The Snail in Gothic Marginal Warfare

Medieval Academy of America The Snail in Gothic Marginal Warfare Author(s): Lilian M. C. Randall Source: Speculum, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1962), pp. 358-367 Published by: Medieval Academy of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2852357 Accessed: 17-04-2015 23:09 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Medieval Academy of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Speculum.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE SNAIL IN GOTHIC MARGINAL WARFARE BY LILIAN M. C. RANDALL

the end of the thirteenthcenturythere emergedin the marginsof North Frenchilluminatedmanuscriptsa motifwhose meaningand originhave not yet been fullyclarified.The motifdepictsa man combattinga snail (Fig. 1). Appearinga fewyears later also in Flemishand English marginalillumination, withnotablefrequencythroughthethemeand variantsthereofwererepresented century.Its humorousand satiricalimpliout the firstquarterof the fourteenth cations,perfectlyadapted to the predominantspiritof Gothic droleries,do not sufficeto explain its popularity,particularlysince its introductioninto the marginsmarkedthe beginningof an artistictraditionwhichpersistedthroughout the Middle Ages. Consideredforthe presentstudy are over seventymarginalrepresentations manuscripts.'Of these, the majorityof the theme culled fromtwenty-nine elevenNorthFrench,sevenFranco-Flemish,and fourEnglishexamples- were producedbetweenabout 1290 and 1310. Of the remainder,illuminatedbetween about 1310 and 1325,threeare Flemish,threeare English,and onlyone is North a waningof interestin the motif,particularlyin France. The French,reflecting manuscripts,whichincludepsalters,hours,breviaries,pontificals,and decretals and a Recueilde poesiesmorales,rangein as wellas a Lancelotdu Lac, a Tristram, artisticquality fromrelativelyprovincialworkswithlimitedornamentationto superbproductionswithelaboratemarginalprograms.A featurecommonto both groupsofmanuscripts,however,is a distinctpreferencefortravesty,genre,and literarythemesratherthan forfantasticimageryor grotesquerie.Althoughapparentlyunrelatedto immediatelyadjoiningillustrationsor textualpassages,the themes motifoftenappears in marginalprogramsdominatedby monderenverse' involvingmenand hares.2This is the case, forinstance,in the firstvolumeofthe breviaryof Margueritede Bar (BritishMuseum, Yates ThompsonMS. 8),3the closelyrelatedpontificalforReynaud de Bar (Cambridge,FitzwilliamMuseum, MS. 298),4and the Gorlestonpsalter (BritishMuseum, Add. MS. 49622).5The relativelyfrequentdepictionof snail combats in English marginalillumination far rarerin English is noteworthyas themesof this type are proportionately on than continent. the manuscripts TOWARDS

1 For the contentand location of the manuscripts,see the appended list. Specificreferences to will appear in my iconographicindex of Gothicmarginalillustrations snail-combatrepresentations to be completedin the near future. 2 In view of the delineationof cowardicein Frenchepics discussedbelow (pp. 363 ff.)the depiction ofsnail combatsin the marginsofsuchmanuscriptsmay have been inspiredby the text.J. F.ChampHistoirede St. Graalin theBibliotheque in an unspecified fleurymentionsfiveor six such illustrations Nationale (Histoirede la caricatureau moyenage [Paris, 1875],p. 41). M M. R. James,A DescriptiveCatalogueof FiftyManuscriptsin theCollectionofH. Y. Thompson (Cambridge,England, 1898), pp. 142 if. 4E. S. Dewick, The Metz Pontifical(London, 1902). S. Cockerell,The Gorleston Psalter(London, 1907).

358

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

iym nrnuswrnuemptdo(ulo

babw:twrn nustrucbwtr ppu

1ofwnpaiR.

,

tt?quntam 6s1 mrawtotwltle

tat nec nuume

&

itncos fupa'me. rMnuo

Inctt$msmo1ramnamtabtc:

aiam eanine eadtmSItfmno

snail. FIG. 1. Baltimore,Walters Art Gallery,MS 45, fol. 5fv. Man fighting

C,~~~~/

V041k'W.VC Oeuvnl?ttS It'fvftt

ItltAr M

-111

r ItUr 'rdW icbqwCiW4

&fttxnsamcnnflt tCt$

FIG. 2. New Haven, Yale UniversityLibrary,Lancelotdu Lac, fol.169. Knight

astriderearinghorseopposingsnail.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

e

til onctii

I tts

ttlGltpt fouttr

t danwl mttts

on tt Srntrt tiesr crftw x &raltito. 0tanfatsywua, E3ttoauats.f . trvrlote b b u acnta lt

<

ew ti b1no 1 1 1?'t ftt

e

tin

ltft

ir

FIG. 8. Paris, Biblioth&jue Nationale, MS latin 149284,fol. 15v. Woman imploringknightnot to combat snail.

