The Vernacular Architecture as a Model for Sustainable Design in Africa.

The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa.

Mr Bonginkosi G. Mabaleka [email protected]

Aim In this piece of writing the writer will make particular reference to vernacular architecture in Africa in the country Libya and Zimbabwe and how it has developed and what determines the vernacular architecture in these selected countries. The writer will examine how vernacular architecture has developed over the years and how modern sustainable design has adopted elements of vernacular architecture.

The aim of this research is also to explore and evaluate the architectural design elements that can be adopted from the vernacular architecture in Africa and seek solutions from traditional architecture, in order to come up with cheaper and better ways of providing good standard sustainable buildings and spaces for rural areas and cities. The research mainly addresses the Africa situation and we expect this to assist in the process of eradicating poor perception of the vernacular architecture by most Africans. This paper will examine some vernacular architecture in Africa to see how it has impacted Africa and it has been in harmony with the environment.

Abstract Vernacular Architecture is increasingly becoming a subject of major interest not only to architecture theorists, but also to designers and technologists for very many good reasons. It has now become very apparent, that although technological advancement brings modern civilization to our communities, it also accelerates the disappearance not only the style of life which has been developed over a span of The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa

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many centuries, but also the very veins of cultural identity which are so vital for the survival of any society.

The onslaught of modern technology has robbed our communities of the construction skills and environmentally sensitive design of their dwellings. “Modern Architecture” is becoming more and more environmentally unfriendly not only to people, but also to the surrounding natural environment, including the excessive use of energy in cooling buildings. That is why we have to revert back to vernacular architecture to see how we can be salvage the vernacular principles and use them in sustainable architecture. There has been a turn around after years of environmentally unfriendly materials and bad architecture to sustainable building materials and construction methods.

Introduction Vernacular architecture concepts where developed and used through the centuries by many civilizations across the world through trial and error, hence architectural styles are different and based on the local conditions. Vernacular architecture around the world is impressively rich with indigenous techniques early ancient people used to protect themselves from the diverse weather conditions they were subjected to. These early dwellers survived by sheltering themselves in the traditional buildings, which have been experimented on through the ages.

In vernacular architecture, not only the climatic problems were resolved, but also the aesthetics, physical and social functions of the dwelling is considered this is why the designs are so different across Africa. Generations after generation, the dwellings provided comfortable life conditions as a result of the great architectural experience. Very good examples can be drawn from the cross section of Africa that is from northern part of Africa, Libya to the southern part of Africa, South Africa. The design or structure of these early dwellings or settlements was determined by things like climate, culture, environment and materials. Their dwellings seemed to live in harmony with their surroundings, other words they were sustainable.

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Architects are responsible for most modern construction and can be considered to be the people responsible for the enormous consumption by the building industry of the very scarce energy resources available. More and more architects are becoming aware of this big problem and are advancing the concept of "green" and sustainable design. The architectural community has had a strong and continuing interest in vernacular architecture. This has been rekindled by the need to design an architecture that works well with climate and environment, rather than against, hence the need to create more sustainable buildings.

This awareness means that the new designs and any refurbishment have to be sustainable. Vernacular architecture in the past produced a built environment which met people's needs without deteriorating the environment. This paper discusses the concept of how we can use vernacular architecture principles to create sustainability in building design with the search of the vernacular in Africa.

Chapter 1 Vernacular Architecture 1.1Definition Defining vernacular architecture is not easy as there are a lot of definitions. This paper will start by trying to define the word “vernacular”. It is derived form the Latin word “ vernaculus” which means native domestic, indigenous ,therefore it could mean “ native science of buildings” Paul Oliver in Dwellings says “the term vernacular generally refers to language or dialect of the people”. R.W.Brunskill (2006) has defined in vernacular architecture as “buildings designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable”. The function of the building is the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local materials would be used in the construction.

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R.W. Brunskill (2006) goes on to say that “vernacular architecture is not to be confused with so-called "traditional" architecture, though there are links between the two”. Traditional architecture can also include buildings which bear elements of polite design; temples and palaces, for example, which normally would not be included under the fabric of "vernacular." In architectural terms, 'the vernacular' can be contrasted with 'the polite', which is characterised by stylistic elements of design.

Frank Lloyd Wright (1996) describes vernacular architecture as a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought. Many scholars disagree with his definition, when he says that the designs lacked an intelligent thought .The designs saved a purpose and that his definition does not look at the general vernacular architecture, he probably looked at a small section of vernacular architecture and did not look at the wider spectrum of vernacular architecture. Oliver (2006), in Dwellings, goes on to say that, “as yet there is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and with aspects of history and geography”.

Many scholars now use the term "vernacular architecture" to refer to structures made by empirical builders, without the intervention of professional architects and without the use of industrial components. It is still the most widespread method of building homes across the globe according to (Rapoport 1969). All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them.

From the different definitions above of vernacular architecture one concludes that it is a term from academic architecture to categorize structures built outside of academic tradition. The term “vernacular architecture” has many interpretations, but its core definition suggests structures made without the intervention of professional

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architects, an indigenous but anonymous architecture, it is “architecture without architects” says Bernard Rudofsky's (1964) in Architecture without Architects

The definition can include a wide variety of domestic and agricultural buildings, industrial buildings, commercial structures, etc.

1.2 Types of Vernacular Architecture in Africa Paul Oliver (2006) points out that, “vernacular architecture comprises dwellings and all other buildings constructed by the people related to their environmental contexts and available resources”, and they are customarily owner or community-built, utilising traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of living of the cultures that produce them.” The study of vernacular architecture explores the characteristics of domestic buildings in particular regions or localities, and the many social and cultural factors that have contributed to their evolution. Paul Oliver goes on to say that “a culture without the presence of its history is a culture without roots and meaning”.

Vernacular architecture can divided into three categories namely domestic, agricultural and industrial. In the traditional African set up, there were two main categories the domestic and industrial, which we shall look at in detail and industrial in passing. The domestic architecture buildings were mainly constructed for living and security. The domestic dwellings ranged from just a simple dwelling to bigger and more sophisticated dwellings. The distinguishing feature of traditional vernacular is that, design and construction are often done simultaneously, onsite, mostly by the end users, which is the family. Some of those who eventually use the building are often involved in its construction or at least have direct input in its form.

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Fig. 1 Clay buildings in Libya

Fig 2 Clay and grass thatched huts in Zimbabwe

Agricultural vernacular comprises of granary, clay or grass/wood barns, these were mostly for the purposes of their personal produce and were located within the homestead for security reasons ,so as to deter thieves from stealing. The materials used varied with areas and partly influenced by climate, culture and environment. This is shown by materials used is the Libyan granary and Zimbabwean granary respectively as shown below.

Fig. 3 Granary in Libya

Fig.4 Granary in Zimbabwe

Industrial architecture is less common because in came with the early settlers who brought in the western influence in later centuries. The buildings included mills, workshops, and kilns and for commercial building chapels and schools. (Brunskill 1992).

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Chapter 2 Vernacular architecture in Africa 2.1 Factors influencing vernacular architecture Many architects have studied vernacular architecture history their studies have resulted in the imitative and cosmetic way of designing. This was done by the use of indigenous building methods. The building knowledge of vernacular architecture is passed by local traditions. This is based on knowledge achieved through trial and error and then passed down through the generations, in contrast to the architecture planned and designed by architects. In order for us to see how climate, culture, environment and materials influence vernacular architecture, the writer will look at three different regions in Africa. In North Africa we look at Libya, Central Africa – democratic republic of Congo-DRC, and in southern Africa Zimbabwe. The above names counties are different in climate, culture and environment.

African architecture works on a traditional village scale, rather than following global architectural styles. African architecture is a direct evocation of its physical environment, and it is stylish depending on tradition. The climate of Africa is extremely varied, from forests to grasslands and to deserts. The availability of building materials is also varied, from mud to stone and to thatch, and they change region by region.

Vernacular architecture in Africa

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Libya

Namibia Zimbabwe

South Africa

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Fig.4.1

Map of Africa

2.2 Libya Libya is situated in at the northern part of Africa surrounded by countries like Algeria, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Egypt and Tunisia. Libya is 4th largest country in Africa mostly covered by the desert and has Islamic influence on the architecture. The climate of the most Libya is distinguished with dryness with a big difference in temperature. The area of Great Sahara plays a very important part in determining the climate of the country. In the coastal area, the winter season is considered moderate, despite the fall of snow in some high areas sometimes. Where the summer season is considered hot relatively temperature reaches the maximum average in August and the monthly temperature average does not exceed 30 Celsius degrees throughout that period. There is no rain in summer.

Libya has Mediterranean climate at the areas near the coastline on the Mediterranean Sea and Saharan climate as one moves away from the sea in land. Some parts of Libya is covered by the Libyan Desert and some by the Sahara desert, hence the climate has had a very big influence on the vernacular architecture. The Mediterranean climate in Libya the dwelling often include a courtyard with a fountain or pond so as to allow air to be cooled by evaporation and air is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form.

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In the Saharan climate buildings have high thermal mass so as to keep the inside of the building cool during the hot day and warmer at night when the building discharges the heat accumulated during the day. The buildings also have chimneys not for fire but to draw air in through the internal spaces to cool the building and small windows to keep the occupants cool by not allowing too much hot air.

Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Climate is one of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture, as a result of the inhabitants tried to overcome the weather conditions of the area. Such specialisations are not designed, but learnt by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work.

2.3 Zimbabwe Zimbabwean vernacular architecture is integrated with nature in an agricultural society of subsistence farming. The homesteads are laid out in different ways depending on a tribe's culture. A typical Zimbabwean homestead includes a main house with several related structures for various functions. The warm climate makes outdoor spaces usable year-round. Buildings in warm climates like Zimbabwe, by contrast, tend to be constructed out of lighter materials and to allow significant ventilation through openings in the fabric of the building.

Zimbabwe has a sub-tropical climate, temperate by altitude and it is located in the tropics, temperate conditions prevail all year. The summers in Zimbabwe are hot with heavy rain falls in the mountain regions and forest areas. Zimbabwean winters are renowned for being dry and cool. There is little rainfall in the southern regions of Zimbabwe.

Seasons in Zimbabwe Spring: September - October Summer: November - April

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Autumn: April - June Winter: July – August

The traditional buildings in southern Africa ,like Zimbabwe , South Africa etc are mainly constructed using clay moulded bricks or stone for the walls and grass thatched roofs with opening between the roof and the walls to allow air-circulation. The huts have reasonably size windows to allow air circulation during hot days.

. Fig.5 Thatched huts

Fig 6 round thatched hut with small windows

2.4a Climate The people living in colder climates heat themselves burning wood or organic disposals. The people living on warm and humid climates have utilized the air currents for minimizing the effects of humidity. The people living in the hot dry climates built houses with high thermal mass as a result of the big temperature differences between day and night, and very low humidity. What they have in common is that, they all have picked up the right forms, using the local building material, and they have overcome the negative impacts of the climatic conditions. The buildings have to be protected from bad weather conditions, for instance in areas with high precipitation , the clay bricks have to be recovered almost every year with some thin clay plaster, to protect and preserve bricks.

2.4b Culture

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Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings. The women often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs. The way shelters are used, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family ,who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact and many other cultural considerations will affect the space and size of the dwellings. The decorations are done according to the customs and beliefs others express their beliefs by decorations and other don’t. Libya has Islamic and Egyptian influence on the architecture.

Fig.7 Decorated buildings

Fig.8 Coned shaped huts

Family units of several Zimbabwean tribes live in family compounds, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of the family. In polygamous tribes will share the spaces and taking into account privacy, separate dwellings for different wives, and children. Social interaction within the family is encouraged by the setup of the homestead, where the family sits to socialise. Privacy is provided by the separation of spaces within the homestead.

In other cultures in Zimbabwe in the Ndebele tribe women lay the floors, mud plaster the walls or decorate them. The preparation of the materials and erection of the main structure done by man. But, in either case it is the passing on of methods and the training of the children, who will be the builders of the subsequent generation, which are vital to societies and the perpetuity of their shelter

The homesteads are carefully crafted and maintained, showing the owners' pride in their homes. Many Zimbabwean houses are decorated with wall paintings and may

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also decorate by way of variations in thatching patterns, brickwork, or woodworking techniques.

2.4c. Environment and materials Vernacular is sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources if done properly. If it is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context, and cannot be vernacular. Oliver, in Dwellings (2003), claims that “vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same”. Despite these variations, every building is subject to the same laws of physics, which shows that vernacular architecture is not thoughtless, as Frank Lloyd Wright suggests in his definition of vernacular architecture, hence significant similarities in structural forms .Vernacular can be seen everywhere in the world in it different forms where humans and have been influenced by climate ,culture and materials.

The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, governs many aspect of vernacular architecture. Since Libya has two types of climates, the Mediterranean and the Sahara climates, the architecture is different near the cost compared to inland. Materials determine the architecture e.g. clay, wood, grass stone in some parts of Libya whereas inland clay is mostly used. Sun dried clays bricks for the walls and then bricks are plastered with clay. The roofing is normally packed with clay and reinforced with timber or palm then plastered with clay for thermal reasons (Oliver 1997 p2101). In Libya because clay, the readily available and locally sourced material that is why it is the common building material.

Vernacular architecture reflects the use of local materials and the acquisition of the tools and skills with which to make them. Whether they’re nomadic or sedentary, such subsistence or expanding economies will still be largely dependent on the climate, soils, vegetation, seasons and other natural resources and phenomena. In areas rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone like in many parts of Zimbabwe The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa

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Fig. 9 Grass/timber hut

Fig. 10 Clay/timber/grass huts

Some of these structures have no distinction between wall and roof, their cladding converges at the peak, and they look like temporary structures. These vernacular dwellings are structurally sound , with timber frames or walls of stone or earth supporting the separately constructed roofs. Exposed roofs to high precipitation, the roofs may be clad with layers of grass thatch, or slate, or tiles of fired clay, which are usually attached to a wooden framework. During construction the raising and placing of these various building elements will often involve family and community members working to construct the whole or a part of the shelter.

How these structures are built depends on what materials are available locally. Some areas have good quality clay that is used to make fire dried earth bricks, burnt fire bricks rammed earth (Velinga Oliver Bridge 2007 p24). The main materials of brick, bamboo, thatch, and poles are used in various combinations and techniques. The colour of brick and plaster depends on the colour of the local clay, which can range from deep red or orange to brown or grey and white.

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Fig. 11 Zambian women beautify and strengthen their homes with plaster.

Fig. 12 African Painted Houses: Basotho Dwellings of Southern Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa produced some large-scale works, such as the Great Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe, but on the whole we do not find "architects" in traditional African building. What we find instead are traditional builders, who combined a certain priestly function as well. Fig 11 and 12 above are all symbolic imagery of traditional African building. Using mud may have certain technical disadvantages, but it is probably the most expressive and inexpensive of all materials. It not only lends itself brilliantly to surface decoration, but the very shapes of the buildings express their functions and their ideology. Zimbabwean vernacular architecture is organic, sustainable, and most importantly, comfortably integrated with the local climate. The building culture is no longer being passed on to younger generations, unfortunately, much of this architectural tradition is in danger of disappearing. There is a widespread perception among Zimbabwean people of thinking that modern materials are substantially better than vernacular ones. Traditional materials and techniques are thought to be temporary, "substandard," or "second class," while modern materials are seen as civilized or a symbol of affluence. Paul Oliver in (Built to meet needs) points out that “vernacular architecture suffers from the indifference and ignorance of its historic or social value, and from being assigned to low status housing”, hence some indigenous people have seen them as low status houses.

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The research it shows that people will build what they believe in, turning their backs on vernacular, looking at modern architecture as more superior. A change in perception has the potential to revive interest in the vernacular architecture. This perception probably prevails because missionaries and colonists built in a style that reflected wealth and power. The local people became convinced that having expensive imported materials was a symbol of affluence and that vernacular styles using native materials were substandard. And yet vernacular materials are durable if applied properly. A proper thatch job can last up to 25 years, and walls constructed of burnt brick can last up to 70 or more years. An African style should focus on vernacular materials, with modern materials used as reinforcement when needed for larger structures or greater stability. Research is needed to understand different soil conditions and to come up with load calculations for pole and mud-brick structures. As many African countries struggle to solve housing problems, vernacular architecture may be one answer since building materials are proving to be expensive. African architecture is continuing to evolve. Just as early migrating tribes and later missionaries brought their own influences, modern construction materials and techniques have undoubtedly affected traditions. But if people can be reassured about the beauty and quality of their vernacular styles, positive shift back toward tradition could be archived. The unique qualities of African architecture can be reproduced in new structures when the local people are persuaded that their architecture can be equally good. People will build what they believe in, until they are convinced that their vernacular structures are as structurally sound and beautiful as the more expensive modern applications. A lot can be learnt from this architecture as B. A. Kazimee states that “vernacular architecture represents more than a nostalgic longing for things and ways that have essentially become obsolete, but rather a learning method by which new global challenges can be addressed, which are global warming, housing crises, and economic equality.”

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Chapter 3 Sustainable design in Africa 3.1 Definition of sustainable design Sustainable design seeks to reduce negative impacts on the environment, and the health and comfort of building occupants, by improving building performance. The basic objectives of sustainability are to reduce consumption of non-renewable resources, minimize waste, and create healthy, productive environments. (http://www.lanl.gov/environment/risk/p2_sd.shtml)

Sustainable design also called environmental design and it is the philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment and services to comply with the principles of economic social, and ecological sustainability. The intention of sustainable design is to "eliminate negative environmental impact completely through skilful, sensitive design" Manifestations of sustainable designs require no nonrenewable resources, impact on the environment minimally, and relate people with the natural environment (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design)

Sustainable architecture is the design of sustainable buildings. Sustainable architecture attempts to reduce the collective environmental impacts during the production of building components, during the construction process, as well as during the lifecycle of the building taking into account ,heating, electricity use, carpet cleaning etc.

3.3

Eco-buildings

There are two groups of architects designing ecological buildings, the first group employs more the advanced technological achievements, and the second group employs the basic solutions depending on the knowledge and inherited experience . Architects like Hassan Fathy, Rasem Badran, and Raj Rewal are belonging to that second group of architects. These architects get their inspiration from vernacular architecture. They are well connected to the local building traditions and reject the architecture, which is not familiar to the built environment. Fathy has aimed to create The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa

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affordable and liveable spaces suitable to the surrounding environment, thus improving the economy and the standard of living in rural areas. His buildings were surprisingly inexpensive. Nowadays the emphasis is on sustainability, in designing, the architects have to try and design buildings that are sustainable .We have seen an era when the world was taken by the storm of non-sustainable building after the transformation from old vernacular style architecture to modern steel, concrete and glass construction.

There has now been the emergence of eco-buildings or sustainable buildings. We are seeing a lot of vernacular concepts being implemented in sustainable designs this does not mean that every concept of vernacular architecture should implemented. In Africa we are seeing more and more developmental vernacular architecture being used in new buildings. Some of these developments are motels ,hotels and to apart from houses, using materials like thatch, stone and timber . They are sustainable with a touch of modern materials being used.

Fig.13 Victoria Falls safari lodge Ironically, many of the beautiful new vernacular structures being constructed are going up in game parks, as lodges for tourists such as the one above fig13. It seems ironic that the only new structures built in the vernacular styles were not being so much appreciated by the natives, instead by visitors This new vernacular architecture is called developmental vernacular architecture, it refers to the

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indigenous architecture that has been modified and advanced to increase standards of living while retaining a sense of place.

Sustainability requires a shift towards a new environmental paradigm (Milbrath), a new way of thinking. Much of contemporary architecture and building practices today, is often the result of high cost buildings as a result of the materials used. Alternative ideas and methods exist to design and build effective, artistic, low cost and low or zero energy use houses.

3.4 Construction Materials Construction materials should be selected to increase the energy efficiency of the building, to minimise damage to the environment, to contribute to healthy indoor environments as well as to have low life cycle impacts due to production and maintenance. Commercial considerations, greater efficiency and environmental sustainability can be achieved by careful choice of building materials.

Africa has harnessed a lot what can mother nature has to offer in terms of natural building materials and methods .natural building materials are materials which require no or small amounts of processing, and are environmentally friendly. The common natural building materials are earth, straw, wood, stone, lime . These are the methods that have been tried and tested and seem to work effectively, and they i) Adobe is one of the oldest building materials and it is basically just earth that has been moistened with water, it is sometimes chopped straw or other fibres are added for strength, and then allowed to dry in the desired shape.

ii) Cob is a very old method it uses moistened earth, straw and other fibres, it is quite similar to adobe, but it a has higher percentage of long straw fibres mixed in. iii) Ramming earth is at least as old as the Great Wall of China. It is similar to adobe and cob techniques, in that the earth used is mostly clay and sand no straw or fibres added, material is compressed or tamped into place, usually with moulds or forms that create very flat vertical surfaces. The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa

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iv)

Earth bag or sandbags is just bags filled with earth or sand. Sandbags have long been used, especially by the military for creating strong, protective barriers, or for flood control.

v) Poured earth is similar to ordinary concrete, in that it is mixed and forms like concrete and uses Portland cement as a binder. The main difference is that instead of the sand/gravel used as an aggregate in concrete, poured earth uses ordinary soil. Little to no maintenance is required of poured earth walls, since they have a high resistance to the deteriorating effects of rain and sun.

vi) Rock dates back to the beginning of human history. It should not be surprising that such an abundant, indigenous, long-lasting and useful material can be utilized

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3.5 Vernacular Architecture Inspiring the Present Day Designs in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa One of the first stabilised earth projects in Zimbabwe was the British government, Overseas Development Administration (ODA) funded fig 14. This project was mainly constructed to demonstrate that rammed earth could successfully support a roof span of 8m and the use of sustainable materials (Zami & Lee 2008 p50).

Fig. 14 Bonda Classroom.

Fig.15 Chimanda House under construction

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This was to also to try and change the negative perception of vernacular architecture and its materials. The Chitungwiza house is one of the few known and meaningful developments using this form of building in Zimbabwe. The wall of this house is built of compressed earth blocks and roofed with micro-cement tiles (Zami & Lee 2008 p51).

This was a deviation from the normal burn clay bricks or cement bricks/ blocks which are usually used with an asbestos roof for most of the low income housing projects in Zimbabwe. This pilot project by the Intermediate Technology Group was implemented with the participation of the Chitungwiza municipality in 1993 as a low income housing . The aim of this project was to evaluate the response of the people towards earth structure and the performance of low tech and sustainable materials used in the construction of low cost housing ( Zami & Lee 2008 p50). The use of local labour and the absence of imported materials sent a message to the local communities. The message that was sent was that, the solution of affordable sustainable and low cost housing is possible. Up to now this structures stand as a success to all players working in the housing industry in Zimbabwe. It is sad that Zimbabwe fell back is the development if vernacular architecture to help the locals. This was due to the political situation which led to some funders of some projects withdrawing their funding.

Fig. 16 adobe house

16b interior of adobe house

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Fig. 17 Sand bag house

Fig. 18 Sand bag house

South Africa which is a neighbour to Zimbabwe has come further in using vernacular architecture as a model for sustainable design by supporting the construction of sustainable houses. The houses have been constructed using vernacular materials such as adobe fig 16 and 16b, clay bricks ,wood, grass for thatching ,and some houses were constructed using sand bags as fig 17 and 18 show.

Another neighbouring country to Zimbabwe, Namibia in the town of Otjiwarongo has gone a step further in using the vernacular architecture to building houses for the people and other community buildings. The Otjiwarongo town was chosen because of the quality of the clay and because of the support of its Municipality. Their objective was to build affordable house for the community from clay which is available for free and to promote environmentally and socially sound and sustainable development. The first houses were building in 1996 from clay and the proved to a success. The production of other eco-materials like micro concrete roofing and lime tiles were started with the help of different experts from other countries. The development of such tiles was due to that, it was the best material they could use, as materials like grass are less available and less durable than the micro concrete roofing tiles. These tiles corrosion resistant fire resistant, hail resistant, water proof, and function as sound and thermal insulators.

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Fig.19 Micro concrete roofing tiles

Fig.20 making clay bricks

Fig. 21 House construction

The use of this building material has continuously grown as the locals are happy to own the clay built houses. The locals are involved in the construction by making clay bricks and in the actual construction of the houses, thereby lowering the cost of building these houses. Making use of modern construction technologies, houses are to be long-lasting and affordable.

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Fig. 22 Completed house

Fig.23 House and outside toilet

The peoples’ perception has changed as the realize that building with clay does not only offer a cost-effective alternative but also leads to a more pleasant climate like the concrete built houses, demand has become so overwhelming. The Clay House project is now helping different communities, and teaching them on clay technology, making strong bricks and how to build clay houses that will last longer. The standard of these houses is of good quality such that the electricity can be installed in them. The Namibia people have had their perception of vernacular materials reversed, they are blending the vernacular materials and the modern materials such as Micro Concrete Roof tiles (MCR) which are made from cement, sand and water. These are ultra thin tiles but strong and durable.

Chapter 4 Principles of sustainable design Vernacular architecture tends to respond to climatic conditions using passive, lowenergy strategies to provide for human comfort, and strategies that are integral to the form, orientation and materiality of the buildings. This architecture also demonstrates an economical use of local building resources and is, therefore an ideal resource for sustainable design ideas. Vernacular architecture does not rely on high-tech, energyconsuming systems for heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting, but on the immediate natural systems in the local environment.

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Vernacular architecture looks at a site in terms of resources and opportunities like the town of Otjiwarongo in Namibia , which looked at what clay can do for the local population. Factors like local breezes, number of sunny days in the year, annual rainfall and average temperature can all be understood in terms of resources. These resources can enable sustainable features such as full natural ventilation, mix-mode ventilation, single loaded-exterior corridors, cross ventilation, and storm water collection, just to name a few.

Vernacular architecture can be integrated into modern sustainable designs or modern sustainable designs can incorporate vernacular trends in their designs, this is to say, both vernacular architecture and sustainable architecture can both be used to build effective low cost houses and cities.

The integration can be seen in the light of six historical principles (vernacular trends) to improve the energy efficiency and thereby effectiveness and useability of dwellings.

They are: 1) citing and vernacular design 2) shade 3) ventilation 4) earth shelter/ materials 5) thermal inertia 6) air lock entrances

To this list can be added six new techniques of environmental design (technologies, methods of effectiveness, and design synthesis):

7) scale (footprint, cost), insulation, design of future alternatives 8)

on site water collection and waste disposal

9)

solar water heating panels

10) photovoltaic and wind electricity generation

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11) recycling and use of local and durable materials 12) on site growth of food, fuel and building materials.

These twelve principles can be combined, as suitable, into synthesized solutions for various locations, users and climates that meet cultural needs with available materials under local conditions, effective and self-sufficient buildings. The objective of design principles is to reduce negative impacts on the health of occupants and the environments. To make vernacular more sustainable , it can be integrated with modern technologies listed above ,e.g. photovoltaic, solar panels

Fig 24a Solar panels

Fig 24b photovoltaic roof

Fig.24 Diagram of sustainable design techniques

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Fig .24 shows different schemes that can be integrated in buildings to make them more sustainable. The major problem with these sustainable schemes is that they can prove to be too expensive for the majority of people.

Chapter 5 Conclusion Vernacular architecture has been there for centuries and it has developed over the years through trial and error. This type of knowledge has been passed on from generation to generation and is has been tried and tested over the years. Some of these vernacular structures have survived all sorts of harsh weather conditions. The normal built vernacular house using clay, can have a life span of over 70 years. Now, with the use of present knowledge of clay or earth as a building material, the lifespan of buildings is far much more than 70 years. Vernacular architecture was once pride and heritage to the different tribes and cultures in Africa , but as a result of imperialism it became perceived as low status housing by those who could afford modern building materials. This paper has shown how far Africa has come in its architecture and where it is going.

The emerging challenges on sustainability demand a substantial revolution of building design philosophies, strategies, technologies, and construction methods, hence the look back at vernacular architecture, to see how we can build sustainable buildings. A lot has been learnt in Africa about vernacular architecture, and the perceptions of the locals are changing with help of organisations such as Overseas Development Administration (ODA), which fund and training the locals on how to build modern buildings using vernacular materials.

In some countries in Africa, this modern vernacular architecture has found its right place, by helping those who could not ever afford owning a house in the townships. The case in point can be drawn in Namibia and South Africa, where the councils have worked with the locals to build clay houses. There are a lot of examples across Africa of this modern vernacular architecture, but for the purpose of this study,

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southern Africa had to be looked at. Zimbabwe was one of the promising countries in vernacular architecture ,but due to the political instability it has not developed much. The majority of Zimbabwean in the rural areas do not have decent houses and the country has a very big housing shortage like many countries. The use of vernacular architecture can help the poor people in the societies who cannot afford the modern materials. The building schemes in other neighbouring countries have proved to be a success.

The town of Otjiwarongo in Namibia is one good example of how vernacular architecture can be a model of sustainable designs in Africa. Their objective was to build affordable house for the community from clay which is available for free and to promote environmentally and socially sound and sustainable development. This was greatly achieved because the houses are both sustainable and affordable by the ordinary people. This can now be seen as lifeline for those who could not afford houses in towns. Such building schemes are now seen across Africa like in neighbouring South Africa, where more and more sustainable buildings are being built using vernacular materials. This will one day alleviate the housing crisis in Africa at the same time, having buildings “living in harmony” with their surroundings. To increase efficiency, vernacular architecture can be integrated with sustainable designs to create more effective and self-sufficient buildings.

Images

Fig. 1 Syder, P. (Photographer) Traditional mud brick walled architecture. Available at: http://www.lonelyplanetimages.com/images/60987

(Accessed 05 October)

Fig. 2

Huts in Zimbabwe Useem, A. (Photographer) Available at

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http://www.flickr.com/photos/religionwriter/526384026/ (Accessed 05 October 2010)

Fig. 3 Granary in Libya Available at: http://www.livius.org/na-nd/nasamones/nasamones.html (Accessed 05 October 2009)

Fig. 4 Granary in Zimbabwe Available at: https:/.../africa_enquiry/africa_enquiry.htm (Accessed 05 October 2009)

Fig.4.1 Map of Africa Available at: https:/.../africa_enquiry/africa_enquiry.htm (Accessed 08 October 2009)

Fig. 5

Thatched huts Available at: http://www.batw.org/wp-content/uploads/sandy-sims_a (Accessed 14 October 2009)

Fig. 6

Round thatched with small windows Available : http://www.pbase.com/magneticfish/africa_2009 (Accessed 15 October 2009)

Fig. 7

Decorated buildings Available at : http://www.farm4.static.flickr.com/3311/3331553032_2d6cb (Accessed on 15 October)

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Fig. 8

Cone shaped huts Available at: http://www.colourlovers.com/uploads/2008/09/orange (Accessed 21 October 2009)

Fig. 9

Thatch/timber huts Available at http://www.Imagescitynoise.org/upload/ (Accessed 23 October 2009)

Fig. 10

Clay, timber, thatch Available at : http://www.nymuseums.com/lb02114t.htm (Accessed 24 November 2009)

Fig. 11 Zambian women beautify and strengthen their homes with plaster. Photo : Jon Sojkowski. Available:

Fig. 12

African Painted Houses: Basotho Dwellings of Southern Africa Gary N. Van

Fig.13

Wyk

Victoria Falls lodge Available at http://www.architecturelist.com/wp-content/uploads/2 (Accessed 6 Nonember2009)

. Fig.14

Bonda classroom The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 1, 2008: Available at: http://www.tbher.org/index.php/bher/article/view/6/4 (Accessed 07 December 2009)

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Fig. 15

Chimanda house under construction The Built & Human Environment Review, Volume 1, 2008: Available at: http://www.tbher.org/index.php/bher/article/view/6/4 (Accessed 07 December 2009)

Fig.16

Adobe house Available at: http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/.../3739 (Accessed 10 December 2010)

Fig.16b

Interior of adobe house Available at : http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/.../3739 (Accessed 10 December 2010)

Fig.17

Sand bag house Available at: http://www.sandbaghouse.blogspot.com (Accessed: 09 January 2010)

Fig.18

Sand bag house Available at: http://www.archiafrika.org/files/10x10-sandbag.jpg (Accessed: 10 January 2010)

Fig.19

Micro concrete roofing tiles. Available at: http://www.home.arcor.de/clayhouse/ (Accessed: 04 February 2010)

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Fig.20

Making clay bricks Available at : http://home.arcor.de/clayhouse/ (Accessed: 04 February 2010)

Fig.21

House construction Available at: http://www.clay-house-project.org (Accessed: 05 February 2010)

Fig.22

Completed clay house Available at: http://home.arcor.de/clayhouse (Accessed: 05 February 2010)

Fig.23

Completed house and outside toilet Available at: http://home.arcor.de/clayhouse (Accessed: 05 February 2010)

Fig 24

Sustainability Available at: http://www.lawenforcement-facilities.com/sustainabil... (Accessed: 29 February 2010)

Fig.25

Sustainable design Available at: http://www.helyerdesign.co.uk/sustainability/ (Accessed: 15 March 2010)

Fig 26a

Solar panel Available at: http://inventorspot.com/articles/toyota_may_be_devel...

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(Accessed: 21 March 2010)

Fig 26b

Photovoltaic panels Available at: http://inventorspot.com/articles/toyota_may_be_devel... (Accessed: 21 March 2010)

References:  Oliver, P. 2006. Built to meet needs : cultural issues in vernacular architecture. The Vernacular architecture as a model for Sustainable design in Africa

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 Brunskill, R.W. 2000. Vernacular architecture : an Illustrated Handbook 4 th ed.  Rudofsky, B. 1964. Architecture without Architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed architecture.  Rapoport, A. 1969. House Form and Culture .  Velinga, M .Oliver, P. Bridge, A. 2007. Atlas of Vernacular Architecture of the World,  Nash E.P, Wright F,L. 1996. Frank Lloyd Wright: force of nature  Zami, M. S. & Lee, A Volume 1, 2008 - The Built & Human Environment Review Available at: http://www.tbher.org/index.php/bher/article/view/6/4 (Accessed 07 December 2009)  Architecture of Africa Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Vernacular_Architecture (Accessed 12 November 2009)  Traditional Housing style in Lesotho Available at: http://www.galenfrysinger.com/lesotho_housing_style.htm (Accessed 15 November 2009)  Sustainable design Available at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design (Accessed 12 November 2009)

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 Learning from vernacular architecture ( sustainability and cultural conformity) B. A. Kazimee Available at: http://library.witpress.com/pages/PaperInfo.asp?PaperID=19192 (Accessed 17 December 2009)  Sustainable design Available at: http://www.lanl.gov/environment/risk/p2_sd.shtml (Accessed 2 April 2010)

Bibliography  Davis, D. 2000. The Culture of Building

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  Glassie, H. 1999.Vernacular architecture :material culture   Asquith, L. Vellinga, M . 2006. Vernacular Architecture in the 21st Century : theory, Education and Practice  Elleh, N. 1996. African Architecture: Evolution and Transformation  Murakami,S. Ikaga,T 2008. Evaluating environmental performance of vernacular architecture through CASBEE.  Naciri,N. 2007. Sustainable features of Vernacular architecture  Karaosman,S. Vernacular Design As The Teaching Tool Of The Ecological Architecture  Architecture week Available at: http://www.architectureweek.com/cgi (Accessed 02 December 2009)  Sustainable Design Principles http://www.lanl.gov/environment/risk/p2_sd.shtml (Accessed 24 March 2010)  Sustainable design. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design (Accessed 9 February 2010)  Architecture of Africa Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Vernacular_Architecture

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(Accessed: 26 March 2010)  Learning from vernacular architecture ( sustainability and cultural conformity) B. A. Kazimee Available at: http://library.witpress.com/pages/PaperInfo.asp?PaperID=19192 (Accessed 17 December 2009)

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