The Vikings

THE VIKINGS Those territories which are today Denmark, Norway and Sweden were, in the middle ages, the home of the Vikings. The ancient world knew late these lands North-European, which counted them first, in his legends, as the last of the land boundary, designed in the form of the latest Thule, beyond which contained strange beings of other worlds, populated with mythological figures. Natural conditions have printed, no doubt, of Viking civilization without certain features, but to set up, how it has been argued sometimes absolutely decisive factor. As the relative isolation of the Scandinavian Peninsula could not constitute an insurmountable obstacle for Tricia Vikings nor the harshness of the climate could not brake human society development on these lands. Less favorable conditions of life have done just that in the first centuries of existence, she possessed a pace somewhat slower of historical evolution. These obstacles were, however, soon to be outdated by the people of the North, who have developed a civilization adapted to the environment, using a series of advantages received by Scandinavian lands. For instance, endless forests have to offer with giving handcrafted wood and wild fjords were transformed into natural harbors. Even the storms of the North could not swerve their Viking way, but through their wisdom, their sailors have always worn further away. The most original of the Viking civilization, symbol of strength and courage, their ship is equally perfect realization, the masterpiece. You could argue that it represents for Scandinavians what Greek temple is for the Mediterranean world. More than weapons, the ship is subject to legitimate pride of the Vikings.

THE VIKING, PERFECT DESCRIPTION At first glance it seems pretty hard to join the fighter Viking, spoiler and occupier, the explorer Viking, and enterprising, foolhardy in any sacrifice when it comes to acquire for themselves a more friendly land or get him to leave and the promise of other realms. Thus, the people of the North, with expeditions causes and resources from more complex ones, they give subordinates a parable of Audacity, talent and worthiness, with multiple meanings as well, being one of the areas closest to human sensitivity and contemporary interest in the existence of the Vikings. If the Vikings were primarily a population of discoverers, as often stated, is still discussed. But it is sure that the people of the North have been proven not only proficient navigators, but also entrepreneurs, founders of colonizers settlements and even the workers of the land.

THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN SOCIETY "The position of women in any society is the exact measure of the progress of its development," said the Swedish grand romantic historical justification Geijer. In our era we seem not to be at all aware that a society in which the woman was not only respected, often spoiled, but even capable of economic initiatives, political responsibilities and literary activities, he was in the chip required based on a remarkably developed civilization. This essential truth deserves to be remembered especially in our country where children are still being taught in schools as "wild Vikings were coming from the North who played during the fighting".

NAME AND RENAME French ancestors called them according to place of origin, Norman, and those of the British dani, given that they had to do more with the inhabitants of the Danish lands. German chronicles using ascomani name, that men of ash, as this wood was widely used in building ships northern people. Irish called them Gall (foreign) or lochlannach (north). In Spain, people north were designated by the name of Arab origin madjus (pagan sorcerers), meant to suggest the horror of their expeditions of plunder and conquest have signed the land basin mediteranean. But the most significant name, because as attributed her northern people themselves, being more prevalent even in their own sources (legends, chronicles), is the Vikings. She became widely used to this day. Although the origin of the word has not yet been fully clarified, it binds obviously, the specific lifestyle of the people of the north, as witnessed by a set of old and new. One of the most widely accepted of them consider that the name derives from the word wik which means "golf, fjord". Would be talking about the people who lived around the bays or fjords, forms of specific landscape Scandinavian shoreline. This name we can suggest that, initially, the people of the North lived mainly on shores that offer more favorable conditions and more practical ties with neighboring territories. For those who accept the Anglo-Saxon origin of the name, it is derived from the term wik. It is, in its turn, the origin of the Latin word vicus, which can be translated as "camp", which suggests the military concerns of the people of the North, but also in the "City", a term that might refer to a form of life that has known in Scandinavia, as we see, a remarkable development and early history of ladder. May we quote a hypothesis which, although not yet too many followers, it seems quite interesting: Viking would derive from the noun which means in ancient Scandinavian population's language "someone who makes a surrounding" or "who's away from home", a situation that suits the people of the North, destiny have spent a good part of their existence on ships or on land within distances of large territories of origin. As you have been spammed on lands outside Scandinavia, the Vikings have received other names. Thus, in old Russia, Swedish Vikings were called varegi. Besides these names in scientific papers or in literary works can still be found and others, having also of a general nature. It is about the people of North European area of the origin of their name, or with the metaphorical resonances, men of the sea, suggesting it is the second "homeland" of the Vikings.