FIG. 4. New York,WilliamS. Glaziercollection,Voeuxdu Paon, fol.52v. Viper withhumanhead in jaws, resemblingsnail configuration.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

359

In compositionthe motifvarieslittlefromcountryto country.The mostcommon formof representation showsa knightarmedwithmace or swordconfronting a snail whosehornsare extended and often pointed like arrows (Fig. 2). Equally frequentan adversaryis a man in a shorttunic,or occasionallynude, bearingan axe, spear,sword,or slingshot.In one instancea nude womanopposes the snail withspear and shield.Numerousscenesof a knightdroppinghis sword or kneelingsubmissivelybeforehis diminutivefoeaccentuatethe satiricalimpliof womenbeseechinga knight cationsofthe motif,as do severalrepresentations not to attack the formidablebeast (Fig. 3). There are manyvariationswithhybridmen or animalssubstitutedforhumancombatants.Typical examplesare an ape armedwithswordor crossbowor on horsebackwitha spear; a cat stalkinga snail with the head of a mouse;6a dog, dragon,ram, or even a hare in fierce opposition.The foxfleeingfromthe snail presentsan amusingexampleof parodied monderenverse. Interestingly enough,of the scenesincludedin this study onlyfiveare of a pacificnature.Since theyillustrateotheraspects of the role of the snailin marginalart,theymay be describedbriefly:a man astridea snailpursuinga stag,a resplendentgold snail beingtreatedby an ape-physician,another pullinga winekegon a cart,twosnailswithmonstrousheads atop a seriesofsteps, and threesnails ascendinga ladder.7Also to be mentionedforthe sake of completenessis a host of unembroiledsnails,oftenpouncedupon by a craneor other large bird. Withina shortperiod afterits profuseemergencein manuscriptmarginsthe snail-combatmotifbecame an accepted elementof mediaeval imagery.On the fagadeof Lyon cathedral,forexample,thereappear two reliefsof a knightopa dog-headedsnailwithan axe.8A marginal posinga snail and a man threatening snail combat in a manuscriptwrittenand illuminatedin a Genoese monastery ofthe themeat the end ofthefirstquarterof attestsfurther to the wide diffusion the fourteenth century.9It is even possiblethat in this instancethe motifwas transmitteddirectlyvia a northernintermediary,since the founderof the monastery,Leonardo de' Fieschi,owned a Cambrai psalter,acquired duringhis provostshipof St-Donatienin Brugesfrom1295 to 1304,containingno less than of the theme.Withoutfirsthandexaminationof the six variantrepresentations Genoesemanuscriptthissuppositionmustremainpurelyconjectural. Like manyothersubjectspopularizedin marginalilluminationof about 1300, the snail combat graduallydisappearedin the courseof the fourteenth century, eventsat the to be revivedonce morewithspecial applicabilityto contemporary end of the fifteenth century.Thus it was used in an illustrationfromthe Grand Compostet Calendrierdes Bergersto ridiculethe recentlyestablishedpeasant 6 For numerousexamplesof snail configurations of this type,see Jean Baltrusaitis,Le moyendge fantastique(Paris, 1955), pp. 56 ff. 7 These last two may be illustrations of a windingstaircase,still termed "escalier de limagon" in contemporary Frenchusage. 8 L. Begule, La cathgdrale de Lyon (Lyon, 1913), p. 66. 9 A. Novati, Attraverso il Medio Evo (Bari, 1905), p. 134. On the foundingof the monastery,San Leonardo of Carignano,and a briefbiographyof its founder,Leonardo de' Fieschi, see L. M. C. Randall, "The Fieschi Psalter," Journalof the WaltersArt Gallery,xxiii (1960), pp. 927-47.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

360

militia,heredepictedassailinga large snail reposingon a grapeleaf: pourtesgrandescornes, Lymasson d'assaillir, Le chasteaune lairrons Et si pouvonste feronsfuyr

