The Three States of Matter

Name: Onisha St.Jean Class: 4 waldron Subject: physics School: D.S.D.A.S.S. Teacher: Ms Dupuis

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Introduction This portfolio is mainly based Kinetic theory and heat.The key terms are further defined.

Kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory explains properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion and aso the arrangement of particles. The theory posits that gas pressure is due to the impacts, on the walls of a container, of molecules or atoms moving at different velocities.

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Acknowledgements Firstly Most thanks goes out to The Almighty for granting life, wisdom and understanding in order for this project could be completed; Secondly Special and warm Thanks goes out to my Parents for providing me with the equipment’s necessary to complete this project. Last but least I’d like to acknowledge my self for my hard work and dedication. 

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The three states of matter : Solid A substance that retains its size and shape without a container; a substance whose molecules cannot move freely except to vibrate. Solid matter is composed of tightly packed particles. A solid will retain its shape; the particles are not free to move around. A solid's particles are packed closely together. The forces between the particles are strong enough that the particles cannot move freely; they can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape and a definite volume. Solids can only change shape under force, as when broken or cut. A solid can transform into a liquid through melting, and a liquid can transform into a solid through freezing. A solid can also change directly into a gas through a process called sublimation.

Liquid A substance that flows and keeps no definite shape because its molecules are loosely packed and constantly moving. It takes the shape of its container but maintains constant volume. Liquid matter is made of more loosely packed particles. It will take the shape of its container. Particles can move about within a liquid, but they are packed densely enough that volume is maintained. A liquid is a fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but that retains a nearly constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite (does not change) if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid because the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. This means that a liquid is not definite in shape but rather conforms to the shape of its container. A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the substance's boiling point or through reduction of pressure at constant temperature. This process of a liquid changing to a gas is called evaporation.

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Gas 

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A substance that can only be contained if it is fully surrounded by a container (or held together by gravitational pull) Gaseous matter is composed of particles packed so loosely that it has neither a defined shape nor a defined volume. A gas can be compressed. Gas molecules have either very weak bonds or no bonds at all, so they can move freely and quickly. Because of this, not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container, it will also expand to completely fill the container

Diffusion states using Kinetic Enery: 

The transfer of Kinetic energy involved in the collision causes a shift in the velocities of both molecules. The net result is each molecule seems to be moving in a random fashion. The whole group of large molecules that start out concentrated in a small area moves from the region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Diffusion in a solution can be sped up by heating the solution. This makes sense when you consider that heat is the total amount of kinetic energy in a solution. Likewise to slow diffusion down the solution can be cooled. Be careful not to confuse diffusion with convection currents caused by unequal heating of solutions or with the kind of mixing that can come about by stirring a solution Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy of random motion. Consider two containers of gas A and B separated by a partition. The molecules of both gases are in constant motion and make numerous collisions with the partition. If the partition is removed as in the lower illustration, the gases will mix because of the random velocities of their molecules. In time a uniform mixture of A and B molecules will be produced in the container.

Osmosis Osmosis the movement of water molecules from a solution of less negative water potential to a solution of more negative water potential through a semi permeable membrane .Osmosis is the net movement of water from a high water concentration to a lower water concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. In osmosis there is a net movement of molecules from high to low concentration .You will get some molecules moving back across. Water will keep moving until it reaches equilibrium. Water potential (Ψ) is a measure of the kinetic energy of water molecules. Water molecules are constantly moving in a random fashion. Some water molecules collide with the cell membrane, creating pressure on it known as water potential ,The higher their kinetic energy, the more they move and hit the membrane and the higher their water potential l. Solutes restrict the movement of water so a stronger sugar solution with lots of solute particles will lower the kinetic energy and hence the water potential of the water .Water movement is restricted due to the attractive forces that exist between the water molecules and the solute particles, causing hydration shells .As the solute molecules dissolve it becomes charged and attracts the charges on the water molecules. Water 6

molecules surround it. The water molecules are no longer free as the solute molecules tie them up. This reduces the free water molecules in the solution.

Liquids in a syringe Matter can gain or lose energy. When heat is applied to a substance, its molecules move faster, so they experience an increase in their kinetic energy. In the liquid phase, the particles of a substance have more kinetic energy than those in a solid. The liquid particles are not held in a regular arrangement, but are still very close to each other so liquids have a definite volume. Liquids, like solids, cannot be compressed. Particles of a liquid have just enough room to flow around each other, so liquids have an indefinite shape. A liquid will change shape to conform to its container. Force is spread evenly throughout the liquid, so when an object is placed in a liquid, the liquid particles are displaced by the object. The magnitude of the upward buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. When the buoyant force is equal to the force of gravity pulling down on the object’s mass, the object will float. This principle of buoyancy was discovered by the Greek mathematician Archimedes.

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Difference between the Caloric and Kinetic Theory of Heat The kinetic theory of heat states that the temperature of a body is determined by the average kinetic energy of its particles and that an inflow of heat increases this energy. This means that the temperature of the body would be directly related to the amount of movement of the particles of that body and the temperature of a body can also be influenced when the energy from another body is transferred to another body. The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that is centred on a self-repellent fluid called caloric. The theory states that this fluid flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids. It implies that caloric is the substance of heat and that cold or lack of heat is due to the lack of caloric. The difference between these two theories is theories is that the caloric theory implies that heat is transferred from one body to another by means of fluids while the kinetic theory says that heat is produced by the rapid movement of the particles of a body.

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Role of joules experiment: establishing the principal of conservation of energy James Prescott Joule was an interesting man that may not have had the conventional way of coming into physics. Joule had a relation with Lord Kelvin who is also another famous figure in physics. It was when he was young that he and his brother went to Dalton to be tutored, from these lessons Joule became one of the premier scientists of his age. These teachings are what made him one of the most exact measurement takers of his day. Joule also had an interest in brewing in his earlier years. This affinity comes from his father who owned a brewery. This brewing hobby becomes Joules first time to use physics. Making all of his machines and devices more efficient is where his skills for physics came to shine. In doing this his studies with energy began. Joule's major contributions to physics were in proving that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, finding the mechanical equivalent of heat, and discovering Joule's law. The idea of conservation of energy was proved by Joule in a series of experiments. In his early years Joule proved that heat produced in a small electromagnet built by him was from electrical energy which was in turn generated by mechanical energy which powered the dynamo. From this experiment Joule concluded that the heat produced in the electromagnet was energy which came directly from the human effort that went into the machine. Joule recognized and espoused the need for standard units of electricity. Joule perceived the relationship between his discoveries and the kinetic theory of heat. Joule’s findings challenged the caloric theory of heat which most physicists believed in at that time. In the caloric theory, heat was believed to be a fluid substance. Another stumbling block to the acceptance of Joule’s findings was a disbelief of the incredible accuracy of his measurements. The principle of energy conservation involved in Joule’s work gave rise to the new scientific discipline known as thermodynamics. While Joule was not the first scientist to suggest this principle, he was the first to demonstrate its validity.

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Difference between heat and temperature Heat is energy. Heat is the total of energy processed by the molecules in a piece of matter. This energy is both kinetic energy and potential energy. The heat an object contains is the amount of its thermal energy, measured in joules or J. Temperature is not energy. It is a number that relates to one type of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. Temperature directly relates to the kinetic energy of the molecules. The molecules have another type of energy besides kinetic, however; they have potential energy, also. Temperature readings do not tell you anything directly about this potential energy. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of an object. The temperature of an object is to do with how hot or cold it is, measured in degrees Celsius. Note that the unit of temperature is written as °C.

Types and uses of thermometers Name Clinical thermometer

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Feature Clinical thermometer is a slight modification of mercury thermometer. They provide simple operation , and a high accuracy and a fast response

Diagram

Use It is specially designed to measure the human body temperature.

Thermocoupl A thermocouple e thermometer consists of two types of wires made of different metals such as copper and iron. The ends of the wires are joined together to form two junctions. The temperature is then calculated using the readings of a voltmeter. Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature. thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable , are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are selfpowered and require no external form of excitation. 11

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature measurement for gas turbine exhaust , diesel, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety devices for gaspowered major appliances.

Minimum and maximum thermometers

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A combination maximumminimum thermometer. It has a U-shaped glass tube whose bottom half is filled with mercury. The left-hand horn is filled with alcohol, and the righthand horn is partially filled with alcohol; the remaining portion has a gas above it. A colored glass index contains a thin iron pin in the center on both sides of the tube on top of the mercury. When the temperature increases, the alcohol in the left side expands and forces the mercury and the alcohol column on the right side into the gas chamber. The index in the right-hand tube also rises. When the temperature decreases, the alcohol in the

Six's thermometer is a registering thermometer which can record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period of time, for example 24 hours. It is used to record the extremes of temperature at a location, for instance in meteorology and horticulture.

Laboratory thermometer

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left side contracts and the gas expands, forcing the liquid back into the left side and pushing the index along with it. The indices retain their position, which they achieve when the maximum and minimum temperatures are reached. They are reset with an external magnet. Laboratory thermometers are used in research and scientific applications such as monitoring experiments, maintaining a sterile work environment, calibrating other laboratory instruments, and testing materials. They are sometimes in expensive .

an instrument for measuring temperature. Originally, it consisted of a sealed glass tube, was marked in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, and contained liquid such as mercury or alcohol. The liquid rises or falls as it expands or contracts according to changes in temperature. Laboratory thermometers

are used to measure temperatures or temperature changes with a high degree of precision. They are made of metal or glass and strengthened through thermal tempering or annealing.

Methods of heat temperature Conduction:

the movement of heat or electricity through something (such as metal or

water). The process of heat conduction depends on four basic factors: the temperature gradient, the cross section of the materials involved, their path length, and the properties of those materials. A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes in a specific location. Temperature always flows from the hottest to coldest source, due to the fact that cold is nothing but the absence of heat energy. This transfer between bodies continues until the temperature difference decays, 14

and a state known as thermal equilibrium occurs. Cross-section and path length are also important factors. The greater the size of the material involved in the transfer, the more heat is needed to warm it. Also, the more surface area that is exposed to open air, the greater likelihood for heat loss. So shorter objects with a smaller cross-section are the best means of minimizing the loss of heat energy. Last, but certainly not least, is the physical properties of the materials involved. Basically, when it comes to conducting heat, not all substances are created equal. Metals and stone are considered good conductors since they can speedily transfer heat, whereas materials like wood, paper, air, and cloth are poor conductors of heat. A bimetallic strip is a simple device which converts thermal energy into mechanical motion. It is used as a thermally activated switch or heat indicator and works on the principle of differential expansion of heated dissimilar metals. The bimetallic strip is made up of two different metals which are bonded together to form a straight, flat strip or a concentric coil. When the strip is heated, one of the metals heats up and expands faster than the other, causing the strip to bend. When any solid, fluid, or gas is heated, its molecules start to move away from each other leading to expansion. If, for some reason, the material is contained or prevented from expanding along one of its surfaces, the unrestrained expansion in the rest of the material will cause it to deflect or bend. Obviously some materials will heat up quicker or expand more than others depending on their molecular structure. If two such dissimilar materials bond together, the one that heats slower will restrict expansion along one face of the other and cause this deflection phenomenon to occur. Each metal has what is called a linear expansion coefficient that is the amount the metal will expand in a straight line as the temperature increases. In an Iron the iron work like this: So if you put two different metal strips together, one will lengthen more than the other one. If you put an electrical contact at the end of the combined strips, at some point an increase in temperature will bend cause the strip to bend because one metal expands more than the other one. This will break the contact and keep the iron from overheating. In the refrigerator the bimetallic strip is used to to sense temperature, and closes a contact when the temperature goes above a set point. The closed contact turns on the compressor, which starts cooling the refrigerator. After a bit, the temperature goes low enough and the contact opens, turning off the compressor. This cycle continues. Negative feedback, from the top of my head, is a process where an error signal is amplified and used to control a process that decreases the error. The error signal is the difference between the desired temperature and the actual temperature, which is sensed by the bimetallic strip and (amplified) used to control the compressor, which will decrease the error, i.e., cool the frig. A bimetallic strip is a long thin strip consisting of two dissimilar metals 15

soldered or riveted together, and wound into a coil. Since the two metals have different thermal expansion properties, as the temperature changes the coil winds tighter or unwinds. This causes to contacts to close or open, like a switch or relay. You can see one of these in most room thermostats.

Convection: Convection is the name for a means of heat transfer, as distinguished from conduction and radiation. It is also a term that describes processes affecting the atmosphere, waters, and solid earth. In the atmosphere, hot air rises on convection currents, circulating and creating clouds and winds. Likewise, convection in the hydrosphere circulates water, keeping the temperature gradients of the oceans stable. The term convection generally refers to the movement of fluids, meaning liquids and gases, but in the earth sciences, convection also can be used to describe processes that occur in the solid earth. This geologic convection, as it is known, drives the plate movement that is one of the key aspects of plate tectonics.Heat, in its scientific meaning, is internal thermal energy that flows from one body of matter to another or from a system at a higher temperature to a system at a lower temperature. Temperature thus can be defined as a measure of the average molecular kinetic energy of a system. Temperature also governs the direction of internal energy flow between two systems. Two systems at the same temperature are said to be in a state of thermal equilibrium; when this 16

occurs, there is no exchange of heat, and therefore heat exists only in transfer between two systems. A sea breeze describes a wind that blows from the ocean inland towards land. This breeze occurs most often in the spring and summer months because of the greater temperature differences between the ocean and nearby land, particularly in the afternoon when the land is at maximum heating from the sun. During the day, the sun heats up both the ocean surface and the land. Water is a good absorber of the energy from the sun. The land absorbs much of the sun’s energy as well. However, water heats up much more slowly than land and so the air above the land will be warmer compared to the air over the ocean. The warm air over the land will rise throughout the day, causing low pressure at the surface. Over the water, high surface pressure will form because of the colder air. To compensate, the air will sink over the ocean. The wind will blow from the higher pressure over the water to lower pressure over the land causing the sea breeze. The sea breeze strength will vary depending on the temperature difference between the land and the ocean. At night, the roles reverse. The air over the ocean is now warmer than the air over the land. The land loses heat quickly after the sun goes down and the air above it cools too. During the day, the blacktop road heats up and becomes very hot to walk on. At night, however, the blacktop has given up the added heat and is cool to the touch. The ocean, however, is able to hold onto this heat after the sun sets and not lose it as easily. This causes the low surface pressure to shift to over the ocean during the night and the high surface pressure to move over the land. This causes a small temperature gradient between the ocean surface and the nearby land at night and the wind will blow from the land to the ocean creating the land breeze

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Radiation: Heat radiation (as opposed to particle radiation) is the transfer of internal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For most bodies on the earth, this radiation lies in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space and may be able to penetrate various materials. Light, radio, and microwaves are types of radiation that are called nonionizing. The kind of radiation discussed in this document is called ionizing radiation because it can produce charged particles (ions) in matter. Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable atoms because unstable atoms have an excess of energy or mass or both. Radiation can also be produced by high-voltage devices. Atoms with unstable nuclei are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these atoms give off, or emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation. The temperature of the terrestrial surface environment is controlled not only by the Sun’s 18

electromagnetic radiation but also in a sensitive way by the Earth’s atmosphere. As noted earlier, each substance absorbs and emits electromagnetic radiation of some energies hν and does not do so in other ranges of energy. These regions of transparency and opaqueness are governed by the particular distribution of internal energies of the substance. The Earth’s atmosphere acts much like the glass panes of a greenhouse: it allows sunlight, particularly its visible range, to reach and warm the Earth, but it largely inhibits the infrared radiation emitted by the heated terrestrial surface from escaping into space. Since the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude above the Earth, there is less atmospheric absorption in the higher regions of the atmosphere. In the infrared region, the absorption is caused by molecular vibrations and rotations. In the ultraviolet and X-ray regions, the absorption is due to electronic excitations in atoms and molecules. Without water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are, together with certain industrial pollutants, the main infrared-absorbing species in the atmosphere, the Earth would experience the extreme temperature variations between night and day that occur on the Moon. The Earth would then be a frozen planet, like Mars, with an average temperature of 200 K, and not be able to support life.

Gas laws Boyle’s law 19

Boyle's law states that at constant temperature for a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely proportional. The law can also be stated in a slightly different manner, that the product of absolute pressure and volume is always constant. Equation :PV=k P denotes the pressure of the system. V denotes the volume of the gas. k is a constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the system.

Charles’ law 20

Charles's law states that if a given quantity of gas is held at a constant pressure, its volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be directly related. (at a constant pressure the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.) Formulae=V/T=K This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions. The gas law wasfirst pulbished by French natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac Graph:

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Pressure law Pressure law is also known as Dalton’s law. Dalton's law of partial pressure states that "the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressure of the individual gases present." A partial pressure is the pressure that a gas in a mixture of gases would exert if it were present alone under the same conditions.( in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases) Graph:

Formulae --- Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P

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General gas law As the result of many different scientists and experiments, several gas laws have been discovered. These laws relate the various state variables of a gas.

State Variables of a Gas Pressure (P) Volume (V) Temperature (T) Molar mass (n)

These gas laws can be used to compare two different gases, or determine the properties of a gas after one of its state variables have changed. The combined gas law is a gas law that combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for this law.

Formula: P is the pressure V is the volume T is the temperature measured in kelvin k is a constant (with units of energy divided by temperature).

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Bibliograpghy:

Physics for csec, last edition (A Course on Thermodynamics of Materials) An online book Discover Physics Physics A+B college edition book https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index;_ylt=A0LEVrxc4oNVVcoAYNYPxQt.;_ylu=X3o DMTByOHZyb21tBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzcg--? qid=20080414153831AAGjvTV&p=how%20does%20the%20bimetallic%20strip%20works %20in%20the%20refrigerator https://search.yahoo.com/search;_ylt=A0LEVxgTq4NVcy8AWkhXNyoA;_ylc=X1MDMjc2 NjY3OQRfcgMyBGZyA3locy1pbnZhbGlkBGdwcmlkA2NsXzlyNlZBUWh1Umt3VFEyZjli S0EEbl9yc2x0AzAEbl9zdWdnAzIEb3JpZ2luA3NlYXJjaC55YWhvby5jb20EcG9zAzIEcHF zdHIDcmFkaWF0aW9uIGluIHBoeXNpY3MgYW5kIHRoZSBncmVlbiBob3UEcHFzdHJsA zM4BHFzdHJsAzQ2BHF1ZXJ5A3JhZGlhdGlvbiBpbiBwaHlzaWNzIGFuZCB0aGUgZ3JlZ W5ob3VzZSBlZmZlY3QEdF9zdG1wAzE0MzQ2OTI2ODI-? p=radiation+in+physics+and+the+greenhouse+effect&fr2=sa-gp-search&fr=yhs-invalid

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Table of Contents: States of matter

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Diffusion using kinetic energy

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Difference between the Caloric and Kinetic Theory of Heat ……………………………..8 Role of joules experiment: establishing the principal of conservation of energy ………….9 Difference between heat and temperature 10-13 Methods of heat transfer………………………………………………………………….14-18 Gas Laws………………………………………………………………………………….19-22

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