation in the summertime. Several times I have considered adding a fogging system, but have so far resisted the temptation.

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I find that my greenhouse setup offers many options for creating microclimates of light, water, temperature, and air movement, in an attempt to extrapolate growing conditions observed in the plants' habitats to my greenhouse culture. Besides my catasetums, which increasingly represent the showpiece of my orchidgrowing effort, I also grow cattleyas and laelias (species only), Madagascan angraecoids, stanhopeas, gongoras, cyrtopodiums, lycastes, and botanicals. I am proud to be able to say that I grow in my greenhouse almost every one of the Catasetum species given detailed coverage in this book.

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Chapter 6 Growth Cycle of Catasetums Now that we have seen what surprise awaits the insect that attempts to pollinate a catasetum and have digested the unique information on the climatic or ecological conditions under which these orchids grow in nature, the next, essential step is to gain a thorough understanding of their growth cycle to be able to anticipate and respond to their needs. Unlike widely grown orchids such as Cattleya and Phalaenopsis, catasetums have deciduous leaves. When the plants are leafless and no new growths are visible, the grower must respect their state of dormancy. That is not to say that every plant of every species goes through a dormant period every year, but most plants have a dormant period and, when it occurs, it must be recognized and respected. This dormancy represents a period of rest following, hopefully, a season of vigorous growth. As exceptions to this dormancy rule, some seedlings grow continuously almost into adulthood, and some well-grown plants produce new growth while still carrying healthy old leaves, especially if they are Red or Green Zone plants. As in the plant kingdom as a whole, however, some species and clones just grow more vigorously than others. The grower must watch and observe the signs, heeding a plant's period of rest, for its growth cycle cannot be changed to any great extent, at least with our present state of knowledge, and it influences all factors involved in the growing conditions provided for the plant. Once a pseudobulb, no matter how large or small, has ceased to grow and its leaves show signs of yellowing and withering, it never puts out new leaves from its apex, but may eventually send out a new growth from its base. If a young plant has succeeded in developing a pseudobulb of any size, there is hope for it. If, on the other hand, it loses its leaves for any reason before forming a pseudobulb, it is doomed to orchid heaven. Flower spikes usually do not appear from the base of the same pseudobulb two seasons in a row. That pseudobulb, however, becomes an important part of the plant's total reserve of strength. When old shriveled pseudobulbs become soft, with no evidence of rot, they simply have reached the end of a full life. In the springtime, March or April in the Northern Hemisphere, a dormant plant begins to show signs of renewed activity (Figure 6-1). Plants imported from the Southern Hemisphere, however, require a year or more to adapt to their new growth cycle. A new growth develops from a dormant eye at or near the base of the most recent pseudobulb and sometimes other pseudobulbs. When a shoot appears, there may be doubt in some species whether it is an inflorescence or a new growth, but by the time it is a couple of inches long, the uncertainty will 54

disappear. When, however, the sprout appears on a plant potted conventionally, the grower should not spring into action, and should not begin more than very light watering until it is at least 2 in. (5 cm) tall and new roots can be seen emerging. When very small, the new growth is highly subject to rotting, which is promoted by water, and which threatens the life of the plant. The stunting or rotting of new growths of catasetums is usually triggered by an unseasonably cool spell, getting water in the crown of the new growth and allowing it to remain there overnight, suffocation of the root system, or premature fertilizing, but sometimes the cause is downright baffling. Problems of rot are largely eliminated by basket culture or mounting. A plant occasionally makes a mistake in timing when sending out a new growth, and it may take several weeks for it to realize its error and abort its miscalculation. When this happens, or when the development of a new growth stagnates for several weeks for any reason, eventually the plant often sends out a replacement from the base of the pseudobulb in question.

Figure 6-1. Renewed growth from this potted plant. Photo by Fred Paget. When the emerging growth attains the suggested minimum size (2 in. or 5 cm), a potted plant can be considered ready for light watering and fertilizing. Not until the new leaves start to unfurl and the new roots lengthen, however, is it poised for rapid growth and development of as large, as vigorous, and as healthy a pseudobulb as possible, to ensure the production of plentiful, well-formed flowers later in the season. Bottom heat is beneficial at this time, although the plants should not be encouraged to start their surge of growth too early in the season, because for 55

optimal development they must have continuous warmth and sunlight. The new season's growth should be one sustained burst of activity rather than the weather-dependent fits and starts typical of late winter and early spring. If for any reason the growth of a new pseudobulb comes to a standstill for an appreciable length of time, it is unlikely that it will resume, although the leaves may persist until the end of the growing season and a new growth may emerge from the base. The standing advice to the grower is to watch the plants daily and treat them according to what is observed, but keeping one eye fixed on the calendar and the weather map. When a plant puts out a new growth high up on an otherwise healthy-appearing pseudobulb, some growers attribute it to distress due to less than ideal growing conditions and perhaps excessive watering during dormancy. I concur and tend to pinpoint the cause as soggy conditions around the roots, all too prevalent in conventional pot culture without extreme vigilance. The foregoing discussion harks back to observation of seasonal changes that take place in the habitats of wild plants. In the tropical and subtropical regions where catasetums grow, from Mexico southward to Argentina, it is easy to discern seasonal variations customarily referred to as "rainy season" and "dry season." Even though we tend to think of the Amazon basin in Brazil, where most of the catasetums originate, as synonymous with "rain forest," the truth is that this vast basin has many types of vegetation and has two distinct seasons just like most other tropical areas, even though the dry season may be much shorter. Several years ago, I was in the Trombetas River (a tributary of the Amazon) region in the state of Pará, Brazil, in September (late winter/early spring there). The river was many feet below its normal level, and the vegetation gave every sign of having suffered through a dry season. All the catasetums were leafless and only a few of them showed faint indications of new growth, even as the first violent thunderstorm heralding the beginning of the rainy season lashed us. Our obedience to commonsense growth-cycle rules for plants under cultivation should not be merely by rote. It should stem from an awareness that for centuries these plants have experienced a season of almost daily storms following a season of seemingly endless, searing sunlight and surprising dryness in arriving at their genetic makeup. And just imagine the myriad plants that must have succumbed in past ages when they were unable to adapt to changing climatic conditions. Our plants need to be watered and fertilized frequently until fall or early winter, when it is evident that their new growth has been completed, and then the frequency of both watering and fertilizing should be reduced somewhat. The leaves, beginning with the lowest on the pseudobulb, gradually have begun to wither and drop commencing midway through their growth 56

cycle. The grower's aim, however, should be to keep the uppermost leaves alive and well as long as possible. The longer they stay green, the stronger the plant will be overall, and the later the next growth will begin the following spring, when, hopefully, it will coincide with consistently warm, sunny weather. When leaves yellow and show signs of falling, some growers cut them back and allow the plant to go dormant; I like to keep them on the plant as long as possible. Although flower spikes appear in some species almost simultaneously with new growth in the springtime, in most species they emerge in mid- to late summer and in still others in autumn and even winter, sometimes after the plant becomes completely leafless. At times, if an incipient inflorescence is broken off or badly damaged, the plant sends out a replacement above or next to the failed one. The grower should always strive to develop a new pseudobulb as large as, or larger than, the previous one, for this is an indication of good culture, since the size and shape of the newest pseudobulb are a reflection of growing conditions during that season.

Figure 6-2. Natural culmination of a successful growing season is the production of seed pods from female flowers. Photo by Fred Paget. Many differences in the various species do not immediately meet the eye. For example, some species develop their flower spike quickly and their flowers open with equal rapidity. Others initiate a flower spike over a period of weeks or even months, and then the flowers seem to take an eternity to open. If, in spite of all efforts, a plant refuses to flower, the grower must realize that, as with other orchid genera and species, some clones are simply reluctant bloomers 57

and must be either discarded or donated to a friend with betteror differentgrowing conditions, for after all, with catasetums as with other orchids, the proof of the pudding is in the flowering (Figure 6-2). No rules are ironclad, and even veteran growers experience surprises. Catasetums have a mind of their own and can be pushed only so far. When all is said and done, they commence and sustain new growth and inflorescences when their botanical computer indicates that the time is right, "when the spirit moves them." Some growers claim that catasetums follow a three-year cycle of exuberant growth and flowering. I see some evidence to support that theory, at least for certain species and clones. Even if one does not subscribe to the three-year cycle, one cannot deny that some years are better growing years that others. A very important reason to favor these intriguing orchids is that few species are difficult to grow and none is impossible. By exercising a fair amount of care the grower can have a reasonable expectation that even an unidentified plant will thrive and flower, all the more so if the habitat from which it came is known. This is in sharp contrast to some species from obscure genera of "botanical" orchids that are virtually unknown precisely because they are hard to grow and therefore are rarely seen in collections.

Chapter 7 Culture of Catasetums 58

Forget what you have read and been told about Catasetum culture. The information that you are about to receive is straight talk from an experienced grower who was not satisfied with the results of applying traditional cultural guidelines to all catasetums and experimented until he found viable alternatives. Before discussing such growth factors as temperature, light, humidity, and air movement, we will talk about how to display plants in the greenhouse or on the windowsill, beginning with the conventional and then moving on to the innovative. But first, to get a frame of reference, let's refresh our memories about the way catasetums grow in their habitats. Catasetum pseudobulbsnot underground tubers as in some other orchidsare the plants' moisture storage organs, and they project into the air. The active ones carry leaves that blow in the wind, absorbing the gases and sunlight required for photosynthesis. The most severe storms do little practical damage to their leaves and inflorescences. What other important vegetative component do they have? The answer, of course, is roots. Except in the case of a few terrestrial or rupicolous species, Catasetum roots cling tightly to the branches and trunks of trees and bushes (Figure 7-1). Their obvious function is to support the plant and to absorb moisture and the dissolved mineral salts that it contains. In nature they are mostly exposed to the air. Another function of Catasetum roots unknown to most growers is that they form a partnership with the leaves in the essential process of photosynthesis. That is a further reason why they must function in artificial culture as they do in nature. In nature, the plant adapts to conditions, and some of its roots may remain on the surface while others penetrate decaying bark, wood, or some other available organic matter. When rain falls or dew forms, the roots absorb whatever moisture is needed. After the rain stops, water evaporates quickly from the surface of the roots. The water that penetrated the bark of the tree continues to be available for the roots to absorb as needed. In nature, however, moisture is normally not overabundant and does not overwhelm the plant, except possibly during cyclic appearances of El Niño in tropical America. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Catasetum organ most vulnerable to abuse under artificial culture is the root system. In fact, the treatment of that component can make or break the overall culture. Catasetum plants can and do endure a few days of cool temperature or a week without water, because they store moisture for emergencies, but they cannot tolerate the continued suffocation of their roots by a compact substrate in a plastic pot. I am sickened by the sight of plants whose roots are smothered by an excessively dense mix and then overwatered, adding insult to injury. When such adverse conditions exist, catasetums express their displeasure 59

by refusing to send their roots far into the mix, by aborting an inflorescence, by refusing to flower at all, or by slowly dying. The cultural guidelines that follow are pervaded by a concern for eliminating this problem and dealing with other ignorance and misconceptions about Catasetum culture.

Figure 7-1. Catasetum spitzii relishes rough-barked tree near Pirenópolis, Brazil. Conventional Potting I am going to tackle conventional potting first, because it is invariably recommended in existing references and because it is so firmly entrenched in the minds of orchid growers everywhere. Furthermore, it is perfectly valid for seedlings, many small plants, and some adult plants, providing certain precautions are taken. Strong-growing species such as Catasetum integerrimum and C. fimbriatum and many hybrids tolerate and even thrive with conventional potting practices. For these, the convenience of using compost-filled pots is not to be denied. Those species that accept conventional potting culture will be flagged when cultural recommendations for individual species are given (in the descriptions in chapter 8).

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Figure 7-2. Healthy plants mounted on poles. Substrate Potting in the conventional sense requires a choice of substrate and container. In discussing potting media, we broach a controversial subject, for experienced growers have their favorites. Grower surveys have elicited mention of an infinite number of products used alone or combined with other ingredients. Among the most popular are fir bark, osmunda, tree fern fiber, charcoal, and sphagnum (the New Zealand type being preferred), in various proportions or combined with still other ingredients such as sponge rock, perlite, leafmold, peat, and bark screenings. One mix enjoying limited popularity is a 50-percent combination of Aliflor (clay pellets) and so-called mud (Pro-Mix). The choice of potting medium is limited only by the grower's imagination. In deciding on a substrate, take your pickone that suits your growing practices, your pocketbook, and your fancy. Be sure to choose a medium that addresses problems inherent in your growing conditions (such as snow mold in bark). No mix is the ''best" one. Some mixes are preferred by more growers, but the least preferred might turn out to be the best for you. A large, strong Catasetum survives, for the short term at least, in practically any type of medium that guarantees some moisture retention, good drainage, and aeration of the roots (Figure 7-3), but for optimal plant development and performance, it behooves the grower to be finicky and fine-tune the choice to accommodate inherent growing conditions. In the realm of conventional potting media, I have nothing revolutionary to offer. After much experimentation, my two top choices are bark mix and sphagnum moss, undoubtedly the two most widely used by growers in this country. With these two substrates, I can only offer suggestions concerning the coarseness of the mix and the mechanics of potting, along with 61

consideration of the original climatic zones of the species involved. The real innovations are to be found in my alternatives to conventional potting culture.

Figure 7-3. Judiciously watered potted plant unpotted. Spaghnum Moss. Pure sphagnum is fine as a growing medium, but except in southern climes it may retain moisture for too long in conventional solid plastic pots. Therefore, it is best employed in clay or net pots, or possibly plastic "bulb pans," and in any kind of pot it should be packed loosely. Furthermore, sphagnum does not seem to harbor insect pests as much as bark-based media. Its only obvious disadvantages are increasingly high cost and excessive moisture retention in the temperate zone. Some growers use pure sphagnum in small pots (for seedlings and small plants) and a bark mix in larger ones. A watering variant is to spray the sphagnum occasionally without wetting it thoroughly, and in that way it can be made to last for three years, proponents claim. Bark Mix. The second popular medium for growing catasetums in the conventional manner is bark mix. Growers devise an almost unlimited array of concoctions, confident that their own pet compost spurs plant growth. And forgive me for reminding you once again, when using bark mix or any other kind of mix for that matter, do not overpot! Small plants thrive in surprisingly small pots, and even very large plants do not need gigantic containers. Excessively large pots serve no useful purpose, for the plants' roots often do not utilize all the substrate needed to fill them, and this invites stagnant conditions. I firmly believe that the maximum practical pot size for catasetums is 6 in. (15 cm). Many growers feel that small plants appreciate a slightly finer mix, 62

while large ones should be given one that is looser and coarser. I use the same coarse compost for both small and the large potted plants. You must determine what works best for your growing practice by inspecting the root system periodically. If the plant is well established in a conventional pot, lift it out and check it. Matching the potting mix to the container and growing requirements necessitates experimentation, but it has real rewards in healthy, vigorous plants. For conventional pot culture, I recommend the use of a compost such as the following: 1 part coarse fir bark 21 part medium fir bark 1 part redwood chips 1 part medium/coarse charcoal 1 part very coarse perlite 1/4 part ground coconut fiber 1/4 part half-rotted wood A sprinkling of bone meal For adult plants amenable to conventional potting and for some smaller plants, the above bark mix holds sufficient but not excessive moisture if watering is done judiciously, aerates the plants' roots, promotes the development of a vigorous root system, and lasts several years. For seedlings and small plants, sphagnum moss is equally acceptable by itself. Container Now we come to the second half of the equation. The trick is to match the medium perfectly to the type of container. Many catasetums can be grown successfully in any of the aforementioned substrates, but it is essential to coordinate the compost with the type of receptacle to ensure good drainage and at the same time sufficient moisture retention and aeration of the root system (at first glance a seemingly contradictory goal). And again, be sure to consider the climatic or ecological zone(s) from which the species come. Various kinds of containers are available: plastic pots, clay pots, net pots (Figure 7-4). The plastic and clay pots should be shallow (clay "pan" type orchid pot or plastic "bulb pan")the smallest that will accommodate the plant. If for any reason you are forced to use a tall, deep pot, fill the bottom third or even half with drainage material (for example, Styrofoam peanuts) and add enough heavy ballast in the very bottom to stabilize the plant, especially if the pot has a narrow base, for catasetums can make pots top-heavy. Net pots are more forgiving of excessive watering. They prevent soggy conditions, thereby ensuring greater aeration of the roots. If some of the roots escape the pot, it merely means that the plant is happy and is developing a good root system, and not to worry! 63

Remember, too, that net pots can always be inserted in slightly larger conventional plastic or clay pots, on a short-term or long-term basis.

Figure 7-4. Three pot options: clay, plastic, net. Mechanics of Potting As for the mechanics of potting (or repotting, for that matter), first prepare the plant by removing all the old substrate and most of the old, dead roots. Then dampen the recently prepared mix to bring the ingredients together, settle the dust, and make it more homogeneous. After placing drainage material (which can include a small inverted net pot) and ballast in the bottom of the pot, position the plant in it with the new growth in the center and the base of the pseudobulbs about 1/2 in. (1.5 cm) below the rim. Next, begin to scatter mix around the base of the plant, without tamping, but tapping the sides of the pot to cause the mix to settle among the roots. If the plant tends to lean, support it with a stake. Fill the pot to within 1/2 in. (1.5 cm) of the pot rim, but I consider it very important to leave a hollow around the base of the plant, to allow some of its roots to be exposed to the air (Figure 7-5). When dormant, a catasetum may be treated in one of several ways: (1) leave it in its original pot and compost, whatever it may be, and place the pot in a spot where it does not receive its regular watering; (2) remove it from its pot, work the compost out from around the roots, return it to its pot minus compost, and water it regularly; or (3) take the plant out of its pot, remove the compost from around its roots, and store the pseudobulbs in a dry place shielded from direct sunlight, where they need no water if the humidity is sufficiently high or otherwise are sprinkled only occasionally to prevent them from shriveling. I recommend the first method, because it increases the likelihood that the bulk of the recent root system will survive (old, dead 64

roots are of limited value, of course) (Figure 7-6). The second method, however, allows the plant to retain its position in the collection and facilitates inspection of roots and pseudobulbs. The third method was popular long ago.

Figure 7-5. A hollow left around the base of the pseudobulbs keeps them dry and less susceptible to rot. Whichever system is adopted, water must not be withheld completely. In their natural habitat, nighttime and morning dews often dampen the pseudobulbs and roots, and rain occasionally falls even in the dry season. If water is withheld entirely, the root system will perish and the pseudobulbs shrivel unnecessarily. The only pseudobulbs that should normally be expected to shrink are the very old bulbs. The period of dormancy can last from several weeks to several months, or in the case of plants rescued from the wild or imported from the Southern Hemisphere, it can persist for a year or longer due to culture shock. The optimal time for potting or repotting is when new growth on a plant emerging from dormancy is about 2 in. (5 cm) tall and the nubs have developed into new roots that are reaching for support. For plants from the Red or Green Zones (see chapter 5), use plastic pots; for those from the Gold or Gray Zones, use clay pots or net pots lined with fiberglass screening if the mix contains any fine ingredients. For seedlings, use the bark mix suggested previously. An acceptable alternative, as stated, is sphagnum moss. Place the sphagnum loosely in clay or net pots, as you deem appropriate for your culture. Be sure that it is not tightly packed, because these plants, even seedlings, prefer to dry out ever so slightly between waterings, as they do in their natural habitats.

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Figure 7-6. New growth and inflorescences from this plant left in its pot during dormancy. Alternatives to Conventional Potting Potting is the traditional way to grow catasetums, and I must admit that pots offer a convenient cultural method. A potted plant is easy to transport to an orchid society meeting or show and is less likely to be affected by abuse other than excessive watering. Moreover, potting in bark or sphagnum is the preferred choice for seedlings and many small plants until they attain the size and strength required for successful weaning. Potting adult plants, however, in bark mixes, even the previously recommended mix that has been formulated to ensure maximum aeration of the roots and rapid drainage, goes against nature. Catasetums in the wild never have their root system smothered, which is possible with any bark concoction. The roots are largely exposed to the air, and they may penetrate decaying organic matter only of their own free will. You could, of course, say that is true of all epiphytes, many of which readily adapt to potting, but I believe it is even more so with catasetums. Consider carefully the following most important fact: Only certain adult plants can be successfully potted conventionally, whereas virtually all adult plants thrive under one or more of the three alternative cultures discussed below. So the choice should not be difficult, unless you are unable to meet certain requirements generally satisfied by a greenhouse environment or you are simply reluctant to buck the tide. Most adult plants respond favorably to these and other alternatives to conventional potting, often doing dramatically better than under conventional culture, although overnight results should not be expected. When I began to deviate from conventional wisdom, I noticed a gradual favorable upturn in the general vigor and flowering of my plants, and many that had 66

been languishing in potting mix revived over a period of months and flowered as never before (Figure 7-7). If you do use one of my alternatives, you can expect slightly smaller plant size, but greatly increased floriferousness. Unconventional Potting In keeping with the above thought, the grower can retain the benefits of potting by adopting a pot culture variant that I have been using successfully for years. Mount your plant on a piece of wood of appropriate size and place it vertically against the far wall of the pot. Then pour an inch or so of gravel in the bottom of the pot to anchor the mount, after you have secured the plant to the wood so that the base of the pseudobulbs is 1 in. (2.5 cm) or more above any compost that you add to the gravel. In this way the roots of the plant are free to penetrate the compost, and the grower can have the best of both worlds: optimal growing conditions for the plant, and ease of culture and transportability for the grower.

Figure 7-7. Catasetum hookeri plant that refused to flower for three years until moved to a clay pot filled with chunks of wood and bark. Another unconventional potting option that I highly recommend for adult plants and even some small plants is to use a plastic bulb pan, net, or clay pot filled only with large (to 23 in. or 515 cm) chunks of wood, bark, and/or charcoal as support for the roots of the plant (Figure 7-8). Because the surface area of the wood and bark chunks is much greater and they are less exposed to evaporation than wood mounts, more moisture is retained and can be utilized over a longer period of time by the root system, but without suffocating the plant. I use mostly locust wood and bark because it is long-lasting and available in my neck of the woods. Basket Culture 67

In exploring alternatives to conventional pot culture, the idea of using woodtaking a page from naturekeeps cropping up. Another of my favorite methods of growing catasetums is to install them in wooden baskets, but without adding any of the usual types of compost. For a sizable plant with many pseudobulbs, a wooden basket is an ideal vehicle. You can make your own, of cedar, redwood, or oak, for example, even if you are not a skilled carpenter, or you can purchase them. The hard truth is that most catasetums need nothing more than wood to grow and flower prolifically, as a substitute for their natural tree host, in the same way that many vandas require no substrate. If any filler is added, it should consist of the same large chunks or chips of wood, bark, and/or charcoal discussed previously.

Figure 7-8. Good root development on this potted-mounted plant. When installing a Catasetum plant in a basket, a Brazilian friend of mine anchors the plant securely in a corner (Figure 7-9). I prefer to place the plant in the center of the basket and wire it to the bottom slats or prop it in place with the wood and bark chunks and chips. Even terrestrial and rupicolous catasetums adapt to basket culture if sufficiently high humidity is maintained. Always be sure to place plants installed in baskets in a shady spot until they have become well accustomed to their new situation. An advantage of using this type of culture for catasetums is that they need not be removed from their abodes during their rest period and can be watered (with reduced frequency, of course) without ill effect. In fact, routine watering ensures survival of their root system to the maximum extent possible. 68

When a Catasetum plant established in a basket has developed many pseudobulbs, and the grower is still reluctant to divide it, take a sterile tool and cut the rhizome connecting the bulbs in several places. In that way, some of the older bulbs that might have remained unsprouted will send out new growths and create a mass of leaves and possibly a specimen plant.

Figure 7-9. A Catasetum plant cornered in a basket. Mounting My final suggestion as an alternative to conventional pot culture is to mount your Catasetum plant on wood. This option presupposes that the plant is sufficiently strong, that it is not so large as to be unwieldy when hanging from its mount, that the grower can provide adequate humidity for it during the growing season, that the conversion to mounting is done at the very beginning of the growth cycle, and that the species is known to adapt readily to this cultural practice. The type of wood is not important as long as it has lasting qualities and is not chemically treated. The longer the wood has aged, the better. In fact, if the sapwood has begun to rot, the plants like it even more, for it stimulates their genetic memory of their favorite dead tree hosts in their habitats. Although rough 1-in. (2.5-cm) sawmill lumber, cut to an appropriate size and shape for the plant, makes an acceptable mount, I consider a portion of a tree limb or a piece of driftwood to be just as practical and much more aesthetically appealing. Drill a hole in the top of the piece of wood and attach a piece of galvanized or aluminum wire to hang it after securing the plant in the middle in such a way as to immobilize it. 69

Figure 7-10. Floriferous basket-grown Catasetum appendiculatum. Although tree fern slabs have been recommended and used as mounts for catasetums, and Alex Hawkes (1965) even gives this as a growing option, I have experimented with this product and have not been pleased with the long-term results. I know one grower who kept all of his catasetums mounted on fern slabs for years and the plants gradually declined. Moreover, I have never encountered Catasetum plants growing on living tree ferns in their natural habitats. Mounting offers the same advantages during the plants' dormancy as growing them in wooden baskets. It is not necessary to remove them seasonally from their place in the collection, and they can be watered regularly. Dividing Dividing a plant becomes an option under two sets of circumstances: (1) the plant has outgrown its container (Figure 7-11), mount, or basket; or (2) a large plant was removed at the end of the previous growing season and one or more pseudobulbs are showing new growth. In either case, dividing should be done at the beginning of the new growth cycle, at which time plants with more than four pseudobulbs can be separated. A viable division should consist of two large, recent pseudobulbs as an absolute minimum, preferably three or four, and ideally even five or six. With basket culture, the more the merrier. Some growers believe more than four pseudobulbs to be unproductive and to increase the chance of rot. That may be true with conventional pot culture. Nevertheless, the truth is that the number of pseudobulbs is critical to the strength of a Catasetum plant. If all pseudobulbs are separated, the most recent one may produce a flower spike on the next growth, if it has not

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already done so, but the chances are that the other bulbs will not produce flowers until one or more new growths emerging from their base have matured.

Figure 7-11. This Catasetum plant obviously needs repotting. Photo by Fred Paget. With traditional pot culture only dead roots should be removed. If all roots are eliminated, the plant consumes valuable time and energy in developing an entirely new root system, and the new growth (pseudobulb) may not have sufficient strength to produce an inflorescence. So divide your plants with the coming growth cycle in mind. Do not, however, discard old pseudobulbs unless they are very badly shriveled, for they can produce new plants. If a single divided pseudobulb stubbornly refuses to send out a new growth after being given what seems to be adequate conditions, soak it occasionally in water to which a few drops of a hormone such as Super-Thrive have been added. If a new growth develops from anywhere on a detached pseudobulb except at the base, wait until the sprout is at least 2 in. (5 cm) long, and then treat it as a new plant. If a new growth appears high up on one of the pseudobulbs of a plant during the growing season, leave it on the pseudobulb, or wait until it develops roots at least 2 in. (5 cm) long, then detach it and pot it up. With conventional pot culture, repotting frequency is largely a matter of personal choice, assuming that the growing medium selected has a life expectancy of more than one year. Many growers repot every year, others every two or three years, at which time the plants are divided as necessary. I believe that the ideal is to repot every year and never wait more than two years. Mixes consisting of a preponderance of fir bark can be expected to last for three years, while 71

sphagnum, on the other hand, is better suited to yearly replacement. Some growers contend that water with a pH well on the acid side increases the life of sphagnum. Mounting catasetums on wood or growing them in baskets, of course, drastically reduces the need for dividing, and they can often be left untouched for years. The size of the grower's collection and the amount of time that can be devoted to dividing and repotting or remounting influences the choice. An advantage of frequent repotting is that if insect pests, such as bush snails or sow bugs, or other undesirables such as snow mold, have become established in the compost, replacing it solves the problem. I prefer to attend to plants individually as their new growth reaches the desired size, rather than handle all plants at the same time in the spring. In this way, it is not such a burden. As a final thought, be sure to note the repotting date on the back of the plant label. Watering It is appropriate for this section to follow immediately after the discussions of potting, mounting, and basket culture because the decision on those options governs how long moisture remains around the roots of catasetums and hence how frequently to water. Catasetums from all climatic and ecological zones require water during their active growing season. Indeed, their zone of origin affects their other requirements much more than their need for water. Contrary to popular belief that heavy (meaning frequent) watering and feeding are needed while the plants are actively growing, I contend that this is true only for mounted, basket-grown, and unconventionally potted plants. Catasetums potted conventionally, which involves a more artificial culture, should be kept on what seems to be the dry side, meaning less frequent watering. I know one grower in Brazil who asserts that his catasetums ''hate water." That statement has a glimmer of truth to it, but it might be more realistic to say that they "hate too much water" and regard water as a "necessary evil." The general growing conditions and whether plants are mounted or potted determines how frequently they should be watered. Obviously, moisture evaporates more quickly from around the roots of a mounted or basket-grown than conventionally potted plant. All mounted, basket-grown, and unconventionally potted catasetums may be watered every sunny day during the growing season, provided conditions are such that they dry off relatively quickly. Of course, the weather and other circumstances can modify that general rule. If you are hesitant about watering on a given day (cloudy early, clearing later), err on the dry side, except possibly for seedlings or plants in very small pots. In the case of conventionally potted adult plants, it should not be necessary to water more than once or, at most, twice a week. This assumes that a mix matched to the plant's container and 72

to the grower's watering practice (a combination that ensures adequate moisture retention but not an overly wet condition) has been selected. Allow Gold and Gray Zone plants to dry out somewhat more than Red and Green Zone plants after they are watered. Let me emphasize that catasetums from all zones like to dry out at least slightly between baths. Many of my Catasetum plants languished before I realized this. A good rule of thumb is that the more leaf surface and root system a plant has, the more water it requires. When you water, do so thoroughly, allowing the water to flow freely from the bottom of the pot after saturating the entire contents or penetrating the entire root mass of mounted and basket-grown plants. The only catasetums whose root systems require a more nearly constant supply of moisture are seedlings and small plants that are struggling to survive and develop. In the springtime, at the beginning of the growth cycle, water should not be made regularly available for the newly developing roots until the new growth is at least 2 in. (5 cm) tall. Heavy watering before a good root system and leaves have been developed is not only unnecessary but downright detrimental. Watering frequency should be reduced during dormancy. Red and Green Zone catasetums have a relatively short dormant period between leaf fall and new growth, and sometimes no dormancy at all, so the likelihood that at least some of their basic root system will survive from one growing season to the next increases. For this reason it is desirable to maintain a watering schedule, albeit reduced, during dormancy. The frequency of watering, however, should be drastically lowered only in the case of dormant conventionally potted plants, which should require water no more often than once every two weeks. Of course, the larger the pot size, the less frequent the need for watering. The leaves of catasetums may be disfigured if water is allowed to remain on them after nightfall, and new growths may rot for the same reason. Water left on the leaves for extended periods of time invites black spots which are aesthetically displeasing even when not a symptom of bacterial or fungal decomposition (Figure 7-12), and water remaining in the crown of a new growth can cause putrefaction that can sometimes deal a deathblow to the plant in short order. To avoid this problem, some growers devise elaborate systems for watering the roots only. I believe this is ill-advised, because it goes against nature. The problem of leaf spotting and new growth rot can better be solved by watering only early in the morning of what promises to be a sunny daynever after midday.

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Any water with a pH from slightly alkaline to moderately acid and with no more than 200 ppm of dissolved solids (indicating conductivity) is acceptable, provided that it is not overly cold. Speaking of cold, one thing to remember is that if at any time during the growing season the temperature should drop below 60°F (15°C) for any appreciable length of time, especially in the case of Red Zone catasetums, all watering should be curtailed. Catasetums, like other orchids, withstand cold much better when dry.

Figure 7-12. Leaves spotted by water remaining on them too long. Fertilizing Although fertilizing can never be considered a remedy for poor culture, catasetums have a reputation of being heavy feeders while actively growing, and the concept of heavy feeding should be applied both to the strength of the fertilizer and to the frequency of fertilizing. The standing goal should be to push the plants to the limit, to make them as strong, healthy, and dynamic as possible. Fertilize with an appropriate formulation at least every week during the growing season, or fertilize with a weak formula every time the plants are watered. I see no benefit from fertilizing until the new growth is 23 in. (58 cm) tall, but then as it inches up, it is important to begin regular applications of high-nitrogen fertilizer (such as 10-5-5) with a full range of trace elements. As the leaves begin to unfurl, and well before flowering, add a high-phosphorus formula to develop big, strong pseudobulbs capable of producing robust 74

inflorescences. Any of the soluble products with a large second-digit number (for example, 3-126) constitute a good source of phosphorus. Some authorities recommend the use of a dressing of composted horse manure to which a time-release fertilizer such as Osmocote has been added. Perhaps this practice is good for clowesias, but I do not favor it for catasetums, because it tends to seal the surface of the compost. A Catasetum plant needs to have a steady supply of nutrients once new growth is well under way. Continue fertilizing until the new pseudobulb has reached full maturity and as long as its leaves remain green and alive. Then watch as the plant outdoes itself flowering. Most growers discontinue fertilizing completely during the plant's dormant period. Even though Catasetum leaves are primarily sensitive to gases and light, I also believe they benefit from the periodic use of fertilizer classified as a foliar spray, from the earliest stage in the development of new growth on through the entire growth cycle. Additionally, I apply a growth hormone such as Super-Thrive monthly. Bone meal and manure tea are felt to be acceptable adjuncts to any fertilization regimen, but I refrain from employing time-release products, preferring to maintain more control than they allow. I am addicted to Dyna-Gro fertilizers (no, I am not an employee of the company). I simply feel that the trace elements (including silicone) in these products have a dramatic effect. This feeling stems from personal observation of my plants and corroboration from other growers. Although the lack of fertilizer is not life-threatening for catasetums, as low temperature, full sunlight, stagnant air, total withholding of water during the growing season, and suffocation of the root system can be, it is a significant factor in overall plant development. In its natural habitat, the only nutrients that an epiphytic plant receives, besides any that rainwater may contain, are occasional bird droppings and detritus that wash down from the tree to which the plant is attached. That explains how it is possible for catasetums to be grown more vigorously under artificial culture, fed a full range of fertilizers to more than compensate for the lack of some nebulous factor present in their natural environment. A final recommendation is to group mounted and basket-grown plants together, separate conventionally potted plants by pot size and potting mix, and be aware of the climatic or ecological zones from which they all come. In other words, group your catasetums on the basis of the moisture-retention characteristics of their containers or mounts in warm, intermediate, or cool sections of your growing area, to make it easier to adhere to an appropriate watering and fertilizing schedule. Temperature

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Temperature was discussed fleetingly when we looked at the climatic or ecological zones in which catasetums grow in the wild. It ranks highest among the factors affecting growth, because a sun-loving Catasetum species will survive, though not thrive, in deep shade, in low humidity, and in motionless air, but any Catasetum plant dies when exposed to excessively low temperatures for any appreciable time. By far the largest percentage of catasetums are denizens of hot tropical lowlands, from coastal Mexico down into the Amazon basin (the Red Zone). In such regions, nighttime temperatures rarely fall below 65°F (18°C), with daytime highs generally from 85 to 95°F (29 to 35°C). In Gold and Gray Zone habitats the altitude increases with a corresponding drop in nighttime temperature levels, but never below 50°F (10°C). Even farther south, in southern coastal Brazil (the Green Zone), the nighttime temperature in the winter may fall below 50°F (10°C), but this affects only a very few Catasetum species (C. atratum, C. cernuum, C. triodon, and C. trulla come to mind). So for all but a few species, it behooves the grower to regard 65°F (18°C) as the ideal minimum night temperature and not to be overly concerned about daytime highs as long as they stay below 100°F (39°C). Of course, with Red Zone catasetums the important thing is to maintain evenly warm conditions, and for them the closer the night minimum is to 70°F (21°C), the better the plants will respond. In fact, a grower who is unable to maintain a 65°F (18°C) night temperature should not attempt to grow Red Zone catasetums unless willing to settle for subpar performance. Gold and Gray Zone species can be regarded as sufficiently adapt able to temperatures other than those in their habitats to be grown safely with the completely warm-growing species. Abrupt changes in temperature occur mainly with Gold Zone catasetums in the wild and should be avoided with all other catasetums. If abrupt temperature changes cannot be prevented, they should be confined to the upper half of the temperature range. Prolonged temperatures below the ideal minimum stunt the growth of the plants and eventually kill them, while temperatures above 100°F (39°C) for short periods of time do no harm provided that the humidity and air movement are adequate. In other words, changes in temperature in the upper part of the range have less adverse effect on the plants than changes in the lower portion of the range, and if temperatures lower than ideal cannot be avoided, be sure to keep your plants as dry as possible. Light The amount of light to which catasetums are exposed is of great importance. With some exceptions, catasetums are sun-loving plants, and in their natural habitats many species grow prolifically in full sunlight. If one ventures into the deep shade of the tropical jungle, one almost never finds catasetums, except perhaps above the forest canopy, on tree branches reaching for the sky. Catasetums can withstand such bright light because the air is constantly moving, and 76

plants grown under such conditions can easily be recognized by their short, plump pseudobulbs and short, broad, light green leaves. Unless the strong air movement found in the natural habitat can be duplicated, however, the grower should provide some shade. It should be remembered that the average insolation is considerably greater in my Gold and Gray Zones than in the Red Zone because the dry season is much longer there, so many catasetums from those zones must not be pampered with shade. The number of cloudy or partly cloudy days annually, however, is not the only indicator of how much light catasetums receive. Their position on their host trees or in the surrounding vegetation is also vital. A plant growing midway up the trunk of a palm tree can receive almost full sunlight, while one half hidden beneath the tree's leaves is largely sheltered from sunlight (Figure 7-13). By the same token, even though some plants appear to be growing in considerable shade, they are often exposed to full sunlight for at least brief periods. Likewise, a plant growing on the south side of an isolated tree (in the Southern Hemisphere) can receive considerable protection from the searing sun.

Figure 7-13. Note the possibilities for microclimates regarding light on this tree loaded with Catasetum appendiculatum. In the discussion of the culture of individual species in chapter 8, the following arbitrary terms are used to denote percentages of shade: nearly full sunlight (20 percent shade), light shade (40 percent shade), moderate shade (60 percent shade), and deep shade (80 percent). 77

For the surge of new growth in the springtime, Catasetum plants should be positioned to receive all the sunlight that they can tolerate, depending on their origin, but as their pseudobulbs mature, thought should be given to whether male or female flowers are desired. In nature, female flowers are produced in a much smaller proportion than the males. If female flowers are wanted, the plant should be kept at the limit of light for the species, but if male flowers are preferred, as they usually are unless the grower seeks the production of seed capsules, the plant should be grown in a shadier site. Flower sex is very difficult to predict, even if the grower pays attention to the amount of light exposure, but it is smart to play the percentages. Certain plants, perhaps owing to their inherent vigor, seem to be disposed to produce female flowers year after year. A few species, such as Catasetum cernuum C. hookeri, C. longifolium, and C. rooseveltianum, should be grown in moderate to deep shade. I recall seeing C. cernuum growing on tree limbs about 20 ft. (6 m) above the ground in almost full shade near Angra dos Reis in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The dark green color of their leaves is a hallmark of these shady ladies. Catasetum longifolium, however, is another matter. Apparently, female flowers, male flowers, and varying degrees of hermaphroditic flowers are borne on the same inflorescence even in dense shade. After plants placed in a shadier spot with a view to the production of male flowers have finished blooming, do not forget to restore them to their original locations, or the new growth cycle will suffer. Photoperiodicity plays a role in determining when old growth stops and new growth begins, in the case of those species whose habitats are well north or south of the equator. But remember, many catasetums come from the Amazon basin, where the day length does not vary much with the changing seasons. Catasetums can be grown under lights if sufficient light intensity can be provided, and they certainly can be summered outdoors if their moisture requirements can be met. A final thought with regard to light is that, even though catasetums have a reputation of being sun-loving plants, if the grower is going to err, it should be slightly on the shady side rather than on the bright side. Humidity and Air Movement Catasetums tolerate an environment with 40 to 60 percent relative humidity during their growing season, but for optimal development of new growth and flowering, 70 percent is recommended. Higher humidity increases the plants' ability to withstand and benefit from their quota of light, and it also slows the evaporation of moisture from the potting medium in which,

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or mounts on which, they grow, to the benefit of the watering schedule. Higher humidity also reduces the likelihood of spider mite attacks, since the little critters prefer warm, dry conditions. A visit to Catasetum habitats in the tropics during the rainy season confirms readings of 80 to 90 percent or even higher, in sharp contrast to surprisingly low relative humidity in some habitats during the dry season. I recall glancing at the humidistat at midmorning in Trombetas (in the Amazon basin of Brazil) before the rainy season was even under way and being startled by a reading of more than 80 percent. Thus striving for 70 percent humidity in cultivation, which may seem high to some growers but is really well below many natural habitat levels during the growing season, is actually a commonsense compromise. Furthermore, even after the growing season it is advisable to keep the humidity on the high side to reduce the desiccation and shriveling of pseudobulbs during their rest period. Excessively low humidity during the growing season can stunt plant growth and cause flower buds to abort, but this does not mean that the grower should blindly strive for the highest possible relative humidity without concern for attendant problems. With humidity, there seems to be a fine dividing line between too much, increasing the likelihood of problems with rot, and too little, affecting plant growth and development. As with everything else in life, things are best done in moderation. The answer is to seek a happy medium (70 percent). It would be unwise to recommend high humidity, however, without simultaneously ensuring good air movement, for nothing invites pest and disease problems more than motionless air surrounding the plants. To confirm this, note the almost constant air movement prevailing in natural habitats; and we have already commented on the fact that Catasetum plants, flowers included, are designed by nature to withstand even powerful winds. So don't skimp on fans in your greenhouse or home environment, and you can create conditions rivaling the outdoors. Pests and Diseases Catasetums are occasionally subject to pests and diseases just as other orchids are. The first things that come to mind are slugs and snails, including bush snails, which can completely destroy an emerging inflorescence or new growth by gnawing its tip, devouring the tips of new roots, and even eating holes in the leaves. These pests can be controlled with a drench containing the chemical metaldehyde, but I recommend supplementing it with frequent observation of the plants and the entire greenhouse, especially at night and on cloudy, humid days, when slugs and snails emerge from their lairs. Nightly forays into the greenhouse can yield enough slug "kills" to control the population. Scale insects, of either the armored or soft variety, can be a problem on the leaves if such vermin are present in the greenhouse as a whole, but they generally prefer other hosts (Figure 779

14). The same is true of mealybugs, which occasionally attack the underside of the leaves, the leaf sheaths, and new growths. Soft-scale insects secrete a honeydew that promotes the growth of sooty mold as they suck the juice from the leaves. The mold is not debilitating to the plant, although it detracts from its overall appearance, but the honeydew does draw ants. Actually, ants are naturally attracted to catasetums in various stages of their growth. They especially relish the flower buds. They cause no visible damage, but allegedly carry the eggs of various pests.