De ce beaulieuoi tu reposes: OnequesLombardne te manges, A tellesauceque nousferons dansun beau plat Nouste mettrons Au puyvreet aux oignons... 10 Whilethe principalconnotationof the motifappears to be the derision,or the have been proposed. of human cowardice,otherinterpretations exemplification, Perhapsthe earliestis that of the Comte de Bastard, who termedthe emergence on findingan of the snail fromits shell "certainementrelative'a la resurrection" a of archershootinga snail depictedon the same page as miniature the raisingof century and fifteenth Lazarus in two FrenchBooks of Hours of the fourteenth be While it must regarded this deserves consideration, hypothesis respectively.'1 somewhatwarilyin view of anotherelucidationin the same article ascribing symbolicsignificanceto a humorousgrotesque.Upon encounteringa humanheaded quadrupedwithan exceptionallylongneckin the marginofa thirteenthcenturyFrenchbreviary,De Bastard was about to attributethiscreature,which he termedveryunusual, "a la main d'un enlumineuren delire" untilhe read in the adjacent text: "Hodie miles [stephanus]de tabernaculocorporisexienstriumphatormigravitad coelum." In view of the rarityof the strangequadruped, says De Bastard,therecan be no doubt that it was intendedas an illustrationof the saint's apotheosis.Yet long-neckedquadrupeds were a commonfeatureof marginaldecoration,farmoreso than the snail-combat.Anotherraisond'etrefor who cited the snail's voracityin the the latterwas proposedby Champfleury, To Maetervineyardas a possible explanationforits universalunpopularity.12 the strugglebetweenthe linck the theme had broader implications,reflecting lowerclasses and the aristocracy.'3 the main Without rulingout the possible validity of these interpretations, implicationof the motif,human cowardiceor Ignavia, must be examinedmore Virtueand Vice cyclesofNotreDame, Amiens, closely.In thethirteenth-century and Chartres,forinstance,thisthemeis illustratedby a man droppinghis sword 10 C. Nisard, Histoiredes livrespopulaires(Paris, 1864), i, 146-147. For anotherlate mediaeval mockeryof a knight'sterrorbeforea snail, see A. Pollard, English Miracle-plays,Moralities,and Interludes(Oxford,1890), pp. 126-145. Prof.HorstJansoncalled to my attentiona furtherexample of the snail's popularityas a gustatorydelicacy,a miniaturein Ulrichvon Richental's Chronikdes ConstanzerConcils,1414/1418showingdelegatesto the councilpurchasingsnails at the fishmarket. Museum,Konstanz,i (1956), no. 16. See Rosgarten 11Bulletindes comitgs ii (1850), 172 if. historiques, 12 Op. cit.,pp. 40-41. The authorcites a draughtsman of about 1320 in the BritishMuseum cola snail witha spear. lectionshowinga knightfighting 13 L. Maeterlinck,Le genresatiriquedans la peinture flamande(Brussels,1907), pp. 55-56, fig.69. fur romanischePhilologie, see G. Baist, "Assaillirla limace," Zeitschrift For anotherinterpretation, ii