THE EXPLOSION IN THE NORTH Getting out of the Vikings in the tempestuous their countries at the end of the 8th century and early 9th century remains a still unexplained historical fact. Without to exaggerate the number of people involved in these phenomenon, we must say that it was certainly more than an accident of history that around 790 Norwegians raided the coasts of East and West of the British Isles, the islands of the Western and Northern Ireland. Starting at the end of the 19th century many historians share the view that the explosive expansion of the Vikings has been a population factor. Scandinavian society was a society dominated by men; the idea you have about virility procreation included a large number of children, especially of the male and a sense of adventure bound immeasurably great and the discovery of new territories overseas. If we can give credence to the story somewhat hostile to Adam of Bremen, polygamy was widespread in Sweden, being limited only to wealth. Other stories suggest that some leaders could have up to 40 wives. You don't need much imagination to understand the effect you can have this on growth of population. A man could procreate 20 sons, of which 10 came to maturity, and each, in turn, be able to procreate 20 sons of which 10 to live etc. For example, Harald Beautiful Hair has had at least 9 children (according to some reports, 20) have reached maturity. His son Eric Axe Bloody had at least 8 sons who lived. And so far, and with the other thousand generations. Or at least that it could happen until it has reached the critical point, which may occur quickly and almost unexpectedly, if the population grows at this pace. However, even if you take into consideration that, in a society like that of the Vikings, which was dominated by men and in which a man could have multiple wives in the same time, polygamy should be considered a positive factor, although not predominantly in the population.

OTHER (CURIOSITY)  The great obstacle, like a smoke screen for interested history of Viking history is definitely the problem of violence of the Vikings. It seems like every generation of historians is determined to always review this problem. The Viking threatening, who attack and plundered monasteries and women kidnapping certainly existed and at the same time, seeing in it a peaceful farmer does not get too much endeavor to reconstruct the image.  It would be gullible to want to rehabilitate the Vikings: a century passed since historians, archaeologists, philologists and Scandinavian runologii dedicate this purpose. Vikings face appears today in a nuanced light enough to distinguish objectivity shadows. The Vikings were fierce warriors and many of them brutal soldiers must be committed terrible acts. Cunning has not been abroad and if loyalty was considered to be one of the essential qualities of an individual seem to be very well accepted that rather subtle stratagems than honorable serve the interests of their peoples. Merchants, have always made a difference very muscled between robbery and trade; to the East were indulged even unscrupulous in the slave trade. Polytheism, as their Christianity, has not always been very easily but they had among them cowards, traitors and depraved. And yet, of the texts, from the runes and even from the ruins of their buildings also extricate an impression of grandeur, energy, courage in the face of hazards and heroism in front of death that you're tempted to use superlatives.  None of the monks of the monastery on the small island of Lindisfarne, in the Inner Hebrides, he could not guess as usual on that day, they prepare to start mowing hay, will become, without their own, characters of Chronicles by mostly in letters of fire and blood. Even when a few sailing vessels were approaching the Island coasts, they don't have too much fun. It is just preparing to welcome guests according to Reverend wore him, giving them food and water. You probably don't even have had time to recover, because, with a quickness and determination that have to make up beyond the borders of the feared Europe, foreigners with the stature of the faces covered with huge and thick beard, blonde, has begun, in their turn, "summer harvest", as they called themselves the expeditions of plunder. If it's to give credence to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, this was the first expedition of plunder Vikings outside their countries. As you can see, at the beginning of the 8th century, future conquerors of lands and their attacking powers had isolated settlements, especially the rich monasteries.  In 1957 were discovered, at Tibişir Hill from Basarabi-Mulfatlar, a church, with a number of other shops and several chapels, as well as the subterranean galleries dating from the late 10th century and the beginning of the next. Surprisingly, research has proven that these monuments, ornamentation, along with a number of Christian symbols, some inscriptions with Cyrillic and glagolitic character, there is letters, belonging to the Runic alphabet used by the Vikings, as well as some representations for which it can be shown the influence of reason and Scandinavian styles. It is about fantastic animals, dragons, and also as representations of the labyrinth. Attracts also attention and highly stylized drawing of a ship: he shows us a boat, with extremities twisted inwards and swollen mast band. It is led aft to a browser with a paddle in hand.  Long Viking expeditions were considered a real miracle, because we know that they have not known nor compass, and, for a long time, any map. But it must not be forgotten that when you have the courage to soar over the ocean, the Vikings already had behind centuries of experience in the art of navigation, which had helped them to continually improve their technique in this area. Viking's image, which has crossed the entire history aboard the same traditional sailing vessels, has passed into memory, after which modern research has demonstrated that both methods, so the ships and Viking navigation technique have experienced a continuous evolution. Thus, not on the ship used in their European expeditions