Figure 7-14. The base of this Catasetum leaf is loaded with scale. I have been able to control scale insects effectively with the peri odic application of highly refined oil spray throughout the greenhouse. The insects build up no immunity to this product, since they can never learn to survive suffocation. The spray should not be used on excessively hot days and should preferably be employed only in the morning with prospects of the leaves drying fairly quickly. While it is being applied, the sprayer should be shaken frequently to keep the oil in solution, and it should be sprayed on both sides of the leaves. This spray is also effective against aphids, leaf miners, mealybugs, and even spider mites, except in the case of a widespread, heavy infestation of the latter. I apply this product weekly during the growing season and at biweekly intervals at other times. Aphids are only rarely a problem, but the same cannot be said for spider mites and false spider mites, which are considered the primary plague of catasetums (Figure 7-15). Spider mites are particularly prevalent in the warm, dry weather typical of late summer, but the grower should be alert to the possibility of their presence year-round in a warm greenhouse. If a collection 80

includes only a few Catasetum plants, spider mites may require only occasional action, but with a large collection, an infestation of these vermin can be devastating. If undetected, they can in a very short time suck enough juice from the leaves to render them stippled and useless, effectively ending the growing season for the plant. Seedlings, in particular, which often do not have enough pseudobulb reserve to survive, can be decimated. Organic insect repellents are, by some reports, effective against scales, aphids, and even spider mites, but I have not used them on a regular basis. I have also made occasional use of insecticidal soap, with apparent success. Since I grow a sizable number of Catasetum plants, I am aware of the possibility of spider mite infestation. Throughout the growing season I watch my plants closely, and at the first sign of spider mites or false spider mites, I immediately supplement the weekly oil treatment with a potent miticide, which is reapplied after seven days. The miticide selected should preferably have long residual action, low phytotoxicity, and not be able to be washed off. Many growers believe in rotating insecticides so that the mites do not develop immunity to any one, and I know of one Florida grower who distributes his catasetums around various parts of his greenhouse to reduce the possibility of an infestation. Sow bugs have been known to become numerous enough to stunt a plant's growth by chewing on the tips of new roots. They can be controlled with various baits as can ants.

Figure 7-15. Spider mites ruined these Catasetum leaves. Photo by Leon Evans. A type of mold sometimes present in bark mixes is snow mold, which does not damage the plant, except by causing root suffocation in advanced cases, but is unsightly and is considered undesirable. I have found no remedy for snow mold other than to remove every bit of the old substrate from around the plant's roots and to destroy it, not the plant. 81

Catasetums are reportedly subject to several types of orchid virus. To my knowledge, none of my plants has ever harbored such a catastrophic pathogen, and I don't even like to think about it. I do, however, take all normal precautions regarding sterilization of tools and segregate any suspicious greenhouse plant, should I encounter one, for testing. If the presence of virus in any orchid plant is suspected, it must be effectively segregated from all other plants until tested. If the test is positive, the plant must be destroyed, since no cure is known at the present time. Fungal and bacterial rots, including fusarium wilt, can decimate all or part of a Catasetum plant in short order if they go unnoticed. All such pathogens have a broad range of effects, from the spotting of mature leaves to the sudden rotting of new growths and the more gradual putrefaction of pseudobulbs. I suggest frequent, close inspection of all plants, even wiggling and pinching suspicious pseudobulbs, to detect any kind of rot. If you find any black spot or area on the bulbs, gouge it out with a sterile utensil, going deeper and deeper until all the dark substance is removed. If there is any lingering doubt, soak the affected area of the plant in water to which a fungicide or bactericide has been added. After the plant is fairly dry, coat the wound with sulfur powder. If the black spot turns out to be part of a black vein running deep into the pseudobulb, remove and destroy the entire bulb and treat the cut at the base as described above. I truly believe that the old adage ''an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" applies very aptly to Catasetum plants. The grower can do much to keep pathogens from attacking by observing common-sense rules of cleanliness and tidiness, quickly removing all fallen leaves, flowers, and other possible sources of rot (and ethylene gas). And always remember, healthy plants resist disease. That is why I make regular applications of a nutrient solution containing soluble silicone, which is reputed to enhance the plants' ability to resist disease, especially fungi. Since I have been using this nutrient, I have noticed a marked decrease in rot of all kinds. Another essential factor in preventing rot is good air movement and frequent replacement of greenhouse air with outside air (when the outside temperature is conducive). In spite of my natural inclination to avoid the use of toxic chemicals whenever possible, I do keep an array of sprayers containing various insecticides, fungicides, and bactericides poised for use if needed, in addition to my regular prophylactic program. We who grow catasetums in greenhouses, or at least indoors, in North America have to keep a careful watch for the aforementioned pests and diseases, but at least we do not have to contend with a long list of natural predators that ravage some plants in their native environments. In the wild caterpillars (the larvae of many kinds of moths and butterflies) lay their eggs on Catasetum leaves. Wasps burrow into and lay eggs in pseudobulbs. Various beetles and bugs, cockroaches, slugs, and snails, in addition to the many forms of fungal and bacterial rot, 82

devastate some plants to their hearts' content in their habitats. Observation of Catasetum plants in nature, often with leaves riddled by insects and with pseudobulbs hollowed out by beetles or wasps, is proof that it is perfectly feasible to aspire to improve upon natural conditions with regard to pests and diseases. Labeling Plants Since catasetums are so similar vegetatively, it is especially important that plants be labeled in a meaningful way. First and foremost, the label should contain the genus and species name, followed, ideally, by the name of the author who originally described the species. In the case of an artificial hybrid, the name of the cross would replace the specific epithet and the author name. The name of a natural hybrid is preceded by the multiplication sign ×. On the front side of the label I also suggest giving the country of origin and a code to indicate the quality of the plant. At the top of the back side of the label I indicate in abbreviated form the source of a plant and the date. Below that, flowering and repotting dates are noted. The owner's name should appear somewhere on the label. I recommend vinyl labels and an indelible marker of some kind. A pencil is best, because the sun will fade writing done with a pen, even one sold as a "permanent marker." Incorrect or even deceitful labeling results in confusion. I remember very clearly the early, naïve days when I accepted the names on labels at face value, without questioning. Then, when flowers appeared, I tried in vain to match their appearance with their description in the literature. With increased interest in the genus Catasetum has come increased illicit collecting, often by those with only rudimentary knowledge of its species. Hence many plants entering the market are of unknown or uncertain origin, and some labeled species turn out to be natural or artificial hybrids, or even intergenerics. Unscrupulous collectors or dealers are often quick to flag plants as uncommon or rare species without even seeing them flower. The situation is further complicated because most Catasetum species cannot be identified by their vegetative characteristics alone. Sometimes knowledge of the plant's habitat can lead to tentative identification, but without such knowledge it is virtually impossible. Several years ago I acquired four plants marked Catasetum spitzii from a fly-by-night dealer, but when they flowered, it was obvious that they were all C. fimbriatum. A plant labeled C. cristatum proved to be C. fimbriatum also, and several labeled C. appendiculatum are now confirmed to be C. arietinum. I have also acquired plants labeled C. ruckerianum and C. genesio, for example, hoping in vain that they would turn out to be new or rare species. They didn't.

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Therefore, the grower is advised to buy plants only from reputable dealers or growers and to mistrust labels on plants from all others. I have experienced so many cases of misidentification that I am automatically suspicious of any name on a label unless I know the owner well. Sometimes I have realized even before they flowered that some of my acquisitions were simply not what they were purported to be. Exhibiting Plants Anyone who has ever entered plants in an orchid show knows that it is all-important to keep up appearances and put one's best foot forward. Catasetums require special preparations just like other orchid plants, but with the caveat that the window of opportunity is smaller, unless we are thinking of plants with female flowers. In most species the male flowers last a week or less, and in some instances their less fleshy parts (sepals and petals) begin to lose substance and curl after only a few days. Well in advance, take an inventory of Catasetum plants expected to be in flower at about the time of the show. At that time do any necessary unobtrusive staking of plants and their developing inflorescences so that they become accustomed to their new positions. Maintain the plants' usual orientation toward the light and, if possible, reduce the light to enhance the vividness of the flowers. As show time nears, plant flowering can be delayed by several days by closeting the plants in absolute darkness. The same procedure can prolong the life of flowers already open, and, of course, high humidity and cool temperatures help to extend their life. Just before show setup time, plants should be cleaned up. The foliage can be wiped with a cloth dampened with water, milk, or a 1:10 solution of vinegar and water, or even Safer's insecticidal soap. Old labels should be removed, and plants should be watered long enough before setup to avoid water leaks. I like to peel back from leafless pseudobulbs any really scruffy-looking old leaf sheaths and remove most of the remnants of old inflorescences. If a potted plant is top-heavy, place it is a slightly larger clay pot. When transporting your flowering Catasetum plants, take extra pains not to jostle them, to preclude accidental ejection of the pollinia. To show a plant to best advantage, it should be hung or placed on a tiered bench or inverted pot. A plant with pendent inflorescences hung in front of an attractive backdrop can be a real show-stopper. Pseudobulbs should be visible in the background, for large, spectacular ones enhance the overall effect.

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The brief flowering period of most catasetums makes it relevant to think of supplementing their culture with photography or artwork. Consider entering photographs or even watercolors or oil paintings of catasetums in your society's annual show.

Chapter 8 Description of Species 85

That almost all the 68 Catasetum species accorded full-blown descriptions in this chapter are those that I have grown and flowered represents a wish fulfilled. Valid species with which I have not had firsthand experience, and new described species whose validity has not been confirmed and living specimens of which are not available are briefly mentioned. Virtually all the species known to exist at the present time are thus included in this chapter. Catasetum aculeatum Miranda & Lacerda A new small species from Amazonas State, Brazil, whose name means "spinelike." Described in 1992 (Bradea 6: 46). Catasetum adremedium A new Peruvian species of unknown affinities. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum albovirens Barbosa Rodrigues Figure 8-1 PRONUNCIATION: al-bow-VEER-enz. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective composed of albus, "white," and virens, "green," expressing the white-green color of the flowers. HISTORY. Described by the Brazilian botanist João Barbosa Rodrigues in 1877 (Genera et Species Orchidearum Novarum 1: 129). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots stout, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 29 × 4 cm, markedly curved, with shaggy old sheaths. Leaves 6, to 24 × 6 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, very thick and leathery, with 3 conspicuous veins on the underside. Male inflorescence 40 cm (16 in.) long, erect, with the rachis arching slightly. Peduncle 34 mm in diameter. Bracts 8 mm long, spaced 2540 mm apart. Pedicels about 25 mm long, straight. Flowers 12, about 37 × 50 mm. Dorsal sepal4 30 × 16 mm, concave, acute, with 5 noticeable veins. Petals 25 × 11 mm, convex, acute, with 3 veins. Lateral sepals 30 × 11 mm, concave, acute, with 5 veins. Lip 20 × 19 mm, 22 mm deep, held uppermost, globose, distinctly trilobed; lateral lobes rounded, incurred, entire; midlobe reflexed, with a blunt apex. Column about 14 mm long, ovoid. Anther with a short beak. Antennae only 6 mm long, parallel. Coloration white-green. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, coastal region of Pará State. Reported specifically from the island of Marajó at the mouth of the Amazon River. HABITAT. Grows in a region that is a departure from the norm for the Red Zone, in that the rainy season lasts and lasts and the evenly warm climate rarely has a dry period.

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Figure 8-1. Catasetum albovirens. From Flora Brasilica. SYNONYM. Catasetum lemosii Rolfe. IDENTIFICATION. A large plant with fairly small nonresupinate flowers. Lip globular, the apex of the midlobe reflexed, and the sepals and petals spreading. Hoehne declared it superficially similar to C. lemosii, whose habitat he believed it shared, but found appreciable differences upon close examination. Current consensus is that the 2 species are synonymous and that C. lemosii has been confused with such species as C. fuchsii. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Needs hot, moist tropical conditions practically yearround, with a brief rest period. In its natural habitat it receives rainfall frequently even while 87

dormant. I grow an adult plant in a wooden basket under light to moderate shade, and several seedlings in pots of sphagnum moss until they attain sufficient size for other treatment. COMMENTS. A large, stunning species with rampant growth but relatively small flowers. The papery old leaf sheaths are held so loosely that the pseudobulbs appear shaggy. The original description of C. albovirens (as C. lemosii) noted that the inflorescences emerge from above the base of the pseudobulb, a pattern I have often observed on my adult plant. Catasetum appendiculatum Schlechter Plate 4; Figures 8-2, 8-3 PRONUNCIATION: ah-pen-dick-yoo-LAH-tum or ah-pen-dick-yoo-LAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective appendiculatus, "with appendage(s)," referring to the numerous hairlike filaments emerging from the lip margins. HISTORY. Described by Rudolf Schlechter in 1925 (Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt 42,2: 115). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white; pneumatophores present on some clones under certain conditions. Pseudobulbs 9 × 4 cm, elliptical, covered with papery, white sheaths when old. Leaves 7, to 32 × 8 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, others less so. Male inflorescence 35 cm (14 in.) long, almost erect then arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced 2535 mm apart. Pedicels 25 mm long, mostly straight. Flowers 20, 68 × 12 mm in their natural position, on the apical half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 35 × 10 mm, concave, acuminate, connivent with the petals and forming a hood over the column. Petals 30 × 7 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 33 × 12 mm, concave, acute, becoming reflexed. Lip 20 × 10 mm including appendages, narrowest (3.5 mm) in the middle at the sac orifice; sac about 3 mm deep, orifice about 2 mm across; upper, basal portion of the lip bilobed, in the form of wings, which are really a cluster of appendages set close together; lip on almost the same plane as the column when viewed from the side; 3-toothed callus between the wings, the 2 smaller teeth framing the middle one, which projects out 7 mm and down over the sac; a second callus 7 mm long with an acute tip projecting from the lip sac at an angle of about 45 degrees (in other clones, the tip of the callus may be spadelike with up to 4 fingers); all margins heavily fringed with appendages, the ones on the midlobe spreading, those around the sac orifice projecting straight up as if protecting it, and those around the basal 3toothed callus also projecting upward and enclosing it. Column about 26 mm long, 5 mm wide at the pseudostigmatic cavity, which is nearly round and about 2 mm in diameter. Anther with a long, slender beak. Antennae about 7 mm long, more or less parallel, with their tips touching at the middle tooth of the basal callus. Coloration of peduncle green on basal portion and red88

brown on apical portion; pedicels red-brown; sepals and petals green with transverse red-brown bars; column with minute red-brown spots, green around the pseudostigma; appendages white with sparse red-brown spots; lip calli white with tiny spots. Female inflorescence nearly 18 cm (7 in.) long, almost straight, angled 45 degrees. Peduncle 56 mm in diameter, thickest at the distal end. Bracts spaced about 30 mm apart. Pedicels curved to bring the lip uppermost. Flowers 3, 35 × 40 mm. Dorsal sepal 15 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Petals 19 × 8 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 17 × 11 mm, concave, acute. Lip 13 × 14 mm, 13 mm deep; midlobe with a short, blunt apex. Column about 10 × 7 mm, very fleshy and rigid. Coloration of peduncle green, progressively more heavily flushed with red-brown toward the base; floral segments green with red-brown spots on the inside of the sepals and petals, showing through to the underside along the margins. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Minas Gerais State on the central plateau. Hoehne (1942) claimed that this species originated in the region of the Lower Negro River in Amazonas State, Brazil. HABITAT. Grows on palm trees along creeks, in the cerrado (savannah-type vegetation in Brazil). Has long dry periods. IDENTIFICATION. Superficially resembles C. rivularium, except the lip sac is not as close to the base, but well in the center. The lip makes a bend (when viewed from the side), and the filament-like fringes are much longer. It has also been confused with C. barbatum, whose fringes are longer and more numerous and whose lip sac is larger and closer to the base of the lip. FLOWERING. Spring to summer, sometimes again in autumn. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species accustomed to a long dry season. Strong growing and moderate sized. Tolerates a wide range of cultural practices as long as its roots are not smothered. Can be grown potted with wood and bark chunks or in a basket, with warmth and only light shade while actively growing. Surprisingly, considering conditions in its natural habitat, conventional pot culture is acceptable as long as a very coarse mix is used. COMMENTS. The holotype of the species was destroyed during the bombing of Berlin in World War II, and plants growing in Brazil's central plateau today do not match the original description. Therefore, a lectotype will have to be selected or the species should be invalidated. Coloration and form vary considerably, especially in the lip and its fringes. The species is similar to C. barbatum, which with its many lip variations may eventually be considered a member of the C. cristatum alliance; in that case, C. cristatum would have nomenclatural priority over C. barbatum. Some changes in the classification of these species are to be expected. I am including 89

it in the present volume because it has a broad distribution in central Brazil, is well known to Brazilian growers, and is widely accepted. The flowers described above were held on an inflorescence slightly longer than most, and in other clones the tips of the sepals and petals range to acute. An inflorescence emerges fairly early in the development of the new growth. It seems strange that the peduncle of the male inflorescence is progressively darker red-brown toward the apex, whereas on the female inflorescence it is darker toward the base. Although its floral display is not striking, this is a hardy, interesting, vigorous-growing species not to be underrated.

Figure 8-2. Catasetum appendiculatum. From Flora Brasilica.

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Figure 8-3. Catasetum appendiculatum. Male and female flowers. Photo by Fred Paget. Catasetum arietinum Miranda & Lacerda Plate 5 PRONUNCIATION: are-ee-EH-ti-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin arietinus, referring to a ram, in keeping with the plant's form, with its pseudobulbs and leaves arching downward in a manner reminiscent of the horns of that animal. Indeed, the English adjective arietinous means ''shaped like a ram's head." HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 48), after the plant flowered in cultivation in 1991. The original description is based on a plant collected in 1990 by Lacerda and Miranda. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic, with pseudobulbs, leaves, and inflorescences pendent. Roots thick and fleshy, 3 mm in diameter. Pseudobulbs to 10 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, clustered, spreading, to semi-pendent and even totally pendent, often noticeably curved. Leaves 6, to 25 × 3 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green, with wavy margins, almost pendent, with 3 prominent veins, many others less conspicuous. Male inflorescence 20 cm. (8 in.) long. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 7 mm long, spaced 1520 mm apart. Pedicels 1015 mm long, 2 mm in diameter, nearly straight. Flowers 20, about 40 × 40 mm in their natural position, resupinate, clustered on the apical two-fifths of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 7 mm, concave, acute, connivent with the petals and forming a hood over the column. Petals 23 × 8 mm, convex, acute. 91

Lateral sepals 25 × 9 mm, concave, acute, curving inward toward the base of the lip. Lip 19 × 17 mm in its natural position, trilobed; cavity 5 mm deep, helmet-shaped, with a more or less round sac orifice; one callus 3-toothed, overhanging the cavity at the base of the lip, the 2 outer teeth erect and pointing slightly backward and the middle one pointing forward; a second callus at the apex 4 mm long, with an acute tip raised about 2 mm and projecting forward; all margins except the nearly horizontal upper margin heavily fringed with irregularly shaped hairlike appendages to about 7 mm long. Column 15 mm long, 5 mm wide at the pseudostigmatic cavity, which is 2.5 × 2 mm; forming an angle of about 130 degrees with the lip. Anther beaked, hooked slightly forward, 5 mm long. Antennae 9 mm long, perfectly parallel, extending alongside the middle prong of the callus at the base of the lip and projecting over the lip cavity. Coloration green; sepals and petals with minute brown-purple speckles; lip calli whitish; lip margin appendages green to whitish; antennae yellow-green. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Pernambuco State. HABITAT. Grows on palm trees. IDENTIFICATION. Pseudobulbs, leaves, and inflorescence arch downward. Flowers clustered on the apical portion of the inflorescence. Lip fringes reminiscent of C. barbatum, but lip shape and flower color (green) entirely different, and the only other Catasetum in the region is C. discolor. FLOWERING. Spring and summer, sometimes into autumn, from a newly developing pseudobulb. Often sends out one inflorescence after another. CULTURE. Grows in Red Zone microclimates in my Gray Zone. To avoid problems with rot, the species should not be pampered with excessive water. It is very easy to grow, in nearly full sunlight and even under conventional pot culture if kept on the dry side. COMMENTS. This member of the C. cristatum alliance is unique for its pendent habit. Its colors are not eye-catching, but the plant is vigorous, and its inflorescence is unique with its mass of clustered green flowers. Beautifully spotted flowers are a rarity for this species (see Plate 5). The first plants that I bought with C. appendiculatum on the labels turned out to be C. arietinum. The foregoing description is based on a plant that is on the smallish side vegetativelya neat, tidy plant that is considerably more compact than other clones in my collection. It seems strange that this species, which apparently is quite common in a restricted area of the Brazilian coastal state of Pernambuco, has only been discovered and described relatively recently. Catasetum aripuanense Bicalho Plate 6 92

PRONUNCIATION: are-ee-poo-ah-NEN-say. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the name of the municipality of Aripuanã in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, where the species was first discovered. HISTORY. Described by Hamilton Dias Bicalho in 1963 (Loefgrenia 8: 1). The original description is based on a plant collected by Margaret Mee and cultivated in the São Paulo botanical garden in Brazil. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 3.5 cm, subconical. Leaves 4, to 24 × 4 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green. Male inflorescence 20 cm (8 in.) long, arching. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts 6 mm long. Pedicels to 27 mm long, straight. Flowers 4, on three-quarters of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 23 × 8.5 mm, concave, acute. Petals 24 × 7.5 mm, tending toward convex, acute. Lateral sepals 24 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Lip 17 × 24 mm, held lowermost, trilobed, concave; all margins fringed, with a conical callus at the base and a triangular, forked callus at the apex of the midlobe. Column 16 mm long, erect. Anther beaked. Antennae parallel, though slightly curled. Coloration green with heavy red-brown spots and transverse bars; lip calli and midlobe fringes whitish. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Mato Grosso State, municipality of Aripuanã. Also near the town of Costa Rica in Mato Grosso do Sul State. HABITAT. Grows on trees overhanging the Juruena River. Near the town of Costa Pica, Catasetum species associated with it are C. appendiculatum, C. longifolium, C. osculatum, a natural hybrid between the latter 2, C. rooseveltianum, and C. vinaceum. Species from other genera include Cycnoches haagii Barbosa Rodrigues and Galeandra dives Reichenbach f. IDENTIFICATION. Lip fringed, trilobed. Vegetatively appears to have 2 forms, according to those who consider it a natural hybrid: plants with larger, pendent pseudobulbs are said to result from a C. rooseveltianum influence, while those with smaller, erect pseudobulbs exhibit a C. appendiculatum affinity. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species. Can be potted, grown in a basket, or mounted, and likes light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. An interesting species, if that is what it is, that makes a small plant with appealing flowers. The plants from the small area near the town of Costa Rica display 56 different color forms. Catasetum ariquemense Miranda & Lacerda Plates 7, 8 93

PRONUNCIATION: ah-ree-kay-MEN-say. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the name of the municipality of Ariquemes in Rondônia State, Brazil, where the species was first discovered. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 50). The original description is based on a plant collected by Lacerda in 1991 and includes line drawings of the plant and its flowers. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs 8 × 3.5 cm, fusiform, often slightly curved, exceedingly furrowed when old. Leaves to 8, to 25 × 4 cm, oblanceolate, with wavy edges. Male inflorescence 18 cm (7 in.) long, almost horizontal, then pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts 12 mm long, spaced 2030 mm apart. Pedicels to 25 mm long, 1.5 mm in diameter. Flowers to 20, resupinate, on the terminal half of the inflorescence; floral bracts to 8 mm long. Dorsal sepal 37 × 7 mm, slightly concave, acuminate. Petals 33 × 7 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 33 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 12 × 12 mm, trilobed, concave, almost triangular, turned forward and upward, forming an angle of about 90 degrees with the column; callus near the base very fleshy, shaped like a sharp-pointed tooth; lateral lobes winged upward and ending in erect, sharp-pointed appendages; all margins with short, irregular fringes. Column 12 × 3.5 mm, narrowest at the base. Antennae 7 mm long, parallel, passing on each side of the basal callus of the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals greenrose with small purple spots (light to dark brown spots in other clones); lip greenish with tiny brown spots near the fringes; column and antennae green to rosy. Female inflorescence 6 cm (2 1/2 in.) long, erect, with 46 flowers clustered at the apex. Pedicels to 25 mm long, 5 mm in diameter. Flowers to 60 mm long. Sepals and petals to 10 × 5 mm. Lip to 15 mm long and wide, 20 mm deep, held uppermost, helmet-shaped. Column to 10 × 7 mm; stigmatic cavity a transverse slit. Anther atrophied. Coloration light green without spots. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Rondônia State, municipality of Ariquemes. HABITAT. Grows on various dead trees and living palms. The original description is based on a plant found on a lake shore near highway BR-364, in the same habitat as that of C. complanatum. The most common of many species in the area. Its habitat is warm year-round (minimum temperature about 20°C or 68°F) and has a relatively short dry period of 4 months. VARIETY. Var. virens L. C. Menezes, with pure green flowers. IDENTIFICATION. Somewhat similar to C. rondonense, but has larger flowers, a lip with smaller and more widely spreading lateral lobes, a more pointed apex, and short fringes on all margins. FLOWERING. Autumn. 94

CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted in a coarse mix or grown in a basket under light shade. COMMENTS. An extremely floriferous species, if it is indeed a species, with no 2 plants the same. Each pseudobulb may have up to 4 inflorescences, 1 or 2 at a time, each one of a single sex or mixed. Miranda and Lacerda mentioned the possibility that C. ariquemense is a natural hybrid, in which case the probable parents would be C. rondonense Pabst and C. parguazense. The foregoing description is based on the first flowering of one of my plants, a harbinger of prolific flowering in the future. Catasetum atratum Lindley Plate 9; Figures 8-4, 8-5 PRONUNCIATION: ah-TRAH-tum or ah-TRAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective atratus, "dark" or "darkened." Perhaps justified by the lines, spots, and blotches heavily embellishing the flowers. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1838 (Edwards's Botanical Register 24: Misc. 61, t. 63). DESCRIPTION.

Growth

habit

epiphytic.

Roots

fairly

thick,

white;

some

pneumatophores. Pseudobulbs to 15 × 2 Cm, fusiform, clustered, new ones completely covered by leaf sheaths that turn papery when old. Leaves to 9, to 50 × 8 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 36 cm (14 in.) long, almost horizontal, rachis pendent. Peduncle 3.5 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced 50 mm apart. Pedicels about 24 mm long. Flowers 15, 38 × 48 mm, on the terminal quarter of the inflorescence, waxy, fragrant; floral bracts 12 mm long, inconspicuous. Dorsal sepal 25 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Petals 25 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Lateral sepals 20 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Lip 17 × 16 mm, held lowermost, helmet-shaped, trilobed, apex rolled back; margins of the lateral lobes and midlobe hairy. Column 17 × 5 mm. Anther with a downcurved beak. Antennae about 13 mm long, with their tips diverging and curling back as they extend into the lip cavity. Coloration of sepals green with dense minute dark purple spots; petals green with larger, more conspicuous spots of the same color; lip apex and inside of cavity cream-colored; column light green. Female inflorescence shorter, more erect and rigid than male inflorescence, and female flowers sometimes intermingling with male flowers. Lip 20 × 12 mm, held uppermost. Column short. Anther atrophied. Coloration more uniformly greenish or yellowish.

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DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, from São Paulo State southward. Reported specifically from Laguna (Santa Catarina State), Juiz de Fora (Minas Gerais State), and São Leopoldo and Lagoa Itapeva (Rio Grande do Sul State).

Figure 8-4. Catasetum atratum. Two kinds of flowers, lips uppermost. Photo by Fred Paget.

Figure 8-5. Catasetum atratum. One flower, 2 lips. HABITAT. Grows in trees in a subtropical region. SYNONYMS. Catasetum adnatum Steudel, C. mentosum Lemaire, C. pallidum Klotzsch. IDENTIFICATION. Flower color and structure quite variable, according to the literature, but generally green with dark purple spotting. The critical identifying feature is the midlobe of the lip, which is recurved and conspicuous. One report mentions a yellow fringe at the apex of the lip. Several illustrations portray an uppermost lip, which is resupinate on my plant described 96

above. Growers disagree about resupination in this species as well as whether male and female flowers may be carried on the same inflorescence. FLOWERING. Late spring into summer. CULTURE. A Green Zone species. Can withstand cool temperatures. Easy to grow. Flowers from a newly developing pseudobulb. Can be potted, mounted on wood, or installed in a wooden basket, under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. With its easy culture, floriferousness, and striking raceme of pretty flowers, this fairly robust species is one of my favorites. Catasetum barbatum (Lindley) Lindley Plates 10, 11; Figures 8-6, 8-7 PRONUNCIATION: bar-BAH-tum or bar-BAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective barbatus, "bearded," referring to the lip and its many fleshy "hairs." HISTORY. First collected along the Mazaruni River in what is now Guyana by John Henchman. Flowered for the first time in Europe in 1835 and described on the basis of male flowers by John Lindley in that same year (Edwards's Botanical Register 21: t. 1778) as Myanthus barbatus. When Lindley realized that catasetums have male and female flowers, he transferred the species to the genus Catasetum in 1844 (Edwards's Botanical Register 30: Misc. 38). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots white, fairly thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs 12 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, slightly compressed. Leaves 6, 24 × 6 cm (can be as large as 50 × 8 cm), elliptic to oblanceolate, with 3 veins, medium green. Male inflorescence 30 cm. (12 in.) long, arching to pendent. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 9 mm long, spaced 2540 mm apart. Pedicels to 30 mm long, 2 mm in diameter. Flowers 12, about 44 × 35 mm, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 6 mm, concave, acute. Petals 25 × 5 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 27 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Lip 16 × 15 mm including fringes to 7 mm long on all margins, held lowermost; one callus hornlike at the base of the lip with a short tooth on each side; a second callus horizontal and spinelike near the apex; sac cone-shaped, with opening 23 mm across. Column about 14 mm long. Anther beaked, hooked down. Antennae about 9 mm long, parallel, extending on either side of the tooth at the base of the lip cavity. Coloration of peduncle, pedicels, and bracts light green; sepals and petals green with maroon-purple marks; lip light green, lightly spotted with maroon-purple; fringes white; column light green-brown with tiny maroon-purple spots; antennae light green; teeth at the base and callus at the lip apex white. Female flowers 34 × 28 97

mm, with the sepals and petals widely spread. Pedicels to 30 mm long, 3 mm in diameter. Dorsal sepal 17 × 5 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 18 × 7 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 17 × 5 mm, concave, acute. Lip 15 × 10 mm, 7 mm deep, very fleshy, held uppermost. Column about 10 × 7 mm. Coloration green, with a few tiny maroon-purple specks near the petal margins. DISTRIBUTION. Northern South America, including Colombia, Venezuela, and Guyana. Also Brazil, from the states of Amazonas and Pará eastward to Maranhão State. Variety spinosum is found in Red Zone microclimates in Ceará State. HABITAT. Grows at elevations less than 300 m (1000 ft.). Dunsterville (1967) found that it also grew terrestrially, though seeming to flower more luxuriantly as an epiphyte, especially when in contact with rotting wood. SYNONYMS. Catasetum brachibulbon Schlechter, C. comosum Cogniaux, C. crinitum Lindley, C. cristatum var. spinosum (Hooker) Hooker, C. cristatum var. stenosepalum Reichenbach f., C. macrocarpum Stein non Richard ex Kunth, C. polydactylon Schlechter, C. spinosum (Hooker) Lindley, Myanthus barbatus var. immaculatus Knowles & Westcott, Myanthus spinosus Hooker. BASIONYM. Myanthus barbatus Lindley. VARIETIES. Var. barbatum Mansfeld, var. proboscideum Lindley, var. spinosum Rolfe (sepals and petals heavily spotted red, lip white with longer fringes confined to the distal portion, and with a spinelike callus at the apex of the lip). A white form of this species is also known to exist.

Figure 8-6. Catasetum barbatum. Bearded beauty. Photo by Fred Paget. IDENTIFICATION. Large sac near the base of the lip. Usually a tridentate callosity next to the sac, with a central spur. A recumbent tooth at the apex of the lip. The most conspicuous feature for identification, however, are the fringes, to 9 mm long, on the lip margins. With the 98

very broad geographical distribution of the species, there is a gradual progression from plants with densely ciliate lips in the Negro River region in the west to plants with longer, but less heavily fringed, lips as one moves eastward. Knowledgeable Brazilians, such as Lacerda (1998), now consider Catasetum barbatum to belong to the C. cristatum complex. FLOWERING. From spring into summer, autumn, and even winter. Indeed, it flowers almost anytime, and repeatedly, throughout the year. CULTURE. A Red Zone species, even with its broad distribution. Can be potted, either conventionally or using a coarse mix or chunks of wood and bark, or mounted. Should be given as much light as possible short of burning the leaves, and a winter rest if the plant indicates the need.

Figure 8-7. Catasetum barbatum var. spinosum. From Flora Brasilica. COMMENTS. This very desirable, floriferous species may have male, female, and/or hermaphroditic flowers on the same or different inflorescences, in various combinations. Its hermaphroditic flowers assume a wide range of forms. Dunsterville, who lived in Venezuela, was so intrigued with the tremendous variation in the hairs on the lip of this species that he collected dozens of specimens to compare the differences. He divided his plants into 2 groups: those with long hairs and those with short stubble, but also found many that did not fit into either group. The fragrance of the flowers can also vary remarkably. The species is often confused with C. cristatum and similar species such as C. appendiculatum. If C. barbatum and C. cristatum are ever consolidated, the latter name would have priority. Catasetum bergoldianum Foldats

99

A large Venezuelan species with relatively small flowers, similar to C. ochraceum. Described in 1968 (Acta Botanica Venezuelica 3: 318, fig. 4A). Catasetum bicallosum Cogniaux A Venezuelan species belonging to the C. cristatum complex that has been "lost" since it was described by Alfred Cogniaux in 1902 (Flora Brasiliensis 3,5: 427). Confused with C. parguazense. Catasetum bicolor Klotzsch Plate 12 PRONUNCIATION: BY-kol-or. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from a Latin adjective composed of bis, ''two" or "two times," and color, whose meaning is obvious. Apparently the name was selected because the original specimen had flowers with a white lip and green sepals and petals, or at least so it appeared from the herbarium specimen. HISTORY. Described by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch in 1854 (Allgemeine Gartenzeitung 22: 337), but not formally illustrated until 1949 (Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 36: 25). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 8 × 2 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves 7, 20 × 4 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 20 cm (8 in.) long, pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts spaced about 20 mm apart. Pedicels about 25 mm long, 2 mm in diameter, mostly straight (curved only near the flowers, to make them resupinate). Flowers 9, 32 × 37 mm in their natural position, on most of the inflorescence; floral bracts to 12 mm long, shorter toward the apex of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 30 × 9 mm, concave, acuminate, overlapping the petals and forming a hood over the column. Petals 26 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Lateral sepals 30 × 9 mm, concave, rolled, acuminate, spreading. Lip 7 × 6 mm, held lowermost, distinctly trilobed, with a small, helmet-shaped pouch 3 mm deep at the base; lateral lobes with 2 wings each, one acute, extending down in front of the column, the other long and slender, curling inward, next to the midlobe; 2 slender protuberances about 2 mm long inside the lip close to the cavity and near the base of each lateral lobe; midlobe with trough from the cavity to the acute apex. Column about 15 × 5 mm, concave. Pseudostigma 3 × 2 mm, with a triangular callus next to it on the anther end. Antennae about 10 mm long, mostly parallel, with their tips diverging, extending to the inner base of the lip sac. Coloration of rachis, pedicels, sepals, and petals tan with a slight reddish blush; sepals and petals with dense red-brown spotting; lip and column pearly white with

100

red-purple spotting; margins of the lip edged with red-purple; callus next to the pseudostigma apple green. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil. HABITAT. Grows in hot, tropical forest, on dead logs, trees, and stumps, from sea level to mostly 400 m (1300 ft.). As an exception, it grows at 1000 m (3300 ft.) at Chiriqui Volcano in Panama. SYNONYM. Catasetum gongoroides Kraenzlin. IDENTIFICATION. A small plant with small flowers, lip unique, complexly trilobed, and held lowermost. FLOWERING. Late spring to autumn, often several times. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted conventionally or unconventionally, under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. Similar to C. rondonense Pabst from Brazil, but more colorful. The foregoing description is based on one of 2 plants in my collection. Although the flowers are anything but spectacular, the diminutive lip has an intricate, interesting structure with a unique color pattern. A magnifying glass is necessary for a better view of the details. This species is one of only several in the genus on which I have seen an inflorescence emerge from the leaf axil instead of from the base of the pseudobulb. Catasetum blackii Pabst A rare species from the region around the São Francisco River in southwestern Bahia and northern Minas Gerais States in Brazil. Its flowers are the largest in the C. cristatum complex and feature a trilobed lip and crossed antennae. Described in 1964 (Annais XIV Congresso da Sociedade Botânica do Brasil, p. 21, fig. 3C). Catasetum brichtae Bicalho A species from Amazonas State, Brazil, with an erect, few-flowered inflorescence; flowers small, lip fleshy with conspicuous platelike structures inside; sepals and petals spreading, leaving the lip free. Gustavo Romero believes this Brazilian taxon to be a synonym of C. ferox, while Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. disagrees. Described in 1977 (Bradea 2: 172). Catasetum boyi Mansfeld. See C. rondonense. Catasetum buchtienii Kraenzlin A species from western Bolivia, similar to C. stevensonii. Described in 1928 (Repertorium Specierum Novarum Regni Vegetabilis 25: 27). Catasetum callosum Lindley Plate 14; Figure 8-8 101

PRONUNCIATION: cah-LOW-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective callosus, "having calli," itself derived from the noun callus, alluding to the protuberance at the base of the lip. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1840 (Edwards's Botanical Register 26: Misc. 77). DESCRIPTION (f. album). Growth habit epiphytic. Roots stout, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 10 × 2.5 cm (reportedly to 20 cm tall in other clones), fusiform. Leaves 5, to 24 × 4 cm (as much as 35 × 8 cm in other clones), linear-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins and others less conspicuous. Male inflorescence about 15 cm (6 in.) long, to 35 cm. (14 in.) in others, arching. Peduncle about 2 mm in diameter. Bracts 9 mm long, tightly hugging the peduncle, spaced about 25 mm apart. Pedicels 14 mm long, to 2 mm in diameter. Flowers 6 (many more at times), 35 × 36 mm, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 6 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 22 × 5 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 24 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Lip 13 × 8 mm, concave, indistinctly trilobed, triangular-shaped, fleshy and rigid; sac only 2 mm deep; margins faintly hairy, but no appendages; callus near the base of the lip rounded (assumes various forms, often conical, in other clones). Column about 12 × 6 mm. Anther with a slender beak. Antennae 7 mm long, parallel but quite far apart, as they flank the callus at the base of the lip. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green (to dark maroon in darker-colored clones); sepals and petals light green (from light to dark green and brown in other clones); lip creamcolored to white (from light to dark green and brown in other clones); column darker creamcolored to yellow-green. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazonas State (along the border with Colombia and Peru), through Venezuela and the Guianas. The album form described above originated in Colombia. HABITAT. Grows in gallery forest along the tributaries on the left bank of the Amazon River. Also found on more open plains in the other northern South American countries. SYNONYMS. Catasetum acallosum Lindley ex Reichenbach f., C. arachnoides Ames, C. carunculatum Reichenbach f. & Warszewicz, C. darwinianum Rolfe, C. fuliginosum Rolfe non Lindley, C. landsbergii (Reinwardt & Vriese) Lindley & Paxton, Myanthus callosus (Lindley) Beer, Myanthus grandiflorus Beer, Myanthus landsbergii Reinwardt & Vriese. VARIETIES. The following varieties have been formally described based on the configuration of the lip and thus confirm the lip's marked variability: var. carunculatum (Reichenbach f. & Warszewicz) Mansfeld (lip shorter and wider than the other segments, toothed, with a yellow callus at the base), var. crenulatum Mansfeld fide Hoehne (lip oblongoval or almost fiddle-shaped, the margins, mainly in front, coarsely toothed, and the apex of the 102

midlobe tridentate, and verrucose above), and var. typum Hoehne (lip oblong-oval or trilobed, the margins noticeably notched, the midlobe smooth). The final described variety is var. eucallosum Mansfeld.