(1878),305.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

361

beforea hare.14A lesserknowncontemporary image of cowardiceis preservedin Gauthier de Metz's Image du mondeof the mid-thirteenth centuryin which pusillanimity, the sixthroot of Accide,is typifiedby fearbeforea snail."5The mergingof the two traditionsmay be observedin a miniaturefroma late thirArs d'amour,de vertuetde boneurte teenth-century showingtwo frightened men, one droppinghis sword,flankinga hareand a snailto illustratethe chapter"ques choses sont a cremiret en ques choses nient cremirnest mie force" (Brussels, BibliothequeRoyale, MS. 9543, f. 117).16A slightlylatercopy ofthe textretains the identicalcomposition,followedin the chapteron Vergogne by a representationoftwo men armedwithsticksconfronting a snail,placed significantly in the centerforeground,and a hare issuing froma more distant hillock (Brussels, BibliothequeRoyale, MS. 9548, ff.97, 148).17 By the end of the thirteenth century,therefore, the snail was an establishedadjunct of the traditionalIgnavia metaphor. Reviewingbrieflythe principalattributesof the snail throughthe ages in an attemptto defineits connotationsin themediaevalperiod,one findsit citedas an exampleof exaggeratedmistrustin classical antiquityforcarryingits house on itsback forfearofthieves.18 Equated withthemoonbecause ofits alternatingappearanceand disappearance,19 it was endowedwithmysticalsignificance related to the theoryof resurrection on the basis of the quantitiesof snail shellsdiscovered in the vicinityof Merovingiantombs.20The physicalcharacteristics of the snail whichlentthemselvesto theseand othersymbolicinterpretations received farlowliertreatmentin popularfolklorethroughoutthe Middle Ages. Thus, the emergencefromthe shellwas comparedto a social climberof whomit was said: "C'est un limechonqui sort de sa coquille.6'21 For crawlingon its stomachthe snail was termeda coward and a parasite;22forits illusorystrengthwithinits shell it was thoroughlydespised,as appears froma referenceto an Aristotelian proverbcited by Gunzon of Novare to counteran insult fromthe monks at Reichenauin an irateletterwrittenshortlyafterthe middleofthetenthcentury: "Sedens in conclavi monasterii cornutum se putat, secundum proverbium Aristotelis,qui ait: Limax in suo conclavi cornupetasibi videtur,seque putat cursu timidiscontenderedamis."23The same thoughtunderliesa-late fifteenth14 A. Katzenellenbogen, AllegoriesoftheVirtuesand Vicesin MedievalArt,Studies ofthe Warburg Institute,x (London, 1939), pp. 75 if. 15 Histoirelitteraire de la France,xxiii (1853), pp. 294 ff.,and F. Chavannes,Le mireourdu monde (Lausanne, 1845), p. 1. 16 G. Gaspar and F. Lyna, Les principauxmanuscritsa peinturesde la Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique,Societe frangaisede reproductionsde manuscritsA peintures(Paris, 1937), i, 205 ff. 17 Ibid., pp. 209 if. 18 0. Keller,Die antikeTierwelt(Leipzig, 1913), ii, 23. 19M. Eliade, Traited'histoire des religions(Paris, 1949), p. 150. 20 E. Salin, La civilisation m&rovingienne (Paris, 1959), iv, 71-73. I am indebtedforthis reference and the precedingone to Mr Philippe Verdier. 21 P. J. Leroux,Dictionnaire comique,satirique,critique(Pamplona, 1876), ii, 90. 22 J. Dejardin, Dictionnaire des spotsou proverbes wallons(Liege, 1891), ii, pp. 129, 458. 23 J. Havet, "Les proverbesd'Aristoteen hexametreslatins," Revuede Philologie,xi (1887), 123124.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

362

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

centuryFrench riddlecitingthe snail as the strongestcreaturein the world.24 Once establishedas a symbolof illusorycourage,the snail became a creatureto be hunteddown and destroyed.In popular literaturethis themeof persecution can be followedfromthe Roman de Renard to the present-dayversionof the MotherGoose rhyme,"Four-and-twenty tailorswent to killa snail." Confrontation by a snail,therefore, representeda test of moralfortitude.25 A mostspecificapplicationof thistest is recountedin literarysources(mostly ofFrenchorigin)fromthe middleofthe twelfthcenturyon in the formof a tale told by the Frenchat the expenseofthe Italians. Commentingon the deplorable on the part of the English,Johnof Salisburyin passion forhuntingand fighting his Polycraticusof 1159 citesas no moreridiculousthe allegedterrorofEmilians and Liguriansat the sightof a snail: et LiguresGalli deridentdicenteseos testamenta conficere, viciniamconAemilianos eorumtestudoimmineat quamoportet vocare,armorum implorare praesidia,si finibus casusinoppugnare.Quodex eo componitur, quod eiusnumquamcuiusquecertaminis venitimperatos. Nostriveroquomodoludibriinotaseffugant, cummajoritumultuet et ampliore sollicitudine aegriori sumptusolemnebellumcredantbestiisindicendum?26 It is highlyprobable that Johnof Salisburylearned of this stigma duringhis sojournin France from1136 to 1149. Two generationslater the same inference appears in Jacques de Vitry'sdescriptionof the characteristicsof the various nationalitiesat the Universityof Paris. The English are portrayedas heavy drinkers,the Flemish as gay and lavish revellers,the Lombards as avaricious, malicious,and cowardly(imbelles).27Equally unfavorableto the Lombards is an oflaw at Bologna,whowas affiliated withtheUniaccountby Odofredo,magister versityof Paris from1228 to 1234. Accusingthe Lombardsof ignoranceforfailing to wash theirhands beforemeals and ofboorishnessforspeakingout ofturn, Odofredoreportsas followson Franco-Italianstudentrelations:" . . . si pingeretur de vili materia,ut faciuntultramontaniqui pinguntlimacemin vituperiam in pariete,de carbone, italicorum,vel scorpionesin vituperiamultramontanorum inconveniensesset quod paries cederetpicture."28Odofredo'scomplaintagainst the defilingofuniversitywalls by mutuallyslanderouscharcoalscrawlsconfirms the fact that by 1230 the snail had become an establishedvehiclein university ofa later date appear, circlesforFrenchridiculeofthe Italians. Otherreferences forinstance,in the Sommele Roi of 127929and in GiovanniVillani's description of the desperateflightof the Frenchin the campaignof Philip of Valois in 1320. Since Villani'ssympathiesas a Guelphwerewiththe French,he soughtto excuse Rolland, Faune populairede la France (Paris, 1909), xii, 47. weaponsused to combatthe snail are listedas followsin the Meon editionofthe Romande Renard (Paris, 1826), i, 130-131: sticks,maces, flails,axes, swords,and forks. 26 Lib. i, cap. iv (ed. G. Webb [Oxford,1909],p. 23). On the mediaeval interpretation of testudo fur RomanischePhilologie,xxvi as snail, see H. Schuchardt,"Franz. creusetu.s.w.," Zeitschrift (1902), 324. 27 Historiaoccidentalis, lib. ii. 28 Digest,vi, i, 23. See N. Tamassia, "Odofredo,"Atti e Memoriedella R. Deputazionedi Storia Patria, xii (1894), 1-83. 29 Cited in A. Tobler, "Assaillirla limace," Zeitschriftfiur romanischePhilologie,iII (1879), 101. 24 E.

