The Universal Religion through Science

The Universal Religion through Science Hindu-Buddha Cosmology

Cosmology with Zero-Energy Universe

Sunyata

zero-energy universe

+Satya –Satya

+11D membrane –11Dmembrane

+Treta

–Treta

+Dwapar

+10D string

–Dwapara +10D particle

+Kali –Kali + = day, – = night

–10D string –10D particle

+light particle –dark particle + = positive energy, – = negative energy

The First Day of Genesis The Second Day of Genesis Light Universe-Dark Universe Dark Matter-Baryonic Matter

Three-Level Selection

Postmodern Kingdom of God

Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind. Albert Einstein "Religion and Science" New York Times Magazine (Nov. 9): 1-4, (1930).

….The blind receive sight; the lame walk….the good news is proclaimed to the poor. Jesus, Matthew 11:5

By the universal religion through science, the blind (religion) receive sight; the lame (science) walk. The good news is proclaimed to the universe.

The Universal Religion through Science Abstract 4 Introduction 5 10 Part 1 The Sacred Cosmology: the unified theory of physics 1. The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology: the cyclic cosmology with zero-energy universe 14 1.1. The Strong Pre-Universe 15 1.2. The Gravitational Pre-Universe 20 1.3. The Charged Pre-Universe 21 1.4. The Current Universe 22 1.5. The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology 24 2. The Genesis First Day Cosmology: the light universe and the dark universe 27 2.1. The Current Universe 27 2.2. The Periodic Table of Elementary Particles 37 2.3. Summary for Chapters 1 and 2 47 3. The Genesis Second Day: baryonic matter and dark matter 49 3.1.The Separation between Baryonic Matter and Dark Matter 49 3.2. The Formation of the Inhomogeneous Structures 53 3.3. Summary 59 3.4. Summary for Part 1 60 62 Part 2: The Sacred Society: the unified theory of human society 4. The Three-Branch Way: the three-level selection 70 4.1. The Evolution of Three-Level Selection 70 4.1.1. Individual Selection with Individualistic Society 71 4.1.2. Relational selection with Collectivistic Society 72 4.1.3. Group Selection with Harmonious Society 73 4.1.4. The Evolution of Three-Branch Human Society 76 4.2. The Development of Social Life 78 4.2.1. The Five Factors 79 4.2.1.1. The Gender Factors 79 4.2.1.2. The Non-Gender Factors 84 4.2.2. The Social Lives 86 4.2.2.1. Yin and Yang Social Lives in Social Group 86 4.2.2.2. Group Social Relationship: Expressive and Domination 88 4.2.3. The Harmonious Social Life 89 4.3. The Properties, Interactions, and Reinforcements of the Social Lives 94 4.3.1. The Properties of the Social Lives 94 4.3.2. The Interactions of the Social Lives 97 4.3.3. The Enforcements of the Social Lives 98

2

4.4. Ape Evolution and Hominid Evolution 4.4.1. Ape Evolution 4.4.1.1. The Original Ape: the solitary ape 4.4.1.2 The First Split: the peacemaking ape 4.4.1.3. The Second Split: the loyal ape 4.4.1.4. The Third Split: the harmonious ape 4.4.1.5 The Fourth Split: the aggressive ape 4.4.2. Hominid Evolution 5. The Prehistoric Kingdom of God 5.1. The Kingdom of God 5.2. Supernatural Selection 5.3. The Prehistoric Kingdom of God: The Garden of Eden 6. The Early Kingdom of God 6.1. The Fall of the Prehistoric Kingdom of God 6.2. The Early Transitional Kingdom of God 6.3. The Early Individualistic Society 6.4. The Early Kingdom of God 6.5. The Conversion to the Harmonious Social Life 6.6. The Early Church as the Kingdom of God 6.7. The Church as the State Religion in the Collectivistic Society 7. The Modern Kingdom of God 7.1. The Reformation: the breakdown of the intermediary 7.2. The Puritan Movement: the breakdown of the collectivistic society 7.3. The Decline of the State Religion 7.4. The Three-Branch Unified Society of America 7.5. The Harmonious Moral Religions 7.6. Democracy and Meritocracy 7.7. Socialism, Capitalism, and Adaptive Economy 8. The Postmodern Kingdom of God as the Harmonious Society of God 8.1. The Diminishing Dominance of Religion 8.2. The Modernization of Religion 8.2.1. The Postmodern Modernized Religion 8.2.2. The Postmodern Dominating Religion 8.2.3. The Postmodern Complementary Religion 8.3. The Postmodern Harmonious Religion 8.3.1. The Core Value and the Bridge Value 8.3.2. The Harmonious Society of God 8.4. The End Time 8.5. This Life and Afterlife 8.6. Summary for Part 2 9. Summary 10. Reference Email address: [email protected] Website (download all books): http://sites.google.com/site/einsnewt/ Books list: http://www.scribd.com/einsnewt

3

99 103 103 104 104 105 108 109 115 115 116 118 121 121 123 127 128 131 144 146 147 147 148 148 150 151 152 155 161 161 163 164 164 165 166 166 167 171 172 174 177 178

Abstract The verifiable universal religion through verifiable science as the universal language is applicable in any civilizations in our universe, and is inclusive to connect the major religions. Einstein said, “Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind.” By the universal religion through science, the blind (religion) receive sight; the lame (science) walk. The good news is proclaimed to the universe.. The universal religion includes two parts. (1) The Sacred Cosmology explained by the unified theory of physics consists of the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology and the Genesis Cosmology, and (2) the Sacred Society explained by the unified theory of human society consists of the three-branch way from Daoism and the kingdom of God from Christianity. (1) The unified theory of physics is derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures. The space structure includes attachment space and detachment space. The object structure consists of 11D (dimensional) membrane, 10D string, variable D particle, and empty object. Different universes in different stages are the different expressions of the space-object structures. For our universe, the zero-energy universe produced the symmetrical positive-energy and negative-energy 11D membrane dual universe, followed by the 10D string dual universe, then by the 10D particle dual universe, and then by the asymmetrical dual current universe of the 4D light universe of baryonic matter-dark matter and the variable D dark universe of dark energy without massless particle (light). This is the four-stage cyclic cosmology with the zero-energy universe. The further symmetry breaking in the current universe differentiated baryon matter with massless electromagnetism and dark matter without massless electromagnetism. The inhomogeneous structures, such as galaxy, are derived from the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, like the inhomogeneous emulsion formed by the incompatible oil and water. The cosmology based on the unified theory of physics is comparable to the Sacred Cosmology. Our four-stage cyclic cosmology and zeroenergy universe correspond to the four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle and the Buddha Sunyata (zero) Yuga. The separation of the light universe and dark universe corresponds to the Genesis first day creation to separate light and darkness. The separation of baryonic matter and dark matter corresponds to the Genesis second day creation to separate of waters from above and below the expanse. (2) The origin of the unified theory of human society is the three-level natural selection of individual, relational, and group selections corresponding to yang, yin, and harmony for masculine individualistic achievement, feminine collectivistic relation, and harmonious cooperation, respectively from the three-branch way ( 三支道 ) of Daoism. Jesus said that the kingdom of God is within you. The kingdom of God is within the harmonious society and social life (interaction). The harmonious society exists only in humans and few social insects. The prehistoric huntergatherer society was the harmonious society. In the Bible, the human in the image of God is the human of the harmonious social life different from all other animals. Starting from the Neolithic Revolution, the inevitably large civilized social group destroyed the prehistoric harmonious small social group as the prehistoric kingdom of God, resulting in the fall in the Garden of Eden. Jesus Christ initiated the early kingdom of God that allowed the civilized people to return to the harmonious social life and society. In the postmodern world, the postmodern kingdom of God becomes the harmonious society of God in the three-branch Unified Society.

4

Introduction The evolution of human religion can be divided into four generations starting from the prehistoric formal religion to the postmodern religion. The four-generation religion from the prehistoric society to the postmodern society consists of the band religion, the tribal religion, the global religion, and the universal religion for egalitarian immanent theism, elite revealed theism, common rational theism, and universal scientific theism, respectively. The change in human social structure causes the change in the generation of religion. The breakdown of the old social structure causes the demise of the old generation religion, and the new generation religion is adaptable to the new social structure. The change in the social structure is typically derived from the technological revolution which occurs rapidly, so the change in the social structure is also fairly rapid. Consequently, the evolution of human religion by the change of social structure is punctuated equilibrium rather than smooth gradual process. Punctuated equilibrium makes one drastic change, and then remains fairly unchanged for a long time until the next drastic change. The social structure of the prehistoric society before the formal religion is the band (small social group) society that is the egalitarian small group society as described later in Chapter 5. The first prehistoric religious-social-technological revolution is the Upper Paleolithic Revolution. Similarly to the Industrial and Neolithic Revolutions, the Upper Paleolithic Revolution represents a short time span when numerous inventions appeared and cultural changes occurred. The Upper Paleolithic period extended from about 40,000 to between 10,000 and 15,000 years ago. The reason for the Revolution was the potential breakdown of human society due the harsh fluctuating climates. The increasing sharing of technology and religion among small social groups allowed them to work together to overcome such harsh fluctuating climates. The social structure changed from the band society to the religious band society where many small social groups were bonded by the formal religion, resulting in the rapid development of shared technology and religion. The religion was the first generation religion as the band religion. The believers were common people in the religious band society. The band religion was the Symbolic Religion in terms of female figurines and cave painting, which quickly spread among large region. The band religion is egalitarian immanent theism. Egalitarian theism has no religious hierarchy. The method of the band religion was immanent symbol. At the time of the Upper Paleolithic Period, the supernatural was immanent supernatural that appeared everywhere as a part of all objects in the world. Anything unexplained or unusual was attributed to the supernatural. The society was egalitarian, so there was no authoritative transcendental gods to be worshiped. Everyone and everything was equally an avatar, the incarnation of the supernatural. Such concept of immanent supernatural was prevalent. The symbols for the immanent supernatural were typically the exaggerated and distorted representation of the real natural objects to represent the unexplained and unusual characteristics of the immanent supernatural, so the symbols represented partly the natural and partly the supernatural. (Symbol is the result of the exaggeration of a specific feature of a real object.) Such symbols brought the immanent supernatural to help people. They did not worship such symbols, because there was no concept of worshipping anything authoritative. The symbols were female figurine and cave painting.

5

The first generation religion, egalitarian immanent theism, remained relatively unchanged until the next technological revolution, the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution as the transition from nomadic hunting and gathering to the cultivated crops and domesticated animals for their subsistence was first adopted by various independent prehistoric human societies about 10,000 years ago. The first society resulted from the Neolithic Revolution is the horticultural-pastoral society. Horticulture is agriculture before the invention of the plow. The increase in population in the horticultural society forced people to use more productive method for the cultivation of crops. The method involved plow and draft animals, resulting in the agricultural-nomad society. Plowing maintained the fertility of the soil by turning topsoil. Agriculture could support population increases by more intensive use of the same piece of land. Agriculture could support a much larger population than horticulture. Farmers grew crops for sale rather than crops grown only for household use. Market became an important part of society. Surplus food production brought about non-food-producing professionals, such as religious or ruling elites. Large cities emerged. It is the start of civilization whose original meaning relates to being a citizen, who is governed by the law of one’s city, town or community. The social structure changed from the religious band society to the religious tribal society that is the hierarchical religious tribal large-group society. The result is the second generation religion, the tribal religion as elite revealed theism. The believers in elite revealed theism were ruling elites, including priests and political leaders. The method is God’s revelation in terms of ritual, myth, and the way of ruling. Ritual is an established or prescribed procedure connecting tribal people with God. Myth is a traditional or legendary story connecting tribal people with God. The way of ruling relates to the specific way of governing including benevolence, justice, morality, law, and power structure. Common people could have their folk religions as long as they did not outlandishly contradict elite revealed theism. Elite revealed theism was the religion for ruling elites in Israel before the fall of Jerusalem (the 6th century BC), in India before the social breakdown at the beginning of the Upanishads (the 6th century BC), in China before the social breakdown of Zhou dynasty (the 7th century BC), and in Athens Greece before the frequent wars (the 5th century BC). During the tribal religion, the tribal and territorial borderlines changed, but their borderlines were fairly distinct. Ruling elites changed, but they could still maintain social coherence within distinct tribal and territorial borderlines. Increasing internal and external large-scale warfare gradually destroyed traditional tribal and territorial borderlines. The emergence of the Iron Age finally shifted the power structure irreversibly that made traditional tribal and territorial borderline indistinct. The Iron Age is the final technological and cultural stage in the Stone–Bronze–Iron-Age sequence. The date of the full Iron Age varied geographically, beginning in the Middle East and southeastern Europe about 1200 BC but in China not until about 600 BC. Without distinct tribal and territorial borderlines, the ruling elites could no longer keep social coherence, resulting in the collapse of elite revealed theism. The social structure changed from the religious tribal society to the religious global society without distinct permanent tribal and territorial borderlines. The responsibility to keep social coherence shifted from ruling elites to common people. The folk religion for

6

common people was too primitive to keep social coherence. The prophets in and outside of Israel and the philosophers in China, India, and Greece were familiar with elite revealed theism. They converted ritual, myth, and the way of ruling in elite revealed theism into the rational way of social life (social interaction) for common people. The result was common rational theism as the third generation religion, the global religion. The believers are common people in the religious global society. The method is the rational way of social life. The prophets in and outside of Israel shifted the responsibility to continue Judaism from ruling elites to common people who became the “remnants” after the fall of Jerusalem. They wanted common people to live in the rational moral large-group way of social life as expressed in moral monotheism. The conspicuous consequence of moral monotheism was the disappearance of the folk religion as polytheism for common people after the “remnants” returned to Jerusalem. Archeologists found many idols in the houses of Israelites before the fall of Jerusalem, and they found no idols in the houses after the return. All common people followed common rational theism as moral monotheism that has kept social coherence for Jews for thousands of years. In China, Confucius (551BC to 479BC) converted basically religious rituals and religious terms into the proprieties and the definitions for human relationship in the rational moral large-group way of social life for common people. Laozi (possibly 571BC to 471BC) moved elite revealed theism back to the prehistoric natural society in the rational harmonious small-group way of social life for common people. In India, Buddha (563BC to 483BC) converted the religious cyclic life and liberation into the psychological cyclic life and liberation in the rational harmonious small-group way of life. Hinduism added the reincarnation to unify all gods and enforce morality in the rational moral large-group way of life, and also added yoga for the rational harmonious small-group way of life. In Greece, the philosophers, such as Socrates (470BC to 399BC), Plato, and Aristotle, converted individualistic Greek mythology into the rational individualistic large-group way of social life. Each individual is in pursuit of individualistic achievement in science, mathematics, philosophy, and art. Later, Jesus (5BC to. 30AD) converted the nation of Israel into the kingdom of God as the rational harmonious small-group way of social life for common people. Muhammad (570AD to 632AD) initiated the rational moral large-group way of social life for common people. As discussed in details later, we are currently in the third generation religion consisting of three different types of social life: the collectivistic (moral) large-group way of social life for collectivistic relation (morality), the individualistic large-group way of social life for individualistic achievement, and the harmonious small-group way of social life for harmonious cooperation. The collectivistic social life religion includes Judaism, Hinduism, Confucianism, and Islam. The individualistic social life religion includes the Greek individualism philosophy. The harmonious social life religion includes Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity. In the current postmodern world, the rapid development of science and global communication in the postmodern world push the religion in the brink of the fourth generation religion: the universal religion as universal scientific theism. The society for universal scientific theism is the religious universal society greater than the religious global society on earth. The believers are the all human-like universal humanity in the universe. The method is the God’s universal scientific revelation for our universe and society. The brief description of the four-generation religion is as follows.

7

The Four-Generation Religion Generation Religion Theism

Second Tribal Elite revealed theism

Believers

First Band Egalitarian immanent theism Religious band society Common people

Ruling elites

Third Global Common rational theism Religious global society Common people

Method

Immanent symbol

Revelation (ritual, myth, the way of ruling)

Rational way of social life

Society

Religious tribal society

Fourth Universal Universal scientific theism Religious universal society Universal humanity Universal scientific revelation

Science is the universal language for all observable phenomena, and can be used to unify the observable phenomena in all religions. Science is based on rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism is the system of knowledge based on self-evident propositions and the logical consequences of propositions. Empiricism is based on observable phenomena. A viable scientific model based on rationalism and empiricism is verifiable. A self-evidence proposition of the God’s universal scientific revelation is that the revelations for our universe and society has been revealed symbolically to humans as the verifiable universal religion that is applicable in any high civilizations in our universe, and is inclusive to connect the major religions. The God’s scientific revelations for our universe is shown in the Sacred Cosmology consisting of the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology and the Genesis Cosmology. The Sacred Cosmology can be explained by the unified theory of physics that unifies all observable phenomena in our universe. The Sacred Cosmology is verifiable. The God’s scientific revelation for our society is the Sacred Society explained by the unified theory of human society. The Sacred Society consists of the three-branch way from Daoism and the kingdom of God from Christianity. The Sacred Society is verifiable. The following describes briefly the Sacred Cosmology and the Sacred Society as Part 1 and Part 2, respectively, in this paper. Sacred Cosmology: the unified theory of physics (Part 1) The Sacred Cosmology explained by the unified theory of physics consists of the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology and the Genesis Cosmology. The unified theory of physics is derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures. The space structure includes attachment space and detachment space. The object structure consists of 11D (dimensional) membrane, 10D string, variable D particle, and empty object. Different universes in different developmental stages are the different expressions of the space-object structures. For our universe, the zero-energy universe produced the symmetrical positiveenergy and negative-energy 11D membrane dual universe, followed by the 10D string dual universe, then by the 10D particle dual universe, and then by the asymmetrical dual current universe of the 4D light universe of baryonic matter-dark matter and the variable D dark universe of dark energy without massless particle (light). This is the four-stage cyclic cosmology with the zero-energy universe. The further symmetry breaking in the current universe differentiated baryon matter with massless electromagnetism and dark matter without massless electromagnetism. The inhomogeneous structures, such as galaxy, are derived from the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, like

8

the inhomogeneous emulsion formed by the incompatibility between oil and water. The cosmology based on the unified theory of physics is comparable to the Sacred Cosmology. Our four-stage cyclic cosmology corresponds to the four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle (Satya, Tret, Dwapara, and Kali). The zero-energy universe in cosmology corresponds to the Sunyata (zero) Yuga in the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology. The separation of the light universe and dark universe corresponds to the Genesis first day creation to separate light and darkness. The separation of baryonic matter and dark matter corresponds to the Genesis second day creation to separate of waters from above and below the expanse. The Sacred Society: the unified theory of human society (Part 2) The Sacred Society explained by the unified theory of human society consists of the three-branch way from Daoism and the kingdom of God from Christianity. The origin of the unified theory of human society is the three-level natural selection of individual, relational, and group selections corresponding to yang, yin, and harmony for masculine individualistic achievement, feminine collectivistic relation, and harmonious cooperation, respectively from the three-branch way (三支道) of Daoism. Jesus said that the kingdom of God is within you. The kingdom of God is within the harmonious society and social life (interaction). The harmonious society exists only in humans and few social insects. The prehistoric hunter-gatherer society was the harmonious society. In the Bible, the human in the image of God is the human of the harmonious social life different from all other animals. The human harmonious social life was evolved to adapt to the small human social group. Starting from the Neolithic Revolution, the inevitably large civilized social group destroyed the prehistoric harmonious small social group as the prehistoric kingdom of God, resulting in the fall in the Garden of Eden. Jesus Christ initiated the early kingdom of God that allowed the civilized people to return to the harmonious social life and society. In the postmodern world, the postmodern kingdom of God becomes the harmonious society of God in the three-branch Unified Society. The Universal Scientific Revelation

Sacred revelation

Scientific theories

Science

The Sacred Cosmology The Four-Yuga Hindu Cosmic Cycle with Sunyata (zero) as the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology 2. the first two days in Genesis as the Genesis Cosmology 1. The four-stage cyclic cosmology with the zero-energy universe 2. the separation of the light-dark dual universe and the separation of baryonic matter and dark matter physics, astronomy, and cosmology 1.

The Sacred Society The three-branch way (三支 道) from Daoism 2. The kingdom of God from Christianity

1.

1. 2.

the three-level selection the harmonious society in the three-level selection

human biological and social evolutions, neuroscience, and psychology

Einstein said, “Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind.” (New York Times Magazine (Nov. 9): 1-4, 1933). By the universal religion through science, the blind (religion) receive sight; the lame (science) walk. The good news is proclaimed to the universe.

9

Part 1: The Sacred Cosmology: the unified theory of physics The Sacred Cosmology explained by the unified theory of physics consists of the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology and the Genesis Cosmology. The unified theory of physics is derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures. The space structure includes attachment space and detachment space. The object structure consists of 11D (dimensional) membrane, 10D string, variable D particle, and empty object. Different universes in different developmental stages are the different expressions of the space-object structures. For our universe, the zero-energy universe produced the symmetrical positiveenergy and negative-energy 11D membrane dual universe, followed by the 10D string dual universe, then by the 10D particle dual universe, and then by the asymmetrical dual current universe of the 4D light universe of baryonic matter-dark matter and the variable D dark universe of dark energy without massless particle (light). This is the four-stage cyclic cosmology with the zero-energy universe. The further symmetry breaking in the current universe differentiated baryon matter with massless electromagnetism and dark matter without massless electromagnetism. The inhomogeneous structures, such as galaxy, are derived from the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, like the inhomogeneous emulsion formed by the incompatibility between oil and water. The cosmology based on the unified theory of physics is comparable to the Sacred Cosmology. Our four-stage cyclic cosmology corresponds to the four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle (Satya, Tret, Dwapara, and Kali). The zero-energy universe in cosmology corresponds to the Sunyata (zero) Yuga in the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology. The separation of the light universe and dark universe corresponds to the Genesis first day creation to separate light and darkness. The separation of baryonic matter and dark matter corresponds to the Genesis second day creation to separate of waters from above and below the expanse.

10

The Space-Object Structures The Space Structure Higgs Bosons

(1)

(0)

n

n combination

(1) + (0) n n (1 0) , (1 + 0) , or (1) (0) n n n n

The Object Structure 311, 210, 14 to 10, 04 to 11 2 2 ( D − 4) E = M c /α

The Four-Stage Cosmology with the Zero-Energy Universe zero-energy universe

−11D antimembrane universe

+ 11D membrane universe

−10D antistring universe

+10D string universe

−10D particle universe

+10D particle universe

+4D observable universe

− variable >4D hidden universe

+4D observable universe

− variable >4D hidden universe

+4D universe with dark energy as −4D universe + = positive energy, − = negative energy

11

The Periodic Table of Elementary Particles lepton ν e

νµ

e

ντ

l9

µ 7 τ7 d = a =

6

5

quark u 5

d6

l10

µ8

7 8 9 0 12 3 4 50 1 2 d 7 s 7 c 7 b 7 t 7 b 8 t8 u7 3µ

µ′

10 11

q9 q10

The Galaxy Formation cosmic

baryonic matterexpansion

beginning

baryonic droplets

Big

free baryonic Eruption matter pre-galactic

the firstgeneration galaxies IGM

merge r

clusters with the secondgeneration galaxies

merge superclusters

ICM

galaxy

12

cluster

superclusters

4-Yuga Hindu Cosmic Cycle

4-Stage Cyclic Cosmology

+Satya –Satya

+11D membrane –11Dmembrane

+Treta

–Treta

+Dwapar

–Dwapara

–10D string

+10D particle

–10D particle

+light particle –dark particle

+Kali –Kali + = day, – = night

Hindu-Buddha Cosmology with Sunyata (zero)

+10D string

+ = positive energy, – = negative energy

Cosmology with Zero-Energy Universe

Sunyata

zero-energy universe

+Satya –Satya

+11D membrane –11Dmembrane

+Treta

–Treta

+Dwapar

–Dwapara

+10D string

–10D string

+10D particle

–10D particle

+Kali –Kali

+light particle –dark particle

+ = day, – = night

+ = positive energy, – = negative energy

the First Day of Genesis

the Second Day of Genesis

Light Universe-Dark Universe

Baryonic Matter-Dark Matter

13

1. The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology: the cyclic cosmology with zero-energy universe The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology includes the current universe and the universes before and after the current universe, while the Genesis Cosmology includes only the current universe. Cosmology is based on the unified theory of physics derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures [1] [2]. Before the current universe, the pre-universe is in the three different stages in chronological order: the strong pre-universe, the gravitational pre-universe, and the charged pre-universe. The strong pre-universe has only one force: the strong force. The gravitational pre-universe has two forces: the strong and the gravitational forces. The charged pre-universe has three forces: the strong, the gravitational, and the electromagnetic forces. All three forces in the pre-universes are in their primitive forms unlike the finished forms in our observable universe. The asymmetrical weak interaction comes from the formation of the current asymmetrical dual universe with all four forces: the strong, the gravitational, the electromagnetic, and the asymmetrical weak forces. Such 4-stage cosmology for our universe explains the origin of the four force fields in our observable universe. Before the four-stage universe, the universe was the zero-energy universe in the multiverse. In the zero-energy universe hypothesis, the total amount of energy in the universe is exactly zero. The conventional zero-energy universe hypothesis is based on quantum fluctuation and the exact cancellation of positive-energy matter by negative-energy gravity through pseudo-tensor [ 3 ] or the inflation [ 4 ] before the Big Bang. Quantum fluctuation provides a natural explanation for how that energy may have come out of nothing. Throughout the universe, from nothing, symmetrical particles and antiparticles spontaneously form and quickly annihilate each other without violating the law of energy conservation. Throughout the multiverse, from the zero-energy universe, symmetrical positive-energy and negative-energy universes spontaneously form and quickly annihilate each other. A negative universe becomes a negative energy gravitational field, and a positive energy universe becomes positive-energy matter as described by Stephen Hawking in A Brief History of Time [5]: “And in a sense the energy of the universe is constant; it is a constant whose value is zero. The positive energy of the matter is exactly balanced by the negative energy of the gravitational field. So the universe can start off with zero energy and still create matter.” In this paper, for our universe, the negative-energy universe is not in the form of negative-energy gravity that cancels out the positive-energy matter. In this paper, the negative-energy universe is eventually in the form of dark energy that accelerates the cosmic expansion. For our universe, the zero-energy universe produced symmetrical positiveenergy and negative-energy universes, which then underwent a symmetry breaking through the Higgs mechanism to generate eventually our baryonic matter-dark matter and dark energy, respectively. The Higgs boson can be mass-removing to convert massive particle into massless particle, or mass-giving to convert massless particle into massive particle. Before our universe, the symmetrical positive-energy and negative-energy universes coexisted. All particles were massive, the masses of all particles were equal, and our preuniverse was cold. At the beginning of our universe, the mass-removing Higgs boson

14

converted massive particles in the positive-energy universe into massless particles, resulting in the very hot universe to initiate the Big Bang. The massive particles in the negativeenergy universe remained massive. Afterward, the mass-giving Higgs boson converted some massless particles in the positive-energy universe back to massive particles. The negative-energy massive universe eventually becomes dark energy for the positive-energy universe. 1.1 The Strong Pre-Universe Dual universe Object structure Space structure Force dual 11D membrane attachment space pre-strong The multiverse starts with the zero-energy universe, which produces the positive energy 11D (space-time dimensional) membrane universe and the negative energy 11D membrane universe denoted as 311 3 -11, as proposed by Mongan [6]. The only force among the membranes is the pre-strong force, s, as the predecessor of the strong force. It is from the quantized vibration of the membranes to generate the reversible process of the absorption-emission of the particles among the membranes. The pre-strong force mediates the reversible absorption-emission in the flat space. The pre-strong force is the same for all membranes, so it is not defined by positive or negative sign. It does not have gravity that causes instability and singularity [ 7 ], so the initial universe remains homogeneous, flat, and static. This initial universe provides the globally stable static background state for an inhomogeneous eternal universe in which local regions undergo expansion-contraction [7]. All universes are governed by the space-object structures [1] [2]. Different universes are the different expressions of the same space-object structures. The space structure consists of attachment space (denoted as 1) and detachment space (denoted as 0). Attachment space attaches to object permanently with zero speed. Detachment space detaches from the object at the speed of light. Attachment space relates to rest mass, while detachment space relates to kinetic energy. Different stages of our universe have different space structures. The transformation between mass (massive particle) in attachment space and kinetic energy (massless particle) in detachment space is through the scalar Higgs boson. For example, massive particles with n units of attachment space, denoted as (1)n, are converted into massless particles with n units of detachment space, denoted as (0)n through the Higgs bosons. massive particles in (1) n

Higgs Bosons ←    → massless particles in (0) n

(1)

The Higgs boson can be mass-removing to convert massive particle into massless particle, or mass-giving to convert massless particle into massive particle. The Higgs boson itself is the scalar gauge boson with zero mass-energy. The virtual Higgs boson is a property of space that can turn on the transformation between the massive particle (mass-potential energy) and massless particle (kinetic energy). After the transformation, the Higgs boson remains dormant. With zero mass-energy, the Higgs boson avoids the severe problem of the huge energy (cosmological constant) from the gravity-Higgs boson interaction. The 15

observed Higgs boson at the LHC is a remnant of the Higgs boson, not the Higgs boson itself as described later. Our universe has both attachment space and detachment space. Before our universe, all particles were massive, the masses of all particles were equal, and our pre-universe was cold. At the beginning of our universe, the mass-removing Higgs boson converted massive particles into massless particles, resulting in the very hot universe to initiate the Big Bang. Afterward, the mass-giving Higgs boson converted some massless particles back to massive particles. The combination of attachment space (1) and detachment space (0) brings about three different space structures: miscible space, binary partition space, and binary lattice space for four-dimensional space-time as below. combination (1) attachment space + (0) det achment space    → n n

(2)

(1 0) binary lattice space , (1 + 0) n miscible space , or (1) (0) binary partition space n n n

Binary lattice space, (1 0)n , consists of repetitive units of alternative attachment space and detachment space. Thus, binary lattice space consists of multiple quantized units of attachment space separated from one another by detachment space. In miscible space, attachment space is miscible to detachment space, and there is no separation of attachment space and detachment space. Binary partition space, (1)n(0)n, consists of separated continuous phases of attachment space and detachment space. Binary lattice space consists of multiple quantized units of attachment space separated from one another by detachment space. An object exists in multiple quantum states separated from one another by detachment space. Binary lattice space is the space for wavefunction. In wavefunction, n Ψ = ∑ c φ i i i =1

,

(3)

Each individual basis element, φ i 〉, attaches to attachment space, and separates from the adjacent basis element by detachment space. Detachment space detaches from object. Binary lattice space with n units of four-dimensional, (0 1)n, contains n units of basis elements. Neither attachment space nor detachment space is zero in binary lattice space. The measurement in the uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics is essentially the measurement of attachment space and momentum in binary lattice space: large momentum has small non-zero attachment space, while large attachment space has low non-zero momentum. In binary lattice space, an entity is both in constant motions as wave for detachment space and in stationary state as a particle for attachment space, resulting in the wave-particle duality. Detachment space contains no object that carries information. Without information, detachment space is outside of the realm of causality. Without causality,

16

distance (space) and time do not matter to detachment space, resulting in non-localizable and non-countable space-time. The requirement for the system (binary lattice space) containing non-localizable and non-countable detachment space is the absence of net information by any change in the space-time of detachment space. All changes have to be coordinated to result in zero net information. This coordinated non-localized binary lattice space corresponds to nilpotent space. All changes in energy, momentum, mass, time, space have to result in zero as defined by the generalized nilpotent Dirac equation by B. M. Diaz and P. Rowlands [8].