Figure 8-8. Another form of Catasetum callosum. IDENTIFICATION. Lips variable except all lack fringes and all have a prominent callus at base of the lip. Venezuelan grower Alexis Pardo Isla reports a form from the plains in Barinas State, Venezuela, that has fringes long enough to attract attention and to raise the possibility of affinity with C. barbatum. FLOWERING. Autumn and winter. CULTURE. A Red Zone species accustomed to only a brief rest period. Easy to grow. Can be potted, mounted, or grown in a wooden basket, in bright light and evenly warm temperatures. COMMENTS. An attractive though not spectacular species that is relatively available, and an easy grower and bloomer. It has highly polymorphic flowers (many forms between male and female). H. C. Hoehne (1942) noted that this species is close to C. juruenense, and indeed the lips of the 2 species are quite similar. Catasetum carolinianum Miranda & Lacerda Plate 15 PRONUNCIATION: kat-oh-linn-ee-AH-num or kar-oh-linn-ee-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the name of the municipality of Carolina in Maranhão State, Brazil, near where the species' original habitat is situated. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 54). 103

DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly fleshy and thick (to 2.5 mm). Pseudobulbs to 10 × 3.5 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves 68, to 20 × 4 cm, oblanceolate, medium green. Male inflorescence to 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching. Peduncle to 3.5 mm in diameter, with 34 bracts to 10 mm long. Pedicels to 25 mm long, 2 mm in diameter. Flowers 15, on the distal three-fifths of the inflorescence; floral bracts to 12 mm long. Dorsal sepal 30 × 12 mm, erect, slightly concave, acuminate. Petals 28 × 7.5 mm, convex, acuminate to acute. Lateral sepals 30 × 15 mm, concave, acute, strongly reflexed, even touching the pedicel. Lip 25 × 15 mm, held lowermost, fleshy with 39 long, sharp teeth clustered at its base, trilobed, with a small but deep cavity with long cilia on its margin; apex of midlobe slender and gradually reflexed with an irregular, fleshy, crown-shaped callosity. Column 24 × 8.5 mm, fleshy, narrower toward the base. Anther beaked. Antennae to 13 mm long, robust, more or less parallel, with their tips diverging slightly, projecting between the basal teeth to the lip cavity wall. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green; sepals rose-green with many small rose-brown spots; petals of the same color, with larger spots, wider transversally, but fewer in number; lip green-white with whitish callosity at the apex, spotted with rose-brown toward its base; anther green-white. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Maranhão (where originally discovered in the municipality of Carolina), Tocantins, and Goiás. HABITAT. Grows on palm trees in dry ground. IDENTIFICATION. Initially reminiscent of C. barbatum, but close examination reveals distinct differences, mainly in the lip, which is very fleshy, much wider in the basal and apical portions, and markedly narrowed in the middle. The basal callosity has many sharp teeth, and the callosity in front is a very fleshy, irregularly shaped crown. The lip margins have relatively short cilia, which are longer and more numerous in the basal portion. The column is much more robust and wider in the middle, and the well-developed antennae lie between the teeth of the basal callosity and extend over the cavity in the basal third of the lip. Flower coloration is also completely different, and no plants of the C. cristatum alliance are found in the region. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. Grows in a transitional region between the Red and Gray Zones. Can be potted, mounted, or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A member of the C. cristatum alliance that was known for many years before it was formally described. Flower color is unusual and creates an eye-catching display. The foregoing description is based on one of 12 plants in my collection. Catasetum cernuum (Lindley) Reichenbach f. 104

Plates 16, 17 PRONUNCIATION: SER-nyoo-um or SER-new-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective cenuus, "bent forward," alluding to the arching tendency of the inflorescences. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1832 (Edwards's Botanical Register 18: sub t. 1538) as Myanthus cenuus and transferred to the genus Catasetum by H. G. Reichenbach in 1863 (Annales Botanices Systematicae 6: 570). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and white. Pseudobulbs to 11 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves 7, to 34 × 6.5 cm, elliptic-lance-olate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 44 cm (17 1/2 in.) long, almost horizontal then pendent. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 17 mm long, spaced about 80 mm apart. Pedicels about 30 mm long. Flowers 15, 50 × 70 mm (with the lateral sepals spread out), clustered on the apex; floral bracts conspicuous, 16 × 4 mm. Dorsal sepal 40 × 8 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 40 × 10 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 40 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Lip 17 × 26 mm, held lowermost, trilobed, broad and flat, with 2 large notches at the apex to form an M shape; lateral lobes with pointed tips, appearing to be superimposed. Column 23 × 6 mm, overhanging the lip, with which it forms an angle of about 90 degrees. Antennae about 20 mm long, diverging while resting on the disc of the lip. Coloration of sepals coffee brown; petals green with conspicuous light and dark brown spots; midlobe beige-colored, apex whitish; lateral lobes heavily spotted; column green; antennae green-brown; other clones may have a reddish hue. Female inflorescence short and erect, bearing 25 flowers with the pouch-shaped lip held uppermost. Coloration light green, with a few red spots on the tips of the sepals and petals. DISTRIBUTION. Southern Brazil, states of Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo. HABITAT. Grows in hillside forest at altitudes of 2001500 m (6504900 ft.). SYNONYMS. Catasetum trifidum Hooker, C. umbrosum Barbosa Rodrigues, Monachanthus viridis Lindley. BASIONYM. Myanthus cernuus Lindley. VARIETIES. Var. revolutum Cogniaux (lateral lobes of the lip reflexed and slightly toothed or even with hairlike fringes on the margins), var. rodigasianum Mansfeld (now considered by most Brazilian growers to be a valid species and described as such in the present volume), var. typum Hoehne (green, reddish, or spotted flowers with the lower margins of the lip always smooth), var. umbrosum (Barbosa Rodrigues) Cogniaux (margins of the lip near the base

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sparsely toothed, coloration variable as in the type, from the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro). IDENTIFICATION. Lip flat with 2 notches creating an M-shaped apex. Two long antennae diverge while resting on the lateral lobes. FLOWERING. Late spring and early summer. CULTURE. A Green Zone species accustomed to cool winter nights. Easy to grow. Needs at least moderate shade. Can be potted conventionally or unconventionally, or grown in a basket. COMMENTS. An interesting, vigorous, outstanding species with batlike flowers. A perfect candidate for a shady spot in the greenhouse. It is not unusual to have half a dozen pseudobulbs actively growing at the same time. The destruction of forest in São Paulo State, Brazil, that was one of the prime habitats of this species reportedly led to the disappearance of its original pollinator, a Euglossa bee, and forced the species to adapt to a smaller, less colorful bee. It did so by developing greener, more fragrant flowers. The description is based on one of many similar plants in my collection. Catasetum ciliatum Barbosa Rodrigues Plate 18. Identified by the velvety interior of the flower lip, this taxon from northern South America is considered by Gustavo Romero to be a synonym of C. ×roseo-album, which I treat as a variety of C. discolor. The form of C. ciliatum that occurs in Venezuela has been studied by Alexis Pardo Isla, and he is sure it is a valid species because of the invariability of the plants that he has encountered. Described in 1877 (Genera et Species Orchidearum Novarum 1: 130). Catasetum cirrhaeoides Hoehne Figure 8-9 A species with a pendent inflorescence of clustered white-green flowers. Considered a synonym of C. pulchrum by Gustavo Romero, although Brazilian growers believe it to be a valid species. Described in 1915 (Commissão de Linhas Telegráficas Estratégicas de Matto Grosso ao Amazonas, Anexo, 5, Botânica 5: 52, t. 98). Catasetum cochabambanum Dodson & Vásquez A Bolivian species allied to C. pulchrum. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, ser. 2, 3: t. 207).

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Figure 8-9. Catasetum cirrhaeoides. From Flora Brasilica. Catasetum collare Cogniaux A nonresupinate Venezuelan species rarely encountered. Described in 1895 (Journal des Orchidées 6: 154). Catasetum complanatum Miranda & Lacerda Plate 19 PRONUNCIATION: kom-pla-NAH-tum or kom-pla-NAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective complanatus, "flattened out" or "all on one plane," referring to the lip, which looks like it was originally pouch-shaped and then was suddenly flattened. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 53). The original description is based on a plant collected by Lacerda in 1991 and includes line drawings of the plant and its flowers. 107

DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 8 × 2 cm, fusiform, erect, and clustered. Leaves to 8, to 25 × 5 cm, oblanceolate, medium green, with wavy edges. Male inflorescence to 25 cm (10 in.) long, initially horizontal, the rachis then tending to be pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Pedicels to 18 mm long, 2 mm in diameter. Flowers 18 or more, resupinate, clustered on the terminal two-fifths of the inflorescence; floral bracts to 8 mm long, free of the pedicels. Dorsal sepal 22 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Petals 22× 9 mm, less concave, acute. Lateral sepals 22 × 8 mm, concave, acute, reflexed. Lip about 15 × 10 mm, roughly triangular, appears to be turned slightly upward initially, then bent back, with a fleshy transverse callosity at the point where it is reflexed; margins thick and rounded; flattened cavity 12 mm deep. Column 12 × 4 mm, narrower toward the base. Anther beaked. Antennae about 7 mm long, with their tips touching or nearly touching as they extend to the middle of the lip sac opening. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green; sepals and petals white (yellowish to medium green in other clones); lip green-yellow (to bright yellow in other clones), basal callosity whitish; column whitish; anther yellowish. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Rondônia State, municipality of Ariquemes. HABITAT. Grows on dead trees and living palms. The original description is based on a plant found on a lake shore near highway BR-364, in the same habitat as C. ariquemense. IDENTIFICATION. Very little variation in the dimensions given in the above description. The flattened lip is unlike any other in the genus. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Thrives under evenly warm, humid conditions. Can be potted or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A relatively new, small, attractive Amazonian species with a unique lip. Catasetum confusum G. Romero Plate 20 PRONUNCIATION: kon-FYOO-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective confusus, "confused." This species has indeed been confused with others. HISTORY. Described by Gustavo A. Romero in 1993 (Brittonia 45: 237) on the basis of a plant sent to the Selby Orchid Identification Center by Fred Paget. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 3.5 cm, fusiform. Leaves 8, to 32 × 6 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 30 cm (12 in.) long, almost horizontal then slightly pendent. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 8 mm long, spaced 2030 mm apart. Pedicels 2628 mm long, 108

2 mm in diameter, almost straight. Bracts at the base of the pedicels 9 mm long. Flowers 21, 32 × 35 mm, though less wide with the lateral sepals fully refexed, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 21 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Petals 20 × 7 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 24 × 12 mm, concave, acute. Lip 12 × 7 mm, about 10 mm deep, held uppermost, distinctly trilobed; midlobe with an acute tip projecting 2.5 mm out over the opening formed by the lateral lobes. Column 16 × 4.5 mm. Anther beaked. Antennae 13 mm long, parallel, curving inside the lip. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels umber, progressively darker toward the apex of the inflorescence; petals and sepals fawn-colored with umber spots, petals lighter in color; lip green outside, with small umber spots, bright green around the opening, some yellow inside; column off-white; antennae umber. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Goiás State. The original plant was discovered on the banks of the Tocantins River. HABITAT. Grows on palms and other trees. IDENTIFICATION. Nonresupinate flowers with typical birds-on-the-wing appearance. Distinguished from C. ornithoides, which some consider synonymous, by its lip that is trilobate rather than entire, by its lateral sepals that are strongly reflexed in a mature flower, and by the close arrangement of flowers on the rachis (whereas the inflorescence of C. ornithoides is noticeably lax). The coloration varies considerably in different clones and may be quite dark in some. FLOWERING. Late summer to early autumn. CULTURE. Treat as a Red Zone species, although it comes from an area where the Gold and Gray Zones meet the Red. Easy to grow. Can be potted conventionally, although I prefer to grow it in a small wooden basket, under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A small, many-flowered species that never fails to attract attention and is even more desirable because of its ease of culture. Catasetum coniforme C. Schweinfurth A rare Peruvian species known only from its original description. Described in 1943 (American Orchid Society Bulletin 12: 18, t. 1). Catasetum cornutum Lindley A species from Guyana apparently allied to C. cristatum. Described in 1840 (Edwards's Botanical Register 26: Misc. 77). Catasetum costatum Reichenbach f.

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A Brazilian/Venezuelan species occurring at elevations as high as 4000 ft. (1300 m), qualifying it as the only Blue Zone Catasetum, a true mountaineer. Its pink-red white-bordered lip is distinctive. Described in 1887 (Gardeners' Chronicle, ser. 3, 1: 72). Catasetum cotylicheilum A new Peruvian species with a nearly horizontal inflorescence and flowers with a conspicuous heart-shaped, concave lip. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum cristatum Lindley Plate 21; Figure 8-10 PRONUNCIATION: kriss-TAH-tum or kriss-TAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective cristatus, ''provided with a crest," alluding to the crest on the flower's lip. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1824 (Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London 6: 83). First illustrated in 1826 (Edwards's Botanical Register 12: t. 966). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs 8 × 1.5 cm, fusiform. Leaves 6, to 24 × 3 cm, linearlanceolate. Male inflorescence 20 cm (8 in.) long. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced about 25 mm apart. Pedicels to 17 mm long, 1.5 mm in diameter. Flowers 12, 40 × 24 mm, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 30 × 6 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 25 × 5 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 30 × 6 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 18 × 5 mm, held lowermost, fleshy, trilobed, with a curved hornlike callus and slender teeth on each side at the base, covered entirely with short "stubble," not just on the margins; anterior portion of lip has a papillose crest; middle of the lip is pouchshaped, and the orifice long and narrow; midlobe curved down from the sac to the obtuse apex. Column 20 mm long, more or less at right angles to the base of the lip. Antennae 8 mm long, parallel, extending only to the hornlike callus at the base of the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals green with red spotting; lip whitish; hornlike callus white and papillose crest greenwhite; column light green. Female inflorescence with pedicels to 20 mm long, thick. Sepals and petals similar, about 14 × 8 mm. Lip held uppermost, spherical. Column to 7 × 10 mm, lacking antennae. Coloration of sepals and petals green, sparsely spotted with red; lip yellow-green. DISTRIBUTION. The most northerly distribution of any species of the C. cristatum complex, from Venezuela and Trinidad to Brazil (states of Roraima, Amapá, and Pará). Has erroneously been reported from Goiás State in Brazil, apparently confused with C. appendiculatum. HABITAT. Grows on various types of trees. 110

SYNONYMS. Catasetum cristatum var. supralobatum Branger, Monachanthus cristatus (Lindley) Lindley, Myanthus cristatus (Lindley) Lindley. VARIETIES. Var. monstrosum Hooker and var. spinigerum Hooker. Two varieties, var. spinosum. (Hooker) Hooker and var. stenosepalum Reichenbach f., are now considered synonyms of Catasetum barbatum.

Figure 8-10. Catasetum cristatum. From Flora Brasilica. IDENTIFICATION. Lip held lowermost, with a papillose protuberance at the obtuse apex and a curled horn above the sac, which is close to the base. Lip fringes short, occupying the entire distal surface rather than the margins only. FLOWERING. Spring, summer, or autumn. 111

CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Likes moisture and evenly warm temperatures while actively growing. Can be potted or mounted, under light shade. COMMENTS. One of the first Catasetum species to be described, and the first to be observed with both male and female flowers, the source of utmost confusion for botanists for many years. Another kind of confusion has persisted to our day, however, and it involves the true identify of the species. Other members of the C. cristatum alliance include C. arietinum, C. carolinianum, and C. gannettianum. The foregoing description is adapted from the old literature because, although I have searched for many years, I have not found a plant that matches that description. F. C. Hoehne (1942) believed that this species was perhaps a variety or form of C. barbatum. Should the 2 species ever be considered synonymous, C. cristatum would have priority over C. barbatum by dint of having been described first. There is so much confusion surrounding its identification that there are bound to be some changes in the classification of this and similar species. A thorough taxonomic study of C. appendiculatum, C. barbatum, C. cristatum, and allied taxa is neededone that considers all aspects including habitat, pollinators, fragrance, and natural hybridization possibilitiesto create some semblance of order out of chaos. Taxonomists, get busy! Catasetum decipiens Reichenbach f. Figure 8-11 A Venezuelan species considered close to C. discolor, but its lip is held lowermost and its antennae are well developed. Described in 1887 (Lindenia 3: 99, t. 144). Catasetum deltoideum (Lindley) Mutel Plate 23; Figure 8-12 A species from the Guianas that is similar to C. callosum. Described in 1837 (Mém. Soc. Roy. Centr. Agr. Arts Dépt. Nord 18351836: 92). Catasetum Denticulatum Miranda Plate 24 PRONUNCIATION: den-tick-yoo-LAH-tum or den-tick-yoo-LAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective denticulatus, "with small teeth," alluding to the serrated margins of the flower's lip. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda in 1986 (Lindleyana 1: 152, fig. 5-6). The original description is based on a plant collected and grown by Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr and includes a photograph and line drawings of the floral segments.

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Figure 8-11. Catasetum decipiens. From Flora Brasilica. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs 5 × 1.5 cm. (to 17 × 4 cm in adults), fusiform to elliptic, clustered. Leaves 6, to 25 × 4.3 cm, linearlanceolate, medium green, with 3 nerves. Male inflorescence 8 cm (3 in.) long, to 20 cm (8 in.) long in adults, pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Pedicels 9 mm long. Bracts 7 mm long, spaced about 10 mm apart. Flowers 5 (to 15 in adults), clustered on the terminal two-thirds of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 20 × 7 mm, concave, acute. Petals 22 × 11 mm, slightly convex, acute. Lateral sepals 20 × 13 mm, concave, acute. Lip 20 × 15 mm, concave, with unevenly serrated margins and an almost trapezoidal callus near the base. Column 13 × 6 mm. Anther beaked. Antennae 6 mm long, converging and becoming parallel, shorter than the column. 113

Coloration of sepals rose, spotted with dark red; petals the same color with fewer but larger blotches of dark red; lip orange-rose, with fine dark red spotting; antennae pale rose. Female flowers not seen.

Figure 8-12. Catasetum deltoideum. From Flora Brasilica. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, southern Rondônia State, municipality of Ji-Paraná. HABITAT. The original description is based on a plant that grew on a dead tree on high ground in a forest being converted to a coffee plantation, at an elevation of 160 m (525 ft.).

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IDENTIFICATION. The margins and the form of the lip are the most important features distinguishing this species from 2 related ones: C. cirrhaeoides and C. pulchrum. All 3 members of the group feature clustered flowers on pendent inflorescences, but the lips of C. denticulatum flowers are concave and not pouched as those of C. cirrhaeoides and C. pulchrum are, and its lip margins are serrated while those of the others generally are not. FLOWERING. Mostly summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species accustomed to warm temperatures year-round, with a short rest period. An inflorescence appears soon after the leaf shoot. Can be potted, in moderate shade. I grow seedlings in net pots loosely packed with sphagnum moss. COMMENTS. The coloration of this species may vary considerably, and even unspotted clones are known to exist. The species hybridizes with C. tigrinum in its natural habitat. The foregoing description is based on the flowering of a seedling that seemed too small to be engaging in such grown-up behavior. Some of the dimensions can be expected to be somewhat larger on an adult plant. Catasetum discolor (Lindley) Lindley Plate 25 PRONUNCIATION: DISS-kol-or. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from a Latin adjective composed of the prefix dis, "division" or "separation," and color, whose meaning is obvious. The name conveys the idea of exhibiting various colors, or being variegated, and in this case refers to the sepals and petals being greenish and the lip whitish, with reddish, rose, pink, or brown spots and bars in some clones or varieties. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1834 (Edwards's Botanical Register 20: t. 1735) as Monachanthus discolor and transferred to the genus Catasetum in 1841 (Edwards's Botanical Register 27: sub t. 34). DESCRIPTION (var. roseo-album). Growth habit basically terrestrial, occasionally rupicolous or epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs 13 × 2.5 cm (as much as 20 × 3.5 cm in other clones), fusiform to subconical, often slighty curved. Leaves 8, to 34 × 4.5 cm, linear-lanceolate, with 3 veins. Male inflorescence 45 cm (18 in.) long, erect to slightly arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts on lower part of peduncle 9 mm long, spaced about 60 mm apart. Pedicels about 35 mm long, slightly curved. Flowers 11 (to 25 in some clones), 40 × 30 mm. Dorsal sepal 15 × 5 mm, concave, acute. Petals 15 × 4 mm, slightly concave, acute. Lateral sepals 18 × 5 mm, concave to convex, acute. Lip 19 × 30 mm including hairlike appendages, 20 mm deep, generally held uppermost, trilobed; orifice about 8 × 10 mm; margins of the lateral 115

lobes adorned with long, slender hairlike processes; midlobe tip with small serrations. Column about 12 × 8 mm. Antennae very short, forming a central flap. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels rosy; bracts light green; sepals and petals green; lip orifice with heavy horizontal rosy bars inside; apex of the midlobe and hairlike appendages dark rose. Female flowers much larger than male flowers, having a deeper lip sac and short fringes on the edges of the lateral lobes. Coloration green, except for darker color around the lip margins. DISTRIBUTION. Inland northern South America, from Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam to eastern Brazil. HABITAT. Grows in sandy soil, often between tufts of grass and under low trees and bushes near gallery forests and in savannah, at low to medium altitudes. Also reported to grow epiphytically on palm trees. Its roots penetrate the sand, leaf mold, and any patches of humus near the surface. Flora Brasilica erroneously stated that it is strictly epiphytic. Plants bearing female flowers are more common in full sun and growing in ant nests, while plants with male flowers usually occupy partially shady sites. In Venezuela this species occurs both in sandy soil and on rock outcrops, in the same region as C. pileatum, resulting in some natural hybridizing. SYNONYMS. Catasetum claseianum L. Linden & Cogniaux, Monachathus discolor var. bushnani Hooker, Monachanthus discolor var. viridiflorus Hooker. According to Romero and Jenny (1993), C. cassideum Linden & Reichenbach f. was probably described on the basis of a female flower of C. discolor. If so, this taxon also can be considered a synonym. VARITIES. The following varieties have been described: var. bushnani (Hooker) Cogniaux, var. claseianum (Cogniaux) Mansfeld, var. discolor Mansfeld, var. fimbriatum Reichenbach f., var. genuinum Hoehne, var. labello margine integerrimo Kraenzlin, var. roseoalbum Mansfeld, var. vinosum Cogniaux, and var. viridiflorum (Hooker) Cogniaux. Some of these were probably confused with the coastal species C. gardneneri and still others with C. ciliatum. IDENTIFICATION. Leaves fairly narrow and stiff, nearly erect. Inflorescence slightly arching, lip usually held uppermost, the lateral margins attractively fringed. Flower color variable, tending to be greenish, although rose-colored in the variety described above. Found only inland, not close to coastal sand dunes where C. gardneri occurs. Its 45 cm (18 in.) tall inforescence distinguishes it from the 60 cm (24 in.) tall spike of C. gardneri, which is more erect. Its male flowers are larger than those of C. gardneri, and its female flowers, which are similar to those of C. longifolium, are considerably larger and dark green. FLOWERING. Late autumn to winter, from a mature or nearly mature pseudobulb that still carries leaves. 116

CULTURE. A Red Zone species, in spite of its broad distribution. Although it grows in sandy soil in the wild, it adapts readily to a variety of potting mixes used for epiphytic species, and I have used terrestrial and semiterrestrial mixes with equally good results. Needs light to moderate shade to produce male flowers. COMMENTS. A common, extremely easy-to-grow species that is a dependable bloomer with charming flowers. One source described the flower aroma as reminiscent of caraway seeds in freshly baked rye bread. Since the male flowers are unusual in that they lack noticeable antennae projecting from the column, they sometimes are difficult to differentiate from the female flowers, although normally the male flowers are appreciably smaller. The variety on which the foregoing description is based is felt by some taxonomists (including Gustavo Romero and Rudolf Jenny) to be a natural hybrid between Catasetum discolor and C. longifolium, C. ×roseo-album. If that is true, synonyms would be C. roseo-album (Hooker) Lindley, C. fimbriatum Reichenbach f. non Lindley, Monachanthus fimbriatus Gardner ex Hooker, and M. roseo-albus Hooker. Other growers such as Alexis Pardo Isla in Venezuela, where the taxon also occurs, subscribe to neither the natural hybrid nor variety hypothesis and consider this orchid to deserve species status. Catasetum duplicisculatum Senghas A distinctive, heavily flowered Bolivian/Brazilian species. Described in 1991 (Orchidee 42: 62). Catasetum expansum Reichenbach f. Plate 27; Figure 8-13 PRONUNCIATION: ex-PAN-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective expansus, "expanded" or "spread out," referring to the large, flat lip of the flower. HISTORY. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1878 (Otia Botanica Hamburgensia 1: 9). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 21 × 3.2 cm, fusiform, slightly compressed, entirely covered by leaf sheaths when new, becoming papery white with age. Leaves 610, to 48 × 7.5 cm, mostly narrower (45 cm), linear-lanceolate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence to 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 19 mm long, spaced about 50 mm apart. Pedicels 35 mm long, about 3 mm in diameter. Flowers 6, 83 × 75 mm. Dorsal sepal 40 × 15 mm, concave, apiculate. Petals 46 × 27 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 38 × 15 mm, concave, acute (although rolled tips give the impression of being acuminate). Lip 46 × 60 mm, held lowermost, very fleshy; margins dentate; orifice near the base 6 × 8 mm; sac 9 mm deep; triangular callus 8 × 12 mm, considerably raised, 117

in front of the orifice. Column 22 × 10 mm, forming an angle of about 90 degrees with the lip. Anther beaked. Pseudostigma almost square, 4 mm across. Antennae about 12 mm long, one curled back under the other, which extends over the lip cavity. Coloration of sepals and petals pale green, with only a few wine-colored spots on the lateral sepals; lip somewhat darker green; triangular callus in front of the lip orifice covered with "dried blood" color extending all around the orifice; column very light green; antennae white. Female inflorescence short, erect, and fewflowered. Flowers typical for the genus, smaller than the males. Coloration green.

Figure 8-13. Catasetum expansum 'Linda' AM/AOS .Photo by Fred Paget. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic to western Ecuador, west of the Cerros de Colonche and in the Mira River valley. Erroneously reported from Colombia. HABITAT. Grows in dry forest, from near sea level to almost 700 m (2300 ft.). SYNONYMS. Catasetum cliftonii Hort., C. platyglossum Schlechter. IDENTIFICATION. Lip form and flower color highly variable, but the species generally can be identified reliably by its broad, flattened lip with large, fleshy callus next to the cavity at the base. Its similarity to C. pileatum has often been noted, although their habitats are far apart. F1LOWERING. Late spring into summer, often flowering successively into autumn. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species. Easy to grow and flower. A large, spreading plant. Should be grown in a wooden basket, as it survives but does not prosper with conventional potting, under light to moderate shade. The longer the inflorescence and the more flowers it bears, the greater the need for staking before the flowers open. It often flowers intermittently for 118

several months after the initial flowering, sometimes with a female flower or 2 following strictly male inflorescences. COMMENTS. Sports some of the most spectacular flowers in the genus. Cup-shaped when they open, they gradually flatten and in the final stage become convex in some clones. The species has been hybridized with C. pileatum to produce the popular C. Orchidglade. Although it comes from a generally low, tropical area in coastal Ecuador, I have included it in the Gray Zone because of the prevailing dry conditions. Nevertheless, my plants seem to defy that characterization by showing a fairly short dormant period. Flowers are green to yellow-green and have a large V-shaped callus in the center of the lip. Many clones show a range of color patterns on the lip, suggesting natural hybridization, probably with C. macroglossum. C. ×sodiroi (synonyms C. chloranthum Cogniaux, C. platyglossum var. sodiroi Mansfeld, C. sodiroi Schlechter, and C. trilobatum Senghas) is now recognized as such a natural hybrid. Hybrid ''blood" is difficult to prove, however, and should in no way undermine the standing of any of these clones. After all, most, if not all, current species have undoubtedly been subjected to the infusion of various other genes over the eons of time in arriving at their present nature. The foregoing description is based on one of the nicest of these colorful forms, C. expansum 'Pireo' (see Plate 27). It is one of 10 color forms in my collection. Catasetum fernandezii A new, obscure species from Peru. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum ferox Kraenzlin Figure 8-14 An entirely green species from Amazonas State, Brazil. Its sepals are joined, forming a shell, while its petals are spreading. Its "ferocious" appearance results from "teeth" extending down from the apex of its uppermost lip. Described in 1895 (Gardeners' Chronicle, ser. 3, 18: 262. Catasetum fimbriatum (Morren) Lindley & Paxton Plate 28; Figure 8-15 PRONUNCIATION: fim-bree-AH-tum or fim-bree-AY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective fimbriatus, derived from the noun fimbria, "fringe." The name means "fringed" or "adorned with fringes" and refers to the ornamental lip.

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HISTORY. Described by E. (Charles Jacques Édouard) Morren in 1848 (Annales de la Société Anonynie de Gand 4: 453, t. 21) as Myanthus fimbriatus, based on its male flowers, and transferred to the genus Catasetum by John Lindley in 1850 (Paxton's Flower Garden 1: 124, fig. 84). Many other names, in addition to varieties, have been associated with this species, but all of them are now considered to be synonyms. This species was introduced into cultivation by J. de Jonghe in 1847. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphyfic. Roots fleshy, white; also pneumatophores. Pseudobulbs 12 × 5 cm (reportedly to 35 × 8 cm in other clones), fusiform to ovate or subconical, clustered, covered by leaf sheaths when new. Leaves 8, to 48 × 8.5 cm, linearoblanceolate to oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, others less conspicuous. Male inflorescence 46 cm (18 in.) long, emerging from the very base of the most recent pseudobulb, arching to horizontal, and then often pendent under the weight of its flowers. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts to 16 mm long, spaced 3040 mm apart. Pedicels 23 mm in diameter, 3040 mm long, straight. Flowers 19, 52 × 70 mm (with the lateral sepals spread), on half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 40 × 21 mm, concave, acute, forming with the petals a cymbiform hood over the column. Petals 35 × 20 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 38 × 22 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 34 × 24 mm in its natural position, heart-shaped, held lowermost, indistinctly trilobed; sac about 13 mm deep with an oval orifice near the base; all margins heavily fringed (to lightly fringed in other clones). Column about 23 mm long. Anther beaked. Antenae 10 mm long, parallel, with their tips touching as they extend down into the lip pouch. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels light green; sepals green with red-brown spotting; petals lighter green with larger and more conspicuous spots; midlobe deep yellow; lip margins chartreuse; column green-white, with minute spotting, mostly on the outside; other clones are highly variable, ranging from light green and yellow-green to brown, orange, and yellow. Female inflorescence erect, 37 cm (15 in.) tall. Pedicels 50 mm long, curved. Flowers 12, 60 mm in diameter, on the terminal third. Sepals and petals 28 × 13 mm. Lip 40 mm long, pouch-shaped; sac 20 mm deep. Column 18 × 9 mm. Coloration green, with sepals heavily spotted with redbrown and petals spotted more on the margins toward the base. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of São Paulo (where first discovered), Santa Catarina, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás, Tocantins, and Minas Gerais. Also Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina near the Brazilian border, and northeastern Bolivia.

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Figure 8-14. Catasetum ferox. From Flora Brasilica. HABITAT. Occurs at elevations below 800 m (2600 ft.), frequently growing on palm trees, but on other (even rough-barked) trees as well. Variety morrenianum reportedly grows on the trunk of the babassu (Orbignya martiana). SYNONYMS. Catasetum cogniauxii L. Linden, C. inconstans Hoehne, C. negrense Schlechter, C. ornithorrhynchum Porsch, C. pflanzii Schlechter, C. wredeanum Schlechter. BASIONYM. Myanthus fimbriatus Morren. VARIETIES. Flora Brasilica refers to 4 varieties, of which at least the first 3 are available today, although one more frequently hears the terms "yellow fimbriatum" or "brown fimbriatum": var. fissum Reichenbach f. (very showy flowers, with 2 or 3 layers of fringes; most 121

common in the states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo, preferring very exposed sites in savannah country, in riverside thickets, near lakes and ponds and palm groves, where it receives organic debris including palm nuts), var. inconstans (Hoehne) Mansfeld (highly variable in form, lip without fringes but margins very thick; occurs mainly in Paraguay, Bolivia, and in the Pantanal region of Mato Grosso State in Brazil), var. morrenianum Mansfeld (without fringes but lip margins sharply toothed, a swelling in the center, generally yellow), and var. ornithorrhynchum Mansfeld (a highly ornamental variety with finger-like fringes, a large pointed callus in the middle of the lip, and more yellow color). Other varieties mentioned in the literature are var. aurantiacum Porsch, var. brevipetalum Porsch, var. callosum L. Linden, var. cogniauxii L. Linden, var. micranthum Porsch, var. platypterum Reichenbach f., var. subtropicaleum Hauman, and var. viridulum Reichenbach f. A bright red variety ornatissimum is known in Brazil.

Figure 8-15. Catasetum fimbriatum. Female flowers open, male buds near apex. IDENTIFICATION. Lip highly variable, and the showiest part of the flower and most critical to identification. Lip firmly attached to the base of the column, indistinctly trilobed, the lateral lobes erect, and the midlobe with a thick callus (of various configurations) at the base. Margins of the lateral lobes fringed, those of the midlobe even more so; fringes from short to more than 8 mm long. Flower color varies considerably, but the column is usually white or whitish. The pseudobulbs can be massive, and the male inflorescences are first ascending, then arching and pendent, to position the flowers to facilitate entry by the bee pollinators. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn, from a new pseudobulb. CULTURE. Considered a Red Zone species with such a broad dis tribution that it invades the Gold Zone in places. A vigorous species that adapts to a variety of cultures; let your eyes be your guide in growing this gem. Needs a substrate that drains well, good air movement, and light 122

to moderate shade to produce male flowers. Variety fissum withstands cold temperatures, but also endures a long dry season. COMMENTS. Highly variable in the configuration and coloration of its flowers, as would be expected from a species with such a far-flung distribution, as evidenced by its many recorded varieties. This strong-growing species sports some of the most robust pseudobulbs in the genus, and it is certainly one of the most floriferous. Male or female flowers may be produced on separate inflorescences or on the same spike. Male and female inflorescences sometimes appear on opposite sides at the base of the new pseudobulb. Female inflorescences are more common in the wild, male inflorescences under cultivation. Several flower spikes often emerge simultaneously or successively from the base of the same pseudobulb, and several leafed pseudobulbs may be present on a plant. Therefore, large specimen plants with many inflorescences are not uncommon, and are truly spectacular. Not surprisingly, this species was selected almost unanimously by the members of the Brazilian Catasetinae Growers Association (ABRACC) as its floral emblem. The plant pictured in Dunsterville and Garay's Venezuelan Orchids Illustrated as C. fimbriatum, however, appears to be a natural hybrid, probably between C. longifolium and C. macrocarpum. Catasetum fimbriatum does not occur in the Amazon region. It is reportedly used in Paraguay to regulate fertility in women. Many clones emit a strong, pleasantly sweet fragrance. The foregoing description is based on a typical yellow-lipped plant in my collection. Catasetum franchinianum Lacerda A newly described species from Brazil's central plateau. Belongs to the C. cristatum complex, section Isoceras. Described in 1998 (Bradea 8: 88). Catasetum fuchsu Dodson & Vásquez Plate 30 PRONUNCIATION: FYOOK-see-eye. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Fuchs. Named in honor of the late Fred Fuchs Jr. for his contribution to the knowledge of Bolivian orchids. HISTORY. Described by Dodson and Vásquez in 1982 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, t. 513), based on a plant collected in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The species had been known previously in Brazil, but was thought to be C. lemosii Rolfe (now C. albovirens) or C. ornithoides. It was going to be published with the name C. gonzalense in honor of the Catholic priest José González Raposo when Dodson and Vásquez's description appeared in print. The name "C. gonzalense" still appears on some plants of C. fuchsii.

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DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 18 × 3.8 cm, clustered, fusiform, slightly compressed, some mildly curved. Completely covered by leaf sheaths that become white and papery with age. Leaves 7, to 40 × 8.5 cm, linearoblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 43 cm (17 in.) long, arching, then pendent. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 12 mm long, spaced 4050 mm apart. Pedicels 30 mm long, 2 mm in diameter, almost straight. Flowers 10, 44 × 72 mm with the lateral sepals spreading, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 36 × 7 mm, concave, acute. Petals 34 × 12 mm, tending toward convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 37 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Lip 25 × 20 mm in its natural position, 15 mm deep, held lowermost; midlobe triangular, upturned, but apex downturned and protruding 12 mm, with a sharp tip; all margins entire. Column 10 mm long, triangular, concave, hidden behind the overlapping lateral lobes of the lip. Pseudostigma almost round, 2.5 mm in diameter. Antennae about 7 mm long, more or less parallel, with their tips touching. Coloration of sepals and petals pale olive green, with considerable tan; lip darker, more green below, more brown above, orange inside with heavy brown longitudinal striping; column pearly white; other clones range from red-brown to dull yellow-green to white. Female flowers very fleshy and rigid, with pedicels curved to position the lip uppermost, next to the rachis. Pedicels about 32 mm long, 5 mm in diameter, with furrows and ridges on the thickened portion near the flower. Dorsal sepal 21 × 10 mm. Petals 17 × 10 mm. Lateral sepals 23 × 12 mm. Lip 25 × 22 mm, 15 mm deep, with a short downcurved claw in the middle; orifice pouch-shaped, almost round, 12 mm in diameter. Column 7 mm long and wide, very fleshy; stigmatic cavity a narrow slit. Coloration green, with darker green on the upper edge of the stigmatic cavity. DISTRIBUTION. Northeastern Bolivia into Brazil (states of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, southern Tocantins, and Pará). HABITAT. Grows in dry forest on rolling countryside, to the east of the rain forest in Bolivia and on into Brazil. There, in Goiás State, it often grows on palms, while farther north it grows on other trees. IDENTIFICATION. Lip base globose with a triangular-shaped apical lobe and strongly recurved lateral sepals. Flowers usually unspotted. FLOWERING. Late summer to late autumn, often producing successive inflorescences over a period of months. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species accustomed to a fairly long dry season. Can be grown in a basket or in a clay or net pot, under light to moderate shade.

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COMMENTS. This fairly common species has several color forms, including a white one. The species has been confused with C. albovirens because of the unique lip shape, but its flowers are larger and resupinate, and its inflorescence is arching and pendent. Geographically the 2 species occur far apart. Catasetum fuchsii is also distinctive for the long-lasting qualities of its flowers, which take several days to open sufficiently to show the lip interior after the bud segments begin to part. Male and female flowers may be borne on the same inflorescence. The foregoing description is based on one of 3 plants in my collection; the flowers of this plant face downward, making it difficult to confirm that the lip is held lowermost, and making photography formidable. Catasetum galeatum Lacerda A new small species from northern Brazil with relatively small non-resupinate flowers with parallel longitudinal crests inside the lip. Described in 1998 (Bradea 8: 85). Catasetum galeritum Reichenbach F. Plate 31 PRONUNCIATION: ga-leh-REE-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin galeritus, itself derived from galérus, "skull cap" or "biretta," a head cover used by clerics. The name can only allude to the shape of the pouch of the flower's lip. HISTORY. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1886 (Gardeners' Chronicle, n.s., 26: 616) and illustrated in Lindenia (2: 41, t. 67) in the same year. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 14 × 3 cm, fusiform to conical, some curved, with considerable variation in size and shape. Leaves 67, to 20 × 4 cm, oblanceolate, with 3 conspicuous veins. Male inflorescence to 25 cm (10 in.) long, pendent, usually longer than the leaves. Peduncle to 5 mm in diameter. Pedicels to 40 mm long, straight. Flowers 7, borne on most of the inflorescence; floral bracts to 15 mm long. Dorsal sepal 30 × 8 mm, concave, acuminate to acute. Petals 30 × 10 mm, convex, acuminate to acute. Lateral sepals 30 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Lip 40 × 15 mm, most often held lowermost (although some flowers seem confused as to resupination), deeply concave, very fleshy and rigid; midlobe a tongue-shaped callus; all margins entire. Column 25 mm long. Anther with a short, conical beak. Antennae about 20 mm long, parallel, reaching the far wall of the lip sac. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels gray-green; sepals and petals white with indistinct veining; lip sac inside dark orange with dark brown longitudinal stripes; midlobe yellow with dark orange-brown margins; column pale green with brown margins; antennae dark brown. Female flowers not seen.