25 The

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

363

theircowardlydemeanorby the verylegendcommonlyassociatedwiththeirfoe, a legendwhichhe says was recitedand depictedin France concerningItalian fear ofthe snail.By an adroitand totallyimplausibletourdeforceVillaniclaimedthis to theFrench,causingthemto panic at the sightof fearto have been transferred the Viscontibanner,a coiled viper with a man in its jaws whichat a distance ofa snail (Fig. 4): resembledthe configuration E da notareuna favolache si dice e dipigneper dispettodegliItalianiin Francia: credeFranceschi e' diconoche' Lombardihannopauradellalumaccia... Gl'ignoranti a grandeonta, e fortene vanoche quellainsegnafosseperlorofatta,ondesi recarono cheaveanolorofattii Lombardi....30 parlaroin Franciadeldispetto Withthe exceptionof Johnof Salisbury,the historicaland scholarlytextsnoted above allude specificallyto Lombards in theirmentionof the snail-legend.The to same is truein the othermajor groupof literarysourcescontainingreferences thistale, Frenchheroicepics. In fact,fromthe middleofthe twelfthcenturyon, Lombards are cited as prototypesof non-chivalrouscomportmentin general.31 Thus, in the Roman de Thebes,composedshortlybefore1150, the courageof a knightis emphasizedby the followingcomparison(11.3312-3313): well-outfitted "Ne semblepas Lombartne fol.Tot dreiteportesa lance."32In the same vein the prowess of an ill-equippedknightat a tournamentis derided in Gerbertde Montreuil'sContinuationde Perceval (11.4405-4409): Vousvenezdroitde Lombardie, Moultparavez la charhardie, Que tueavez la lymache; Fu chede pichoisou de mache K'avez mortla bestecornue?3 century The Lombard-snailconnectionis made once morein the earlythirteenth Galiens-li-Restore's: pourplainpie que ie face. (Mais) Pourvousne fuiray Jene suispas Lombartqui fuitpourla lymaiche.34 As theseselectexamplesindicate,allusionsto the anti-Lombardstigmawereby no meansrarein Frenchheroicepics. impetusby a poem,De LomThe perpetuationofthe themewas givenfurther bardoetlumaca,one of a host of pseudo-Ovidianworkswhichappeared towards 30 Istoriefiorentine, lib. ix,

cap. cviii. iuberdie 6piques (Paris, 1917), ii, 209, and M. Zweifel,Untersuchung Bedier, Les M6gendes (Halle, 1921), p. 792. Langobardus-Lombardus Bedeutungsentwicklung 32 L. Constans,ed., Societe des AnciensTextes Frangais,I (1890), 163. 31M. Williams,ed. (Paris, 1922), i, 136. Anotherpertinentreference appears in W. J. Roach, ed., oftheOld French'Perceval'ofChre'tien de Troyes(Philadelphia,1950), ii, 33,1. 1053. The Continuation For an analogous conflictwith a spider,see J. L. Weston and J. Bedier, "TristramMenestrel," Romania,xxv (1906), 529. Philologie,LxxXIV (1890), Section derromanischen 4 E. Stengel,ed., Ausgabenund Abhandlungen dela France,xxii (1852), 464, are cited in Histoirelitetraire CLXII, VV. 28-29, p. 307. Otherreferences 31 J.