have crossed the Vikings, but on smaller ships, but broader, so it more stable and more solid, could they defeat given endless storms water.  It's funny, but the Vikings have not had a God of the sea, but only a representation of a vague, Aegir. I wanted the masters to share the great power even with the gods? So, no Njordr, master in Noatun ("creating Shelter"), there was a goddess of.  Besides the gods, Norse mythology more encompassed an entire gallery of picturesque figures: giants, dwarfs, demons and spirits of the dead, each of them bringing a new color and significance of this world fantastic but so similar to the real.  There were reports about the human sacrifices that were made at the temple at Uppsala, in the event of famine or war, in the presence of the huge meetings. We are told that the procedure was particularly bloody victims being, simply, broken into pieces. It should be noted, however, that such practices have not been documented archaeologically, so we have enough reasons to believe, as it was established lately, as it is an exaggeration of a Christian writer Adam of Bremen, who try to present the old Viking beliefs in more somber colors.  Anyone who looks at a map of the roads we passed through the Vikings get the impression of a giant tree, whose branches were stretched much miraculous in space and time. But no matter how much they have been removed from the old trunk, we should not forget that have pulled in the vim from the same roots, deeply embedded in the history, life and traditions as do Scandinavian lands.  Scandinavian elements of nature, that the Vikings were so intimately linked, as was, for instance, tree, a role played as in their beliefs. That's why, in addition to each House there is a tree, considered sacred because it was believed that it defends all sorts of bad people who lived there. People surge to the North, fear of approaching enemy often but with fear of the elements of nature, some considering them ruled by evil spirits. The teeming world, in their long, a lot of evil spirits and demons, which were pushed out or calm down. Instead, some plants, like flax, were regarded as good luck. Processions were made on the Heath, to invoke the spirit of fecundity, or protection of the ancestors. The human body and they have parts where they would gather vital energies, especially the nails and hair (so those that were growing in more visible). Jonathan could be in the flesh and all sorts of spirits that had to be known. A Saga tells us, for instance, that "before the fight, the women walked with their hands over the body of warriors to discover what will be their luck". But the most important element of the body was thought to be blood, allowing weightier and the connections that could no longer break "brotherhoods". Everything or phenomenon of nature they have his spirit, which was an integrated pantheistic mythologies, which surprise us until today through its poetic resonances.  Like other peoples, the main habits of Vikings they were part of the natural cycle of life, and the social and labor. What impresses but is close overlap between these categories of habits, materialization, spiritually, an intimate and continuous osmosis between man and the environment. This resulted in the formation of a continuous traditional calendar, marked not only the key moments of existence, birth and death, but also of social life or productive activities. The birth was a solemn moment that very nature supposed to predict. Therefore, future mothers seeking help or the most representative element, sacred tree, of which I have mentioned: around much-expected event looked to touch the stem, for as the future born to be hefty and healthy. But the most important and complex of traditional Viking calendar holidays that were occasioned by the summer solstice and winter. They were treated equally, the holidays of fertility and of ancestors and staged within 12 days. Specific tables disagreed for the spirits of

those gone from his life, but continued to be part of the community. Were not forgotten any of the most precious aid to villagers cattle, Viking, who gave them the last sheaf of the harvest before that, because it is believed that he embodies renewable power of nature. All the ceremonies were accompanied by dances, performed by pantomime mouthpieces animal masks. The most important were horse masks, as a recognition of the special role which this animal into play in the life of the people of the North, or tap, perhaps as a symbol of virility. It is interesting to note that the Vikings continued to preserve the traditions even when they were far from their native places. Thus, the description of the Emperor Constantine Porphirogenet, find out about the Saturnali celebrate his Guard members of the Varangians. Dressed in fur robes and wearing masks of the ones you've mentioned, they entered in a gala dinner where they were killing a warrior dance, kicking with spires in wooden shields, and other times three times a "Holy sheet". Like almost all the feasts of the Vikings, is this the end around a giant beer barrel. The patron of the ceremony could not be other than the Warrior-God, Odin.  But the most impressive was the ritual burial of the great chiefs or Kings: their bodies, along with many of the objects of the former price, and even the bodies of slaves were needed on ships, then set on fire or, simply, left to float toward the unknown.