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DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Goiás, Maranhão, Tocantins, Amazonas, and Pará. HABITAT. The plants from the states of Goiás, Maranhão, and Tocantins grow in an area of transition from rain forest to savannah, with a long dry season. The populations from the states of Amazonas and southern Pará grow on living palms and other, dead trees in gallery and seasonally flooded forests, with a short dry season. VARIETIES. Var. pachyglossum Reichenbach f. (exceedingly fleshy lip and almost square midlobe). One unnamed distinctive form originates in the Brazilian states of Goiás, Maranhão, and Tocantins, while another comes from southern Pará and Amazonas States. IDENTIFICATION. Pedicels long and straight. Lip uniquely oval-triangular, deeply pouch-shaped. Flowers have a strong, pleasant fragrance. FLOWERING. Autumn to winter, after leaf fall. CULTURE. Either a Red or Gold Zone species, depending on the plant's origin. Can be grown in a basket under light to moderate shade, with warmth and high humidity. COMMENTS. The Gold Zone (and neighboring Gray Zone) plants from the states of Goiás, Maranhão, and Tocantins have larger flowers with a more yellowish lip. Those from the Red Zone (states of Amazonas and Pará) have smaller flowers, which are fewer in number and have more reddish coloration. Plant zone can be determined by the length of the rest period and, when a plant flowers, by the size and color of the blossoms. Both forms are stunning, although virtually unknown outside Brazil. The foregoing description is based on a plant from the Gold Zone. Plate 31 shows a plant from the Red Zone. The literature fails to mention the Brazilian state of Maranhão as home to the species, but I found it growing and flowering there in April 1998. Catasetum gardneri Schlechter Plate 32 PRONUNCIATION: GARD-ner-eye, or gard-NAY-ree in Brazil. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Gardner. Named in honor of the Scotsman George Gardner, who collected extensively in Brazil in the early nineteenth century. HISTORY. Described by Rudolf Schlechter in 1914 (Orchis 8: 84). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit terrestrial. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 16 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, some curved. Leaves 8, to 40 × 9.5 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, many other veins. Male inflorescence to 60 cm (24 in.) tall, erect to semi-erect. Peduncle to 7 mm in diameter. Bracts about 8 mm long, spaced to 45 mm apart. Pedicels to 38 mm long, mostly straight. Flowers 18, 32 × 25 mm, nonresupinate, all facing in 126

the same direction. Dorsal sepal 10 × 6 mm, concave, acute. Petals 18 × 9 mm, convex, obtuse, very fleshy. Lateral sepals 17 × 9 mm, concave-convex, acute. Lip 18 × 22 mm including cilia, 10 mm deep, held uppermost; slender cilia to 8 mm long extending outward from the margins of the lateral lobes; midlobe with a spadelike lacerate apex. Column about 10 × 8 mm, lacking antennae, just a folded flap. Coloration of sepals, petals, and lip sac yellow-green (to green in other clones); cilia on margins of lateral lobes occasionally slightly rosy-colored, with bars of the same color inside the lip cavity; margins of lip and entire column white. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Coastal Brazil, from Pernambuco State southward to Rio de Janeiro State. HABITAT. Grows in sandy or sandy clay soil, often just behind coastal sand dunes. IDENTIFICATION. Flowers smaller and more yellow than those of C. discolor, flower spike slightly taller and more erect, leaves broader, and plant generally more robust. FLOWERING. Late autumn to early winter, from the base of a well-developed new growth. Flowers before losing its leaves. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Easy to grow. Adapts well to conventional pot culture using bark mix. Flourishes in nearly full sunlight, but light to moderate shade increases the chance of getting male flowers. This species often begins its new growth while the old leaves are still on the plant. Requires good aeration of its root system, for in nature the sandy soil in which it grows dries out quickly in the hot tropical sun after a rain. COMMENTS. A vigorous, highly desirable species that is distinct from, though long considered a synonym of, C. discolor. The foregoing description is based on one of several plants in my collection. Catasetum garnettianum Rolfe Plate 33 PRONUNCIATION: gar-net-ee-AH-num or gar-net-ee-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Garnett. Named in honor of Rolfe's countryman P. F. Garnett. HISTORY. Described by R. A. Rolfe in 1889 (Gardeners' Chronicle, ser. 3, 4: 692) and first illustrated that same year (Botanical Magazine 115: t. 7069). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 2.2 cm, fusiform, covered with white, papery old sheaths. Leaves 8, to 26 × 4.5 cm, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, others less conspicuous. Male inflorescence 28 cm (11 in.) long, pendent. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts about 12 mm long, hugging the 127

peduncle, spaced about 15 mm apart. Pedicels 25 mm long, slightly curved, with a papery sheath covering the basal half. Flowers 30, 42 × 34 mm, on the terminal two-thirds of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 27 × 9 mm, concave, acuminate, connivent with the petals. Petals 24 × 6 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 27 × 10 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 20 mm long including appendages, 7 mm wide at the base, with a prominent tooth 6 mm long at the apex, overall lip shape a long isosceles triangle from the base to the apex, which tapers to a long, slender tooth; small sac about 3 mm deep, almost halfway between the base of the lip and the apex; all margins sparsely fringed with lacerate appendages to 8 mm long, those emerging from the underside near the base of the lip shorter; base of the lip at right angles to the overall lip configuration, which is more or less parallel to the column (see Plate 33). Column about 20 × 5 mm. Anther 7 mm long, beaked. Pseudostigma oblong, about 2 mm wide. Antennae 7 mm long, more or less parallel. Coloration of pedicels purple-brown; sepals and petals apple green (background) with velvety brown transversal markings; appendages near the base of the lip purplish and white; tiny spots on the underside of the base of the lip purple; underside of lip apex green; trough below the lip sac very pale green; base of the lip and the tooth at the apex pearly white; column shiny green, the pollinia protuberance brown. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazonas State, municipality of Monte Alegre. HABITAT. Grows in forest bordering the Amazon River. IDENTIFICATION. Lip and its appendages long and slender. Inflorescences long, heavily flowered, and pendent. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Easy to grow. Can be potted conventionally or unconventionally or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A member of the C. cristatum alliance. F. C. Hoehne believed it to be a synonym of C. barbatum, but it is very distinctive. It is one of the most spectacular smaller flowered catasetums with its ample, many-flowered inflorescences, and it never fails to evoke gasps of wonder when it appears on any show table. Catasetum gladiatorium Lacerda A new member of the C. cristatum complex from Brazil's central plateau, altitude around 2150 ft. (650 in). Described in 1998 (Bradea 8: 88). Previously considered a form of C. barbatum. Catasetum globiflorum Hooker Figure 8-16.

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A Brazilian species considered a synonym of C. purum by some, but its globular flowers are distinctive. Described in 1842 (Botanical Magazine 68: t. 3942).

Figure 8-16. Catasetum globiflorum. From Flora Brasilica. Catasetum gnomus Linden & Reichenbach F. Plate 34 PRONUNCIATION: NO-muss or GNO-muss. ETYMOLOGY. Species name a Latin word for ''gnome," one of the fanciful little creatures supposed to have occult knowledge of the earth and its treasures. Name derived from the Greek word gnome, "intelligence" or "thought." The exotic form of the flowers of this species, with long sepals suggesting the appearance of a tiny guardian angel flying, doubtless prompted the choice of this epithet. HISTORY. Collected near the Negro River in Brazil by Gustav Wallis, who sent a plant to Jean Jules Linden in Europe. Described by Linden and H. G. Reichenbach in 1874 (Xenia Orchidacea 2: 171, t. 170). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 18 × 4 cm (usually narrower), fusiform, sometimes slightly curved and compressed. Leaves 5, to 35 × 5 cm, linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, dark green, with 3 veins. Male inflorescence to 60 cm. (24 in.), longer than the leaves, arching. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Flowers 12 (515 in other clones), about 60 × 60 mm, on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 50 × 15 mm, concave, acute, forming with the petals a hood over the column. Petals 50 × 16 mm, tending toward convex, acute. Lateral sepals 50 × 18 mm, concave (rolled), acute. Lip about 25 mm long 129

and wide, held uppermost, with a pouchlike sac of the same depth, trilobed; lateral lobes winged and fleshy; midlobe small and tongue-shaped, very fleshy; margins entire (toothed in some other clones). Column about 25 mm long, fleshy. Anther beaked. Antennae 20 mm long, crossed, one reaching well into the lip sac. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels gray-green; sepals and petals green with heavy dark red-brown spotting; lip red-brown outside with white margins, whitish inside; column whitish. Female flowers not seen, but reportedly held on an inflorescence 30 cm. (12 in.) long, straight, and less spotted than the male flowers. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, in the states of Amazonas, Pará, and Bahia. Also reported from Peru by Eric Christenson. HABITAT. Grows in lowlands on trees near rivers and creeks. SYNONYMS. Catasetum gnomus Hort., C. heteranthum Barbosa Rodrigues, C. huebneri Mansfeld non Schlechter (and a synonym, C. georgii Mansfeld), C. phasma Reichenbach f. VARIETY. Var. phasma (Reichenbach f.) Cogniaux is mentioned in the literature but is not known to exist today. It is said to have larger flowers, the sepals and petals bright green with dark crimson spots, and the lip white with a smooth column spotted with dark green. IDENTIFICATION. Complex form of the uppermost lip with wide white margins. Two long antennae, one crossed over the other. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Requires a warm, humid environment, with plenty of moisture, light shade, and a winter rest only if the plant indicates the need. Can be potted conventionally or unconventionally, mounted, or grown in a basket. COMMENTS. A large, distinctive, outstanding species with long-lasting flowers and a very variable lip form. Catasetum gomezii G. Romero & Carnevali A Venezuelan species with deeply concave lip held lowermost. Considered similar to C. cornutum and C. semicirculatum. Described in 1989 (Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 76: 455, fig. 2A-B). Catasetum hillsii A new Peruvian species with a pendent inflorescence and flowers featuring a lip with cauliflower-like appendages, similar to C. stevensonii. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum Hookeri Lindley Plate 36; Figure 8-17

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PRONUNCIATION: HOOK-er-eye. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Hooker. Named in honor of the eminent English botanist Sir William Jackson Hooker. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1824 (Edwards's Botanical Register 10: sub t. 840). Variety labiatum was first treated by Barbosa Rodrigues as C. labiatum in 1881 (Genera et Species Orchidearum Novarum 2: 218) and transferred to C. hookeri var. labiatum by Alfred Cogniaux in 1902 (Flora Brasiliensis 3, 5: 403, t. 86).

Figure 8-17. Catasetum hookeri var. labiatum. Flowering plant. DESCRIPTION (var. labiatum). Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 9 × 3 cm, fusiform to oblong-fusiform, clustered, slightly compressed, some somewhat curved. Leaves 6, to 28 × 6.5 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium dark green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 18 cm (7 in.) long. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 67 mm long, inconspicuous, spaced 4555 mm apart. Pedicels about 10 mm. long, very slightly curved. Flowers 9, 19 × 23 mm, 16 mm deep, clustered at the very tip of the rachis, arranged quite symmetrically in a circle. Dorsal sepal 20 × 13 mm, concave, obtuse, with 1 prominent vein and about 11 others that are rather indistinct. Petals 21 × 13 mm, concave, obtuse, mostly covered by the sepals and lip, with 1 prominent vein and other indistinct ones. Lateral sepals 20 × 15 mm, concave, obtuse, with the same veining. Lip 20 × 20 mm in its natural position, 16 mm deep, held uppermost, very indistinctly trilobed; margins of the lateral lobes slightly denticulate; margin of the midlobe entire, reflexed, very fleshy and rigid. Column 15 × 6 mm, stout. Anther 131

with a short (2 mm) beak. Pseudostigma a horizontal slit 3 mm wide. Antennae about 15 mm long, parallel, with their tips curled and lying against the wall of the lip. Coloration of all segments green on outside; sepals with red-brown spots forming longitudinal rows inside, showing through to the outside; petals with heavy red-brown spots and blotches over a light green background, the dark coloration on the inside visible on the outside; lip light green outside, with very dark red-brown inside and on the margins, with some yellow visible between the blotches; column tip pale green, the rest with small red-brown spots; antennae green with some spotting. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, in the coastal states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo and in the inland state of Minas Gerais. Variety labiatum occurs in the Juiz de Fora area of Minas Gerais State and in Espírito Santo State. HABITAT. Grows in shady forests from sea level to about 1000 m (3300 ft.). SYNONYMS. Catasetum imshootianum L. Linden & Cogniaux, C. labiatum Barbosa Rodrigues, C. milleri Loddiges ex Lindley, C. triste Reichenbach f. VARIETIES. Var. labiatum (Barbosa Rodrigues) Cogniaux (described above) and var. triste (Reichenbach f.) Reichenbach f. (known only in the literature). IDENTIFICATION. Floral lip held uppermost, almost entirely free, slightly enveloped by the sepals and petals. Inflorescence many-flowered, at first erect, then arching under the weight of the flowers on the apical portion. Flowers of variety labiatum generally globular in form, not opening fully, and arranged very symmetrically on short pedicels at the very tip of the inflorescence. Inside of petals and lip very dark red-brown in color. Spotting arranged in longitudinal rows on the inside of the sepals. FLOWERING. Late spring to summer, from a fairly mature new pseudobulb. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species. Needs fairly shady conditions. My plant is a vigorous grower that does well potted conventionally or unconventionally or grown in a basket. COMMENTS. One example of the many plants bearing flowers called bolinhas, "little balls," in Brazil. Other members of the C. luridum alliance include C. globiflorum and C. ochraceum. Some undescribed forms of C. hookeri will eventually emerge as new species. Catasetum imperiale L. Linden & Cogniaux Plate 37; Figure 8-18 PRONUNCIATION: im-PEER-ee-all. ETYMOLOGY. Species name seemingly the feminine form of the French adjective impérial, "of great size or superior quality," referring to the large, spectacular flowers. If, however, this adjective is intended to modify the masculine noun Catasetum, it should end in l, 132

not e. On the other hand, it could be an adjective originally used to modify feminine nouns such as couronne, "crown," or fleur, "flower," and that form then used intact as the name of the species.

Figure 8-18. Each pseudobulb of this Catasetum imperiale is larger than the previous one. HISTORY. Described by Lucien Linden and Alfred Cogniaux in 1890 (Journal des Orchidées 5: 316) and first illustrated in 1895 (Lindenia 10: 50, t. 460). Transferred to C. pileatum var. imperiale by Hoehne in 1942 (Flora Brasilica 12, 6: 90). Plants of this species flowered profusely in the greenhouses of Jean Linden at Ghent, Belgium, in the late nineteenth century and were extremely popular at that time. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 20 × 4.5 cm, fusiform, slightly compressed. Leaves 10, to 44 × 10 cm, dark green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 35 cm (14 in.) long, at first ascending and later pendent under the weight of the buds and flowers. Peduncle 6 mm in diameter. Bracts 13 mm long, spaced 2540 mm apart. Pedicels 25 mm long, curved to bring the flowers to the upright position on the pendent rachis. Flowers 8, 100 × 90 mm in their natural position, on the distal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 55 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Petals 62 × 26 mm, concave, acute. All margins of the sepals and petals entire. Lateral sepals 63 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Lip 50 × 68 mm, cup-shaped, 40 mm deep, held lowermost, indistinctly trilobed; margin of the midlobe reflexed; sac 10 mm deep. Column 40 × 12 mm. Anther with a long, slender S-shaped beak. Pseudostigma 6 × 5 mm. Antennae 15 mm long, projecting over the lip cavity, one curled behind the other. Coloration of sepals lightly spotted and veined with deep red-purple; petals heavily spotted and veined with the same color, more intense toward the base; lateral lobes solid redpurple with a narrow white margin; midlobe with white coloration growing progressively 133

narrower as it extends back to the cavity, which is white on its walls, yellow at the very bottom; column, including the antennae, pearly white; outer surface of petals and lip with red-purple blush showing through, with yellow visible in the lip cavity area. Female flowers 6, 64 × 65 mm, held on an erect inflorescence 28 cm (11 in.) long. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Pedicels about 30 mm long, to 5.5 mm in diameter. Sepals and petals about 30 mm long, to 15 mm wide. Lip 43 × 25 mm in the natural position, held uppermost, deeply pouched. Coloration entirely green, with a darker blotch on each lateral lobe of the lip. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic to Venezuela, in an area roughly bounded by the Arauca, Meta, Orinoco, and Capanaparo Rivers. HABITAT. Grows in savannah, perhaps more properly termed "dry tropical forest." For 6 months this habitat is extremely hot and dry, and for the other 6 months it is completely inundated. SYNONYMS. Catasetum bungerothii var. imperiale (L. Linden & Cogniaux) Cogniaux, C. pileatum var. imperiale (Linden & Cogniaux) Hoehne. IDENTIFICATION. Lip half-opened cup shape. The typically intense red color covers most of the lip and extends to the base of the column and the petals. According to the literature, the color of the lip cavity is bright apple-green with red spots, which also appear on the column. In my plants the color underlying the spots is bright yellow. FLOWERING. Late spring, from a partially developed new growth. CULTURE. A Red Zone species with a lengthier dry season than most. Strong growing. Does very well with conventional pot culture or in a wooden basket, with high temperatures year-round, under light shade. COMMENTS. A perfect show-stopper with its huge, spectacular flowers. The most recent flowering of the clone in Plate 37 produced one inflorescence with 15 male flowers, simultaneously a shorter and more erect spike of 6 female and hermaphroditic flowers, and subsequently another spike of 6 female flowers. May be a variety of C. pileatum or a natural hybrid of C. pileatum and C. macrocarpum, although crossing of these 2 species under artificial conditions has failed to produce anything resembling its magnificent flowers. One of its best known cultivars is 'Pierre Couret' from Venezuela.Unfortunately, the species is now considered extinct in its natural habitat. Catasetum incurvum Klotzsch PRONUNCIATION: in-KUR-vum.

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ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective incurvus, "curved inward," referring to the margins of the lip, which are reflexed. The same is true, however, of C. saccatum, from which this species has been segregated. HISTORY. Described by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch in 1854 (Allgemeine Gartenzeitung 22: 178) and first illustrated in 1855 (Gardeners' Chronicle, p. 4). Transferred to C. saccatum var. incurvum by Rudolf Mansfeld in 1932 (Feddes Repertorium 30: 272), but now generally considered worthy of species status. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 25 cm. long, fusiform or ovoid-fusiform. Leaves 46, to 46 × 8 cm, elliptic-lanceolate or oblanceolate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence to 40 em (16 in.) long, arching to pendent. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm long, spaced about 40 mm apart. Flowers generally 45. Sepals to 63 × 9 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals slightly smaller, convex, acuminate, connivent with the dorsal sepal. Lip large, flat to convex, roughly heart-shaped, very indistinctly trilobed; margins fringed; sac with a kidney-shaped orifice surrounded by callus. Column to 55 mm long, stout. Antennae long, asymmetrical, one extending to the lip orifice, the other curled under its partner. Coloration dull green, spotted and suffused with purple-brown. Female flowers have sepals and petals smaller than those of the male flowers, but the lip is pouch-shaped and sometimes larger than that of the male. Column short and stout, lacking antennae. Coloration yellow-green, sometimes spotted with brown-red. DISTRIBUTION. Peru (Amazon headwaters to Iquitos), Ecuador (region around the Morona River and its tributaries), and western Brazil. HABITAT. Grows mostly on living palm trees and dead trees, at altitudes of 6001800 m (20005900 ft.), in tropical wet forest with an open canopy. SYNONYMS. Catasetum saccatum var. incurvum (Klotzsch) Mansfeld, C. stupendum Cogniaux, C. trautmannii Senghas. IDENTIFICATION. Lip exceedingly large, broad, heart-shaped or oval-shaped, lacking distinct lateral lobes. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Green Zone species. Can be grown in a basket at the cooler end of the greenhouse under light to moderate shade, although it is very adaptable. COMMENTS. Has been considered a variety of C. saccatum, but actually is distinct, especially in the form and surface configuration of the lip. Catasetum saccatum is basically a lowland plant, whereas C. incurvum is a highlander. Furthermore, the latter has been found in deep forest, whereas the former is a confirmed sun-lover. The holotype of the species was 135

destroyed in the bombing of Berlin in World War II, but H. G. Reichenbach made a drawing of one of the flowers used by Klotzsch in his description. The lip in that drawing is quite large and fairly fat. The drawing has been selected as lectotype by Gustavo Romero and RudolfJenny. A magnificent species that is only too rare in collections and in the wild. Catasetum integerrimum Hooker PRONUNCIATION: in-teh-JER-i-mum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin integerrimus, the superlative form of the adjective integer, "entire." As a botanical term, integerrimus means "without teeth, lobes, or notches," perhaps alluding to the leaves or even the flowers, which could thus be termed ''absolutely entire." HISTORY. Described by Sir William Hooker in 1841 (Botanical Magazine 67: t. 3823) on the basis of a plant first discovered in Guatemala by George Ure Skinner, who sent a specimen to Europe. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots very thick and fleshy; also long, slender pneumatophores arising vertically around the pseudobulbs. Pseudobulbs to 27 × 4.5 cm, mostly fusiform and curved, clustered, forming large clumps, and covered by leaf sheaths that become white and papery when old. Leaves 10, to 65 × 13 em (usually about 45 × 8.5 cm), ellipticlanceolate to oblanceolate, edges wavy, with 35 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 30 cm. (12 in.) long, sometimes to 50 cm (20 in.) long, almost horizontal. Peduncle 56 mm in diameter, somewhat sinuous. Bracts 15 mm long, spaced about 50 mm apart, enveloping the peduncle. Pedicels 3040 mm long, sharply curved. Flowers 6 (can be 320), 55 × 48 mm, very fleshy, fragrant, often not opening fully, on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 45 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Petals 45 × 22 mm, more convex than concave, acute. Lateral sepals 48 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 32 × 22 mm in the natural position, 25 mm deep, held uppermost, deeply pouch-shaped, conical, becoming progressively narrower toward the top; margins smooth and overlapping above the column, forming a circular orifice. Column 30 × 8 mm. Antennae 20 mm long, one curled beneath the other, which curves up into the interior of the lip. Coloration of flowers yellow-green; sepals and petals marked and suffused with red-brown (spotting maroon or purple in other clones); lip green to chartreuse outside, dark red-brown inside; column light green with minute spotting. Female flowers similar to the males. DISTRIBUTION. Eastern Mexico (Tamaulipas to Chiapas) through eastern coastal Central America (Guatemala and Honduras) to Nicaragua and Venezuela. Bechtel et al. (1981) mentioned only Guatemala.

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HABITAT. Grows in lowlands in moist forest, coffee plantations, and open country. Ames and Correll (1985) specified almost 1820 m (6000 ft.) as the highest altitude at which it is found. It is reported to grow and thrive on oak trees, and to be the most widespread orchid on the Yucatan Peninsula. There it is found in coastal scrub forest or deciduous and semi-evergreen forest, growing in full sunlight or deep shade. Its pseudobulbs and root system sometime become so heavy that the plant falls to the ground, where it is able to survive in the moist soil. It reportedly flourishes on rotten logs in moist forest and on rocky mounds, where its roots seek patches of humus. SYNONYMS. Catasetum integrinum Beer, C. wailesii Hooker. VARIETIES. Var. flavescens (Cogniaux) Mansfeld, vat. luteo-purpureum (Cogniaux) Mansfeld, var. purpurascens Hooker, and var. viridiflorum Hooker. IDENTIFICATION. Sometimes confused with C. maculatum. The main difference is in the lip. In C. integerrimum the margins of the lip are smooth, overlapping above the column and forming a more or less circular opening. In C. maculatum the lip margins are fringed or hairy, and when they meet at the column they form a rectangular orifice. Moreover, C. integerrimum has a reputation of being less heavily spotted. Vegetatively the 2 species are almost identical, although my clones of C. integerrimum have heavier pseudobulbs. FLOWERING. Mostly late summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species from tropical lowlands, with a short rest period. During its long season of lush growth, the plant requires an abundance of moisture, warmth, light (nearly full sunlight), and fertilizer to develop its strapping pseudobulbs and prepare for flowering. Can be potted conventionally and is exceedingly adaptable to any other kind of culture. COMMENTS. Oak trees are allegedly toxic to many orchids, but not to C. integerrimum, according to some reports. Although some of my friends affectionately refer to this species as one of the "big uglies," I find it interesting and beautiful in its own way. It is indisputably eyecatching by dint of its vigorous growth and the robustness that its dynamic vegetative appearance alone conveys. The Maya Indians cooked the pseudobulbs in ashes and mashed them with water to make a glue for coupling parts of wooden musical instruments. The same glue was used to heal sores and pimples. The Mayan word for this species was "Chi'it ku'uk." The foregoing description is based on one of several plants in my collection. Catasetum jarae Dodson & Bennett A Peruvian taxon now considered a synonym of C. pulchrum. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, ser. 2, 1: t. 17). Catasetum juruenense Hoehne 137

Plate 39 PRONUNCIATION: zhoor-oo-en-EN-say. ETYMOLOGY. Species name is the Latinized form of the name of the Juruena River in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, where the species was discovered. HISTORY. Described by F. C. Hoehne in 1915 (Commissão de Linhas Telegráficas Estratégicas de Matto Grosso ao Amazonas, Anexo 5, Botânica 5: 55, t. 100), using a plant he collected near the Juruena River. The so-called Rondon Commission had been established to lay telegraph lines between the states of Mato Grosso and Amazonas, and Hoehne was in charge of conducting a botanical survey of unexplored areas through which the lines would pass. (By the way, the spelling of Mato Grosso State, using 2 ss, is the old Portuguese orthography and not a typographical error.) DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 10 × 2 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves 6, to 35 × 5 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 conspicuous nerves. Male inflorescence 28 cm. (11 in.) long, slightly arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts on peduncle 68 mm long, spaced 2045 mm apart. Pedicels to 30 mm long, about 2 mm in diameter. Flowers to 9, 35 × 25 mm, on the upper half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 6 mm, concave, acute. Petals 23 × 8 mm, convex, acute, partly covered by the dorsal sepal and with it forming a hood over the column. Lateral sepals 23 × 6 mm, concave, acute. Lip 15 × 13 mm, about 3 mm deep, heart-shaped, held lowermost, indistinctly trilobed; all margins irregularly toothed (smooth in a few clones). Column about 12 mm long, erect, slightly curved forward. Anther beaked, slightly incurred. Pseudostigma almost round, less than 2 mm in diameter. Antennae about 6 mm long, parallel, with their tips touching, projecting down to the lip sac. Coloration of pedicels green-brown; peduncle green at the base, increasingly greenbrown towards the rachis; floral segments dark green-brown with indistinct darker speckling; lip green-brown outside, green-cream inside; column whitish; antennae pearly white. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, headwaters of the Juruena River in Mato Grosso State. HABITAT. Grows only on dead trees in gallery forest along the river. Reported to be rather rare in its habitat. VARIETY. Var. mansfeldianum Hoehne was described as having flowers slightly larger than those of the species and with red spots. IDENTIFICATION. Small plant with a resupinate, concave, heartshaped lip, with margins thick and (usually) toothed. Antennae short, with their tips touching.

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FLOWERING. Autumn to winter. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species that adapts well to Red Zone culture. Should be mounted or grown in a wooden basket, as it seems to dislike conventional potting. COMMENTS. "Charming" describes this plant, its inflorescences, and its flowers. The description is based on one of 3 plants in my collection. Flowers last longer than those of most other Catasetum species. Catasetum justinianum Vásquez & Dodson A Bolivian species with short pseudobulbs and many small green-white flowers with a bright yellow callus and toothed margins of the lip. Described in 1997 (Revista de la Sociedad Boliviana de Botánica 1, 2: 18). Catasetum kempfii Dodson & Vásquez A Bolivian species named for the naturalist Noel Kempff, killed while leading a scientific expedition in that country. Ovary twisted 360 degrees, lateral lobes of the lip entire, and antennae parallel and connivent. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, set. 2, 4: t. 308). Catasetum kleberianum Braga Plate 40 PRONUNCIATION: kleb-er-ee-AH-num or kleb-er-ee-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Kleber. Named in honor of Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr., who discovered the species. HISTORY. Described by Pedro Ivo Soares Braga in 1994 (Bradea 6: 35: 294). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots about 2 mm in diameter, white. Pseudobulbs to 10 × 2.5 cm, fusiform. Leaves about 25 × 6 cm, oblanceolate. Male inflorescence to 26 cm (10 in.) long, erect, with 1114 flowers on the terminal two-thirds. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts on peduncle about 10 mm long, triangular. Pedicels 32 mm long, 2 mm in diameter. Flowers about 40 mm in diameter. Dorsal sepal 33 × 12 mm, slightly concave, acute. Petals 32 × 13 mm, flat, acute. Lateral sepals 33 × 13 mm, concave, acute. Lip 22 × 20 mm, held lowermost, fleshy, reflexed, slightly pouch-shaped; margins sparsely denticulate; basal callosity 8 mm long, 3 mm wide at the apex. Column about 22 × 5 mm. Antennae about 6 mm long, parallel, lying on each side of the basal callosity of the lip. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels light green, irregularly tinged with red-brown; sepals and petals cream-colored, marbled with yellow-brown; lip canary yellow; column greenish spotted with red-brown; antennae and anther yellow-green. Female flowers not seen.

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DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazonas State, municipality of Borba. HABITAT. Grows on trees in flooded forest along the Rio Preto do Igapó-Açú. IDENTIFICATION. Lip canary-yellow with denticulate margins (rather than crenulate as in C. tenebrosum), and in the form of a rounded triangle, with a less-pronounced callosity (compared with C. spitzii, to which it is vaguely similar). Lateral sepals tend to be pendent. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Needs warm, moist conditions year-round, with light to moderate shade and only a brief rest period. COMMENTS. May be a natural hybrid, but that hypothesis requires answering the question about possible parents. This spectacular and quite distinctive species is somewhat similar to C. tenebrosum and C. spitzii, whose habitats are far away. It is now quite rare in the habitat where it was originally discovered, but another population has been discovered 625 miles (1000 km) from the original site. Its flowers have the virtue of being long-lasting, in addition to their spectacular, eye-catching qualities. Catasetum laminatum Lindley Plate 41 PRONUNCIATION: lam-ih-NAH-tum or lam-ih-NAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from a Latin adjective meaning "laminate" or "bearing a lamina," referring to the prominent raised blade on the flower's lip. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1840 (Annals of Natural History 4: 384) and first illustrated that same year (Sertum Orchidaceum, t. 38). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 20 × 3.5 cm, fusiform, sometimes slightly curved, covered by leaf sheaths which become whitish and papery when old. Leaves 10, to 38 × 8 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 53 cm (21 in.) long, almost horizontal, rachis pendent. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, hugging the peduncle, spaced 3555 mm. apart, whitish. Pedicels 5560 × 2.5 mm, cylindrical, curved near the flower. Flowers 7, 80 × 90 mm in their natural position; floral bracts 10 mm long, tightly clasping the pedicels halfway around. Dorsal sepal 50 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Petals 45 × 14 mm, ridged, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 50 × 15 mm, concave (rolled), acute. Lip 45 × 15 mm, held lowermost, overall shape longly triangular; sac 10 mm deep; long keel (lamina) raised about 5 mm and irregularly serrated on its ridge forks around the distal end of the lip cavity (which is about 10 mm deep) and runs almost to the apex of the lip; margins upturned, on the basal half with slender appendages to 2 mm long pointing inward. Column about 35 × 7 mm, approximately at right angles to the lip. Anther beak about 12 mm 140

long, bent forward slightly. Pseudostigma almost square, about 4 mm across. Antennae about 15 mm long, initially parallel but with one tip curled under the other. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green to purple-brown; sepals and petals olive green with purple-brown spotting that is denser on the sepals; lip glossy green-white with larger and more pronounced spots of the same purple-brown color; column light green, also spotted. Female inflorescence erect, with 34 nonresupinate flowers (lip uppermost). Lip hood-shaped. Column short and fleshy, lacking antennae. Coloration green. DISTRIBUTION. Mexico, in the states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Michoacán. HABITAT. Grows at medium altitudes in deciduous forest in the Sierra Madre del Sur and at low altitudes in deciduous jungle. The climate is warm and dry in winter and spring, with heavy rainfall from May through October. The rainy and dry seasons are almost equally long. SYNONYM. Catasetum lamilatum Beer. VARIETIES. Var. eburneum Lindley (reddish flowers with an ivory-colored lip) and var. maculatum Lindley (all floral parts spotted with red to purple-brown). IDENTIFICATION. Lip callosity long, raised, and ridged. Differs from the raised, flat lip callosity of C. tabulare with which it is sometimes compared. FLOWERING. Early to late summer from a developing pseudobulb. CULTURE. A Red Zone species, although the dry and rainy seasons are approximately equal in length in the wild. Can be grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. If potted, the pot should be suspended to accommodate the pendent inflorescences. COMMENTS. The inflorescence normally produces either male or female flowers, but occasionally can carry both forms. Female flowers are much more scarce both in nature and in cultivation. This vigorous grower is one of the more distinctive species of the genus, with its large, spiderlike flowers and with a lip that is easily recognizable by the thick, raised longitudinal callosity running down its entire center. The foregoing description is based on my plant of var. maculatum. Rudolf Mansfeld considered this species very close to C. tabulare and felt that it might one day be reduced to synonymy. He believed that C. tabulare var. finetianum represents a transition between the 2 taxa. Catasetum lanceatum Miranda PRONUNCIATION: lahn-see-AH-tum or lahn-see-AY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective lanceatus, "lanceolate" or "narrow and tapering like the head of a lance," referring to the apex of the flower's lip in male flowers. Not "armed with a spear," as stated in the original description.

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HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda in 1986 (Lindleyana 1: 148, fig. 2-4). The description includes a distribution map, photographs, and line drawings. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots filiform. Pseudobulbs to 19 × 3.5 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves to 13, to 35 × 7 cm, usually smaller, oblanceolate. Male inflorescence to 75 cm (30 in.) long, arching. Bracts 15 mm long. Pedicels 55 mm long, almost straight. Flowers to 30, on the terminal three-fifths of the inflorescence; floral bracts 15 mm long, lanceolate. Sepals 40 × 10 mm, concave, acuminate; the dorsal erect, the laterals reflexed. Petals 36 × 8 mm, convex, acuminate. Lip 18 × 8 mm, held lowermost, triangular-shaped, zigzagging forward, down, then forward again, with a toothlike callus at the tip. Column 18 mm long. Antennae about 20 mm long, parallel, reaching the sides of the lip callus. Coloration of sepals pale rose with dark red inside; petals the same color with blotches of dark red inside; lip interior dark red; column rose-colored; antennae pale rose. Female inflorescence 16 cm (6 in.) long. Pedicels 38 mm long. Flowers to 7, non-resupinate, clustered at the apex of the inflorescence. Sepals 18 × 8 mm. Petals 18 × 7 mm, reflexed. Lip 15 mm wide, 12 mm deep. Column short; stigmatic cavity a narrow transverse slit. Coloration of sepals green, finely spotted with dark red; petals green with dark red spotting on the margins and midrib; lip and column green. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazonas State, along the Curicuriari River, a tributary of the Upper Negro, municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, at an altitude of 80 m (260 ft.). HABITAT. Grows on tree branches overhanging the Curicuriari River. IDENTIFICATION. Relatively small lanceolate lip with a unique zigzagging configuration. Pedicels long. Male inflorescence long and arching with upright flowers. FLOWERING. Summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted or grown in a basket under moderate shade. COMMENTS. Miranda acknowledged that this robust species is related to C. callosum and C. stenoglossum, which grow in the same region. It shows little variation in the angle of the lip sac in various clones, and only slight variation in color except for one white form. Its female flowers depart from the norm for pistillate flowers in the genus by showing red sporting. The foregoing description is adapted from the original, with input from other sources, since this species is not readily available commercially or otherwise. Catasetum lanciferum Lindley A species that belongs in the C. cristatum complex. Described by John Lindley in 1841 (Edwards's Botanical Register 27: t. 5). 142

Catasetum lanxiforme Senghas A Peruvian species of unknown affinities. Described in 1991 (Orchidee 42: 22). Catasetum longifolium Lindley Plates 42, 43; Figures 8-19, 8-20 PRONUNCIATION: lawn-ji-FOE-lee-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name a Latin word composed of longus, "long," and folium, "leaf," obviously alluding to the extremely long, narrow leaves of the species. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1839 (Edwards's Botanical Register 25: Misc. 94) based on a plant from Guyana. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 20 × 4.5 cm, fusiform, cylindrical or slightly compressed, pendent. Leaves to 6090 × 1525 mm, linearligulate, pendent, with 3 prominent veins. Inflorescence 2538 cm (1015 in.) long, bearing 20 or more flowers in the terminal half. Flowers mostly male, or there may be male flowers near the base and female flowers closer to the apex, with hermaphroditic flowers in varying degrees inbetween. Pedicels to 50 mm long. Dorsal sepal to 13 × 9 mm, concave, obtuse. Petals to 14 × 11 mm, concave, obtuse. Lateral sepals to 16 × 9 mm, concave, obtuse. Lip held lowermost, slightly longer than the lateral sepals, deeply pouch-shaped with a kidney-shaped orifice and fringed margins; sac 20 mm deep and wide. Column 7 mm long and wide, fleshy, lacking antennae, but with small, sensitive toothlike projections on each side. Anther beakless. Coloration of sepals and petals maroon or golden brown-colored; lip yellow-brown to red-orange outside, orange inside, apex dark red; column yellowish. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Venezuela, eastward and southward into Guyana, Surinam, and Brazil (states of Pará, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul). HABITAT. Grows in lowland and intermediate-elevation forests, no higher than 800 m (2600 ft.), under shady conditions in stands of Mauritia flexuosa palm trees along the banks of very slow moving small rivers and streams, flooded forest, and shallow lakes. Adheres to the bare part of the tree at the leaf bases, usually partially hidden by the lower leaves. SYNONYM. Monachanthus longifolius (Lindley) Hooker. IDENTIFICATION. Growth habit pendent, with long, narrow, ribbonlike leaves. No antennae. Small, pleasantly scented male flowers similar to those of C. discolor, but the lip is deeper, the fringe on the margins is less conspicuous, the flowers are resupinate, and the inflorescence pendent. Female flowers are reportedly similar to those of C. discolor. FLOWERING. Late summer to autumn.

143

CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Must be mounted in such a way as to allow it to hang down, or potted with the pot tilted to enable the plant to grow normally (for it). It can also be hung from a wooden basket. It relishes consistently warm temperatures and fairly shady conditions, and reportedly flowers best with high humidity.

Figure 8-19. Catasetum longifolium 'Orquiven' in flower, Venezuela. Photo by Alexis Pardo Isla.

Figure 8-20. Catasetum longifolium 'Orquiven' established hanging upside-down from basket. Photo by Alexis Pardo Isla. 144

COMMENTS. Although its flowers cannot compete with those of C. pileatum, for example, for sheer grandeur, they have striking colors and are fine examples of the polymorphism found in several Catasetum species. The species is also interesting for its upsidedown growth habit, which some early orchid artists failed to notice, as they erroneously pictured it growing conventionally (see Plate 42). The inflorescences are mixed, with the flowers becoming progressively more female toward the apex, the lip margins smoother, and the lip more elongated until becoming completely pouch-shaped with a smooth rim. Considered closely related to the terrestrial C. discolor, this species is pollinated by bees (Eulaema cingulata, E. bombiformis, and E. meriana), but the absence of conventional antennae in the flowers raises the possibility of other pollinators as well. The species seems to be extremely rare in nature, growing in the hinterland of Guyana and Surinam as well as, to my great surprise, in restricted areas in the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. The foregoing description is adapted from the literature because the 2 plants in my collection, which are growing very well, have not cooperated by flowering in timely fashion. Catasetum longipes Miranda & Lacerda PRONUNCIATION: LON-ji-peez. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin longipes, ''long foot," referring to the long pedicels. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 123), on the basis of a plant collected by Lacerda. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick and fleshy (to 2.5 mm). Pseudobulbs to 11 × 2.4 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves to 8, to 31 × 6.2 cm, oblanceolate, with wavy margins, medium green. Male inflorescence to 25 cm (10 in.) long. Peduncle to 4 mm in diameter. Pedicels to 40 mm long, 2.5 mm in diameter, straight. Flowers to 10, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 24 × 8 mm, erect, concave, acute. Petals 22 × 8 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 23 × 8 mm, concave and acute. Lip 11 × 7 mm in its natural position, concave, roughly triangular, initially turned downward and aligned with the column, then abruptly projected forward to make an angle of 90 degrees with it, with numerous irregular protuberances on the margins, a fleshy transverse callus at the point where it is reflexed, and a low callosity ending in a multipartite protuberance at the apex. Column 12 × 4.5 mm, slightly narrower at the base, robust and fleshy. Anther with a long beak. Antennae about 8 mm long, more or less parallel. Coloration of sepals and petals yellow-brown, with fine light brown spotting; lip yellow-brown outside, yellow-green to bright yellow inside; column yellow-green to yellow. Female flowers not seen. 145

DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Mato Grosso State near its border with Rondônia State. HABITAT. Grows in trees along rivers and creeks. IDENTIFICATION. Pedicels long, straight, and erectrare in the genus Catasetum. Similar to C. multifidum in lip form but differs in its pedicels, coloration, and distribution. Very distinctive and impossible to confuse with other species known up until now. FLOWERING. Summer. CULTURE. Presumably a Red Zone species with no known special cultural requirements. COMMENTS. A distinctive, desirable plant with little variation in form and coloration. The foregoing description is adapted from the original, with help from other sources. Catasetum lucis P. Ortiz & Arango A Colombian species with a very distinctive broad whitish lip and antennae whose tips diverge. Described in 1994 (Orquidología 19: 29). Catasetum luridum (Link) Lindley Plate 44; Figure 8-21 PRONUNCIATION: LURE-ih-dum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective luridus, "pale yellow," referring to the color of the flowers. HISTORY. Described by the German Heinrich Friedrich Link in 1824 as Anguloa lurida and transferred to the genus Catasetum by John Lindley in 1832 (The Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants 156). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves to 60 × 10 cm, linear-lanceolate, with 35 prominent nerves. Male inflorescence to 60 cm (24 in.) long, somewhat arching. Peduncle 58 mm in diameter at the base. Bracts short, spaced widely apart. Pedicels 2030 mm long. Flowers clustered near the apex of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 24 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Petals 27 × 10 mm, concave, acute, largely hidden by the dorsal sepal. Lateral sepals the same size as the dorsal, also concave and acute. Lip about 32 × 25 mm, held lowermost, fleshy and rigid, faintly trilobed, with smooth edges; midlobe with an obtuse to retuse apex projecting outward. Column about 12 × 8 mm. Antennae extending almost to the apex of the midlobe of the lip, parallel. Coloration light green, often yellowish; sepals and petals may be marked with red on both sides; lip suffused lightly to heavily with dark red, sometimes with longitudinal stripes inside. Female flowers not seen.

146

Figure 8-21. Catasetum luridum. From Flora Brasilica. DISTRIBUTION. Coastal Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. HABITAT. Grows in the Atlantic coastal forest. SYNONYMS. Catachaetum craniomorphum Hoffmannsegg, Catachaetum literatum Hoffmannsegg,

Catachaetum

purpurascens

Hoffmannsegg,

Catachaetum

squalidum

Hoffmannsegg, Catachaetum turbinatum Hoffmannsegg, Catasetum abruptum (Link) Lindley, Epidendrum ollare Vellozo. 147

BASIONYM. Anguloa lurida Link. IDENTIFICATION. Similar to C. globiflorum, except for lip structure. Midlobe protrudes and is slightly downturned, usually with a very shallow indentation in the middle. Flowers larger, more open, less globular, and more likely to have dark red spots, blotches, or stripes. In C. globiflorum, on the other hand, the globular form of the flowers makes the lip less discernible. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Green Zone species. Should be grown in a basket because of its size, although it grows perfectly well in a sizable pot. Needs moderate shade. Not bothered by cool night temperatures. COMMENTS. Because of the similarity of the flowers to other ball-like blossoms, this robust species has often been misidentified. In fact, the first Catasetum species pictured in Augusto Ruschi's book (1986) is not C. luridum, but C. mattosianum. Other members of the C. luridum alliance include C. globiflorum, C. hookeri, and C. ochraceum. Catasetum macrocarpum Richard ex Kunth Plate 45 PRONUNCIATION: mack-row-KAR-pum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name a Latinized combination of 2 Greek words, makrós, "large" in the sense of quantity or abundance, and karpós, "fruit," referring to the large size or number of flowers, or to the seed capsules. HISTORY. Described by C. S. Kunth in 1822 (Synopsis Plantarum 1: 330). Later the description was found to be based on material left by L. C. Richard, hence the change in the author suffix. First illustrated in 1825 (Nova Genera et Species Plantarum 7: 158, t. 631). Catasetum macrocarpum is the type species of the genus. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs 16 × 2 cm (reportedly to 22 cm in other clones), fusiform, often reddish when the old leaf sheaths have deteriorated. Leaves 7, to 42 × 6.5 cm, erect, lanceolate to oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, others less so. Male inflorescence 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts to 12 mm long, spaced 3540 mm apart. Pedicels about 25 mm long, about 3 mm in diameter, slightly curved. Flowers 8 (can be as many as 10 or even more), 58 × 28 mm in their natural position, nonresupinate, on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 45 × 22 mm, concave, acute. Petals 51 × 26 mm, concave, acute. Lateral sepals 50 × 26 mm, concave, acute. Lip 30 × 20 mm, held uppermost, fleshy and rigid, trilobed; sac about 12 mm deep; lateral lobes finely toothed; margins of the midlobe reflexed and smooth, with a blunt-tipped 148

protuberance just above the opening. Column 38 × 10 mm. Anther with a long, slender beak. Pseudostigma almost square, about 6 mm across. Antennae 20 mm long, one extending to the far wall of the lip sac, the other curled under it. Coloration of peduncle green, lighter towards the apex; pedicels green; sepals green, unspotted, indistinctly veined longitudinally; petals green with prominent dark red-brown spotting, heavier towards the base; lip sac green outside, very dark green inside; lateral lobes yellow to chartreuse inside and out; midlobe deep yellow; column pale chartreuse, with fine red-brown speckling on the anther. Female inflorescence erect, sometimes as long as 50 cm (20 in.). Flowers similar to males, but 38 in number, extremely fleshy. Column short and stout; stigmatic cavity narrow, and no antennae. DISTRIBUTION. Trinidad through the Guianas, Surinam, Venezuela, Brazil (the states of Pará and Amazonas southward through Pernambuco and Bahia to Rio de Janeiro State and in microclimates on Brazil's central plateau). HABITAT. Grows on trees (often dead trees) from sea level to almost 1200 m (4000 ft.), though typically associated with hot, tropical lowlands. SYNONYMS. Catasetum claveringii Lindley, C. floribundum Hooker, C. grandis Hort. ex Planchon, C. menthaeodorum Hort. ex Planchon, C. tricolor Hort. ex Planchon, C. tridentatum Hooker, Cypripedium cothurnum Vellozo, Paphiopedilum cothurnum (Vellozo) Pfitzer. VARIETIES. The following varieties were described around the beginning of the twentieth century: var. amplissimum (Planchon) Cogniaux, var. aurantiacum Cogniaux, var. bellum Reichenbach f., var. brevifolium (Mutel) Cogniaux, var. carnosissimum Cogniaux, var. chrysanthum Hort. ex W. H. G., var. chrysanthum L. Linden & Rodigas, var. flavescens Cogniaux ex Gamier, var. genuinum (Mutel) Cogniaux, var. globoso-connivens (Mutel) Cogniaux, var. lindenii O'Brien, var. luteo-purpureum Cogniaux, var. luteo-roseum L. Linden, var. pallidum (Mutel) Cogniaux, var. unidentatum, (Mutel) Cogniaux, var. viridi-eburneum (Mutel) Cogniaux, and var. viridi-sanguineum, (Mutel) Cogniaux. Among these, var. aurantiacum, var. chrysanthum Hort ex W. H. G., var. lindenii, var. luteo-purpureum, and var. luteo-roseum are now considered referable to C. ×tapiriceps. Many of the variations in clones of C. macrocarpum known today may very well correspond to some of the varieties listed above, but growers do not refer to them by name. IDENTIFICATION. Sepals and petals typically folded together and embracing the lip in almost tuliplike fashion. Often confused with C. maculatum, but distinguished by the reflexed and smooth margins of the lip and by (usually) a raised, fleshy apex on the midlobe. The configuration of the protuberance at the apex varies considerably, so it is not critical to identification. 149

FLOWERING. Autumn while the plant is still carrying its leaves. CULTURE. A Red Zone species, with the exception of (1) a small-flowered population from Bahia State, Brazil, that grows in microclimates in the Gray Zone, (2) other populations in microclimates on Brazil's central plateau, and (3) the report in Miller and Warren (1996) that the species has been found high in the Atlantic forest in coastal Brazil. Needs an abundance of warmth, water, and light to moderate shade during its active growing cycle. Does not flower well when potted conventionally. Should be grown in a basket under moderately shady conditions. COMMENTS. A common large-flowered, nonresupinate species. Its male flowers are not extraordinary in form or coloration, but are impressive for the aroma emanating from them at certain times of the day. Some find the fragrance pleasant (Hoehne 1942), others find it foulsmelling (Hawkes 1965). The species indisputably has played a major role in natural hybridization with C. pileatum, but the details of that role are controversial. If it really is the parent of many of the more spectacular C. pileatum hybrids, it failed to transmit its nonresupinate lip. Flowers vary considerably in coloration and form. The foregoing description is based on a plant that sports lighter, more vividly colored flowers than many. Catasetum macroglossum Reichenbach f. Plate 46 PRONUNCIATION: mack-row-GLAH-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name a Latinized combination of 2 Greek words, makrós, "large," and glossa, "tongue," referring to the lip of the flower. HISTORY. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1877 (Gardeners' Chronicle, n.s., 8: 552). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 21 × 3.3 cm, fusiform, curved, entirely covered by sheaths, which become white and papery with age, but eventually deteriorate to show the shiny green of the pseudobulbs. Leaves to 8, 48 × 6.2 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence to 34 cm (14 in.) long, erect then arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 14 mm long, spaced 4050 mm apart. Pedicels about 23 mm long, 3 mm in diameter, abruptly curved near the flower. Flowers 8, 48 × 30 mm in their natural position, on the terminal quarter of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 40 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Petals 40 × 27 mm, less concave, obtuse. Lateral sepals 40 × 25 mm, concave, obtuse. Lip 39 × 20 mm in its natural position, 25 mm deep, trilobed, very fleshy and rigid, held uppermost; lateral lobes form "ears" next to the column; midlobe has 2 short teeth on either side of a rounded indentation at the apex. Column 25 × 9 mm. Anther beaked. Pseudostigma roughly heart-shaped, 5 mm long. Antennae 25 mm long, both curled, one under the other as they reach into the lip opening. Coloration of peduncle almond green; bracts lighter 150

green; sepals and petals pale green with about 11 rather indistinct longitudinal dark yellow-green veins; lip green with faint striping outside, glossy dark yellow-green mottling inside the sac; column green, cream-colored around the pseudostigma. DISTRIBUTION. Southwestern (coastal) Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia. HABITAT. In Ecuador grows in wet tropical forest inland of the Cerros de Colonche, on living palms and dead tree limbs, at elevations of 30220 m (100725 ft.). IDENTIFICATION. Lip nonresupinate and hood-shaped with fleshy semicircular callus just inside the apex. Flowers green to yellow-green, sometimes with some maroon. A highly variable species that hybridizes with C. expansum in Ecuador, according to the literature. I believe that the true species is quite consistent and that any variability is due to hybridization. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted in a very coarse mix or grown in a basket under moderate shade. COMMENTS. The old literature presents much conflicting information on C. macroglossum. H. G. Reichenbach, who described the species, mentioned "varieties," some of which turned out to be natural hybrids with C. expansum. Furthermore, 5 of the 6 paintings of C. macroglossum in John Day's Scrapbooks were actually of the natural hybrid C. ×sodiroi. F. C. Hoehne (1942) expressed serious doubts about the species and considered it quite a mystery. He based his assessment on Rudolf Mansfeld's assertion that he found Reichenbach's original herbarium material in such poor condition as to preclude utilizing it for a definitive determination. However, he did feel that its crossed antennae confirmed its affinity with C. expansum and C. pileatum. The flowers are certainly not spectacular, but the plant is robust and vigorous, and therefore worthwhile growing. The foregoing description is based on a plant originating in Ecuador. Catasetum maculatum Kunth Plate 47 PRONUNCIATION: mack-yoo-LAH-tum or mack-yoo-LAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective maculatus, "spotted" or "speckled," referring to the red-brown spots on the flowers. HISTORY. First collected by Humboldt and Bonpland in Colombia in 1801. Described by Karl Sigismund Kunth in 1822 (Synopsis Plantarum 1: 331). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 24 × 2 cm, fusiform, sometimes slightly curved, completely covered by leaf sheaths, which become white and papery with age. Leaves 1012, to 35 × 8 cm, linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, medium 151

green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence to 50 cm (20 in.) long, flatly arching to pendent. Peduncle 6 mm in diameter. Bracts 20 mm long, spaced 70 mm apart. Pedicels about 15 mm long, some. sharply twisted, spaced 2040 mm apart on the rachis. Flowers 10, 50 × 38 mm in their natural position, large and conspicuous, on the terminal two-fifths of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 38 × 18 mm, concave, acute. Petals 40 × 20 mm, more convex than concave, acute. Lateral sepals 45 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Lip 35 × 24 mm in its natural position, held uppermost, pouch-shaped, 22 mm deep, somewhat conical; margins hairy. Column about 25 × 9 mm. Pseudostigma butterfly-shaped, about 5 mm across, lying between the antennae at their base. Antennae 20 mm long, extending upward far into the lip, one curved forward, the other curled. Coloration of dorsal sepal green, with tiny, dense umber spots on the front surface; petals of the same color with fewer spots; lateral sepals with the same spotting as the dorsal sepal; lip green to yellow-green with small spots outside, larger spots and bars inside. Female inflorescence rare, short, erect. Flowers 2 or 3. Sepals and petals about 20 × 10 mm, fleshy. Lip held uppermost, deeply pouch-shaped, shorter, wider, and rounder than in the male flower. Coloration green outside, yellowish inside. DISTRIBUTION. Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua in Central America to Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Brazil in northern South America. HABITAT. Grows in coastal lowlands, always near water. SYNONYMS. Catasetum blepharochilum Schlechter, C. brenesii Schlechter, C. rostratum Klinge, C. oerstedii Reichenbach f. VARIETIES. Two varieties have been described but seem to be unknown today: var. flavescens Cogniaux and var. luteo-purpureum Cogniaux. IDENTIFICATION. Similar to and confused with C. integerrimum and C. macrocarpum, although C. maculatum seems to be the only one of the 3 to have fringed or hairy lip margins. Catasetum macrocarpum is distinguished by the smooth, revolute margins of its lip, which is more yellow and has a raised fleshy apicula, and C. integrrimum by its wider, conical lip and by being less heavily spotted with maroon (Bechtel et al. 1981). Another way of differentiating between C. maculatum and C. integerimum is that in the former the fringed or hairy margins of the lateral lobes of the lip meet at the base of the column and form a nearly rectangular orifice just above the pseudostigma, whereas in the latter the margins of the lip are smooth and overlap above the column to form a circular opening. FLOWERING. Mostly summer, sometimes with a second or third flowering in autumn.

152

CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Needs much moisture and heat during the growing season and only a short dormant period. Can be grown in a large pot or basket with fairly bright light. A vigorous grower. COMMENTS. In keeping with its name, this species is usually heavily spotted. The acceptance of C. oerstedii as a synonym means a broader geographical distribution for C. maculatum, not just in Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, as Bechtel et al. (1981) indicated. The foregoing description is based on one of 2 similar plants in my collection and seems to be typical of the species, which often sends out successive inflorescences. If a vigorous, floriferous Catasetum species is desired, this old favorite is a good candidate. Catasetum maranhense Lacerda & da Silva A newly described species from Maranhão State,Brazil, with long, slender pseudobulbs, narrow leaves, and an arching inflorescence with ball-like flowers. Described in 1998 (Bradea 8: 69). Catasetum matogrossense Bicalho A rare and poorly known small species from Mato Grosso State, Brazil. The fewflowered inflorescence never exceeds the length of the leaves. The lip is held uppermost and is notched. Described by Hamilton Bicalho in 1964 (Loefgrenia 17: 1). Catasetum mattosianum Bicalho A species with globular flowers clustered at the apex of the inflorescence. The coloration is highly variable, from entirely green to spotted dark red. Lip uppermost with a wide opening, the lateral lobes rounded with toothed margins. One of the few catasetums from Espírito Santo State, Brazil. Described in 1973 (Boletim da Sociedade Campineira de Orquídeas 2: 22). Catasetum meeae Pabst A doubtful species named for the late floral artist Margaret Mee. Considered similar to C. cochabambanum. Described in 1967 (Orquídea [Rio de Janeiro] 29: 64, t. 4A). Catasetum micranthum Barbosa Rodrigues An enigmatic species with ball-like flowers from Bahia State, Brazil. Described in 1881 (Genera et Species Orchidearum Novarum 2: 219). Catasetum microglossum Rolfe Plate 48; Figure 8-22 PRONUNCIATION: my-kro-GLAH-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name a Latinized combination of 2 Greek words, mikrós, ''small," and glóssa, "tongue," referring to the small size of the lip as compared with the sepals and petals. 153

HISTORY. Described by R. A. Rolfe in 1913 (Botanical Magazine 139: t. 8514). First collected by W. Fox.

Figure 8-22. Catasetum microglossum. From Flora Brasilica. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and white. Pseudobulbs to 10 × 2 cm, fusiform, some slightly compressed and curved. Leaves 5, to 27 × 6.5 cm, linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 very conspicuous veins, others less so, on the underside. Male inflorescence to 65 cm (26 in.) long, arching to pendent. Peduncle 34 mm in diameter. Bracts 9 mm long, spaced about 55 mm apart. Pedicels to 35 mm long, straight. Flowers 7, about 45 × 25 (with the lateral sepals almost completely reflexed), on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 23 × 8 mm, flat, acuminate. 154

Lateral sepals 30 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip only 10 × 7 mm, very fleshy and rigid, held lowermost (although Flora Brasilica specifies nonresupinate), convex except for the very small, shallow sac with fleshy tubercles; margins finely toothed. Column 17 mm long. Anther beaked. Antennae 7 mm long, parallel, with their tips almost touching as they reach the middle of the lip. Coloration of segments greenish outside, dull purple inside; lip yellowish. Female flowers not seen but reportedly typical for the genus. DISTRIBUTION. Western Amazonia, including Peru, eastern Ecuador, and southeastern Colombia, in the vicinity of the Igara-Paraná River, a tributary of the Putumayo. HABITAT. Grows in densely forested tropical lowlands. IDENTIFICATION. Lip exceedingly small and tonguelike with white decurrences in the cavity. FLOWERING. Autumn to winter. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Should be grown in a wooden basket, under light to moderate shade. Tolerates conventional potting, but flowering is impaired. COMMENTS. This strange species, a real "queery-deary," has very slender floral segments. Catasetum monzonensis A new Peruvian species with generally erect inflorescence and flowers, with a long, sinuous midlobe of the lip. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum moorei C. Schweinfurth Plate 50 PRONUNCIATION: MOORE-eye. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Moore. Named in honor of Lee Moore "The Adventurer," who discovered the species in 1964. HISTORY. Described by Charles Schweinfurth in 1970 (Fieldiana, Botany 33: 50). The first known illustration appeared on the front cover of one of Lee Moore's catalogs. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobalbs to 10 cm tall, narrowly cylindrical to fusiform. Leaves to 41 × 6 cm, oblanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, with 35 prominent veins. Male inflorescence arching, longer than the leaves, many-flowered. Peduncle with short bracts. Pedicels about 50 mm long, straight. Dorsal sepal about 35 × 14 mm when flattened, concave, acute. Petals about 34 × 17 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals about 36 × 16 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 25 × 26 mm when flattened, entire; margins incurved, finely toothed. Column about 21 mm long. Antennae about 10 mm long, symmetrical, extending to the 155

orifice of the lip's sac. Coloration of sepals and petals green with dark green spots; lip chartreuse to yellow with greenish spots. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic to north-central Peru, department of San Martín, Moyobamba region (not the department of Loreto, Iquitos/ Itaya River area mentioned in the original description). HABITAT. Grows at the beginning of the Amazon jungle in low mountains on the eastern slopes of the Andes, at elevations of 600900 m (20003000 ft.), sometimes 23 plants growing together, usually on the rotting branches of trees. IDENTIFICATION. Inflorescence many-flowered, pedicels long, lip unlobed, broadly round-ovate (as broad as long), with minutely denticulate margins. Lip coloration chartreuseyellow with greenish spots. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted, mounted, or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. An extremely elusive species. Plants labeled C. mooreanum sometimes appear in commercial listings of orchids from Peru, but have turned out to be C. discolor. The foregoing description is adapted from the literature. Catasetum multifidum Miranda Plate 51 PRONUNCIATION: mull-ti-FEE-dum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective multifidus, "cleft into many parts," referring to the unusually long appendages of the lip. HISTORY. Described in 1986 (Lindleyana 1: 154, fig. 7-8)by Francisco Miranda, who included a photograph and line drawings of the floral segments. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Pseudobulbs to 16.5 × 3.1 cm, fusiform to elliptic. Leaves to 8, to 32 × 7 cm, oblanceolate. Male inflorescence to 55 cm (22 in.) long, arching to pendent. Bracts 12 mm long. Flowers to 12, on the terminal half of the inflorescence; floral bracts 12 mm long. Pedicels 48 mm long, curved upward. Dorsal sepal 33 × 8 mm, concave, acuminate to acute. Petals 34 × 8 mm, convex, acuminate to acute, erect. Lateral sepals 35 × 12 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 19 × 15 mm, held lowermost, with a 3-toothed callus near the base, the cavity gradually narrowing, and the sac deep and upturned; lateral margins modified into multilobed appendages; apex a more robust appendage. Column 20 mm long. Antennae 9 mm long, almost parallel as they extend between the lip callus teeth, converging in the middle before diverging near their tips. Coloration of sepals and petals green-yellow with 156

transverse brown blotches; lip green-yellow with tiny brown spots; column green-yellow. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Rondônia (municipality of Ji-Paraná), Pará (Serra dos Carajás), and Mato Grosso. HABITAT. Grows on palm trees at an altitude of 160 m (525 ft.). IDENTIFICATION. Pedicels long, mostly straight. Flowers distributed laxly on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Lip resupinate with a 3-toothed callus near the base, deeply saccate, the sac progressively narrower and overhung by long appendages with white tips from the margins of the lateral lobes, and a fleshier appendage at the apex of the midlobe. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Because of its size and the length of its inflorescence, should be grown in a basket, under moderate shade. COMMENTS. Apparently the population from Pará State sports smaller, more vividly colored flowers. Miranda mentioned the species' slight resemblance to C. stevensonii in the disposition of the lip appendages and lip profile, and believed that because of its many sizable appendages it should be assigned to the C. barbatum alliance. The foregoing description is adapted from the original. A different color photo of the species can also be seen on page 475 of the May 1987 issue of the AOS Bulletin. Catasetum multifissum Senghas A Peruvian species closely related to C. buchtienii and C. stevensonii. Described in 1991 (Orchidee 42: 60). Catasetum nanayanum Dodson & Bennett A questionable species from Peru. May be a natural hybrid, according to Gustavo Romero. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum. ser. 2, 1: t. 18). Catasetum napoense Dodson Plate 52 PRONUNCIATION: nah-poh-EN-say. ETYMOLOGY. Species name refers to the Ecuadorean province of Napo, where the species was discovered. HISTORY. Described by C. H. Dodson in 1978 (Selbyana 2: 156). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 6 × 2.5 cm, fusiform. Leaves to 30 × 4 cm, linear-lanceolate, heavily veined. Male inflorescence to 35 cm (14 in.) long, erect to arching. Peduncle to 3 mm in diameter. Bracts spaced about 30 mm apart. Pedicels about 30 mm long, straight. Flowers to 17, about 45 × 50 mm in their natural 157

position. Dorsal sepal 30 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Petals 30 × 9 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 30 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Lip 23 × 20 mm, held lowermost, concave; apex of the midlobe triangular with a trilobed callus; margins of the apex lacerate, those of the basal portion dentate; callus bilobed and square at the base of the sac orifice. Column 20 × 5 mm. Anther beaked. Antennae about 6 mm long, parallel, projecting down toward the base of the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals red at the base, dull yellow-green at the apex; lip red at the base and along the margin; lip sac yellow-green; basal and apical calli yellow with dark spotting. Female flowers have sepals and petals 17 × 6 mm. Lip 18 × 15 mm, deeply pouch-shaped, flattened, and a contracted margin thickened at the orifice. Column 10 mm long, thick, fleshy, and shortly rostrate. DISTRIBUTION. Ecuador (Napo province) and the Pucallpa/Tingo Maria region of central-western Peru. HABITAT. Grows at an altitude of around 500 m (1640 ft.), in hilly or gently sloping terrain. IDENTIFICATION. Similar to C. callosum, but the inflorescence is much longer, the base of the lip is deeply concave with toothed margins, and the apex of the lip is triangular and irregularly lacerate. According to Fred Paget, lip size can vary considerably, possibly as a result of natural hybridization with C. expansum (see Plate 52). FLOWERING. Summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be conventionally potted under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A very floriferous species that is rare in nature and impossible to find commercially. Its habitat in Peru is avoided due to cocaine production. Catasetum naso Lindley Plate 53 PRONUNCIATION: NAH-so. ETYMOLOGY. Origin of the species name not known. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1843 (Edwards's Botanical Register 29: Misc. 71). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs to 14 × 2 cm, fusiform. Leaves 6, 35 × 5 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green. Male inflorescence about 38 cm (15 in.) long, erect to slightly arching. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm long, spaced about 30 mm apart. Pedicels 20 mm long. Dorsal sepal 25 × 7 mm, concave, acute. Petals 25 × 9 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 25 × 7 mm, concave, acute. Lip 34 × 16 mm, 158

held uppermost, trilobed; margins at the base of the lateral lobes tenuously lacerate, extending around the column; margins of the midlobe entire. Column 20 mm long. Anther beaked. Antennae 13 mm long, parallel, projecting into the lip sac. Coloration of sepals and petals green, spotted with very dark red; lip entirely very dark red to almost black. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Peru and Venezuela. HABITAT. Grows in lowland to moderately elevated forest. VARIETY. Var. charlesworthii (Hort.) Mansfeld has a very deep wine-purple lip, and a midlobe with a crest in the middle and filiform teeth over its surface. IDENTIFICATION. Widely confused with C. sanguineum. The main distinguishing feature seems to be the lacerate appendages on the lateral lobes of the lip. In C. naso, only the margins at the base are lacerate, whereas in C. sanguineum all margins of the lateral lobes are lacerate. Furthermore, the pedicels of C. naso are longer. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species. Should be potted in wood and bark chips or grown in a wooden basket for best results. Needs light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. Very similar to C. sanguineum. Catasetum ochraceum Lindley Plate 54 PRONUNCIATION: oh-KRAH-see-um or oh-KRAY-see-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective ochraceus, itself derived from the Greek ochra, "ocher" or "dark yellow-brown," referring to the color of the flowers. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1844 (Edwards's Botanical Register 30: Misc. 44), based on a plant collected in Bogotá Province, Colombia, by K. T. Hartweg and sent to the Royal Horticultural Society in England. The first color illustration of the species was published in 1969 by Leslie A. Garay in Orquidología. In the text accompanying the illustration Garay complained that the quality of the illustration of the species in Hoehne's Flora Brasilica is so poor that it does not permit identification. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit terrestrial or rupicolous. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 30 × 5 cm (usually much shorter), fusiform, often slightly curved, with leaf sheaths that age white and papery, and with the tips of the bulbs ending in sharp spines that are the remnants of old leaf nerves. Leaves 7 (to 10 in other clones), to 40 × 10 cm, ellipticlanceolate, with as many as 8 veins, including 3 conspicuous ones. Male inflorescence to 75 cm (30 in.) tall, erect. Peduncle 10 mm in diameter at the base, 4 mm near the apex, slightly compressed. Bracts to 26 mm long, spaced 3580 mm apart. Pedicels 2240 mm long. Flowers 6 159

(to 20 in other clones, but usually few-flowered), about 18 × 18 mm. Dorsal sepal 15 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Petals 15 × 12 mm, less concave, obtuse. Lateral sepals 16 × 6 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 16 × 15 mm, 12 mm deep, held lowermost, extremely fleshy and rigid, indistinctly trilobed. Column 16 mm long. Antennae short and parallel. Coloration of sepals and petals green, outside sometimes with faint red speckles, even a strong red flush; inside of sepals with larger and darker spots; inside of petals with transverse red-pink striping; lip yellow-green outside, orange inside with fine red striping; lip apex orange; column orange-gold; anther green and yellow. Female inflorescence erect, to 100 cm (40 in.) tall. Peduncle very stout (10 mm). Bracts 3035 mm long, spaced about 13 cm apart. Pedicels 25 mm long, straight after curving to point down, furrowed longitudinally. Flowers to 7, 40 × 45 mm, on only the upper 20 cm. Sepals 20 × 8 mm. Petals 16 × 9 mm. Lip 22 × 16 mm, held uppermost, pouch-shaped. Column 10 × 8 mm; stigmatic cavity a crescent-shaped slit below the rostrum. Coloration of flowers green with faint, darker, longitudinal stripes in the bottom of the lip sac and red spotting at the base of the petals. DISTRIBUTION. Southern and southwestern Colombia, Venezuela, and possibly northern Brazil (states of northwestern Pará and northeastern Roraima). HABITAT. Grows at elevations of 3001700 m (10005600 ft.). SYNONYMS. Catasetum inornatum Schlechter, C. lehmanni Regel. L. A. Garay also considered C. bergoldianum to be a synonym, but it is generally treated as a separate species. IDENTIFICATION. Distinguished from other members of the C. luridum alliance by the arrangement of the flowers on the erect male inflorescence (widely spaced apart), by the troughshaped lip with a cordate (heart-shaped) base ending in a thick, semicircular, flat lobe, and by the fairly consistent dark yellow color. FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. Considered a Red Zone species even though some populations come from rather high elevations. Can be grown conventionally potted in bark mix, in spite of its terrestrial and rupicolous background. Watch carefully for rot in the pseudobulbs. Needs light to moderate shade if male flowers are desired. COMMENTS. That this species varies very little in form and coloration of its flowers may be because it has been little collected, little grown, and little studied. If, however, a grower can accommodate the large plant size, this species is well worth growing for its vigor and robustness. The height of its inflorescence can rival that of some cyrtopodiums. Although in most Catasetum species the female inflorescence is shorter than the male, this is not the case

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with C. ochraceum. The foregoing description is based on one of 2 plants in my collection that produced both male and female inflorescences. Catasetum ornithoides Pabst Plate 55 A species described on the basis of a plant collected by R. E. Schultes, former director of the Botanical Museum at Harvard University. Similar to C. purum and recently confused with C. confusum. Described in 1955 (Arquivos de Botânica do Estado de São Paulo 3: 130, figs. 32B, 39A). Catasetum osculatum Lacerda & P. Castro Plate 56 PRONUNCIATION: oss-kyoo-LAH-tum or oss-kyoo-LAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin noun osculum, "little mouth," referring to the orifice of the lip cavity, with raised, rounded, reddish margins. HISTORY. Described by Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. and Vitorino Paiva Castro Neto in 1995 (Bradea 6: 381). This species had been known in Brazilian orchid circles as C. saccatum var. christyanum, but the type refers to a plant from the Manáus region, and both the type and the variety occur far from the home of C. osculatum. Confusion began in June 1908, when F. C. Hoehne and J. G. Kuhlmann, who were exploring the central-western region of Brazil, collected a specimen. Hoehne decided that in spite of the differences in the structure of the flowers, the plant he collected near Corumbá, in Mato Grosso do Sul State, was that variety of C. saccatum and later identified it as such in his Flora Brasilica. Moreover, the illustration of C. saccatum var. viride appearing in the same work is obviously of a green form of the same C. osculatum. Besides the differences in distribution and habitat, the 2 taxa have quite different morphological characteristics (see table below). Catasetum osculatum forms, with C. incurvum and C. schmidtianum, a trio of species that are related but clearly distinct. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots very thick and fleshy; pneumatophores often present. Pseudobulbs to 26 × 4 cm, fusiform, erect, clustered. Leaves to 11, to 58 × 11 cm, oblanceolate, with wavy margins. Male inflorescence to 46 cm (18 in.) long, at first erect, then arching and pendent. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced 3040 mm apart. Pedicels 36 mm long, 4 mm in diameter. Flowers 13 (occasionally 20 or more in other clones), 52 × 75 mm, on the distal two-thirds of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 40 × 12 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 40 × 20 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 40 × 14 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 27 × 36 mm, held lowermost, the basal portion approximately perpendicular to the column, the rest of the lip parallel to it; midlobe with an apicula at the tip; orifice 8 × 12 mm, 161

with margins rounded and raised in the rear; all margins with numerous hairlike appendages to 6 mm long. Column 37 × 11 mm. Anther 18 mm long, 7.5 mm at its widest part. Antennae 18 mm long, one S-shaped and projecting over the cavity almost to the distal edge, the other descending toward the base of the column, curving and passing behind. Coloration of pedicels light green (to dark brown in other clones); sepals light green (brown or red-brown in other clones, with or without darker spots); petals lighter green (or yellowish in other clones, sometimes with purplish or dark brown pigmentation); lip light green (from yellowish to green-brown or brown in other clones); column also light green (to green-brown in other clones). Female inflorescence 25 cm (10 in.) long, angled about 45 degrees. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Pedicels to 35 mm long, 57 mm in diameter. Flowers 3, 75 × 52 mm, nonresupinate, on the upper third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 30 × 8 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 32 × 14 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 32 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Lip 23 × 24 mm, 37 mm deep; orifice at the base of the lip heartshaped; margins of the lateral lobes reflexed, serrated. Column 20 × 13 mm, including the anther, column at right angles to the lip; stigmatic cavity a narrow opening. Anther 5 mm long, slender, rudimentary. Coloration green. Table 8-1. Critical characteristics of Catasetum saccatum and C. osculatum. C. saccatum C. osculatum Initially erect, then pendent from the Inflorescence Pendent. weight of the flowers. Of male flowers 60 mm long. Of male flowers 36 mm long. Pedicels Of female flowers 62 mm long. Of female flowers 35 mm long. Large, dark brown or red-brown, Smaller, green, yellow-green or Flowers always with definite, large spots. green-brown, often with small spots. Trilobed and rectangular-shaped Almost heart-shaped and trapezoidal when viewed from above. The entire when viewed from above. Only the Lip shape rim on the midlobe and lateral lobes apical portion is reflexed and is reflexed, enfolding the pouchcovering the sac, and the lateral shaped cavity. lobes bent over the lateral sepals. Lip size Longer than wide (40 × 32 mm). Wider than long (36 × 27 mm). Narrower longitudinally, kidneyshaped, with 2 or more conspicuous Roughly elliptic to almost circular, 5 callosities, one 12 mm from the base mm from the base of the column. Lip sac orifice of the column. Its margins always Reddish, orange, or red-brown in lighter in color than the lip (white or color. whitish). 52 mm or more long, pollinarium 26 37 × 11 mm, pollinarium shorter (18 Column mm long, and (paradoxically) the mm), and the pollinia larger (8.5 × pollinia smaller. 3.5 mm). Considerably smaller, although the Female flowers More elongated (73 mm). column is wider. In the Amazon region at altitudes On Brazil's central plateau, at Habitat below 200 m (650 ft.). altitudes of 200800 m (6502600 ft.). 162

DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Mato Grosso (Upper Taquari River), Mato Grosso do Sul, and Rondônia (Cacoal). HABITAT. Grows mainly in gallery forest, usually on living palm trees or other, dead trees. SYNONYM. Catasetum saccatum var. christyanum (Reichenbach f.) Mansfeld. IDENTIFICATION. Often confused with C. saccatum. See Table 8-1 for a comparison of their critical characteristics. Inflorescence initially erect, pedicels short, flowers smaller and green or yellow-green or green-brown, lip almost heart-shaped, with an elliptic to almost circular orifice, pollinarium short. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. Treat as a Gold Zone species, not as the Red Zone C. saccatum. Needs light to moderate shade, especially if male flowers are desired. A large plant with pendent inflorescences. Best grown in a basket. COMMENTS. Many illustrations and photos, allegedly of C. saccatum or its var. christyanum, such as the ones on page 235 of Native Orchids of Brazil, page 81 of An Illustrated Treasury of Orchids, and tab. 54 of Flora Brasilica, actually portray C. osculatum. Although very distinct from C. saccatum, as shown above, this species is equally desirable. It is robust and majestic vegetatively, bears magnificent flowers, and is an all-around superb addition to any collection. Catasetum parguazense G. Romero & Carnevali Plate 57 PRONUNCIATION: par-gwah-ZEN-say. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the name of the Parguaza River in Venezuela, where the species has been collected. HISTORY. Described by Gustavo Romero and Germán Carnevali in 1989 (Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 76: 457, fig. 2C.). Previously collected in the Venezuelan Guayana Highlands and Brazil and erroneously treated as C. bicallosum. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and whitish. Pseudobulbs 6 × 1.5 cm (somewhat larger in adults), fusiform. Leaves 5, to 8 × 2.5 cm, oblanceolate, dark green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 8 cm (3 in.) long, slightly arching then pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts spaced 10 mm apart. Pedicels 30 mm long, about 2 mm in diameter, straight. Flowers 2 (to 8 in adults), 40 × 42 mm in their natural position, at the apex of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 25 × 8 mm, concave, acute, forming with the petals a hood over the column. Petals 24 × 6 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 26 × 9 mm, concave, 163

acute. Lip 18 × 11 mm, subcordate, trilobed, fleshy and rigid; sac only about 2 mm deep; margins of the lateral lobes upturned, making the basal portion of the lip concave; low, verrucose callus near the base and overhanging the sac orifice; midlobe tongue-shaped and convex with reflexed margins; all margins with short fringes or bristles. Column 18 × 5.5 mm. Anther beaked. Pseudostigma rectangular, about 4 × 2 mm. Antennae 10 mm long, parallel. Coloration of peduncle green; pedicels red-brown; sepals and petals green with red-brown spots; spotting on the lateral sepals heavier but the color less vivid; same coloration on the lip but darker, especially the bristles on the margins; column pearly white, with the same spotting, but minute. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Southeastern Venezuela (Bolívar State, near the Parguaza, Carrao, and Churún Rivers) and northwestern Brazil (states of Amazonas, Rondônia, and Pará). HABITAT. Grows on trees along rivers. IDENTIFICATION. Distinguished from other members of the C. callosum alliance by its roughly heart-shaped, trilobed lip. Distinguished from C. poriferum by its long antennae and erect-patent lateral lobes of the lip. Flowers from a developing new growth, and only then. FLOWERING. Spring and summer. CULTURE. Treat as a Red Zone species, even though the dry season lasts roughly half the year. Should be grown under moderate shade in a net pot filled with loosely packed sphagnum. COMMENTS. Often confused with other species, especially C. bicallosum. The plant described by Dunsterville and Garay in Venezuelan Orchids Illustrated as C. bicallosum is actually C. parguazense, as are those in Foldats (1970) and Miranda (1987). Flower color ranges from green to dark red, with substantial variation in the spots and bristles. Male, female, and hermaphroditic flowers may appear on the same inflorescence. The foregoing description is based on the initial flowering of a seedling in my collection. Somewhat larger dimensions should be expected from an adult plant. This compact, neat little gem is reminiscent of another species that flowers when quite small, C. denticulatum. Catasetum pendulum Dodson Plate 58; Figure 8-23 PRONUNCIATION: PEN-dyoo-lum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective pendulus, ''pendent," "pendulous," or "hanging down," referring to the male inflorescence. HISTORY. Described by C. H. Dodson in 1977 (Orchid Digest 41: 183) based on a plant collected by Deborah Kennedy, the daughter of George Kennedy. The plant had been known as 164

"Catasetum pendulum" for many years, especially to J. A. Fowlie, but a literature search revealed that it had never been formally described.

Figure 8-23. Catasetum pendulum (clockwise from lower left), plant with female inflorescence, female flowers, plant with male inflorescence, male flowers to same scale as female flowers. Drawing by Natalie Warford. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic, occasionally terrestrial of necessity. Roots thick and white. Pseudobulbs to 14 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, slightly curved, the older ones deeply furrowed and covered by papery, whitish sheaths. Leaves 8, to 28 × 4.5 cm, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 25 cm (10 in.) long, horizontal then pendent. Peduncle 3.5 mm in diameter. Bracts to 9 mm long, spaced 2555 mm apart. Pedicels less than 10 mm long, about 2.5 mm in diameter, straight to abruptly curved at the flowers. Flowers 4, 55 × 42 mm in 165

their natural position. Dorsal sepal 35 × 18 mm, concave, acute. Petals 35 × 20 mm, concave but tending toward convex, acute. Lateral sepals 37 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Lip 33 × 19 mm in its natural position, held lowermost, trilobed; opening roughly kidney-shaped when viewed from the front, formed by the smooth margins; midlobe comes to a short point; callus inside near the base of the column, thick, rigid, blunt-tipped, and hardly visible from the outside. Column 30 × 9 mm. Pseudostigma about 6 mm across. Antennae about 15 mm long, curled inside the lip, one under the other. Coloration green, darkest on the outside of the lip sac; column very light green, glossy. Female flowers not seen except in photographs. DISTRIBUTION. Western coastal Mexico, states of Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Colima. HABITAT. Grows on palms, deciduous oaks, dying trees with rotting wood, and decaying stumps in hillside forest at altitudes of 601000 m (2003400 ft.). Heavy plants sometimes tumble to the ground and become terrestrial in soil covered by pine-oak mulch. There the dry season lasts 8 months, with the rains beginning in June. IDENTIFICATION. Male inflorescence pendent. Lip lowermost, with smooth lateral margins overlapping around the column, forming a nearly rectangular orifice. Flowers completely green. FLOWERING. Summer, sometimes again in autumn. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species that requires a long, dry rest period. Can be potted, mounted, or grown in a basket, under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. This species seems to be rare in its habitat and not readily available commercially, although certainly worth the effort to acquire. The described plant was originally collected by Weyman Bussey, who found it growing on a roadside bank at an altitude of more than 1600 m (5000 ft.) in San Luis Potosí State in Mexico, where it apparently took root after falling off a vehicle coming from a Pacific coastal state. Both male and female flowers and pollinators are amply illustrated by Natalie Warford in Warford and Harrell (1996) and in this book. Catasetum peruvianum Dodson & Bennett Another rare Peruvian plant. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, ser. 2, 1: t. 19). Catasetum pileatum Reichenbach f. PRONUNCIATION: pee-lee-AH-tum or pih-lee-AY-tum.

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ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective pileatus, "bonnet-shaped," referring to the overall appearance of the flower, with its huge concave lip and with its sepals and petals forming a hood over the column. HISTORY. Brought from Venezuela to England and introduced into cultivation there by Messrs. Linden. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1882 (Gardeners' Chronicle, n.s., 17: 492). In Venezuela it is known as the flor de nácar, "mother-of-pearl flower," and was that country's national flower until 1921. In Brazil the pure white form has been called galo branco, "white rooster." DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 16 × 2 cm (although reported to be up to 30 cm or 12 in. tall and 7 cm in diameter in some clones), fusiform, clustered. Leaves 10, to 40 × 7 cm, lanceolate, with 3 prominent veins on the underside. Male inflorescence to 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching to pendent. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 12 mm long, spaced 2538 mm apart. Pedicels 2530 mm long, curved. Flowers 8 (may be 612 at other times), 100 × 70 mm. Dorsal sepal 60 × 20 mm, concave, acute, largely hidden by the petals. Petals 60 × 23 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 60 × 20 mm, concave, acute, extending out horizontally to the upper margin of the lip. Lip 60 × 70 mm, held lowermost, cup-shaped (the concavity varying in other clones), with daintily serrated edges and a short, acute tip, ribbed longitudinally in the middle below the pouch orifice; saclike pouch deep, with a pair of protuberances above. Column 35 mm long. Antennae about 13 mm long extending down over the lip cavity, one crossed under the other. Coloration of sepals and petals whitish; lip strongly flushed with green-yellow; column white. Female inflorescence seldom seen, arching. Flowers smaller than the males and fewer in number, more fleshy. Lip deeply pouch-shaped, held uppermost. Column much shorter, lacking antennae. Anther atrophied. Coloration whitegreen. DISTRIBUTION. Ecuador, Colombia, Trinidad, and basins of the Negro and Orinoco Rivers in Brazil and Venezuela. HABITAT. Grows in lowland forest where hot, tropical conditions prevail, with a long period of heavy rainfall and a short dry season. In southern Venezuela it also occurs in periodically flooded savannah, which is dry half the year. SYNONYMS. Catasetum bungerothii N. E. Brown, C. bungerothii var. aurantiacum Cogniaux, C. bungerothii var. aurantiacum Hort. ex W. H. G., C. bungerothii var. aureum L. Linden & Rodigas, C. bungerothii var. randii Rodigas. VARIETIES. It is difficult to differentiate between varieties and natural hybrids of this magnificent, variable species. Formally described varieties, such as var. album (Hort.) Hoehne, 167

var. aurantiacum (Cogniaux) Hoehne, var. lindenii (Hort.) Hoehne, var. pottsianum (L. Linden & Rodigas) Hoehne, var. randii (Rodigas) Hoehne, and var. regale (W. H. G.) Hoehne, should be viewed as color forms no longer known by their varietal epithets. Catasetum pileatum var. imperiale (Linden & Cogniaux) Hoehne is treated in this book as a distinct species, C. imperiale L. Linden & Cogniaux. NATURAL HYBRIDS. In its habitats, Catasetum pileatum hybridizes with other species such as C. discolor, C. longifolium, and C. planiceps, but more freely with C. macrocarpum, resulting in offspring with exotic colorations (such as red or bright yellow overall or as spots and markings) and forms (for example, a transverse callus). Natural hybridization with C. macrocarpum produced what was first described as C. tapiriceps Reichenbach f., relegated a year later to C. ×tapiriceps when its natural hybrid status was recognized. Its variable flowers have been described under many different names since it was origi nally described in 1888, but these now constitute a long list of synonyms, to wit, C. albopurpureum L. Linden, C. apertum Rolfe, C. bungerothii var. lindenii Hort. ex W. H. G., C. bungerothii var. pottsianum Linden & Rodigas, C. bungerothii var. regale Hort. ex W. H. G., C. cabrutae Schnee, C. cupuliforme Hort., C. lindeni Cogniaux, C. luciani Cogniaux, C. macrocarpum var. aurantiacum Cogniaux, C. macrocarpum var. chrysanthum Hort. ex W. H. G., C. macrocarpum var. flavescens Cogniaux ex Garnier, C. macrocarpum var. lindenii O'Brien, C. macrocarpum var. luteo-purpureum Cogniaux, C. macrocarpum var. luteo-roseum L. Linden, C. maculatum var. luteo-purpureum Cogniaux, C. magnificum Hort., C. mirabile Cogniaux, C. o'brienianum Hort. ex W. H. G., C. quadricolor Cogniaux, C. revolutum Cogniaux, C. semiroseum Beck, and C. splendens Cogniaux and its many varieties. Catasetum ×issanensis Pabst is a natural hybrid between C. pileatum and C. longifolium, and C. ×wendlingeri, originally described as C. wendlingeri Foldats, combines C. pileatum with C. planiceps. IDENTIFICATION. Catasetum pileatum has been widely used in artificial hybridizing (see chapter 9) because of its large, showy flowers, which can hardly be confused with the flowers of other species, with the possible exception of C. expansum. FLOWERING. Autumn, though my plants flower at almost any time, even several times a year, and a mature pseudobulb on a well-grown plant can produce several spikes at once. CULTURE. A Red Zone species accustomed to a hot, humid rain forest and only a short dry season. Some plants, however, come from Venezuela's savannah, with a longer dry period. Thus, provide a winter rest only if the plant's appearance indicates a need for dormancy. Even if all leaves do fall, renewed growth will probably begin soon. Can be potted, under light to moderate shade. In Brazil the species has a reputation of requiring much moisture. 168

COMMENTS. An extremely desirable, floriferous species. The yellow form, which is now rare in its natural habitat, is one of the most popular. The clone on which the foregoing description is based is a longstanding favorite, C. pileatum 'Oro Verde' HCC/AOS (see Plate 60). Catasetum planiceps Lindley Plate 61; Figure 8-24 PRONUNCIATION: PLAN-i-seps. ETYMOLOGY. Species name an artificial Latin word composed of planus, "flat," "smooth," or "even," and ceps, derived from caput, "head.'' This name was undoubtedly applied to the flower, but the connotation remains unclear unless it refers to the sizable, long, pouchshaped lip. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1843 (Edwards's Botanical Register 1843: 29, t. 9) on the basis of a plant discovered by Ernst Heinrich Georg Ule. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit terrestrial or rupicolous. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 15 × 2.6 cm, fusiform, some slightly curved, heavily covered by whitish, papery sheaths when old. Leaves 78, to 37 × 8 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 25.5 cm (10 in.) long, to 75 cm (30 in.) long in some flowerings, perfectly erect. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm long, spaced 2050 mm apart. Pedicels about 10 mm long, bent downward at the rachis. Flowers 4, 35 × 24 mm, at the apex of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 22 × 14 mm, concave, apiculate. Petals 25 × 15 mm, concave, apiculate. Lateral sepals 31 × 16 mm, concave, apiculate. Lip 32 × 20 mm, 20 mm deep, held uppermost, fleshy and rigid; midlobe with an acute, recurved apex; lateral lobes almost meeting beneath the column, with a few minute serrations on their margins. Column 27 × 8 mm. Anther with a short, apiculate beak. Pseudostigma almost square, about 4 mm across. Antennae about 20 mm long, with their tips diverging and curled against the wall of the lip sac. Coloration of sepals and petals yellow-green with indistinct dark green longitudinal stripes; lip green outside, glossy, darker yellow-green inside with dark green striping inside the sac; column light green; antennae whitish. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Venezuela, Guianas, Surinam, Peru, and northern Brazil (Rio Branco region). HABITAT. Grows in lowland coastal forest and on the lower slopes of coastal mountain ranges. SYNONYMS. Catachaetum recurvatum Link, Klotzsch & Ed. Otto, Catasetum hymenophorum Cogniaux.

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IDENTIFICATION. Inflorescence erect, sometimes very tall. Flowers medium-sized with relatively large, tubular, smooth, green lip held uppermost; fragrance resembles a faint licorice aroma. FLOWERING. Spring to summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Prefers evenly warm conditions, plentiful moisture, and nearly full sunlight when actively growing.

Figure 8-24. Catasetum planiceps. From Flora Brasilica. Grows in the ground or on boulders in the wild, yet in cultivation adapts well to pot culture using conventional mixes. I like to mount mine and position the mount in a pot with the base of the plant a couple of inches above the medium. 170

COMMENTS. Pollinated by bees (Eulaema cingulata). The best thing this large species has going for it is the spicy fragrance of its flowers. Catasetum pleidactylon A distinctive new Peruvian species with heavily fringed lip and spotted floral segments. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum poriferum Lindley A species from Guyana closely related to C. callosum. Described in 183 8 (Edwards's Botanical Register 24: Misc. 89). Catasetum pulchrum N. E. Brown Plate 62 PRONUNCIATION: PULL-krum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective pulcher, "beautiful," referring to the pleasing appearance of the flowers, with transverse bars over a light background on the sepals and petals. HISTORY. Described by Nathaniel E. Brown in 1888 (Lindenia 3: 51, t. 120). A description based on specific plant material was published later that same year (Gardeners' Chronicle, ser. 3, 3: 235). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves 8, to 18 × 4 cm, oblong-ligulate, medium green, with 6 prominent veins on the underside. Male inflorescence only about 8 cm. (3 in.) long, pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Pedicels to 15 mm long, sinuous. Flowers usually 5, resupinate, on most of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 20 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Petals 20 × 10 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 20 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Lip 20 × 15 mm, held lowermost, concave, about 15 mm deep; margins raised, smooth or with a few small teeth; midlobe with an acute apex. Column 14 mm long, slender. Anther with a short beak, curved inward. Antennae 9 mm long. Coloration of sepals and petals light green, heavily barred with dark brown; lip orange-yellow. Female flowers not seen DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of (southern) Pará, Amazonas, Rondônia, Tocantins, Maranhão, and Mato Grosso. Also Peru if the claim that C. jarae Dodson & Bennett is a synonym is valid. HABITAT. Grows on palms and other trees.

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SYNONYMS. Catasetum cirrhaeoides var. hoehnei Mansfeld, C. jarae Dodson & Bennett. IDENTIFICATION. Inflorescence short and pendent, with clustered flowers. Heavily barred sepals and petals on plants of some populations. FLOWERING. Late summer and autumn. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species. Can be mounted or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A beautiful but rare Brazilian species with a wide range of color forms. Plants from Pará and other northern Brazilian states have flowers with broader segments and more green-brown colors. Those from the state of Mato Grosso have flowers with narrower segments and more cadmium red or chocolate color. Catasetum punctatum Rolfe Plate 63; Figure 8-25 PRONUNCIATION: punk-TAH-tum or punk-TAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective, punctátus, itself derived from punctum, "point" or "dot." The name means "dotted" and refers to the spots on the flowers. HISTORY. Described by R. A. Rolfe in 1894 (Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information 1894: 364) and first illustrated in 1895 (Lindenia 11: 35, t. 496). The original plant material is in the Kew Gardens herbarium. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs 10 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves 6, to 30 × 5 cm, linear-lanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins on the underside. Male inflorescence to 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching. Peduncle to 4 mm in diameter. Bracts about 12 mm long, spaced about 40 mm apart. Pedicels 25 mm long. Flowers 10, about 42 × 45 mm in their natural position, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 30 × 14 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals 30 × 16 mm, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 33 × 16 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 20 × 17 mm, 17 mm deep, concave, held lowermost (although the literature specifies uppermost), conspicuously trilobed; lateral lobes broad, rounded, and incurved, with dentate margins; midlobe much shorter, with smooth margins and a reflexed, acute apex; membranaceous decurrences inside the lip from the base to the base of the lateral lobes. Column 24 mm long. Antennae 19 mm long, parallel. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green; sepals and petals green with red-brown spots; lip green to orange-yellow. Female flowers not seen.

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Figure 8-25. Catasetum punctatum. From Flora Brasilica. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Bahia State. HABITAT. Grows in forest that is dry much of the year. IDENTIFICATION. Sepals heavily spotted, petals less spotted, lip orange-yellow. FLOWERING. Late spring to summer. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species accustomed to a long, dry rest period. Grows best in a wooden basket or mounted in a pot under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. Vegetatively very similar to C. purum. An interesting, highly fragrant species with a yellowish lip.

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Plate 1. Catamodes Black Magic AM, AD/AOS. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

Plate 2. Catanoches Yellow Bird (Cycnoches chlorochilon × Catasetum pileatum). Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

Plate 3. Catasetum Alexis Pardo. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 4. Catasetum appendiculatum. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 5. Catasetum arietinum.

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Plate 6. Catasetum aripuanense. Plant grown by Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos. Photo by Manabu Matida.

Plate 7. Catasetum ariquemense. Plant grown by Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos. Photo by Manabu Matida.

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Plate 8. Catasetum ariquemense (below) and var. virens (above). Photo by Lou Menezes.

Plate 9. Catasetum atratum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 10. Catasetum barbatum 'Purist'. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 11. Catasetum barbatum var. spinosum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 12. Catasetum bicolor. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 13. Catasetum Burnt Sugar. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 14. Catasetum callosum.

Plate 15. Catasetum carolinianum.

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Plate 16. Catasetum cernuum, male flowers. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 17. Catasetum cernuum 'Muddy Waters', female flowers. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 18. Catasetum ciliatum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 19. Catasetum complanatum 'Boa Vista' CBR/AOS. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 20. Catasetum confusum.

Plate 21. Catasetum cristatum. Plant grown by Howard Gunn. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 22. Catasetum Delightful. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 23. Catasetum deltoideum. Photo by Katharine B. Gregg.

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Plate 24. Catasetum denticulatum 'Little One' CHM/AOS.

Plate 25. Catasetum discolor var. roseo-album. Photo by Alexis Pardo Isla.

Plate 26. Catasetum Doris's Choice. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 27. Catasetum expansum 'Pireo'.

Plate 28. Catasetum fimbriatum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 29. Catasetum Francis Nelson. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 30. Catasetum fuchsii, male and female flowers. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 31. Catasetum galeritum plants bearing female flowers cling to palm tree near Tapajós River, in Pará State, Brazil. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 32. Catasetum gardneri.

Plate 33. Catasetum garnettianum.

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Plate 34. Catasetum gnomus. Photo by Katharine B. Gregg.

Plate 35. Catasetum Henry Turner. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 36. Catasetum hookeri var. labiatum.

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Plate 37. Catasetum imperiale.

Plate 38. Catasetum José Abalo. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

Plate 39. Catasetum juruenense.

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Plate 40. Catasetum kleberianum. Plant grown by Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos. Photo by Manabu Matida.

Plate 41. Catasetum laminatum. From Sertum Orchidaceum (1840, t. 38).

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Plate 42. Catasetum longifolium. From Sertum Orchidaceum (1840, t. 31).

Plate 43. Catasetum longifolium. Photo by Alexis Pardo Isla.

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Plate 44. Catasetum luridum. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 45. Catasetum macrocarpum.

Plate 46. Catasetum macroglossum. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 47. Catasetum maculatum.

Plate 48. Catasetum microglossum. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 49. Catasetum Midnight Madness. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 50. Catasetum moorei. Photo by Lee Moore.

Plate 51. Catasetum multifidum. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 52. Catasetum napoense. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 53. Catasetum naso. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 54. Catasetum ochraceum.Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 55. Catasetum ornithoides. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 56. Catasetum osculatum.

Plate 57. Catasetum parguazense.

Plate 58. Catasetum pendulum.

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Plate 59. Catasetum pileatum. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 60. Catasetum pileatum 'Oro Verde'

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Plate 61. Catasetum planiceps. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 62. Catasetum pulchrum from Pará State, Brazil. Plant grown by Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos. Photo by Manabu Matida.

Plate 63. Catasetum punctatum. Photo by Antonio Schmidt. 202

Plate 64. Catasetum purum.

Plate 65. Catasetum rivularium. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 66. Catasetum rodigasianum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

Plate 67. Catasetum rolfeanum from Tapajós River region, in Pará State, Brazil. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 68. Catasetum rooseveltianum.

Plate 69. Catasetum saccatum. From Sertum Orchidaceum (1841, t. 41). Photo by Fred Paget. 205

Plate 70. Catasetum saccatum from the Brazilian Amazon basin.

Plate 71. Catasetum sanguineum. Photo by Alexis Pardo Isla.

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Plate 72. Catasetum schmidtianum, female flowers.

Plate 73. Catasetum spitzii. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 74. Catasetum spitzii var. roseum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

Plate 75. Catasetum spitzii var. sanguineum. Plant grown by Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos. Photo by Manabu Matida.

Plate 76. Catasetum Spotted Dragon. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 77. Catasetum stevensonii. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 78. Catasetum Sumani. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 79. Catasetum tabulare 'Penguin'. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Plate 80. Catasetum tenebrosum. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 81. Catasetum tigrinum. Photo by Lou Menezes.

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Plate 82. Catasetum triodon. Photo by Lou Menezes.

Plate 83. Catasetum trulla. Photo by Fred Paget.

Plate 84. Catasetum uncatum.

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Plate 85. Catasetum vinaceum.

Plate 86. Catasetum viridiflavum.

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Plate 87. Catasetum White Magic. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 88. Catasetum Wychee's Bumble Bee AM/AOS. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

Plate 89. Monnierara Ruby Matrix. Plant grown by JEM Orchids. Photo by Gene Monnier.

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Plate 90. Climatic ecological zones of Catasetum. After Pabst and Dungs (1975).

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Plate 91. Political boundaries of Central America and northern South America where catasetums are found. See corresponding map of climatic ecological zones (Plate 90). Map by Mary M. Hannah.

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Catasetum purum Nees & Sinning Plate 64; Figure 8-26 PRONUNCIATION: POOR-um or PYOOR-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective purus, ''pure," "clean," or "simple," probably referring to the color of the flowers, which are light to medium green, usually with no spots or markings. HISTORY. First described by Nees and Sinning in 1824 (Plantarum, in Horto Medico Bonnensi Nutritarum, Icones Selectae 1: 1, t. 1). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and white. Pseudobulbs to 25 × 4.5 cm, fusiform to subconical, often curved, furrowed with age. Leaves 57, to 50 × 10 cm, mostly oblanceolate, from the very apex of the pseudobulb, medium green, with 3 prominent veins on the underside. Male inflorescence to 50 cm (20 in.) long, from the base of the most recent pseudobulb or even from a half-mature new growth, arching to pendent under the weight of the flowers. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 8 mm long, spaced 65 mm apart. Pedicels to 25 mm long, about 1.5 mm in diameter. Flowers 15, 30 × 28 mm in their natural position, on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal and petals overlap, their margins reflexed, forming a cup-shaped depression beneath the lip. Petals 25 × 13 mm, less concave, acute, with 9 veins. Lateral sepals 25 × 15 mm, concave, acute, with 911 veins. Lip 13 × 11 mm, held uppermost, fleshy and rigid, trilobed; lateral lobes incurved, with margins slightly toothed; midlobe with a very short, rounded tip; sac about 7 mm deep. Column 18 mm long. Anther with a slightly curved beak. Antennae 14 mm long, parallel, curling inside the lip pouch wall. Coloration light green without spotting; lip darker green; column lighter green. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, from southern Bahia State into Espírito Santo State. HABITAT. Grows in dry conditions much of the year. My first plant of this species was rescued from a large fallen tree that would have been about 5 m (15 ft.) above the ground, in a dry forest in Bahia State. It is the plant whose flowers are described above. SYNONYMS. Catachaetum purum (Nees & Sinning) Hoffmannsegg, C. semiapertum (Hooker) Hoffmannsegg, Catasetum immaculatum Hort. ex Planchon, C. inapertum Steudel. Some authors consider C. globiflorum to be a synonym of C. purum. I will abide by the belief of knowledgeable Brazilian growers that the two are distinct species.

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Figure 8-26. Catasetum purum 'True.' Photo by Fred Paget. IDENTIFICATION. Similar to C. hookeri, but the midlobe of the lip is abruptly incurved at the base, the apex is recurred, and the margins of the lateral lobes have hairs or deep serrations, and tend to converge or in some cases even touch, giving the sac opening a distinctly kidney-shaped appearance. Also very close to C. uncatum, from which it is distinguished by its antennae, which are not visible projecting beyond the midlobe of the lip into the opening formed by the lateral lobes, and by its short and rounded midlobe, and wider lip. FLOWERING. Mostly summer to autumn, but often repeatedly throughout the year. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species accustomed to dry conditions much of the year. In cultivation, adapts well to heavier watering than what it receives in the wild, and grows and flowers prolifically under Red Zone conditions. Tolerates conventional pot culture and does even better mounted or in a basket. Needs a lengthy dormant period while it is leafless. COMMENTS. Flowers emit a strong, pleasant vanilla-like fragrance, which, with the plant's vigorous growth and exuberant flowering, compensates for rather drab-looking green flowers that last no more than a week. Eight inflorescences have been produced on the described plant in one year. Hoehne (1942) noted considerable variation in the flowers including their size, which may be because of confusion with similar species. Catasetum purusense This new species form Peru features an erect inflorescence and flowers with densely fringed lip margins. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum pusillum C. Schweinfurth 218

A rare, small Peruvian species not known today. Described in 1943 (American Orchid Society Bulletin 12: 100). Catasetum quadridens Rolfe Figure 8-27. Features 4 "teeth" (column with 4 small antennae instead of 2). A Brazilian species that is extremely difficult to find today. Described in 1901 (Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, p. 149).

Figure 8-27. Catasetum quadridens. From Flora Brasilica. Catasetum reichenbachianum Mansfeld Figure 8-28. 219

A species (or possibly a natural hybrid) from the Amazon basin in Brazil, seemingly unknown in that country today. Described in 1930 (Repertorium Specierum Novarum Regni Vegetabilis 28: 95).

Figure 8-28. Catasetum reichenbachianum. From Flora Brasilica. Catasetum richteri Bicalho A species with green or yellow flowers held on an erect inflorescence, the sepals covering the petals and half of the lip. From the Negro River region in Amazonas State, Brazil. Described in 1973 (Boletim da Sociedade Campineira de Orquídeas 3: 127). Catasetum ricii Vásquez & Dodson A newly described Bolivian species that is similar to C. fuchsii but distinctive by dint of its partially protruding column, toothed margins of the lateral lobes of the lip, and brown spots on the flowers. Described in 1997 (Revista de la Sociedad Boliviana de Botánica 1, 2: 919). Catasetum rivularium Barbosa Rodrigues Plate 65; Figures 8-30, 8-31 PRONUNCIATION: riv-yoo-LAH-ree-um or riv-yoo-LAIR-ee-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective, rivularius, itself derived from rivulus, "small stream" or "brook." The name was selected to describe the habitat of the species, characterized by an abundance of igarapés, which are narrow natural channels between Amazon River islands, or between islands and terra firma. In some cases these channels resemble brooks or creeks. 220

HISTORY. Described by João Barbosa Rodrigues in 1877 (Genera et Species Orchidearum Novarum 1: 130).

Figure 8-29. An igarapé in the Amazon basin, reminiscent of the habitat of Catasetum rivularium.

Figure 8-30. Catasetum rivularium. Female flowers. Photo by Fred Paget.

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Figure 8-31. Catasetum rivularium. From Flora Brasilica (labeled C. randii Rolfe). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs to 9 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, slightly curved. Leaves 6, to 22 × 4.5 cm, linear-oblanceolate, very dark green, with 3 prominent nerves. Male inflorescence 21.5 cm (8 1/2 in.) long, arching, rachis pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Bracts 7 mm long, spaced to 32 mm apart. Pedicels 20 mm long, to 2 mm in diameter, fairly straight. Flowers 16, about 48 × 24 mm. Dorsal sepal 24 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Petals 21 × 8 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 24 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Lip 15 × 15 mm, trilobed, held lowermost, extends downward, bends upward at the sac, then curves down again; lateral lobes lacerate with several short fleshy fringes extending outward, one cluster of longer (to 8 mm) appendages projecting upward at the base of the lip, another cluster almost completely covering the opening of the sac, which is about 2 mm deep; midlobe long, narrow, and curved, with 3 short, inconspicuous teeth at the apex. Column 18 mm long. Antennae 6 mm long, with their tips touching. Coloration of sepals and petals light green with dark brown spots and bars; lip whitish, longer fringes white, shorter fringes on the lateral lobes light rose-colored; column with red spots. Female flowers reportedly mottled with dark violet, a departure from the normally green pistillate flowers. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazonas State, near Manáus. HABITAT. Grows in trees overhanging the igarapés (see Figure 8-29). IDENTIFICATION. Somewhat similar to C. barbatum (Hoehne believed it to be synonymous), but the fringes on the lip are bunched in tufts at the base and apex, and its structure appears to be distinctive. Has also been compared to the original description of C. 222

appendiculatum, but the flowers of C. rivularium are larger and the lip sac is farther from the base. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Needs warm conditions year-round and only a brief dry season. Can be mounted, in moderate shade. It flowers faithfully. COMMENTS. A cute, small species that is easy to grow and flower. Catasetum rodigasianum Rolfe Plate 66 PRONUNCIATION: roh-dee-gala-see-AH-num or roh-di-ga-see-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Rodigas. Named in honor of Émile Rodigas, Rolfe's colleague on the Lindenia and head of the horticultural school in Ghent, Belgium. HISTORY. Described by R. A. Rolfe in 1890 (Lindenia 6: 41, t. 259). The species was introduced to Europe by Messrs. Linden of L'Horticulture Internationale in Brussels, Belgium. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots very thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs 14 × 2 cm (much larger bulbs exist), fusiform to subconical, many of them curved. Leaves 6, to 38 × 9 cm, elliptic-lanceolate to oblanceolate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence about 50 cm (20 in.) long, pendent. Flowers 18, about 50 mm across, clustered on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Pedicels about 30 mm long, straight. Dorsal sepal 33 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Petals 32 × 18 mm, concave, acute. Lateral sepals 35 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Lip 22 × 20 mm, held lowermost, distinctly trilobed; margins entire; midlobe with a 3-toothed apex, the middle tooth very fleshy. Column fleshy. Anther beaked. Antennae more or less parallel. Coloration of sepals and petals green with dark red-brown spotting; lip apex yellow-green with the same spotting; column green with a few spots. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic to the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina. HABITAT. Grows in the Atlantic coastal forest. SYNONYM. Catasetum rohrii Pabst. IDENTIFICATION. Apex of the lip tridentate, similar to that of C. cernuum, but flowers slightly smaller. Raceme arching and pendent with up to 24 flowers. FLOWERING. Spring. CULTURE. A Green Zone species. A large plant with pendent inflorescences best grown in a basket under moderate shade. COMMENTS. A truly outstanding species, with massive plant size and a spectacular display of large, vividly colored flowers. May be a natural hybrid between C. cernuum and C. 223

atratum. Gustavo Romero considers it a synonym or at most a variety of C. cernuum. Brazilian growers consider it distinctive and worthy of species status. Catasetum rolfeanum Mansfeld Plate 67; Figure 8-32

Figure 8-32. Catasetum rolfeanum. From Flora Brasilica. PRONUNCIATION: rolfe-ee-AH-num or rolfe-ee-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Rolfe. Named in honor of Robert Allen Rolfe, a well-known English botanist. 224

HISTORY. Described by Rudolf Mansfeld in 1928 (Notizblatt des Botanischen Gartens, Berlin-Dahlem 10: 476, fig. 8) on the basis of a plant collected by G. Huebner. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick, fleshy, and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 1.3 cm, fusiform, slightly compressed, some curved. Leaves to 25 × 4 cm, lanceolate, medium to dark green. Male inflorescence to 55 cm (22 in.) long, arching. Flowers 20. Pedicels 36 mm long. Dorsal sepal 38 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Petals slightly shorter than the dorsal sepal, convex, acuminate. Lateral sepals 38 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate. Lip 28 × 17 mm, indistinctly trilobed, with a large, rounded callus at the base, behind the sac orifice; sac 4 mm deep; midlobe long and obtuse; margins of the lateral lobes reflexed and fringed, those of the midlobe less so. Column 25 mm long. Anther beaked. Antennae 8 mm long. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green; sepals and petals green with heavy dark red-brown mottling; lip green, the lateral margins dark red-brown, especially the fringes; callus yellow; apex of midlobe cream-colored. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, northern Amazon basin, specifically northwestern Pará State. HABITAT. Grows in campina (typical Amazonian grassland with some

woody

vegetation) and in swamp thickets along the igapós (seasonally flooded forests). SYNONYM. Catasetum stenochilum Kraenzlin. IDENTIFICATION. At first glance, appears to be like C. juruenense var. mansfeldianum, but the inflorescence is longer and the lip is quite different, especially the fringes on the margins. FLOWERING. Early spring. CULTURE. A Red Zone species that requires only a short rest period. Can be mounted or grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. Flowers from a newly developing pseudobulb. COMMENTS. A rare and highly desirable species that flowers several months earlier than other species in the region. The foregoing description is based on a plant in a friend's greenhouse. Catasetum rondonense Pabst A small species from Rondônia State, Brazil. Gustavo Romero believes it to be synonymous with C. boyi. Described in 1967 (Orquídea [Rio de Janeiro] 29: 65, t. 5). Catasetum rooseveltianum Hoehne Plate 68 PRONUNCIATION: ROSE (or ROOZ)-velt-ee-AH-num or ROSE (or ROOZ)-velt-eeAY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Roosevelt. Named in honor of former United States President Theodore Roosevelt. 225

HISTORY. Described by F. C. Hoehne in 1916 (Commissão de Linhas Telegráficas Estratégicas de Matto Grosso ao Amazonas, Anexo 5, Botânica 9: 35, t. 172). The so-called Rondon Commission had been established to lay telegraph lines between the states of Mato Grosso and Amazonas, and Hoehne was in charge of conducting a botanical survey of unexplored areas through which the lines would pass. Roosevelt participated in one of the commission's secondary goals, which was to chart the course of the Juruena River. A plant of this species was collected during the accomplishment of that task and used in preparing the original description. (The spelling of Mato Grosso State, using 2 ss, is the old Portuguese orthography and not a typographical error.) DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, and white when new. Pseudobulbs to 16 × 2.5 cm. (to 30 cm long in other clones), fusiform, some slightly curved. Leaves 67, to 35 × 7 cm, linear-lanceolate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 20 cm. (8 in.) long, twice as long in some other clones. Peduncle 2 mm in diameter. Bracts spaced 10 mm apart. Pedicels about 20 mm long, curved in the middle. Flowers 6 (38 in other clones), 40 × 30 mm in their natural position. Dorsal sepal 20 × 6 mm, concave (cup-shaped), acute. Petals 22 × 10 mm, concave, acute. Lateral sepals 20 × 8 mm, concave, acute. Lip 30 × 20 mm in its natural position, cymbiform (boat-shaped), 11 mm deep; margins of the lip entire, fleshy, and rounded; apex acute. Column 10 × 7 mm, at almost right angles to the lip. Pseudostigma about 3 mm across. Antennae about 10 mm long, widely diverging inside the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals cream-colored, the right petal with a longitudinal line of red-brown spotting; lip green outside, yellow-ocher inside with transverse lines of red-brown spotting; deeper, more solid redbrown color toward the apex inside the lip and on the apex of the column; antennae so transparent that they are difficult to see. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Mato Grosso State, in the Mata da Poaia area on the slopes of the Serra dos Parecis, and near the town of Costa Rica in Mato Grosso do Sul State. Calaway Dodson reported the species from 2 sites in Bolivia. HABITAT. Grows on palm trees, sometimes forming dense clumps, along the flooded banks of small rivers. Prefers shady conditions, growing inside the bracts of the fronds with its pseudobulbs usually turned downward. IDENTIFICATION. Distinguished by the boat-shaped form and position of the lip, which in flowers of both sexes is held uppermost and is very fleshy. Hoehne observed that male and female flowers appeared on the same plant but never on the same inflorescence and never both in the same year. I have observed that the pseudobulbs of some plants prefer to be pendent, while others grow conventionally. 226

FLOWERING. Autumn to early winter, after leaf fall. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species. Considered difficult to grow, and justifiably so for those accustomed to potting their catasetums in conventional mixes. Although it is impossible to duplicate its natural habitatmounted on a palm tree, half hidden in its leafy fronds, with the pseudobulbs hanging nearly vertical, certain aspects of its natural inclinations can be simulated, namely, a fairly shaded situation, an airy environment, not too much water, and pseudobulbs often arching downward. Can be mounted inside perforated PVC pipe or on wood, hung from the bottom of a wooden basket, or potted in a tilted pot filled with extremely coarse wood chips, bark, or charcoal. COMMENTS. The name of this Catasetum is revered in Brazil, but the plant seems to be scarce in its natural habitat, and it is found in only a few collections. Its reputation of being difficult to grow is undoubtedly due to lack of experience in growing it. The foregoing description is based on one of 3 plants in my collection. Catasetum saccatum Lindley Plates 69, 70 PRONUNCIATION: sah-KAH-tum or sa-KAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective saccatus, itself derived from the noun saccus, ''sack" or "bag," alluding to the pouch of the lip. Many catasetums share this characteristic. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1840 (Edwards's Botanical Register 26: Misc. 76) on the basis of a plant introduced by the Loddiges firm and alleged to have come from Guatemala. However, as no plant of this species has since been found in that country, the species must have originated in one of the countries of northern South America. It was described without an illustration, but later that year one was published, presumably based on the same plant. In 1856, H. G. Reichenbach, upon re-examining the old orchid collections of Ruiz and Pavón from Peru, published the results of his research in the review Bonplandia. He included not only C. saccatum but also 2 synonyms, C. histrio and C. secundum, though without descriptions or illustrations. However, C. saccatum var. christyanum, later relegated to synonymy with C. christyanum Reichenbach f., was accompanied by an illustration that did not fit the description, adding to the confusion. What was originally considered to be a variety of C. saccatum has been described relatively recently as a new species: C. osculatum. Meanwhile, C. incurvum, described in 1844 from a plant collected by Josef Warszewicz in Peru and reduced to a variety of C. saccatum by Mansfeld in 1932, has also been elevated to species status.

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DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots heavy and white. Pseudobulbs to 26 × 3.5 cm (usually smaller), fusiform, slightly curved and compressed, and sometimes sinuous. Leaves 8, to 42 × 8 cm, linear-oblanceolate, medium green, with 35 prominent veins, from the apex of the pseudobulb. Male inflorescence to 60 cm (24 in.) long, pen dent, emerging from the base of a pseudobulb or up to the third node. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm long, spaced 3045 mm apart. Pedicels 6 cm long, curved to bring the flowers to the resupinate position. Flowers 20, 82 × 98 mm, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 68 × 12 mm, concave, acuminate, connivent with the petals. Petals 70 × 15 mm, flat, acuminate, overlapping the dorsal sepal. Lateral sepals 68 × 12 mm, concave, acuminate, with curled margins. Lip 40 × 32 mm, held lowermost, trilobed, fleshy, the entire rim of the midlobe and the lateral lobes turned down; one conspicuous callosity 12 mm from the base; a second prominent callosity in front of the kidney-shaped sac opening; margins heavily fringed, the midlobe ending in a sharp tip. Column 51 × 7 mm. Anther 26 mm long, with a beak 15 mm long. Antennae about 15 mm long, extending from the column across the lip cavity, one of them noticeably curled. Coloration of sepals dark brown without appreciable spotting; petals green with profuse dark brown spots; lip light brown, but white around the rim of the cavity opening; column and antennae yellow-green. Female inflorescence more erect, fewer-flowered. Sepals and petals smaller, reflexed. Lip huge, pouch-shaped, held uppermost; margins rolled-back and slightly toothed. Column short and stout. Coloration of sepals and petals yellow-green. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Amazon region, at altitudes below 200 m (650 ft.) and exposed to much sunlight, from the states of Pará, Amazonas, Minas Gerais, and Acre to Colombia, eastern Peru and Ecuador, and northeastern Bolivia. Hoehne (1942) mistakenly contended that this species was confined to the Guianas and the Brazilian states of Pará and Amazonas, in the dark and dreary swampy forests mainly along the Madeira, Tapajós, and Amazon Rivers. HABITAT. Grows in hot, moist lowland areas with only a brief dry season. Often found on dead trees in full sunlight. SYNONYMS. Catasetum baraquinianum Lemaire, C. colossus Schlechter, C. cruciatum Schlechter, C. histrio Klotzsch ex Reichenbach f., C. japurense Mansfeld, C. secundum Klotzsch. VARIETIES. Var. chlorops (Reichenbach f.) Mansfeld, var. christyanum (Reichenbach f.) Mansfeld (pictured as #8007 in Orchids from Curtis's Botanical Magazine and more colorful than the type with showy, resupinate flowers that are more numerous but smaller, and a lip that is more prominently trilobed), var. eusaccatum Mansfeld, var. incurvum (Klotzsch) Mansfeld (now recognized as a distinct species and treated as such in the present volume), var. pliciferum 228

Reichenbach f., var. typum Hoehne, and var. viride Hoehne. Confusion with the newly described C. osculatum and C. incurvum undoubtedly accounts for some of the varieties listed here. IDENTIFICATION. Often confused with C. osculatum. See Table 8-1 for a comparison of their critical characteristics. Inflorescences pendent, pedicels long, flowers large and dark brown or red-brown, always with conspicuous spots; lip trilobed, with all margins turned down and fringed, always longer than wide, with a kidney-shaped orifice and 3 keels, rim of orifice always light-colored, column and pollinarium long. FLOWERING. Mostly summer and autumn, although flower spikes may be produced in succession from nearly mature pseudobulbs at various times in the year. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Needs nearly full sunlight, warmth, plenty of water and fertilizer for the rampant growth and flowering of which it is capable, and a dry winter rest only if the plant becomes dormant for any reason. Best grown suspended in a wooden basket. COMMENTS. The flower spikes take many weeks to develop, but are well worth the wait. Some of the clones in my collection produce many more flowers (sometimes 30 or more) than what is reported in the literature. This magnificent plant, with its freely produced, almost frighteningly large, tarantula-like flowers, is one of my favorite catasetums. Pabst and Dungs (1977) wrote of a C. saccatum alliance, in which the pouchlike portion of the lip is small but the margins are long and hairy. R. Jenny (1990) divided the plants of this species into 2 groups, probably as a result of the long-standing confusion with C. osculatum and C. incurvum, which have distinctive flowers and very different habitats. Catasetum samaniegoi Dodson A rare species from Ecuador, reportedly never found again after it was described in 1984 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum 10: t. 909). Catasetum sanguineum Lindley & Paxton Plate 71; Figure 8-33 PRONUNCIATION: san-GWIN-ee-um. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective sanguineus, "blood-red," referring to the flower color of some clones. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1852 (Paxton's Flower Garden 2: 168, fig. 255). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick, white. Pseudobulbs to 15 × 2.5 cm, fusiform, clustered, some of them slightly compressed. Leaves 6, to 35 × 5 cm, linearlanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence to 40 cm (16 in.) long, erect. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm long. Pedicels 10 mm long, straight. 229

Flowers 7, about 50 × 35 mm in their natural position, nonresupinate, clustered at the apex of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 32 × 12 mm, concave, acute. Petals 32 × 20 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 32 × 12 mm, concave, acute. Lip 37 × 20 mm, pouch-shaped, held uppermost, trilobed; lateral lobes with fimbriate projections whose apices join to partially block the orifice; midlobe variable in its configuration, but more or less tonguelike. Column 25 mm long. Anther beak incurved. Antennae 18 mm long, almost parallel but crossing as they extend into the saccate portion of the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals pale brown-green, lightly veined and spotted with purple, darker inside, showing through faintly on the outside; lip brown-green outside, cream-colored inside with brown-purple stripes; column creamy white. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela (northeastern, north-central, as well as the extreme western region between Lake Maracaibo and the Perijá mountain range), and Costa Rica. HABITAT. Grows in tropical lowland to 800 in (2600 ft.), with a protracted dry season. SYNONYMS. Catasetum naso var. pictum T. Moore, C. naso var. viride T. Moore. VARIETY. Var. integrale Reichenbach f. IDENTIFICATION. Lip complex with a membrane covering the opening of the lip cavity. Thick midlobe ranging from broad and spadelike to narrow and pointed. Very similar to C. naso, but distinguished by the lacerate margins of the entire base of the lip, whereas in C. naso only the margins of the base extending around the column are lacerate, and tenuously so. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species. Should be potted in wood and bark chips or grown in a wooden basket for best results. Needs light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. One of the most interesting and even spectacular species in the genus, though not well known. The fleshy lip has an intricate system of walls, hairs, and orifices apparently designed to prohibit entry to undesired pollinators. The flower emits a strong, spicy fragrance.

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Figure 8-33. Catasetum sanguineum. From Flora Brasilica. Catasetum schmidtianum Miranda & Lacerda Plate 72 PRONUNCIATION: shmitt-ee-AH-num or shmitt-ee-AY-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Schmidt. Named in honor of Antonio Schmidt.

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HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda and Kleber G. de Lacerda Jr. in 1992 (Bradea 6: 58) on the basis of a plant collected by Miranda. The species had been known to Brazilian Catasetum growers for a number of years as "C. pseudocatasetum," but never formally described. The name change stemmed from the authors' reluctance to use an epithet containing the prefix "pseudo." DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 16 × 2.7 cm, fusiform, clustered, slightly compressed and curved, completely covered by leaf sheaths that become white and papery after leaf fall. Leaves to 10, to 34 × 6.5 cm, oblanceolate, with wavy margins, medium green. Male inflorescence to 45 cm (18 in.) long, arching. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts to 10 mm long. Pedicels to 40 mm long, 3 mm in diameter. Flowers 12, about 50 × 50 mm in their natural position, on the terminal three-fifths of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 50 × 12 mm, slightly concave, acute. Petals 50 × 15 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 50 × 14 mm, strongly concave, acute. Lip 22 × 35 mm, about 10 mm deep, held lowermost, but turned upward to lie on a horizontal plane and to form an angle of about 90 degrees with the column, fleshy; margins have numerous teeth or cilia to 5 mm long, apex irregularly notched; upper portion of the lip warty. Column about 35 × 10 mm, erect, fleshy, slightly narrower toward the base. Anther beaked. Antennae 18 mm long, crossing in the middle of the lip. Coloration of peduncle light green; pedicels green to reddish; sepals with dark purple spotting (sepals and petals unspotted in some clones); petals of the same color, but with larger spots; lip almost completely covered with dark purple spotting; column rose-colored with fine purple spots; anther green-rose. Female inflorescence to 15 cm (6 in.) long, erect. Peduncle 6 mm in diameter. Pedicels about 30 mm long, 5 mm in diameter. Sepals 24 × 8 mm, acute. Petals 22 × 10 mm, acute. Lip 20 × 16 mm, 30 mm deep, held uppermost; lower margins toothed. Column 11 × 8 mm. Coloration of sepals and petals green with heavy brownish spotting on the apices; lip dark green, flushed with green-brown inside and out; column green. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Mato Grosso State, along the Sepotuba River. HABITAT. Grows on trees in gallery forest along the river. IDENTIFICATION. Somewhat similar to C. saccatum, but with significant differences. The lateral sepals do not spread out as much, and the upper surface of the lip is much more fleshy and verrucose, preventing its margins from being reflexed. The flower form is generally concave and upturned, the axis of the lip forming an angle of slightly more than 90 degrees with the column. Flower color is variable and quite different from that of C. saccatum. Female flowers of C. schmidtianum have a very short lip and their coloration represents a departure from the normal uniform green of the pistillate flowers of the genus. 232

FLOWERING. Summer to autumn. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species. Should be grown in a basket under moderate shade (to produce male flowers). Not amenable to conventional pot culture. My original (potted) plant refused to flower for several years until installed in a basket. COMMENTS. With the wide range of colors in this stunning species, it is among the most attractive and desirable in the genus. It definitely should be more widely grown. Catasetum schunkei Dodson & Bennett A Peruvian species with a heavily fringed lip. Described in 1989 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, ser. 2, 1: t. 20). Catasetum schweinfurthii An obscure new Peruvian species. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum semicirculatum Miranda PRONUNCIATION: sem-ee-serk-yoo-LAH-tum or sem-ee-serk-yoo-LAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective semicirculatus, "having the form of a half-circle," referring to the semicircular keels on the callus near the base of the lip. HISTORY. Described by Francisco Miranda in 1986 (Lindleyana 1: 156, fig. 9-10). First collected by Carlos Malon and not found again for a number of years. The original description includes a photograph of the flower and line drawings of the floral segments. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Pseudobulbs to 15 × 3.8 cm, fusiform to elliptic, clustered. Leaves to 8, to 30 × 4.7 cm, oblanceolate. Male inflorescence to 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching, the terminal half almost pendent. Flowers to 15 on the distal two-thirds of the inflorescence. Bracts 9 mm long. Pedicels 30 mm long, erect. Dorsal sepal 28 × 7 mm, concave, acuminate to acute. Petals of the same size, convex, acuminate to acute. Lateral sepals 28 × 9 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 20 × 20 mm, fleshy, slightly concave, on almost the same plane as the column; margins irregularly toothed; callus kneelike, near the base with a slender tooth pointing forward and 34 semicircular toothed keels directed downward. Column 20 mm long. Antennae 10 mm long, parallel. Coloration of sepals white-green with a few transverse redbrown blotches; petals white-green with the same blotches; lip white-green with red-brown markings; anther whitish. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Rondônia State, municipality of Costa Marques. Also reported from Peru by Christenson. HABITAT. According to the original description, grows on palms at an altitude of 140 m (460 ft.). 233

IDENTIFICATION. Francisco Miranda believed this species to be similar in general flower form to C. triodon from far-away Santa Catarina State in southern Brazil. The main difference is the lip callus, which consists of semicircular toothed keels in C. semicirculatum and a single tooth in C. triodon. The margins of the lip of C. semicirculatum also have more fleshy teeth. FLOWERING. Summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be potted or mounted, under light to moderate shade, in warm, humid conditions. COMMENTS. The foregoing description is adapted from the original, with additional information from others. Catasetum spitzii Hoehne Plates 73, 74, 75; Figure 8-34 PRONUNCIATION: SPITZ-ee-eye. ETYMOLOGY. Species name the Latinized form of the proper name Spitz. Named in honor of the late Roberto Spitz, a dedicated natu ralist who worked in the zoology section of the São Paulo Museum, Brazil. HISTORY. Described by F. C. Hoehne in 1941 (Arquivos de Botânica do Estado de São Paulo 1: 62, t. 83) on the basis of a plant given to him by Spitz, who had collected it at Campinas (not located) in Goiás State, Brazil, in 1936. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 5.5 cm, mostly ovoid to elliptic, covered by leaf sheaths when young, bare and furrowed longitudinally when old, clustered so closely that they diverge, being connected by a very short rhizome; a mass of pneumatophores develops as the plant becomes old. Leaves to 7, to 38 × 8 cm, lanceolate to oblanceolate, leathery, apices acute to apiculate, with 5 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 35 cm (14 in.) long, almost horizontal, the rachis pendent (inflorescence arching in some clones). Peduncle 6 mm in diameter. Bracts 12 mm long, spaced 3545 mm apart. Pedicels 2032 mm long, 3 mm in diameter. Flowers 11, 58 52 mm in their natural position, on the apical three-fifths of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 33 × 10 mm, concave, acute, overlapping a portion of the petals. Petals 33 × 15 mm, convex, acute, sometimes partly fused with the dorsal sepal. Lateral sepals 33 × 20 mm, concave, acute. Lip 35 × 29 mm, held lowermost, convex, fleshy, trilobed, roughly heart-shaped, with only a shallow sac; margins of the lateral lobes bent upward, with hairs to 2 mm long; callus prominent, conical, at the base of the lip, with less elevated wings on each side; rounded ridge extends from the conical callus and becomes a fleshy, thick, clavate callus that constitutes the entire midlobe. Column 29 × 7 mm, forming an angle of about 234

120 degrees with the lip. Anther beaked. Pseudostigma almost square, 4 mm across. Antennae 12 mm long, diverging slightly on each side of the conical callus of the lip. Coloration of sepals and petals pale green; lip pale green to chartreuse; conical callus deep yellow; column pale green; lip inside and both sides of column glossy. Female inflorescence 24 cm (9 1/2 in.) long, semi-erect, angled about 45 degrees. Flowers 55 × 27 mm. Peduncle 7 mm in diameter. Sepals and petals fleshy, reflexed. Lip 25 × 25 mm, 20 mm deep; margins reflexed. Column short and fleshy. Anther atrophied. Coloration green; inside of lip sac with darker striations; peduncle and pedicels almond green.

Figure 8-34. Catasetum spitzii. DISTRIBUTION. Endemic to the Brazilian state of Goiás on the central plateau. Reported specifically from Pirenópolis, Inhumas, and Santa Rosa. Calaway Dodson reported the species from 2 sites in Bolivia. HABITAT. Grows in open savannah at elevations up to 800 m (2600 ft.). Host trees are various palms, the souari nut tree (Caryocar species, called pequi or pequizeiro in Brazil), the senna tree (Cassia species, called jatobá do cerrado in Brazil), the lixeira (or sambaíba-de-minasgerais), and the typical savannah trees Tabebuia caraiba and Guajacum sanctum (Brazilian pausanto or holywood lignum vitae), with rough, corklike bark. VARIETIES. Three varieties, described relatively recently by Brazilian botanist Lou Menezes, are a confirmation of forms previously known to Brazilian growers but never formally recorded: var. album L. C. Menezes (green-white sepals and petals, lip white, sometimes with a 235

yellowish tint in the callus area), var. roseum L. C. Menezes (rose-colored flowers, with more intense color on the lip), and var. sanguineum L. C. Menezes (blood-red lip). IDENTIFICATION. Lip form of male flowers more convex than pouch-shaped, with only a slight troughlike depression in the center, below the thick callus at the base of the disc. Rounded apex of the midlobe extremely thick, margins of lateral lobes have cilia, and most pseudobulbs uncommonly short and plump. FLOWERING. Generally autumn. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species that requires a long rest matching the protracted dry season in its natural habitat. While actively growing, it needs abundant bright light and moisture. Flowers from a newly developing pseudobulb. Considering its nearly horizontal inflorescence, it is best grown in a suspended pot or basket filled with wood and bark chunks. COMMENTS. With its massive pseudobulbs, vigorous growth, and magnificent flowers, this species is one of my favorites. It is similar to C. vinaceum and C. trulla, and occurs in several color forms, including white, cream, rose, and blood-red. As is true for other orchids, when the red form is exposed to bright sunlight, its color becomes washed out, but if it is sheltered from the sun before it flowers, its color is vivid red. The foregoing description is based on a plant in my collection. Catasetum stenoglossum Pabst A miniature green species from the Negro River region of Brazil. Discovered by G. A. Black. Described in 1955 (Arquivos de Botânica do Estado de São Paulo 3: 130, figs. 33B, 39B). Catasetum stevensonii Dodson Plate 77 A taxon from Peru and Ecuador with cauliflower-like appendages on the lip. Confused with C. buchtienii. Described in 1978 (Selbyana 2: 156). Catasetum tabulare Lindley Plate 79 PRONUNCIATION: tab-yoo-LAHR-ay. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective tabularis, ''flattened horizontally" or "planelike," referring to the large callus on the disc of the lip. HISTORY. Described by John Lindley in 1844 (Edwards's Botanical Register 30: Misc. 35) and first illustrated in 1905 (Dictionnaire Iconographique des Orchidées. Catasetum, t. 2).

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DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots very thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 16 × 3 cm, fusiform, clustered. Leaves 8, to 45 × 8.5 cm, leathery, with 3 prominent veins, many others less so. Male inflorescence 38 cm (15 in.) long. Peduncle 6 mm in diameter. Bracts 11 mm long, spaced about 60 mm apart. Inflorescence at first erect, then rachis (distal two-fifths of the inflorescence) tends to be pendent. Pedicels 3045 mm long, to 5 mm in diameter, bent downward to bring the lip lowermost. Flowers 7, 92 × 82 mm in their natural position. Dorsal sepal 55 × 15 mm, concave, acuminate, forming with the petals a hood over the column. Petals 51 × 15 mm, tending toward convex, acuminate, margins slightly upturned. Lateral sepals 53 × 12 mm, concave, acuminate, margins reflexed. Lip 40 × 20 mm, concave, held lowermost, with margins distinctly upturned; callus large, flat, tongue-shaped, 27 × 11 mm, raised about 7 mm, with rounded edges, extending from the lip cavity almost to the apex, more rugose toward the apex, with a hint of a trough running longitudinally over its entire length; sac opening about 8 mm across, cavity about 9 mm deep; margins with very short appendages on the distal portion and a notched apex. Column 38 × 10 mm, forming an angle of about 110 degrees with the lip. Anther with a long, slender beak. Pseudostigma more or less round, about 5 mm across. Antennae 15 mm long, one curving over the lip cavity, the other curled beneath it before reaching the cavity. Coloration of sepals and petals light green with dense red-brown spotting, heavier on the underside; lip callus white on top; pearly, glossy white around the cavity opening and inside the cavity; basal portion of the pseudostigma on the column also pearly, glossy white with inconspicuous spotting; column light yellow-green above the pseudostigma; underside of lip cavity spotted, with a pinkish cast. Female inflorescence 22 cm (8 1/2 in.) long, erect. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced 2535 mm apart. Flowers 2, 67 × 45 mm. Dorsal sepal 25 × 6 mm, concave. Petals 26 × 14 mm, flat, reflexed. Lip 35 × 32 mm, held uppermost; sac 21 mm deep. Column short and stout. Coloration green. DISTRIBUTION. Colombia, mostly along the middle and lower course of the 630-mile (1000-km)-long northward-flowing Cauca River. Hawkes (1965) also mentioned Brazil, but the species appears to be unknown there. HABITAT. Grows near the Cauca River as it flows through a zone of rain forest, riverine swamps, and jungle characterized by tropical climate with abundant rainfall. SYNONYMS. Catasetum caucanum Schlechter, C. finetianum Lindley, C. pallidiflorum Schlechter, C. pallidum Cogniaux, C. rhamphastos Kraenzlin. VARIETIES. The following varieties have been described on the basis of differences in the lip callus. They obviously were coveted at one time, but appear to be unknown today: var. brachyglossum Reichenbach f. (callus smooth, sides sinuate), var. finetianum (Cogniaux) 237

Mansfeld (callus smooth, straight), var. laeve Reichenbach f. (callus smooth, edges not sinuate), var. pallidum (Cogniaux) Mansfeld (callus smooth, midlobe of the lip obovate), var. rhamphastos (Kraenzlin) Mansfeld (callus smooth, ovate, occupying almost the entire surface of the midlobe), var. rhinophorum Reichenbach f. (callus warty all over), and var. rugosum Mansfeld (callus warty on top, toothed in front, and oblong). IDENTIFICATION. Flowers large. Pseudobulbs long and slender. Callus large, flat, and longly triangular on the rigid disc of the lip. FLOWERING. Late spring to summer, from a fairly well developed new pseudobulb. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Can be grown fairly well with conventional pot culture, even better in wooden baskets, under light shade. COMMENTS. An elegant, robust species with large, attractive flowers. The form of the lip and the coloration of the flowers seem to be highly variable. The species is similar to C. laminatum except for the callus on the lip, which is flat in C. tabulare and centrally ridged in C. laminatum. The above description is based on the largest of 4 plants in my collection. Catasetum tenebrosum Kraenzlin Plate 80 PRONUNCIATION: ten-eh-BROH-sum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective tenebrosus, "dark," "gloomy," or "shadowy," referring to the overriding very dark colors of the sepals and petals. HISTORY. Described by Fritz Kraenzlin in 1910 (Gardeners' Chronicle, ser. 3, 48: 229) and first illustrated in 1926 (Botanical Magazine 151: t. 9086). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs to 14 × 3.5 cm, fusiform. Leaves 68, to 32 × 7 cm, linear-lance olate to linear-oblanceolate, dark green, many-veined. Male inflorescence 20 cm (8 in.) long, almost twice as long in some other clones but usually shorter than the leaves. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 10 mm long, spaced about 15 mm apart. Pedicels about 30 mm long, straight to slightly curved. Flowers 4 (to 12 in other clones), 50 × 45 mm in their natural position. Sepals 28 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Petals 26 × 15 mm, slightly concave, acute. Lip 22 mm long and wide, convex, very thick and waxy, heartshaped; margins reflexed and those of the lateral lobes slightly serrated, with a prominent callus near the base and another at the tip of the midlobe. Column 19 × 9 mm. Anther beaked, hooked forward. Antennae short (5 mm), cone-shaped, converging, with their tips touching. Coloration of sepals and petals velvety, very dark chocolate-colored, almost black; front side of the lip various tones of green; calli at the base and apex yellow; back side of lip the same color as the sepals and petals. Female flowers not seen. 238

DISTRIBUTION. Peru and extreme western Brazil. HABITAT. Grows on living and dead trees mostly in riverbottoms on hilly terrain in nearly full sunlight until the fog creeps in, or on boulders with the roots seeking humus in the crevices, at altitudes of 8001500 m (26004900 ft.). IDENTIFICATION. Flowers extremely rigid, fleshy, very dark brown in color. Lip convex with thickened yellow calli at the base and apex. FLOWERING. Late spring, from developing new growths. Some clones, probably from a distinct population, flower more conventionally in late summer. CULTURE. A Green Zone species. Easy to grow. Needs light to moderate shade. Can be mounted, but basket culture is ideal. Also can be potted conventionally, but if so should be put in a clay or net pot filled with coarse bark mix, to grow it drier and lessen the possibility of pseudobulb rot. Requires only a brief rest period, if any. COMMENTS. A showy species that has become increasingly popular and is one of the few Catasetum species readily available in the United States. The appearance of a well-flowered plant is quite striking. The foregoing description is based on one of the many plants in my collection, with flowers larger than most. In other clones, the color of the sepals and petals includes various shades of brown, with the color always extending through to the underside. The lip color can vary from chartreuse to various other shades of green, sometimes with a narrow chocolate border, and brown on the back side. Catasetum tenuiglossum Senghas A Peruvian species believed to be similar to, or synonymous with, C. stenoglossum, although their habitats are far apart. Described in 1991 (Orchidee 42: 20). Catasetum thompsonii Dodson A species from Guyana, purportedly similar to C. boyi but unknown today. Described in 1978 (Selbyana 2: 158). Catasetum tigrinum Reichenbach f. Plate 81 PRONUNCIATION: TIE-gri-num or ti-GREE-num. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective tigrinus, meaning "tigerlike" or, more appropriate for Brazil, "spotted like a jaguar," and referring to the flowers. HISTORY. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1881 (Gardeners' Chronicle, n.s., 15: 40) and first illustrated in 1886 (Lindenia 1: 59, t. 27). See the illustration in Orquídea (Rio de Janeiro) in 1974 (30: 149).

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DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fleshy and white. Pseudobulbs to 12 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves 6, to 25 × 5 cm, linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, with 3 prominent veins on the underside. Male inflorescence 20 cm (8 in.) long, arching and then pendent. Peduncle to 4 mm in diameter. Pedicels 25 mm long, 3 mm in diameter. Flowers 12, about 45 × 30 mm, clustered on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 23 × 18 mm, concave, acute. Petals about 20 × 20 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals of the same size and form as the dorsal. Lip 25 × 10 mm, held lowermost, trilobed, bent downward at the base, with a shallow sac about halfway between the base and the apex; margins of the lateral lobes entire; midlobe long and narrow, with several short, fleshy appendages at the apex. Column 18 × 7 mm, erect. Anther with a short beak. Antennae short, parallel. Coloration of sepals and petals white with transverse red spots; spots on the petals more conspicuous than on the sepals; lip white with little or no spotting; column yellowish with reddish spotting on the back. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, and as far south as Mato Grosso; in other parts of northern South America as well. HABITAT. Grows in fairly shady situations in regions with 4 months of dry conditions in winter, much rain the rest of the year, and high humidity year-round. IDENTIFICATION. Floral segments wide and overlapping. Predominantly white color unusual in catasetums. FLOWERING. Late spring, often again in summer. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. Requires evenly warm temperatures and moderate shade. Can be grown in small pots filled with sphagnum moss or coarse bark mix. COMMENTS. A species with truly exquisite flowers that should be more widely grown. Its sepals and petals are very wide, and its pendent inflorescences hold up to 40 flowers. In the Brazilian state of Rondônia, it hybridizes naturally with C. denticulatum. Catasetum transversicallosum A new Peruvian species with a pendent inflorescence and flowers with a prominent transverse callus at the base of the lip. Name to be published by D. E. Bennett and E. Christenson in Icones Orchidacearum Peruviarum (in preparation). Catasetum triodon Reichenbach f. Plate 82 PRONUNCIATION: TRY-oh-don. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective meaning "3-toothed" and referring to the 3 projections from the apex of the lip in some clones.

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HISTORY. Described by H. G. Reichenbach in 1857 (Hambuger Garten-Blumenzeit 13: 313)and first illustrated in 1878 (J. Day's Scrapbook 24: 13). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and white. Pseudobulbs to 13 × 3 cm, fusiform. Leaves 6, to 40 × 7 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 43 cm (17 in.) long, arching to pendent. Peduncle 3 mm in diameter. Flowers 10, about 45 × 65 mm in their natural position, on the terminal half of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 30 × 10 mm, concave, acuminate to acute. Petals 33 × 13 mm, convex, acuminate to acute, with margins finely hairy. Lateral sepals 33 × 14 mm, concave, acuminate to acute, widely spreading. Lip about 25 × 25 mm including the fringes (which are as much as 5 mm long), indistinctly trilobed, roughly triangular-shaped, shallowly pouch-shaped; one callus at the base of the lip and another at the apex, where it becomes a long tooth. Column about 30 mm long, projecting over the lip sac. Anther beaked. Antennae about 13 mm long, parallel, extending on either side of the basal callus into the lip sac. Coloration of sepals and petals yellow-green with conspicuous dark red-brown spotting; lip yellowish overall, yellow in the center, with heavy spotting except in the yellow area; column very light green with a few spots. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, coastal region of the state of Santa Catarina. HABITAT. Grows in the Atlantic coastal forest. SYNONYM. Catasetum monodon Kraenzlin. VARIETY. Var. guttulatum Hoehne has spotted sepals and petals. Perhaps the plant described above is of this variety, although such a varietal name does not seem to be known today. IDENTIFICATION. Lip heavily fringed, triangular, with 1 to 3 apical appendages that could be called teeth. FLOWERING. One of the first to flower in spring, sometimes again in the summer or autumn. CULTURE. A Green Zone species accustomed to cool winter nights. Can be grown in a pot or basket under moderate shade. COMMENTS. The name of this species's one synonym means "one-toothed" and underscores the fact that lip form varies considerably from clone to clone. Early on, H. G. Reichenbach erroneously believed that this species originated in Mexico. This extremely attractive species deserves more exposure and reportedly is facing extinction in its natural habitat. The original description is based on a flower without spots, whereas the foregoing description is based on one with heavy spotting.

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Catasetum trulla Lindley Plate 83 PRONUNCIATION: TRULL-uh or TROOL-uh. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin noun trulla, "mixing spoon" or "skimming ladle," referring to the shape of the lip. HISTORY. Described by Frei Vellozo in 1831 (Flora Fluminensis 9: t. 65) as Cypripedium socco and accompanied by an illustration of a plant collected in the stilluninhabited outskirts of São Paulo, Brazil. The description lay neglected for many years until Ernst Pfitzer undertook the revision of the Cypripedinae in 1895 and changed its name to Paphiopedilum socco. Not until 1903 did he realize his mistake and transfer it to the genus Catasetum. The epithet C. trulla was published by John Lindley in 1840 (Edwards's Botanical Register 26: Misc. 75) and first illustrated in 1841 (Edwards's Botanical Register 27: t. 34). In 1861 H. G. Reichenbach published his finding that Frei Vellozo's Cypripedium socco was actually Lindley's C. trulla. It is unfortunate that Vellozo's description lay unnoticed for so many years. The plate accompanying it undoubtedly represents a plant of C. trulla with male flowers, even though it is incorrectly drawn with the lip uppermost on an erect inflorescence. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick and fleshy. Pseudobulbs to 18 × 5 cm, fusiform. Leaves to 40 × 7 cm, oblong-ligulate, with 3 prominent veins. Male inflorescence 30 cm (12 in.) long, arching, the rachis pendent (there is considerable variation in length and position in other clones). Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 10 mm. long, spaced 3045 mm apart. Flowers to 20 or more, about 25 × 15 mm, resupinate. Dorsal sepal 20 × 12 mm, concave, acute. Petals 20 × 13 mm, convex, acute. Lateral sepals 20 × 14 mm, concave, acute. Lip about 20 × 25 mm, held lowermost, trilobed, roughly triangular; margins slightly toothed. Column about 15 mm long. Anther beaked. Antennae about 12 mm long, parallel, with their tips diverging. Coloration of sepals and petals light green; lip light green, with brown on the apex. Female inflorescence to 60 cm. (24 in.) long, erect. Flowers to 25 × 15 mm. Sepals and petals 20 mm. long. Column short and conical; stigmatic cavity a narrow, transverse slit. Anther atrophied. Coloration green or yellow-green. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, from the state of Rio de Janeiro southward along the coast into the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina. HABITAT. Grows in the Atlantic coastal forest. Reported to form huge clumps in large trees in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. SYNONYMS. Catasetum liechtensteinii Kraenzlin, C. trulla var. trulla Mansfeld, C. trulla var. typum Hoehne, Cypripedium socco Vellozo. 242

VARIETIES. The following varieties have been described but appear to be unknown to Brazilian growers today: var. liechtensteinnii (Kraenzlin) Mansfeld, var. maculatissimum Reichenbach f., var. subimberge Reichenbach f., var. trilobatum Schlechter ex Mansfeld. Variety vinaceum Hoehne is now considered to be a synonym of C. vinaceum. IDENTIFICATION. Although its flowers (and pseudobulbs) vary exceedingly depending on a plant's location, this species is distinguished from others by its triangular-shaped lip alone. FLOWERING. Autumn. CULTURE. A Green Zone species accustomed to hot summer days and cold winter nights. A large plant. Should be grown in a basket under light to moderate shade. COMMENTS. A very attractive species not found in many collections. Both male and female flowers may appear on the same inflorescence. Completely red forms exist. Catasetum tuberculatum Dodson A species from northeastern Ecuador, southeastern Colombia, and western Brazil, allied to C. microglossum. Its flowers, held on an erect inflorescence, are some of the largest in the genus. Described in 1982 (Icones Plantarum Tropicarum 5: t. 410). Catasetum uncatum Rolfe Plate 84 PRONUNCIATION: un-KAH-tum or un-KAY-tum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from the Latin adjective uncatus, "hooked" or "curved inward," referring to the midlobe of the lip that is curved inward, to the column whose apex is hooked, or even to the pseudobulbs, which usually are noticeably curved. HISTORY. Described by R. A. Rolfe in 1895 (Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information 1895: 283). After being discovered in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, a plant was taken to England, where it flowered in the Sanders greenhouse. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots heavy, thick, pure white; copious pneumatophores. Pseudobulbs to 13 × 5.5 cm, fusiform to elliptical, angled and curved, conspicuously furrowed. Leaves 7, to 24 × 4 cm, linear-lanceolate to oblanceolate, medium to dark green, with 3 prominent veins, others less so. Male inflorescence 48 cm (19 in.) long (to 60 cm or 24 in. long in other clones), arching, then pendent. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts about 13 mm long, triangular, spaced about 80 mm apart. Pedicels about 30 mm long, 2.5 mm in diameter, mostly straight but abruptly bent down at the flowers. Flowers 22, 31 × 28 mm in their natural position, on the terminal third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 26 × 13 mm, concave, acute. Petals 26 × 13 mm, concave but with a convex bulge, acute. Lateral sepals 29 × 18 mm, concave, acute. Lip 13 × 13 mm, about 10 mm deep, held uppermost, indistinctly trilobed; 243

midlobe with an acute tip projecting out ward about 2 mm; margins smooth with a hint of serrations on the lateral lobes. Column 19 × 5 mm, forming an angle of 45 degrees with the lip. Pseudostigma almost square, 3 × 2.5 mm. Antennae 16 mm long, very slender, curling around the inside of the lip sac and visible in the lip opening as they protrude from 1.5 to 4 mm down from the midlobe. Coloration of sepals and petals light green, with inconspicuous veining; lip dark green with some dark gold on the margins; column light yellow-green. Hermaphroditic flowers have been borne on a shorter, less erect inflorescence produced from a developing pseudobulb. Sepals and petals shorter and fleshier. Lip 21 × 21 mm, 14 mm deep at the apex. Column short and broad, containing 2 pollinia but no antennae; stigmatic cavity inset in a thickened, fleshy callus. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, states of Pernambuco, Alagoas (Palmeira dos Índios), Ceará, and probably contiguous states as well. HABITAT. Generally not found in forest, preferring palm trees near the seashore, palms and other trees left standing in pastures, or in the more arid inland countryside. IDENTIFICATION. Plant robust with curved pseudobulbs. Distinguished from C. purum by a narrower lip and by antennae that protrude below the tip of the midlobe and are visible in the opening formed by the lateral lobes of the nonresupinate lip. FLOWERING. Summer and autumn. CULTURE. A Gray Zone species accustomed to a long dry period. Should be grown in nearly full sunlight. With its many pneumatophores, this plant is an ideal candidate for mounting or growing in a basket. If potted, care must be taken not to water excessively. COMMENTS. Hardly a beauty-contest winner, but a robust species of easy culture with an interesting display of flowers despite their lack of outstanding coloration. Most clones have no spotting, although I have one with spots on the sepals and petals, and occasionally a clone will show up with orange inside the lip. The flowers of certain clones open more widely than others, and those with dark green lips give the impression of an owl with 2 conspicuous eyes sitting on the twigs of a tree branch. Similar to C. purum, which grows farther to the south in Brazil. Plant size and the length of the arching inflorescence vary considerably. The foregoing description is based on one of many similar plants in my collection. Catasetum vinaceum Hoehne Plate 85; Figure 8-35 PRONUNCIATION: vi-NAH-see-um or vi-NAY-see-um.

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ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective, vinaceus, itself derived from vinum, ''wine." The name means "of the color of wine" and refers to the flower color of some clones.

Figure 8-3 5. Catasetum vinaceum. From Flora Brasilica. HISTORY. Described by F. C. Hoehne in 1942 (Flora Brasilica 12, 6: 102, t. 65). This was one of the species collected by Hoehne in 1914 at Porto do Campo on the Sepotuba River in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso during his work with the Rondon Commission and lost when his canoe overturned and sank. He first described it as C. trulla var. vinaceum. Mansfeld likened the species to C. atratum without examining it closely, but Hoehne eventually came to consider it more like C. spitzii from Goiás State. DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots fairly thick and whitish (very thick and white in some other clones). Pseudobulbs to 7 × 2.5 cm, fusiform to subconical (to ovate in other clones), clustered, some curved. Leaves 5, to 28 × 7 cm, oblanceolate, medium green, with 3 prominent veins, others less conspicuous. Male inflorescence 24 cm (9 1/2 in.) long. Peduncle 4 mm in diameter. Bracts 7 mm long, spaced 2530 mm apart. Pedicels 30 mm long, 3 mm in diameter, slightly curved. Flowers 6, 45 × 60 mm in their natural position, on the apical third of the inflorescence. Dorsal sepal 35 × 7 mm, concave, acute, curved forward and downward, forming a hood over the column, very close to it. Petals 40 × 13 mm, convex, acute, erect. Lateral sepals 35 × 10 mm, concave, acute, curled over the lip cavity as the flower opens. Lip 32 × 20 mm in its natural position, 15 mm deep, indistinctly trilobed, extremely fleshy and rigid; sac orifice about 10 mm across; margins of the lateral lobes denticulate; midlobe tongue-shaped, flat, extending 12 mm forward from the lateral lobes, very fleshy, with rolled margins, and with 2 calli like bulging eyes on each side near the acute tip. Column about 25 × 8 mm, forming an 245

angle of almost 90 degrees with the lip. Anther beaked, hooked forward. Pseudostigma almost round, 4 mm across. Antennae parallel, about 12 mm long, projecting almost to the bottom of the lip cavity. Coloration of peduncle and pedicels green; sepals and petals pale green; margins of lateral lobes yellow; apex of midlobe increasingly pale yellow; lip cavity orange; column pale green; antennae yellow-orange. Female flowers not seen. DISTRIBUTION. Brazil, Mato Grosso State, in the forests along the Sepotuba River and tributaries of the Paraguay River; also in Mato Grosso do Sul State, in the forests adjacent to the Coxim and Taquari Rivers. HABITAT. Grows in trees along rivers and creeks. SYNONYMS. Catasetum taquariense Bicalho, Barros & Moutinho, C. trulla var. vinaceum Hoehne. VARIETIES. Two varieties have been described relatively recently by Brazilian botanist Lou Menezes: var. album L. C. Menezes (green sepals and petals and a mostly white lip) and var. splendidum L. C. Menezes (green sepals and petals and a bright yellow lip). IDENTIFICATION.

Flowers

quite

similar

to,

and

the

plants

vegetatively

indistinguishable from, C. trulla and C. spitzii. Lip shape always the same. All that varies is the coloration, from white to yellow, red, and stripes of these colors. Approximately 35 percent of the plants of this species found in nature bear white flowers. FLOWERING. Late spring into summer. In Brazil it is considered to have 3 main flowering periods within this time frame. CULTURE. A Gold Zone species accustomed to a wide temperature range and a long dry season. Flowers from a newly developing pseudobulb. Can be potted, but in a net or clay pot if a conventional mix is used. Can also be mounted or grown in a basket. Needs strong light for best flower production, so grow in nearly full sunlight. COMMENTS. A highly variable species colorwise. One Brazilian grower boasts of having more than 100 clones in his collection with different colors and patterns. In nature, contented plants often sport myriad pneumatophorous roots. As the botanical representative on the Rondon Commission in 1915, Hoehne reported finding along the Sepotuba River in Mato Grosso State a variety of C. vinaceum similar in form to C. trulla, but larger and with a distinctive margin on its shell-shaped lip. The foregoing description is based on one of many plants in my collection. Expect many other colorations and color patterns. Catasetum violascens Reichenbach f. & Warszewicz

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A taxon from Peru now considered by Gustavo Romero to be a natural hybrid between C. incurvum and C. discolor (see Novon 2 [1992]: 241248). Described in 1854 (Bonplandia 2: 97). Catasetum viridiflavum Hooker Plate 86 PRONUNCIATION: vi-ri-dee-FLAH-vum or vi-ri-dee-FLAY-vum. ETYMOLOGY. Species name from an artificial Latin adjective, viridiflavus, composed of viridis, "green" and flavus, "yellow," expressing the green-yellow color of the flowers. HISTORY. Described by Sir William Hooker in 1843 (Botanical Magazine 69: t. 4017). DESCRIPTION. Growth habit epiphytic. Roots thick, fleshy, branching, light-colored; also slender, erect pneumatophorous roots forming a dense carpet around the base of the pseudobulbs. Pseudobulbs to 17 × 4 cm (although reported in the literature to be as large as 25 × 4.5 cm), slightly compressed, clustered, when young completely covered by leaf sheaths that become papery white when old. Leaves 69, to 45 × 5.5 cm (reportedly to 12 cm wide in other clones), linear-lanceolate (to elliptic-lanceolate), with 3 conspicuous veins. Male inflorescence 33 cm (13 in.) long, almost erect, with flowers on the terminal quarter. Peduncle 5 mm in diameter. Bracts 13 mm long, spaced 4050 mm apart. Pedicels 20 mm long, 3 mm in diameter, curved (crook-necked). Flowers 6 (as many as 12 at other times), 58 × 31 mm. Dorsal sepal 41 × 19 mm (flattened), concave, acute. Petals 44 × 20 mm, concave but bulging in the center, acute. Lateral sepals 47 × 20 mm (flattened), concave, acute. Lip 23 × 19 mm, about 23 mm deep, held uppermost, globose with a small conical cap, very fleshy; orifice almost round, 9 × 11 mm; margins of the lateral lobes minutely hairy and overlapping above the column. Column about 32 × 8 mm. Anther beaked. Pseudostigma a longitudinal oval, about 3 mm across. Antennae about 24 mm long, one curled under the other, which extends far into the lip pouch. Coloration of segments yellow-green, in varying nuances; inside of lip pouch with heavy blotches of burnt umber; base of petals with tiny spots of the same color; sepals and petals faintly veined. Female flowers rarely seen, usually 24, borne on an erect spike. Coloration green. DISTRIBUTION. Eastern Panama and Colombia. HABITAT. Grows in hot lowlands, usually close to water. SYNONYM. Catasetum serratum Lindley. IDENTIFICATION. Plant robust and identical in growth habit to C. maculatum. Prominent veins on leaf underside turn into sharp spines when pseudobulbs lose leaves. Pneumatophorous root system massive. Easily identified when in flower by the large flower size, coloration, and unique shape of the nonresupinate lip (globose with small conical cap). Male and

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female flowers borne on separate inflorescences. Dorsal sepal and petals form a concave trough beneath the column. FLOWERING. Mostly summer, but often several times a year. CULTURE. A Red Zone species. A rampant grower that needs plenty of space, nearly full sunlight, warmth, and a short rest period. Can be conventionally potted or grown in a basket. COMMENTS. Reports of the occurrence of this species in Guatemala are doubtful and are probably due to its confusion with C. integerrimum, of which some believe it to be a variety, in spite of the very different shape of the lips. Although quite large, this species is desirable from the standpoint of both vigorous growth habit and attractive, interesting, fragrant flowers in various shades of green. The foregoing description is based on one of several similar plants in my collection.

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Chapter 9 Hybrids and Breeding Trends by Gene Monnier Catasetum breeding began fairly recently, in the late 1950s. Aside from unusual flowers, of minimal commercial value, catasetums also express sexual dimorphism, which makes breeding more difficult and identification of the species very confusing. In this chapter we will examine the species used in creating hybrids, starting with the most commonly used species. A final section summarizes current trends in breeding catasetums. The first Catasetum hybrid was registered in 1959 by Goodale Moir, a pioneer in many unusual lines of breeding. Catasetum Grace Dunn (C. warscewiczii × C. roseum) has pendulous inflorescences of clusters of 1 in. (2.5 cm) pale pink flowers with white centers and fringed lips. Catasetum Rebecca Northen (C. Grace Dunn × C. roseum) Moir 1971, a back-cross of C. Grace Dunn, has become an important parent in Catasetum breeding. Like their parents, these hybrids bloom in winter off dormant bulbs that have already dropped their leaves. (Note that C. warscewiczii, C. roseum, and C. russellianum were relegated to the resurrected genus Clowesia in 1975 by Calaway Dodson. Although all crosses made with these species have been registered as catasetums, hereafter they will be presented using the newer terminology.) Catasetum Pileatum Catasetum pileatum, being the largest flowered of all catasetums, is also the most widely used in breeding. Through the end of 1996 some 55 hybrids have been registered with C. pileatum in their background. Of these, 24 use C. pileatum as a primary parent. The use of Catasetum pileatum in the hybrid C. Sumani (C. saccatum × C. pileatum) Kirch 1966 (Plate 78) was the beginning of the large-flowered or commercial Catasetum breeding. In 1974 three more C. pileatum hybrids were registered: C. Mary Spencer (C. trulla × C. pileatum) Spencer, C. Orchidglade (C. pileatum × C. expansum) J&S, and C. Platypil (C. platyglossum × C. pileatum) Spencer. Of these, C. Orchidglade became very popular because of its huge lip and wide spectrum of color forms (Figure 9-1). Since then, C. Orchidglade has been crossed back and forth to each of its parents in a continuing line of large-lipped hybrids. In crosses of C. Orchidglade and its progeny back to C. pileatum, the lip is broadened and the heartshaped callus from the C. expansum parent is reduced. This change becomes evident when comparing crosses such as C. Bound for Glory (C. Orchidglade × C. pileatum) J&S 1978 with C. Susan Fuchs (C. Orchidglade × C. expansum) RF Orchids 1982. Unfortunately, this line of 249

breeding produces short-lived flowers, although they are very showy. Catasetum Mary Spencer also was backcrossed to produce C. João Stivali (C. Mary Spencer × C. pileatum var. imperiale) Stivali 1995, a larger-lipped form with rich red color.

Figure 9-1. Catasetum Orchidglade 'Jack of Diamonds.' Photo by Fred Paget. Catasetum pileatum has also become important in other lines of breeding as a source of size and color. In the late 1970s it was used in three more hybrids: C. Mestizos (C. pileatum × C. gnomus) Brubaker 1976, C. Vroni (C. pileatum × C. cernuum) Jenny 1979, and C. Pileabrosum Green (C. tenebrosum × C. pileatum) Beall 1979. All three crosses were made using the green and white forms of C. pileatum, which was dominant for the color of the progeny. The first registered cross combining what became the genus Clowesia with the genus Catasetum was C. Delightful (Clowesia rosea × Catasetum pileatum) Furrow 1973 (Plate 22). It maintained much of the flower size and shape of the C. pileatum parent and exhibited a pink blush along the edge from the Clowesia rosea parent. The pendulous sprays of fringed-lipped round flowers exhibited both sexual characteristics as seen in the Clowesia parent and resulted in longer lasting flowers. Catasetum Pierre Couret (Clowesia Rebecca Northen × Catasetum pileatum) Orenstein 1981 produced similar but slightly fuller flowers with heavier fringing on the lips. Catasetum Raymond Lerner (Clowesia russelliana × Catasetum pileatum) Lerner 1983, yet another Clowesia cross, produced longer sprays of larger flowers than Catasetum Pierre Couret. It became very popular, with many clones being awarded. Closely resembling C. Delightful are C. Cosmo-Grace (Clowesia Grace Dunn × Catasetum pileatum) Kakusai 1995 and C. Nettie Lorraine (Clowesia Kengar × Catasetum pileatum) Ramsey 1994.

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Catasetum Dapper Dots (C. sanguineum × C. pileatum) Levy 1987 is a very unusual cross that produced flowers with very thick lips, sometimes more than an inch (2.5 cm) of solid tissue, with convolutions within the center of the lip. The dark pigments from the inside of the C. sanguineum lips added intriguing color spread throughout the entire lip of the hybrid. The final two hybrids of the 1980s were more conventional crosses: C. Penang (C. pileatum × C. Susan Fuchs) Sun 1989 and C. Doris's Choice (C. fimbriatum × C. pileatum) JEM 1989, an excellent averaging between the two species, exhibiting broad flat lips with lovely fringed edges (Plate 26). The 1990s have shown an increased interest in Catasetum breed ing, with hybrids being registered all around the world. Catanoches Yellow Bird (Cycnoches chlorochilon × Catasetum pileatum) JEM 1991 resulted in exquisite large waxy yellow flowers nearly resembling a typical corsage Cattleya (Plate 2). Most of its progeny had triggerless columns allowing for longer flower longevity. A small percentage of the progeny resembled the Catasetum parent very closely, not appearing to be a hybrid. Catasetum Alabaster (C. Pink Lemonade × C. pileatum) JEM 1991, like its Clowesia-Catasetum parent Pink Lemonade, also is devoid of column triggers and appears to have both sexes in the same flower. The lip of the flowers is heavily fringed and cupped. Catasetum Blood Stone (C. pileatum × C. laminatum) Levy 1994 and C. Alexis Pardo (C. pileatum × C. tabulare) Pereira 1996 (Plate 3) both used the red forms of C. pileatum to produce elongated red shield lips with large calluses running the length of the lips. Another red C. pileatum type, C. Splendens (C. macrocarpum × C. pileatum), is believed by some to be the natural hybrid responsible for the imperiale (red) forms of C. pileatum found mainly in Venezuela. Catasetum Dona Marie (C. pileatum × C. barbatum) Ramsey 1994 and C. Durval Ferreira (C. pileatum × C. vinaceum) Pereira 1996 are more unusual C. pileatum crosses. The former produces moderatesized flowers with fringed flat lips in a variety of color patterns. The latter is similar to the C. Orchidglade type breeding, but has more elongate lips of very heavy substance. Colors range widely, often with yellow backgrounds. Since C. vinaceum has so many color forms, and C. pileatum has its range of whites, yellows, and reds, there can be tremendous color variation among different combinations of parents to make this same hybrid. Catasetum Expansum Catasetum expansum is the second most commonly used Catasetum species. Like C. pileatum, its popularity in breeding is due to its large flat lip and overall size. Forty-three hybrids

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have been registered with C. expansum in their background, sixteen of which have primary C. expansum parents. Several large-lipped hybrids were made after the success of Catasetum Orchidglade. The first was C. Flying Saucer (C. expansum × C. Sumani) J&S 1979, producing very flat lipped greenish white flowers with slight denticulation along the edge of their lips. The second was C. Bravo (C. Flying Saucer × C. expansum) J&S 1982, a back-cross where all denticulations were eliminated and the broad lips exhibit a pronounced heart-shaped callus. The third was C. Susan Fuchs (see under C. pileatum), and the fourth was C. Fuchs Delight (C. Susan Fuchs × C. expansum) RF Orchids 1986. These three crosses exhibit little difference from their C. Orchidglade background other than intensification of colors. All three crosses have the problem of short-lived flowers due to the crossed column triggers. Crosses of Catasetum expansum to other types of catasetums produced some interesting results. Catasetum Fanfair (C. expansum × C. saccatum) J&S 1982 had highly colored flowers with heavy dark markings and rich yellows and oranges. The lips were slightly cupped with fimbriate edges, the petals swept back and up. Catasetum Marge Soule (C. fimbriatum × C. expansum) Soule 1985 produced similar results and exhibited the fringed lip from the C. fimbriatum parent. Catasetum Ruth Murry (C. macrocarpum × C. expansum) Murry (JEM) 1984 produced another somewhat cupped cross, but added deep reds and yellows to the C. expansum parent. Catasetum Thinger Dinger (C. expansum × C. fuchsii) Pearson 1988 produced flowers that were nearly pouched. Catasetum Henry Turner (C. trulla × C. expansum) Turner 1991 (Plate 35) and C. Cape of Island (C. triodon × C. expansum) Shimazaki 1991 produced flat-lipped flowers with dark red lips and dark marking in the petals and sepals. Both have uncrossed column triggers allowing the flowers to stay in bloom longer, a dominant trait of their non-C. expansum parents. Catasetum Black Jade (Clowesia russelliana × Catasetum expansum) JEM 1991 produces a long pendulous spray of large, 4 in. (10 cm), waxy green flowers with black markings. The Clowesia russelliana parent has perfect flowers without column triggers and imparts this characteristic to its progeny, allowing for longer-lasting flowers. Catasetum Black Knight (C. expansum × C. tenebrosum) Neptune 1996 has flowers shaped like C. Pileabrosum Green (see under C. pileatum), but combines petal color from the C. tenebrosum parent and additional color from the nongreen form of C. expansum used in this cross. Catasetum Ismenia (C. callosum × C. expansum) Pereira 1996 also produces dark colors by combining a dark brown species with a colored C. expansum. The lip is more elongate in this hybrid. Catasetum Sandy Gibson (C. expansum × C. barbatum) Gibson 1996 has a smaller hield 252

lip with a heavily dentate edge; the base color is usually light brown or green with fine dark speckles throughout. Catasetum expansum has been used in three intergeneric hybrids. Catanoches Green Dragon (Cycnoches haagii × Catasetum expansum) JEM 1986 has solid green flowers very similar in form to Catanoches Yellow Bird. Catasandra Fanfare (Catasetum expansum × Galeandra baueri) RF Orchids 1987 has unusual deeply cupped flowers blooming from the tip of the pseudobulb as the Galeandra parent does. This hybrid, the first to use a Galeandra species with Catasetum, opened up breeding possibilities to genera not considered to be in the Catasetum alliance, and started experimentation with other members of the Cymbidieae tribe. The first trigeneric hybrid, Monnierara Ruby Matrix (Catasetum expansum × Cycnodes Wine Delight) JEM 1989, had red-spotted green flowers very similar in form to those of Catanoches Green Dragon, but nonresupinate (Plate 89). Catasetum platyglossum has been registered as a species in four hybrids through 1994, but has since been relocated to a synonym of C. expansum by Gustavo Romero of the Oakes Ames Herbarium at Harvard with Rudolf Jenny of Germany. These crosses were C. Robert Gillespie (C. cernuum × C. platyglossum) Hofsommer (Gillespie) 1968; C. Platypil (C. platyglossum × C. pileatum) Spencer 1974 (synonym C. Orchidglade), Catamodes Patently Pretty (Mormodes guentheriana × Catasetum platyglossum) Levy 1985, and C. Takatsu (C. platyglossum × C. Orchidglade) Shimazaki 1994 (synonym C. Susan Fuchs). Catasetum Fimbriatum Catasetum fimbriatum has become a very popular parent, especially in Brazil. It was used for the first time in the 1970s. Six more hybrids were registered in the 1980s and nine in the 1990s. Most of these show some dentation along the edge of the lips. Catasetum Francis Nelson (C. trulla × C. fimbriatum) Beall 1974 was a stunning hybrid with fringed triangular-lipped flowers that were nearly black (Plate 29). This cross made the cover of the AOS Bulletin in the early 1980s. Catasetum Tuanku Zainab Petra (C. fimbriatum × C. Sumani) Jenny 1979, a rare German hybrid, was stunning in its own rights. Its flowers were fairly large with broad fringed yellow lips having a deep round pouch in their centers. The petals and sepals were barred like the C. fimbriatum parent. Catasetum Spotted Dragon (C. fimbriatum × C. Orchidglade) JEM 1983 had a deep yellow background with dark mahogany marking and the typical fringed lip (Plate 76). Catasetum Marge Soule (see under C. expansum) is very similar to C. Spotted Dragon, and C. Doris's Choice (see under C. pileatum) produced wide, flatter lips than the other crosses (Plate 26). Catasetum Lovena (C. fimbriatum × C. Susan Fuchs) Ramsey 1992 and C. Yellow Rain (C. 253

fimbriatum × C. Splendens) Pereira 1996 are both closer to C. Doris's Choice in size and form, but with vibrant yellow and red coloration. Catasetum Dragon's Teeth (C. fimbriatum × C. saccatum) JEM 1991 produced an interesting blending of the two parent species. The lips are pouched in the center with a tapering dentate edge. The reddish brown C. saccatum is dominate, as is the arrangement of the petals. Another cross with a heavily fimbriate lip is C. Free Flight (C. appendiculatum × C. fimbriatum) RF Orchids 1981. It has heavily spotted petals. Most of the recent Catasetum fimbriatum hybrids have been made in Brazil, many using rarer species not seen outside that country. Catasetum Antonio Carlos Stivali (C. cirrhaeoides × C. fimbriatum) Stivali 1996 produces tight clusters of yellow semi-pouched flowers with redbrown markings. Catasetum Brazilian Spring (C. fimbriatum × C. macrocarpum) Schmidt 1996 is another heavily cupped flower with brilliant yellow and red markings. It is very similar to C. Coromandel (C. fimbriatum × C. maculatum) Furness 1987, but with superior color. Catasetum João Nagata (C. fimbriatum × C. gnomus) Pereira 1996 produces unusual convoluted flowers with flared ivory lips. The most exciting of these crosses is C. Masterly Red (C. fimbriatum × C. vinaceum) Schmidt 1996, using the heavy-lipped red form of C. vinaceum. Schmidt also combined C. fimbriatum with C. tenebrosum and C. rooseveltianum, though these crosses have not yet been registered. Catasetum fimbriatum appears to be a very willing parent, even outside of the Catasetinae. Like many other catasetums, it combines easily with what became the genus Clowesia, such as C. Rebecca Northen. It has also been combined with Mormodes badia, producing one of the more unusual Catamodes. Cymasetum Punaluu. (Cymbidium Golden Elf × Catasetum fimbriatum) Thompson 1994 took an Award of Distinction for its Cymbidium-like garnet red flowers with maroon striations and a pink border to the dark maroon fimbriate lips. Catasandra Jumbo Express (Galeandra devoniana × Catasetum fimbriatum) Jumbo 1996 is one of the few crosses made with the genus Galeandra. Subsequently, C. fimbriatum has been successfully crossed with Eulophia guineensis. Catasetum Saccatum Catasetum saccatum, though one of the more stunning Catasetum species, has not been used much in breeding. Only six hybrids have been made with it as a primary parent. Three of these have been discussed in earlier paragraphs: C. Sumani (see under C. pileatum), C. Fanfair (see under C. expansum), and C. Dragon's Teeth (see under C. fimbriatum). Only one other cross was with another Catasetum: C. Burnt Sugar (C. Orchidglade × C. saccatum) Levy 1991

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produced a wide range of color forms (Plate 13). The flat oval fimbriate lips have the typical pouched center and callus. Some of the clones are very dark red with a white callus. Catasetum Blood And Glory (Clowesia russelliana × Catasetum saccatum) JEM 1991 has pendulous sprays of heavily pouched striped flowers. Most of the progeny were striped green and white like the Clowesia parent. The red forms often have green in the pouch and occasionally have pale stripes. In a similar cross, Clowesia warscewiczii × Catasetum saccatum, the lips are more cup-shaped with heavily fringed edges. The petals and sepals have a green background with heavy brown peppering, and the lips are green with white centers spotted with brown. This cross blooms repeatedly from January through April. Although Catasetum saccatum has few registered hybrids, it is the only species that has a fourth-generation cross. Catasetum Breckenridge Onyx (C. Susan Fuchs × C. Bravo) Breckenridge 1990 is a near-black large-lipped cross. This hybrid is being used in further breeding, including intergenerics. Catasetum Fuchsii Catasetum fuchsii, although not as handsome a species, has been used in as many crosses as C. saccatum. The earliest of the crosses, C. Pink Lemonade (Clowesia Rebecca Northen × Catasetum fuchsii) JEM 1982, had long pendulous sprays of very long-lasting pink flowers, smelling of lemons. The unusual flower longevity of this hybrid has made it important in further breeding, so that the species has now been used through the third generation. A second major line of breeding using Catasetum fuchsii was with the C. pileatum-C. exansum lines. Catasetum Thinger Dinger (see under C. expansum) was the first of this line registered. Although a cross of the red form of C. pileatum with C. fuchsii exists in cultivation, it has not been registered; its heavily cupped white flowers have pale maroonish-red markings. Catasetum Marsh Hollow (C. fuchsii × C. Orchidglade) Furrusi (Laurel) 1992 is very similar to the C. pileatum hybrid, but much more highly colored. Catasetum Kay Lowe (C. Susan Fuchs × C. fuchsii Ramsey 1993 is shaped more like C. Thinger Dinger, with smaller lateral lobes than those of the C. pileatum cross. The only intergeneric cross, Catamodes Sunburst (Mormodes maculata × Catasetum fuchsii) Moskowitz 1989, has waxy yellow flowers with the trilobed lips sticking out at 90 degrees from the petals. Catasetum Tenebrosum Catasetum tenebrosum is another stunning species, but seldom used in breeding. Only six hybrids have been made with it as a primary parent. Half of these were crosses with the C. pileatum-C. expansum line: C. Pileabrosum Green (see under C. pileatum), C. Black Knight (see 255

under C. expansum), and C. Donna Wise (C. tenebrosum × C. Orchid-glade) Dimmit (Wise) 1995. All three of these are nearly identical in shape; only C. pileatum proved dominant for color. Catasetum Midnight Madness (C. tenebrosum × C. cernuum) Levy 1996 combines two very dark brown species with green markings or lip (Plate 49). These colors combine well in this hybrid with interesting, nearly square lips. Catasetum Frances Smith (C. Marsh Hollow × C. tenebrosum) Light 1996 is an interesting attempt at flattening the heavily cupped lip of C. Marsh Hollow. Only one intergeneric has been registered with Catasetum tenebrosum. Catanoches Penthouse (Cycnoches pentadactylon × Catasetum tenebrosum) J&S 1982 is a very odd-looking hybrid with very deep brown petals and unusual small shield-shaped brown and white lips held away from the petals as in Cynoches flowers. Catasetum Trulla Catasetum trulla has a green and brown flower that is more green than brown. In breeding, however, the brown marking of this species has a strong tendency to intensify and spread color from the other parent. In one of the first crosses, C. Francis Nelson (see under C. fimbriatum), the browns from C. fimbriatum spread throughout the entire flower (Plate 29). Catasetum Henry Turner (see under C. expansum) has a flat lip that is totally red with a pronounced triangular callus in the center (Plate 35). Catasetum Adagent Acres (C. sanguineum × C. trulla) Adagent 1996 has a heavily convoluted triangular lip with deep red to black coloration. Catasetum Truly Treasure (C. Dragon's Treasure × C. trulla) Margolis (JEM) 1996 has lime green flowers speckled with rose, darkening to cinnamon at the end of the lips. The flower form is similar to that of the C. trulla parent. Catasetum José Antonio Braga (C. atratum × C. trulla) Pereira 1997 is the latest cross to be registered. These are similar to C. Francis Nelson in form, but lighter in coloration. Two other Catasetum crosses have been made with C. trulla, but are unflowered at this time. One is with C. garnettianum and the other is with C. Doris' Choice. One intergeneric has been made, Mormodes cogniauxii × Catasetum trulla JEM, but it has not flowered for me at this time. Catasetum Sanguineum Only five hybrids have been registered with this unusual species, but it may become more prominent in breeding as more people become familiar with it. Catasetum sanguineum imparts heavy convolution to its progeny and, when the darker forms of the species are used, it imparts very dark coloration. 256

Catasetum Dapper Dots (see under C. pileatum), C. José Abalo (C. sanguineum × C. Orchidglade) Pereira 1996 (Plate 38), and the unregistered crosses of C. sanguineum × C. Penang Jumbo and C. sanguineum × C. Susan Fuchs have flowers with very thick elongated shield-shaped lips. The flowers are highly variable in color, usually ranging from greenish yellow to a deep red background with dark spotting. The shape of the lip also varies to some degree. Sometimes the lip has flared edges with spiny appendages; other times its has simple narrow edges with heavy convolutions inside. Catasetum sanguineum × C. kleberianum Schmidt will have the same form as these other crosses, but should be primarily yellow with dark brown to black markings. The flowers of Catasetum Consuelo (C. sanguineum × C. maculatum) Pereira 1996 and C. sanguineum × C. macrocarpum Schmidt are more hooded than those of the other crosses, but have very intense red and black markings. Catasetum sanguineum × C. denticulatum Schmidt is intermediate between these two types, with wavy or dentate edges on the vibrant red- and orange-toned lips. Jumbo Orchids has offered the first intergeneric using Catasetum sanguineum. Cycnoches Jumbo Dragon × Catasetum sanguineum should have very waxy flowers with a great deal of red pigmentation on a green background. A very unusual hybrid using a species similar to Catasetum sanguineum is JEM's cross combining the black ''fingered" C. naso var. charlesworthii with C. cristatum. These seedlings could produce flowers with multiple dark appendages along heavily cupped, convoluted lips. Catasetum Macrocarpum Catasetum macrocarpum has been used to add color to hybrids from the rich yellows and vibrant reds of its lip. Only four hybrids have been registered with it as parent. These include C. Ruth Murry (see under C. expansum), C. Splendens (see under C. pileatum), and C. Brazilian Spring (see under C. fimbriatum). One of the newest registrations out of Brazil is C. Maria Helena (C. macrocarpum × C. galeritum) Schmidt 1996. Schmidt has also used C. macrocarpum in crosses with C. vinaceum and C. schmidtianum. Catasetum Vinaceum Catasetum vinaceum is being used as a parent primarily in its native country of Brazil, due to its relatively recent introduction into cultivation. Only two crosses have been registered with this species, C. Masterly Red (see under C. fimbriatum) and C. Durval Ferreira (see under C. pileatum), but new crosses are being seen, such as the previously mentioned hybrid with C. macrocarpum and crosses with C. jurunense (Schmidt), C. cernuum (JEM), C. Dragon's Treasure (JEM), and Clowesia Rebecca Northen (JEM). 257

Catasetum Cernuum Catasetum cernuum has only been registered in two hybrids: C. Vroni (see under C. pileatum), C. Midnight Madness (see under C. tenebrosum), and C. Robert Gillespie (C. cernuum × C. expansum, but registered with its synonym, C. platyglossum). Several other hybrids have been made using C. atratum, C. confusum, C. incurvum, C. vinaceum, C. Orchidglade, C. Susan Fuchs, and C. Henry Turner. All the C. pileatum-C. expansum line of breeding with C. cernuum produces larger C. cernuum-like flowers with deep coloration. Catasetum Barbatum Catasetum barbatum has been used in a few registered hybrids. The first of these was C. Billy Whiskers (Clowesia warscewiczii × Catasetum barbatum) Moir 1967, which featured pendulous sprays of green flowers with heavily fringed lips. Catasetum Flight O' Fancy (C. barbatum × C. hookeri) Levy 1991 is a small-growing plant with arching sprays of small heavily cupped brown flowers with darker speckling. The protruding rectangular central lobes of the lips have fine short teeth along their edges. A series of three parallel crosses was registered with large dish-lipped catasetums and Catasetum barbatum. The first of these was C. Nellie Paget (C. Susan Fuchs × C. barbatum) Paget 1990. The other two crosses were C. Dona Marie (see under C. pileatum) and C. Sandy Gibson (see under C. expansum). All three of these crosses produced fairly small flowers with serrated edges. In each of the crosses at least half of the progeny bloomed out green to white with speckling mostly in the petals. The other half of the progeny were heavily influenced by the color of their female parents. The cross using C. pileatum produced the largest flowers of this group, as would be expected. Catasetum Dona Marie had been used extensively by the late Wesley Ramsey for second-generation hybrids. At this point, none of these are known to have flowered. Catasetum Appendiculatum Only two crosses are registered with Catasetum appendiculatum. Catasetum Free Flight (see under C. fimbriatum) has slightly cupped flowers with heavy fringing along the edges of the lip. All the progeny were heavily marked with reddish mahogany spots and bars over a green to yellow-orange background. The other cross, C. Percio Andrade Filho (C. appendiculatum × C. ornithoides) Pereira 1996, is similar to C. Flight O' Fancy (see under C. barbatum), but has longer arching sprays of flowers. Second-generation Hybrids Very few hybrids have been used to any extent in registered second-generation breeding. If we omit Clowesia Grace Dunn and C. Rebecca Northen that have been moved from the genus 258

Catasetum, only three hybrids are left that are registered in more than two crosses: C. Orchidglade, C. Susan Fuchs, and C. Pink Lemonade. Thirteen crosses have been registered with Catasetum Orchid-glade through the beginning of 1997. Two of these are back-crosses to C. pileatum and C. expansum, producing more of the dish-lipped hybrids. With the exception of C. JEM's Pink (C. Pink Lemonade × C. Orchidglade) JEM 1986, all the other crosses were to species: C. Bound for Glory (see under C. pileatum), C. Burnt Sugar (see under C. saccatum), C. Donna Wise (see under C. tenebrosum), C. Marsh Hollow (see under C. fuchsii), C. Spotted Dragon (see under C. fimbriatum), and C. Susan Fuchs (see under C. pileatum). Two of these were intergeneric hybrids with Cycnoches: Catanoches Crazy Creature (Cycnoches chlorochilon × Catasetum Orchidglade) J&S 1978 and Catanoches Lemon Meringue (Cycnoches haagii × Catasetum Orchidglade) J&S 1982. These were similar to Catanoches Yellow Bird (see under Catasetum pileatum) in form and ranged from a creamy white to yellow, with some progeny being spotted or mottled with red to orangish tones. A third intergeneric hybrid, Catamodes BlackMagic (Mormodes sinuata × Catasetum Orchidglade) JEM 1987, has the blackest Catasetinae flower to date (Plate 1). The use of Mormodes sinuata deepened the pink and ivory color of the Catasetum Orchidglade parent, producing totally unexpected coloration. Catasetum Susan Fuchs has been registered in 11 crosses to date (Figure 9-2). Most of these were with species: C. Fuchs Delight (see under C. expansum), C. Kay Lowe (see under C. fuchsii), C. Lovena (see under C. fimbriatum), C. Nellie Paget (see under C. barbatum), C. Penang (see under C. pileatum), and the newest, C. Fabio Nahas Pereira (C. atratum × C. Susan Fuchs) Pereira 1997. An intergeneric hybrid, Catanoches Midnight Jem (Cycnoches chlorochilon × Catasetum Susan Fuchs) JEM 1991, has flowers that are nearly black, like the variety of C. Susan Fuchs used in the cross. Many of the progeny of this cross closely resemble the Catasetum parent. Three were crosses with hybrids. The first, Monnierara Mary Rose (Cycnodes Wine Delight × Catasetum Susan Fuchs) JEM 1991, is a rare trigeneric with wax flowers and slightly reduced dish lips, at 90 degrees to the petals. The color in this cross, although not black, was deep wine red to reddish black. The second, C. Breckenridge Onyx (see under C. saccatum) added "a dash "of C. saccatum into the predominately C. expansum hybrid to produce another of the dish-lipped hybrids, with most of the progeny being nearly black. These flowers have much larger lips than C. Burnt Sugar, which combined C. saccatum directly with C. Orchidglade, the C. pileatum-C. expansum genes being more heavily diluted by C. saccatum. The third hybrid, C. Memoria Kampar Yip (C. Susan Fuchs × C. Tuanku Zainab Petra) Serdang 1993, had a broad,

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bright yellow lip with red spotting. The center of the lips has a bowl-like depression like the C. Tuanku Zainab Petra parent and some denticulation along the edge.

Figure 9-2. Catasetum Susan Fuchs 'Freckles & Cream.' Photo by Fred Paget. Three crosses have been registered with Catasetum Pink Lemonade: C. Alabaster (see under C. pileatum), C. JEM's Pink (see above), and C. Dragon's Treasure (C. Pink Lemonade × Clowesia warscewiczii) JEM 1991. Catasetum JEM's Pink exhibits a wide range of color in the wide dish-lips, while the petals are always of a pink background. Catasetum Dragon's Treasure is generally pink in color with better form than the C. Pink Lemonade parent, but sometimes has an icy green background from the Clowesia warscewiczii parent. Breeding Trends Current trends in Catasetum breeding vary from region to region. In Brazil, where interest in the Catasetinae is increasing, vast numbers of primary hybrids are being made, utilizing many of the new species discovered in that country. The main emphasis in breeding has included C. ariquemense, C. denticulatum. C. galeritum, C. osculatum, C. rooseveltianum, C. schmidtianum, and C. tigrinum. Both Antonio Schmidt and Luiz Álvaro Pereira dos Santos have made numerous hybrids combining these rarer species with more commonly known species such as C. pileatum, C. expansum, and C. macrocarpum, as well as some of the showy C. Orchidglade line. Very little intergeneric breeding is evident at this point, though a few crosses with Galeandra and Cycnoches have been made. In Venezuela, Alexis Pardo Isla has worked mostly with endemic species also, concentrating on Catasetum fimbriatum, C. pileatum, C. saccatum, and C. tabulare, although he has made several hybrids using C. hookeri and a few using C. barbatum, C. callosum, and C. sanguineum. He has listed very few crosses using a hybrid parent: only two with C. Orchidglade, 260

one with C. Fanfair, and one with C. José Abalo. The heavy emphasis on local species is not unusual since catasetums have become popular on an international scale relatively recently. In countries such as Taiwan and the United States where catasetums are not endemic, hybrids are used much more widely in further breeding. The reason for this trend is obviously the same as the reason for the trend in South America to use endemic species: availability. Although much primary breeding is being done in the United States, an equal number of hybrids is being used as parents. In Hawaii, the late Wesley Ramsey's crosses of Catasetum Dona Marie and C. Lovena are used extensively in the hybrids offered by Ken West Orchids of Pahoa, Hawaii. West's list also shows heavy reliance on such hybrids as C. Susan Fuchs and C. Orchidglade, as well as the C. fuchsii hybrids C. Kay Lowe and C. Marsh Hollow. As with most breeders, West also relies on the major speciesC. pileatum, C. expansum, and C. fimbriatumas well as C. cernuum as parents of the crosses he offers. He is one of the few breeders who work extensively with the C. barbatum group. West feels that the results shown in C. Dona Marie indicate that the C. barbatum group is superior to C. fimbriatum for breeding against the large-flowered catasetums. He offers several Catasetum crosses with Clowesia and was first to offer hybrids using Clowesia dodsoniana. He has several Catasetum crosses with C. Kengar, which is actually a full Clowesia, and some of the first Catasetum crosses with C. Black Jade, which is half Clowesia. At JEM Orchids in Delray Beach, Florida, breeding trends are heavily skewed toward complex and intergeneric hybrids. One line of breeding descends from Catasetum Pink Lemonade, which has been back-crossed to its Clowesia ancestry and crossed over to other species and groups of the Catasetinae. Another line of breeding stems from Clowesia warscewiczii and includes Catasetum White Magic (Plate 87), C. Wychee's Bumble Bee (Plate 88), the pending C. Sophia's Choice (Clowesia warscewiczii × Catasetum incurvum) Margolis (JEM), and the unnamed cross (Clowesia warscewiczii × Catasetum Breckenridge Onyx). The latter should produce flowers very similar to those of C. Wychee's Bumble Bee, but possibly even darker, with more intense reds. These groups breed flowers without triggers, leading to greater flower longevity. Another breeder working with JEM, Mark Margolis, has crossed C. Kay Lowe with C. barbatum, C. fimbriatum, C. imperiale, C. oerstedii, and C. Alexis Pardo.

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Figure 9-3. Catanoches (Cycnoches Pistachio Moon × Catasetum fimbriatum). Photo by Fred Paget. Among intergenerics JEM Orchids produces Catamodes, Catanoches, and Monnierara. The most popular line of intergeneric hybrids so far has been the "black"-flowered Catamodes. The first of these was Catamodes BlackMagic (Plate 1), an accidental discovery while trying to produce reds and pastels by combining a red Mormodes with a pink and ivory Catasetum. This discovery sparked a group of parallel hybrids using the same Mormodes with other Catasetum hybrids such as C. Susan Fuchs and C. Breckenridge Onyx. While the C. Breckenridge Onyx cross has not yet flowered, the C. Susan Fuchs cross, using a near-black form, did not produce flowers quite as black as Catamodes Black Magic. The Catanoches hybrids have produced very full, rounded flowers much like a Cattleya in form (Figure 9-3). These hybrids, however, seem to be slow to mature and bloom, taking up to twice the number of years for first flowering as a standard Catasetum hybrid. The trigeneric hybrid Monnierara is also slow to mature and has been very difficult to produce. So far only two of these hybrids have produced plantlets. The crosses that have worked combine a Cycnodes (Cycnoches × Mormodes) as the female with Catasetum pollen. The other bigenerics that could be used to produce this combination do not appear to produce active female flowers, and pollinia are often absent or highly reduced. Jumbo Orchids, however, has successfully produced plants combining Catamodes with Cycnoches. Some of the more conventional Catasetum work being done at JEM Orchids includes crosses descending out of C. expansum, C. fimbriatum, C. incurvum, C. pileatum, C. trulla, and 262

their hybrids, including C. Orchidglade, C. Susan Fuchs, C. Breckenridge Onyx, C. Spotted Dragon, C. Doris's Choice, and C. Henry Turner. Although many of these crosses produce the typical commercial type Catasetum hybrids with their pronounced crossed triggers, some of this breeding produces flowers with "mirrored" triggers that lie flat on the lips and are less easily triggered. This characteristic comes from the use of C. trulla and its hybrids such as C. Henry Turner. Aside from the intense color, their flowers should also be long-lasting. JEM Orchids has combined C. trulla with C. Spotted Dragon, C. Dragon's Treasure, and Mormodes cogniauxii. The newest of their Catasetum trulla hybrids is a cross with an alba form of C. Doris's Choice. It will be interesting to see what effects the C. trulla pigments will have on the progeny. Work with C. Henry Turner has led to hybrids with C. cernuum, C. incurvum, and C. Pink Lemonade. JEM Orchids is also working with other mirrored-trigger species. Catasetum cernuum has been crossed with C. confusum, C. tenebrosum, C. vinaceum, and C. Orchidglade, and C. vinaceum was combined with Clowesia Rebecca Northen, Catasetum Dragon's Treasure, and C. imperiale. In Taiwan, Jumbo Orchids of Taipei specializes in intergeneric breeding with Clowesia, Cycnoches, and Galeandra. Galeandra devoniana was crossed with the seldom-seen Catasetum reichenbachianum to produce a new Catasandra, and with Catasetum fimbriatum to produce Catasandra Jumbo Express. The latter hybrid has lovely, deeply cuplipped flowers with white and yellow background, heavily speckled with red, and a broad fringed edge to the lip and petals. Jumbo Orchids also works with Clowesia Grace Dunn and C. Rebecca Northen, which they have combined with Catasetum barbatum, C. fimbriatum, and C. viridiflavum to produce flowers with heavily fringed lips. They have offered two crosses using C. Penang. One crossed with C. sanguineum should be very similar to C. José Abalo, which combines C. sanguineum with C. Orchidglade. The other, with C. tenebrosum, will be similar to C. Donna Wise (see under C. tenebrosum). Jumbo Orchids is the only breeder to have combined a Catamodes with a Cycnoches to produce a Monnierara. In their cross of Catamodes Jumbo Ruby (Clowesia Rebecca Northen × Mormodes ignea) with Cycnoches pentadactylon, Jumbo Ruby actually has a Clowesia parent rather than a true Catasetum.

Chapter 10 Fragrances of Catasetums 263

by Harold G. Hills, Norris H. Williams, and W. Mark Whitten In addition to their highly interesting shapes and colors, the flowers of Catasetum species are very fragrant at maturity. Furthermore, they produce fragrance over a long time, for up to 20 days or so for female flowers and a week or more for male flowers that have not discharged their pollinaria. This phenomenon is in marked contrast to genera such as Coryanthes, Gongora, or Stanhopea in which fragrance is strongest on the first day the flowers bloom and then declines rapidly on day 2 until almost no fragrance can be detected on day 3 or 4. The fragrances of Catasetum flowers, like most other pleasant orchid fragrances, are made up of one or more of the approximately 150 chemical compounds that occur widely in floral fragrances. Of these 150 compounds, about 50 are major components that represent at least 2 percent of the total fragrance in a given Catasetum species. Some fragrances are termed simple because they contain one or a few compounds. The fragrance of C. micranthum, for example, is 100 percent indole. Other fragrances are much more complex and may contain as many as 20 components (see Table 10-1). The relative concentration of the different fragrance components, in addition to the compounds present, makes a fragrance unique. Thus, a fragrance containing 10 percent of A, 30 percent of B, and 60 percent of C has a different aroma than a fragrance containing 40 percent of A, 20 percent of B, and 40 percent of C. All species of Catasetum (and all other members of the Catasetinae and Stanhopeinae) are pollinated by male euglossine bees that visit the flowers and collect the volatile floral fragrance compounds. The male bees receive no nectar or other food reward from the flowers. We do not know what the bees do with the fragrances they collect, but it does seem to be involved with mating behavior of the bees. In more than 30 years of research we have identified many floral fragrance components and have demonstrated that many of them are powerful attractants for the natural pollinators of the orchid containing that fragrance. Identification of Floral Fragrance Compounds Several attempts have been made in the past to characterize the aroma of flowers, but the only scientific way to do this is by analyzing the chemistry of the floral fragrances. We began analyzing floral fragrances with gas chromatography in the 1960s. Considering the technology available at the time, we were amazingly successful in identifying several floral fragrance compounds, including benzyl acetate, cineole, methyl cinnamate, methyl salicylate, phenylethyl acetate, and so forth, which have stood the test of time as being important attractants. In the 264

1970s we began using combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to identify additional compounds and to confirm our earlier identifications. Table 10-1. Fragrance compounds of the Catasetum maculatum group, which includes C. expansum, C. integerrimum, C. laminatum, C. macrocarpum, C. macroglossum, C. maculatum, C. pendulum, C. pileatum, C. saccatum, C. tabulare, and C. viridiflavum. (Boldface indicates major compounds.)

Many of the compounds are widely distributed in floral fragrances and are widely known even by the amateur. For instance, one of the most common compounds in fragrances of Catasetum is cineole, or eucalyptus oil, the odor of Vicks VapoRub. Cineole is found in C. labiatum (61 percent), C. aff. lemosii (51 percent), and C. tuberculatum (33.9 percent). Methyl salicylate, or oil of wintergreen, is also a common fragrance compound. It is the dominant fragrance in C. collare (96.1 percent) and C. gnomus (72.3 percent). Carvone and related compounds are the aroma of rye bread, caraway seeds, and some liqueurs. They range from 20.2 to 51.5 percent in the C. maculatum group, which includes C. expansum, C. integerrimum, C. laminatum, C. macrocarpum, C. macroglossum, C. maculatum, C. pendulum, C. pileatum, C. saccatum, C. tabulare, and C. viridiflavum,. Four other common compounds occur in much smaller quantities in catasetums: eugenol is clove oil, methyl cinnamate is the aroma of the little 265

cinnamon red hot candies, phenylethyl acetate is a major compound of rose fragrances, and benzyl acetate is a component of hyacinth or narcissus. Our first system for collecting fragrances for analysis was based on simply enclosing the inflorescence in a large clean container (usually one we had constructed out of Plexiglas), letting the fragrance build up for a few hours, and then taking a 10 ml gas sample and injecting it into the gas chromatograph. Part of the sample was sent to the detector and part of the sample was diverted to an exit port, so we could smell a compound as it was separated from the floral fragrance mixture. Now we use a small glass tube packed with an adsorbent (Tenax and charcoal) attached to the sampling chamber, and we pull the fragrance-filled air through the glass tube for a given period of time, then elute the fragrance with a solvent (usually hexane), and analyze the sample with the GC/MS. This system is so sensitive that we can analyze one sniff of a floral fragrance. As the fragrance changes over time, as will be discussed below, we use a standard collecting technique of pulling air through the sampling tube for three to four hours during the morning and early afternoon, which is the maximum time of fragrance production. Readers interested in more technical details of analysis should contact one of the authors. Additional major works on orchid fragrances include The Scent of Orchids: Olfactory and Chemical Investigations by Roman Kaiser (Elsevier Press), and many scientific papers by Gunnar Bergstrom, Lars Tollsten and co-workers, and Guenter Gerlach. Fragrance Changes in Male Flowers During the Day Male flowers produce almost no detectable fragrance the first day they are open. In subsequent days the fragrance increases rapidly, reaching a maximum generally three to five days after opening. Fragrance production is sustained for up to six to seven days if the pollinaria are not discharged. In nature, often the pollinaria are rapidly dislodged by visiting bees, and the flowers senesce rapidly. If the pollinaria are discharged early in the morning, odor production continues at a normal level for that day, but the next day almost no fragrance can be detected. Presumably, this cessation of fragrance production is adaptive; bees are not attracted to flowers that no longer have pollinaria and therefore are more likely to visit intact flowers. Intact male flowers produce strong fragrance over a fairly long period, but the composition of the fragrance changes over a 24-hour period (Figure 10-1). In this experiment performed in a growth chamber with 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark at a constant temperature, some fragrance can be detected at any time, but the maximum production is from dawn until about 10 A.M., which happens to coincide with the time of maximum activity of male euglossine bees. Maximum fragrance is produced on days 3 to 5 after the flowers open, and maximum fragrance production occurs at a time when the pollinaria can be easily discharged. 266

The measure of fragrance by integration units gives an indication of the relative strength of a fragrance, as well as of the relative composition of the fragrance.

Figure 10-1. Twenty-four-hour fragrance cycle of Catasetum maculatum male flowers. A closer look at the early morning and early afternoon data of Figure 10-1 allows us to clarify the secretion of fragrance compounds over time. First, the five major fragrance compounds reach maximum production from 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. Second, alpha-pinene is the major fragrance component in this time period, followed by cineole and carvone oxide. Third, all compounds in this period are in about the same proportion as before the lights came on, although much more fragrance is produced. Fourth, between 10 A.M. and 2 P.M., production of cineole and alpha-pinene drops off and production of benzyl acetate increases (cineole and alpha-pinene are terpenoids and have a different biosynthetic pathway than the aromatic compound benzyl acetate); during this period carvone oxide dominates the fragrance and the flowers smell more of rye bread and not of the medicinal-turpentine odor they had earlier in the day. Fifth, our perception of the fragrance corresponds with these changes in the fragrance over time. Altering the light and dark period can change the time of fragrance production. If flowers are kept in continuous light, the fragrance cycle can be suppressed. If the light period is then shifted by 12 hours, the time of fragrance production can be shifted accordingly. These changes in the fragrance during the day are one of the reasons we feel that fragrance judging should be viewed with caution. At what point in the life of an inflorescence and at what time of day should a flower be judged for fragrance? Also, people vary in their 267

ability to perceive certain fragrances. Some people completely lack the ability to detect certain chemicals, a condition termed anosmia. Longevity of Fragrance Production in Female Flowers In contrast with male flowers, female flowers may produce fragrances over several weeks (until the flower is pollinated). Figure 10-2 shows the results of sampling the same female inflorescence of Catasetum expansum over 20 days, with sampling each day done in the greenhouse between 8 A.M. until noon. The total fragrance production each day and the variation in fragrance strength are responses to various factors relating to light and temperature. This experiment was done in June in Gainesville, Florida, which is in the middle of the rainy season. Weather factors such as rainy or overcast days as opposed to bright, clear days affect fragrance production, as does the temperature change associated with overcast days. The maximum fragrance production was on day 14 in this experiment. We would expect that if the experiment had been done in a growth chamber with constant temperature and a strict 12-hour light/dark cycle, the fragrance production would have been more even.

Figure 10-2. Fragrance of Catasetum expansum female flowers. All compounds except trans-limonene oxide follow the same relative patterns of increases and decreases in fragrance production. Note that trans-limonene oxide reached a maximum production on day 5, and then decreased over the remainder of the life of the inflorescence relative to the other compounds. We have no explanation for this at this time. On day 6 there was relatively more benzyl acetate compared with other compounds. By day 8, alpha-pinene and carvone oxide were clearly the dominant compounds, and this pattern held to the end of this experiment. 268

Fragrance Groups Although flower shapes and floral fragrances vary remarkably in Catasetum, species can be grouped according to similarity in fragrance. The fragrance group for which we have the most data is the C. maculatum group, whose members all belong to the section Anisoceras and have one straight and one curved antenna. This fragrance group is characterized by the presence of carvone oxide, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, and cineole (see Table 10-1). As long as each species is geographically separated from others in this group, no hybrids occur; however, when two species have overlapping ranges, hybrids very often occur. The group may or may not have a common ancestry. The presence of similar fragrances does not necessarily indicate close relationship, but rather indicates the result of evolutionary adaptation to a common suite of pollinator species. This group of species usually does not hybridize with C. discolor and C. longifolium, which also have a fragrance with a large percentage of carvone oxide, because C. discolor and C. longifolium place the pollinarium on the underside of the thorax of the bee, rather than on the back of the thorax. Catasetum planiceps, another member of this fragrance group, is not related morphologically to either the C. maculatum group or C. discolor. Several species in the C. maculatum complex hybridize in areas of geographic overlap, and many of these hybrids have been described as new species in the past. A second fragrance group is composed of those species with ipsdienol in their fragrance. This group includes Catasetum napoense (36.1 percent), C. purum (40.6 percent), C. tenebrosum (46.8 percent), and an undescribed hybrid from Peru. These three species also have a large amount of myrcene (34.4 percent, 42.3 percent, 47.4 percent, respectively) in their fragrance; this compound is biosynthetically related to ipsdienol. Cineole is a major component of a group of species that includes Catasetum labiatum (61.2 percent), C. aff. lemosii (50.5 percent), and C. tuberculatum (33.9 percent) as well as most species of the C. maculatum group (to 22.4 percent). This group has the characteristic aroma of eucalyptus oil. Methyl salicylate is a dominant aroma component of Catasetum collare (96.1 percent) and C. gnomus (72.3 percent), giving these flowers the strong aroma of oil of wintergreen. Both species have one straight and one curved antenna and are morphologically similar to the C. maculatum complex. Another small fragrance group composed of Catasetum cristatum, C. luridum, and C. tuberculatum has a large amount of para-dimeth-oxybenzene (58.8 percent, 66.3 percent, and 41.7 percent, respectively). Some samples of C. barbatum also produce this compound (62.5 percent). 269

Until more work is done on the molecular systematics of Catasetum, we can only speculate about the ancestry and relationships of species in these fragrance groups. Some species within a group may be closely related, as certainly appears to be the case from morphological observations of some members of the C. maculatum complex, while no apparent morphological relationship is obvious with other species in this complex. The lip is free to assume many different shapes, as evidenced in the hybrids between C. expansum and C. macroglossum that cross back to the parents and produce a wide variety of shapes and colors. Until we have a reliable phylogeny for Catasetum, we can only hypothesize that some similarities in fragrance composition may be due to convergent evolution, most likely as a response to the availability of a particular pollinator species or group of pollinator species. Similarity in fragrances does not necessarily imply a close evolutionary relationship. Table 10-2. Fragrance compounds of Catasetum Delightful and its parents. (Numbers in boldface indicate major compounds.)

Table 10-2 shows the fragrances of a cross of Catasetum and Clowesia, with fragrances of both parents and of the hybrid offspring. The compounds are given as percentages of the total fragrance, and totals do not equal 100 percent because minor components are omitted. The hybrid Catasetum Delightful represents a cross between an orchid that smells like cinnamon with one that smells like rye bread, to produce an offspring that smells like Vicks VapoRub. The two major compounds, methyl cinnamate from one parent and carvone oxide from the other, are either absent or found in only a small percentage of the hybrid fragrance. Both parents have 270

cineole in their fragrances, so it is not surprising that it is a dominant compound in the hybrid. Somehow, the biosynthetic pathways are interrupted in the hybrid. This problem often occurs in complex hybrids, resulting in little or no fragrance being produced. Only in situations where both parents have the same fragrance can we expect the fragrance to remain the same in the hybrids.

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