507, 591, 648.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

364

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

the end of the twelfthcenturyparticularlyin England and France.35In thisversion a simpleLombardpeasant is nonplussedat encountering a "heavilyarmed" snail,hornedand well fortified. Whilethe gods encouragehim to fightthe beast withpromisesof greatrewards,his wife,appalled by herhusband'srecklessness, pleads withhimforhersake and thechildren'snotto embarkon sucha dangerous mission,whichneitherHercules,Achilles,nor Hector would have dared undertake (Fig. 3). Despite her entreaties,the peasant followsthe gods' advice and destroysthe monsterwith his spear. A suitable rewardforthis feat, says the author,mustbe decidedupon by lawyers. This tale, whichManitius interpretedas a satire of peasant cowardice,may well have derivedfromthe currentmockeryof Lombards attested to by the sourcesalready mentioned.It is interesting to finda prose versionof De Lombardo et lumaca in two thirteenth-century manuals for studentsof the "stile epistolare,"whereit appears withexemplaryepistlesfromOvid's Heroidesto enliven the monotonyof dictationpractice.36 From the combinedevidenceit is clear that the snail legendwas widelycirculated, especiallyin France,both in writtenformand doubtlessalso in oral tradition. It remainsto be determinedwhy the personification of cowardiceby the obvious simile of fear beforea snail was ascribedby the French to the Lombards.37The reasonlies in an eventofremarkablyfar-reaching consequences,the Lombards' catastrophicflightbeforeCharlemagnein A.D. 772. The total unexof the Lombards'panic, completelycontradictory pectednessand inexplicability in battle,servedto glorify to theircustomaryferocity theheroicimageofCharlemagne.Celebratedtimeand again, the Lombarddebaclewas occasionedby Pope Hadrian II's appeal to Charlemagneforaid againstDesiderius,kingofthe Lombards, who had seized certainpapal territories.38 Having rejectedall proposals forpeacefulsettlement, Desideriuspreparedforbattlebut, in suddenunaccountable panic, fledat the sightof the Frankisharmywithoutexchanginga blow. A graphicaccount of his mountingterroris preservedin De GestisCaroli Magni, writtenby a monkofSt Gall in the secondhalfofthe ninthcentury.39 Four times the Lombard king anticipated Charlemagne'sapproach, each time becoming moretremulous.At firsthe was merelyperturbed("aestuare coepit"), then he longedfordeath ("mortisquedesiderius")and expresseda longingto hide below ground,whereuponhis noble adjutant Ogier,king of the Danes, also began to take fright.Finally, when Charlemagneappeared in full armor amidst his soldiers,the Lombards fledin terrorand even the valiant Ogier fellin a dead faint.The fullimpactof this exploiton succeedinggenerationscan be measured 35M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literaturdes Mittelalters(Munich, 1931), p. 1037 and Novati, op. cit.,p. 143, n. 17, fora list of nine late mediaeval Italian versionsof the text. See also P. Lehmann,Pseudo-antikeLiteraturdes Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1927), p. 6. 36 N. Valois, De artescribendi epistolas(Paris, 1880), p. 43. 37 For the preciseconnotations of the term"Lombard," see Zweifel,op. cit.,pp. 25 ff. 38 The successiveaccountsofthebattlein mediaevalchronicles have been tracedby Bedier,op. cit., pp. 198 ff. 39 Monumnenta GermaniaeHistorica,Scriptores, ii, 759-760.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