LEGENDS 1. The legend says that, while he was trying to make his big foot worries forgotten Empire, looking from the window of one of his castles, Charlemagne was deeply grieved and disturbed while assisting at a foray into groups of pirates who had robbed the places near the imperial residence, making it then the unseen. Were the Vikings. Few around the king could understand then its dark prophecies. They could do these scattered forays to threaten the peace of the Empire, whose stretch, from the Romans excelled since, all you know history? Maybe those swashbuckling and cunning themselves people of the North, which seemed only interested in small settlements to Rob devoid of Defense, there will be no doubt that almost passed in a generation will become one of the forces that will turn the big Frankish Empire in a memory. In fact, the Empire of Charlemagne was as powerful at first glance, as vulnerable in reality. Stepping into the stage of development of feudalism, he had become a knot of contradictions that the ultrasound existed only and it attacked from the insider. The seniors were becoming increasingly promoters of decompositions, which led to an exacerbation of feudal anarchy. Interested only in exploiting the serfdom was abolished, they were afraid to stand up to the masses, the only force that could oppose the threat from the North. From ethnical point of view, the Frankish Empire was a vast conglomeration of populations, which could not resist a strong external shock. 2. Despite appearances, King Charles the Thick gave proof of lack of courage when, frightened by the Vikings (author of poems speaks of 40,000 warriors), he offered to raise the price, as the siege, a large sum of money and the right to pillage Burgundy. The bravery of the inhabitants of Paris remained to be praised just to be heroic legends, which have moved up late. The myth of the Vikings not to be defeated, so frequently mentioned not only chroniclers of the time, but even later historians, ready to accept their "miraculous" explanations, series was shaken by the defeat of the Norse warriors who have suffered from the Dyle (in southern today), six years after the siege of Paris. Infuriated by any resistance, the Vikings are becoming increasingly more dangerous, as happened in the siege of Nantes, whose population, which had the audacity to challenge, was slaughtered up to elderly and children. Encouraged by such "achievements", the leader of the hordes of marauding Vikings destroyed entire lands of Gaul and rich cities, returning back to the sea, to take the road of Spain. But increasingly rare for the pirates in the North close to the places they plundered. The land of the country, or do you have well said, the possibility of a robbery, supported by permanent laws of feudal times, began to attract.

THE GODS OF THE VIKINGS The Vikings and attributed them to the gods not only a look very close to that of men, but just a way of life quite earthly. Also some chieftains that Nazis came through different qualities, but also through other "means", the power, the gods had to be respected and feared. At the same time, because they were and their weaknesses, they could get to the deities, by flattery or offerings, and other benefits. In the spirit of this concept, I say, "contractualist", the cult of the gods to the Vikings was not characterized by a very fast (lot of temples or priests), but by concrete specifics. Vikings honored not only representations of gods in temples, but particularly those which were more modest, as it shows us different springs, especially archaeological, in each house, because, in this way, it could provide a more direct connection with divinity. Their fate had been entrusted, but their Vikings of deities, so more of Thor, which was sometimes painted on board a boat. On Thor, whose figure and crafts approached so much human Vikings and fancied themselves wearing it and Salem, and even with the spice, as it happens at the burning found in graves. The Vikings are in the performance of the various representations of their beliefs in temple which is distinguished by the number, size and wealth, as well as their unifying function in a world where disunity has reigned so long. The most important temple (it looks like a cultural center) was that of Uppsala, not far from Birka, trade point of transaction for all the lands inhabited by Vikings. Adam of Bremen tells us that this temple was entirely of gold. His wealth was actually the result of so many expeditions of plunder, but what isn't could upset the gods who often had similar occupations. Near the temple there was a tree always green, a totally unknown. With a water sprang out were thrown people: if they disappear beneath the waves, means that the request had been received by the gods.

THE HARDEST BATTLE It's amazing how important was the role they played hard the legends in the history of the Viking! They not only have recorded or have praised the deeds of men of the North, but sometimes they have inspired. Thus, it seems that what he did on Erik the Red, the leader of the hordes of Vikings who colonized Greenland, to soar to new lands were the stories about a certain Gunnbjom Ulvssonn, who had skipped away, towards sunset, shining shore, or about another character, Ingolf, also called in the Fjords, which really would have reached the shore. We'll try again to see beyond the legend, which were conditions and the reasons that led to this new test of Viking history, impressive no doubt by his boldness, but by no means broken by the General tendencies of evolution of Viking society. Do not forget that, more than just longing for adventure or urge the legend, which has led Erik to pop up in "unknown", as it was said, was that he had, with condemnation the price of life, to obey him: embroiled in some disorders and even murders, he was forced to exile. Even on this lend, Vikings have been followed by other discoverers, Eskimos and Irish (in about 895). This reduces the merits of the Vikings, because, although they were heading towards the shores already achieved by others, could not know, as a Northern ballad says, "any division of the Earth, nor if the Earth is good". Therefore, the merit of the Vikings and this time is not to be the first, but came to be stuck! And not be able to exploit these facts even more than conquests to kingdoms of the Viking will not be inspired, in turn, a new epic. So was born the Saga (epic poem) about his deeds and Erik people using on Earth to Greenland, whose stories have been completed and, in large part, hardened later research.

THE VIKINGS DISCOVERED AMERICA? Around the question they went disputes whose scope goes beyond even that a quantity of reliable data related to those events that we have at the moment. In reality, the question itself is wrong for formulated simply because, as they seem to prove newer research, not the Vikings were the first extra American population, which landed on the new Continent. Thus, there have been a number of assumptions and then the Khmer Rouge, the Chinese and the Carthaginians had passed, with many hundreds of years before, the road to new lands on the water. Even the shoreline of North America had been touched by the Phoenicians seafarers and Irish Viking procedure. The archaeological findings, particularly in recent times, both in America and in Europe, proving with certainty as the Vikings have dwelled on the land that will be called America.

VIKINGS AT HOME Viking’s history not by default, as it was thought as long, only destruction, but it was at the base and a constructive vein, expressed both in the field of creation of spiritual and material. Some are easy with far horizons, the Vikings affirms, however, most poignantly the personality from her home. Different sources, but especially archaeological excavations have shown that populations here were not so returned as stated sometimes, as the Vikings in their own countries have developed a civilization and culture remarkable for that time.

PLEASANT CRAFTS FOR GODS The importance of handicrafts in the Scandinavian world, in clash with a rough nature, man has had to make in a reliable tool, it is a matter of meaning. It is not by chance that one of the most outstanding Viking gods, Thor, is often depicted carrying a hammer… In the Viking era, a craft characteristic, perhaps most importantly, it was metal machining. Art iron was vitally important. Without iron tools, plowing, building houses, ships, weapons manufacture would have been impossible. In the three Scandinavian countries knew long ago how to extract iron from ore. The blacksmith was a highly respected member of the community. Its tools had to be buried same time with him, to use them in the next world. Egil's Saga tells how his father's death, Skallagrim, Egil raised a funeral pile for him at the end of a promontory and placed inside the horse weapons blacksmith and his tools. Even the chiefs where blacksmiths. However, it seems that every village had its own professional blacksmith. The findings from Norwegian graves show Viking blacksmith tools: light and heavy hammers, pliers with straight or curved ends Files, chisels, scissors, clips and a number of other specialized tools. Objects produced by blacksmiths were very varied: agricultural tools, hunting equipment, household utensils and kitchen tweezers and chains, tools for other crafts, weapons...

BOAT-SHAPED HOMES Scandinavian nature forced the Vikings to build solid shelters, but offered at the same time full of the raw material quality. In the period after the founding of the Nordic countries, royal residences, the academy and peasant houses forming three categories of secular architecture, which is not too different in style, construction techniques and materials, but the scale and richness of the interior. Or the royal courts of the great captains included sleeping chamber, large feasts rooms, rooms for soldiers and private guards. Besides the main building, which could be one-and two-story, were cooking, bread ovens, boats sheds, stables, storerooms. The main building was often surrounded by a large porch with pillars carved skillfully. In the center of living rooms were large fireplaces. Most of Viking houses in villages and towns were all relatively small, rectangular with a length up to 7 m. Sometimes the house was built on a foundation of stone. The walls consisted of horizontal beams crowns of twigs woven between vertical poles plastered with clay, or thick planks, placed vertically side by side. Some types of house construction derived from ancient traditions and constitute responses to climatic conditions and material provided by the environment. Wooded areas encouraged timber architecture, while regions without trees required using clay, stone and grass furrows. Thus, in Sweden the country with dense forests, there were, besides the houses with walls of straw and Adobe, numerous wooden constructions. Since the Swedish Vendel, the Vikings knew long House called skali, specify since the iron age, construction with two vertical poles strings inside (which supported the roof and long house space divided), with thick walls made of Earth. This building hosted both men and animals. There are testimonies to the architecture of the Danes. Thus, Fyrkat and the houses had walls of Aggersborg braided twigs and clay on the long sides, and horizontal planks at the Gables. Under the military camp at Aggersborg was a village (8th century) with smaller houses, boat-shaped, but built after the same model with the fortress. After as it would seem, the country house was developed in late Viking long House unique, used for people and animals. Gradually became a farm complex consisting of several individual buildings with a courtyard. It is impressive the Vikings’ attachment for home, their household, the care with which they built their homes. Inside, where the massive wooden furniture, many of them carved, join some fabrics in warm colors, was designed to create an atmosphere of intimacy and privacy. Each Viking would like to have a house with old tree, considered sacred, representing the guardian spirit of the family and suggested by his age, stability, durability. Unfortunately, very few inside objects could not be found in archaeological excavations, most of them from perishable materials. Because of the habit of putting objects in graves, lies still furniture in homes Viking small chairs without backrest with lumbar support and high chairs, boxes for storing things, different kinds of beds, some with beautiful carved animal heads, designed to remove evil spirits.

NOT ONLY KINGS WORE CLOAKS It would be interesting to be able to reconstruct how Vikings wore, we can know as thoroughly "Scandinavian fashion" weather. Not completely impossible! For this we provide many kinds of sources: archaeological finds of fragments of their clothing, ornaments, Vikings representations made by them on memorial stones or carpets, as well as those from thumbnails on the books printed in Western Europe, descriptions of literature costumes northern weather. Scandinavian archaeological discovery, which provide the best picture of Viking costume 9th century, the tapestry of the Oseberg ship. The costumes on this tapestry are very interesting. Some men wear a helmet and clothes so links are military equipment. Others seem to be in regular clothes, though are armed. Their clothing consists of a coat, reaching up to mid-thigh or slightly above. The sleeves are long and loosely hanging clothes, very rarely caught with drawstring. This coat is familiar to us from other discoveries in the North, such as the representations of carved stones from the island of Gotland. The tapestry of the Oseberg are depicted two kinds of trousers: some long, narrow foot raised (as carved stones of Gotland and Lindisfarne), as well as other broader breeches, which, literary sources, has caused surprise travelers Arabs. Ibn Rustah in 10th century, traders say about them wore Varangians "very loose pants that gather them under your knees". And Skog tapestry discovered in the town, men, mortals and gods, dressed in slacks, similar to those from Oseberg. This fashion seems to have lasted throughout the Viking era. Such wide-legged pants, made of different materials were rich and noble own people, who like to show their wealth and the attire. The third piece of men’s costumes, depicted on the Oseberg tapestry is long cape, finished in two corners touching the ground. The cape is well represented on the stones of Gotland. Ibn Fadlan says that merchants Varangians wore cloaks thrown over one shoulder, the other arm being discovered. Gotland sculptures confirm this port. Apparently, long cloak hanging from his shoulders free and rich, is a solemn clothing. Its appearance is a sobriety that fits well with the other Viking clothes. When Viking the chiefs are portrayed in images from other countries, they wear a cape over jacket with long sleeves impressive. So there Knut the Great in an English manuscript of the time. Vikings liked elegance. In their graves, especially those from Birka, were found remains of beautifully decorated fabric: Chinese silk, gold thread embroidery very soft from Byzantium and the East, lace, fabric, gold and skillfully woven cords. Silk and many of these materials were imported fine, but sometimes tagging is an authentic Nordic style.

THE LONG SHIPS Viking ships were the main achievement of technical skill, a true culmination of their creative talent. Representing exploitation of discoveries and improvements in various fields of traditional economy that have developed over northern peoples, shipbuilding contributed to the affirmation of the creative power of the Vikings far away in space and time. The importances of navigation for people of the North and of the fact that it appears some tombs were made in the shape of the ship. Stages of development of construction technique of the ships are made in the light of the findings of the Hjortspring (Abdu Island) and Nydam (Northern Schleswig). The Hjortspring boat belongs to the Iron Age. She has the bow and aft, double rakes. The shell and the coasts are related to one another. In 1862, in the swamp from Nydam, found a boat whose construction can be dated back to the year 400. Arrayed in oak wood, have no blades, no deck, being driven paddle. Its length was 24 meters and width of 3.5 m; banks of rowing were mobile, which reduce the effort at all times. Forks for oars and determined the ship's speed, at the same time as allowing boats to be turned easily in any direction. Using the Vikings webs was certainly proven during the Vendel. For the expansion of the Vikings, the use must be regarded as webs an underlying condition. And other discoveries, such as a carved stone from Gotland, show the evolution of sail, dating from the 6th century to the 8th century, from a small square piece of cloth in the magnificent fabrics of their Viking. With the development of the keel and the sails, smaller boats turn into crows. The ships were made of oak wood, with an average length of 20 m and a width of 3.5 m. They were equipped with both frames and fabrics, with a capacity of 70-80 people. Ancient texts speak of the long ships and 43 m, driven by 30-35 pairs of frames. Viking ships had a special construction: coasts were mounted inside the hull planking ready-made, featuring a suitable navigation at sea and a particularly vigorous reinforcement truss. The tabs are attached to the hull planking the ship with corks and steel rivets. Overlapping tabs is used, the vessel was leaking and placing between cow hair file. There were several classes of ships and the war (called the "long ship"-drakkar), trade, the smaller size (snekkar), whose name comes from the snake carved in wood in the prow, and the small motorboat (holkkar). The sails were multicolored, painted with various fight scenes or live in colored blue, red, green, white. Some ships are ornamented with carved shell. The dragon carved in the bow, drawings on a special aspect gave sheer picturesque Viking vessels. The appearance of the keel at the Viking boats was a very important innovation in shipbuilding technique. This gave more stability construction vessel. The keel was made out of a solid and flexible wood, which United resistance against the pressure of waves. Experts have calculated that ships could traverse, without weight, ten knots per hour. Draught was approximately 1 m, which allowed them to penetrate through estuaries and rivers course.

THE MENTALITY OF THE NORTH PEOPLE It is a monument of popular literature, the poem Havamal, also called the Great Sayings, which is of Supreme God, Odin. Of course, the precepts of this spring reported in metaphorical form of wonderful proverb are more than on Earth, they are, in fact, crystallization of popular wisdom, what gives us the right to consider him as a traditional moral code. Nearly no matter which is not illustrated in the "book of wisdom Viking", which materialized personify life experience. Because the meaning of precepts, proverb contained by the Havamal poem, keeps their intrinsic eloquence, we will reproduce its edges a few of them: Life: "Everyone is getting greedy in life". Human: "No human is so good, that they be protected from all evil, and none so bad, that they do not have any value". Destiny: "Those who do not work his mind, cannot know in advance the destiny". Prudence: "The language often hits the head". Diligence: "Who sleeps in the morning too much is damage by something". Fidelity: "You never have to get friendly with your friend’s enemy". Temperance: "Beer is not as good as they say. The more you drink, the less you can control your thoughts". Friendship: "If you have a friend whom you can trust, look for it more often. Brambles and thick grass growing on the road impassable to anyone". "Once I was young. I lost myself and I lost my way, but I found the richness in friendship. Man is the joy of man".

VIKING ART ADVENTURE For a long time it was thought that Viking eagerness to adorn objects that surrounded them was an absolute phenomenon spontaneously, without a unified tradition, well crystallized. In recent years however, systematic research showed that Viking area had its own development and characteristics which have been in close contact with both the historical circumstances, and with Nordic cultural background. Thus, ultimately, succession or coexistence of different styles is quite a testament to the ongoing development and diversification of Viking art, modifications and renewals occurring in different periods are often just as surprising as the people of North change the course of history.

…Nevertheless which is the historic contribution of Vikings? He remained the way that the North’s sons have crossed in history, meant only traces of fire and blood and headed him, despite countless meanders, the unanimous sense of human progress? The answer to this question, certainly the most important part of "Viking problem", can emerge only in the inclusion of all components people of the North history. In the perspective of time, we can track how the positive and negative aspects of the business and make the Vikings confront. Here are some examples:  By their incursions and invasions, after which, as they say at that time, "no barking dog is no longer heard" people of the north have produced incalculable damage really putting a brake for a while, the economic life of certain parts of Europe (for example. the Mediterranean coast). At the same time, because of original contributions of their civilization, especially in terms of ship build from; therefore, people just north facilitated creative effort of generations.  Because of the Vikings soldiers Europe's roads have become dangerous, but at the same time, Scandinavian traders contributed to the intensification of trade and Norse sailors joined us on the water horse two continents.  Under Vikings swords the kingdoms have collapsed, but others took their places, political reconstruction of Europe, made by the late Middle Ages, are due to northern expansion and indirect influence which hastened the unification of states (the example of France) or direct intake of some skilled leaders of Scandinavian origin (in Normandy or in England).  Most of the time the Vikings policy, especially beyond the boundaries of their countries had a despotic character, but do not forget that in Iceland they gave birth to one of the few republics of time.  The Vikings have been, at the same time, the destroyers of cultural artifacts of great value, but also the creators of artistic works (it is enough to remember only the Nordic sagas), whose example will remain for centuries to come... So the own contribution to the civilization and culture of the Vikings brought a unanimous cause of human progress is, in fact, the resulting confrontation, the most dramatic times for both Northern people themselves and for their contemporaries, the most outstanding forces of history that they have started or who have had to deal with. And what we think should remain as the former instance, the significance of the metaphor of human existence and activity of the north, in various fields, their works are perhaps not great, however not always glorious victories or quests they reached shore new, but secular effort, high intensity and tenacity, not to survive an affair, but as far as wear and use an uninterrupted journey through space and time, whose goals belong to the next generation. So, the journey continues!

Their weapons, their clothes and many other aspects of their material culture, however, had nothing to do with the Roman world. The drinking-horns were not the sort of thing one would expect to see on any self-respecting Roman's table. The weapons - shield, spear and sword - were quite unlike those carried by the regular Roman armies, although the sword, a long-bladed weapon of hard steel, carried in a scabbard which was slung from the belt, was similar in form to that used by the Germanic auxiliaries of the Roman army. The shield was made of thin wooden board with a central iron boss to protect the hand: it was light and was normally circular, although rectangular shields are also known. The spear, with a leaf-shaped blade, and the bow and arrow completed the warrior's armament. We know little of the dress of the Scandinavians in this period, although a series of finds from the bogs of South Jutland and North Germany give some indication of fashion. The men wore trousers, one pair of which has attached foot-pieces. The trousers were held in place by leather belts, some of which may have been decorated. The upper part of the body was covered by a jerkin and most men also wore a cloak. Women's clothes of this period have not survived to any great extent; what few clues we have would suggest that they wore a long trailing gown, perhaps made of a single rectangle of cloth fastened at the shoulders by a pair of brooches. To these basic garments would be added hats, shoes and cloaks. Hair was probably elaborately dressed and the men were usually clean-shaven. Most of the surviving dress is of wool, but one must presume that skins and furs were used and traces of linen are also found. The wool appears to have been woven on an upright loom which had a horizontal beam from which the warps were hung and weighted by stones or baked clay rings. The hems of some garments were probably braided in complicated patterns by tablet-weaving.

The runic alphabet or furthark (the third character has the value ’th’) is here shown in one of its earliest forms. It was to be used in the north for more than a thousand years. Originally designed for carving on wood or stone, the angular form of the charactes was conditioned by the nature of the material on which they werw incised. It is unfortunate that most of the inscriptions that are to be dated within the period covered by this book are on sepulchral or memorial monuments, or on weapons - the wooden evidence has almost completely disappeared. Runes are widely considered to be endowed with magical significance. That there undoubtedly was a magical or religious element in the character of the runes is illustrated by the fact that the Kylver inscription occurs on a stone buried in a grave as well as by a passage from the early Scandinavian poem Havamal: I know that I hung on the windswept tree for nine whole nights pierced by the spear, given to Odin, myself given to myself on that tree whose roots no man knows. They refreshed me neither with bread nor with drink from the horn. I peered down, I learnt runes, howling I learnt them, and then fell back. There seems, however, no reason to suppose that runes were necessarily magical or religious in origin; it would seem probable that they were primarily and originally used for purposes of normal communication and that they were adapted for religious and magical purposes in an incidental fashion.

THE ERA OF THE GREAT MIGRATIONS Throughout the first millennium, Europe had some of the qualities of a maelstrom: the tribes of Europe were on the move, searching for richer land, fleeing from tyranny, seeking booty or Lebensraum. Although Scandinavia was on the edge of this disturbance, it was responsible for some of it. It was from Denmark that the Angles and Jutes moved to conquer and settle in the British Isles; legend would have it that the Goths and Burgundians also had their origin in Scandinavia, but of this there is no evidence. With the collapse of the Roman Empire the movements became almost phrenetic; Huns, Goths, Vandals, wave upon wave of tribes, moved across Europe, giving momentum to the peoples of the Continent. This restless epoch - the Migration period - lasted until the rise of Charlemagne, the crystallization of the main European states, and the coming of the Vikings in the late eighth century. There are few historical sources for Scandinavia in the Migration period, all that survive art incidental references in Mediterranean, Frankish and Anglo-Saxon sources, often little more than a reference to a tribe or its chief. Certain episodes in Scandinavian history are hinted at, but no consecutive story is revealed; only a rather shadowy impression of an area racked by internecine war - as the Sviar of Uppland, for instance, attempted to gain control of Sweden, as the Danes fought the Norwegians, as Frisia was raided by Swedes. Once again archaeology is the key to an understanding of the period where historical sources are slender, contradictory and almost legend.

THE VIKINGS AT HOME In considering the great adventures of the Vikings overseas it is easy to forget their presence in their homeland, where they enjoyed the fruits of their external contact, whether mercantile or piratical. In general it is true to say that the Scandinavians of the Viking Age were not fundamentally different from their ancestors who have been described earlier in this book. The Viking who had travelled outside his homeland was different only in outlook from the home-bound Scandinavian of the Migration or Vendel period. The tenor of life at home was very much the same, the economy was basically agrarian, the sea and the lakes provided food, houses were built, cloth woven, children born; people prospered or failed to prosper, as did their forebears. There seems to have been no dramatic economic change in Scandinavian life inside the homeland around 800. For one reason or another the Viking adventure overseas began about then, but people's lives were little afected by these developments. The social structure of Viking society conformed to a norm well known in contemporary Europe, a norm which can be explained with misleading simplicity. At the bottom of the social scale was the slave, a term which covered a wide class of men from a bankrupt to a captive in war; the son of a slave was also a slave. At home he was employed on the farm; he represented capital to his owner and could be sold abroad without difficulty in the markets of Europe and the East. The life of a slave was of no account, and it is by no means unknown to find a sacrificed slave in a Scandinavian grave.