The Sound Systems Between English and Arabic: A Comparative Study Written by Abdulbaseer Eid

2006  The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study

Submitted by: T. Abdulbaseer  Jamal Eid

[email protected] +962788120771 ZARQA PRIVATE UNIVERSITY 1/1/2006

2006

The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative C omparative Study

‫ن الرحيم‬‫الرح‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم ا‬ I am Abdul Abdulba base seer er Eid. Eid. I was was born born in Lebanon. Lebanon. I have finished finished my secondary secondary school school in Zarqa Zarqa city city Jordan Jordan in 2003. 2003. I faced many difficulties in learning English at the the begi beginn nnin ing g duri during ng my stud study y at school school so I decide decided d to concen concentra trate te on stud studdi ding ng Engl Englis ish h lang langua uage ge and and to be specia specialis listt in this this langua language ge in order order to make it easy for Arabic students students to learn it. I beca became me a stud studen entt in Zarq Zarqa a Priva rivate te Univ Univer ersi sity ty imme immedi diat atel ely y afte afterr I had had finished my secondary school. During my study, I wrote three researches in English language; language; "The Sound Systems Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative Study", "The Present Tense between English and Arabic Arabic:: a compar comparati ative ve Study" Study",, "Engli "English sh founda foundatio tional nal Gramm Grammar" ar".. The idea idea that that emerged emerged from the first two researches researches is to make studding English familiar to our Arabic Arabic students students because they deal with the the simi simila lari riti ties es and and the the diff differ eren ence cess between English and Arabic language. I have graduated from my University and I employ employed ed immed immediat iately ely at Al-Omar Al-Omareya eyah h Schools in Amman. I am happy in working there there becaus because e it has a wide wide reputa reputatio tion n with its excellent excellent teaching teaching with Islamic vision vision.. I have have taken taken many many course coursess that that deal with my work as a teacher and I have have given given there there a prelim prelimina inary ry TOFEL OFEL levels.

:‫تعالى‬ ‫ا‬ ‫قا‬

‫كُم‬ ِِ‫س‬‫أنف‬  ‫ُم‬‫لك‬‫ع‬‫ج‬ ‫َ ا‬‫و‬ {  ‫كُم‬ ‫ل‬  ‫ع‬ ‫ع‬‫وج‬  ‫وَاج‬ ‫ز‬ ‫أ‬ ‫و‬ً‫ة‬ ‫دة‬ ‫حف‬ ‫و‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ب‬ ‫ُم‬‫ِك‬ِ‫َاج‬‫زو‬‫أ‬ ِ ‫ط‬‫ل‬‫ِأ‬‫ت‬ ِ‫ت‬  ‫ي‬ ‫ل‬   ‫ال‬   ‫كُم‬ ‫ق‬ ‫رز‬ ‫هم‬ِ‫ا‬  َ‫ع‬‫ب‬‫و‬ َ  ِ ‫ؤ‬  }َ  ‫و‬‫كف‬ ‫لعظيم‬  ‫د‬  ‫صد‬

Now I am still working on myself. I am doing my higher Diploma in ICT "Information Communication Technology" Technology" in Educ Educat atio ion n unde underr the the umbr umbrel ella la of  Yarmouk Univers ersity/Jor Jordan and INHOLLAND University/ The Netherlands. In addition; I am also about to finish a book under title of "The Easy Way to the High Education' this material is prepared for Al-T Al-Tawjihe awjihe Studen Students ts in Jordan Jordan.. It contains all the passages with a sufficient package of questions to promote students unders understan tandin ding g "The "The sky is the limit to what I can do" is my slogan.

‫لنح‬ ‫سورة‬ "72" ‫ه رقم‬

Teacher Abdulbaseer Jamal Eid

III

The Sound Systems between English and Arabic: a Comparative C omparative Study

2006

Dedication To those people who mean something to me… To those who have touched my life in one way or another… To those who make me smile when I really need it…. To those that make me see the brighter side when I am really down… To those who I want to let them know that I appreciate their love and support…

My Dear Father, Mother… To All of my family…

My sisters, Uncles, Aunts…

To My friends whom I have non-forgettable moments with them…

Those who share me the moments of pleasure and labor…

Qabas, Abdulkader, Ahmad Alkhabas

I dedicate this work. III

Acknowledgment I am very much indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Mua'yyed Jum'a. Without Without his invaluable suggestions, su ggestions, helps,  patience and continuous guidance, I might not n ot have complete this research in its present shape.

Special thanks are addressed to all the people who have helped me throughout my work and support me in every way they could. My appreciation goes also to my family for their support, and guiding me through my educational journey.

Abstract This study tries to answer three basic questions which are; what is English sound so und system? What is Arabic sound system? And how does Arabic Arabic sound system differs from English sound system? All these questions refer to one  basic purpose which is to accommodate one's language to those who learn English or Arabic Arabic as second languages languag es with the correct pronunciation of sounds. This research explains many things in English  phonetics such as: the definition of phonetics, the comparison between consonants and vowels. This study also tries to give some so me information about the production of Arabic sounds, the description of  Arabic consonants and the description of Arabic vowels. In addition to the explanation of English sound system and Arabic Arabic sound system; giving a comparison  between them is considered as a very important purpose. We find in chapter three many similarities and differences between the two systems. There are common consonants, consonants restricted to English, consonants restricted to Arabic, common vowels, vowels restricted to English, and vowels restricted to Arabic. In short, this study tries to compare co mpare between Arabic  phonetics and English phonetics by giving some explanations about the consonants and English vowels.

List of Figures Page Number Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

The organ of speech……………………………………… Sound Waves ………...……………………………………… Diphthongs ……………………………….…………………… Cardinal Vowels……………………………………………

4 5 13 14

3.1 3.2

The or organ of ar articulation ……………………………….

22 24

Chapter 3 The main place of articulation ……………..……..

III

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Page Number

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8

The So Sounds of of En English / Consonants……………….. 4 Stops or Plosives…………………………………………… 6 7 Fricatives……………………………………………………… Affricates…………………………………………………….. 7 9 English Co Consonants………………………………………. Place of of Articulation………………………………………. 10 The The Sou Sound nd of Engli nglish sh / Vowe owels Part Part (1) (1)…………… 11 The The Sou Sound ndss of of Eng Engli lish sh / Vowe owels Part Part (2) (2) …………… 11

3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4

The The clas classi sifi fica cati tion on of Poin Points ts of Arti Articu cula lati tion on………. The de description of of so sounds……….…………………….. The The so sounds unds of Stan Standa dard rd Arab rabic Conso onsona nant ntss …… The Sound So und of Arabic Vowels Vowels …………………..

16 24 25 25

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

Types of phonemic Differences …………………...

26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Common Consonants…………………………………….

English-Restricted Consonants ………………….. Arabic-Restricted Consonants …………………….

Vowel Comparison………………………………………… Diphthong Comparison ………………………… Arabic Consonants ............................................ ............................................................... ...................

III

List of Symbols

/ / [ ] + -

Phonemic writing Phonetic 'allophonic' writing Existing Non-Existing

III

Table of Contents Chap Chapte terr 1 Intr Introd oduc ucti tion on………………………………………………………..

Page Number 1

Chapt Chapter er 2 The The Sou Sound nd Syst System emss of Engl Englis ishh…………………………..

3 3 3 4 5 12 13 14 15

Chapt Chapter er 3 The The Sou Sound nd Syst System emss of Arab Arabic ic…………………………...

16 16 17 19

Chapte Chapterr 4 The Sound Sound Syste Systems ms of Englis Englishh and and Arabic Arabic……..

26 26 26 28 29 30 30

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 1.6

3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Phonetics………………………………………………….….. Vowel and Consonant ……………………………………... Phonetic Alphabet ………………………………………… Description of of Sp Speech So Sounds ………………..…... Vowels………………………………………………………… Dephthongs…………………………………………………. Triphthongs……………………….…………...……………. Phonemes an and Allophones ………………………… Orga Organns of of Spee Speecch an and Spe Speec echh Pr Produc oducti tion on………. Modification of of Air ……………………………………….. Description of of Sp Speech So Sounds ………………………..

English an and Arabic Ph Phonetics ………………………... Common Consonants……………………………………. Consonants Restric ricted to English………………….. Consonants Restric ricted to to Arabic……………………. Vowel Comparison………………………………………… Diphthong Comparison ………………………….

Chap Chapte terr 5 Conc Conclu lusi sion on…………………………………………………………..

Appendix I……………………………………………………………………………..... Appendix II…………………………………………………………………………….. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………… Arabic references …………………………………………………………………….

III

Chapter 1

Introduction Each language has its own phonetic system, but in this research we compare between two systems which are Arabic sound system and English sound system. This study aims to explain three things; First, the sound system of English. Next, the sound system of Arabic. Finally, Finally, the comparison between these two systems. All of these purposes refer to one basic purpose which is to accommodate one's language to those who learn English or Arabic Arabic as second languages with the correct  pronunciation of sounds. In English phonetics we describe consonants according to three criteria which are place of o f articulation, manner of articulation and voicing. According to the  place of articulation; English consonants are divided into eight groups which are: bilabials, labio-dentals, dentals, alveolars, platao-alveolars, palatals, velars and glottals. But according to the manner of articulation English sounds are divided into six groups g roups which are: stops, fricatives, affricates, affricates, nasals, lateral and approximants. English vowel sounds are described according to three criteria which are: frontness – backness, closeness  – openness, and lip – rounding. In contrast, in Arabic phonetics we describe sounds according to ten criteria which are: bilabials, labio dentals, alveolars, retroflex, palatals, velars, uvulars,  pharyngals and glottals. Each group has many

characteristics such as deep, soft, whishpered, whishper ed, magnified, delicate, sonorous, nasal, curved, and trill. Arabic vowels are only eight which are: a ‫ح‬ ‫ح‬‫ف‬, aa ‫ل‬, u ‫ض‬ ‫لض‬, uu ‫و‬ ‫لو‬, i ‫ة‬‫ك‬ ‫لك‬, ii ‫لياء‬, ai ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬, and au ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬. There are some similarities and differences between the two systems, we have eighteen common consonants in both English and Arabic Arabic such as /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ŝ/, /ĵ/, /f/, /f/, /z/, /z/, /s/, /s/, /h/, /h/, /l/, /l/, /m/, /m/, /n/, /n/, /w/, /w/, /r/, /r/, / /, / /, and /y/. There are ten consonants restricted to Arabic such as /T/ /‫ط‬ / ‫ط‬/, /q/ /‫ء‬/ /?/ ,//, /D/ //, /S/ //, /H/ //, /X/ /‫خ‬ /‫خ‬/, /D/ //, /G/ / ‫غ‬/, and /9/ // and there are consonants restricted to English such as /p/, /g/, /ĉ/, /v/, / / and /z/. In Arabic phonetics there are eight vowels v owels three of  them are common to both English and Arabic such as /i,a,u/. Four of them are restricted to English such as /e,æ,i,ə/. Only one vowel is restricted to Arabic which is /a:/.

III

Chapter 2 The Sound Systems of English 2.1. Phonetics: Phonetics can be defined as the study of speech sounds their articulation, transmission and their  reception. phonation is defined as the result from opening and closing the vocal cords (voicing). The vocal cords are placed in the larynx, the lung air has to pass through these cords. Branches of phonetics: There are three branches of phonetics. First, articulatory phonetics which studies the means of   production. Next, acoustic phonetics which studies the analysis of sound soun d waves. Finally, auditory phonetics which tells us about how speech sounds are received by hearers. (Alkuli: 2002) & (Aitchison: 1992)

2.2 Vowel and consonant: There are two differences between vowels and consonants. The most important difference is their  different distributions; the distribution of vowels and consonants is different for each language. Another difference between them is the obstruction. Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. In contrast, consonants are sounds in which there is a full obstruction. If we make a consonant sound like (s), it can  be clearly felt that we are making it difficult or  impossible for the air to pass through the mouth. III

In Arabic the short vowel sounds soun ds are represented by the diacritics ( ‫ل ك‬  ‫ه‬ ‫ل ض‬  ‫ح ه‬ ‫ل‬: ‫ا‬ ‫ل) ح‬. In English, on the other hand, all vowels are represented in orthography (the written form of the language) (letters of  the alphabet). (Lyons: 1981)

2.3 Phonetic Alphabet symbol  b d f  g h k  l m

keyword bad do all f all good hat yes ey k ey like me

symbol n p r  s t v w z

keyword symbol name pot read sad tap vast we Zink  that

Keyword think  ship chair  measure  just sing

Table 2.1 The Sounds of English / Consonants Conso nants

Fig. 2.1 The organ of speech Adopted from Rogers (1991)

III

Fig. 2.2 Sound Waves

2.4 Description of Speech Sounds 1.4.1 Classification of Consonants: There are five criteria to describe each consonant: 1. Place of articulati articulation. on. 2. Manner Manner of articulati articulation. on. 3. Voicing oicing.. 4. Airstream Airstream mechani mechanism. sm. (the source source of air) a. Pulmon Pulmonic ic airs airstre tream am..  b. Non-pulmonic Non-pulmonic airstream airstream.. 5. The nature nature of the airstream. airstream. a. Egressive: Egressive: The air pushed out.  b. Inegressive Inegressive:: The air pushed pushed in. in. All English and Arabic sounds are egressive pulmonic. (Aitchison: 1992)

III

1. Place Place of artic articula ulatio tionn It describes the point at which the articulators actually touch. i. Bila Bilabi bial als: s: In In Engl Englis ishh thes thesee are are /b/, /b/, /p/ /p/,, /m/ /m/ and /w/. /w/. ii. ii. Labi Labioo-de dent ntal al:: In In Eng Engli lish sh thes thesee are are /f/ /f/ and and /v/. /v/. Dentals: In English these are / / and / /. iii. iv. iv. Alveol Alveolar ars: s: These These are are /t/, /t/, /d/, /d/, /n/, /n/, /s/, /s/, /z/, /z/, /l/ /l/ and /r/. /r/. Palato-alveolars or (Alveo-palatals): In English v. these are / /, / /, / / and / /. vi. vi. Pala Palata tals ls:: In Engl Englis ishh ther theree is on only ly one one pal palat atal al sou sound, nd, the /j/. vii. vii. Velar elars: s: In In Engl Englis ishh ther theree are are /k/, /k/, /g/ /g/ and and /y/ /y/.. Glottals: There is only one English glottal sound, viii. /h/. (Aitchison: 1992) 2. Manner of Articulation: Articulation: It describes the type of obstruction caused by the narrowing or closure of the articulators. i. Stops or plosives. There are three steps to produce a top sound: a. Comple Complete te closur closuree stage. stage.  b. Compre Compressi ssion on stage. stage. c. Sudden Sudden rele release ase stage. stage. In English jthe stops are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/ and /g/. Place of articulation Voicing Bilabials Alveolars Velars Voiceless (fortes) p t k   Voiced (lenis) b d g Table 2.2 Stops or Plosives

III

ii.

Fricatives: To To produce a fricative sound a narrow  passage must be made between the two articulators, the air escapes between the two articulators and the active articulator moves to apassive articulator, articulator, In English there are / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, /z/, / /, / / and /h/.

Voicing Voiceless (fortes) Voiced (lenis)

Place of Articulation Dentals Labio-dental Alveolar Palato-lveolar Glottal

s z Table 2.3 Fricatives

h : depends on the sound following it. iii. iii.

Affri Affricat cates: es: To produc producee an affri affricat catee sound, sound, there there are are three steps: 1. Complete Complete closure closure stage. stage. 2. Compre Compressi ssion on stage. stage. 3. Slow Slow releas releasee stage. stage. In En English th these are / / and and / /. Place of articulation Voicing Palato-alveolars Voiceless (fortes) Voiced (lenis) d Table 2.4 Affricates

Affricate Affricate sounds begin as plosives and end as fricatives. The plosive and the following fricative must be made with the same articulators, the plosive and fricative must be (homorganic) two sounds = one  phone.

III

h

iv. iv.

Nasals Nasa ls:: In na nasa sall soun sounds ds the there re is is no comp compre ress ssio ion, n, the the air escapes through the nose, for this to happen, the soft palate must be lowered. In English Nasals are /m/, /n/ and /y/.

v.

Late Latera ral: l: The There re is is only only one late latera rall sound sound whi which ch is is /l/. /l/. To produce this sound the air must escape from aside of the tongue. /l/ voiced / Alveolar/ Lateral. There are two kinds of (L): 1. Dark (L): (L): is found when when it precedes precedes a consonant. consonant. 2. Clear (L): (L): in found found when it precedes precedes a vowel. vowel. E.g. Dark (L): tell, fill. Clear (L): slim, plane.

vi. vi. Ap Appr prox oxim iman ants ts:: IN Engl Englis ishh thes thesee are are /j/, /j/, /w/ /w/ and and /r/ /r/.. /r/ it is an articulation in which the Tongue is in fact usually curled back wards with the tip raised, consonants with this tongue shape are usually called (retroflex). There There are two kinds of accent: a. Rhotic accent accent (Amer (American ican accent) accent).. This accent has (r) in final position before a pause and before a consonant.  b. Non-rhotic accent accent (British accent): In this accent accent (r) only occurs before vowels. Semi-vowels: semi- vowels are /j/ and /w/. They are  phonologically like consonants but phonetically like vowels. Phonologically their function as consonants, they only occur before vowel phonemes. ph onemes. Phonetically the articulation of /j/ is the same as that of a front close vowel such as /i:/ but it is very short. In the same way /w/ we have to raise the back of the tongue tongu e toward the

III

velum and simultaneously rounding the lips. (Aitchison: 1992)& (Alkhali: 2002) & (Alitchison: 1992)

3. Voicing: If the vocal cords vibrate during its production, a sound is called voiced sound; otherwise, it is called voiceless. Whereas all vowel sounds are voiced. Place

Bilabial

LabioDental

Dental

Alveolar PalatoPalatal Velar Alveolar 

Glottal

Manner 

Stop Voiceless Voiced

p

t

k

b

d

g

?

Affricate Voiceless Voiced Fricative

f

Voiceless

v

Voiced  Nasal Voiced

m

Lateral

Voiced

h

z n

ŋ

l

Voiced Approximant

s

w

r

j

Table 2.5 English Consonants Adopted from Aitchison (1992)

 Note: /h/ phonetically, phonetically, is a voiceless vowel with the quality of the voiced vowel that follows it. Phonologically, Phonologically, /h/ is a consonant. It is usually found  before vowels (voiced) when /h/ occurs between voiced

III

 

sound it is pronounced with voicing. E.g. greenhouse /gri:nhaυs/ , a head /əhed/. Bilabials /p/ /b/ /m/ /w/   pen bad man wet

Labio- Dentals /f/ /v/ fall voice

Articulators: (The two lips)

Articulators: (lower lip + upper teeth)

Palatals /j/ yes

Dentals / /Ө/ then thin

Articulators: (Hard palate + tongue)

Articulators: (teeth + tongue)

/

Alveolars

Palato-Alveolars /t/ /d/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /l/ /r/ /s/ / t ʃ  / / / /  ʃ / tea did no so zoo leg red she chin vision June Articulators: (Alveolar ridge + tongue)

/k/ cat

Velars /g/ got

/ŋ/ sing

Articulators: (Soft palate + tongue)

Articulators: (hard palate + alveolar ridge + tongue) Glottals /h/ how Articulators: (Vocal cards)

III

Table 2.6 Place of Articulation Symbol

Keyword Symbol Keyword See Port ɔ Ship u Too Ten Put Lamb Cup а Arm 3 Fur   Pot ə Age Table 2.7 The Sound of English / Vowels Part (1)

Symbol

Keyword  pay five  join go now near   pure hair  Table 2.8 The Sounds of English / Vowels Part (2)

III

2.5.1. 2.5.1 . Vowels Vowels Vowels are produced with no obstruction and all vowels sounds are voiced (vibrating the vocal cards). We can describe vowels according to these criteria: 1. Frontness Frontness – backness backness (Shape (Shape of the tongue). tongue). 2. Closeness Closeness - openness openness (how far far up or down that part part moves) 3. Lip – rounding rounding (the (the shape of of the lips). lips). The shape of the lips: 1) Spread. 2) Rounded. 3) Neutral (N (Neither spread nnoor rounded). 1.5. 1.5.1. 1. Card Cardin inal al Vow owel els: s: 1. /i/ is a long, high, front vowel with spread lips as in see. 2. / / is the the shor shortt /i/ /i/ as as in sip. sip. 3. /e/ is a short, mid, front vowel made with spread lips as in get. sh ort, low, low, front vowel made with the 4. / / is a short, spread lips as in get. low, back vowel made with neutrally 5. /a/ is a long, low, open lips as in park. 6. / / is a short, low, low, back vowel made with slightly rounded lips (in British English) as in hot. 7. / / is is th the long cou ounnter pa part of of / / as as in in ca caught. 8. /υ/ is a short high back vowel made with rounded lips as in foot. 9. /u/ is the long counter part of /υ/ / υ/ as in boot. short,, low low, centr central al vowe vowell as in but. but. 10./ / is a short III

11./

/ is a long mid, central vowel made with slightly rounded lips as in bird. 12./ə/ "the schwa" is a short, mid, central vowel made with slightly spread lips as in sofa. (Aitchison: 1992) & (Alkhuli: 2002)

2.5.2 Diphthongs Diphthongs are vowel sounds consisting of two parts each part considered as a single part. p art. We We produce the two sounds with two articulators without interruption. They can be divided into three kinds: Thosee end endin ingg w wit ithh / /: 1. Thos / / as in late /l t/. / / as in file /f l/. / / as in toy /t /. 2. Those ending with /υ/: /əυ/ as in snow /snəυ/. /aυ/ as in town /taυn/. 3. Those ending with /ə/: / / as in near /n /. /υə/ as in sure / ʃ  υə/. /eə/ as in hair /heə/. (Aitchison: 1992)

/

/

/ /

/ / ending in / / Fig 2.2 Diphthongs

III

ending in /

/

1.5.3 Triphthongs: They are not counted vowels because we have two tongue movements and the last part of the triphthongs is rarely heard. Triphthongs Triphthongs are: / ə/ as in player. 1) / ə/ as in liar. 2) / ə/ as in lawyer. 3) /aυə/ as in hour. 4) /əυə/ as in lower. (Lyons: 1981) 5)

Fig. 2.3 Cardinal Vowels Adopted from Aitchison (1992)

III

2.6 Phonemes and Allophones: Allophones: Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that indicates difference in meaning. Allophone is the different  pronunciation of a phoneme. E.g. the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in different word positions. In word kill it is called dark (L),  but in the word killing it is called clear L. The two  pronunciations are allophones of the meaning must be changed e.g. /t/ is considered a phoneme because the change of this this sound sound in the the word word bit /b t/ into into another  another  such as as bid /b d/ changes changes the the meaning meaning of the word. But whether the phoneme /t/ is pronounced as [t] in a word like like pit pit /p /p t/ into into [T] [T] as as in in the the wo word rd bu butt /b /b t/ do does es no nott make any difference. difference. (Aitchison: 1992) & (lyons: 1981) & (Alkhuli: 2002)

III

Chapter 3 The Sound Systems of Arabic 3.1. Organs of speech and speech production: Speech is modified breathing. That is, the basic of  human sound in all its variety is the air stream that goes through our vocal tract to or fro our lungs. Aspeech sound wave is usually set up by a source of energy. energy. Lungs serve as an initiator. initiator. Most ordinary sounds are  produced by air stream coming from the lungs. Omar (1976) proposes four processes in speech  production: 1. Air stream. 2. Phonation. 3. Oro-nasal. 4. Articulatory Articulat ory.. The upper articulator ‫ى‬‫ع‬‫ضو ا‬‫ال‬

The lower articulator ‫ف‬‫ا‬ ‫ضو ا‬‫ال‬

Upper lip ‫يا‬‫لع‬ ‫ه‬‫لش‬ Upper teeth ‫يا‬‫لع‬ ‫ا‬ ‫سنا‬ Upper teeth ‫يا‬‫لع‬ ‫ا‬ ‫سنا‬ tooth-ridge ‫ثه‬‫ل‬ Palate ‫ار‬‫ل‬ Hard-palate ‫ب‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬" ‫ار‬‫ل‬" Velum ‫ي‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ Uvula ‫اة‬‫ل‬‫ل‬

Lower lip ‫ى‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ه‬‫لش‬ Lower lip ‫ى‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ه‬‫لش‬ Blade of the tongue ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬   Blade of the tongue ‫ا‬‫ل‬   Blade of the tongue ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬   Front of the tongue ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫د‬ ‫د‬  Front of the tongue ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ؤ‬ ‫ؤ‬  Front of the tongue ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ؤ‬ ‫ؤ‬ 

The classification of  articulation ‫خرج‬‫ال‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫التص‬ Bilabial 1. ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬  Labiodentals 2. ‫ا‬ ‫أسنا‬  ‫وو‬  Dental 3. ‫ا‬ ‫أسنا‬ Alveolar  4. ‫و‬ ‫لثو‬ Retroflex 5. ‫ئ‬ ‫ئ‬‫و‬‫ل‬ Palatal 6. ‫ر‬ ‫ار‬ Velar  7.   Uvular  8. ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬

Table 2.1 "‫ج‬ "‫خرج‬‫ا ل‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫التص‬" The classification of Points of Articulation Articulation Adopted from Omar (1976)

III

9. There are some sounds are produced in the pharynx and larynx, mouth and nose don't do d o anything except the formation of sounds and these sounds are called "resonates". Pharyngeal are produced by the root of the tongue and the back of the mouth. So, it is better to call these sounds as linguo-pharyngal. This position may produce fricative sound or stop sound. sound . Stops are very hard to be produced  but fricatives are produced easily. "" and "" are considered as fricative pharynals. Glottal is produced in the glottis. When we close the glottis "‫ء‬ "‫ء‬" sound is produced and when we narrow the glottis "‫ـ‬ "‫ـ‬" sound is produced. 10. There are some sounds which are produced fro the nose only, the air goes through the nose. We can describe the sounds if we know their place of articulation. So, it is important to indicate the position of the closure. Nasals are considered as stops. Nasals are produced when the velum is lowered to allow the air pass freely through the nose. (ibid)

3.2. Modification of air: 1. Complete closure then open stage: This modification produce stops which are called  plosives or "occlusives" and these sounds are also called 'momentary'. Plosives are described as "Aspirated Sound" if a kind of aspiration goes with the plosion. This kind of aspiration is symbolized by (p ) or (p ). There are two kinds of plosives; the first kind is "explosives" and

III

the second kind is "implosives". (Isteatiah: 2006)& (Omar: 1976)

2.

Narrowing: In this modification "continuants" are produced which are divided into a. "Sibilants" or "Whistles" such as () and (‫ز‬ (‫ز‬). Sometimes sibilants are divided into "hissing" e.g. (s) and "hushing" e.g. (S). (Ibid)  b. Fricatives which are also called "constrictives" or  "spirants" e.g. () and (‫ذ‬ (‫ذ‬). 3. Closure then narrowing: In this modification we have "Affricates" "Affricates" or "Affricated release" or "Semi-stops". (ibid) 4.

Partial closure: There is a partial closure in one place then a partial opening in other place. This partial closure consists of: a) Laterals such as () sound.  b) Nasals which are sometimes called vowel-like sounds. These sounds are produced with vibration. 5. Clos Closee tri trill ll:: Ther Theree are are some some po posi siti tion onss for for clos closee tri trill ll:: a) Uvula: which produces uvular trill sound.  b) Tongue Tongue against teeth and tooth-ridge. This position  produces lingual trill sound. c) The tip of the tongue against the palate. This position  produces retroflex trill sound. d) The lip: which produces labial trill. If we have one wave of vibration, these sounds are called as one-tap- trill or flapped. Consonants are produced by these five phases.

III

Open approximation: Open approximation produces sounds without friction or explosion. All the vowels are produced in this and some consonants such as (v), (w) and (s). (ibid)

6.

3.3. Description of Speech Sounds:

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬.   1.

1.   Delicate sonorous strict bilabial. ‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬.   2. 2.   Delicate sonorous nasal bilabial. ‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫ي‬ ‫لي‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫أ‬‫أ‬.   3. 3.   Delicate sonorous soft bilabial. ‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬ ‫ا‬ ‫أسنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬.   4. 4.   Delicate whispered lax nasal bilabial. ‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  . ‫ ظ‬5. 5. ‫ ظ‬Magnified sonorous lax from the blade of the

tongue and the blade of the folds. 6. ‫ذ‬

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .

‫ ذ‬6.

Delicate sonorous lax from the blade of the tongue and the blade of the folds.

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  . ‫ ث‬7.

7. ‫ ث‬Delicate whispered lax from the blade of the

tongue and the blade of the folds. ‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ا‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫أصو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .

8. ‫ ط‬Magnified sonorous strict from the blade of the

tongue and the roots of the folds. 9. ‫د‬

‫ق‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ا‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫أصو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .

Delicate sonorous strict from the blade of the tongue and the roots of the folds.

‫ ط‬8. ‫ د‬9.

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ا‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫أصو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .   10. III

Delicate whispered strict from the blade of the tongue and the roots of the folds. 11. ‫ز‬

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫فو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .

11.. ‫ ز‬11

Delicate sonorous lax from the blade of the tongue and the upper folds.

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫فو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .   12.

12.   Delicate whispered lax from the blade of the

tongue and the upper folds.

‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ا ر‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫فو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  .   13.

13.   Magnified whispered lax from the blade of the

tongue and the upper folds.

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا أ‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫فو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ا‬.   14.

14.   Delicate sonorous nasal from the blade of the

tongue and the upper folds.

‫ر‬‫ك‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  ‫ف‬ ‫ف‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا أ‬‫لثنا‬ ‫و‬ ‫فو‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬  ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ا‬    15. ‫ور‬‫ج‬.

15.   Sonorous trill between the blade of the tongue

and the upper folds entered to the back of the tongue. ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫ح‬ ‫نح‬ ‫ا‬‫ق‬ ‫ا فوق‬  ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ف‬ ‫اف‬ .

16.   Sonorous curved from the tip of the tongue to

  16.

the blade and above them.

‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬   ‫يه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ف‬ ‫اف‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ .   17.

17.   Magnified sonorous lax from the tip of the

tongue to the following teeth.

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬   ‫يه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ف‬ ‫اف‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ . ‫ ش‬18.

18. ‫ ش‬Delicate whispered lax from the tip of the

tongue to the following teeth.

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ى‬ ‫لحن‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ .  19.

19.  Delicate sonorous strict from the middle of the

tongue "the middle of the hard palate"

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ى لي‬ ‫لحن‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ .  20.

20.  Delicate sonorous soft from the middle of the

tongue "the middle of the hard palate" III

‫ق‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ن‬ ‫لحن‬  ‫يه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ؤ‬ ‫ؤ‬ . ‫ ك‬21.

21. ‫ ك‬Delicate whispered strict from the back of the

tongue and the following hard palate.

‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ن‬ ‫لحن‬  ‫يه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ى‬‫أق‬ . ‫ ق‬22.

22. ‫ ق‬Magnified sonorous strict from the maximum of 

the tongue of the following hard palate.

‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫ى‬‫أ‬‫أ‬ . ‫ غ‬23.

23. ‫ غ‬Magnified sonorous lax from the minimum of 

the pharynx.

‫م‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫نى‬‫أ‬ .  24.

24.  Magnified whispered lax from the minimum of 

the pharynx.

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫د‬‫لشد‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ .  25.

25.  Delicate sonorous between strict and lax from

the middle of the pharynx.

‫م‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬ .  26.

26.  Delicate whispered lax from the middle of the

 pharynx. 27. ‫ء‬

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫ى‬‫أق‬ .

‫ ء‬27.

Delicate sonorous strict from the maximum of  the pharynx.

‫ق‬ ‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫و‬‫ر‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫ى‬‫أق‬ . ‫ هـ‬28.

28. ‫ هـ‬Delicate whispered lax from the maximum of 

the pharynx. 29. ‫أ‬

‫ور‬‫ج‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫ى‬‫أق‬ .

Sonorous deep from the maximum of the  pharynx.

III

‫ أ‬29.

(Hassan: 1988)

Fig 3.1 ‫ل‬ ‫ز ال‬‫ل‬ ‫ال‬ ' The organ of articulation' Adopted from Omar (1976)

'Lips' 'Teeth' 'Tooth-ridge' 'Hard palate' 'Soft palate' 'Uvula' 'Blade of tongue' 'Front of tongue' 'Back of tongue' 'Pharynx' 'Epiglottis' III

 ‫ا‬ ‫ل ش‬ 1.  ‫س ن ا‬ 2.  ‫ث‬ ‫ل‬ 3. ‫ب‬ ‫ل‬  ‫ل ح ن‬ 4.  ‫ي‬ ‫ل‬  ‫ل ح ن‬ 5. ‫ا ة‬ ‫ل‬ 6.  ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬  7.  ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬  ‫د‬ 8.  ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ة‬ ‫ؤ‬ 9.  ‫ل ح‬ 10. ‫ا ر‬ ‫ل‬  ‫ا‬ ‫ ل‬11.

'Position of of vocal cords' 'Tip of tongue'

 ‫و ت ي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ت ار‬  ‫و ق‬. 12.  ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫د‬ 13.

(Omar: 1976)

Fig. 3.2 ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ئي‬‫ل‬ ‫ن‬ ‫لن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫" أ‬The main place of articulation" Adopted from Omar (1976)

" ،   ،   " Bilabial "" Labiodental " ،   ،  ‫ "ذ‬Dental "  ،  ‫ز‬ ،   ،   ،  ‫ط‬ ،   ،  " Alveolar " ،  ‫ر‬ ،  " Retroflex " ،   ، " Palatal " ‫غ‬ ،  ‫خ‬ ،  " Velar III

 ‫ا‬ 1.  ‫أ س ن ا‬  ‫و‬ 2.  ‫ أ س ن ا‬3.  ‫أ س ن ا‬  ‫ ل ث و‬4.  ‫ئ‬ ‫و‬ ‫ل‬ 5.  ‫ا ر‬ 6.  7.

"" Uvular " ،  " Pharyngeal " ‫ـ‬ ،  " glottal

III

 ‫و‬ ‫ ل‬8.  9.  ‫ن ج‬ 10.

Table 3.2 ‫ح‬ ‫لح‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫" ص‬The description of sounds" Adopted from Hassan (1988)

III

letter Symbol Keyword Letter symbol Keyword ‫ء‬ ‫ة‬ ‫ل‬ ? ‫د‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ر‬z   b   ‫د‬  s ‫م‬   t ‫ت‬ ‫ا‬  S ‫عد‬ ‫ط‬ T           ‫ا‬  ‫ل‬  9 ‫م‬     ‫غ‬ g ‫ا‬  ћ    f ‫ا‬ ‫خ‬ x    q ‫م‬   d   ‫ر‬  k    D ‫ر ص‬  l   ‫ذ‬ ‫ب ذ‬  m ‫ا‬  Ð    h ‫ ور‬ ‫ر‬ r ‫ى ر‬  w ‫لد‬  j/y ‫وس‬   Table 3.3 The sounds of Standard Arabic Consonants



 

‫س‬ ‫ص‬   ‫ف‬ ‫ق‬ 

      ‫ل‬  

   

 

Adopted from Kharma & Bakir (2001)

Letter or Diacritic Symbol Keyword  ‫ح‬ ‫ل‬ a ‫َب‬ َ ‫ذ‬ َ   ‫ل‬ aa ‫ـات‬ ‫ق‬    ‫ ل ض‬ u  ‫ ُ ق‬  ‫ل و‬ uu  ‫ ُ و‬   ‫ة‬ ‫ل ك‬ i  ‫ ِ ق‬ ‫ل ي ا ء‬ ii  ‫قيـ‬ ِ   ‫أ‬ ai  ‫ ْي‬  َ  ‫أ‬ au ْ  ‫و‬َ‫ص‬ / ْ ‫قو‬ َ Table 3.4 The Th e Sound So und of Arabic Vowels Vowels Adopted from kharma & Bakir (2001)

Chapter 4 III



The Sound System of English and Arabic 4.1 English and Arabic Arabic phonemes English language has its own phonetic system, syste m, but such systems may share some similarities in addition to some differences. There are three types of relationship  between English system and Arabic Arabic system. First, there are phonemes common to both languages. Second, there are phonemes existent in the first language (L1), but not in the other language (L2). Third, there are phonemes existents in (L2), but not in (L1). (Alkhuli: 1997) Type L1 L2 1 +p +p 2 +p -p 3 -p +p Table 4.1 Types of phonemic Differences Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

4.2. Common Consonants: There are some common consonants in both English and Arabic. Arabic. These consonants are (d, b, t, j, f, , , z, š, h, l, m, n, w, r and y). There are eighteen consonants common between English and Arabic. However, However, these common consonants are not always identical; there are some differences. differences. (Ibid) 1. /t/ in English is alveolar, but in Arabic it is dental. Here is a difference in the point of articulation. 2. /d/ in English (E) is alveolar, but dental in Arabic (A). 3. /h/ occurs in initial and medial positions in English,  but not finally, finally, e.g., horse, behalf. In Arabic, /h/ occurs in III

all positions, positio ns, e.g., َََ ,‫ه‬ ,‫ه‬ْَ   . Here is a difference in distribution. 4. /r/ is flat in British English and retroflexed in American English. But trilled in Arabic, especially in a final position, e.g., . The terms here refer to tongue shape and tongue position. With a flat /r/, the tongue is flat, with a retroflexed /r/, the tip of the tongue is curved  back. With With a trilled /r/, the Sound /r/ is repeatedly  produced. 5. Although /l/ is a common consonant, the rules of light dark phone distribution ae different in English and Arabic. We notice that the difference may still be there: in the point of articulation, manner of articulation on distribution. Common English Arabic Common English Arabic  phoneme  phoneme Example  phoneme  phoneme Example 1. /b/ Bait ‫ا‬  13. /l/ Little ‫لي‬ 2. /t/ Ton ‫ت‬ ‫ت‬ 14. /m/ Mother  ‫اء‬  3. /b/ Day   15. /n/  Now ‫ا‬  4. /k/ Kit ‫ا‬  16. /w/ Water  ‫وء‬  Jug ‫اء‬  17. /r/ Rate ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ 5. / / Fine ‫ى‬‫ف‬ 18. /y/ yet ‫م‬‫ك‬  6./f/ Thin ‫ه‬  7. / / Then ‫ذ ل‬ 8. / / Sign ‫سو‬ 9. /s/ Zoo ‫ز‬ ‫ز‬ 10. /z/ Shoe ‫ا‬  11. / / hen  12. /h/ Table 4.2 Common Consonants Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

4.3 Consonants Restricted to English:

III

There are consonants that exist in English, but not in Arabic. These consonants are called English-restricted consonants. (ibid) No. Consonant English Example Arabic Example 1 /p/ Pen 2 /g/ Good 3 Chair  / / 4 Vine /v/ 5 Sing / / 6 measure / / Table 4.3 English-Restricted Consonants Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

However, However, some elaboration may be desirable here: "1. /p/ exists in English as a phoneme. It does not exist in Arabic as a distinct phoneme. Nevertheless, [p] exists in Arabic as an allophone of /b/ conditioned by the phonetic environment, e.g, (laps) ْ َ‫ل‬ . Here /b/ in phonemic in English, i.e, significant, because it affect meaning, but the difference in Arabic is phonetic, i.e. , non-phonemic, non-functional, or insignificant, because it does not affect meaning." (Alkhuli, 1997: 4) 2. /g/ is an English- restricted consonant. However, we can find this sound so und in some so me Arabic dialects such as the Egyptian dialect and the Yemenite Yemenite dialects, dialects not considered standard dialects. For example, a reader of the Holy Quran would not pro produ ducce /g /g/ in in th the pla place of of / /.

III

3. / / does does not exist exist in in stand standard ard Arabic Arabic,, we can find find this this sound in some rural dialects. The counter-consonant in standard Arabic is /k/. 4. / / does not exist exist in most Arabic Arabic dialects dialects.. However However,, we find this sound in Syrian Arabic Arabic and Lebanese Arabic in the plac placee of of / / in in oth other er dial dialeects, cts, e.g., .g., / aba bal/ l/ inst nstead ead of / abal/ َ َ.  . 5. / / doesn't exist in Arabic at all. In English, it has a restriction on occurrence: it doesn't occur initially. initially. It only occurs medially and finally, finally, e.g. finger, finger, sing.

4.4. Consonants Restricted to Arabic. Arabic. There are some consonants in Arabic that don't exist in English. There Consonants are called Arabic-restricted Arabic-restricted consonants. (Alkhuli: 1997) No. Consonant Arabic Example English Ex Example 1 /T/ /‫ط‬ /‫ط‬/ ‫عا‬  2 /q/ // ‫قا‬ 3 /?/ /‫ء‬ /‫ء‬/ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ 4 /D/ //   5 /S/ // ‫صا‬ 6 /H/ // ‫ال‬  7 /X/ /‫خ‬ /‫خ‬/ ‫ا‬  8 /Ð/ //   ّ  9 /G/ /‫غ‬ /‫غ‬/ ‫ناء‬ 10 /9/ //  Table 4.4 Arabic-Restricted Consonants. Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

III

4.5 Vowel Comparison: There are some simple vowels. Three of them are common to both E and A: /i, a, u/. four of them are restricted to English /e, , i, /. Only one vowel is restricted to A i.e., /a:/, the only long vowel in the table. (Alkhuli: 1997)

No. Vowel English Ex Example Arabic Ex Example Type 1 /i/  bit ‫ن‬  EA 2 /e/  bet E 3 / / man E 4 /i/ wanted E 5 / / the E 6 /a/ hot ‫نَى‬ َ    EA 7 /a:/ ‫قا‬ A 8 /u/  put ‫ا‬ُ    EA Table 4.5 Vowel Vowel Comparison Comparis on Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

4.6. Diphthong Comparison: "A diphthong is a vowel followed by a glide or semivowel. E.g., boy, bow. There are four diphthongs common to E and A. Here we refer to Standard English and Arabic Arabic SA, i.e., the two standard languages. The common ones are /iy/, /ay/, /aw/, /uw/. There are four  ones restricted to English: English : /ey, /ey, ow ow,, oy, oy, ɔw/. There is no diphthong restricted to Arabic." (Alkhuli: 1997,6)

III

It is mention worthy to say that some phoneticians consider consid er the diphthongs diphth ongs /iy, /iy, ey, ey, uw uw,, ɔ w/ long vowels, which have to be symbolized as such: /i:, e:, u:, /. However, However, this disagreement among phonetians does not change the comparative observation in this respect. The types of relationship between E and A with regard to these sounds remain the same, no matter how they are transcribed. A main EA difference must be pointed out here with respect to vowels and diphthongs. English allows them to occur anywhere; initially, medially, and finally, finally, e.g., in, not, no, with some exceptions in final  positions. In contrast, Arabic does not allow them to occur initially; all Arabic words begin with consonants, never with vowels or diphthongs." (Ibid: 6-7) No. Diphthong English Example Arabic Example 1 /iy/ Beat ‫م‬‫ر‬ 2 /ey/ Bait 3 /ay/ Fine ْ ‫ي‬ َ    4 /aw/ Round ْ ‫َو‬    5 /ow/ Boat 6 /oy/ Boy 7 /uw/ Boot ‫تو‬  8 /ɔw/  bought Table 4.6 Diphthong Comparison Co mparison Adopted from Alkhuli (1997)

III

Type EA E EA EA E E EA E

Place

Manner plosive

Voiced Voiceless

Affricate

b

d

-

t

  D ‫ط‬ T

Voiced

-

Voiced

Lateral

Vibrates

SemiVowels

Voiced

‫ذ‬

f 

Voiceless Nasal

-

k

‫ق‬ q

‫ء‬ ?

 -

Voiceless Fricative

-

z s

‫ث‬ m

D ‫ش ظ‬ S  

‫غ‬ x 

ŋ

n l

Voiced

r

Voiced Voiced

y (j)

Table 4.7. Arabic Consonants Adopted from Kharma & Bakir (2001)

III

9  h 

h -

Chapter 5 Conclusion As we have seen in this research, there are many differences and similarities between the sound systems of  English and the sound systems of Arabic. This research explains these differences and similarities to accommodate one's language who learns English or  Arabic as a second language with the correct  pronunciation. This research tries to distinguish between these two systems, as we have seen in chapter one, it shows many things about English consonants and vowels. It gives many of information about classification of consonants and description of speech sounds of both consonants and vowels. In contrast, in chapter two it explains many things such as organs of speech, speech production, modification of air and description of o f Arabic Arabic speech sounds. In addition to these things, this research gives us a clear comparison between these two systems, as we have seen in chapter three there are some consonants restricted to English and others restricted to Arabic. There There is another comparison for vowels and diphthongs between Arabic and English. In conclusion, the purpose of this research which is to help people to pronounce sounds properly is fulfilled through this kind of comparative study between the sound systems of English and Arabic. Arabic.

III

Appendix I

English Phonemes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

/ sheep / farm / coo / horse / bird / ship / hat / foot / sock UK) / cup / head / above / mother (US) 14. / book 15. / day 16. / give 17. / very 18. / the 19. / zoo 20. / vision 21. / j/ump 22. / / look 23. / / run

2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 3 5. 3 6. 3 7. 3 8. 4 0. 4 1. 4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 4 5. / 4 6. 4 7.

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

III

/ / yes / / we / / moon / / name / / sing / / pen / / town / / cat / / fish / / think  / / say / / she / / cheese / / day / / eye / / boy / / mouth / / nose (UK) / / nose (US) / / ear (UK) / hair (UK) / / pure (UK) / / hand

Appendix II Arabic Phonemes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

/t/ /T/ /k/ /q/ /?/ /b/ /d/ /D/ /ĵ/ /f/ /θ/ /s/ /S/ /ŝ/ /x/ /H/ /ð/ /z/ /D/ /G/ /9/ /h/ /m/

 | ‫ط‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ء‬  ‫د‬    ‫ث‬     ‫ش‬     ‫ذ‬   ‫ز‬   ‫ظ‬   ‫غ‬  ‫هـ‬  

24. /n/    25. /l/    26. /r/    27. /w/  ‫ل‬) ) 28. /y/ ( (   29. /i/ ِ '  ' 30. /a/ َ ' '  31. /u/ ُ '  ' 32. /i/i:/ ( ( ( ‫ي م‬   33. /a:/ ( ‫ا‬ (   34. /u:/ ( ( ‫و‬  

III

Bibliography 1. Alkhuli, M. (1999). Comparative linguistics: English and Arabic. (Amman: The National Library). 2. Alkhuli, M. (2002). English Phonetics and Phonology. Phonolo gy. (Amman: Dar Al-Falah). 3. Aitchison, Aitchison, J. (1992) linguistics. (London: Hodder  Headline Plc). 4.

Kharma, N, & M. Bakir. (2001). Introduction to Linguistics. (Amman: The National Liprary).

5. Lyons, Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics. (London: C.U.P.).

III

Arabic References ‫ربي‬‫ال‬ ‫ج‬ ‫راج‬‫ال‬ ) ‫ش‬ ‫نش‬‫ل‬ ‫ئ‬ ‫ئ‬ ‫ر‬ – ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ / ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫و‬ ‫صو‬ :‫ي‬ :‫ي‬‫س‬،‫ه‬ ‫ي‬‫ي‬‫س‬.1 .(2006 / ‫ع‬ ‫لع‬ ‫ند‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬‫ل‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ك‬‫ل‬‫يه ل‬‫ولو‬‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬‫ر‬ :‫ا‬ :‫ا‬‫ت‬ ، ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ .2 ‫ؤ‬ ‫لشؤ‬ ‫ر‬  ‫كاتب‬‫ه ل‬‫لعا‬ ‫ه‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ل‬ – ‫ع‬ ‫لع‬    .(1988) ‫ا‬ ‫لعا‬ ‫افيه‬‫لث‬ ) ‫ب‬‫لك‬ ‫ر‬ – ‫ة‬‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬ / ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬‫ ل‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬‫ل‬ ‫س‬ ‫س‬‫ر‬ :‫د‬ :‫د‬‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ، .3 .(1976

III

‫ة‬‫خ‬ ‫الخ‬ :‫وهما‬ ‫ي‬ ‫أساسي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ثة أسئل‬‫تجيب عن ث‬ ‫أ‬  ‫ة أ‬‫رسا‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫هذ‬ ‫و‬ ‫تحاو‬ ‫؟‬‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ا ه‬‫؟ و‬‫جليز‬ ‫ا‬ ‫تيا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ا ه‬ ‫تيا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عن عل‬ ‫ز‬ ‫جليز‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ل‬ ‫لف عل‬‫خ‬ ‫و كيف‬ ‫لي‬‫ت‬ ‫ه‬ ‫وه‬  ‫د‬‫و‬ ‫و‬ ‫د‬ ‫د‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ل‬ ‫سئل‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫هذ‬ ‫ك‬ ‫وك‬ .‫ر‬ .‫ر‬ .‫ي‬ .‫حي‬ ‫ظ‬‫ا‬‫ا‬ ‫ة‬‫م‬ ‫م‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫جليز‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬  ‫د‬ ‫د‬‫أشياء عد‬ ‫ح‬ ‫ح‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ر هذ‬ ‫و‬ ‫ح‬ ‫حيح‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ين‬ ‫ا‬ ‫مقا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ا‬ ‫تيا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ف عل‬‫ر‬‫ت‬ : .‫ل‬ .‫ل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫حيحة وأ‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫و وصف‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫أ‬ ‫عن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ل‬ ‫ل‬‫م‬ ‫حض‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ط‬‫ت‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ أ‬ً‫ا‬‫أ‬‫سة أ‬‫د‬ ‫د‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫هذ‬ ‫و‬ ‫و تحاو‬ ‫ر‬‫وأ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫و وصف أ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ .‫ح‬ .‫حيح‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫و‬ ‫ز‬ ‫جليز‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ير عن عل‬‫ت‬ ‫ى إعطاء ت‬‫ة إ‬‫ا‬‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫قا‬ ‫إعطاء‬ ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ ،‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬ ‫ ُد‬ ‫لمين‬ ‫ن‬‫ين هذ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫د‬‫د‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬   ‫جد‬ ‫ا‬ .‫ح‬ .‫ح‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫هذ‬   ‫د‬ ‫هد‬ ‫ا‬ .‫ن‬ .‫ين‬‫غ‬ ‫لغ‬ ‫ين‬‫ا‬ ‫ن‬‫ين هذ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬‫ا‬‫ا‬ ‫ن‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫على‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫وأ‬ ‫ك‬ ‫رك‬ ‫ح‬ ‫صحيح‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫أ‬ ‫علة‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫ين وأ‬‫لغ‬ ‫ين‬ ‫ك‬ ‫رك‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫جد أ‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫كذ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫على‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫وأ‬ ‫ز‬ ‫جليز‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫على‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ق‬ .‫ي‬ .‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫ين‬ ‫ة‬‫ا‬ ‫مقا‬ ‫ق‬ ‫تق‬ ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫و‬ ‫سة تحاو‬‫د‬ ‫د‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫هذ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ أ‬‫ر‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ذ‬‫وه‬ ‫سطة إعطاء‬ ‫ز‬ ‫جليز‬ ‫غ‬ ‫لغ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫غ‬ ‫لغ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ر‬ ‫و‬ ‫ح‬ ‫حيح‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫عن‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ير‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫وأ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬‫ر‬ ‫لة‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬‫عن أ‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫وكذ‬ ‫ح‬ ‫حيح‬ ‫ز‬ ‫جليز‬ .‫ة‬‫جليز‬

III

‫هلية‬

‫اء‬‫ز‬ ‫ز‬

‫ة‬‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

‫تيا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫عل‬  :‫ية‬‫ر‬‫و‬ ‫ة و‬‫جليز‬ ‫لغة‬ ‫ة‬‫ا‬ ‫قا‬ ‫سة‬ ‫د‬ ‫إعد‬

‫ما‬ ‫ير‬ ‫د‬‫ع‬ ‫د‬ ‫مد‬ ‫عيد‬

III

‫و‬ ‫ا‬ ‫كا‬ / ‫ر‬‫م‬ 2007 ‫ا‬ ‫و‬

III