365

by the numberof historicalaccountsof the renownedflightto Pavia.40 The triumphof the Frankisharmybecame a cause celebrealso in the chansons de geste,whichcelebratedas one of the principalfiguresDesiderius's companion Ogier,mentionedin the Chansonde Roland as one of Charlemagne'sfaithfulfollowers.Ogier'sdefectionto the Lombardsgave riseto a host of epic poems,the earliestof whichexistedalready in the middle of the twelfthcentury.4'In the century,the authorpointsout firstextanttext,datingfromthe earlythirteenth an elementof Lombard courageto defendOgier's honor ("As premierscops le firentben Lumbart") beforeproceedingto place fullblameforthe disastrousoutcome of the encounteron Desideriusalone: niensestdelretorner Lunbarts'enfuient, Et Desier,qui les en faitaler, arester;42 Jusqu'aPavie ne volrent centurycontainanalOtherFrenchepics of the late twelfthand earlythirteenth ogous descriptionswhich served to regenerateand crystallizethe concept of Lombard cowardice.43 At what date the snail became part of this legendis difficult to determine,althoughthe association of Lombards and snails doubtless towardsthe middleof existedin oral traditionsome timebeforeits transcription the twelfthcentury. It still remainsto be determinedwhetherthe rash of marginalsnail-combat representations betweenabout 1290 and 1325 was motivatedby the host of literary referencesto the theme between about 1150 and 1325 or whetherthe marginalmotifwas createdindependentof the literarytraditionas a commentaryon humancowardice.In dealingwiththisproblemthreequestionscome to mind.First,whywas the snail-combatdepictedover and over again whenmany analogousliterarythemeswererarely,if ever,represented?Then too, the virtually simultaneousappearanceofthe motifin France,Flanders,and England runs counter to the propensityfor regionalismin marginal iconography.Finally, shouldthe concentration ofthe motifin manuscriptspriorto 1310 be ascribedto coincidenceor to a strongpopularreactioncurrentat the time? The answersto all threequestionsmay be soughtin a developmentoutsideboth the literaryand artisticspheres,namelythe establishmentof Lombard usurers and pawnbrokersthroughoutnorthernEurope in the course of the thirteenth Their monopolyof theseprofessions by the end of the centuryattests century.44 to the rapidityof theirexpansionin the vital commercialcentersin France, the 40For the re-useof the idea of the Lombards' flightto Pavia, see vv. 2025 ff.in Aymeride Narbonne,ed. L. Demaison (Paris, 1887), ii, 87. 41C. Voretzsch,Oberdie Sage vonOgierdemDdnen und die Entstehung der'ChevalerieOgier'(Halle, 1891), pp. 70-77. 42 vv. 5137 and 5380-53891. J. Barrois, ed., La chevalerieOgier de Danemarche,par Rambertde Paris du XIIe siecle(Paris, 1842), pp. 210, 220. 43 Zweifel,op. cit.,pp. 68 f. 44 An analysis of the Lombards' expansionin the Low Countriesand excellentbibliographical referencesappear in R. de Roover's Money,Banking,and Creditin Mediaeval Bruges (Cambridge, Massachusetts,1948).

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

366

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

Low Countries,and England. At this time, too, the terms "lombard" and "usurer" became synonymousin documentsand literarysourcesand remained interchangeablefor the remainderof the Middle Ages.45Violent protestsby churchmenand laymenalike againstthe ever-widening sphereof the Lombards' influencewerevoiced withremarkableinternational unanimity.Amongthenotade Paris, Dante, Boccaccio, Froissart, ble criticswere MatthewParis, Geoffroy and Jan Boendale - to cite but a few.46While the strongantagonismtowards the Lombards was originallyprobablybased in part on theirfunctionas papal agentsforthe collectionof revenueabroad, it was self-perpetuating by the very nature of their profession.For, despite innumerablecomplaintsagainst their rapacity and deceitfulness, the Lombards' serviceswere constantlyin demand. With the exceptionof churchornamentsand regalia, almost any object from house furnishings to pricelessjewels could be pawned.Examples ofthe latterappear in two of the relativelyrare extantdocumentsforthis type of transaction whichrecordthe pawningin 1278 of a gold eagle and two preciouschalices in and the redemptionin 1334 ofthe crown Valenciennesby the duke ofBurgundy47 jewels of Flanders.48It was claimed,in fact,that as long as therewas any hope of makinga profitthe Lombardswould deal in anything,even one's health.49 Officiallyrepudiated,althoughactually encouragedto practicetheirprofession, the Lombards were deprecateda priori as foreigners.50 They did not hold fullrightsofcitizenship,includingtherightto bear arms,a restriction whichmay have abetted the notionof theirmilitaryineffectuality so widelypropagatedin the literarysourcesalreadymentioned.From the assembledevidencethe three questionsregardingthe originof the marginalillustrationcan now be answered as follows:the predilectionforthe literarysnail combatthemecan be explained ofthe motif by the manifestcurrentanti-Lombardsentiment;the rapiddiffusion reflectsthe internationalcharacterof the Lombards' professionalactivities;and and early fourteenthfinally,the concentrationof the motifin late thirteenthcenturymanuscriptsmirrorsthe intense reaction to a currentdevelopment whichgraduallylost its appeal along withits novelty.What bettermeansforexpressingpopular opinionthan by an amusingdrawingin the marginof a manuat willas a generalrepresentation ofcowardice scriptwhichcould be interpreted or as a specificallusion to Lombards, in some cases servingperhaps as a reminderof an object pawned or to be redeemedby the originalowner of the manuscript. RADCLIFFE INSTITUTE FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY 45 Ibid.,p. 99.