.

(mk∂ / ∂t ± i∇ + jm) (± ikE ± ip + jm) exp i ( − Et + p r ) = 0

,

(4)

where E, p, m, t and r are respectively energy, momentum, mass, time, space and the symbols ± 1, ± i, ± i, ± j, ± k, ± i, ± j, ± k, are used to represent the respective units required by the scalar, pseudoscalar, quaternion and multivariate vector groups. The changes involve the sequential iterative path from nothing (nilpotent) through conjugation, complexification, and dimensionalization. The non-local property of binary lattice space for wavefunction provides the violation of Bell inequalities [9] in quantum mechanics in terms of faster-than-light influence and indefinite property before measurement. The non-locality in Bell inequalities does not result in net new information. In binary lattice space, for every detachment space, there is its corresponding adjacent attachment space. Thus, no part of the object can be irreversibly separated from binary lattice space, and no part of a different object can be incorporated in binary lattice space. Binary lattice space represents coherence as wavefunction. Binary lattice space is for coherent system. Any destruction of the coherence by the addition of a different object to the object causes the collapse of binary lattice space into miscible space. The collapse is a phase transition from binary lattice space to miscible space.

(( 0 )( 1 )) n

collapse

→

binary lattice space

(0 + 1 ) n

(5)

miscible space

Another way to convert binary lattice space into miscible space is gravity. Penrose [10] pointed out that the gravity of a small object is not strong enough to pull different states into one location. On the other hand, the gravity of large object pulls different quantum states into one location to become miscible space. Therefore, a small object without outside interference is always in binary lattice space, while a large object is never in binary lattice space. The information in miscible space is contributed by the combination of both attachment space and detachment space, so information can no longer be non-localize. Any value in miscible space is definite. All observations in terms of measurements bring about the collapse of wavefunction, resulting in miscible space that leads to eigenvalue as definite quantized value. Such collapse corresponds to the appearance of eigenvalue, E, by a measurement operator, H, on a wavefunction,Ψ. HΨ = E Ψ

17

,

(6)

In miscible space, attachment space is miscible to detachment space, and there is no separation of attachment space and detachment space. In miscible space, attachment space contributes zero speed, while detachment space contributes the speed of light. A massless particle, such as photon, is on detachment space continuously, and detaches from its own space continuously. For a moving massive particle consisting of a rest massive part and a massless part, the massive part with rest mass, m0, is in attachment space, and the massless part with kinetic energy, K, is in detachment space. The combination of the massive part in attachment space and massless part in detachment leads to the propagation speed in between zero and the speed of light. To maintain the speed of light constant for a moving particle, the time (t) in moving particle has to be dilated, and the length (L) has to be contracted relative to the rest frame.

t = =t

0 L = L0 / γ ,

1 −υ 2 / c 2 = t γ , 0

(7)

E = K + m c2 = γ m c2 0

0

where γ = 1 / 1 − υ 2 / c 2 is the Lorentz factor for time dilation and length contraction, E is the total energy and K is the kinetic energy. Binary partition space, (1)n(0)n, consists of separated continuous phases of attachment space and detachment space. It is for extreme force fields under extreme conditions such as near the absolute zero temperature or extremely high pressure. It explains extreme phenomena such as superconductivity and black hole [1]. The object structure consists of 11D membrane (311), 10D string (210), variable D particle (14 to 10), and empty object (04 to 11). Different universes and different stages of a universe can have different expressions of the object structure. For an example, the four stages in the evolution of our universe are the 11D membrane universe (the strong universe), the dual 10D string universe (the gravitational pre-universe), the dual 10D particle universe (the charged pre-universe), and the dual 4D/variable D particle universe (the current universe). The transformation among the objects is through the dimensional oscillation [1] that involves the oscillation between high dimensional space-time and low dimensional space-time. Vacuum energy decreases with decreasing dimension number. The vacuum energy of 4D space-time is zero. With such vacuum energy differences, the local dimensional oscillation between high and low space-time dimensions results in local eternal expansion-contraction [ 11 ]. Eternal expansion-contraction is like harmonic oscillator, oscillating between the Planck vacuum energy and the lower vacuum energy. For the dimensional oscillation, contraction occurs at the end of expansion. Each local region in the universe follows a particular path of the dimensional oscillation. Each path is marked by particular set of force fields. The path for our universe is marked by the strong force, gravity-antigravity, charged electromagnetism, and asymmetrical weak force, corresponding to the four stages of the cosmic evolution. The vacuum energy differences among space-time dimensions are based on the varying speed of light. Varying speed of light has been proposed to explain the horizon

18

problem of cosmology [12] [13]. The proposal is that light traveled much faster in the distant past to allow distant regions of the expanding universe to interact since the beginning of the universe. Therefore, it was proposed as an alternative to cosmic inflation. J. D. Barrow [14] proposes that the time dependent speed of light varies as some power of the expansion scale factor a in such way that c(t ) = c0 a n

(8)

where c0 > 0 and n are constants. The increase of speed of light is continuous. In this paper, varying dimension number (VDN) relates to quantized varying speed of light (QVSL), where the speed of light is invariant in a constant space-time dimension number, and the speed of light varies with varying space-time dimension number from 4 to 11. cD = c / α D − 4 , (9) where c is the observed speed of light in the 4D space-time, cD is the quantized varying speed of light in space-time dimension number, D, from 4 to 11, and α is the fine structure constant for electromagnetism. Each dimensional space-time has a specific speed of light. (Since from the beginning of our observable universe, the space-time dimension has always been four, there is no observable varying speed of light in our observable universe.) The speed of light increases with the increasing space-time dimension number D. In special relativity, E = M 0 c 2 modified by Eq. (9) is expressed as E = M 0 ⋅ (c 2 / α 2 ( D − 4 ) ) = ( M 0 / α 2 ( d − 4) ) ⋅ c 2 .

(10a) (10b)

Eq. (10a) means that a particle in the D dimensional space-time can have the superluminal speed c / α D − 4 , which is higher than the observed speed of light c, and has the rest mass M 0 . Eq. (10b) means that the same particle in the 4D space-time with the observed speed of light acquires M 0 / α 2 ( d − 4 ) as the rest mass, where d = D. D in Eq. (10a) is the space-time dimension number defining the varying speed of light. In Eq. (10b), d from 4 to 11 is “mass dimension number” defining varying mass. For example, for D = 11, Eq. (10a) shows a superluminal particle in eleven-dimensional space-time, while Eq. (10b) shows that the speed of light of the same particle is the observed speed of light with the 4D space-time, and the mass dimension is eleven. In other words, 11D space-time can transform into 4D space-time with 11d mass dimension. 11D4d in Eq. (10a) becomes 4D11d in Eq. (10b) through QVSL. QVSL in terms of varying space-time dimension number, D, brings about varying mass in terms of varying mass dimension number, d. The QVSL transformation transforms both space-time dimension number and mass dimension number. In the QVSL transformation, the decrease in the speed of light leads to the decrease in space-time dimension number and the increase of mass in terms of increasing mass dimension number from 4 to 11,

19

cD = cD − n / α 2 n , M 0, D , d = M 0, D − n, d + nα

(11a) 2n

,

QVSL D, d   → (D m n), (d ± n)

(11b) (11c)

where D is the space-time dimension number from 4 to 11 and d is the mass dimension number from 4 to 11. For example, in the QVSL transformation, a particle with 11D4d is transformed to a particle with 4D11d. In terms of rest mass, 11D space-time has 4d with the lowest rest mass, and 4D space-time has 11d with the highest rest mass. Rest mass decreases with increasing space-time dimension number. The decrease in rest mass means the increase in vacuum energy, so vacuum energy increases with increasing space-time dimension number. The vacuum energy of 4D particle is zero, while 11D membrane has the Planck vacuum energy. Since the speed of light for > 4D particle is greater than the speed of light for 4D particle, the observation of > 4D particles by 4D particles violates casualty. Thus, > 4D particles are hidden particles with respect to 4D particles. Particles with different spacetime dimensions are transparent and oblivious to one another, and separate from one another if possible. 1.2 The Gravitational Pre-Universe Dual universe Object structure Space structure Forces dual 10D string attachment space pre-strong, pre-gravity In certain regions of the 11D membrane universe, the local expansion takes place by the transformation from 11D-membrane into 10D-string. The expansion is the result of the vacuum energy difference between 11D membrane and 10D string. With the emergence of empty object (011), 11D membrane transforms into 10D string warped with virtue particle as pregravity.

311 s + 011

←→ 210 s 11 = 210 s g +

(12)

where 311 is the 11D membrane, s is the pre-strong force, 011 is the 11D empty object, 210 is 10D string, 11 is one dimensional virtue particle as g, pre-gravity. Empty object corresponds to the anti-De Sitter bulk space in the Randall-Sundrum model [15]. In the same way, the surrounding object can extend into empty object by the decomposition of space dimension as described by Bounias and Krasnoholovets [ 16 ], equivalent to the Randall-Sundrum model. The g is in the bulk space, which is the warped space (transverse radial space) around 210. As in the AdS/CFT duality [17] [18] [19], the pre-strong force has 10D dimension, one dimension lower than the 11D membrane, and is the conformal force defined on the conformal boundary of the bulk space. The pre-strong force mediates the reversible absorption-emission process of membrane (string) units in the flat space, while pregravity mediates the reversible condensation-decomposition process of mass-energy in the bulk space.

20

Through symmetry, antistrings form 10D antibranes with anti-pregravity as 2 −10 -

-

g , where g is anti-pregravity. 3 −11 s + 0 −11 ← → 2 −10 s 1−1 = 2 −10 s g −

(13)

Pregravity can be attractive or repulsive to anti-pregravity. If it is attractive, the universe remains homogeneous. If it is repulsive, n units of (210)n and n units of (2-10)n are separated from each other. + − ( ( s 210 ) g ) ( g ( s 2 −10 )) n n

(14)

The dual 10D string universe consists of two parallel universes with opposite energies: 10D strings with positive energy and 10D antistrings with negative energy. The two universes are separated by the bulk space, consisting of pregravity and anti-pregravity. There are four equal regions: positive energy string universe, pregravity bulk space, anti-pregravity bulk space, and negative energy antistring universe. Such dual universe separated by bulk space appears in the ekpyrotic universe model [20] [21]. 1.3. The Charged Pre-Universe Dual universe dual

Object structure 10D particle

Space structure attachment space

Forces pre-strong, pre-gravity, preelectromagnetic

When the local expansion stops, through the dimensional oscillation, the 10D dual universe returns to the 11D positive and negative universes, which coalesce to undergo annihilation, and to return to the zero-energy universe. The 10D positive and negative universe can also coalesce to undergo annihilation and to return to the zero-energy universe. The first path of such coalescence is the annihilation, resulting in disappearance of the dual universe and the return to the zero-energy universe. The second path allows the continuation of the dual universe in another form without the mixing of positive energy and negative energy. Such dual universe is possible by the emergence of the pre-charge force, the predecessor of electromagnetism with positive and negative charges. The mixing becomes the mixing of positive charge and negative charge instead of positive energy and negative energy, resulting in the preservation of the dual universe with the positive energy and the negative energy. Our universe follows the second path as described below in details. During the coalescence for the second path, the two universes coexist in the same space-time, which is predicted by the Santilli isodual theory [22]. Antiparticle for our positive energy universe is described by Santilli as follows, “this identity is at the foundation of the perception that antiparticles “appear” to exist in our space, while in reality they belong to a structurally different space coexisting within our own, thus setting the foundations of a “multidimensional universe” coexisting in the same space of our sensory perception” (Ref. [22], p. 94). Antiparticles in the positive energy universe actually come from the coexisting negative energy universe.

21

The mixing process follows the isodual hole theory that is the combination of the Santilli isodual theory and the Dirac hole theory. In the Dirac hole theory that is not symmetrical, the positive energy observable universe has an unobservable infinitive sea of negative energy. A hole in the unobservable infinitive sea of negative energy is the observable positive energy antiparticle. In the dual 10D string universe, one universe has positive energy strings with pregravity, and one universe has negative energy antistrings with anti-pregravity. For the mixing of the two universes during the coalescence, a new force, the pre-charged force, emerges to provide the additional distinction between string and antistring. The precharged force is the predecessor of electromagnetism. Before the mixing, the positive energy string has positive pre-charge (e+), while the negative energy antistring has negative pre-charge (e ). During the mixing when two 10D string universes coexist, a half of positive energy strings in the positive energy universe move to the negative energy universe, and leave the Dirac holes in the positive energy universe. The negative energy antistrings that move to fill the holes become positive energy antistrings with negative pre-charge in the positive energy universe. In terms of the Dirac hole theory, the unobservable infinitive sea of negative energy is in the negative energy universe from the perspective of the positive energy universe before the mixing. The hole is due to the move of the negative energy antistring to the positive energy universe from the perspective of the positive energy universe during the mixing, resulting in the positive energy antistring with negative precharge in the positive energy universe. In the same way, a half of negative energy antistrings in the negative energy universe moves to the positive energy universe, and leave the holes in the negative energy universe. The positive energy strings that move to fill the holes become negative energy strings with positive pre-charge in the negative energy universe. The result of the mixing is that both positive energy universe and the negative energy universe have strings-antistrings. The existence of the pre-charge provides the distinction between string and antistring in the string-antistring. At that time, the space (detachment space) for radiation has not appeared in the universe, so the string-antistring annihilation does not result in radiation. The stringantistring annihilation results in the replacement of the string-antistring as the 10D stringantistring, (210 2-10) by the 10D particle-antiparticle (110 1-10). The 10D particlesantiparticles have the multiple dimensional Kaluza-Klein structure with variable space dimension number without the requirement for a fixed space dimension number for stringantistring. After the mixing, the dual 10D particle-antiparticle universe separated by pregravity and anti-pregravity appears as below. (( s 110 e

+ _ + e 1−10 s ) g )

n

− + _ ( g ( s 110 e e 1−10 s ))

n

,

(15)

where s and e are the pre-strong force and the pre-charged force in the flat space, g is pregravity in the bulk space, and 110 1-10 is the particle-antiparticle. The dual 10D particle universe consists of two parallel particle-antiparticle universes with opposite energies and the bulk space separating the two universes. There are four equal regions: the positive energy particle-antiparticle space region, the pregravity bulk space

22

region, the negative energy particle-antiparticle space region, and the anti-pregravity bulk space region. 1.4. The Current Universe The light universe The dark universe

Object structure 4D particle

Space structure attachment space and detachment space

variable D between 4 and 10 particle

attachment space

Forces strong, gravity, electromagnetic, and weak pre-strong, gravity, preelectromagnetic

The formation of our current universe follows immediately after the formation of the charged pre-universe through the asymmetrical dimensional oscillations and the asymmetrical addition of detachment space, leading to the asymmetrical dual universe. The asymmetrical dimensional oscillation involved the immediate transformation of the positive-energy universe from 10D to 4D and the slow reversible transformation of the negative-energy universe between 10D and 4D. In the asymmetrical addition of detachment space, the mass-removing Higgs boson converted massive particles in the positive-energy universe into massless particles, and the massive particles in the negativeenergy universe remained massive. Afterward, the mass-giving Higgs boson converted some massless particles in the positive-energy universe back to massive particles due to mainly the CP asymmetry (particle-antiparticle asymmetry). The result was the asymmetrical dual universe consisting of the positive-energy 4D light universe with kinetic energy and light and the negative-energy oscillating 10D-4D dark universe without kinetic energy and light. The light universe contains both attachment space and detachment space, and the dark universe contains only attachment space. The four equal parts in the dual universe include the positive energy particle universe, the gravity bulk space, the antigravity bulk space, and the negative energy particle universe. The dark universe includes the negative energy particle universe, the antigravity bulk space, and the gravity bulk space. The light universe includes the positive energy particle universe. Therefore, the dark universe contains 75% of the total dual universe, while the light universe contains 25% of the total dual universe. The percentage (75%) of the dark universe later becomes the maximum percentage of the dark energy. The asymmetrical dual universe is manifested as the asymmetry in the weak interaction in our observable universe as follows. + + − _ + − + + − _ (( s 1 4 e w e w 1− 4 s ) g ) n ( g ( s 1≤10 e w e w 1≥ −10 s )) n

(16)

where s, g, e, and w are the strong force, gravity, electromagnetism, and weak interaction, respectively for the observable universe, and where 141-4 and 1≤101≥-10 are 4D particleantiparticle for the light universe and variable D particle-antiparticle for the dark universe, respectively. In summary, the whole process of the local dimensional oscillations leading to our observable universe is illustrated as follows.

23

betwwen 11D and 10 D coalescence, annihilation membrane universe ←        → dual string universe ←        → + − ( ( s 210 ) g ) ( g ( s 2 −10 )) n n

311 s s 3−11

between 10 D and 4 D dual 10 D particle universe ←       → + _ + − + _ (( s 110 e e 1−10 s ) g ) n ( g ( s 110 e e 1−10 s )) n

dual 4 D / var ible D particle universe

+ + − _ + − + + − _ (( s 14 e w e w 1− 4 s ) g ) n ( g ( s 1≤10 e w e w 1≥ −10 s )) n

where s, e, and w are in the flat space, and g is in the bulk space. Each stage generates one force, so the four stages produce the four different forces: the strong force, gravity, electromagnetism, and the weak interaction, sequentially. Gravity appears in the first dimensional oscillation between the 11 dimensional membrane and the 10 dimensional string. The asymmetrical weak force appears in the asymmetrical second dimensional oscillation between the ten dimensional particle and the four dimensional particle. Charged electromagnetism appears as the force in the transition between the first and the second dimensional oscillations. The cosmology explains the origins of the four forces. To prevent the charged pre-universe to reverse back to the previous pre-universe, the charge pre-universe and the current universe overlap to a certain degree as shown in the overlapping between the electromagnetic interaction and the weak interaction to form the electroweak interaction. Four-Stage Universe Strong PreUniverse Gravitational Pre-Universe Charged PreUniverse Current Universe light universe

dark universe

Universe

Object Structure

Space Structure

Force

dual

11D membrane

attachment space

pre-strong

dual

10D string

attachment space

pre-strong, pre-gravity

dual

10D particle

attachment space

pre-strong, pre-gravity, pre-electromagnetic

4D particle

attachment space and detachment space attachment space

strong, gravity, electromagnetic, and weak

dual

variable D between 4 and 10 particle

pre-strong, gravity, preelectromagnetic, and weak

1.5. The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology

The Hindus view that the universe has no beginning or end, but follows a cosmic cycle of creation and dissolution. According to the Hinduism, each manifested cosmic cycle is divided into four Yugas, including Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali, which is the present Yuga. In terms of years, the ratio of Satya:Treta:Dwapara:Kali is 4:3:2:1. This four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle is comparable to the four-stage cyclic cosmology, consisting of the 11D membrane dual universe, the 10D string dual universe, the 10D particle dual universe, and the light-dark particle dual universe.

24

+Satya –Satya +Treta

–Treta

+Dwapar

–Dwapara

+Kali –Kali + = day, – = night

+11D membrane –11Dmembrane +10D string

–10D string

+10D particle

–10D particle

+light particle –dark particle + = positive energy, – = negative energy

Figure 8. the four-Yuga Hindu Cosmic Cycle (Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali) and the four-stage cyclic cosmology (11D membrane dual, 10D string dual, 10D particle dual, and light-dark particle dual)

The endless Hindu cosmic cycle of creation and destruction is manifested in the Hindu deity Shiva as Nataraja (Lord of the Dance).

The purpose of the dance is to release people from illusion of the idea of the "self" and of the physical world. The gestures of the dance represent Shiva's five activities, creation (symbolized by the drum in his upper right hand to sound the universe’s creation), protection (by the "fear not" lower left hand gesture), destruction (by the fire in his upper left hand to destroy the universe), embodiment (by the right foot planted on the ground to be bonded), and release (by the left foot held aloft to release from the bondage). The circle of fire represents the cosmos and consciousness. The symbolism of Siva Nataraja is religion, art and science merges as one. The Hindu cosmic cycle is modified by the Buddhist Sunyata (zero-ness, Sunya = zero, ta = ness) as the un-differentiation out of which all apparent entities, distinctions, and dualities arise.

25

It transforms the Hindu cosmic cycle into the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology that includes both the Hindu cosmic cycle and Sunyata. The endless Hindu cosmic cycle closely relates to the endless cycle of reincarnations as samsara. Both Buddhism and Hinduism believe in samsara. Both seek release from this cycle of reincarnations. Hinduism believes in the absolute soul (atman) in this cycle. Through spiritual practice, Hindus seek release (moksha) by joining the soul with the Universal Divine Force (Brahman). Buddhism, on the other hand, does not believe in the absolute soul in the cycle. Nothing is constant and permanent. Therefore, for Buddhists, the ultimate goal is to end the cycle, and enter into a state of Nirvana, which means “cool” far away from the fires of desire. The state of Nirvana is Sunyata (zero). In terms of the cosmic cycle, it is the end of the cosmic cycle, and the entry into the zero-energy universe. The Hindu-Buddha Cosmology includes the cosmic cycle and the Sunyata (zero) Yuga. Sunyata

zero-energy universe

+Satya –Satya +Treta

–Treta

+Dwapar

+11D membrane –11Dmembrane +10D string

–10D string

+10D particle

–10D particle

–Dwapara

+light particle –dark particle

+Kali –Kali

+ = positive energy, – = negative energy

+ = day, – = night

Figure 9. the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology (Satya, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali as well as the Sunyata Yugas) and the cosmology with the zero-energy universe (11D membrane dual, 10D string dual, 10D particle dual, and light-dark particle dual as well as the zero-energy universe)

The earliest known records describing the concept of a multiverse are found in ancient Hindu cosmology. They expressed the idea of an infinite number of universes, each with its own gods, inhabitants and planets, and an infinite cycle of births, deaths, and rebirths of a universe. The concept of multiverses is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana: The layers or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination. (Bhagavata Purana 3.11.41) Even though over a period of time I might count all the atoms of the universe, I could not count all of my opulence which I manifest within innumerable universes. (Bhagavata Purana 11.16.39)

26

2. The First Day: the light universe and the dark universe 2.1. The Current Universe

Scripture

The Genesis Cosmology involves the current universe. In Genesis, the first day involves the emergence of the separation of light and darkness from the formless, empty, and dark pre-universe, corresponding to the emergence of the current asymmetrical dual universe of the observable light universe with light and the hidden dark universe without light from the simple and dark pre-universe in Genesis Cosmology. The light universe is the current observable universe, while the dark universe coexisting with the light universe is first separated from the light universe and later connected with the light universe as dark energy. The original Genesis 1 In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. 2 Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. 3 And God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. 4 God saw that the light was good, and He separated the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." And there was evening, and there was morning—the first day. The interpretative Genesis 1 At the beginning of the creation of heaven and earth a, 2 when the pre-universe was simple, darkness b was over the surface of the deep vacuum energy c, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the cosmic fluids d. 3 And God said, "Let there be light," and there was light in the light universe e. 4 God saw that the light was good, and He separated the light universe from the dark universe f. 5 God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." And there was the first period. a. b. c.

d. e. f.

The ambiguity of the Hebrew grammar brings about the alternative translation, in which "heaven and earth" already existed as in the New JPS Translation of the Torah. The pre-universe does not have light and kinetic energy, while our observable universe has light and kinetic energy. Vacuum energy is the energy below the detectable energy. Our observable universe has zero vacuum energy, while the pre-universe has high vacuum energy. The cosmic fluids are various different pre-universes. The light universe is the observable universe with light and kinetic energy. Coexisting with the light universe, the dark universe without light and kinetic is first separated from the light universe and later connected with the light universe as dark energy.

27

The ambiguity of the Hebrew grammar brings about the alternative translation in which "heaven and earth" already existed in a "formless and empty" state, to which God brings form and order [23]. The existing universe before the form and order is called the “pre-universe”. Therefore, the first day involves the emergence of the current universe from the pre-universe that was simple as described in Genesis 1:2 as formless, empty, and dark with the surface of the deep. As discussed earlier, the pre-universe [1] [2] is simple, dark without light and kinetic energy, and deep with high vacuum energy. Vacuum energy is the energy below the surface of detectable energy. The pre-universe has high vacuum energy, while our observable universe has zero vacuum energy. Therefore, the description of the pre-universe in Genesis is in agreement with the description of the pre-universe. In Genesis, the first day involves the appearance of light and the separation of light and darkness from the formless, empty, and dark pre-universe. The starting of our current universe is the separation of light universe with light and the dark universe without light. The light universe is our observable universe. The dark universe coexisting with the light universe is first separated from the light universe and later connected with the light universe as dark energy. Therefore, the description of the start of the current universe in Genesis is in agreement with the description of the start of the current universe. The following describes the current universe. The formation of the dark universe involves the slow dimensional oscillation between 10D and 4D. The dimensional oscillation for the formation of the dark universe involves the stepwise two-step transformation: the QVSL transformation and the varying supersymmetry transformation. In the normal supersymmetry transformation, the repeated application of the fermionboson transformation carries over a boson (or fermion) from one point to the same boson (or fermion) at another point at the same mass. In the “varying supersymmetry transformation”, the repeated application of the fermion-boson transformation carries over a boson from one point to the boson at another point at different mass dimension number in the same space-time number. The repeated varying supersymmetry transformation carries over a boson Bd into a fermion Fd and a fermion Fd to a boson Bd-1, which can be expressed as follows M d, F

= M d, B α d, B ,

M d − 1, B = M d, F α d, F ,

(17a) (17b)

where Md, B and Md, F are the masses for a boson and a fermion, respectively, d is the mass dimension number, and α d, B or α d, F is the fine structure constant that is the ratio between the masses of a boson and its fermionic partner. Assuming α d, B or α d, F , the relation between the bosons in the adjacent dimensions or n dimensions apart (assuming α’s are the same) then can be expressed as M d, B = M d + 1, B α d2 + 1 . (17c) M d , B = M d + n , B α d2+n n . N d-1 = N d / α 2 .

28

(17d) (17e)

Eq. (18) show that it is possible to describe mass dimensions > 4 in the following way F5 B5 F6 B6 F7 B7 F8 B8 F9 B9 F10 B10 F11 B11 ,

(18)

where the energy of B11 is the Planck energy. Each mass dimension between 4d and 11d consists of a boson and a fermion. Eq. (19) shows a stepwise transformation that converts a particle with d mass dimension to d ± 1 mass dimension. stepwise varying supersymmetry D, d ←            → D, (d ± 1)

(19)

The transformation from a higher mass dimensional particle to the adjacent lower mass dimensional particle is the fractionalization of the higher dimensional particle to the many lower dimensional particles in such way that the number of lower dimensional particles becomes N d-1 = N d / α 2 . The transformation from lower dimensional particles to higher dimensional particle is a condensation. Both the fractionalization and the condensation are stepwise. For example, a particle with 4D (space-time) 10d (mass dimension) can transform stepwise into 4D9d particles. Since the supersymmetry transformation involves translation, this stepwise varying supersymmetry transformation leads to a translational fractionalization and translational condensation, resulting in expansion and contraction. For the formation of the dark universe from the charged pre-universe, the negative energy universe has the 10D4d particles, which is converted eventually into 4D4d stepwise and slowly. It involves the stepwise two-step varying transformation: first the QVSL transformation, and then, the varying supersymmetry transformation as follows. stepwise two - step varying transform ation QVSL (1) D, d ← → (D m 1), (d ± 1)

(20)

varying supersymme try (2) D, d ←         → D, (d ± 1)

The repetitive stepwise two-step transformations from 10D4d to 4D4d are as follows. The Hidden Dark Universe and the Observable Dark Universe with Dark Energy 10D4d → 9D5d → 9D4d → 8D5d → 8D4d → 7D5d → • • •• → 5D4d → 4D5d → 4D4d a the

hidden

dark

universe ←a dark energy ←

The dark universe consists of two periods: the hidden dark universe and the dark energy universe. The hidden dark universe composes of the > 4D particles. As mentioned before, particles with different space-time dimensions are transparent and oblivious to one another, and separate from one another if possible. Thus, > 4D particles are hidden and separated particles with respect to 4D particles in the light universe (our observable universe). The universe with > 4D particles is the hidden dark universe. The 4D particles transformed from hidden > 4D particles in the dark universe are observable dark energy

29

for the light universe, resulting in the accelerated expanding universe. The accelerated expanding universe consists of the positive energy 4D particles-antiparticles and dark energy that includes the negative energy 4D particles-antiparticles and the antigravity. Since the dark universe does not have detachment space, the presence of dark energy is not different from the presence of the non-zero vacuum energy. In terms of quintessence, such dark energy can be considered the tracking quintessence [24] from the dark universe with the space-time dimension as the tracker. The tracking quintessence consists of the hidden quintessence and the observable quintessence. The hidden quintessence is from the hidden > 4D dark universe. The observable quintessence is from the observable 4D dark universe with 4D space-time. For the formation of the light universe, the dimensional oscillation for the positive energy universe transforms 10D to 4D immediately. It involves the leaping two-step varying transformation, resulting in the light universe with kinetic energy. The first step is the space-time dimensional oscillation through QVSL. The second step is the mass dimensional oscillation through slicing-fusion. leaping two − step varying transformation QVSL (1) D, d ← → (D m n), (d ± n)

(21)

slicing - fusion (2) D, d ←    → D, (d ± n) + (11 − d + n) DO' s The Light Universe quick QVSL transforma tion slicing with det achment space , inf lation → 4D10d                → 10D4d             dark matter ( 4 D 9 d + 4 D 8d + 4 D 7 d + 4 D 6 d + 4 D 5d) + baryonic matter ( 4 D 4 d) + cosmic radiation → thermal cos mic exp ansion ( the big bang )

In the charged pre-universe, the positive energy universe has 10D4d, which is transformed into 4D10d in the first step through the QVSL transformation. The second step of the leaping varying transformation involves the slicing-fusion of particle. The slicing is through detachment space. The Higgs boson converts rest mass in attachment space into kinetic energy in detachment space. Bounias and Krasnoholovets [25] propose another explanation of the reduction of > 4 D space-time into 4D space-time by slicing > 4D space-time into infinitely many 4D quantized units surrounding the 4D core particle. Such slicing of > 4D space-time is like slicing 3-space D object into 2-space D object in the way stated by Michel Bounias as follows: “You cannot put a pot into a sheet without changing the shape of the 2-D sheet into a 3-D dimensional packet. Only a 2-D slice of the pot could be a part of sheet”. The slicing is by detachment space, as a part of the space structure, which consists of attachment space (denoted as 1) and detachment space (denoted as 0) as described earlier. Attachment space attaches to object permanently with zero speed. Detachment space detaches from the object at the speed of light. Attachment space relates to rest mass, while detachment space relates to kinetic energy. The cosmic origin of detachment space is the cosmic radiation from the particle-antiparticle annihilation that initiates the transformation. The cosmic radiation cannot permanently attach to a space. The slicing of dimensions is the slicing of mass dimensions. 4D10d particle is sliced into six particles: 4D9d, 4D8d, 4D7d, 4D6d, 4D5d, and 4D4d equally by mass. Baryonic matter is 4D4d, while dark matter consists of the other five types of particles (4D9d, 4D8d, 4D7d, 4D6d, and 4D5d) as described later. The mass ratio of dark matter to 30

baryonic matter is 5 to 1 in agreement with the observation [26] showing the universe consists of 22.7% dark matter, 4.56% baryonic matter, and 72.8% dark energy. Detachment space (0) involves in the slicing of mass dimensions. Attachment space is denoted as 1. For example, the slicing of 4D10d particles into 4D4d particles is as follows.

(14 + 6 )i

slicing

 →

> 4d attachment space

( 14 )i

+

6

∑

(( 04 )( 14 ))j,6

1 4d core attachment space

6 types of 4d units

(22)

The two products of the slicing are the 4d-core attachment space and 6 types of 4d quantized units. The 4d core attachment space surrounded by 6 types of many (j) 4D4dquantized units corresponds to the core particle surrounded by 6 types of many small 4d particles. Therefore, the transformation from d to d – n involves the slicing of a particle with d mass dimension into two parts: the core particle with d – n dimension and the n dimensions that are separable from the core particle. Such n dimensions are denoted as n “dimensional orbitals”, which become gauge force fields as described later. The sum of the number of mass dimensions for a particle and the number of dimensional orbitals (DO’s) is equal to 11 (including gravity) for all particles with mass dimensions. Therefore, Fd = Fd − n + (11 − d + n) DO' s (23) where 11 – d + n is the number of dimensional orbitals (DO’s) for Fd - n. Thus, 4D10d particles can transformed into 4D9d, 4D8d, 4D7d, 4D6d, 4D5d, and 4D4d core particles, which have 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 separable dimensional orbitals, respectively. Baryonic matter particle 4D4d has gravity and six other dimensional orbitals as gauge force fields as below. The six > 4d mass dimensions (dimensional orbitals) for the gauge force fields and the one mass dimension for gravity are as in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The seven force fields as > 4d mass dimensions (dimensional orbitals). The dimensional orbitals of baryonic matter provide the base for the periodic table of elementary particles to calculate accurately the masses of all 4D elementary particles, including quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons as described later. The lowest dimensional orbital is for electromagnetism. Baryonic matter is the only one with the lowest dimensional orbital for electromagnetism. With higher dimensional orbitals, dark matter does not have this lowest dimensional orbital. Without electromagnetism, dark matter cannot emit light, and is incompatible to baryonic matter, like 31

the incompatibility between oil and water. The incompatibility between dark matter and baryonic matter leads to the inhomogeneity (like emulsion), resulting in the formation of galaxies, clusters, and superclusters as described later. Dark matter has not been found by direct detection because of the incompatibility. In the light universe, the inflation is the leaping varying transformation that is the two-step inflation. The first step is to increase the rest mass as potential from higher space-time dimension to lower space-time dimension as expressed by Eq. (24a) from Eq. (11b). QVSL D, d   → (D m n), (d ± n) V D , d = VD − n, d + n α 2 n

ϕ = collective n' s V (ϕ ) = V4 D10 dα − 2 ϕ , where ϕ ≤ 0 from − 6 to 0 (24a) where α is the fine structure constant for electromagnetism. The ratio of the potential energies of 4D10d to that of 10D4d is 1/α12. ϕ is the scalar field for QVSL, and is equal to collectivistic n’s as the changes in space-time dimension number for many particles. The increase in the change of space-time dimensions from 4D decreases the potential as the rest mass. The region for QVSL is ϕ ≤ 0 from -6 to 0. The QVSL region is for the conversion of the vacuum energy into the rest mass as the potential. The second step is the slicing that occurs simultaneously with the appearance of detachment space that is the space for cosmic radiation (photon). The Higgs boson converts rest mass in attachment space into kinetic energy in detachment space. Potential energy as massive 4D10d particles is converted into kinetic energy as cosmic radiation and massive matter particles (from 10d to 4d). It relates to the ratio between photon and matter in terms of the CP asymmetry between particle and antiparticle. The slight excess particle over antiparticle results in matter particle. The equation for the potential (V) and the scalar field (φ) is as Eq. (24b) from Eq. (35) that expresses the ratio between photon and matter. slicing D, d  → D, (d − n) (24b) 2φ V (φ ) = V4 D10 d α , where φ ≥ 0 from 0 to 2 The ratio is α4, according to Eq. (35). The region for the slicing is φ ≥ 0 from 0 to 2. The slicing region is for the conversion of the potential energy into the kinetic energy. The combination of Eq. (24a) and Eq. (24b) is as Eq. (24c). V (ϕ , φ ) = V4 D10 d (α − 2 ϕ + α 2 φ ), where ϕ ≤ 0 and φ ≥ 0

32

(24c)

The graph for the two-step inflation is as Figure 2. V V4D10d

ϕ

φ

Figure 2. the two-step inflation At the transition (V4D10d) between the first step (QVSL) and the second step (slicing), the scalar field reverses its sign and direction. In the first step, the universe inflates by the decrease in vacuum energy. In the second step, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as cosmic radiation. The resulting kinetic energy starts the Big Bang, resulting in the expanding universe. Toward the end of the cosmic contraction after the big crunch, the deflation occurs as the opposite of the inflation. The kinetic energy from cosmic radiation decreases, as the fusion occurs to eliminate detachment space, resulting in the increase of potential energy. At the end of the fusion, the force fields except gravity disappear, 4D10d particles appear, and then the scalar field reverses its sign and direction. The vacuum energy increases as the potential as the rest mass decreases for the appearance of 10D4d particles, resulting in the end of a dimensional oscillation as Figure 3 for the twostep deflation. V V4D10d

ϕ

φ

Figure 3. the two-step deflation The end of the two-step deflation is 10D4d, which is followed immediately by the dimensional oscillation to return to 4D10d as the “dimensional bounce” as shown in Figure 4, which describes the dimensional oscillation from the left to the right: the beginning (inflation as 10D4d through 4D10d to 4D4d), the cosmic expansion-contraction, the end (deflation as 4D4d through 4D10d to 10D4d), the beginning (inflation), the cosmic expansion-contraction, and the end (deflation).

33

.

V

inflation

expansioncontraction

deflation

expansioncontraction

inflation

time deflation

dimensional bounce

Figure 4. the cyclic observable universe by the dimensional oscillation

The two-step inflation corresponds to the quintom inflation. The symmetry breaking for the light universe can be described by quintom. Quintom [27] [28] [29] is the combination of quintessence and phantom. Quintessence describes a time-varying equation of state parameter, w, the ratio of its pressure to energy density and w > −1. Lqu int essnec =

1 (∂ µφ ) 2 − V (φ ) 2

(25)

.

w =

φ 2 − 2V (φ ) .

(26)

φ 2 + 2V (φ )

− 1≤ w ≤ + 1 Quintom includes phantom with w < −1. It has opposite sign of kinetic energy. L phantom =

−1 (∂ µϕ ) 2 − V (ϕ ) 2

(27)

.

w =

−ϕ 2 − 2V (ϕ )

. (28) −ϕ 2 + 2V (ϕ ) − 1≥ w As the combination of quintessence and phantom from Eqs. (24), (25), (26), and (27), quintom is as follows. 1 1 (29) Lqu int essnec = (∂ µφ ) 2 − (∂ µϕ ) 2 − V (φ ) − V (ϕ ) 2 2 .

w =

.

φ 2 −ϕ 2 − 2V (φ ) − 2V (ϕ ) .

.

φ −ϕ + 2V (φ ) + 2V (ϕ ) 2

(30)

2

Phantom represents the scalar field ϕ in the space-time dimensional oscillation in QVSL, while quintessence represents the scalar field φ in the mass dimensional oscillation in the slicing-fusion. Since QVSL does not involve kinetic energy, the physical source of the negative kinetic energy for phantom is the increase in vacuum

34

energy, resulting in the decrease in energy density and pressure with respect to the observable potential, V(ϕ). Combining Eqs. (24c) and (30), quintom is as follows.

w =

.

.

.

.

φ 2 −ϕ 2 − 2V (φ ) − 2V (ϕ ) φ 2 −ϕ 2 + 2V (φ ) + 2V (ϕ ) .

=

.

φ 2 −ϕ 2 − 2V4 D10 d (α − 2 ϕ + α 2 φ ) .

.

φ −ϕ + 2V4 D10 d (α where ϕ ≤ 0 and φ ≥ 0 2

2

− 2ϕ

+α

2φ

(31)

)

Figure 5 shows the plot of the evolution of the equation of state w for the quintom inflation. w

-1

t

Figure 5. the w of quintom for the quintom inflation Figure 6 shows the plot of the evolution of the equation of state w for the cyclic universe as Figure 4. w -1

tt

Quintom Bounce

Figure 6. the cyclic universe by the dimensional oscillation as Figure 4 In the dimensional bounce in the middle of Figure 6, the equation of state crosses w = -1 twice as also shown in the recent development of the quintom model [30] [31] in which, for the Quintom Bounce, the equation of state crosses the cosmological constant boundary twice around the bounce point to start another cycle of the dual universe. The hidden dark universe with D > 4 and the observable universe with D = 4 are the “parallel universes” separated from each other by the bulk space. When the slow QVSL transformation transforms gradually 5D hidden particles in the hidden universe into observable 4D particles, and the observable 4 D particles become the dark energy for the observable universe starting from about five billion years ago (more precisely 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago at z = 0.46 ± 0.13) [32]. At a certain time, the hidden universe disappears, and becomes completely observable as dark energy. The maximum connection of the two universes includes the positive energy particle-antiparticle space region, the gravity bulk space region, the negative energy particle-antiparticle space region, and the anti-gravity bulk space region. Through the symmetry among the space regions, all

35

regions expand synchronically and equally. (The symmetry is necessary for the ultimate reversibility of all cosmic processes.) The light universe includes the positive-energy particle-antiparticle universe, and the dark universe includes the negative-energy particle-antiparticle universe, the antigravity bulk space, and the gravity bulk space. The light universe occupies 25% of the total universe, while the dark universe occupies 75% of the total universe, so the maximum dark energy from the dark universe is 75%. The present observable universe about reaches the maximum (75%) at the observed 72.8% dark energy [26]. At 72.8% dark energy, the calculated values for baryonic matter and dark matter (with the 1:5 ratio) are 4.53% (= (100 – 72.8)/6) and 22.7% (= 4.53 x 5), respectively, in excellent agreement with observed 4.56% and 22.7%, respectively [26]. Our universe is 13.7 billion-year old. Dark energy as the transformation from 5D to 4D started in about 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago [32]. The ratio of the time periods for the transformations from D → D - 1 is proportional to ln of the total number of particles (Eqs. (11b) and (17e)) to be transformed from D → D – 1 for the exponential growth with time in each period. The Percentages of the Periods in the Dark Universe 10D 9D 8D 7D 6D → 9D → 8D → 7D → 6D → 5D ratio of total numbers of particles 1 α-4 α-6 α-8 α-2 ratio of ln (total number of particles) 0 -2α -4α -6α -8α ratio of periods 1 2 3 4 ∼0 percentages of periods 6.7 13.3 20 26.7 ∼0 α is the fine structure constant for electromagnetism from Eq. (11b)

5D → 4D α-10 -10α 5 33.3

The period of the 5D → 4D is (0.333) (13.7)/ ((0.333) (72.8/75) + 0.667) = 4.61 billion years, and the dark energy as the 5D → 4D started in (4.61) (72.8/75) = 4.47 billon years ago that is in agreement with the observed value of 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago [32]. After the maximally connected universe, 4D dark energy transforms back to > 4D particles that are not observable. The removal of dark energy in the observable universe results in the stop of accelerated expansion and the start of contraction of the observable universe. The end of dark energy starts another “parallel universe period”. Both hidden universe and observable universe contract synchronically and equally. Eventually, gravity causes the observable universe to crush to lose all cosmic radiation, resulting in the return to 4D10d particles under the deflation. The increase in vacuum energy allows 4D10d particles to become positive energy 10D4d particles-antiparticle. Meanwhile, hidden > 4D particles-antiparticles in the hidden universe transform into negative energy 10D4d particles-antiparticles. The dual universe can undergo another cycle of the dual universe with the dark and light universes. On the other hand, both universes can undergo transformation by the reverse isodual hole theory to become dual 10D string universe, which in turn can return to the 11D membrane universe that in turn can return to the zero-energy universe as follows.

36

zero-energy universe

−11D antimembrane universe

+ 11D membrane universe

−10D antistring universe

+10D string universe

−10D particle universe

+10D particle universe

+4D observable universe

− variable >4D hidden universe

+4D observable universe

− variable >4D hidden universe

+4D universe with dark energy as −4D universe + = positive energy, − = negative energy

Figure 7. The cosmology (the 11D membrane dual universe, the 10D string dual universe, the 10D particle dual universe, and the light-dark particle dual universe as well as the zero-energy universe)

In summary, there are three stages of pre-universes in chronological order: the strong pre-universe, the gravitational pre-universe, and the charged pre-universe. The first universe from the zero-energy universe in multiverse is the strong pre-universe with the simplest expression of the cosmic code. Its object structure is 11D positive and negative membrane and its space structure is attachment space only. The only force is the pre-strong force without gravity. The transformation from 11D membrane to 10D string results in the gravitational pre-universe with both pre-strong force and pre-gravity. The repulsive pre-gravity and pre-antigravity brings about the dual 10D string universe. The coalescence and the separation of the dual universe result in the dual charged universe as dual 10D particle universe with the pre-strong, pre-gravity, and preelectromagnetic force fields. The asymmetrical dimensional oscillations result in the asymmetrical dual universe: the light universe with light and kinetic energy and the dark universe without light and kinetic energy. The asymmetrical dimensional oscillation is manifested as the asymmetrical weak force field. The light universe is our observable universe. The dark universe is sometimes hidden, and is sometimes observable as dark energy. The dimensional oscillation for the dark universe is the slow dimensional oscillation from 10D and 4D. The dimensional oscillation for the light universe involves the immediate transformation from 10D to 4D and the introduction of detachment space, resulting in light and kinetic energy. 2.2. The Periodic Table of Elementary Particles

37

In the light universe, cosmic radiation is the result of the annihilation of the CP symmetrical particle-antiparticle. However, there is the CP asymmetry, resulting in excess of matter. Matter results from the combination of the CP asymmetrical particle-antiparticle. A baryonic matter particle (4d) has seven dimensional orbitals. The CP asymmetrical particle-antiparticle particle means the combination of two asymmetrical sets of seven from particle and antiparticle, resulting in the combination of the seven “principal dimensional orbitals” and the seven “auxiliary dimensional orbitals”. The auxiliary orbitals are dependent on the principal orbitals, so a baryonic matter particle appears to have only one set of dimensional orbitals. For baryonic matter, the principal dimensional orbitals are for leptons and gauge bosons, and the auxiliary dimensional orbitals are mainly for individual quarks. Because of the dependence of the auxiliary dimensional orbitals, individual quarks are hidden. In other words, there is asymmetry between lepton and quark, resulting in the survival of matter without annihilation. The configuration of dimensional orbitals and the periodical table of elementary particles [33] are shown in Fig. 8 and Table 1. Lepton νe e νµ ντ l9 l10

µ7

d = 5 a =

u5 Quark

6

τ7

µ8

7 0

d6

1

2

3

4

5

d7 u7

s7

c7

b7

t7

8 0

9 1

2

b8

t8

µ′

3µ

q9

10

11

q10

d= Fig. 8: leptons and quarks in the principal and auxiliary dimensional orbitals principal dimensional orbital (solid line) number, a = auxiliary dimensional orbital (dot line) number Table 1. The Periodic Table of Elementary Particles d = principal dimensional orbital number, a = auxiliary dimensional orbital number D

a=0

5 6 7 8

Lepton L5 = νe L6 = e L7 = νµ L8 = ντ

9 10 11

L9

1

2

µ7 τ7 µ8 (empty)

a=0

1

Quark q5 = u = 3νe q6 = d = 3e q7 = 3µ q8 = µ'

2

u7/d7 s7 b8 t8 (empty)

q9

3

c7

4

b7

5

t7

Boson B5 = A B6 = π1/2 B7 = ZL0 B8 = XR B9 = XL B10 = ZR0 B11

In Fig. 8 and Table 1, d is the principal dimensional orbital number, and a is the auxiliary dimensional orbital number. (Note that Fd has lower energy than Bd.) The principal dimensional orbitals are for gauge bosons of the force fields. For the gauge bosons, the seven orbitals of principal dimensional orbital are arranged as F5 B5 F6 38

B6 F7 B7 F8 B8 F9 B9 F10 B10 F11 B11, where B and F are boson and fermion in each orbital. The mass dimension in Eq. (17) becomes the orbitals in dimensional orbital with the same equations. M d, F = M d, B α d, B , (32a) M d − 1, B = M d, F α d, F ,

(32b)

M d-1, B = M d , B α . 2 d

(32c)

where D is the dimensional orbital number from 6 to 11. E5,B and E11,B are the energies for the 5d dimensional orbital and the 11d dimensional orbital, respectively. The lowest energy is the Coulombic field, E5 , B = α E6 , F = α M e . (33) The bosons generated are the dimensional orbital bosons or BD. Using only αe, the mass of electron (Me), the mass of Z 0, and the number (seven) of dimensional orbitals, the masses of BD as the gauge boson can be calculated as shown in Table 2. Table 2. The Masses of the dimensional orbital bosons: α = αe, d = dimensional orbital number Bd

Md

B5 B6 B7

Gauge boson

Interaction, symmetry

Predecessor

Me α Me/α

GeV (calculated) 3.7x10-6 7x10-2

A π1/2

Electromagnetic, U(1) Strong, SU(3)

Pre-charged Pre-strong

M6/αw2 cos θw

91.177 (given)

ZL0

weak (left), SU(2)L

Fractionalization (slicing)

6

2

B8

M7/α

1.7x10

XR

CP (right) nonconservation

CP asymmetry

B9

M8/α2

3.2x1010

XL

CP (left) nonconservation

CP asymmetry

2

14

ZR0

weak (right) Gravity

Fractionalization (slicing) Pregravity

B10

M9/α

2

B11

M10/α

6.0x10 1.1x1019

G

In Table 2, α = αe (the fine structure constant for electromagnetic field), and αw = α/sin θw. αw is not same as α of the rest, because as shown later, there is a mixing between B5 and B7 as the symmetry mixing between U(1) and SU(2) in the standard theory of the electroweak interaction, and sinθw is not equal to 1. (The symmetrical charged dual preuniverse overlaps with the current asymmetrical universe for the weak interaction as shown earlier.) As shown later, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, and B10 are A (massless photon), π1/2 (half of pion), ZL0, XR, XL, and ZR0, respectively, responsible for the electromagnetic field, the strong interaction, the weak (left handed) interaction, the CP (right handed) nonconservation, the CP (left handed) nonconservation, and the P (right handed) nonconservation, respectively. The calculated value for αw is 0.2973, and θw is 29.690 in good agreement with 29.310 for the observed value of θw [34]. The calculated energy for B11 is 1.1x1019 GeV in good agreement with the Planck mass, 1.2x1019 GeV. The strong interaction, representing by π1/2 (half of pion), is for the interactions among quarks, and for the hiding of individual quarks in the auxiliary orbital. The weak interaction, representing by ZL0, is for 2

39

the interaction involving changing flavors (decomposition and condensation) among quarks and leptons. There are dualities between dimensional orbitals and the cosmic evolution process. The pre-charged force, the pre-strong force, the fractionalization, the CP asymmetry, and the pregravity are the predecessors of electromagnetic force, the strong force, the weak interaction, the CP nonconservation, and gravity, respectively. These forces are manifested in the dimensional orbitals with various space-time symmetries and gauge symmetries. The strengths of these forces are different than their predecessors, and are arranged according to the dimensional orbitals. Only the 4d particle (baryonic matter) has the B5, so without B5, dark matter consists of permanently neutral higher dimensional particles. It cannot emit light, cannot form atoms, and exists as neutral gas. The principal dimensional boson, B8, is a CP violating boson, because B8 is assumed to have the CP-violating U(1)R symmetry. The ratio of the force constants between the CPinvariant WL in B8 and the CP-violating XR in B8 is

α E 72 cos2 ΘW G8 = αW E 28 G7 = 5.3 X 10 -10 ,

(34)

which is in the same order as the ratio of the force constants between the CP-invariant weak interaction and the CP-violating interaction with ∆S = 2. The principal dimensional boson, B9 (XL), has the CP-violating U(1)L symmetry. B9 generates matter. The ratio of force constants between XR with CP conservation and XL with CP-nonconservation is 2 G9 = α E 8 2 G8 α E 9 =α4 (35)

= 2.8 X 10-9 , which is the ratio of the numbers between matter (dark and baryonic) and photons in the universe. It is close to the ratio of the numbers between baryonic matter and photons about 5 x 10 –10 obtained by the Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Auxiliary dimensional orbital is derived from principal dimensional orbital. It is for high-mass leptons and individual quarks. The combination of dimensional auxiliary dimensional orbitals constitutes the periodic table for elementary particles as shown in Fig. 8 and Table 1. There are two types of fermions in the periodic table of elementary particles: lowmass leptons and high-mass leptons and quarks. Low-mass leptons include νe, e, νµ , and ντ, which are in principal dimensional orbital, not in auxiliary dimensional orbital. ld is denoted as lepton with principal dimension number, d. l5, l6, l7, and l8 are νe, e, νµ , and ντ, respectively. All neutrinos have zero mass because of chiral symmetry (permanent chiral symmetry). High-mass leptons and quarks includeµ, τ, u, d, s, c, b, and t, which are the combinations of both principal dimensional fermions and auxiliary dimensional fermions.

40

Each fermion can be defined by principal dimensional orbital numbers (d's) and auxiliary dimensional orbital numbers (a's) as da in Table 3. For examples, e is 60 that means it has d (principal dimensional orbital number) = 6 and a (auxiliary dimensional orbital number) = 0, so e is a principal dimensional fermion. High-mass leptons, µ and τ, are the combinations of principal dimensional fermions, e and νµ,, and auxiliary dimensional fermions. For example, µ is the combination of e, νµ,, and µ7, which is 71 that has d = 7 and a = 1 . Quarks are the combination of principal dimensional quarks (qd) and auxiliary dimensional quarks. The principal dimensional fermion for quark is derived from principal dimensional lepton. To generate a principal dimensional quark in principal dimensional orbital from a lepton in the same principal dimensional orbital is to add the lepton to the boson from the combined lepton-antilepton. Thus, the mass of the quark is three times of the mass of the corresponding lepton in the same dimension. The equation for the mass of principal dimensional fermion for quark is M q d = 3M l d

(36)

For principal dimensional quarks, q5 (50) and q6 (60) are 3νe and 3e, respectively. Since l7 is massless νµ , νµ is replaced by µ, and q7 is 3µ. Quarks are the combinations of principal dimensional quarks, qd, and auxiliary dimensional quarks. For example, s quark is the combination of q6 (3e), q7 (3µ) and s7 (auxiliary dimensional quark = 72). Each fermion can be defined by principal dimensional orbital numbers (d's) and auxiliary dimensional orbital numbers (a's). All leptons and quarks with d’s, a’s and the calculated masses are listed in Table 3. Table 3. The Compositions and the Constituent Masses of Leptons and Quarks d = principal dimensional orbital number and a = auxiliary dimensional orbital number Composition

Leptons νe e

da da for leptons 50 60

νµ ντ µ τ µ' µ'± Quarks u d s c b t

70 80 60 + 70 + 71 60 + 70 + 72 60 + 70 + 72 + 80 + 81 60 + 70 + 72 + 80 + 81± da for quarks 50 + 70 + 71 60 + 70 + 71 60 + 70 + 72 50 + 70 + 73 60 + 70 + 74 50 + 70 + 75 + 80 + 82

νµ ντ e + νµ + µ7 e + νµ + τ7 e + νµ + µ7 + ντ + µ8 (3/2 Z°) e + νµ + µ7 + ντ + µ8± (3/2 W± )

0 0.51 MeV (given) 0 0 105.6 MeV 1786 MeV 136.9 GeV 120.7 GeV

q5 + q7 + u7 q6 + q7 + d7 q6 + q7 + s7 q5 + q7 + c7 q6 + q7 + b7 q5 + q7 + t7 + q8 + t8

330.8 MeV 332.3 MeV 558 MeV 1701 MeV 5318 MeV 176.5 GeV

νe e

41

Calculated Mass

The principal dimensional fermion for heavy leptons (µ and τ) is e and νe. Auxiliary dimensional fermion is derived from principal dimensional boson in the same way as Eq. (32) to relate the energies for fermion and boson. For the mass of auxiliary dimensional fermion (AF) from principal dimensional boson (B), the equation is Eq. (37).

M AFd ,a =

M Bd −1, 0

αa

a

∑a

4

,

(37)

a =0

where αa = auxiliary dimensional fine structure constant, and a = auxiliary dimension M BD−1, 0 number = 0 or integer. The first term, , of the mass formula (Eq.(37)) for the

αa

auxiliary dimensional fermions is derived from the mass equation, Eq. (32), for the principal a

dimensional fermions and bosons. The second term,

∑a

4

, of the mass formula is for

a =0

Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization for a charge - dipole interaction in a circular orbit as described by A. Barut [35]. As in Barut lepton mass formula, 1/αa is 3/2. The coefficient, 3/2, is to convert the principal dimensional boson mass to the mass of the auxiliary dimensional fermion in the higher dimension by adding the boson mass to its fermion mass which is onehalf of the boson mass. Using Eq. (32), Eq. (37) becomes the formula for the mass of auxiliary dimensional fermions (AF).

3M Bd −1, 0

M AF d,a = =

2

3 M Fd −1, 0 2α d −1 =

a

∑a

4

a= 0 a

∑a

4

(38)

a=0

a 3 M Fd , 0 α d ∑ a 4 2 a =0

The mass of this auxiliary dimensional fermion is added to the sum of masses from the corresponding principal dimensional fermions (F’s) with the same electric charge or the same dimension. The corresponding principal dimensional leptons for u (2/3 charge) and d (-1/3 charge) are νe (0 charge) and e (-1 charge), respectively, by adding –2/3 charge to the charges of u and d [36]. The fermion mass formula for heavy leptons is derived as follows.

M Fd , a = ∑ M F + M AFd , a = ∑MF +

3M Bd −1, 0 2

42

a

∑a a =0

4

(39a)

= ∑MF +

= ∑MF +

3M Fd −1, 0 2α d −1

a

∑a

4

a =0

a 3 M Fd , 0 α d ∑ a 4 2 a =0

(39b)

(39c)

Eq. (39b) is for the calculations of the masses of leptons. The principal dimensional fermion in the first term is e. Eq. (39b) can be rewritten as Eq. (40). 3M a 4 e ∑ a , M =M + (40) a e 2α a = 0 a = 0, 1, and 2 are for e, µ, and τ, respectively. It is identical to the Barut lepton mass formula. The auxiliary dimensional quarks except a part of t quark are q7’s. Eq.(39c) is used to calculate the masses of quarks. The principal dimensional quarks include 3νµ , 3e, and 3µ., α7 = αw, and q7 = 3µ. Eq. (39c) can be rewritten as the quark mass formula. 3α M w 3µ a 4 (41) M =∑MF + ∑a , q 2 a=0 where a = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 for u/d, s, c, b, and a part of t, respectively. To match l8 (ντ), quarks include q8 as a part of t quark. In the same way that q7 = 3µ , q8 involves µ’. µ‘ is the sum of e, µ, and µ8 (auxiliary dimensional lepton). Using Eq. (39a), the mass of µ8 is equal to 3/2 of the mass of B7, which is Z0. Because there are only three families for leptons, µ' is the extra lepton, which is "hidden". µ' can appear only as µ + photon. The principal dimensional quark q8 = µ' instead of 3µ', because µ' is hidden, and q8 does not need to be 3µ' to be different. Using the equation similar to Eq.(41), the calculation for t quark involves α8 = α , µ' instead of 3µ for principal fermion, and a = 1 and 2 for b8 and t8, respectively. The hiding of µ' for leptons is balanced by the hiding of b8 for quarks. The calculated masses are in good agreement with the observed constituent masses of leptons and quarks [37]. The mass of the top quark [38] is 174.3 ± 5.1 GeV in a good agreement with the calculated value, 176.5 GeV. All elementary particles (gauge bosons, leptons, and quarks) are in the periodic system of elementary particles with the calculated masses in good agreement with the observed values by using only four known constants: the number of the extra spatial dimensions in the eleven-dimensional membrane, the mass of electron, the mass of Z boson, and the fine structure constant. With the masses of quarks calculated by the periodic table of elementary particles, the masses of all hardrons can be calculated [33] as the composes of quarks, as molecules are the composes of atoms. The calculated values are in good agreement with the observed values. For examples, the calculated masses of neutron and pion are 939.54MeV, and 135.01MeV in excellent agreement with the observed masses, 939.57 MeV and 134.98 MeV, respectively. At different temperatures, the strong force (QCD) among quarks in hadrons behaves differently to follow different dimensional orbitals [33].

43

The ATLAS and CMS experiments of CERN experiments observe a new particle in the mass region around 125-126 GeV with a high degree of certainty [39]. The decay modes and the spin of the new particle point to a Higgs boson.

A deviation from the Standard Model is the excess decay rate to diphoton that was observed by both ATLAS and CMS as well as the Fermilab Tevatron [40]. The decay rate of diphoton is nearly twice as large as expected by the Standard Model. The significance of the discrepancy with the Standard Model is about 2.5 sigma. As long as this excess persists, it can be fitted by a non-standard (possibly negative) Yukawa couplings of the Higgs boson to the top quark, or explained by new charged boson contributions to the loop level process h → γγ. If that boson exists, it must have a mass larger than the W; otherwise, the Higgs would decay to this particle in pairs. Further work on diphoton is needed. If the excess diphoton persists, it can be explained by the LHC Higgs boson. The LHC Higgs boson is the Higgs boson consisting of the SM Higgs boson and the hidden lepton condensate, similar to the top quark condensate [41] that is an alternative to the Higgs boson. The top quark condensate is a composite field composed of the top quark and its antiquark. The top quark condenses with its measured mass (173 GeV) comparable to the mass of the W and Z Bosons, so Vladimir Miransky, Masaharu Tanabashi, and Koichi Yamawaki proposed that the top quark condensate is responsible for the mass of the W and Z bosons. (As described later, the hidden leptons derived by the W boson and Z boson are partly responsible to the high mass of top quark.) The top quark condensate is analogous to Cooper pairs in a BCS superconductor and nucleons in the Nambu-Jona-Lasinio model. Anna Hasenfratz and Peter Hasenfratz et al. claimed that the top quark condensate is approximately equivalent to a Higgs scalar field. S. F. King proposed a tau lepton condensate to feed the tau mass to muon and electron [42]. Like the top quark condensate, the hidden lepton condensate is a composite field composed of the hidden leptons and its antileptons as µ’, µ’, µ’+, and µ’ . Like that the observed top quark is a bare quark with the observed mass of about 173 GeV instead of about 346 GeV for tt, the observed hidden lepton is a bare average hidden lepton instead of However, unlike the top quark condensate, the hidden lepton µ’µ’ and µ’+ µ’ . condensate is outside of the standard three lepton-quark families in the Standard Model. Being forbidden, a single hidden lepton cannot exist alone, so the hidden leptons must exist in the lepton condensate as the composite of the leptons-antileptons as µ’, µ’, µ’+, and µ’ . Being outside of the standard model family, the hidden lepton condensate decays into diphoton instead of leptons and quarks inside the standard model family.

44

The LHC Higgs boson consists of both the Higgs boson of the Standard Model and the adopted hidden lepton condensate. When the LHC Higgs boson decays, it decays as the Higgs boson of the Standard Model except the part of the adopted hidden lepton condensate that decays into diphoton, resulting in the deviation in the rate of diphoton from the standard model. Other decay modes of the LHC Higgs boson follow the Standard Model (SM) as follows for the six decay modes of the LHC Higgs bosons. The Decay Modes of the LHC Higgs boson H (hidden lepton condensate)

γγ

H (SM)

γγ

H (SM)

ZZ

H (SM)

WW

H (SM)

b b

H (SM)

lτ τ

The hidden leptons are derived from the periodic table of elementary particles that includes all elementary particles. Like the top quark condensate, the hidden lepton condensate is a composite field composed of the hidden leptons and its antileptons as µ’, µ’, µ’+, and µ’ as in Table 3. To match l8 (ντ), quarks include q8 as a part of t quark. In the same way that q7 = 3µ , q8 involves µ’. µ‘ is the sum of e, µ, and µ8 (auxiliary dimensional lepton). Using Eq. (39a), the mass of µ8 is equal to 3/2 of the mass of B7, which is Z0, and the mass of µ8± is equal to 3/2 of the mass of B7±, which is W±. 3 0 Z 2 µ ' = 6 0 + 7 0 + 7 2 + 8 0 + 81 = e + ν µ + µ 7 + ν τ + µ 8

µ8 =

3 2 ± µ' ' = 6 0 + 7 0 + 7 2 + 8 0 + 81 ± = e + ν µ + µ 7 + ν τ + µ 8 ±

µ8 ± = W ±

The calculated masses of the hidden lepton are 120.7 GeV (for the mass of µ’±) and 136.9 GeV (for the mass of µ’) with the average as 128.8 GeV for the hidden lepton condensate in good agreements with the results from LHC (125 GeV or 126 GeV). The LHC Higgs boson acquires the mass of the hidden lepton condensate. The Higgs boson is the scalar gauge boson to mediate the transformation between massive particle (mass) and massless particle (kinetic energy). The Higgs boson can be mass-giving or mass-removing. Before our universe, all particles were massive, the masses of all particles were equal, and our pre-universe was cold. At the beginning of our universe, the mass-removing Higgs boson converted massive particles into massless particles, resulting in the very hot universe to initiate the Big Bang. Afterward, the mass-giving Higgs boson converted some massless particles back to massive particles to differentiate dark matter and baryonic matter and to differentiate baryonic particles and forces with various different masses. Without massless photon, dark matter is dark without electromagnetism, and incompatible (repulsive) to baryonic matter. The interactions of incompatible dark 45

matter and baryonic matter generated the different shapes of galaxies. The baryonic particles and forces form the periodic table of elementary particles to calculate the masses of all elementary particles. Dark energy comes from the dark universe without the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson itself is the gauge boson with zero mass-energy. The virtual Higgs boson is a property of space that can turn on the transformation between the massive particle (mass-potential energy) and massless particle (kinetic energy). (As described earlier, the transformation for different amounts of mass-energy is through another mechanism: the dimensional oscillation of object.) After the transformation, the Higgs boson remains dormant. With zero mass-energy, the Higgs boson avoids the severe problem of the huge energy (cosmological constant) from the gravity-Higgs boson interaction. The observed LHC Higgs boson is a remnant of the Higgs boson, not the Higgs boson itself. The LHC Higgs boson is derived from the asymmetry (symmetry breaking) in the electroweak force consisting of the electromagnetic force with the massless gauge boson (photon) and the weak force with the massive gauge bosons (W+, W−, and Z). At the beginning of our universe, the coupling of the Higgs field and the electroweak force involved the four mass-giving Higgs bosons and the four gauge bosons (W+, W−, Z, and photon) in the electroweak force. The three Higgs bosons coupled with the three massless weak bosons (W+, W−, and Z), and were only observable as spin components of these weak bosons, which became massive; while the one remaining un-coupled Higgs boson became the residual unused Higgs boson after the transformation of the electroweak force. Since the transformation had finished, the residual unused Higgs boson could not remain zero massenergy as the original Higgs boson, so it had to adopt a mass. The residual Higgs boson could not adopt any mass that already represented an independent elementary particle in the symmetry of the Standard Model. The only available mass came from the hidden lepton in the form of the hidden lepton condensate outside of the symmetry in the Standard Model. The electroweak, strong, and gravitational forces are separated forces, so there is no remnant of the Higgs boson from them. In summary, for baryonic matter, the incorporation of detachment space for baryonic matter brings about “the dimensional orbitals” as the base for the periodic table of elementary particles for all leptons, quarks, and gauge bosons. The masses of gauge bosons, leptons, quarks can be calculated using only four known constants: the number of the extra spatial dimensions in the eleven-dimensional membrane, the mass of electron, the mass of Z°, and the fine structure constant. The calculated values are in good agreement with the observed values. The differences in dimensional orbitals result in incompatible dark matter and baryonic matter. The observed new LHC Higgs Boson consists of the SM (Standard Model) Higgs boson and the hidden lepton condensate that is in the forbidden lepton family outside of the standard three lepton families in the Standard Model. Being forbidden, a single hidden lepton cannot exist alone, so the hidden leptons must exist in the lepton condensate as the composite of the leptons-antileptons as µ’, µ’, µ’+, and µ’ . The decay of the hidden lepton condensate into diphoton accounts for the observed excess diphoton deviated from the Standard Model. Other decay modes of the LHC Higgs boson follow the Standard Model. The calculated masses of the hidden leptons of µ’± and µ’, are 120.7 GeV and 136.9 GeV, respectively, with the average as 128.8 GeV for the hidden lepton condensate in good agreements with the observed 125 or 126 GeV. The LHC Higgs boson acquires the mass of the hidden lepton condensate.

46

2.3. Summary for Chapters 1 and 2

The Sacred Cosmology includes the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology for the current universe and the universes before and after the current universes and the Genesis Cosmology for the current universe. It is based on the unified theory of physics derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures. The space structure includes attachment space and detachment space. Relating to rest mass, attachment space attaches to object permanently with zero speed. Relating to kinetic energy, detachment space detaches from the object at the speed of light. The Higgs boson mediates the transformation between these two space structures. The combination of attachment space and detachment space brings about three different space structures: miscible space, binary lattice space, and binary partition space for special relativity, quantum mechanics, and the extreme force fields, respectively. The object structure consists of 11D membrane (311), 10D string (210), variable D particle (14 to 10), and empty object (04 to 11). The transformation among the objects is through the dimensional oscillation that involves the oscillation between high dimensional space-time with high vacuum energy and low dimensional space-time with low vacuum energy. Our observable universe with 4D space-time has zero vacuum energy. Different universes in different developmental stages are the different expressions of the space-object structures. There are three stages of pre-universes in chronological order: the strong preuniverse, the gravitational pre-universe, and the charged pre-universe. The first universe from the zero-energy universe in multiverse is the strong pre-universe with the simplest expression of the space-object structures. Its object structure is 11D positive and negative membrane and its space structure is attachment space only. The only force is the pre-strong force without gravity. The transformation from 11D membrane to 10D string results in the gravitational pre-universe with both pre-strong force and pre-gravity. The repulsive pre-gravity and pre-antigravity brings about the dual 10D string universe with the bulk space. The coalescence and the separation of the dual universe result in the dual charged universe as dual 10D particle universe with the pre-strong, pre-gravity, and pre-electromagnetic force fields. The asymmetrical dimensional oscillations and the asymmetrical addition of detachment space result in the asymmetrical dual universe: the positive-energy 4D light universe with light and kinetic energy and the negative-energy oscillating 10D-4D dark universe without light and kinetic energy. The light universe is our observable universe. The dark universe is sometimes hidden, and is sometimes observable as dark energy. The dimensional oscillation for the dark universe is the slow dimensional oscillation from 10D and 4D. The dimensional oscillation for the light universe involves the immediate transformation from 10D to 4D and the introduction of detachment space, resulting in light and kinetic energy. The asymmetrical dimensional oscillation and the asymmetrical addition of detachment space are manifested as the asymmetrical weak force field. When the dark universe becomes the 4D universe, the dark universe turns into dark energy. The calculated percentages of dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter 72.8, 22.7, and 4.53, respectively, in nearly complete agreement with observed 72.8, 22.7, and 4.56, respectively. According to the calculation, dark energy started in 4.47 billion years ago in agreement with the observed 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago.

47

For baryonic matter, the incorporation of detachment space for baryonic matter brings about “the dimensional orbitals” as the base for the periodic table of elementary particles for all leptons, quarks, and gauge bosons. The masses of gauge bosons, leptons, quarks can be calculated using only four known constants: the number of the extra spatial dimensions in the eleven-dimensional membrane, the mass of electron, the mass of Z°, and the fine structure constant. The calculated values are in good agreement with the observed values. The differences in dimensional orbitals result in incompatible dark matter and baryonic matter. The observed new LHC Higgs Boson consists of the SM (Standard Model) Higgs boson and the hidden lepton condensate that is in the forbidden lepton family outside of the standard three lepton families in the Standard Model. Being forbidden, a single hidden lepton cannot exist alone, so the hidden leptons must exist in the lepton condensate as the composite of the leptons-antileptons as µ’, µ’, µ’+, and µ’ . The decay of the hidden lepton condensate into diphoton accounts for the observed excess diphoton deviated from the Standard Model. Other decay modes of the LHC Higgs boson follow the Standard Model. The calculated masses of the hidden leptons of µ’± and µ’, are 120.7 GeV and 136.9 GeV, respectively, with the average as 128.8 GeV for the hidden lepton condensate in good agreements with the observed 125 or 126 GeV. The LHC Higgs boson acquires the mass of the hidden lepton condensate. The cosmology based on the unified theory of physics is comparable to the Sacred Cosmology. Our four-stage cyclic cosmology (11D membrane, 10D string, 10D particle, and light-dark) corresponds to the four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle (Satya, Tret, Dwapara, and Kali). The zero-energy universe in cosmology corresponds to the Sunyata (zero) Yuga in the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology. The separation of the light universe and dark universe corresponds to the Genesis first day creation to separate light and darkness.

48

3. The Second Day: baryonic matter and dark matter

Scripture

In Genesis, the second day involves the separation of waters from above and below the expanse, corresponding to the separation of dark matter and baryonic matter from above and below the interface between dark matter and baryonic matter for the formation of galaxies in Genesis Cosmology. The original Genesis 6 And God said, "Let there be an expanse between the waters to separate water from water." 7 So God made the expanse and separated the water under the expanse from the water above it. And it was so. 8 God called the expanse "sky." And there was evening, and there was morning—the second day. The interpretative Genesis 6 And God said, "Let there be an interface between the matters to separate matter from matter." 7 So God made the interface and separated baryonic matter g under the interface from dark matter h above it. And it was so. 8 God called the interface "sky." And there was the second period. g. h.

We live in the world of baryonic matter. Dark matter is incompatible to baryonic matter. It exists predominately outside of galaxies.

The current observable universe contains dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter. As mentioned in the previous section, dark energy is from the dark universe to accelerate the expansion of the observable universe. Dark matter have different mass dimension from the baryonic matter. We live in the world of baryonic matter. The following section will describe the separation of matters as the separation of waters in Genesis. The first part will be the separation of dark matter and baryonic matter, and the second part will be the formation of the inhomogeneous structures in our observable universe. 3.1. The Separation of Baryonic Matter and Dark Matter

The current observable universe contains dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter. As mentioned in the previous section, dark energy is from the dark universe to accelerate the expansion of the observable universe. Dark matter have different mass dimension from the baryonic matter. We live in the world of baryonic matter. The separation of baryonic matter and dark matter results in the galaxy formation. Dark matter has been detected only indirectly by means of its gravitational effects astronomically. Dark matter as weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) has not been detected directly on the earth [43]. The previous section proposes that the absence of the

49

direct detection of dark matter on the earth is due to the incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, analogous to incompatible water and oil. The previous papers provide the reasons for the incompatibility and the mass ratio (5 to 1) of dark matter to baryonic matter. Basically, during the inflation before the Big Bang, dark matter, baryonic matter, cosmic radiation, and the gauge force fields are generated. There are five types of dark matter with the “mass dimensions’ from 5 to 10, while baryonic matter has the mass dimension of 4. As a result, the mass ratio is 5 to 1 as observed. Without electromagnetism, dark matter cannot emit light, and is incompatible to baryonic matter. Like oil, dark matter is completely non-polar. The common link between baryonic matter and dark matter is the cosmic radiation resulted from the annihilation of matter and antimatter from both baryonic matter and dark matter. The cosmic radiation is coupled strongly to baryonic matter through the electromagnetism, and weakly to dark matter without electromagnetism. With the high concentration of cosmic radiation at the beginning of the Big Bang, baryonic matter and dark matter are completely compatible. As the universe ages and expands, the concentration of cosmic concentration decreases, resulting in the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter until the incompatibility reaches to the maximum value with low concentration of cosmic radiation. The incompatibility is expressed in the form of the repulsive MOND (modified Newtonian dynamics) force field. MOND [44] proposes the deviation from the Newtonian dynamics in the low acceleration region in the outer region of a galaxy. This paper proposes the MOND forces in the interface between the baryonic matter region and the dark matter region [ 45 ]. In the interface, the same matter materials attract as the conventional attractive MOND force, and the different matter materials repulse as the repulsive MOND force between baryonic matter and dark matter.

Baryonic matter region (Newtonian regime) a >> a , a = a Interface (MOND regime) ai ai ,

ai =

a N a0 in the int erfacial region

(42)

The interfacial attractive force in the interface with the baryonic matter region is expressed as Eq. (43) where m is the mass of baryonic material in the interface.

Ｆ i − A = ma N ａ i２ =ｍ , ａ０

(43)

The comparison of the interfacial attractive force, Fi-A, and the non-existing interfacial Newtonian attractive force, Fi-Newton in the interface is as Eqs. (44), (45), and (46), where G is the gravitation constant, M is the mass of the baryonic material, and r the distance between the gravitational center and the material in the infacial region.

Ｆ i− A =

GMm r2

ａ２ , =ｍ ａ０

(44)

GMm r2 = ｍa

Ｆ i − Newton =

GMa0 r GM ai− Newron = 2 , r

(45)

m GMa0 r mGM , Fi− Newron = r2

(46)

ai =

Fi− A =

51

The interfacial attractive force decays with r, while the interfacial Newtonian force decays with r2. Therefore, in the interface when a0 >> ai, with sufficient dark matter, the interfacial repulsive force, Fi-R, is the difference between the interfacial attractive force and the interfacial Newtonian force as Eq. (47).

a0 >> ai , in the int erfacial region Fi− R = Fi− A − Fi− Newton = m(

(47)

GMa0 GM − 2 ) r r

The same interfacial attractive force and the interfacial repulsive force also occur for dark matter in the opposite direction. Thus, the repulsive MOND force filed results in the separation of baryonic matter and dark matter. The acceleration constant, a0, represents the maximum acceleration constant for the maximum incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The common link between baryonic matter and dark matter is cosmic radiation resulted from the annihilation of matter and antimatter from both baryonic matter and dark matter. With the high concentration of cosmic radiation at the Big Bang, baryonic matter and dark matter are completely compatible. As the universe ages and expands, the concentration of cosmic concentration decreases, resulting in the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The incompatibility reaches maximum when the concentration of cosmic radiation becomes is too low for the compatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. Therefore, for the early universe before the formation of galaxy when the concentration of cosmic radiation is still high, the time-dependent Eq. (42) is as Eq. (48).

ai =

a N a0t for t0 ≥ t , t0

(48)

where t is the age of the universe, and t0 is the age of the universe to reach the maximum incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The distance, r0, from the center to the border of the interface is as Eq. (49). r0

=

GM/a 0

(49)

In the early universe, r0 decreases with the age of the universe as Eq. (50).

r0

=

GMt 0 a 0t

(50)

The decreases in r0 leads to the increase in the interface where the interfacial forces exist. The interfacial forces also increase with time.

52

a0 >> ai , in the int erfacial region Fi− R = Fi− A − Fi− Newton = m(

(51)

GMa0t / t0 GM − 2 ) r r

To minimize the interface and the interfacial forces, the same matter materials increasingly come together to form the matter droplets separating from the different matter materials. The increasing formation of the matter droplets with increasing incompatibility is similar to the increasing formation of oil droplets with increasing incompatibility between oil and water. Since there are more dark matter materials than baryonic matter materials, most of the matter droplets are baryonic droplets surrounded by dark matter materials. The early universe is characterized by the increases in the size and the number of the matter droplets due to the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. 3.2. The Formation of the Inhomogeneous Structures

The Inflationary Universe scenario [46] provides possible solutions of the horizon, flatness and formation of structure problems. In the standard inflation theory, quantum fluctuations during the inflation are stretched exponentially so that they can become the seeds for the formation of inhomogeneous structure such as galaxies and galaxy clusters. This paper posits that the inhomogeneous structure comes from both quantum fluctuation during the inflation and the repulsive MOND force between baryonic matter and dark matter after the inflation. As mentioned in the previous section, the increasing repulsive MOND force field with the increasing incompatibility in the early universe results in the increase in the size and number of the matter droplets. For the first few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang (which took place about 13.7 billion years ago), the universe was a hot, murky mess, with no light radiating out. Because there is no residual light from that early epoch, scientists can't observe any traces of it. But about 400,000 years after the Big Bang, temperatures in the universe cooled, electrons and protons joined to form neutral hydrogen as the recombination. The inhomogeneous structure as the baryonic droplets by the incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter is observed [ 47 ] as anisotropies in CMB (cosmic microwave background). As the universe expanded after the time of recombination, the density of cosmic radiation decreases, and the size of the baryonic droplets increased with the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The growth of the baryonic droplet by the increasing incompatibility from the cosmic expansion coincided with the growth of the baryonic droplet by gravitational instability from the cosmic expansion. The formation of galaxies is through both gravitational instability and the incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The pre-galactic universe consisted of the growing baryonic droplets surrounded by the dark matter halos, which connected among one another in the form of filaments and voids. These dark matter domains later became the dark matter halos, and the baryonic droplets became galaxies, clusters, and superclusters.

53

When there were many baryonic droplets, the merger among the baryonic droplets became another mechanism to increase the droplet size and mass. When three or more homogeneous baryonic droplets merged together, dark matter was likely trapped in the merged droplet (C, D, E, and F in Figure 10). The droplet with trapped dark matter inside is the heterogeneous baryonic droplet, while the droplet without trapped dark matter inside is the homogeneous baryonic droplet.

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 10: the homogeneous baryonic droplets (A, and B), and the heterogeneous baryonic droplets (C, D, E, and F)

In the heterogeneous droplets C, D, E, and F, dark matter was trapped in the cores of the baryonic droplets. Because of the prevalence of dark matter, almost all baryonic droplets were the heterogeneous droplets. There were the dark matter core, the baryonic matter shell, and the dark matter halo around the baryonic droplet, resulting in two repulsive forces as the pressures between the dark matter core and the baryonic matter shell and between the baryonic shell and the dark matter halo. In the equilibrium state, the internal pressure between the dark matter core and the baryonic matter shell was same as the external pressure between the baryonic shell and the dark matter halo. When the temperature dropped to ~ 1000°K, some hydrogen atoms in the droplet paired up to create the primordial molecular layers. Molecular hydrogen cooled the primordial molecular layers by emitting infrared radiation after collision with atomic hydrogen. Eventually, the temperature of the molecular layers dropped to around 200 to 300°K, reducing the gas pressure and allowing the molecular layers to continue contracting into gravitationally bound dense primordial molecular clouds. The diameters of the primordial could be up to 100 light-years with the masses of up to 6 million solar masses. Most of baryonic droplets contained thousands of the primordial molecular clouds. The formation of the primordial molecular clouds created the gap in the baryonic matter shell. The gap allowed the dark matter in the dark matter core to leak out, resulting in a tunnel between the dark matter core and the external dark matter halo. The continuous leaking of the dark matter expanded the tunnel. Consequently, the dark matter in the dark matter core rushed out of the dark matter core, resulting in the “Big Eruption”. The ejection of the dark matter from the dark matter core reduced the internal pressure between the dark matter core and the baryonic matter shell. The external pressure between the baryonic matter shell and the dark matter halo caused the collapse of the baryonic droplet. The collapse of the baryonic droplet is like the collapse of a balloon as the air (as dark matter) moves out the balloon. The collapse of the baryonic droplet forced the head-on collisions of the primordial molecular clouds in the baryonic matter shell. In the center of the collapsed baryonic droplet, the head-on collisions of the primordial molecular clouds generated the shock wave as the turbulence in the collided primordial molecular clouds. The

54

turbulence triggered the collapse of the core of the primordial cloud. The core fragmented into multiple stellar embryos, in each a protostar nucleated and pulled in gas. Without the heavy elements to dissipate heat, the mass of the primordial protostar was 500 to 1,000 solar masses at about 200°K. The primordial protostar shrank in size, increased in density, and became the primordial massive star when nuclear fusion began in its core. The massive primordial star formation is as follows. combinatio n incompatib le dark matter and baryonic matter  → homogeneou s baryonic droplets      →heterogene ous the cooling eruption , collapse , and collision baryonic droplet     → molecular clouds in baryonic matter shell             → nuclear fusion protostar       → massive primordial star

The intense UV radiation from the high surface temperature of the massive primordial stars started the reionization effectively, and also triggered further star formation. The massive primordial stars were short-lived (few million years old). The explosion of the massive primordial stars was the massive supernova that caused reionization and triggered star formation. The heavy elements generated during the primordial star formation scattered throughout the space. The dissipation of heat by heavy elements allowed the normal rather than massive star formation. With many ways to trigger star formation, the rate of star formation increased rapidly. The Big Eruption that initiated the star formation started to occur about 400 million years after the Big Bang, and the reionization started to occur soon after. The rate of star formation peaked about 2 billion years after the Big Bang [48]. Since the head-on collision of the molecular clouds took place at the center of the collapsed baryonic droplet, the star formation started in the center of the collapsed baryonic droplet. With other ways to trigger star formation, the star formation propagated away from the center. The star formation started from the center from which the star formation propagated, so the primordial galaxies appeared to be small surrounded by the large hydrogen blobs. The surrounding large hydrogen blobs corresponds to the observed Lyman alpha blobs of Lyman alpha (Lya) emission by hydrogen, which have been discovered in the vicinity of galaxies at early cosmic times. The amount of hydrogen in the blobs was also increased by the incoming abundant intergalactic hydrogen. The repulsive dark matter halos prevented the hydrogen gas inside from escaping from the galaxies. Dijkstra and Loeb [49] posited that the early galaxies grew quickly by the cold accretion mode from the observed Lyman alpha blobs. The growth by the merger of galaxies was too slow for the observed fast growth of the early galaxies. If there was small dark matter core as in the heterogeneous baryonic droplet (C in Figure 10), the Big Eruption took relatively short time to cause the collapse of the baryonic droplet. The change in the shape of the baryonic droplet after the collapse was relatively minor. The collapse results in elliptical shape in E0 to E7 elliptical galaxies, whose lengths of major axes are proportional to the relative sizes of the dark matter core. Because of the short time for the collapse of the baryonic droplet, the star formation by the collapse occurred quickly at the center.

ejection of dark matter

collapse

55

Most of the primordial stars merged to form the supermassive center, resulting in the quasar galaxies. Such first quasar galaxies that occurred as early as z = 6.28 were observed to have about the same sizes as the Milky Way [50]. This formation of galaxy follows the monolithic collapse model in which baryonic gas in galaxies collapses to form stars within a very short period, so there are small numbers of observed young stars in elliptical galaxies. Elliptical galaxies continue to grow slowly as the universe expands. If the size of the dark matter core is medium (D in Figure 10), the collapse of the baryonic droplet caused a large change in shape, resulting in the rapidly rotating disk as spiral galaxy. The rapidly rotating disk underwent differential rotation with the increasing angular speeds toward the center. After few rotations, the structure consisted of a bungle was formed and the attached spiral arms as spiral galaxy as Figure 11.

ejection of dark matter

collapse

differential rotation

Figure 11: the formation of spiral galaxy

The spiral galaxy took longer time to erupt and collapse than the elliptical galaxy, so the star formation was later than elliptical galaxy. Because of the large size of the dark matter core, the density of the primordial molecular clouds was lower than elliptical galaxy, so the rate of star formation in spiral galaxy is slower than elliptical galaxy. During the collapse of the baryonic droplet, some primordial molecular clouds moved away to form globular clusters near the main group of the primordial molecular clouds. Most of the primordial massive stars merged to form the supermassive center. The merge of spiral galaxies with comparable sizes destroys the disk shape, so most spiral galaxies are not merged galaxies. When two dark matter cores inside far apart from each other (E in Figure 10) generated two openings in opposite sides of the droplet, the dark matter could eject from both openings. The two opening is equivalent to the overlapping of two ellipses, resulting in the thick middle part, resulting in the star formation in the thick middle part and the formation of barred spiral galaxy. The differential rotation is similar to that of spiral galaxy as Figure 12.

ejection of dark matter

differential rotation

Figure 12: the formation of barred spiral galaxy

56

collapse

As in normal spiral galaxy, the length of the spiral arm depends on the size of the dark matter core. The smallest dark matter core for barred spiral galaxy brings about SBa, and the largest dark matter core brings about SBd. The stars form in the low-density spiral arms much later than in the nucleus, so they are many young stars in the spiral arms. In barred spiral galaxy, because of the larger dark matter core area than normal spiral galaxy, the star formation occurred later than normal spiral galaxy, and the rate of star formation was slower than normal spiral galaxy. If the size of the dark matter core was large (F in Figure 10), the eruption of the dark matter in the dark matter core occurred easily in multiple places. The baryonic matter shell became fragmented, resulting in irregular galaxy. The turbulence from the collapse of the baryonic droplet was weak, and the density of the primordial molecular clouds was low, so the rate of star formation was slow. The star formation continues in a slow rate up to the present time. At the end of the Big Eruption, vast majority of baryonic matter was primordial free baryonic matter resided in dark matter outside of the galaxies from the Big Eruption. This free baryonic matter constituted the intergalactic medium (IGM). Stellar winds, supernova winds, and quasars provide heat and heavy elements to the IGM as ionized baryonic atoms. The heat prevented the formation of the baryonic droplet in the IGM. Galaxies merged into new large galaxies, such as giant elliptical galaxy and cD galaxy (z > 1-2). Similar to the transient molecular cloud formation from the ISM (interstellar medium) through turbulence, the tidal debris and turbulence from the mergers generated the numerous transient molecular regions, which located in a broad area [51]. The incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter transformed these transient molecular regions into the stable second-generation baryonic droplets surrounded by the dark matter halos. The baryonic droplets had much higher fraction of hydrogen molecules, much lower fraction of dark matter, higher density, and lower temperature, and lower entropy than the surrounding. During this period, the acceleration constant reached to the maximum value with the maximum incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The growth of the baryonic droplets did not depend on the increasing incompatibility. The growth of the baryonic droplets depended on the turbulences that carried IGM to the baryonic droplets. The rapid growth of the baryonic droplets drew large amount of the surrounding IGM inward, generating the IGM flow shown as the cooling flow. The IGM flow induced the galaxy flow. The IGM flow and the galaxy flow moved toward the merged galaxies, resulting in the protocluster (z ~ 0.5) with the merged galaxies as the cluster center. Before the protocluster stage, spirals grew normally and passively by absorbing gas from the IGM as the universe expanded. During the protoculster stage (z ~ 0.5), the massive IGM flow injected a large amount of gas into the spirals that joined in the galaxy flow. Most of the injected hot gas passed through the spiral arms and settled in the bungle parts of the spirals. Such surges of gas absorption from the IGM flow resulted in major starbursts (z ~ 0.4) [52]. Meanwhile, the nearby baryonic droplets continued to draw the IGM, and the IGM flow and the galaxy flow continued. The results were the formation of high-density region, where the galaxies and the baryonic droplets competed for the IGM as the gas reservoir. Eventually, the maturity of the baryonic droplets caused

57

a decrease in drawing the IGM inward, resulting in the slow IGM flow. Subsequently, the depleted gas reservoir could not support the major starbursts (z ~ 0.3). The galaxy harassment and the mergers in this high-density region disrupted the spiral arms of spirals, resulting in S0 galaxies with indistinct spiral arms (z ~ 0.1 – 0.25). The transformation process of spirals into S0 galaxies started at the core first, and moved to the outside of the core. Thus, the fraction of spirals decreases with decreasing distance from the cluster center. The static and slow-moving second-generation baryonic droplets turned into dwarf elliptical galaxies and globular clusters. The fast moving second-generation baryonic droplets formed the second-generation baryonic stream, which underwent a differential rotation to minimize the interfacial area between the baryonic matter and dark matter. The result is the formation of blue compact dwarf galaxies (BCD), such as NGC 2915 with very extended spiral arms. Since the star formation is steady and slow, so the stars formed in BCD are new. The galaxies formed during z < 0.1-0.2 are mostly metal-rich tidal dwarf galaxies (TDG) from tidal tails torn out from interacting galaxies. In some cases, the tidal tail and the baryonic droplet merge to generate the starbursts with higher fraction of molecule than the TDG formed by tidal tail alone [53]. When the interactions among large galaxies were mild, the mild turbulence caused the formation of few molecular regions, which located in narrow area close to the large galaxies. Such few molecular regions resulted in few baryonic droplets, producing weak IGM flow and galaxy flow. The result is the formation of galaxy group, such as the Local Group, which has fewer dwarf galaxies and lower density environment than cluster. Clusters merged to generate tidal debris and turbulence, producing the baryonic droplets, the ICM (intra-cluster medium) flow, and the cluster flow. The ICM flow and the cluster flow directed toward the merger areas among clusters and particularly the rich clusters with high numbers of galaxies. The ICM flow is shown as the warm filaments outside of cluster [54]. The dominant structural elements in superclusters are single or multi-branching filaments [55]. The cluster flow is shown by the tendency of the major axes of clusters to point toward neighboring clusters [56]. Eventually, the observable expanding universe will consist of giant voids and superclusters surrounded by the dark matter halos. In summary, the whole observable expanding universe is as one unit of emulsion with incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter. The five periods of baryonic structure development are the free baryonic matter, the baryonic droplet, the galaxy, cluster, and the supercluster periods as Figure 13. The first-generation galaxies are elliptical, normal spiral, barred spiral, irregular, and dwarf spheroidal galaxies. The second-generation galaxies are giant ellipticals, cD, evolved S0, dwarf ellipticals, BCD, and TDG. The universe now is in the early part of the supercluster period.

58

cosmic baryonic matterexpansion

beginning

baryonic droplets

Big

free baryonic Eruption matter pre-galactic

the firstgeneration galaxies

merge

r

IGM

clusters with the secondgeneration galaxies

merge r

superclusters

ICM

galaxy

cluster

superclusters

Figure 13: the five levels of baryonic structure in the universe 3.3. Summary

The second day involves the separation of waters from above and below the expanse in Genesis, corresponding to the separation of dark matter and baryonic matter from above and below the interface between dark matter and baryonic matter for the formation of galaxies. The separation of dark matter without electromagnetism and baryonic matter with electromagnetism involves MOND (modified Newtonian dynamics). It is proposed that the MOND force is in the interface between the baryonic matter region and the dark matter region. In the interface, the same matter materials attract as the conventional attractive MOND force, and the different matter materials repulse as the repulsive MOND force between baryonic matter and dark matter. The source of the repulsive MOND force field is the incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, like water and oil. The incompatibility does not allow the direct detection of dark matter. Typically, dark matter halo surrounds baryonic galaxy. The repulsive MOND force between baryonic matter and dark matter enhances the attractive MOND force of baryonic matter in the interface toward the center of gravity of baryonic matter. The enhancement of the low acceleration in the interface is by the acceleration constant, a0, which defines the border of the interface and the factor of the enhancement. The enhancement of the low gravity in the interface is by the decrease of gravity with the distant rather than the square of distance as in the normal Newtonian gravity. The repulsive MOND force is the difference between the attractive MOND force and the nonexisting interfacial Newtonian force. The repulsive MOND force field results in the separation and the repulsive force between baryonic matter and dark matter. The repulsive MOND force field explains the evolution of the inhomogeneous baryonic structures in the universe. Both baryonic matter and dark matter are compatible with cosmic radiation, so in the early universe, the incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter increases with decreasing cosmic radiation and the increasing age of the universe until reaching the maximum incompatibility. The repulsive MOND force field with the increasing incompatibility results in the growth of the baryonic matter droplets. The five stages of the formation of inhomogeneous structures are baryonic matter, baryonic droplets, the first generation galaxies by the Big Eruption, cluster, and supercluster. The three periods for the baryonic structure development in the early universe are the free baryonic matter, the baryonic droplet, and the galaxy formation from the Big

59

Eruption. The transition to the baryonic droplet generates density perturbation in the CMB. In the galaxy period, the first-generation galaxies including elliptical, normal spiral, barred spiral, and irregular galaxies were the result of the Big Eruption from the inhomogeneous baryonic droplets. After reaching the maximum incompatibility, the growth of the baryonic droplets depends on the turbulence, resulting in the baryonic structure development of the cluster and the supercluster. In the cluster period, the second-generation galaxies include modified giant ellipticals, cD, evolved S0, dwarf elliptical, BCD, and tidal dwarf galaxies. The whole observable expanding universe behaves as one unit of emulsion with incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter through the repulsive MOND force field. 3.4. Summary for Part 1

The Sacred Cosmology includes the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology for the current universe and the universes before and after the current universes and the Genesis Cosmology for the current universe. It is based on the unified theory of physics derived from the zero-energy universe and the space-object structures. Different universes are the different expressions of the space-object structures. The space structure includes attachment space and detachment space. The object structure consists of 11D membrane, 10D string, variable D particle, and empty object. Different universes in different developmental stages are the different expressions of the space-object structures. For our universe, the zero-energy universe produced the symmetrical positive-energy and negativeenergy 11D membrane dual universe, followed by the 10-dimensional string dual universe, by the 10-dimensional particle dual universe, and by the asymmetrical dual universe of the light universe of baryonic matter-dark matter and the dark universe of dark energy without massless particle (light). This 4-stage cyclic cosmology can go on in repetitive cycles. The further symmetry breaking differentiated baryon matter with massless electromagnetism and dark matter without massless electromagnetism. The inhomogeneous structures, such as galaxy, are derived from the increasing incompatibility between baryonic matter and dark matter, like the inhomogeneous emulsion formed by the incompatibility between oil and water. The cosmology based on the unified theory of physics is comparable to the Sacred Cosmology. Our four-stage cyclic cosmology (11D membrane, 10D string, 10D particle, and light-dark) corresponds to the four-Yuga Hindu cosmic cycle (Satya, Tret, Dwapara, and Kali). The zero-energy universe in cosmology corresponds to the Sunyata (zero) Yuga in the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology. The separation of the light universe and dark universe corresponds to the Genesis first day creation to separate light and darkness. The separation of baryonic matter and dark matter corresponds to the Genesis second day creation to separate of waters from above and below the expanse. •

In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning —the first day. And God said, “Let

60

•

there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water.” So God made the vault and separated the water under the vault from the water above it. And it was so. God called the vault “sky.” And there was evening, and there was morning —the second day. (Genesis 1:1-8) At the beginning of the creation of heaven and earth, when the pre-universe was simple, darkness was over the surface of the deep vacuum energy, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the cosmic fluids. And God said, "Let there be light," and there was light in the light universe. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light universe from the dark universe. God called the light "day," and the darkness he called "night." And there was the first period. And God said, "Let there be an interface between the matters to separate matter from matter." So God made the interface and separated baryonic matter under the interface from dark matter above it. And it was so. God called the interface "sky." And there was the second period. (Interpretative Genesis 1:1-8)

The entire cosmology can be described by the combination of the Hindu-Buddha Cosmology and the Genesis Cosmology revealed thousands of years ago.

61

Part 2: The Sacred Society: the unified theory of human society The Sacred Society explained by the unified theory of human society consists of the three-branch way from Daoism and the kingdom of God from Christianity. The origin of the unified theory of human society is the three-level natural selection of individual, relational, and group selections corresponding to yang, yin, and harmony for masculine individualistic achievement, feminine collectivistic relation, and harmonious cooperation, respectively from the three-branch way (三支道) of Daoism. Jesus said that the kingdom of God is within you. The kingdom of God is within the harmonious society and social life (interaction). The harmonious society exists only in humans and few social insects. The prehistoric hunter-gatherer society was the harmonious society. In the Bible, the human in the image of God is the human of the harmonious social life different from all other animals. The human harmonious social life was evolved to adapt to the small human social group. Starting from the Neolithic Revolution, the inevitably large civilized social group destroyed the prehistoric harmonious small social group as the prehistoric kingdom of God, resulting in the fall in the Garden of Eden. Jesus Christ initiated the early kingdom of God that allowed the civilized people to return to the harmonious social life and society. In the postmodern world, the postmodern kingdom of God becomes the harmonious society of God in the three-branch Unified Society. In Chapter 4, the origin of the three-branch way is three-level natural selection. Natural selection is three-level selection in the chronological order of individual, relational (kin), and group selection. The principal bases for cooperation in individual, relational, and group selections are unconditional reciprocity with no pre-condition for individuals, beneficial relatedness derived from caring relation as the turning point deviated from reciprocity, and existential division of labor derived from handicapped individuals as the turning point deviated from relatedness, respectively. In group selection, all individuals are handicapped, and the existence of all individuals is dependent on existential division of labor that overcomes individual handicaps. Group fitness becomes much more important than individual fitness, including the fitness by reciprocity and relatedness. Only few insects (bees, wasps, termites and ants) and humans are in group selection, but they dominate the earth. Individual, relational, and group selections correspond to individualistic, collectivistic, and harmonious social interactions and societies, respectively. Three-level selection is based on the threebranch way. The three-branch way can be described by the three social interactions (lives) consisting of the yin (collectivistic), the yang (individualistic), and the harmonious social lives from the three-branch way ( 三 支 道 ) of Daoism. The collectivistic social life represents collectivistic relation for the feminine task of upbringing of offspring. The individualistic social life represents individualistic achievement for the masculine task of attracting female mate. The unique human evolution produces the harmonious social life that transcends the collectivistic and the individualistic social lives, and represents harmonious cooperation. The three social interactions are derived from neuroscience and psychology.

62

Social life is developed by the five factors from the prenatal period to early adulthood. Social role (Bond-Systemization), social relationship (Relation-Achievement) and social unit (Collectiveness-Individual) are developed during prenatal period and childhood for gender differentiation. Intragroup interaction (Passive-Dynamic) is developed during adolescence for the size of core social group. Social flexibility (Unyielding-Flexible) achieves maturity during early adulthood for social responsibility. The five factors are similar to the factors in the popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Big Five personality theories. Different social lives are the different combinations of the five factors. The results of the combinations for yin and yang social lives are bond (yin passive), expressive (yin dynamic), systemization (yang passive), domination (yang dynamic) corresponding to amiable, expressive, analytical, and driver in the popular Merrill-Reid social style theory, respectively. Harmonious social life relates to the highly flexible social life, and exists only in human. The instinct for the harmonious social life (harmonious) is the conscience instinct that is the combination of the hyper bond instinct and the hyper detection instinct, resulting in maximum eager cooperation without lie. The yin, the yang, and the harmonious social lives result in the collectivistic, the individualistic, and the harmonious societies, respectively. The evolutional origin of the three-branch way comes from social-life biological evolution, including ape evolution and hominid evolution. The human ancestors were essentially the bipedal bonobos. In the Bible, the human in the image of God is the human of the harmonious social life different from all other animals. In Chapter 5, Jesus said that the kingdom of God is within you. The kingdom of God is within the harmonious society and social life (interaction). The kingdom of God is divided into four parts as the prehistoric kingdom of God, the early kingdom of God, the modern kingdom of God, and the postmodern kingdom of God for the human evolution period, the Prehistoric Period, the Early Period, the Modern Period, and the Postmodern Period. The supernatural interaction between the supernatural and human is expressed as the kingdom of God that is the harmonious society. The kingdom of God evolves through supernatural selection. Through the supernatural miracle (the non-representation of the natural physical laws), the supernatural selects the harmonious society as the chosen society by the divine revelation of the abstractness (the non-representation of the expression of the natural human mind) including abstract social bond, abstract morality in terms of moral law and code, and abstract rebirth. In the Prehistoric Period (Chapter 5), as the Garden of Eden, the prehistoric kingdom of God expressed as Symbolic Religion (female figurines and cave paintings) provided the abstract social bond to bond the isolated social groups to survive the harsh environment. In the Early Period (Chapter 6) starting from the Neolithic Revolution, the inevitably large civilized social group destroyed the prehistoric harmonious small social group as the prehistoric kingdom of God, resulting in the fall in the Garden of Eden. The early transitional kingdom of God was the moral religion as Judaism, and provided the abstract morality in terms of moral law and code. Jesus Christ initiated the early kingdom of God that provided the abstract rebirth for the civilized people to return to the harmonious social life and society. It was manifested in the early church based on the harmonious society and social life. The decline of the kingdom of God later resulted from the conversion of the church to the state religion. In the Modern Period (Chapter 7)

63

starting from the Renaissance for the Modern Revolution, the decline of the state religion resulted in the modern kingdom of God in the three-branch Unified Society consisting of the collectivistic society, the individualistic society, and the harmonious society for collectivistic relation, individualistic achievement, and harmonious cooperation, respectively. The typical example of the Unified Society is America that has the collectivistic political party, the individualistic political party, and the modern kingdom of God separated from the state. In the Postmodern Period (Chapter 8) starting from the global mass telecommunication for the Postmodern Revolution, the global perspective involves the whole human society, so the postmodern kingdom of God is the harmonious society of God in the three-branch Unified Society.

64

Three-Level Selection in Evolution selection

time

turning point

individual

earliest

relational

middle

caring relation

group

last

handicapped individuals

principal base for cooperation unconditional reciprocity beneficial relatedness

existential division of labor

competition among individuals individuals with various degrees of relatedness groups of division of labor

social interaction and society individualistic collectivistic

harmonious

principal behaviors

prevail in

systemization domination bond expressive

male

hyper-bond hyperdetection

female

both

The Evolution of Three-Level Selection unconditional reciprocity in individual selection caring relation as the turning point beneficial relatedness in relational selection handicapped individuals as the turning point existential division of labor in group selection harmonious society

collectivistic society

65

individualistic society

The Three-Branch Way THE FIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LIFE social role social relationship social unit intragroup Social flexibility (Relation(Bond(Collectivness- interaction (Unyielding(Passive-Dynamic) Flexible) Systemization Achievement) individual) • • •

yin (Bond-Relation-Collectivness = collectivistic relation for social bond) and yang (Systemization-Achievement-Individual = individualistic achievement for systemization) Passive – Dynamic intragroup interaction harmony = high Flexible to minimize conflicts in social interactions

SOCIAL LIFE

yin passive social life (amiable)

yin dynamic social life (expressive)

harmonious social life

yang dynamic social life (driver)

yang passive social life (analytical)

bond

expressive

hyper bond + detection

domination

systemization

SOCIAL STRUCTURES the loose the tight collectivistic collectivistic society society

the harmonious society

66

the tight individualistic society

the loose individualistic society

The Five Factors in Social Life Gender factors social role social relation social unit Non-gender factors intragroup interaction social flexibility

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

bond (B) systemization (S) Relation (R) achievement (A) collectiveness (C)

a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T) a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T) intuition (N)

Agreeable (A) Neuroticism (N)

individual (I)

sense (S)

Consciousness (C)

passive (P) dynamic (D) unyielding (U) flexible (F)

introvert (I) extrovert (E) judging (J) perceiving (P)

Extrovert (E) Openness (O)

The Social Life System for Primates Social lives yin (BRC ) –yang (SAI) passive-dynamic or harmony (high (introvert-extrovert) Flexible) Yin Passive

Yang

Passive

Yin

Dynamic

Yang

Dynamic

Harmony

society

social life

the loose collectivistic society the loose individualistic society the tight collectivistic society the tight individualistic society the harmonious society

Merrill-Reid social style

bond

Amiable

systemization

Analytical

expressive

Expressive

domination

Driver

harmony

The Properties of Social Lives

Symbol Social-life enhancer Social-life enhancer components Social-life stressor Sin Stress response Fundamental Social Unit Lifer (Person) Society

Yin (Collectivistic) Social Life

Yang (Individualistic) Social Life

Harmonious Social Life

collectivistic relation bond expressive disconnection injustice disconnection sin injustice sin despair paranoid collectivistic social group collectivistic collectivistic

individualistic achievement systemization domination disorganization repression disorganization sin repression sin anxiety unfulfillment individual

harmonious cooperation hyper bond hyper detection estrangement enlargement estrangement sin enlargement sin

individualistic individualistic

harmonious harmonious

67

alienation one-to-one relation

Ape Evolution and Social Structures orangutan-like common ancestor (loose society) 13 million years ago (Ma)

orangutan (loose society) bonobo-like common ancestor (matriarch collectivistic) 7 Ma

gorilla (patriarch collectivistic society) human (harmonious society)

6 Ma 2 Ma

chimpanzee (patriarch individualistic society) bonobo (matriarch collectivistic society)

Hominid Evolution: The Evolution of the Conscience Instinct walking hands bipedalism (6-2Ma)

free hands for gestural language as the hyper friendly instinct 1.8-1Ma

manipulative hands for gestural language and tool(Homo habilis) 1.5-0.3Ma

manipulative hands and spoken voice for gestural/ spoken language and tool (Homo erectus) hyper friendly instinct

detective instinct = theory of mind conscience instinct extra prefrontal cortex (0.2Ma)

enhanced conscience instinct (Homo sapiens) conscience intelligence

conscience will

68

The Development of the Kingdom of God the prehistoric harmonious hunter-gatherer society the Upper Paleolithic Revolution the unified prehistoric harmonious hunter-gatherer society the prehistoric kingdom of God the Neolithic Revolution the individualistic society: the individualistic state + the state individualism

the collectivistic society: the collectivistic state + the state religion the early transitional kingdom of God

the harmonious society the harmonious religion the early kingdom of God

the Modern Revolution the collectivistic society: the collectivistic party + the partisan socialism

the individualistic society: the individualistic party + the partisan capitalism

the harmonious society the harmonious religion the modern kingdom of God

the Postmodern Revolution the global collectivistic society:the global individualistic society: the global harmonious society

the collectivistic party + the partisan socialism

the individualistic party + the partisan capitalism

69

the harmonious religion the harmonious society of God

4. The Three-Branch Way: three-level selection

In Chapter 42 of Dao De Jing, the Way (Dao) means the social life (interaction) structure as the source of all societies. 道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物。万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。The Way gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two give birth to three, and three give birth to all things. All things carry yin on back and hug yang in front. The forces collide to become harmony. (Chapter 42 Dao De Jing) The Way can be interpreted as the social life (interaction) structure for the evolution of the three-level selection and the corresponding three-branch way. The evolution of social life structure started with one-level selection (one-branch way) as individual selection (yang social life). The one-level selection (onebranch way) evolved to become the two-level selection (two-branch way) as the individual-relational selection (yang-yin social life), the two-level selection (twobranch way) evolved to become the three-level selection (three-branch way) as the individual-relational-group selection (yang-yin-harmony social life structure), and the three-level selection (the three-branch way) generates all human societies. All human societies have yin and yang in opposition, and these two combine into harmony. (Interpretative Chapter 42 Dao De Jing) 4.1. The Evolution of Three-Level Selection

Evolution needs populations of reproducing individuals. Evolutionary change occurs by mutation and selection. The most fundamental unit of evolution is gene. Fitness is a relative measure of reproductive success of an organism in passing its genes to the next generation. Natural selection is the process in nature by which only the organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characters in increasing numbers to succeeding generations while those less adapted tend to be eliminated. In multilevel selection theory by David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober [57], there are many layers of competition and cooperation for evolution. The different levels function cohesively to maximize fitness in terms of reproductive success. The conventional levels are individual selection for individuals against individuals, relational (kin) selection for kin against kin, and group selection for group against group. Another theory of selection contains only one level that is individual selection. Relational selection is merely an extension of individual selection to include inclusive fitness that contains relatives. Group selection is same as relational selection.

70

Multilevel selection can be viewed as chronological levels. Natural selection is three-level selection in the chronological order of individual selection, relational (kin) selection, and group selection. Natural selection can be viewed from the perspective cooperation [58] that benefits fitness. Three-Level Selection in Evolution selection

time

turning point

individual

earliest

relational

middle

caring relation

group

last

handicapped individuals

principal base for cooperation unconditional reciprocity beneficial relatedness

existential division of labor

competition among individuals individuals with various degrees of relatedness groups of division of labor

social interaction and society individualistic (yang) collectivistic (yin)

harmonious

principal behaviors

prevail in

systemization domination bond expressive

male

hyper-bond hyperdetection

female

both

4.1.1. Individual Selection with Individualistic Society

Natural selection started with individual selection. The principal base of cooperation for individual selection is unconditional reciprocity with no pre-condition for individuals. All individuals are equal in cooperation and competition. Reciprocity can be direct, indirection, or spatial. In direct reciprocity, I help you, but expect we will meet again, and then, you help me. It is common in a small social group where the chance to meet again is high. The strategy is tit-for-tat in prisoner’s dilemma described by Axelrod and Hamilton's evolution of cooperation [59]. To find different strategies for cooperation, they devised the prisoner's dilemma. The prisoner's dilemma refers to an imaginary situation in which two individuals are imprisoned and are accused of having cooperated to perform some crime. The two prisoners are held separately, and attempts are made to induce each one to implicate the other. If neither one does, both are set free. This is the cooperative strategy available to both prisoners. In order to tempt one or both to defect, each is told that a confession implicating the other will lead to his or her release and, as an added incentive, to a small reward. If both confess, each one is imprisoned. But if one individual implicated the other and not vice versa, then the implicated partner receives a harsher sentence than if each had implicated the other. Among all strategies, TIT FOR TAT is the best strategy. On the first move cooperate. On each succeeding move do what your opponent did the previous move. Thus, TIT FOR TAT was a strategy of cooperation based on reciprocity. From the further analysis of TIT FOR TAT, four features of TIT FOR TAT emerged: 1. Never be the first to defect: indicate eager cooperate 2. Retaliate only after your partner has defected: important to detect defection 3. Be prepared to forgive after carrying out just one act of retaliation: minimum social memory 4. Adopt this strategy only if the probability of meeting the same player again exceeds 2/3: essentially a strategy for a small social group.

71

In indirect reciprocity, if I help you, I get the reputation of helping other, so someone else will help me. A rule for indirect reciprocity is qb > c, where q = probability to know someone’s reputation, c = cost of cooperation, and b = benefit of cooperation. In spatial reciprocity, individuals who live in protected areas where they are immune from attack by predators are likely to survive, and to have more children, which then grow the population faster. By staying and working together for the greater good, each individual has a better chance of survival. This becomes even truer when there is conflict between social groups as the larger social groups have a greater chance of winning. In individual selection, the competition is among all individuals, and each individual has to form its own cooperation based on unconditional reciprocity. Each individual can be a cooperator or a cheater. The social interaction in individual selection is individualistic social interaction, and the society for such individualistic social interaction is individualistic society. The important social behavior within a subgroup such as family is to establish self in terms of systemization for systematic procurement of food and establishment of territory. The important social behavior in a social group outside of subgroup is domination by partisan competition to find the right place in competitive social hierarchy. Such individualistic social interaction prevails in males. An example of individualistic society with individual selection is the society of male chimpanzees. Chimpanzees have the patriarch individualistic society. The male chimpanzees fight to be the number one. To maintain social hierarchy, some male cooperate to form alliance based on unconditional reciprocity. A leader is under constant challenge. A leader is deposed after the other male chimpanzees have formed alliance and ganged up against the leader. The internal conflict is high. In the wild, male chimpanzees are extraordinarily hostile to males from outside of the social group. Male patrolling chimpanzees attack and often kill the neighboring male chimpanzee outsider who might be traveling alone. In animals, individualistic society with individual selection is common among males. The consequences of individual selection are males with competitive hierarchy, partisan competition, large size bodies, large fighting horns, sharp canine teeth, beautiful feathers, fancy dances and songs, and elaborate nest building skill, contrary to relatively small and plain females. 4.1.2. Relational Selection with Collectivistic Society

Natural selection started with individual selection followed by relational (kin) selection. The turning point from individual selection to relational selection is caring relation in which a giver of caring relation takes effort to improve the fitness of specific related individuals as the recipients of caring relation. The most fundamental caring relation is between mother and her offspring in terms of the improvements of gene and environment of her offspring. The improvement of gene of offspring comes from sexual selection in which a female chooses a mate with the best possible gene for fitness and the best possible provider for her offspring. After the birth, maternal instinct brings about maternal care to her offspring. This maternal caring relation improves the quality of the fitness of her children at the expense of the quantity of her children, while without caring

72

relation, a typical animal father concerns about the quantity of his children. This caring relation may or may not expand to siblings and other relatives. Caring relation can also apply to individuals in close proximity with or without kin relation. A rule for relational selection is Hamilton’s rule [60], rb > c where c is the reproductive (fitness) cost to the giver of caring relation, b is the additional reproductive (fitness) benefit gained by the recipient of caring relation, and r is their degree of relatedness. In relational selection, all individuals are not equal, unlike in individual selection. The competition and cooperation among individuals are dependent on various degrees of relatedness. The fitness becomes inclusive fitness to include to all individuals with various degrees of relatedness. The social interaction in relational selection is collectivistic social interaction, and the society for such collectivistic social interaction is collectivistic society. The most important social behavior inside a subgroup such as family is bond to connect with the members of subgroup. The most important social behavior in a social group outside of subgroup is expressive to relate with the individuals outside of subgroup. Such collectivistic social behavior prevails in females. An example of relational selection with collectivistic society is female bonobo. Bonobos have the matriarch collectivistic society. Female bonobo is smaller than male bonobo, but female bonobos bond together to dominate the society. Bond is important for bonobos, and is expressed in sexual activities that can be between couples regardless of ages and genders. They do sexual contacts to greet, to avoid social conflicts, and to reconcile after conflicts. Bonobos in collectivistic society are much more peaceful and have a greater degree of bond than chimpanzees in individualistic society. 4.1.3. Group Selection with Harmonious Society

Group selection was evolved from relational selection is group selection. Group selection cannot be evolved directly from individual selection. The turning point from relational selection to group selection is handicapped individuals. All individuals in group selection are handicapped in terms of long term survival and reproduction. The existence of individuals is dependent on the existential division of labor that overcomes individual handicaps. Group fitness becomes much more important than individual fitness, including the individual fitness by reciprocity and relatedness. In group selection, competition becomes competition among groups instead of individuals who are handicapped. Edward O. Wilson suggests [61] that for group selection, Hamilton's rule is modified to include group, (rbk + be) > c, where bk is the benefit to related individual such as kin (b in the original equation) and be is the benefit accruing to the group as a whole. He further suggests that for social insects, be > rbk. In group selection, within a group, there is no competition among individuals, and all individuals cooperate harmoniously by existential division of labor. The competition is among the groups of existential division of labor. The social interaction in group selection is harmonious social interaction, and the society is harmonious society. Harmonious society is same as Edward O. Wilson’s eusociality [62]. Harmonious society is like multicellular organism, and individuals are like cells cooperating by existential division of labor. The most important social behaviors are hyper bond derived from communication and existential division of labor and hyper detection to detect invaders and cheaters. For eusocial insects, hyper detection is a specific pheromone for each social group. For

73

human, hyper detection is theory of mind to detect what the minds of other people think. Theory of mind does not exist in other animals. Such harmonious social interaction can prevail in both males and females. With minimum internal conflict and existential division of labor, the harmonious societies of eusocial insects (bees, wasps, termites and ants) and humans dominate the earth as described by Edward O. Wilson in “The Social Conquest of Earth”[ 63 ]. Harmonious society (eusociality) with group selection was evolved from highly collectivistic society with relational selection. To evolve from a highly cooperative collectivistic society to a harmonious society with group selection is activated by handicapped individuals. Because there are many layers of evolution from individual selection to group selection, it is not possible to remove many layers of evolution to reverse group selection to purely individual selection. An example of group selection with harmonious society is ant. Ants were evolved from a highly cooperative collectivistic society with relational selection. To evolve from a highly cooperative collectivistic society to a harmonious society with group selection was activated by handicapped individuals. Ants started with a disable highly productive mother ant that produced almost all able sterile worker daughter ants, and produced rarely productive daughter and son ants. Individually, they were handicapped, and did not have long term survival and reproduction. By communication and existential division of labor as well as by following the pre-harmonious social cooperative behaviors, they survived and reproduced as a group. Gradually, the group fitness became better than the group fitness of non-handicapped individuals. The final stage in the evolution of harmonious society was hyper detection as specific pheromone for each social group to detect and eliminate cheaters and invaders. Another example is human. As described later, Ardi was evolved from highly cooperative bonobo-like ape. To evolve from a highly cooperative collectivistic society to a harmonious society was activated by the individual handicap that was awkward bipedalism. Ardi (Ardipithecus ramidus) [64], the oldest human ancestor (4.4 million year old) discovered, lived on woodland. Around 5 millions of years ago, a major climate change reduced some part of forested area in Africa to woodland where Ardi was evolved. Woodland allowed increasingly amount of food from bushes and low branches, which could be seen and reached from the ground. Chimpanzees today move on two legs most often when feeding on the ground from bushes and low branches. It suggests that the same might have occurred among the early hominids. Comparing to forest area, woodland area had scarcer food resources. According to the observation[ 65 ] in Africa, when food resources are scarce or unpredictable, chimpanzees use upright locomotion to improve food carrying efficiency. It suggests that the same might have occurred among the early hominids. For reaching food from bushes and low branches on woodland and carrying food, the original human ancestors came down to the ground from living among trees, and adopted bipedalism as the way to move on the ground. However, Ardi’s foot was primitive with an opposable big toe that could not provide a push needed for efficient bipedal walking. Ardi had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and Ardi had a somewhat awkward gait when on the ground. Ardi could not walk or run for long distances. (For apes, the quadrupedal knuckle-walking like gorillas, bonobos, and

74

chimpanzees was faster and better way than Ardi’s primitive awkward bipedalism to move on the ground.) Without many big trees to escape to as in forest, woodland was a dangerous place, especially, for very young, very old, pregnant, and child-rearing individuals. Individually, they could not survive on the ground with such awkward bipedalism. The only way to survive with awkward bipedalism was through existential division of labor by means of the free hands from bipedalism. The free hands allowed them to carry food to a safe gathering place, such as few big trees on woodland, where they could share food together safely with very young, very old, pregnant, and child-rearing individuals. When chimpanzees today are under duress from a poor fruit season, they break up into smaller foraging units that scour the environment more thoroughly. In the same way, Ardi and the members of her social group fanned out to find food. The free hands from bipedalism also allowed Ardi to have the continuous hand gestural communication for group communication that directed continuous existential division of labor to find food and watch for predators during group forage on the ground. (Human verbal language was developed much later. Human verbal language and gestural language are in the area of the brain.) With continuous hand gestural communication, individuals in the group during group forage knew precisely all the time about the locations of food sources, predators, and the safe places to escape from predators and about the plan of division of labor as a group. Carrying food to a safe gathering place and continuous hand gestural communication during group forage strengthened existential division of labor without which individuals could not survive. Ardi’s awkward bipedalism created handicap for individuals, and improved group fitness for a cohesive social group. By communication and existential division of labor as well as by following the pre-harmonious social cooperative behaviors, the original human ancestors survived and reproduced as a group. Early human ancestors were basically bipedal bonobos whose habitat changed from forest to woodland. They lived in a society that from each according to one's ability, to each according to one's need. Otherwise, the whole hominid society would have been extinct without existential division of labor of handicapped individuals. Harmony in the original human ancestors was manifested by the absence of large sharp canine teeth for aggression and fighting, unlike any other apes. The two important traits of Ardi to distinguish Ardi from other apes are bipedalism and small canine teeth. The final stage of the evolution of human harmonious society was hyper detection as theory of mind to detect what the minds of other people think. Hyper detection is to detect cheaters and to self-examine (guilty feeling and shame). Two million years ago, human ancestors started to have elaborate tool and fire. Humans started to evolve with the usage of tool and fire by decreasing physical strength as the weakest ape and decreasing ability to eat tough raw food. (Fire was for both cooking and the protection of group at home base.) Individuals became handicapped without tool and fire that involved the cooperation of individuals in the harmonious society. Group selection became increasingly important. The most harmonious society survived from the competition of groups in group selection. The size of social group was small with about thirty people. The reason for such small size is that it was difficult to form hyper bond to bond large social group and to form hyper detection to detect cheaters in large social group. The evolution of three-level selection is as follows.

75

The Evolution of Three-Level Selection unconditional reciprocity in individual selection caring relation as the turning point beneficial relatedness in relational selection handicapped individuals as the turning point existential division of labor in group selection harmonious society

collectivistic society

individualistic society

4.1.4. The Evolution of Three-Branch Human Society

The three human social interactions (lives) are the collectivistic (yin), the individualistic (yang), and the harmonious social interactions. The collectivistic social life (interaction) represents collectivistic relation for the feminine task of upbringing of offspring. The individualistic social life represents individualistic achievement for the masculine task of attracting female mate. The harmonious social life that was derived from the unique human evolution to lower conflicts in social interactions represents harmonious cooperation. The human society with the harmonious social interaction is a highly efficient low-conflict small-group society. All people have the three social lives in different proportions. The three social interactions will be described in details later. Human history can be characterized by the progress toward the three-branch way as the balance and unity among yin, yang, and harmony. Human history can be divided into the Prehistoric Period, the Early Period, the Modern Period, and the Postmodern Period. The prehistoric hunter-gatherer society in the Prehistoric Period was the harmonious society. The harmonious social life was evolved to adapt to the small social group in the prehistoric hunter-gatherer society. In the Early Period starting from the Neolithic Revolution, the inevitable large civilized social group of the agricultural-nomad society destroyed the prehistoric harmonious small social group. As a result, the collectivistic society and the individualistic society were formed separately. In the collectivistic society, the state has the state collectivistic religion (Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Confucianism). The beneficial relation of relational (kin) selection in the collectivistic society is clearly described in the Old Testament (Judaism) of the Bible. “Go, assemble the elders of Israel and say to them, ‘The Lord, the God of your fathers—the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob —appeared to me and said: I have watched over you and have seen what has been done to you in Egypt. And I have promised to bring you up out of your misery in Egypt into the land of the

76

Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—a land flowing with milk and honey.’ (Exodus 3: 16-17) In the individualistic society, the state has the state individualism (Greek mythology and science). Greek philosopher, Socrates, described a highly individualistic life: the unexamined life is not worth living. Later, the harmonious society without the state of a large social group was formed as the harmonious religions (Christianity, Buddhism, and Daoism) to seek harmonious cooperation among people in small social groups. The existential division of labor from group selection in the harmonious society is described clearly in the New Testament (Christianity) of the Bible. But in fact God has placed the parts in the body, every one of them, just as he wanted them to be. If they were all one part, where would the body be? As it is, there are many parts, but one body. The eye cannot say to the hand, “I don’t need you!” And the head cannot say to the feet, “I don’t need you!” On the contrary, those parts of the body that seem to be weaker are indispensable, and the parts that we think are less honorable we treat with special honor. And the parts that are unpresentable are treated with special modesty, while our presentable parts need no special treatment. But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body, but that its parts should have equal concern for each other. If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored, every part rejoices with it. Now you are the body of Christ, and each one of you is a part of it. (1 Corinthians 12:18-27) In the Modern Period starting from the Renaissance for the Modern Revolution, the examples of the collectivistic and individualistic societies were the socialist society and the capitalist society, respectively. The modern mass printing and increased literacy led to communication and understanding among the three branches of human society to establish the modern three-branch society. Human history will be described in details later.

77

Human Social History the prehistoric harmonious hunter-gatherer society the Neolithic Revolution the Early Society

the individualistic society: the individualistic state + the state individualism

the collectivistic society: the collectivistic state + the state religion

the harmonious society the harmonious religion

the Modern Revolution the Modern Unified Society the collectivistic society: the collectivistic party + the partisan socialism

the individualistic society: the individualistic party + the partisan capitalism

the harmonious society the harmonious religion

4.2. The Development of Social Life

In individual selection, competition is among individuals, and the principal base of cooperation is reciprocity. The social life (interaction) of individual selection corresponds to individualistic social life for individualistic achievement in individual competition. In relational (kin) selection, competition is among individuals of various degrees of beneficial relatedness. The social life of relational selection corresponds to collectivistic social life for collectivistic welling for the related individuals who share caring relation. In group selection, there is no competition among individuals in a social group. All individuals cooperate harmoniously by existential division of labor in a society that from each according to one's ability, to each according to one's need. The social life of group selection is harmonious social life for harmonious cooperation among individuals. The human brain was evolved to accommodate all three selections. Individual selection prevails more in the male brain, relational selection prevails more in the female brain, and group selection prevails in both the brains of both genders. Different people have different proportions of the three selections, resulting in differences in personality. There are many personality theories. The two popular theories are the Big Five [66] and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) [67] derived from Carl Jung's personality type[68]. The five factors in the Big Five are openness to experience (appreciation for unusual ideas, imagination, and curiosity), conscientiousness (tendency to act dutifully rather spontaneously), extraversion (to seek the company of others), agreeableness (tendency to be compassionate and cooperation rather than suspicious to others), and neuroticism (a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily). These factors are also referred to as the OCEAN model of personality. MBTI includes four factors: Introvert-extrovert, sense-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving. The personality system matches these two popular personality theories.

78

4.2.1. The Five Factors in Social Life

The three-branch way consists of the yin (collectivistic), the yang (individualistic), and the harmonious social lives (interactions). The collectivistic social life represents collectivistic relation for the feminine task of upbringing of offspring. The individualistic social life represents individualistic achievement for the masculine task of attracting female mate. The harmonious social life that was derived from the unique human evolution to minimize conflicts in social interactions represents harmonious cooperation. The human society with the harmonious social life is a highly efficient low-conflict small-group society. Social life is developed by the five factors, including three gender factors and two non-gender factors. Social role (Bond-Systemization), social relationship (RelationAchievement) and social unit (Collectiveness-Individual) are developed during prenatal period and childhood for gender differentiation. Intragroup interaction (Passive-Dynamic) is developed during adolescence for the size of core social group. Social flexibility (Unyielding-Flexible) matures during early adulthood for social responsibility. The development of social life by the five factors is described in Louann Brizendine’s books, “The Female Brain”[69] and “The Male Brain,”[70]. All five factors are listed in the table below, and compare them with the factors in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five personality theories. The Five Factors in Social Life

Gender factors social role social relation social unit Non-gender factors intragroup interaction social flexibility

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

bond (B) systemization (S) relation (R) achievement (A) collectiveness (C)

a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T) a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T) intuition (N)

Agreeable (A) Neuroticism (N)

individual (I)

sense (S)

Consciousness (C)

passive (P) dynamic (D) unyielding (U) flexible (F)

introvert (I) extrovert (E) judging (J) perceiving (P)

Extrovert (E) Openness (O)

4.2.1.1. Social Life: The Three Gender Factors

The three gender factors that differentiate male and female are social role, social relationship, and social unit. Humans have forty-six chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males. After eight weeks, all children's fetal brains appear exactly the same: female. Female is nature's default setting. Starting 8 weeks, a surge of testosterone masculinizes the fetal brain for males. For males, high testosterone is maintained from 1 month to 12 months after the birth. For females, estrogen is secreted in massive amount from age 6 to 24 months. After the surges of the hormones, the hormone levels remain low until puberty for both males and females.

79

Social Role: Bond and Systemization

social role

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

Bond (B) Systemization (S)

a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T)

Agreeable (A)

According to Simon Baron-Cohen[71], the essential difference between the female brain and the male brain is that the average female brain favors slightly empathy, and the average male brain favors slightly in non-social information. The average female brain prefers to form social bond. Instead of social bond, the average male brain finds pleasure in systematization of non-social information. The overlapping of the male brain and the female brain is significant. Social role is divided into Bond (B) for females and Systemization (S) for males. To form social bond is important for females to improve care of children and female social network which helps in various ways with the caring of children and the protection from the aggression of physically stronger males. On the other hand, systemization helps males become good hunters and increase their social status by improving spatial navigation and the making and use of tools. The differences in social role come from the hormones and the brain structures for processing information. Hormones One day old boys look longer at a mechanical mobile while girls longer at a face. This is due to the effects of fetal hormones. Simon Baron-Cohen[72] found that the higher the child's fetal testosterone, the less eye contact the child makes at 12 months of age and the slower it is to develop language at 18 months old. The same children have been followed up at 4 years old. The higher the fetal testosterone, the more social difficulty the child was having at school and the narrower the child's interests. It relates to some relationship between systemization and bond, because narrow interests could be related to systemization that needs to zero in on small details, and social bond relates to social skill. The finding shows that social bond and systemization relate to fetal testosterone. The brain structures for processing information In male brains, men have six and a half times more gray matter than women do. Gray matter is partly responsible for information processing. Women have as much as 10 times as much white matter - the part of the brain partially responsible for connecting information processing centers. Women are such good multi-taskers. In general, female brains tend to employ both sides of their brain to process information while male brains tend to rely primarily on their dominant or language side to process. As the dominant hemisphere tends to be analytic, problem solving, task oriented, detailed, and verbal this helps to explain male behavior. A female brain can also process in this manner, but the non-dominant hemisphere that can process emotion, meaning without words, empathy, tone, and disposition is also engaged by the female. Mirror neuron system (MNS) that gets in sync with others’ emotions by reading facial expressions and interpreting tone of voice and other nonverbal emotional cues is larger and more active in female brain. Temporal parietal junction (TPJ) that gets in sync with others’ cognitive problems is activated earlier and more active in the male brain.

80

Therefore, males appear to be less empathetic by less understanding of others’ emotion through MNS, and activating “cognitive problem solving” too early through TPJ. MBTI does not have specific social role. Social role for MDTI is incorporated in Feeling-Thinking. Bond is a part of Feeling for relating to people, while Systemization a part of Thinking for relating to things. Another part of Feeling-Thinking is social relationship. In the Big Five, Agreeable (tendency to be compassionate and cooperation rather than suspicious to others) corresponds to Bond. Social Relationship: Relation and Achievement

social relation

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

Relation (R) Achievement (A)

a part of feeling (F) a part of thinking (T)

Neuroticism (N)

Social relationship is divided into Relation for females and Achievement for males. For males, Achievement is a way to determine social hierarchy. Achievers are on the top of social hierarchy, and underachievers are on the bottom of social hierarchy. Men typically identify with their jobs that show their achievements. Females have flatter social hierarchy. Females are competitive, but the wellbeing of social relationship is more important than achievement. Women typically identify with their families that show the wellbeing of social relationship. Little girls like to play games of social gathering to establish the wellbeing of social relationship, while little boys like to play games of fighting to establish achievement in terms of winning. Childhood is a training period for adulthood. For male adults, to achieve the top of social hierarchy by high achievement is a way to gain wealth and power. For female adults, the wellbeing of social relationship allows the sharing of wealth and power. During mating, Achievement allows a single-minded determination to mate, while Relation allows the emergence of courtship for selecting the best option for the wellbeing of relationship. Courtship allows a female to express her preference in male suitors. During courtship, a female is hesitant to decide what to do, and heightens her sensitivity (emotion) what she likes and dislikes. A male is decisive to what to do, and reduces his sensitivity (emotion) what he likes and dislikes in order to follow what she likes and dislikes. During the courtship, a male peacock suitor shows off his beautiful feather fan to attract a female at a great personal risk to attract predators at the same time. (For a female, her personal risk occurs after the mating process to protect her unborn and born children.) In the mating process, a male and a female require opposite durations of time and opposite sensitivities. Relation and Achievement are complementary. The differences in social relationship come from the hormones and the brain structures for processing social relationship. Hormones For females, the hormones for social relationship are estrogen and oxytocin. Estrogen is sometimes all business, and sometimes an aggressive seductress. The increase of estrogen stimulates the increase in oxytocin as the “cuddle chemical” that builds bonds between mates, mother-child, and social members. When men were given a

81

single high dose of oxytocin, it increased their ability to resonance with other people’s feelings. For males, the hormones for social relationship are testosterone and vasopressin. Testosterone is dominant, aggressive, all-powerful, focused, and goal-oriented to outrank other males in social hierarchy. Vasopressin is for gallantry, monogamy, and protecting and defending turf, mate, and children. Prairie voles have strong male-female pair bonding, while montane voles are promiscuous without strong bonding male-female pair bonding. When the release of vasopressin is blocked, prairie voles become like montane voles. The brain structures for processing social relationship Women, on average, had more activity in the newer and more complex parts of the limbic system, which are involved in feelings[73] to allow women more in touch with their feelings to prioritize all possible options for the wellbeing of social relationship. The hypothalamus, which is a tiny structure at the base of the brain, regulates many basic functions, such as eating, sleeping, temperature control, and reproduction. One part of the hypothalamus responsible for sexual behavior is larger in male brains than in female brains, in human and non-human animals. The male amygdala, which also controls sexual thought, is twice as large as that of females. Dorsal premammillary nucleus (DPN) that is a primitive part of the brain for territorial defense is larger for males than females. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) that is the motivation area to produce dopamine, a neurotransmitter required for initiating movement, motivation, and reward is more active in males. Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) that is the worry-wart to weight options, detect conflicts, and motivates decisions is larger in females. In terms of personality, Achievement and Systemization identify with male, and Relation and Bond identify with female. In MBTI, the combination of Achievement and Systemization is the Thinking type (T), and the combination of Relation and Bond is the Feeling type (F). According to MBTI, The thinking type (T) has characteristics of theoretical, rational, analytical, purposive, logic, and unconcerned with people's feeling. According to MBTI, the feeling type (F) has characteristics of passionate, warm, personal, artistic, and concerned with people's feelings. The research in MBTI shows that there are much more women with F than men. In the Big Five, Context corresponds to Neuroticism (N) (a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily). The research in the Big Five also shows that more women with Agreeable (A) and Neuroticism (N) than men. Social Unit: Collectiveness and Individual

Social Unit

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

collectiveness (C) individual (I)

intuition (N) sense (S)

Consciousness (C)

For a male adult, it is possible for him to act as individual with any social connection. For a female adult, the caring of offspring forces her to think social unit of collectiveness. Social unit is divided into Collectiveness (C) for female and Individual (I) for male. 82

The differences in social unit come from the hormones and the brain structures for processing social unit. Hormones The hormones for social unit are the same as the hormones for social relationship. For females, the hormones for Collectiveness as social unit are estrogen and oxytocin. During menstrual cycle, the hormones fluctuate, and women are talkative and friendly at the peak of the estrogen-oxytocin level around the time of ovulation. Talkativeness and friendliness allow Collectiveness as social unit. Women are not talkative and friendly at the bottom of the estrogen-oxytocin level before menstruation. For males, the hormones for Individual as social unit are aggressive testosterone and defensive vasopressin. Aggression and defensiveness keep Individual as social unit. The brain structures for processing social unit Collectiveness requires multi-task to deal with many people at the same time, good communication with people, and good reading of emotion. The female brain is wired to be proficient in multi-task, good communication, and good reading emotion. In male brains, men have six and a half times more gray matter than women do. Gray matter is partly responsible for narrow information processing suitable for Individual as social unit. Women have as much as 10 times as much white matter - the part of the brain partially responsible for connecting information processing centers. Women are such good multi-taskers suitable for Collectiveness as social unit. The mothers of young children have the brains of even better multi-task. Women often excel at language-based tasks for two reasons: two brain areas that deal with language are larger in females, and females process language in both hemispheres while males favor a single brain half. Little girls are much better in verbal expression than little boys. Since women use both the left brain and the right brain that can process emotion, meaning without words, empathy, tone, and disposition, women can read emotion better than males. There are three different ways to use Individual and Collectiveness: (1) information processing, (2) focused attention, and (3) social unit. (1) Information Processing (MBTI): Some tasks, such as languages, fine motor skill, and repetitive work, require Individual for proficiency in handling small details. Some tasks, such as space orientation, unrelated new information, and the central principle among different details, require Collectiveness to make sense of broad information. These two tasks are complementary. In MBTI, Sense (S) (trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete) and Intuition (N) (trust information that is more abstract or theoretical) are about information processing. Individual corresponds to Sense (S) for the way to manipulate related details, and Collectiveness corresponds to Intuition (N) for the way to find relationship among many initially unrelated details. (2) Focused Attention (the Big Five): Focused attention is an efficient way to carry out a task. However, unfocused attention can be an advantage in an unfamiliar environment that hides many unexpected dangers. In the Big Five, Consciousness (C) is about focus in carrying out a task, corresponding to Individual for being focused. MBTI does not check Consciousness in the Big Five, while the Big Five does not check Sense-Intuition in MBTI.

83

(3) Social unit (Social Life): In human social evolution, some people place Individuals more important than social group, and some people place social group more important than Individuals. Neither MBTI nor the Big Five checks social unit. As a gender factor, social unit is not an independent factor. Social unit overlaps with social role and social relationship. Individual is equivalent to Systemization + Achievement, while Collectiveness is equivalent to Bond + Relation. Therefore, the set of Bond-Systemization and Relation-Achievement or the set of CollectivenessIndividual is sufficient to describe genders in terms social interactions. 4.2.1.2. The Non-Gender Factors

The two non-gender factors for a large social group outside of family are intragroup contact and social flexibility. Intragroup Interaction: Passive and Dynamic

intragroup interaction

Social Life

Personality Type (MBTI)

The Big Five

passive (P) dynamic (D)

introvert (I) extrovert (E)

Extrovert (E)

For primates, the basic social subgroups can be single female and her offspring, monogamous family, polyandrous family (one-female-several-male group), polygynous family (one-male-several-female group), and multimale-multifemale group (noncommittal male-female). The intragroup interaction among the subgroups can be Passive (P) or Dynamic (D). The passive intragroup interaction leads to a small core social group in a loose social group where the intragroup interaction in not active. The dynamic intragroup interaction leads to a large core social group in a tight social group. The tight social group helps to provide protection against predators. It also helps to protect scarce food resources. This is especially true for non-human primates when the food is fruit. Leaf-eaters, such as colobus monkeys and langurs, tend to form smaller loose social groupings since there is little competition for their food. The very few nocturnal species of primates are mostly small, relatively solitary hunters. In general, a social group under the condition of sufficiency resource and security leads typically to a loose social group, while a social group under the condition of insufficient resource and insecurity results typically in a tight social group. In terms of evolution, Passive and Dynamic relate to the suitable size of social group. Dynamic about social interaction allows high frequency of social contacts within a relatively large social group, while Passive about social interaction can allow only low frequency of social contacts in a relatively small social group. In a relatively poor and dangerous environment, a large social group is necessary for finding food and protection, while in a relatively rich and safe environment, a small social group exists comfortably without wasting energy and time in frequent social contacts. Since both environments exist, the coexistence of Assertiveness and Sensitivity becomes complementary. The person of Dynamic has a low dose of stimulus for each encounter of stimulation source. The person of Passive has high dose of stimulus for each encounter

84

of stimulation source. To maintain an optimal level of stimulation, the person of Dynamic requires numerous sources of stimulation sources. According to H. J. Eysenck[74] , extroverts have persistently low cortical arousal and seek stimulation. For humans and many other advanced animals, the time to involve actively in social interaction outside of family is adolescence after puberty. It will be discussed the section about group social relationship. The personality of Dynamic is the social life of extrovert as described in MBTI. On the other hand, the social life of Passive is introvert in MBTI. Introverts have persistently high arousal and avoid stimulation. Passive corresponds to Introvert (I) in MBTI, and Dynamic corresponds to Extrovert (E) in MBTI and Extrovert (E) (to seek the company of others) in the Big Five. Social Flexibility: Flexible and Unyielding Social Life Personality Type (MBTI) The Big Five Social flexibility Unyielding (U) Flexible (F)

judging (J) perceiving (P)

Openness (O)

In intragroup and intergroup social interactions, social flexibility is divided into Flexible and Unyielding. Flexible involves manipulation of several sets of information, including old sets of information, possible new sets of information, and the final set of information. The manipulation of several sets of information requires the involvement of the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex has multiple components: working memory buffers and a “central executive,” the manager that manipulates and coordinates information stored in the buffers for updating. Working memory is a “blackboard memory” operating over mere seconds. The process includes moving information into working memory, updating what is already there, and using it to select a final updating. The whole Flexible involves both the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the cortex. The prefrontal cortex has extensive connections to various parts of the brain. Neuroscientist Edmund Rolls found that the prefrontal cortex in a monkey had fired strongly immediately before the monkey changed the behavior in behavior to a changing circumstance. The prefrontal cortex allows a quick switch of strategy in behavior to a change of circumstance. The reason for such a quick switch of strategy is that the prefrontal cortex has ample free neuron network which provides the space to construct a new strategy one after another free of previous experience and memory. The people with damage in the prefrontal cortex cannot construct a new strategy one right after another. They tend to construct one strategy, and stay with the same strategy over and over again even there is a need for another strategy. They fail to select the most current strategy for their action. The people with damage in the prefrontal cortex may also persistently follow whatever command given to them without change. The damage in the prefrontal cortex is the example for the extreme case of rigidity. The prefrontal cortex matures in early adulthood just in time for parenthood which requires social responsibility to take care of family. Females have larger prefrontal cortex than males, because females have direct responsibility to take care of family. Marmosets are the 22 New World monkey species. Some Marmoset fathers are the most involved fathers, holding their newborn more than fifteen hours a day every day for one

85

month. In the brains of devoted marmoset fathers, the prefrontal cortex has more cells and connections than in the non-father marmosets. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that has expanded the most in primates. The large human prefrontal cortex provides human a very large space to construct new strategy in terms of new combination and arrangement of information. The large prefrontal cortex in human also provides an area to construct strategy overcoming salient and concrete experiences. In terms of human evolution, Flexible is particularly important for the evolution of the harmonious social life that is to minimize conflicts in social interactions. The instinct to minimize conflicts is in conflict with other instincts for reproduction and survival, so the unusual large human prefrontal cortex in comparison with other apes allows the instinct for the harmonious social life to control the instincts for reproduction and survival. It will be discussed in the section for the harmonious social life. According to MBTI, the judging type has characteristics of planned, orderly way, settled, organized, decisive, closeness, and finishing things. The judging type matches Unyielding. The perceiving type has characteristics of flexible, spontaneous, tolerant, open option, understand life rather than control it. This perceiving type matches Flexible. Flexible corresponds to Openness to experience (appreciation for unusual ideas, imagination, and curiosity) in the Big Five. 4.2.2. The Social Lives

The human social lives are the combination of the five factors in social life. 4.2.2.1. Yin Social Life and Yang Social Life in Social Group

In a small social group such as family, the feminine yin social life is the combination of Bond, Relation, and Collectiveness, resulting in collectivistic relation mostly for personal task. The masculine yang social life is the combination of Systemization, Achievement, and Individual, resulting in individualistic achievement mostly for impersonal task. Intragroup interaction (Passive-Dynamic) represents social interaction in a social group outside of family during adolescence after puberty. In terms of evolution, Passive and Dynamic relate to the suitable size of social group. Dynamic about social interaction allows high frequency of social contacts within a relatively large core social group in a tight social group, while Passive about social interaction can allow only low frequency of social contacts in a relatively small core social group in a loose social group. The loose collectivistic society and the tight collectivistic society come from the yin passive and the yin dynamic social lives, respectively, while the loose individualistic society and the tight individualistic society come from the yang passive and yang dynamic social lives, respectively. In the tight collectivistic society, the dynamic intragroup interaction produces the group wellbeing that promotes care about all members of the group and the group identity in addition to basic collectivistic relation. In the tight individualistic society, the dynamic intragroup interaction produces the group hierarchy that promotes individual strength and effort as well as the submission to the leader of group in addition to basic individualistic achievement. The tight collectivistic society is more egalitarian than the tight individualistic society.

86

In general, the tight individualistic society is under the condition of less sufficient resource and security than the tight collectivistic society. The reason is that the competitive hierarchy social structure, like an army, is more suitable to overcome the difficulties in insufficient resource and insecurity than the group wellbeing social structure. A typical example in ape is the different social structures of chimpanzees and bonobos. Bonobos live in the tropical rain forests with relatively sufficient food and security. Chimpanzees live on the tropical woodland savannah around the equatorial portion of Africa. Chimpanzees travel around 3 miles a day for food and water, whereas bonobos have hardly been noted to travel more than 1.5 or 2 miles a day. Bonobos have the female-centered collectivistic society with the group wellbeing, while chimpanzees have the male-centered individualistic society with the competitive hierarchy. A primate society has typically more than one type of society. For example, the society of female mouse lemurs found in the Island of Madagascar as described by Robert Russell[75] is the tight collectivistic society, and solitary male mouse lemurs have the loose individualistic society. Six to twenty female mouse lemurs form a lifelong social group. The basic lifelong unit of the social group is mother-daughter, so there are several units of mother-daughter from the same neighborhood. Mother and daughter have mutual growth relation. Mother takes care of daughter, and teaches her all skill of life. Daughter stays with her mother. About three to ten pairs of mother-daughter form a social group. They have a centrally located communal sleeping hollow for their daytime rest. The social group provides lifelong warmth, stimulation, shared experiences, and warning system for protection from the intrusion of predators. This form of social group increases greatly the chance of survival for female mouse lemurs. The ratio of adult females to adult males exceeds four females for every one male. For orangutans, there are the loose collectivistic society for single female and her offspring and the loose individualistic society for solitary males. For chimpanzees, male chimpanzees have the tight individualistic society, while female chimpanzees have loose individualistic society. Female bonobos, on the other hand, have the tight collectivistic society, while male bonobos have the loose individualistic society. Female bonobos as a group overpower male bonobos. From of the perspective of acquisition instead of condition, the tight individualistic society can acquire resource and security better than the tight collectivistic society, and the tight society acquire resource and security better than the loose society. On the other hand, from the perspective of the cost for individuals in terms of energy and time spend in intragroup interaction, the tight individualistic society is more costly than the tight collectivistic society, and the tight society is more costly than the loose society. The social structure of non-human primates is the balance among condition, acquisition, and cost.

87

Tight individualistic Society 4

Tight collectivistic Society 3

Loose individualistic society 2

Loose collectivistic society 1

Acquisition

1

2

3

4

Cost

4

3

2

1

Condition

1 = under most abundant resource and security condition 1 = acquire most resource and security 1 = least costly for individuals in the intragroup interaction

4.2.2.2. Group Social Relationship: Expressive and Domination

For humans and many other advanced animals, the time to involve actively in social interaction outside of family is adolescence after puberty. At puberty, there is again an explosion of hormones. For boys, there is 20-fold increase in aggressive testosterone and defensive vasopressin. For girls, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (in low amount) increase. Girls’ brains develop two years earlier than boys. Sex circuits start to develop. In terms of gender factors, social role (Bond-Systemization) and social unit (Collectiveness-Individual) remain unchanged. Social relationship (RelationAchievement) changes from family social relationship to group social relationship. When a girl actively seeks intragroup interaction, the combination of Relation and Dynamic brings about Expressive. When a boy actively seeks intragroup interaction, the combination of Achievement and Dynamic brings about Domination. Passive intragroup interaction produces low degrees of Expressive and Domination. In a social group, Expressive is to attract attention by maintaining wellbeing of relationship, appearance, and communication. The surge of estrogen can trigger teen girls' need to become sexually desirable to boys. Through Expressive, a girl can be in the in-group to attract friends, allies, and boys. Domination is to show force by achievement and posturing of strength. Flooded with testosterone, many become absorbed in sexual fantasies. Through Domination, a boy can be on the top of social hierarchy to attract allies and girls. The mature rostral cingulate zone (RCZ) that registers social approval and disapproval to avoid costly social mistakes matures makes boys highly sensitive to criticism. The social life system for yin and yang is similar to the Merrill-Reid social style theory[ 76 ], consisting of amiable, expressive, analytical, and driver social lives. Expressive and Domination correspond to expressive and driver, respectively, in the popular Merrill-Reid social style theory. Amiable and analytical in the Merrill-Reid social style theory correspond to Bond and Systemization for Passive with low degrees of Expressive and Domination. In a social group outside of family, the combination of yinyang social lives and intragroup interaction (Passive-Dynamic) results in yin passive (bond), yin dynamic (expressive), yang passive (systemization), and yang dynamic (domination), corresponding to Amiable, Expressive, Analytical, and Drive in the popular Merrill-Reid social style theory.

88

Merrill-Reid Social lives

The Yin Yang Social life

control emotion analytical

driver tell

ask amiable

yang yang passive yang dynamic systemization domination passive dynamic yin passive yin dynamic bond expressive

expressive emote

• • • •

yin

According to the Merrill-Reid theory, the four social lives are described below. Amiable: Place a high priority on friendships, close relationships, and cooperative behavior. They appear to get involved in feelings and relations between people. Expressive: Appear communicative, warm approachable and competitive. They involve other people with their feelings and thoughts. Analytical: Live life according to facts, principles, logic and consistency. Often viewed as cold and detached but appear to be cooperative in their actions as long as they can have some freedom to organize their own efforts. Driver: Give the impression that they know what they want, where they are going, and how to get there quickly.

Amiable and Expressive have yin (female type) characteristic for collectivistic relation, while Analytical and Driver have yang (male type) characteristic for individualistic achievement. Expressive and Driver are more active in interpersonal relations than Amiable and Driver. Merrill-Reid Social lives do not include harmonious cooperation. The amiable in the Merrill-Rein theory corresponds to the yin passive social life (bond) that involves and is keenly interested in the close relationship with people for collectivistic relation. The expressive corresponds to the yin dynamic social life (expressive) that involves in both close relationships with people in the basic social unit and the intragroup in terms of group wellbeing in addition to basic collectivistic relation. The analytical corresponds to the yang passive social life (systemization) that involves and is keenly interested in only systemizing task for individualistic achievement. The driver corresponds to the yang dynamic social life (domination) that involves both the close relationships with people in the basic social unit and the intragroup in terms of group hierarchy in addition to basic individualistic achievement. 4.2.3. The Harmonious Social Life

The additional social life is the harmonious social life for harmonious cooperation that exists only in human that has the much larger prefrontal cortex responsible for the high Flexible in terms of social flexibility in social life. The high Flexible allows the harmonious social life to minimize conflicts in social interaction. Consequently, the society with the harmonious social life maximizes acquisition, and minimizes the cost for individuals in the intragroup interaction, resulting in the most successful society. However, the harmonious social group size has to be small. The description and the

89

evolution of harmonious cooperation social life and harmonious society will be discussed in details in the next sections. The social life system consists of five different combinations of the factors in the personality system as in the following table. The Social Life System for Primates Social lives passive-dynamic yin (BRC ) –yang (introvert-extrovert) or (SAI) or harmonious flexible Intragroup cooperation (high interaction among basic openness) social units Yin Passive

Yang

Passive

Yin

Dynamic

Yang

Dynamic

Harmonious cooperation

flexible

society

the loose collectivistic society the loose individualistic society the tight collectivistic society the tight individualistic society the harmonious society

social life

bond

Merrill-Reid social style

Amiable

systemization

Analytical

expressive

Expressive

domination

Driver

harmony

The harmonious social life in animals consists of hyper bond and hyper detection. Hyper bond results from communication and existential division of labor. The individuals in the harmonious society are handicapped individuals who do not have long term survival and reproduction outside of a cohesive social group. It is vitally necessary for such handicapped individuals to cooperate in order to survive and reproduce. The harmonious cooperation through communication and existential division of labor overcomes individual handicaps, and results in the group fitness better than the group fitness of non-handicapped individuals without existential division of labor. Hyper detection is necessary to detect cheaters who do not cooperate through existential division of labor. For eusocial insects such as ant, termite, bee, and wasp, hyper detection is to detect specific pheromone for each social group. For human, hyper detection is theory of mind that detects what the minds of other people think. For human, hyper bond and hyper detection can work only in a small social group. Hyper bond in terms of communication and existential division of labor and hyper detection in terms of detecting cheaters become difficult in a large social group. The optimal size of harmonious society is about thirty people. The Hyper bond instinct In human, the hyper bond instinct is expressed as language. The verbal communication minimizes effectively social barrier. Human learns language quickly and early. The human brain encourages language by rewarding language. For example, the extremely hyper friendly people are the people with Williams Syndrome, which has

90

unusually cheerful talkative demeanor and ease with strangers. They have excellent verbal skills, superior and precocious musical ability, perfect pitch and a good memory for names and faces. Individuals with Williams Syndrome, however, have higher amount of fear with non-social encounter. The highly developed human language instinct indicates the highly developed human hyper bond instinct. The bond nervous system is described by Simon Baron-Cohen as empathy [77] circuit , consisting of medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) orbito-frontal cortex (OFC) frontal operculum (FO) inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) caudate anterior cingulate cortex (cACC),anterior insula (AI) right-side temporal–parietal junction (RTPJ) superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) somatosensory cortex (SMC), inferior parietal lobule (IPL) amygdala (Amyg). The hyper bond nervous system is hyperactive empathy circuit. The Hyper Detection instinct In the advanced stage of verbal communication, a verbal statement can express an event occurred elsewhere. Since the event occurs elsewhere, a listener has to determine if the expressed statement is a truth or a lie. The hyper detection instinct for detecting a lie in a verbal statement is necessary for the advanced stage of verbal communication. The hyper detection instinct is for subtle lie instead of conspicuous lie, which can be detected easily without the new hyper detection instinct. The neural network for the hyper detection instinct is called the lie detection neural network. The neural network has been described by Hiram Brownell and Richard Griffin[78] as the neural network for theory of mind. The network consists of the left brain, the right brain, and the prefrontal cortex as follows. The Lie Detection Neural Network

left brain

expression

right brain questionable statement 1

statement 1

internal alternative statement 1

prefrontal cortex statement 2

questionable statement 2

internal alternative statement 2

prefrontal cortex repeat or conclusion When a speaker expresses a statement, which describes an event occurred elsewhere, the statement is registered in the right brain and the left brain. The left brain has greater cell density and the more gray nonmyelinated fibers for short distant neural

91

messages, so the left brain can have a good copy of the statement consciously from the speaker. The right brain, in contrast, has more areas of "associative" with more white myelinated fibers for long distant neural message. In the right brain, instead of the exact copy, the statement becomes a questionable statement waiting to be verified. The questionable statement triggers automatically an internal alternative statement that relates the event occurred elsewhere. The association of the original statement and the alternative statement can be very weak. In the right brain, the questionable statement and the alternative statement coexist. The prefrontal cortex examines the coexisting statements along with other information to determine the correct statement. The correct statement is realized by the left brain consciously as the statement 2. The statement 2 can undergo lie detection again or can become the conclusion. The reverse of the lie detection neural network is the lie making neural network as below. The Lie Making Neural Network

left brain

right brain changeable statement 1

statement 1

internal alternative statement 1

prefrontal cortex statement 2

Changeable statement 2

internal alternative statement 2

prefrontal cortex expression

repeat or conclusion

In the lie making network, the statement 1 appears consciously in the left brain. The statement 1 becomes the changeable statement 1 in the right brain. The changeable statement in the right brain triggers automatically the internal alternative statement 1. The prefrontal cortex examines the coexisting statements in the right brain to determine the appropriate statement, which is realized consciously in the left brain as the statement 2. The statement 2 can undergo another lie making process or be the conclusion. The conclusion is then expressed. The lie detection neural network is for a subtle lie, and it is not needed for a conspicuous lie, which contradicts immediate observable evidences. Equally, a lie making neural network is for making a subtle lie, and it is not needed for making a conspicuous lie. Conspicuous lie can be detected and made in the left brain.

92

The combination of the lie detection neural network and the lie making neural network brings about theory of mind that a person believes that the other people have the mind to lie and to detect a lie that the person makes. Automatic triggering of alternative statements in the right brain becomes the base for holistic thinking that requires a broad and non-obvious thinking. Automatic triggering of alternative statement in the left brain becomes the logical thinking that requires a narrow sequential thinking. The principle of humor is that subtlety in humor can be figured out by the right brain, not the left brain. When the subtlety is explained completely and logically by the left brain, the humor is no longer funny. The Conscience Instinct Theory of mind derived from the hyper detection instinct is that a person believes that the other people have the mind to lie and to detect a lie that the person makes. The combination of the hyper bond instinct and theory of mind derived from the hyper detection instinct brings about the conscience instinct that is the instinct for maximum eager cooperation without lie that takes advantage of cooperation for selfish reason. People feel guilty about cooperation with lie, and feel other people should feel guilty about cooperation with lie. The conscience instinct as the self-regulation of cooperation results in maximum eager cooperation without lie, leading to harmonious cooperation (mutual empathy and empowerment). Mutual empathy is love, while mutual empowerment is diligence. The result is the harmonious social life. The people with the harmonious social life are harmonists. The society with the harmonious social life is the harmonious society. This harmonious social life as the innate goodness was described by Mencius, the second most important saint in Confucianism. Mencius said: .... Everyone has the heart of sympathy, everyone has the heart of knowing shame, everyone has the heart of respect, and everyone has the heart of knowing right and wrong. The heart of sympathy is a benevolent, the heart of knowing shame is righteousness, the heart of respect is propriety, and the heart of knowing right and wrong is wisdom. Benevolent, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom that are not injected from outside were in us originally. Only we have not comprehended them. Thus, we can get them through search, and we can lose them through abandonment....” (Mengzi, chapter: human innate goodness) Benevolent and propriety come from the hyper bond instinct of the conscience instinct, while righteousness and wisdom come from the hyper detection instinct (theory of mind) of the conscience instinct. The chart for the summary of the relationship between psychology in terms of the five factors, social life, and social structure is as below.

93

The three branch way THE FIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LIFE social role social relationship social unit intragroup Social flexibility (Relation(Bond(Collectivness- interaction (Unyielding(Passive-Dynamic) Flexible) Systemization Achievement) individual) • • •

yin (Bond-Relation-Collectivness = collectivistic relation for social bond) and yang (Systemization-Achievement-Individual = individualistic achievement for systemization) Passive – Dynamic intragroup interaction harmony = high Flexible to minimize conflicts in social interactions

SOCIAL LIFE

yin passive social life (amiable)

yin dynamic social life (expressive)

harmonious social life

yang dynamic social life (driver)

yang passive social life (analytical)

bond

expressive

hyper bond + detection

domination

systemization

SOCIAL STRUCTURES the loose the tight collectivistic collectivistic society society

the harmonious society

the tight individualistic society

the loose individualistic society

4.3. The Properties, Interactions, and Reinforcements of the Social Lives 4.3.1. The Properties of the Social Lives

As mentioned before, amiable, expressive, analytical, and driver in the MerrillReid social style theory correspond to yin passive, yin dynamic, yang passive, and yang dynamic. Amiable, expressive, analytical, and driver can be described as bond, expressive, systemization, and domination.

94

Life has many parts. Each specific part has specific enhancer and stressor. Enhancer enhances life, and stressor disrupts social life. The instinctive reaction to enhancer that enhances life is pleasure response to continue the enhancer. Stressor that disrupts enhancer is the loss of the function of certain adaptive life part. The instinctive reaction to stressor is stress response to prompt attention to stressor, so stressor can be dealt with urgently. Stress response is expressed as the feelings of stress, anxiety, and pain. For example, a woman who has a good digest system enjoys digesting food. When the damage in her digest system induces the loss of the function of her digest system, she instinctively suffers from pain that prompts attention to the damage in her digest system, so she can deal with the damage urgently. The healing of stress response is the adoption of enhancer to replace stressor. The healthy life allows all parts of life working together constructively rather than destructively. There are three social lives: yin, yang, and harmony. Each social life has specific social-life enhancer and social-life stressor. Social-life enhancer enhances social life, and social-life stressor disrupts social life. The instinctive reaction to social-life enhancer that enhances social life is social-life pleasure response to continue the social-life enhancer, so the enhancers enhance social life with pleasure response. Social-life stressor that disrupts social life causes the loss of the function of certain adaptive social life. The instinctive reaction to social-life stressor is social-life stress response to prompt attention to social-life stressor, so social-life stressor can be dealt with urgently. The symptom of social-life stress response is the feeling of stress and anxiety, so the stressors disrupt social life with stress response. The action of social-life stressor is social-life sin. The healing of social-life stress response is the adoption of social-life enhancer to replace social-life stressor. The healthy social life allows all three of social lives working together constructively rather than destructively. The social-life enhancers for adult feminine social life are bond and expressive. The instinctive reaction to bond and expressive that enhance collectivistic social life is collectivistic social-life pleasure response to continue collectivistic relation. Collectivistic social-life stressor that disrupts collectivistic social life consists of disconnection and injustice that cause the losses of bond and expressive, respectively. The instinctive reaction to collectivistic social-life stressor is collectivistic social-life stress response, consisting of despair and paranoid to prompt attention to the social-life stressors of disconnection and injustice, respectively, so the social-life stressors can be dealt with urgently. The action of collectivistic social-life stressor is collectivistic social-life sin, consisting of disconnection sin and injustice sin. The fundamental social unit is collectivistic social group. A person who has the collectivistic social life is a collectivistic lifer. For example, a woman who is a collectivistic lifer enjoys collectivistic relation. When injustice induces the loss of her collectivistic relation, she suffers instinctively from paranoid that prompt attention to the injustice, so she can deal with the injustice immediately. When she induces injustice, she commits injustice sin that causes paranoid. The social-life enhancers for adult masculine social life are systemization and domination. The instinctive reaction to systemization and domination that enhance individualistic social life is individualistic social-life pleasure response to continue individualistic achievement. Individualistic social-life stressor that disrupts individualistic social life consists of disorganization and repression that cause the losses of systemization and domination, respectively. The instinctive reaction to individualistic

95

social-life stressor is individualistic social-life stress response, consisting of anxiety and unfulfillment to prompt attention to the social-life stressors of disorganization and repression, respectively, so the social-life stressors can be dealt with urgently. The action of individualistic social-life stressor is individualistic social-life sin, consisting of disorganization sin and repression sin. A person who has the individualistic social life is an individualistic lifer. For example, a man who is an individualistic lifer enjoys individualistic achievement. When repression induces his loss of individualistic achievement, he suffers instinctively from unfulfillment that prompts attention to the repression, so he can deals with the repression urgently. When he induces repression, he commits repression sin that causes unfulfillment. The social-life enhancer for harmonious social life is harmonious cooperation that lowers the conflicts in social interaction produces highly productive cooperation among all individuals in only a small social group, and exists only in human. Harmonious cooperation consists of hyper bond and hyper detection. (Hyper detection as theory of mind is the enhancer for the detection of lie within both self and other people.) The instinctive reaction to hyper bond and hyper detection that enhance harmonious cooperation is harmonious social-life pleasure response to continue harmonious cooperation. Harmonious social-life stressor that disrupts harmonious social-life enhancer consists of estrangement and enlargement that cause the losses of hyper bond and hyper detection, respectively. Enlargement from a small social group to a large social group causes the disruption of hyper detection, because in a large social group, a cheater is more difficult to be detected, and is able to avoid the repetition of cheating to the same person. The instinctive reaction to harmonious social-life stressor is harmonious social-life stress response, as alienation to prompt attention to the social-life stressors of estrangement and enlargement, respectively, so the social-life stressors can be dealt with urgently. The actions of estrangement and enlargement are estrangement sin and enlargement sin that cause the social-life stress responses of alienation. A person who has the harmonious social life is a harmonious lifer. For example, a man who is a harmonious lifer enjoys harmonious cooperation. When estrangement and enlargement induce the loss of his harmonious cooperation, he suffers instinctively from alienation that prompts attention to the estrangement and enlargement, so he can deal with the estrangement and enlargement urgently. When he induces estrangement and enlargement, he commits estrangement sin and enlargement sin that cause alienation. Alienation is not a typical mental disorder. Alienation is an existential problem for an individual to exist in a large and non-harmonious society. There is no distinctive defensive survival instinct as the mental overreaction to the stressors of estrangement and enlargement. The reaction is simply changing from the harmonious social life to the yin or yang social life. The table below describes all three social lives.

96

The Three Social Lives

Symbol Social-life enhancer Social-life enhancer components Social-life stressor Sin Stress response Fundamental Social Unit Lifer (Person) Society

Yin (Collectivistic) Social Life

Yang (Individualistic) Social Life

Harmonious Social Life

collectivistic relation bond expressive disconnection injustice disconnection sin injustice sin despair paranoid collectivistic social group collectivistic collectivistic

individualistic achievement systemization domination disorganization repression disorganization sin repression sin anxiety unfulfillment individual

harmonious cooperation hyper bond hyper detection estrangement enlargement estrangement sin enlargement sin

individualistic individualistic

harmonious harmonious

alienation one-to-one relation

Different social lives have different rules, so social-life sin as the violation of rules from a different society is inevitable. To all pigs, eating pork is a sin, and to most humans, eating pork is not a sin. The human society has different social lives (collectivistic, individualistic, and harmonious social lives), which have different rules, so social-life sins are inevitable. The severity of social-life sins decreases with increasing communication and checks and balances among social lives. 4.3.2. The Interactions of Social Lives

A dominated society has only one dominant social life. There are the collectivistic dominant society, the individualistic dominant society, and the harmonious dominant society. In the collectivistic dominant society, bond and expressive are the top priorities, disconnection and injustice are forbidden. Human relation is much more important than systemizing legal laws. Individual prominence is repressed. External appropriate behave is much more important than inner harmony. The society is a large social group. Disorganization, repression, estrangement, and enlargement of social group are allowed sins. Anxiety, unfulfillment, estrangement, and alienation are acceptable stress responses. The collectivistic dominant society includes Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Confucianism, and socialism. In the individualistic dominant society, systemization and domination are the top priorities, and disorganization and repression are forbidden. Individual pursuit of perfection and domination can override social bonds. The hierarchy based on individualistic achievement is much more important than equality. The pursuit of perfection is more important than inner harmony. The society is a large social group. Disconnection, injustice, estrangement, and enlargement of social group are allowed sins. Despair, paranoid, and alienation are acceptable stress responses. The individualistic dominant society includes Classical Greek Society and capitalism. In the harmonious dominant society, hyper bond and hyper detection are the top priorities, and estrangement and enlargement of basic social group are forbidden.

97

Unrestricted by social bond, individual can move readily from one small social group to another small social group. A small harmonious social group does not need moral code for justice, does not need systemization for the improvement of living standard, and does not domination to establish hierarchy. Disconnection, injustice, disorganization, and repression are allowed sins. Despair, paranoid, anxiety, and unfulfillment are acceptable stress responses. The harmonious dominant society includes Christianity, Buddhism, and Daoism. A peaceful unified multi-social life society consisting of the collectivistic, individualistic, and harmonious social lives has the balanced social life. In the balanced social life, collectivistic relation is not violated severely by individualistic achievement and harmonious cooperation, individualistic achievement is not repressed severely by collectivistic relation and harmonious cooperation, and harmonious cooperation is not disharmonized severely by collectivistic relation and individualistic achievement. To have a balanced social life, a peaceful society must have a continuous checks and balances process, so all social lives have acceptable existences. An unbalanced multi-social life society does not have good checks and balances process to find acceptable existences for all social lives. For example, in traditional marriage, husband is responsible for the individualistic life for individualistic achievement to achieve social status and wealth, while wife is responsible for the collectivistic relation of family. In a balanced marriage, the individualistic achievement by husband is not repressed by the collectivistic relation by wife, while the collectivistic relation by wife is not violated by the individualistic achievement by husband. A balanced marriage requires continuous checks and balances, so both collectivistic life and individualistic life have acceptable existences in marriage. In an unbalanced family, the individualistic achievement by husband is repressed by the collectivistic relation by wife, and/or the collectivistic relation by wife is violated by the individualistic achievement by husband. An unbalanced marriage does not have good checks and balances process to find acceptable existences for both collectivistic life and individualistic life. A balanced marriage has good checks and balances to work out acceptable effort, time, and risk for collectivistic relation and individualistic achievement, while an unbalanced marriage does not have good checks and balances. In dysfunctional marriage, one or both of the social lives are dysfunctional. 4.3.3. The Enforcements of the Social Lives

Healthy society and individual in terms of social life enforce the adoption of social-life enhancer and the avoidance of social-life stressor. The enforcement originates from the memories of pleasure response and stress response, social reward and punishment, and faith. The memory of social-life pleasure response enforces the adoption of enhancer, while the memory of social-life stress response enforces the avoidance of stressor. The process can be manifested by the memories of extreme social-life stress response and pleasure response. The memory of extreme social-life stress response leads to posttraumatic stress stressor (PTSD), involving painful persistent re-experience of traumatic stress response, such as extreme paranoid, despair, repression, anxiety, and alienation. The extreme stress responses of paranoid, despair, repression, anxiety, and alienation are the sudden extreme damages to collectivistic relation, individualistic achievement, and harmonious cooperation, respectively, by death or violence. The re-experience is triggered by a similar experience to make the

98

memory of the original painful traumatic experience even more painful. The reexperiencing traumatic experiencing brings about extreme avoidance and hyper-sensitivity. In PTSD, the re-experience of extreme stress response greatly damages the ability for normal life. The memory of normal social-life stress response enforces the avoidance of social-life stressor without damaging the ability for normal life. The memory of extreme social-life pleasure response brings about post peak experience enhancer (PPEF), involving happy persistent re-experiencing of social-life pleasure response, such as extreme collectivistic relation, individualistic achievement, and harmonious cooperation. Peak experiences are described by American psychologist and philosopher Abraham H. Maslow[79] as especially joyous and exciting moments in life, involving sudden feelings of intense pleasure response and well-being, wonder, and awe. The peak experience of collectivistic relation is the pleasure response for sudden extraordinary wellbeing in social togetherness. The peak experience of individualistic achievement is the pleasure response for sudden extraordinary individualistic achievement far above ordinary individualistic achievement. The peak experience of harmonious cooperation is the social pleasure response for sudden extraordinary mutual empathy and empowerment or the personal pleasure response for the sudden extraordinary sense of unity without self. The re-experience is triggered by a similar experience to make the memory of the happy original peak experience even happier. In PPEF, the re-experience of peak experience enforces the active participation and the confidence in social-life enhancer. The memories of many experiences of normal social-life pleasure response can also enforce the active participation and the confidence in social-life enhancer. Society rewards enhancer as virtue, and punishes stressor as sin. The collectivistic society rewards collectivistic relation, and punishes injustice and disconnection as sins. The individualistic society rewards individualistic achievement as virtue, and punishes repression and disorganization as sins. The harmonious society rewards harmonious cooperation as virtue, and punishes enlargement and estrangement as sins. As soon as a specific social life is established by the combination of memory and social enforcement, the faith in the social life can continue the enforcement even without the successful social life. Since social life enhanced by enhancer is often interrupted, the faith in a specific social life is important to continue the social life. 4.4. Human Evolution

Diverging from the peacemaking bonobo-like common ancestor, the early human ancestors were basically bipedal bonobos whose habitat changed from hospitable forest to hospitable woodland. Living in hospitable woodland, early human ancestors were bipedal and harmonious. Feeding on fruits from bushes and low branches forced Ardi to walk on two legs often. When a group fanned out to find food, the continuous gestural communication from bipedal early human ancestors’ free hands coordinated individuals

99

effectively. The improvement of gestural communication led eventually to the emergence of the harmonious social life as indicated by the absence of large sharp canine teeth for fighting. About 14 millions years ago, the progressively drier and cooler climate resulted in the decrease of tree-density in forest. The decrease of tree-density decreased food resource and security for apes. The original ape was the orangutan-like common ancestor with the best food resource and security in dense forest. Orangutan is the solitary ape that has the loose social structure without the support of tight social group. The slight decrease of tree-density in forest by climate change caused the first split from the orangutan-like common ancestor to produce the bonobo-like common ancestor with the second best food resource and security. It needed the support of the matriarch collectivistic society for collectivistic relation to survive. Bonobo is the peacemaking ape without the strong need to fight for food. The further decrease in tree-density in some forests to become diverse forests caused the second split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce gorilla. Gorilla is the loyal ape that has the patriarch collectivistic society for collectivistic relation with strong loyalty to their dominatingly large male leader for protection to survive. The appearance of woodland caused the third split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce the bipedal human ancestor, who used free hands for the improvement in gestural communication to survive in hospitable woodland. The improvement in communication led eventually to the harmonious social life with the harmonious society. Human is the harmonious ape. Near the central Africa, the inhospitable woodland from further decrease in tree-density caused the fourth split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce chimpanzee. Chimpanzee is the aggressive ape that has the patriarch individualistic society for individualistic achievement with individual and group aggression to survive in inhospitable woodland. During hominid evolution, the usage of tools and the successful harmonious society based on the conscience instinct (the combination of hyper bond and hyper detection) allowed the Homo to become highly successful species adaptable in diverse environments. The prehistoric human society was the harmonious hunter-gatherer society.

100

Ape Evolution orangutan

gorilla chimpanzee

bonobo

human

2 Ma 6 Ma

Ardi

7 Ma bonobo-like common ancestor

13 Ma(million years ago)

orangutan-like common ancestor

101

Hominid Evolution: walking hands (bonobo-like common ancestor) bipedalism

free hands for gestural language as hyper bond (non-Homo hominids 6-1 Ma) manipulative hands for tool (Homo habilis 2.2-1.6 Ma) speech for theory of mind (Homo erectus 1.9-0.1 Ma) hyper bond

theory of mind (hyper detection instinct) conscience instinct extra prefrontal cortex

enhanced conscience instinct (Homo sapiens < 0.2 Ma) conscience intelligence

conscience will 102

4.4.1. Ape Evolution

Early apes evolved during the Miocene epoch from 25 Ma (million years ago) to 5 Ma. Miocene warming began 21 Ma allowed tropical forests to prevail in Eurasia and Africa. The early ancestors of apes migrated to Eurasia from Africa about 17 Ma. Apes evolved in Eurasia. Miocene warming continued until 14 Ma, when global temperatures took a sharp drop. As a result, some apes migrated south into tropical forests in Africa. By 8 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply once again. Consequently, apes became extinct except in tropical forests in Southeast Asia and Africa. In Africa, the climate got even cooler and dryer and the forest patches shrank. By the end of the Miocene, East Africa had become mostly open grassland. About 2 Ma, a significant drying occurred in Africa. Cooling and drying cause the change in the density and type of trees in forest and the changes from forest to woodland, grassland, and desert. The difference between woodland and dense forest is in the canopy. Forest trees are tall and dense enough to hide most of the sky, while woodland trees are sparse enough for the sky to be visible and grass and brush to grow on the ground. Grassland has tall grass with few trees. Eventually, tropical forests are limited to a tight band around the equator. The original apes were arboreal animals in dense forest, adapting to life in the trees in dense forest that provided both food resource and security. Different apes evolved to adapt to the changes in environments. The family Hominidae (great apes) includes five apes: orangutans, bonobos, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. The most recent common ancestor of the Hominidae lived some 13 Ma, when the ancestors of the orangutans by the analysis of DNA diverged from the ancestors of the other four apes, which are in the subfamily Homininae. About 7 Ma, the ancestors of gorillas diverged from the ancestors of the three other apes, which are in the tribe Hominin. About 6 Ma, the ancestors of humans diverged from the other two apes, which are in the genus Pan. About 2 Ma, bonobos and chimpanzees diverged. The divergences in DNA coincide with the significant changes in climate. 4.4.1.1. The Original Ape: the solitary ape

The original great ape existed before 13 Ma, when the warm and wet climate allowed tropical forest to prevail in Eurasia. It was the orangutan-like common ancestor with the best food resource and security from dense forest. The orangutan-like common ancestor did not migrate to Africa. Apes evolved a new way of moving around in the trees – brachiation that is arm-over-arm swinging from one branch to another. Brachiation evolved as a way to get at fruits that were at the very tips of branches. This allows apes to get at fruits that a monkey cannot reach. Apes have larger brains than monkeys. Gestural communication is virtually limited to great apes. As the orangutan-like common ancestor, current orangutan is the solitary ape that has the loose social structure without the need of the support of tight social group. They are currently found only in rainforests on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Orangutan is the largest arboreal animals in forest, adapting to life in the trees in dense forest that provides both food resource and security. Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes, spending nearly all of their time in the trees. Every night they fashion sleeping nests from branches and foliage. They are more solitary than other apes; males and females generally

103

come together only to mate. There is significant sexual dimorphism. Orangutans primarily eat fruit. 4.4.1.2. The First Split: the peacemaking ape

The Miocene warming began 21 Ma and continued until 14 Ma, when global temperatures took a sharp drop. About 13 Ma, the slight decrease in of tree-density in forest by climate change caused the first split from the orangutan-like common ancestor to produce the bonobo-like common ancestor with the second best food resource and security. It was necessary to have the support of social group for the procurement of food and for protection in this environment. With the support of social group, food and security posted no serious problems without the strong need to fight for food in a social group. As a result, as the bonobo-like common ancestor, bonobo is the peacemaking ape that has the matriarch collectivistic society for collectivistic relation. Bonobos are now found in the wild only in the dense tropical forest south of the Congo River. Genetically modern bonobo is exactly as close to modern human as modern chimpanzee. For peacemaking, bonobo has “hyper friendliness” as shown in the frequent sexual activities among all members of bonobo social group[80]. The sexual activities can be between couples regardless of ages and genders. They do sexual contacts to greet, to avoid social conflicts, and to reconcile after conflicts. The hyper friendly act minimizes the social barrier, and enhances social cooperation. For example, bonobos engage in sexual activities before eating to avoid conflict during eating. On the other hand, De Waal pointed out that 'sex for peace' precisely because bonobos have plenty of conflicts. There would obviously be no need for peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony. Bonobo walks upright approximately 25% of the time during ground locomotion. At the time of the split, its quadrupedal ground locomotion was orangutan-like forelimb fist or palm walking instead of the predominant use of knuckles developed later as characteristic of gorillas and the chimpanzees. Like human, bonobo has relatively small canines. These physical characteristics and its posture, give bonobo an appearance more closely resembling humans than that of chimpanzee. 4.4.1.3. The Second Split: the loyal ape

By 8 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply once again. The further decrease in treedensity in some forests by further temperature drop caused the second split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce gorilla in diverse forests in about 7 Ma. In some regions in Africa, dense forest turned into diverse forest with various tree-densities. Gorilla is the loyal ape that has the patriarch collectivistic society for collectivistic relation with strong loyalty to the dominatingly large male leader for protection. Gorillas are the largest of the living primates. Instead of relying trees for protection, gorillas rely on their physical sizes for protection. Relying on physical size for protection was adaptable to diverse forests with various tree-densities. Large gorillas could not climb trees easily, so gorillas were ground-dwelling. Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking. Gorillas are shy and peaceful vegetarians. Diverging from the bonobo-like common ancestors, early gorillas ancestors were basically the dominatingly large bonobos. Gorillas today live in tropical or subtropical forests in different parts of Africa.

104

In social group, a silverback is the strong, dominant troop leader. He typically leads a troop (group size ranges from 5 to 30) and is in the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop. All members of a social group are loyal to the dominatingly large silverback. 4.4.1.4. The Third Split: the harmonious ape

Ardi (Ardipithecus ramidus) [81], the oldest human ancestor (4.4 million year old) discovered, lived on woodland. Similar to other apes, Ardi's skull encased a small brain – 300 to 350 cc. Around 5 millions of years ago, a major climate change reduced some part of forested area in Africa to woodland where Ardi was evolved. She lived in grassy woodland with patches of denser forest and freshwater springs. The appearance of woodland caused the third split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce the bipedal human ancestor. Human was the harmonious ape with the harmonious society. Woodland allowed increasingly amount of food from bushes and low branches, which could be seen and reached from the ground. Chimpanzees today move on two legs most often when feeding on the ground from bushes and low branches. It suggests that the same might have occurred among the early hominids. Comparing to forest area, woodland area had scarcer food resources. According to the observation[82] in Africa, when food resources are scarce or unpredictable, chimpanzees use upright locomotion to improve food carrying efficiency. It suggests that the same might have occurred among the early hominids. For reaching food from low branches on woodland and to carry food, the original human ancestors came down to the ground from living among trees, and adopted bipedalism as the way to move on the ground. However, Ardi’s foot was primitive with an opposable big toe that could not provide a push needed for efficient bipedal walking. Ardi had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and Ardi had a somewhat awkward gait when on the ground. Ardi could not walk or run for long distances. (For apes, the quadrupedal knuckle-walking like gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees was faster and better way than Ardi’s primitive awkward bipedalism to move on the ground.) Without many big trees to escape to as in forest, woodland was a dangerous place, especially, for very young, very old, and pregnant individuals. Individually, they could not survive on the ground with such awkward bipedalism. The only way to survive with awkward bipedalism was through existential division of labor by means of the free hands from bipedalism. The free hands allowed them to carry food to a safe gathering place, such as few big trees on woodland, where they could share food together safely, with very young, very old, and pregnant individuals. When chimpanzees today are under duress from a poor fruit season, they break up into smaller foraging units that scour the environment more thoroughly. In the same way, Ardi and the members of her social group fanned out to find food. The free hands from bipedalism also allowed Ardi to have the continuous hand gestural communication for group communication that directed continuous existential division of labor to find food and watch for predators during group forage on the ground. (Human verbal language was developed much later. Human verbal language and gestural language are in the area of the brain.) With continuous hand gestural communication, individuals in the group during group forage

105

knew precisely all the time about the locations of food sources, predators, and the safe places to escape from predators and about the plan of division of labor as a group. Carrying food to a safe gathering place and continuous hand gestural communication during group forage strengthened existential division of labor without which individuals could not survive. Ardi’s awkward bipedalism created handicap for individuals, and improved group fitness for a cohesive social group. By communication and existential division of labor as well as by following the pre-harmonious social cooperative behaviors, the original human ancestors survived and reproduced as a group. Early human ancestors were basically bipedal bonobos whose habitat changed from forest to woodland. They lived in a society that from each according to one's ability, to each according to one's need. Otherwise, the whole hominid society would have been extinct without existential division of labor of handicapped individuals. Harmony in the original human ancestors was manifested by the absence of large sharp canine teeth for aggression and fighting, unlike any other apes. The two important traits of Ardi to distinguish Ardi from other apes are bipedalism and small canine teeth. The final stage of the evolution of human harmonious society was hyper detection as theory of mind to detect what the minds of other people think. Hyper detection is to detect cheaters and to self-examine (guilty feeling and shame). They climbed trees mostly at night, for high branch fruits, and for safety. The tree-density was high enough, and the gestural communication and division of labor were good enough, so they had access to trees to escape from predators, and did not need the rapid movement of quadrupedal locomotion, such as knuckle walking, to escape from predators. Bipedalism might possibly happen in a number of locations with similar woodland environment. The continuous gestural communication allowed improved explanation gestural communication for improving mutual understanding and the improved cooperative gestural communication for establishing elaborate social rules. The improvement in communication reduced conflicts by the improvement of understanding among them and the establishment of some elaborate social rules. The primitive gestural communication emerged first involved the primitive natural gestures of pointing and pantomiming. Such primitive gestural communication did not require the large expansion of the brain. What robust vocal/facial/gestural communication needed was pleasure connecting with vocal/facial/gestural communication. For bonobos, hyper friendliness for peacemaking is expressed by causal sexual contact that gives them pleasure. Unlike other apes, humans, including babies, enjoy gestural/facial/vocal communication, such as dancing, singing, and talking. The pleasurable vocal/facial/gestural communication of early human ancestors gradually replaced pleasurable casual sexual contact of the bonobo-like common ancestors as pleasurable way to bond with one another. By the time of Ardi, pleasurable causal sexual contact disappeared, and replaced by pleasurable vocal/facial/gestural communication. Instead of group sex for peacemaking, human ancestors, like Ardi, had group dancing and group singing for peacemaking. The disappearance of casual sexual contact allowed human ancestors to develop monogamy for pair bonding. Communication became not only useful but also pleasurable. Communication became frequent. Communication became sharing information both related and unrelated physical needs. The human ancestors, like Ardi, evolved from the merely peacemaking bonobo-like common

106

ancestors to the harmonious hominids as shown in the absence of large sharp canine teeth (fangs) for fighting. Other apes, particularly males, have thick, projecting, sharp canines that they use for displays of aggression and as weapons to defend themselves. Such harmonious coherent social group improved its ability to find and collect food and to fend off predators, resulting in improved chance for survival in woodland. The human ancestors inherited good gestural communication from the bonobolike common ancestors as shown by Amy Pollick and Frans de Waal in “Ape Gestures and Language Evolution”[ 83 ]. Gestural communication is virtually limited to the Hominoidea (great apes). Chimpanzees beg other chimpanzees for food by approaching them with open hands. Gestures seem less closely tied to specific emotions, hence they permit greater cortical control than other forms of communication. They compared bonobos and chimpanzees. They found that facial/vocal displays were used very similarly by both ape species, but bonobos showed greater flexibility in gestural communication than chimpanzees and were also the only species in which multimodal communication (i.e., combinations of gestures and facial/vocal signals) added to behavioral impact on the recipient. The bonobos' variable gestural repertoire and high responsiveness to combinatorial signaling indicate that the human ancestors came from the bonobo-like common ancestors. The development of free hands for the improvement of gestural communication was a natural extension of the gestural communication from the bonobo-like common ancestors. The connection between human communication and human cooperative infrastructure is shown by Michael Tomasello in “Origins of Human Communication” [84] Tomasello proposes that the most fundamental aspects of uniquely human communication are biological adaptations for cooperative social interaction. The cooperative infrastructure in human hominid ancestors was inherited from the bonobolike common ancestors who were the peacemaking apes. Gestural communication by free hands from bipedalism improved greatly such cooperative infrastructure. No other animals develop such human-like communication. Gestural communication served as a stepping stone for the evolution of human symbolic communication. Gesture production in humans is so automatic that it is relatively immune to audience effects: blind subjects gesture at equal rates as sighted subjects to a known blind audience. Gestural communication as gestural language is the predecessor of spoken language[85]. The generally right-handed dominant hominid caused the development of the gestural language area (Broca’s area) in the left-brain that eventually developed into the part for the spoken language later. In the study by Hickok, Bellugi and Klima[86], the impairment for sign language patients was identical with that of speaking patients. At the hemispheric level the neural organization of sign language is indistinguishable from that of spoken language. Gorillas did not develop bipedalism, because instead of searching for high quality food, such as fruits, gorillas today eat abundant low quality foods such as leaves, when high quality is not readily available. Gorillas today do not break up into smaller foraging units that scour the environment more thoroughly. As seen later, chimpanzees did not develop bipedalism, because they needed knuckle walking to escape from predators and for the large foraging ranges in inhospitable woodland as the initial habitat. In inhospitable woodland, bipedal walking initially was not fast enough to escape from predators, and initially was not efficient enough for the large foraging ranges to survive.

107

4.4.1.5. The Fourth Split: the aggressive ape

Near the central Africa about 2 million years ago, the inhospitable woodland from the further decrease in tree-density caused the fourth split from the bonobo-like common ancestor to produce chimpanzee. Chimpanzee is the aggressive ape that has the patriarch individualistic society with individual and group aggression to survive in inhospitable woodland. The initial tree-density in the initial habitat of chimpanzees was the lowest among the five apes. Anatomical differences between chimpanzee and bonobo are slight, but in sexual and social behaviors there are marked differences. Bonobos live in the tropical rain forests with relatively sufficient food and security. Chimpanzees live in the tropical woodland savannah around the equatorial portion of Africa. Chimpanzees travel around 3 miles a day for food and water, whereas bonobos have hardly been noted to travel more than 1.5 or 2 miles a day. Individual and group aggression of male chimpanzees became the mean to survive in such inhospitable woodland. Chimpanzees cannot abandon quadrupedal locomotion and its speed advantages because of their large foraging ranges and susceptibility to predation. Diverging from the bonobo-like common ancestors, early chimpanzee ancestors were basically the aggressive bonobos whose habitat changed from hospitable forest to inhospitable woodland. Chimpanzees have the patriarch individualistic society with the competitive hierarchy. Primatologist Frans de Waal described male chimpanzees in Chimpanzee Politics[ 87 ]. The male chimpanzees fight to be the number one. A leader is under constant challenge. A leader is deposed after the other male chimpanzees have formed alliance and ganged up against the leader. In the wild, male chimpanzees are extraordinarily hostile to males from outside of the social group. Male patrolling chimpanzees attack and often kill the neighboring male chimpanzee outsider who might be traveling alone. On the contrary, bonobo males or females prefer sexual contact over violent confrontation with outsiders. In summary, the decrease of tree-density of dense forest in Africa by climate change generated the environments for ape evolution. The decrease of tree-density decreased food resource and security for apes. The orangutan-like common ancestors had the best food resource and security in dense forest. The bonobo-like common ancestors compensated the decreased food resource and security from the decreased treedensity with the support of the peacemaking social group. Gorilla compensated the further decreased food resource and security by following dominatingly large male leader for protection. Humans compensated the further decreased food resource and security with improved gestural communication by free hands from bipedalism. Chimpanzees compensated the further decreased food resource and security with individual and group aggression of male chimpanzees. Each species of apes made its initial niche divergence from the previous species to fit its initial environment. Each species stays the same, continues to evolve, diverges, or becomes extinct in the subsequent environment.

108

The diagram and the table of ape evolution and social structures are listed below.

Ape Evolution and Social Structures orangutan-like common ancestor (loose society) Family Hominidae 13 million years ago (Ma)

orangutan (loose society) bonobo-like common ancestor (matriarch

Subfamily Homininae

collectivistic)

Tribe Hominini

7 Ma

gorilla (patriarch collectivistic society) human (harmonious society)

Genus Pan

6 Ma 2 Ma

chimpanzee (patriarch individualistic society) bonobo (matriarch collectivistic society) Ape Evolution History

Orangutan Bonobo Gorilla Human Chimpanzee

the original ape (> 13 Ma) the first split ( 13 Ma) the second split ( 7 Ma) the third split (6 Ma) the fourth split (2 Ma)

Initial Habitat (1 = best food resource and security) dense forest/tree (1) dense forest/tree (2) diverse forest/ground (3) hospitable woodland/ground (4) Inhospitable woodland/tree (5)

Characteristic

Social Structure

the solitary ape

loose society

the peacemaking ape the loyal ape

matriarch collectivistic society patriarch collectivistic society harmonious society

the harmonious ape the aggressive ape

patriarch individualistic society

4.4.2. Hominid Evolution

Human is Homo sapiens, which is the only non-extinct species of hominids. Hominid evolution started from woodland in Africa. From 6 Ma to 2 Ma, the drier and cooler climate progressed slowly. By around 6 Ma to 2 Ma in Africa, an apelike species had evolved with two important traits that distinguished it from apes: (1) bipedalism and (2) small canine teeth. The two most complete skeletons for early hominids are Ardi and Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) [88 ]. Ardi (45% complete skeleton) is estimated to be 4.4 million years ago. (Similar to other apes, Ardi's skull encased a small brain – 300 to 350 cc.) She lived in grassy woodland with patches of denser forest and freshwater springs. The further decrease in temperature and rain decreased food resource and security as shown in Lucy (40% complete skeleton) in 3.2 million years ago. (The brain size is 450-530cc.) The environmental pressure led to the small expansion of the brain as shown in the larger brain in Lucy than in Ardi.

109

After about 2.8 Ma, in East Africa east of the African Rift System, the environment pressure came from the climate fluctuation and significant drying. During this period, parts of forest and woodland turned to grassland. Without the protection of forest, the bipedal hominid in the open grassland faced predators from both large dangerous animals [ 89 ] and intense inter-group competition. The climate fluctuation and open grassland forced hominids to evolve quickly in terms of the brain size to thrive in diverse environments including forests, woodlands, and grassland savannas. It involved the usage of tools and the emergence of the highly efficient cooperative harmonious society based on the conscience instinct as the combination of hyper bond and theory of mind for social cooperation. The usage of tools and the highly efficient cooperative harmonious society allowed human to thrive in diverse environments. With bipedalism, the walking hands turned into free hands that allowed the potential for many usages. For the Australopithecines, the usage is gestural language to improve communication for survival as discussed previously. The brain size was only slightly larger than other apes. In the next 2 million years, the Australopithecine evolved into the Homo with larger brain than its predecessor. The next most significant gradual change of hominid evolution is the conversion of free hands into manipulative hands with precision grip resulting in the acquisition of tool-use and making. The most primitive stone tool-use hominid family is Homo habilis in about 2.2-1.6 Ma. (The brain size is 750-850cc.) Because tool-use and making required thinking and precision manipulation, the competitive advantage of the tooluse and making resulted in the rapid expansion of the brain for tool-use and making. The use of tools allowed hominids to hunt and butcher animals which provided the nutrients for the brain. Eventually, (1.9-0.1 Ma), Homo erectus had not only perfected stone tools considerably but had also learned how to control and use fire. (Homo habilis and Homo erectus coexisted. The brain size is 1000-1250 cc.) The hearth for fire and the gathering for cooperative tool manufacture promoted the development of social organization. The competitive advantage of social organization resulted in the rapid development of spoken language to aid gestural language in the same area of the brain. The bone structures of Homo erectus showed signs for commanding speech. For speech, Homo erectus had a larynx with an equivalent position to that of an 8-year-old modern child [90]. Both brain-size and the presence of the Broca's area also support the use of articulate language[91]. The competitive advantage of the spoken language led to theory of mind as mentioned before. Ardi already had vocal/facial/gestural communication as hyper bond. The combination of hyper bond and theory of mind from theory of mind led to the conscience instinct that is maximum eager cooperation without lie. The social life is the harmonious social life in the harmonious society. Homo erectus was probably the first hominid to live in small, familiar band-societies similar to modern hunter-gatherer bandsocieties[92]. Humans started to evolve with the usage of tool and fire by decreasing physical strength and decreasing ability to eat tough raw food. Individuals became handicapped without tool and fire that involved the cooperation of individuals in the harmonious society. Group selection became increasingly important. The most harmonious society survives from the competition of groups in group selection.

110

Language alone cannot solve all social conflicts to achieve maximum eager cooperation without lie, so it is necessary to control social conflicts by will. The social behaviors were still affected greatly by the instincts from the old non-harmonious social lives that hinder frequently maximum eager cooperation without lie. The competitive advantage of the harmonious society resulted in the expansion of the prefrontal cortex to control the non-harmonious instincts. As the brain had tripled in size during human evolution, the prefrontal cortex had increased in size six fold. The prefrontal cortex in humans occupies a far larger percentage of the brain than any other animal. Adult humans with injure in the prefrontal cortex know what to do for socialization, but do not have the will to do for socialization. Therefore, the conscience instinct can be divided into the conscience intelligence for the knowledge of socialization and the conscience will to control the non-harmonious instincts to achieve maximum eager cooperation without lie. A large part of the prefrontal cortex is for the conscience will connecting emotion and instinct areas in the brain. The competitive advantage of the harmonious society filtered out the less harmonious people and social groups (trouble makers) who were marginalized or forced to move out of the harmonious society. The remaining people with the harmonious social life continued to evolve into even more harmonious social life, and the less harmonious people and groups continued to be marginalized or move out. The technological and social[ 93 ] selections generated the unusually fast evolution of the hominid brain. Eventually, the most technologically advanced and harmonious hominid, Homo sapiens, emerged in Africa where the harmonious society originated. The earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia were dated to be about 200,000 years old. (The brain size is 1,350 cc.) The brain of Homo sapiens reaches the maximum efficiency in terms of size and complexity. Any additional size and complexity to achieve higher harmonious social life are counter-productive[94], so Homo sapiens have the maximum harmonious social life rather than the ideal harmonious social life. The genetic psychological reinforcement of the harmonious social life is achieved by both the positive good feeling in practicing the harmonious social life and the negative bad feeling in violating conscience for the harmonious social life. For the hyper detection instinct in conscience, the automatic emergence of shame and uneasiness in lying is the negative bad feeling in violating conscience. Such bad feeling of lying moves people toward honesty. For hyper bond in conscience, the automatic emergence of miserable feeling in loneliness steers people toward social connection. Psychologist John Cacippo[95] finds that prolonged loneliness can be as harmful to health as smoking or obesity. Since conscience involves significantly the prefrontal cortex, loneliness impairs the performance of the prefrontal cortex, such as in logical reasoning[96]. Such harmful and miserable effect of loneliness indicates the strong preference of social connection through the harmonious cooperation in a social group for our primitive ancestors. In summary, walking hands turned into free hands by bipedalism. Free hands allowed improved gestural language that became the expression of hyper bond. Such evolution took place in woodland without the requirement of additional brain expansion for intelligence. In the highly impoverished and insecure open grassland, the brain started to expand as free hands evolved into manipulative hands to make improved tools. The appearance of very useful spoken language greatly accelerated the expansion of the brain. The spoken language became the expression of theory of mind as theory of mind

111

that exists only in human. The combination of hyper bond and theory of mind resulted in the conscience instinct. The enhanced conscience instinct came from the expansion of the prefrontal cortex to control the non-harmonious instincts. Hominid evolution is the evolution of the conscience instinct. Hominid evolution as the evolution of the conscience instinct is as follows.

Hominid Evolution: The Evolution of the Conscience Instinct walking hands (bonobo-like common ancestor) bipedalism

free hands for gestural language as hyper bond (non-Homo hominids 6-1 Ma) manipulative hands for tool (Homo habilis 2.2-1.6 Ma) speech for theory of mind (Homo erectus 1.9-0.1 Ma)

hyper bond

theory of mind (hyper detection instinct) conscience instinct extra prefrontal cortex

enhanced conscience instinct (Homo sapiens γγ decays in $p\bar{p}$ collisions at 1.96 TeV, arXiv:1110.1747v1 [hep-ex] [41] V.A. Miransky, Masaharu Tanabashi, Koichi Yamawaki, Is the t Quark Responsible for the Mass of W and Z Bosons? Mod.Phys.Lett.A4:1043,1989. Anna Hasenfratz, Peter Hasenfratz, Karl Jansen, Julius Kuti, Yue Shen, The Equivalence of the top quark condensate and the elementary Higgs field, Nuclear Physics B, Volume 365, Issue 1, 4 November 1991, [42] S. F. King, Phys. Rev.D46, 4097, Four-family lepton mixing, 1992. S F King, Low Scale Technicolour at LEP , Phys.Lett. B314 364-370, 1993 arXiv:hep-ph/9306236v1 [43] K. Miuchi et al, Astropart. Phys. 19, 135 (2003) [arXiv: astro-ph/ 0204411]; CDMS Collaboration, Phys.Rev. D68, 082002 (2003) [arXiv: hep-ex/0306001] [44] M. Milgrom, New Astron.Rev. 46 (2002) 741-753 [arXiv: astro-ph/0207231], astro-ph/0112069; R. H. Sanders and S. McGaugh arXiv: astro-ph/0204521 [45]D. Chung, The Evolution of Galaxies by the Incompatibility between Dark Matter and Baryonic Matter, arXiv: hep-th/0112036, http://arxiv.org/ftp/hep-th/papers/0112/0112036.pdf [46] A. H. Guth, Phys. Rev. D 23, 347 (1981), A. D. Linde, Phys. Lett. B108 (1982) 389; A. Albrecht and P. J. Steinhardt, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48 (1982) 1220 [47] A. C. S. Readhead et al astro-ph/0402359; Rafael Rebolo et al astro-ph/0402466 [48] Valentino González et al, The Stellar Mass Density And Specific Star Formation Rate Of The Universe At Z ~ 7, ApJ 713 115, 2010, arXiv:0909.3517 [49] Mark Dijkstra and Abraham Loeb, MNRAS, 400, 1109, 2009,.arXiv:0902.2999v1 [astro-ph.CO] [50] R. Barkana and A. Loeb, arXiv: astro-ph/0209515 [51] C. Conselice, arXiv: astro-ph/0212219 [52] B. M. Poggianti, astro-ph/0210233, S. F. Helsdon and T. J. Ponman, arXiv: astro-ph/0212047 [53] S. Leon, J. Braine, P. Duc, V. Charmandaris, and E. Brinks, astro-ph/0208494, arXiv: astroph/0210014 [54] M. Bonamente, M. Joy, and R. Liu, arXiv: astro-ph/0211439 [55] J. Einasto, G. Hutsi, M. Einasto, E. Saar, D. L. Tucher, V. Muller, P. Heinamaki, and S. S. Allam, arXiv: astro-ph/0212312 [56] M. J. West, astro-ph/9709289 [57] David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober, Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (4): 585–654, 1994. http://socio.ch/evo/sobwil.html . [58] Martin Novak, The Cooperation of Evolution, Competition is not the only force that shaped life on earth Scientific American, 34-39, July, 2012 [59] Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. D.. The evolution of cooperation. Science, 211, 1390-1396, 1981.

179

[60] Hamilton, W.D., "The evolution of social behavior". Journal of Theoretical Biology 1: 295–311. 1964 [61] Wilson, E. O., Kin Selection as the Key to Altruism: its Rise and Fall, .Social Research 72 (1): 159– 166, 2005. [62] Martin Nowak, Corina Tarnita & EO Wilson "The evolution of eusociality" Nature 466 1057– 1062(26 August 2010) [63] Edward O. Wilson, The Social Conquest of Earth, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012 [64] Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, Yonas Beyene, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Owen Lovejoy, Gen Suwa, Giday WoldeGabriel. "Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids." Science 326 (5949) 2009: 75-86 DOI: 10.1126/science.1175802 [65] Susana Carvalho1, Dora Biro, Eugénia Cunha, Kimberley Hockings, William C. McGrew, Brian G. Richmond, and Tetsuro Matsuzawa, "Chimpanzee carrying behaviour and the origins of human bipedality”, Current Biology,Volume 22, Issue 6, R180-R181, 20 March 2012 [66] Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 2634. [67] Isabel Briggs Myers, Gifts Differing (Palo Alto: CPP, 1993) [68] Carl Jung, V6, Psychological Types (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1955) [69] Louann Brizendine , The Female Brain. Morgan Road/Broadway Books. 2006, [70] Louann Brizendine, The Male Brain. Morgan Road/Broadway Books. 2010 [71] Simon Baron-Cohen, The Essential Difference (New York: Basic Books, 2003) [72] Lutchmaya S, Baron-Cohen S, Raggatt P. Foetal testosterone and eye contact in 12 month old infants. Infant Behav Dev. ;25:327-335, 2002; Lutchmaya S, Baron-Cohen S, Raggatt P. Foetal testosterone and vocabulary size in 18- and 24-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev. ;24:418-424, 2002. [73] RC Gur, LH Mozley, PD Mozley, SM Resnick, JS Karp, A Alavi, SE Arnold, and RE Gur, Science, Vol 267, 528-531, 1995 [74] H. J. Eysenck, The Measurement of Personality, (Baltimore: University Park Press) 1976 [75] Robert Jay Russell, The Lemurs’ Legacy (New York, G.P. Putman’s Sons, 1993) [76] David W. Merrill and Roger H. Reid, “Personal Styles and Effective Performance” CRC Paperback, 1981, ISBN 08011968992 [77] Simon Baron-Cohen, The Science of Evil, New York: Basic Book, 2011 [78] Richard Griffin, Ori Friedman, Jon Ween, Ellen Winner, Francesca Happe, and Hiram Brownell, “Theory of mind and the right cerebral hemisphere: Refining the scope of impairment”, Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain, and Cognition, Vol. 11, No. 3. (April 2006), pp. 195-225. [79] Maslow, A. Religion, Values and Peak Experiences, New York: Viking, 1970. [80] Fran de Waal , Bonobo Sex And Society, the March 1995 issue of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, pp. 82-88 [81] Tim D. White, Berhane Asfaw, Yonas Beyene, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Owen Lovejoy, Gen Suwa, Giday WoldeGabriel. "Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids." Science 326 (5949) 2009: 75-86 DOI: 10.1126/science.1175802 [82] Susana Carvalho1, Dora Biro, Eugénia Cunha, Kimberley Hockings, William C. McGrew, Brian G. Richmond, and Tetsuro Matsuzawa, "Chimpanzee carrying behaviour and the origins of human bipedality”, Current Biology,Volume 22, Issue 6, R180-R181, 20 March 2012 [83] Amy S. Pollick and Frans B. M. de Waal, Ape Gestures And Language Evolution, PNAS 104, 81848189, 2007 http://www.pnas.org/content/104/19/8184.full [84] Michael Tomasello , Origins of Human Communication, The MIT Press, 2008 [85] M. Corballis (1999) The gestural origins of language. American Scientist, 87: 138-145. [86] Gregory Hickok, Ursula Bellugi and Edward S. Klima, "The Neurobiology of Sign Language and Its Implications for the Neural basis of Language," Nature, 381, 1996, p. 699-702 [87] Fran de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics (New York: Harper and Row, 1982) [88] Lenora Johanson and Blake Edgar, Ancestors: In Search of Human Origins, Villard Books: New York, 1994. [89] Hart, Donna L. and Sussman, Robert W, Man the Hunted: Primates, Predators, and Human Evolution, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 2005. [90] Brian M. Fagan, The Journey From Eden, London: Thames and Hudson, 1990, p. 87 [91] Richard Leakey, Origins Reconsidered, Anchor, 1992. p. 257-258

180

[92] Christopher Boehm, Hierarchy in the forest: the evolution of egalitarian behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1999 [93] R. I. M. Dunbar, “The social brain: mind, language and society in evolutionary perspective”. Ann. Rev. Anthrop 32, p. 163-181, 2003. [94] Kaas JH, Evolution of somatosensory and motor cortex in primates. Anat Rec 281A (2004):1148– 1156. [95] John T. Cacioppo and William Patrick, “Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection”, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008 [96] R. E. Baumeister, J. M. Twenge, and . K. Nuss, “Effects if social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 4 (2002) 817-827 [97] Marshall Sahlins, “Notes on the original affluent society”. Lee, R.B. and DeVore, I. (eds), Man the Hunter 85-89, New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1968. [98] Steve Taylor, The Fall: The Evidence for a Golden Age, 6,000 years of Insanity and the Dawning of a New Era, Winchester, UK, O Books, 2005. [99] Leo Tolstoy, “The Kingdom of God is Within You: Christianity Not as a Mystic Religion But as a New Theory of Life” English translation by Constance Garnett, 1894, http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html [100] David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art. London, Thames & Hudson, 2002. [101] Cunliffe, Barry (ed). The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001 [ 102 ] Gerhard Lenski, Jean Lenski, and Patrick Nolan, Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995. [103] Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origins of War, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2000. [104] Sara W. Lazar, et. al, Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness, Neuroreport. 2005 November 28; 16(17): 1893–1897. [105] William Johnston's, The Cloud of Unknowing: and The Book of Privy Counseling, Image, 1996 [106] Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, But Follows Normal Pattern NIMH Press Release, November 12, 2007 [107] Jennifer H. Pfeifer, and Baldwin M. Way, Putting Feelings Into Words: Affect Labeling Disrupts Amygdala Activity in Response to Affective Stimuli, Psychological Science 18:5, p. 421-428, 2007 [108] Judy Foreman, A Look at the Science Behind Meditation, Boston Globe, April 22, 2003. [109] Lutz A, Greischar LL, Rawlings NB, Ricard M, Davidson RJ. (2004) Long-term meditators selfinduce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101:16369-73 [110] A. Newberg, E. D’Aquili, and V. Rause, Why God Won’t Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief, New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 2001. [111] Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries (Princeton University Press/Harper Collins, 1996/1997). [112] Bonomi, Patricia, “Religious Pluralism in the Middle Colonies.” Divining America, TeacherServe. National Humanities Center. 2009. [113] Bruce Charlton and Peter Andras, The Modernization Imperative: a systems theory account of liberal democratic society, The Modernization Imperative. Imprint Academic: Exeter, UK, http://www.hedweb.com/bgcharlton/modernization-imperative.html 2003 [114] Rodney Stark, Cities of God: The Real Story of How Christianity Became an Urban Movement and Conquered Rome, New York: HarperOne,, 2006 [115] Phillip Jerkins, The Next Christendom: the Coming of Global Christianity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 [116] Humanist Manifesto III, http://www.harvardhumanist.org/humanism/humanist-manifesto-iii [117] Lovelock, James. The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, 2009

181