a Geffroy 6 HistoriaAnglorum, ii, year 1235; A. Diverres,La chronique m6trique attribuee de Paris (Strasbourg,1956),p. 151,vv. 3121 ff.;Inferno,xi,50; Decameron,Giorn.i, nov. 1; Chronicle(London, uit de veertiende 1901), p. 336; A. Snellaert,Nederlandsche Gedichten eeuwvan Jan Boendale(Brussels, 1869), p. 421. 41 P. Morel, Les Lombardsdamn la Flandrefrangaiseet le Hainaut (Lille, 1908), p. 59. 48 De Roover, op. cit.,p. 118. 49 A. de Montaiglon,Recueilde poesiesfrangaisesdes XVe et XVIe siecles(Paris, 1856), iv, 139. 50"Nous ne voudrionspas cependantqu'on se fitdes illusionssur les Lombards: leur reputation futtoujoursdetestable" (C. Piton, Le8 Lombard8en Franceet a Paris [Paris,18911,i, 7). This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The Snail in GothicMarginal Warfare

367

APPENDIX ManuscriptsIncluded in this Study Arras,BibliothequeMunicipale. century. MS. 229, Breviary,St Vaast, late thirteenth Baltimore,WaltersArt Gallery. century. MS. 45, Psalter forLeonardo de' Fieschi,Cambrai,late thirteenth century. MS. 87, Hours, Franco-Flemish,earlyfourteenth century. MS. 90, Hours, northFrench,earlyfourteenth MS. 109, Breviary,Franco-Flemish,about 1300. Belvoir Castle, Collectionof Duke of Rutland. Psalter forEdmond de Laci (?), English,before1258. Brussels,BibliothequeRoyale. MS. 829-41, Lives of Saints, Cologne,about 1820. MS. II 988, Baudouin d'Avesnes,Le tr6sordes histoires,2 v., Belgian, firsthalfof the fourteenth century. century. MS. 9411-26,Recueilde po6siesmorales,Flemish,earlyfourteenth century. MS. 10607,Psalter of Gui de Dampierre,Flemish,late thirteenth Cambrai,BibliothequeMunicipale. century. MS. 102-103,BreviaryforSt-Sepulcreof Cambrai,late thirteenth Cambridge,FitzwilliamMuseum. MS. 298, "Metz Pontifical"forReynaud de Bar, northeastFrench,early fourteenth century. Cambridge,TrinityCollege. century. MS. B.11.22, Hours, Flemish,earlyfourteenth Copenhagen,Royal Library. century. MS. GI. Kgl. S. 8884.80,Psalter,Flemish,firstquarterofthefourteenth MS. Ny K. S. 41.80, Psalter,Franco-Flemish,about 1300. Douai, BibliothequeMunicipale. century. MS. 193, Hours, St-Omeruse, earlyfourteenth London,BritishMuseum. Add. MS. 86684,Hours, St-Omeruse, after1318. century. Add. MS. 49622, GorlestonPsalter,East Anglian,earlyfourteenth Harley MS. 6568, Hours, English 1310-20. Royal MS 2 B VII, "Queen Mary's Psalter," English,firstquarterof the fourteenth century. Royal MS 10 E IV, "SmithfieldDecretals," English, firstquarterof the fourteenth century. Yates ThompsonMS. 8, BreviaryofMargueritede Bar, Verdunuse, 1302-04. New Haven, Yale UniversityLibrary. century. Lancelotdu Lac, Picard, late thirteenth New York, PierpontMorgan Library. MS. 88, Psalter and Hours, Metz use, about 1300. Oxford,Bodleian Library. and earlyfourteenth Douse MS. 866, "OrmesbyPsalter,"East Anglian,late thirteenth century. Oxford,JesusCollege. MS. 40, Psalter,English,earlyfourteenth century. Paris, BibliothequeNationale. century. MS. fr.776, Tristram, northFrench,late thirteenth MS. latin 8893, Decretals of Gratian,French,1314. MS. latin 14284,Hours. Therouanneuse, about 1800.

This content downloaded from 66.249.81.211 on Fri, 17 Apr 2015 23:09:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions