The Sabbath in the Scripture and History, Kenneth a. Strand

THE C / v B B A T H IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY -------------------O M I l N M I M f e -------------------

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Editor K EN N E T H A. STRA N D

CONTRIBUTORS In clu ding those to the appendixes: Daniel A u g sburger, Sam uele Bacchiocchi. Roy B ranson, R aym ond F. C ottrell, Raoul D ederen, W alter B. Douglas, Law rence T . G eraty, Roy G raham , G e rh ard F. Hasel, R obert Jo h n sto n . Sakae k u b o . H ans K. LaR ondelle, C. M ervyn Maxwell, \V. G. C'.. M urdoch, W alter F. Specht. K enneth A. S trand, W ern er V vhm eister, S. Douglas W aterhouse. K enneth H. W ood.

REVIEW A N D HERALD P U B L ISH IN G A S S O C IA T IO N W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 2 0 0 1 2 i/j/0 1

C opyright © 1982 bv the Review a n d H erald Publishing Association P rinted in U.S.A.

Bible texts credited to A.S.V. are from the A m erican S ta n d ard V ersion, copyright 1901 by T h o m as Nelson & Sons. Bible texts credited to G oodspeed are from Smith an d G oodspeed. The Complete Bible: An American Translation. C opyright 1939 by the University o f Chicago. S cripture q uotes credited to N.A.B. are from The S ’n r American Bible an d are used b \ perm ission o f Lhe C o n fratern ity ol C hristian D octrine, copy right ow ner. S cripture quotations m arked N.A.S.B. are from th e Seu' American Standard Bible, © T h e Lockm an F oundation, 1960. 1962. 1963. 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, an d are used by perm ission. Bible texts credited to N.E.B. are from The Xew English Bible. C T h e Delegates o f th e O x fo rd U niversity Press an d the Syndics o f th e C am bridge University Press 1961, 1970. R eprinted bv perm ission. Texts credited to N .I.V . are from The Holy Bible: Xew International Version. C opyright © 1978 by the New York International Bible Society. Used by perm ission o f Z ondervan Bible Publishers. Bible tex tscred ited to N.J.V. a re from the New Jew ish Version. © 1962 by the Jewish Publication Society o f Am erica. Bible texts credited to R.S.V. are from th e Revised S tandard V ersion o f the Bible, copyrighted 1946. 1952 © 1971, 1973. Bible te x tsc re d ite d to R.V. are from the Revised Version, copyright 1911 by the O x fo rd University Press. Bible texts credited to T.E.V . are from the Good News Bible—O ld T estam ent: C opyright © A m erican Bible Society 1976; New T estam ent: C opyright © Am erican Bible Society 1966, 1971, 1976. Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry u n d e r title: T h e Sabbath in S cripture and history. B ibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Sabbath— A ddresses, essays, lectures. 2. Seventh-day A dventists— D octri­ nal an d controversial works— A ddresses, essays, lectures. I. S trand. K enneth Albert, 1927. II. A ugsburger, Daniel A ndré, 1920B V125.S2 263'. I 82-3724 ISBN O-aEÔO-OOB?-^ AACR2

LESLIE H A n rX N G E LIBRARY

Table of Contents LIST O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S ...................... A B O U T THE A U T H O R S _____________ P R E F A C E ____________________________ I N T R O D U C T I O N _____________________

7 9 15 17

P A R T I: S A B B A T H A N D S U N D A Y IN THE BIBLICAL PERIOD C h ap ter (TT T h e Sabbath in the Pentateuch (G erhard F. H a se l)___ 21 C h ap ter 1. T h e Sabbath in the P rophetic a n d Historical L iterature o f th e O ld T estam en t (G erhard F. Hasel an d W. G. C. M u rd o c h )_______________________________________ 44 C h ap ter 3.' T h e Sabbath in the Intertestam ental Period (Sakae K u b o )------------------------------------------------------------------ 57 C h ap ter 4. T h e Rabbinic Sabbath (Robert Johnston) _____________ 70 C h ap ter 5. T h e S a b b a th in th e N ew T e s t a m e n t (W a lte r F. 92 Specht) C h ap ter 6. S unday in the New T estam ent (W alter F. Specht) _ 114 P A R T II: S A B B A T H A N D S U N D A Y I N C H R IS T IA N C H U R C H H ISTO RY C h ap ter 7. T h e Rise o f Sunday O bservance in Early C hristianity (Sam uele B acchiocchi)____________________________ C h ap ter 8. T h e Sabbath in Asia (W erner V y h m eister)___________ C h ap ter 9. T h e Sabbath in Egypt and Ethiopia (W erner V yhm eis­ ter) _____________________ ___ ____________________ C h ap ter 10. T h e Sabbath an d L o rd ’s Day D uring the M iddle Ages (Daniel A u g s b u rg e r)____________________________ ... C h ap ter 11. Sabbath a n d Sunday in the R eform ation Era (K enneth A. S tran d )............................... ......................................... ...... C h ap ter 12. T h e Sabbath in Puritanism (W alter B. Douglas) C h ap ter 13. T h e Sabbath in the New W orld (R aym ond F. Cottrell)

132 151 169 190 215 229 244

P A R T III: S A B B A T H T H E O L O G Y C h ap ter 14. T h e Sabbath in M odern Jew ish Theology' (Roy B ran ­ 266 son) C h ap ter 15. C o n tem p o rary T heologies o f the Sabbath (H ans K. L aR o n d elle)_____________________________________ 278 C h ap ter 16. Reflections on a T heology o f the Sabbath (Raoul D e d e re n )________________ ________________________ 295 APPENDIXES A ppendix A.

T h e P lanetary W eek in the Rom an West (S. Douglas W a te rh o u s e )_____________________________________

308

A p pendix B. A p pendix C. A ppendix D.

T h e Sabbath and S unday From the Second T h ro u g h Fifth C enturies (K enneth A. S tr a n d ) ______________ O n Esteem ing O ne Day as B etter T h an A nother— Rom ans 14:5, 6 (Raoul D e d e re n )_________________ T h e “Sabbath Days” o f Colossians 2:16, 17 (K enneth H.

A Note on H ebrew s 4:4-9 (Roy G raham ) T h e “L ord's Day” in the Second C entury (K enneth A. S tr a n d ) __________________________________________ A ppendix G. J o s e p h B ates an d S ev e n th -d a y A d v e n tist S abbath Theology (C. M ervyn M axw ell)_______________ A ppendix H. T h e Sabbath on a R ound W orld (R aw nond F. C ottrell and Law rence T . G e ra tv )____________________ G L O S S A R Y _________ SCR IPTU R E INDEX GENERAL INDEX A ppendix E. A ppendix F.

323 333 338 343 346 352 ^ 364 371 375 379

List of Abbreviations A N E T —J. B. P ritchard, ed.. Ancient Near Eastern Texts ANF— The Ante-Nicene Fathers A P O T — Apocrypha and Pseudopigrapha of the Old Testament, R. H. C harles, ed. AUSS—Andrews University Seminary Studies BDB— F. Brow n, S. R. Driver, an d C. A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament BHK— R. Kittel, Biblia hebraica BHS— Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia CD— C airo (Genizah text o f the) Damascus (Docum ent) C H A L — Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon CJ— Codex Justinianus CSEL— Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum C T — Codex Theodosiamus DACL— Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie CCS— Griechische christlicke Schriftsteller HAD—Hebrew-Aramaic Dictionary H A L A T —W. B au m g artn er et al.. Hebräisches und aramaisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament IB—Interpreter's Bible ICC— International Critical Commentary IDB— G. B uttrick, ed., Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible ID B Sup—S u p p lem entary volum e to IDB JB L —;Journal o f Biblical Literature KB— L. K oehler an d YV. B au m g artn er, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti libros LCC— Library o f C hristian Classics LCL— Loeb Classical Library LW—Luther's Works (A m erican edition) MB—Mäshafä Birhan (“Book o f Light”) M GH—Monumenta Germaniae historica Cap— Capttulana regnum Francorum C one— Concilia Ep— Epistolae Ep sei— Epistolae selectae L— Leges LL— Libelli de lite SS— Scriptores MT— M asoredc T ex t \ C E — New Catholic Encyclopedia NIC— New International Commentary N PN F—.'kicene and Post-Nicene Fathers

PG—J. Migne. ed.. Patrologia graeca P L -J \lig n e . ed.. Patrologta lattna PO—Patroiofpa onentalis PS— PmtnUogta Synaca >BL Dim Ser—Society o f Biblical Literature Dissertation Series SC— Sources chretiénnes SD ABC— Sex ■enth-day Adventist Bible Commentary n DABSSB— Seventh-day Adventist Bible Students' Source Hook SDB— Seventh Day Baptists in Europe and America TDN T—Gerhard Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament T DO T—G. J. Bouerweck and Hehm er Ringgren, eds., Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament T H A T — Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, eds., Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alien Testament TW AT—G. J. Botterweck and Hehmer Ringgren, eds.. Theologisches Wörterbuch mm Alten Testament VT— IVfuj Testamentum ZAW— Zeitschrift fü r die alttestamentlicke Wissenschaft ZDMG— Zeitschrift der deutschen

About the Authors

Daniel Augsburger is professor o f historical theology at th e Seventh-day A dventist T heological Sem inary, B errien Springs, M ichigan. He jo in ed the faculty o f A ndrew s University in 1942 (at that tim e E m m anuel Missionary College) a n d subsequently served as chairm an o f the M odern L anguages D epartm ent fo r nineteen years. In 1976 he jo in ed the Sem inary faculty after having served for a n u m b er o f years as a m em ber o f the college's religion d ep a rtm en t. In 1950 he ea rn ed a D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree from the University o f M ichigan in F rench language an d literature, and in 1976 the Doctor o f T heology d eg ree from the University o f S trasbourg, France. For his theology do cto rate he w rote a dissertation o n John Calvin in relationship to the Mosaic code. He also serves as secretary for the A m erican Society for R eform ation Research, an d for several years has coordinated its sp rin g m eetings held in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Samuele Bacchiocchi, a professor in the Religion D e p artm en t o f A ndrew s University since 1974, was the first non-C atholic to obtain a doctorate from Rom e's Pontifical G regorian University in its m o re-than-four-century history. H e e a rn e d th e doctorate at the G regoriana in 1974, an d was aw arded two m edals for his academ ic achievem ents there. B orn in Rome, Bacchiocchi studied at Newbold College in England and at A ndrew s University, billowed by five years o f serv ice for th e Seventh-day A dventist C hurch in Ethiopia, w here he was chairm an o f the theology d ep a rtm en t o f Ethiopian Adventist College; he also ta u g h t religion and historv in that school. His subsequent doctoral w ork at the Pontifical G regorian U niversity dealt with Sabbath and S unday in the early ch u rch , an d eventuated in the publication in 1977 o f his From Sabbath to Sunday. H e has also published o th er works in th e sam e held. Roy Branson is sen io r research scholar at the K ennedy In stitu te fo r Ethics. G eorgetow n University, W ashington, D.C., w here he has w orked since 1973. P rior to that, for six years he was a professor of C hristian ethics at th e S eventh-da\ A dventist Theological Sem inary at A ndrew s University. He earn ed a D octor of Philosophy d eg ree at H arvard University in 1968 with a dissertation on “T h eo ries o f Religious Pluralism and the A m erican F ounding F athers." H e is the ed ito r of Spectrum. “A Q u arterly Jo u rn a l o f the Association o f Adventist Forum s." H e is au th o r o f n u m ero u s articles in a wide variety o f jo u rn als, an d also o f an article on ! -.daism in th e Encyclopedia of Bioethics. In 1976 he coedited, with R obert Veatch. t :kta and Health Policy (B allenger Press). 9

T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

Raymond F. Cottrell, retired, was book ed ito r for the Review and H erald Publishing Association. W ashington, D.C., from 1970 to 1976. P rio r to that, he had been an associate book ed ito r and associate e d ito r o f the Review and Herald, g eneral ch u rch p ap e r for the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. H e served eighteen vears as a Bible teach er in C hina and at Pacific U nion College. A ngw in, C alifornia. He has d o n e special research in Biblical studies, an d was aw arded the D octor o f Divinity d eg ree b\ A ndrew s University in 1972. H e is au th o r o f Beyond Tomorrow and Rea wn and Faith, as well as n u m ero u s jo u rn a l articles; he was also a co n trib u to r to The Seienth-day Adventist Bible Commentary. Raoul Dederen, professor o f theology and chairm an o f the T heology D epartm ent o f th e Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, served as a pastor a n d ed u cato r for seventeen years in Belgium an d F rance p rio r to jo in in g the Sem inary faculty in 1964. His service in France included chairm anship o f the T heology D epartm ent o f the French Adventist Sem inary in Collonges-sousSaleve n e a r Geneva, Switzerland. In 1963 he com pleted a doctoral pro g ram at the University o f G eneva. Dr. D ederen is active as a w riter an d is an internationally recognized lecturer on ecum enical studies. H e is also an associate ed ito r o f Ministry, a well-known m agazine for clergy . Walter B. Douglas, from G renada in the W est Indies, is a p ro fesso r in the C h u rch History and W orld Mission d ep a rtm en ts o f the Seventh-dav Adventist T heological Sem inary; he jo in ed the Sem inary faculty in 1969. His doctoral studies were com pleted in 1972 at Mc.Nlaster University in H am ilton, O n tario , and cen tered on seventeenth-century Puritanism . T h e research for his dissertation involved a new ap p ro ach to the in terp retatio n o f th e history o f the English C hurch from 1660 onw ard. Prior to jo in in g the S em inar) faculty. Dr. Douglas was active in ch u rch w ork lo r the Seventh-day A dvenust d enom ination in the West Indies an d in C anada. LawrenceT. Geraty is professor o f archeology an d history o f antiquity fo r the Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary' an d is also the c u ra to r o f the Siegfried H. H orn Archaeological M useum at A ndrew s University. H e jo in e d the S em in an faculty in 1966; in addition to leaching in the O ld T estam ent D ep artm en t, he has led several o f the university’s archeological expeditions to H eshbon. Jo rd a n . G eraty e a rn e d his D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree at H arvard U niversit) in 1972, with a concentration in Syro-Palestinian archeology. H e has received n u m ero u s honors, aw ards, grants, a n d fellowships from universities, archeological organizations, and governm ent offices, an d is in w ide d em an d as a lectu rer in the field o f Biblical archeology. Roy E. Graham, provost o f A ndrew s U niversity, B errien Springs, M ichigan, since M arch, 1979. is also a professor in ihe T heology D ep artm en t o f the Seventh-dav A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty h e jo in e d in 1976. His earlier service includes pastoral work and educational su p erin ten d en cy for the Seventh-day Adventist C hurch in G reat B ritain, as well as the presidency «if the South England C onference ofS eventh-day A dventists, w ith offices in W atford (n ear L ondon). From 1971 to 1976 he was the president o f Newbold College in 10

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ABOUT T H E AUTHORS

B racknell, B erkshire, E ngland. His D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree in theology was ea rn ed at the University o f B irm ingham , E ngland, in 1978, his dissertation being “T h e Role and Influence o f Ellen G. W hite in the Seventh-dav A dventist C hurch. With P articular R eference to Ecum enism and Race Relations." Gerhard F. H asel, from G erm any, is d ean o f the Seventh-day Adventist T heological Seminary and professor o f Old T estam en t an d Biblical theology. Prior to jo in in g the Sem inary faculty in 1967, he had served as a pastor in New England and as a teacher in the religion d e p a rtm e n t o f S o u th ern Missionary College, C ollegedale, T ennessee. His Ph.D. d eg ree was ea rn ed in 1970 at V anderbilt University in Nashville, T ennessee. H e is a u th o r o f n u m ero u s scholarly articles and books, including the p o p u lar Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate (1972, 1975). His doctoral dissertation has been published by the A ndrew s University Press u n d e r the title The Remnant: The History and Theology of the Remnant Idea From Genesis to Isaiah. Robert M. Johnston is a professor in the T heology D epartm ent o f the Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty he jo in ed in 1972. He e arn ed the Ph.D. d eg ree from the H a rtfo rd Sem inary F oundation in 1977, his dissertation being entitled “Parabolic In terp retatio n s A ttributed to T an n aiin "; he is a specialist in ancient Judaism an d early Christianity. Prior to his ap p o in tm en t to th e Sem inary faculty, Dr. Jo h n sto n served as a m issionary in the Far East for twelve years. H e was chairm an o f the theology d e p a rtm e n t o f K orean U nion College in Seoul, Korea, and acting dean o f the G rad u ate School o f Religion at Philippine U nion College in M anila, the Philippines. Sakae Kubo is p resident o f Newbold College in B racknell, B erkshire, E ngland, taking u p service there in 1980, after having been the d ean o f the school o f theology at Walla Walla College, College Place, W ashington, d u rin g the two previous years. Early in his career, Kubo spent a n u m b er o f years in pastoral service in Hawaii and C alifornia. From 1955 to 1978 he was connected with A ndrew s U niversity, B errien Springs, M ichigan, in its Religion D epartm ent, and in th e Seventh-day Adventist Theological Sem inary as a professor in the New T estam en t D ep artm ent an d as Sem inary librarian. His doctorate was ea rn e d at th e University o f Chicago in 1964. H e is au th o r o f nu m ero u s articles an d books: his Reader's Greek-Engluh Lexicon o f the New Testament is a widely used reference tool, an d he co au th o red with W alter F. Specht th e p o p u lar and widely acclaim ed So Many Versions? (1975). Hans K. LaRondelle is a professor in the Theology D ep artm en t o f the Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty he jo in e d in 1967. He had earlier been engaged in m inisterial service for the Seventh-day Adventist C h u rch in th e N etherlands, his hom eland, for som e fo u rteen years. H e earn ed th e D octor o f T heology d eg ree in systematic theology at the Free U niversity o f A m sterdam in 1971, an d his dissertation on Perfection and Perfectionism has been published by th e A ndrew s University Press. His recent Christ Our Salvation (1980) » a m ore p o p u lar book on the sam e general topic. C urren tly he is actively engaged s i writing in th e field o f eschatology. II

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T H E S A B BA T H I N S CR IP T UR E AND HIS TORY

C. Mervyn M axwell is professor o f church historv an d chairm an o f the C h u rch Historv D epartm ent o f the Seventh-day Adventist Theological S em in ary . whose faculty he joined in 1968. His doctorate was e a rn e d at the U niversity o f C hicago in 1966. his dissertation being entitled “C hrysostom 's Hom ilies Against th e Jews: An English T ran slatio n With In tro d u ctio n a n d Notes." P rio r to jo in in g th e Sem inary faculty. Dr. Maxwell served as a pastor a n d then as a religion teach er an d as d ep a rtm en tal chairm an at U nion College. Lincoln, N ebraska. H e has w ritten n u m ero u s articles a n d five books, including a Seventh-dav A dventist history textbook. Tell It to the World (1976). Presently h e is w riting com m entaries on the Bible books o f Daniel and Revelation. W. G. C. M urdoch is d ean em eritus o f the Seventh-dav Adv entist T heological Sem inary, and has served in various educational posts, including the presidency o f Newbold College in England and the presidency o f Avondale College in A ustralia. H e has also served as a theology professor at the Sem inary since ¡953. D oing g rad u ate study in both the U.S.A. an d G reat B ritain, he e a rn e d the Ph.D. d eg ree in 1946 from the University of B irm ingham , E ngland, his dissertation being entitled “T ertu llian a sa M ontanist.“ T h e M edallion o f M erit A w ard, highest educational aw ard in the Seventh-day Adventist C h u rch , was p re sen ted to Dr. M urdoch in 1972 fo r his contribution to the education ol the Adventist m inistry. Walter F. Specht is clean em eritus o f the School o f Theology at Loma L inda University. His earlier service included pastoral work for th e Seventh-dav A dventist C h u rch in M ontana. O regon, and O klahom a. H e also was ch airm an of th e religion d ep a rtm en t at La S ierra College in Riverside. C alifornia, for a n u m b e r o f years, followed by chairm anship o f the New T estam en t D epartm ent ol th e Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary from 1966 to 1976. His d o cto rate was ea rn ed at the University o f C hicago in 1955 in the field o f New T estam en t an d early C hristian literature: his w ritings include contributions to The Sei’enth-day Adventist Bible Commentary an d co authorship with Sakae Kubo o f th e widely acclaim ed So Many Versions? (1975). Kenneth A. Strand is a professor in the C h u rch Historv an d New T estam en t d ep a rtm en ts o f the Seventh-day A dventist T heological Sem inary, A ndrew s U niversity. Receiv ing his early education in his hom e State o f W ashington, an d with a n u m b er o f years o f m inisterial service in the M ichigan C onference o f Seventh-dav Adventists, he joined th e faculty o f the Sem inary in 1959. H e is also ed ito r o f the scholarly journal Andrews University Seminary Studies. His do cto rate was com pleted at the University o f Michigan in 1958. H e is a u th o r o r e d ito r o f som e twenty-five books in the fields ol Biblical studies a n d ch u rch history, as well as a u th o r o f n u m ero u s articles in scholarly jo u rn a ls an d religious periodicals. T w o o f his publications are stan d ard reference works on early G erm an Bibles, an d he has w ritten several books an d articles treatin g the New T estam en t book o f Revelation. Werner K. Vyhm eister is a professor in the D epartm ent o f W orld Mission ol th e Seventh-day Adventist Theological Sem inary. B orn in Chile, he received his early education in his hom eland, a fte r which he did g ra d u ate study in the U nited

12

ABOUT T H E AUTHORS

States. H e th en re tu rn e d to Chile, ea rn in g a doctorate in history from the University o f Chile in Santiago in 1968, with a dissertation treating church-state relationships in Elizabethan E ngland. P rior to jo in in g the Sem inary faculty in 1975, Dr. V yhm eister had served as academ ic vice-president for Chile College, C hilian, Chile, and subsequently as academ ic vice-president for River Plate College in A rgentina. H e also taught church history a n d Biblical studies in both schools. S. D ouglas W aterhouse is a professor in the Religion D epartm ent at A ndrew s U niversity, having jo in ed its faculty in 1963. A fter sp en d in g his early years in Hawaii and doing college study in C alifornia, he did g ra d u a te work at A ndrew s U niversity, th e University o f C hicago, an d the U niversity o f M ichigan. His Doctor o f Philosophy d eg ree was ea rn e d at the University o f M ichigan in 1965, his dissertation being entitled “Syria in the A m arna Age: A B orderland Between C onflicting Em pires." H e has also d o n e extensive research into the historical back g ro u n d s for Bible symbolism, especially symbols in the apocalyptic books o f Daniel an d Revelation. K enneth H. W ood is e d ito r o f Adventist Review, general organ o f the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. H e jo in ed the staff o f that p ap e r as an associate ed ito r in 1955, when it was know n as the Review and Herald, and becam e ed ito r in 1966. Prior to that, he served as a pastor, evangelist, a n d ch u rch d ep a rtm en tal lead er fo r seventeen years. In 1979 he was aw arded the D octor o f Letters degree by A ndrew s University. In addition to innum erable jo u rn a l articles, he is au th o r o f Meditations for Modems and Relei'ant Religion, an d co a u th o r with M iriam W ood o f His Initials Were F.D.N. H e is also chairm an o f the board o f the Ellen G. W hite Estate.

13

Preface

ANY years have elapsed since publication o f th e m onum ental fo u rth edition o f History of the Sabbath and First Day of the Week by J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R. C o n rad i (published in 1912 by the Review and H erald Publishing Association). T h is im p o rtan t work has long been out o f print, and used copies ap p e a r fo r sale only rarely. A need has been felt, th erefo re, to p ro d u ce a new book dealing com prehensively with the two m ain days o f C hristian w orship. T his need has been au g m en ted by th e fact that since 1912 a considerable am ount o f new inform ation has com e to light an d deserves attention. T h e present work differs from that o f A ndrew s a n d C onradi in at least two significant respects. First, it rep resen ts a com m unity effo rt o f nearly tw enty specialists, each d eah n g with a lim ited portion o f th e total subject. T h is fact alone carries obvious im plications with reg ard to the authoritativeness a n d reliability o f this new publication. Second, th e p resen t book treats certain im portant areas not dealt with, o r covered only very cursorily, by A ndrew s an d C onradi. For instance, in the present volum e an en tire c h a p te r (chapter 4) is devoted to the kind o f Jew ish Sabbath observance that was co n tem p o rary with the rise o f the C hristian ch u rch , a n d th ree ch ap ters (chapters 14-16) present theological perspectives. In ad d iu o n , various appendixes both b ro ad en an d d e e p e n the coverage, as does also the considerable am o u n t o f newly researched d ata trea ted within a nu m b er o f the chapters. In a very real sense this publication is a pioneer work, fo r the au th o rs have en d eavored to p ro b e the frontiers o f know ledge. As is inevitably the case w hen un ex p lored territo ries are e n te re d , the u n ch arted terrain leaves som e gaps in know ledge. T h e se have to be filled in by the historian with as plausible a reconstruction as th e d ata will allow. It is in such instances that slight differences o f opinion may at tim es a p p e ar, but such differences a re not central o r crucial to the significance o f th e bro ad picture that is presen ted . It should be fu rth e r noted that a m ultiau ih o red work o f this n a tu re inevitably results in som e duplication o r overlap o f m aterial. T h e ed ito r an d publishers have end eav ored to m inim ize such duplication, inserting cross-references at a p p ro p ri­ ate places in th e text. W here duplicated m aterial has been essential to the particu lar au th o r's line o f arg u m e n t, it has been retained, albeit at tim es in substantially red u ced form . It may a p p e a r to the re a d e r that this volum e is exceptionally large— which adm ittedly it is! N evertheless, the wealth o f m aterial on the subject is even g re ater, and th e au th o rs have been constricted by the page lim itations given them .

M

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T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y

N evertheless, ih eir effort has been to (ouch all essenhal points. Also, thev have w ritten in such a way as to secure a balance betw een bread th an d d ep th o f coverage. For the re a d e r w ho is interested in fu rth e r inform ation, the ra th e r e x te n sn e mites at the en d o f each ch a p te r provide reference to a wealth o f sou rces to explore. For convenience, the m ain text has been divided into th ree sections (see In tro d u ctio n , page 17). Also, for the general read er w ho may not be fam iliar with some o f the technical term s, a glossary is included in the appendix section. I wish to express my d e e p appreciation to each o f the au th o rs and to th e m any others who. as read ers, participants in the p roduction process, o r in o th e r ways, have had a vital part in m aking this volum e possible. A m ong these "many o th ers,” several deserve special m ention. T h e genius and inspiration for this m ultiauthored volum e cam e from R a\m o n d F. C ottrell when he was book ed ito r o f the Review an d H erald Publishing Association. He launched the project and saw it th ro u g h its initial stages. A lthough Dr. C ottrell retired long before th e project's completi«in, he has in his retirem ent co n tin u ed to co n trib u te to it by helpful counsel an d by p re p arin g , on short notice, o n e o f the chapters an d o n e o f the appendixes. The long a n d tedious process o f verification has been in the capable hands of Shirley W elch, who has also given assistance in various o th er aspects o f the editorial process. Miss Welch is responsible, too, for sim plifying the m ethod o f source citation a n d for the list o f abbreviations that ap p ears at th e beginning o f the volume. I'h e h elp fu l glossary has been provided by my secretary, J e a n n e J a m e s , who also gave th e e n tire m anuscript a critical reading an d especially checked the need for cross-referencing. In addition, Mrs. Ja rn e s has spent many ho u rs t\ ping an d retyping m anuscript copy. Last, but not least, m ention m ust be m ade o f Raym ond H. Woolsev, who succeeded Dr. C ottrell as book ed ito r o f the Review and H erald; he has enthusiastically taken on the responsibility o f this project a n d su p p o rted it generously with his tim e an d expertise. In d eed , d u rin g the past several years Woolsev has given his capable, careful, an d constant attention to a m ultitude o f details, both great an d small, necessary to the satisfactory com pletion of this volum e, an d his continuous helpfulness and encouragem ent to the volum e's ed ito r an d au th o rs are m ost deeply appreciated. T o all th e foregoing an d to all others w ho have in anv way had part in m aking this volum e possible, I express herew ith my d eep g ratitu d e an d thanks. K enneth A. S trand Editor

16

Introduction

WEEKLY day for special w orship services has been a significant p art o f the H ebrew -C hristian religious tradition since antiquity. In Old T estam ent times this day, designated as th e “S abbath,” was the seventh day o f th e week, now called Saturday. It was a day o f rest from norm al secular pursuits— a day for giving atten tio n m ore exclusively to spiritual concerns, including atten d an ce in religious assembly. It also served as a m em orial o f C reation, as it com m em orated G od's rest on th e seventh day o f C reation week (Gen. 2:1-3). In earliest C hristianity a sim ilar Sabbath attitu d e was in evidence, as early C hristians, too, observed this seventh-day Sabbath as a m em orial o f C reation. As one C hristian source o f the fo u rth cen tu ry a . d . has put it. “O h L ord A lm ighty, T h o u hast created th e w orld by C hrist, an d hast ap p o in ted the Sabbath in m em ory thereof, because on th at day T h o u hast m ade us rest from o u r works, fo r the m editation u p o n T h y laws.” 1 It has been aptly stated by som e m o d ern researchers, J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R. C o nradi, th at had this weekly day o f rest and worship been faithfully observed by all h u m an beings “as God o rd ain ed it. th ere never would have been, th e re never Historical reco rd s reveal that d u rin g the early C hristian centuries a n o th er day, Sunday, the first day o f th e week, also cam e to have im portance in C hristian w orship. It was looked upon as a m em orial o f C hrist's resu rrectio n . T h o u g h at first it was co n sid ered by C hristians as a w orkday with a joyous m em orial service, this new C hristian Sunday eventually took on the aspect o f rest, sim ilar to the rest accorded the seventh-day Sabbath. A lthough sources from the fifth C hristian century reveal th at th ere w ere at that tim e special religious services on both S aturday an d Sunday, the new “Sabbath" type o f em phasis on S unday finally led to S unday’s substitution fo r S aturday quite widely th ro u g h o u t Europe. T his substitution was mainly a developm ent o f the sixth century and onw ard. In Ethiopia, interestingly enough, both Saturday an d Sunday were observed as "Sabbaths.” W'ith the P rotestant R eform ation o f the sixteenth century th ere arose in E urope a diversity o f views tow ard this S unday Sabbath. T h e m ore p ro m in en t R eform ers “desabbatized" S unday and even concluded that any day o f the week would be satisfactory fo r w orship services. N evertheless, they retained S unday for such religious services on purely practical g ro u n d s—as being the day traditionally and com m only observed. However, certain o f the early C ontinental R eform ers, an d especially the English P uritans in the seventeenth century, reinforced the concept o f a Sunday TS1SAH-2

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T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS TOR Y

“S abbath." In ad d ition, th ere was increased observance o f the S aturday Sabbath, both on th e co n tinent o f E u ro p e and in E ngland. A nd at the present tim e— and widely th ro u g h o u t the world— th ere are. o f course, varying types o f S unday keep­ ing. as well as a significant n u m b e r o f observers o f the S aturday Sabbath. T h e account o f the historical developm ents, from the earliest Biblical records to the presen t day, is given in fair detail in the present volum e. Also, several ch ap ters are devoted to c u rre n t theological perspectives on the Sabbath an d Sunday. For convenience, the m ain text is divided into th ree parts: P art I, “Sabbath and Sunday in th e Biblical Period": Part II, “Sabbath and S unday in C hristian C h u rch History"; and Part III, “Sabbath Theology." In a sense, each part is a m ajor unit in itself, th o u g h the sequence o f ch ap ters has been arran g e d so that the volum e can with profit be read from beginning to end. (F u rth e r inform ation on the p u rp o se, scope, an d contents o f this publication is given in the Preface.) It should be m entioned th at although this volum e is one that deals with the day o f w orship mainly from the C hristian perspective an d in C hristian history, two ch ap ters have been devoted to Jew ish Sabbath attitudes: ch a p te r 4. which treats Jew ish Sabbath observance at the tim e o f the rise o f the C hristian ch u rch , and ch a p te r 14, which gives theological perspectives o f m ajor present-day Jew ish authorities. With re g ard to the latter, it should be noted that som e o f these Jew ish authorities, especially A braham Jo sh u a Heschel, have influenced considerably the th in k in g o f various C hristian w riters who treat the theology o f the Sabbath. It is ho p ed that this publication will serve not onlv as a general reference tool but also as a source o f pleasurable an d inform ative reading for all who are co ncerned with the vital topic o f the weekly C hristian dav o f w orship. K enneth A. S trand E ditor NOTES '.Apostolic Constitutions. 7 .3 6 ( A S F 7 :4 7 4 ). S cr th e fu rth er treatm en t a n d q u o ta u o m in a p p e n d ix B 2\. N A n d rew s an d L. R. C o n r a d i, H istory o f the Sabboth and F m t Day o f the Week. 4 th ed . (W a sh in g to n . D ( . 1912).

CHAPTER 1

The Sabbath in the Pentateuch

Gerhard F. Hasel O o th e r p art o f the Bible has the b read th , d e p th , an d height o f ideas, them es. an d m otifs p erta in in g to the Sabbath as does th e P entateuch. It rem ains the m ajor source fo r in form ation on the origin, institution, purpose, an d m eaning o f th e seventh-day Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is g ro u n d e d in C reation an d linked with red em ption. It is an agent o f rest from work an d confronts m an's religious and social relationship. It is a perp etu al sign a n d everlasting covenant. It relates to the m eaning o f time. Its n a tu re is universal an d it serves all m ankind. It is concerned with w orship as well as with jo y an d satisfaction. T h e them es o f C reation, Sabbath, red em p tio n , a n d sanctification are inseparably linked together, an d with the S abbath's covenant aspect they reach into th e eschatological future. It will be th e p u rp o se o f this ch a p te r first to survey the quest for Sabbath origins an d th en to investigate the C reation Sabbath and the Sahbaih before Sinai. at Sinai, an d a fte r Sinai. Finally, the topics o f th e Sabbath as sign an d covenant will conclude this study o f the Sabbath in the P entateuch. The Q uest for Sabbath O rigins A cen tu ry ago the quest for the origin o f the S abbath1was stim ulated by the discover)' o f alleged Babylonian parallels and becam e p a rt o f the Bible-Babel controversy.’ Since 1883 th ere have been m any attem pts to find the origin o f the Sabbath outside o f Israel.5 T h e oldest astrological hypothesis suggested that the Sabbath o riginated in Babylon in connection with astrological observations. Som e Babylonian m enologies revealed regularly re cu rrin g evil (taboo) days (ume lemnuti) that were associated with lu n a r phases and fell on days 7, 14, 19,21, a n d 28 o f th e m onth. It was hypothesized th at the Sabbath derived from these evil days.4 O th e r scholars, following Babylonian texts that identify the A kkadian term Sablpaltu5 with the m onthly full m oon day, suggested that the Sabbath was originally a m onthly full m oon clay. O nly at a later period did it develop into a weekly day o f rest.'1T hese hvpotheses are beset with such grave dif ficulties that m any scholars have rejected them . A n o th er astrological hypothesis claims that the Sabbath is o f Kenite origin 21

T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY

and governed by th e planet S atu rn an d th ere fo re unsuited for w ork.7 T h e Israelites are said to have ad o p ted the Sabbath from Kenite sm iths at the tim e o f Moses. T h e evidence for a K enite S aturn day is too slender to recom m end this hypothesis." “T h e theory o f Kenite origin is m erely an attem pt to explain one u nknow n by m eans o f a n o th e r.” 9 An ag ricultural hypothesis for the origin o f the Sabbath was developed on the basis o f th e hamuitum unit in Babylon, i.e., a supposed fifty-day period m ade u p o f seven weeks plus o n e day from which a p entecontad calendar was re co n stru cted .10 But th e re is no generally accepted evidence for a supposed early Semitic penteco n tad calendar, an d th ere is not even any clear evidence in su p p o rt o f the position th at hamidtum was a fiftv-day p erio d ." T h e most p ro m in en t o f the sociological hypotheses holds that the Sabbath o riginated th ro u g h an adaptation o f m arket days, which re c u rre d at intervals o f three, fo u r, five, six, eight, o r ten days.12T h e re is, however, no evidence that such m arket-day cycles existed in Israel o r am ong its ancient N ear E astern neighbors. It is also curious th at in the later societies w here such m arket-day cycles are know n, th ere is no evidence for a re c u rrin g seven-day cycle o f m arket days.” Som e recent studies have attem p ted to explain the origin o f the Sabbath in connection with the n u m b er seven in M esopotam ia an d /o r U garitic texts.14T h e re is, how ever, no evidence that the periodic sequence o f seven years o r seven days leads to the origin o f the re c u rrin g week an d /o r S abbath.11 T h e re is likewise no indication that th e re is a link betw een a seven stru ctu re an d the Biblical S abbath.16 T h e quest fo r the origin o f the Sabbath that began about a century ago has been unsuccessful. No single hy pothesis o r attem p ted com bination o f hypotheses has succeeded in providing a conclusive solution to the quest o f Sabbath origins.17 It may be concluded that from the point o f view o f religiohistorical investigation the Sabbath is un ique to Biblical religion. Recent research reveals a twofold shift. A n u m b er o f scholars have tu rn e d th eir atten tio n to the Biblical texts for the origin an d developm ent o f the S abbath,1* an d m any o th ers have tu rn e d to look for the theological, sociological, and anthropological significance o f the Sabbath and its relevance for m o d ern m an .19 It will be o u r attem p t to investigate the pentateuchal passages*0 re g ard in g th eir ow n witness to the origin, m eaning, and relevance o f the Sabbath. Sabbath and Creation T h e C reation Sabbath a p p e ars in Genesis 2:1-3. Exodus 20:8-11. and E xodus 31:12-17.*' T h ese texts provide the basic Biblical m otivation fo r observing the Sabbath an d p oint to the Biblical view o f the origin o f the Sabbath. In Exodus 31:12-17, th e co m m and to observe the Sabbath finds its ultim ate reason in the statem ent “For in six days the L o r d m ade heaven an d earth , but on the seventh day he rested, an d was refresh ed " (verse 17b).* In E xodus 20:8-11 the co m m an d m en t to re frain from work on the seventh-day Sabbath is also m otivated by an explicit referen ce to C reation an d the divine exam ple: “F or in six days the L o r d m ade th e heavens, an d the earth , the sea, an d all that is in them , an d rested on th e seventh day; th e re fo re the L o r d blessed the sabbath day a n d m ade it holy" (verse 11). T h ese texts point to the origin o f the Sabbath at C reation, a n d the * A ll B ib le q u o ta tio n s in th is c h a p ter a re tran slation s b \ th e a u th o r , u n less o th erw ise in d ica ted .

22

T H E S A B B A T H IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

language for the m otivation rem inds us o f the C reation account,“ especially Genesis 2:1-3. Creation Sabbath and G enesis 2:1-3.— Genesis 2:1-3 form s the conclusion o f the Biblical C reation account. T h ese verses are not an "etiological m yth” 25 bu t a carefully stru ctu re d literary u n it.“ V erse 1 affirm s what was finished: “the heavens an d th e earth " (cf. G en. 1:1; 2:4; Ex. 2 0 :11; 3 1: 17).*® i.e., the totality o f the world in its bipartite division, to g eth er with “all the host o f th em ,” nam ely the fullness o f th e host o f creatu res contained in the b ipartite world.*6 Verse 2 is linked to verse 1 th ro u g h th e com m on verb “finished” (klh).'11G od had finished “his work which he h ad d o n e ” on "the seventh day.” 2“ T h e expression “the seventh day" ap p ears two m o re times in this unit (verses 2b a n d 3a), so that four ideas are associated with "th e seventh d ay ” : ( 1) God "had finished” His creative work on that dav; (2) G od “rested" from all His creative w ork on that day: (3) G od “blessed" that day; a n d (4) G od "m ade it holy." Creation Sabbath and Weekly Sabbath.—T h e unique threefold em phasis on the seventh day with its fo u r d ifferen t aspects at the conclusion o f the Genesis creation story indicates th at ju s t as m an is the crown o f C reation so the seventh day, th e Sabbath,-' is the final goal of C reatio n .’" If this is the case, then the C reatio n Sabbath is not m erely directed tow ard C reation an d C re a to r,11 but has equally significant aspects fo r the fu tu re o f m an, his life and w orship.5* T his twofold p u rp o se fo r the past a n d the fu tu re m akes the C reation Sabbath the arch ety p e o f th e weekly Sabbath. G. H. W aterm an provides the following sum m ary: “ It seem s clear, th ere fo re , that the divine origin an d institution o f the sabbath took place at the beginning o f hum an history. At that tim e G od not only provided a divine exam ple for keeping the seventh day as a day o f rest, but also blessed an d set ap a rt the seventh day fo r die use an d benefit o f m a n ." 55 W hat does it m ean that G od “h ad finished" His creation on the Sabbath? T h e exact idea o f th e H ebrew verb (klh) is difficult to ascertain. Basically klh m eans "to stop, com e to an e n d .” 54 T h e Piel form as used in Genesis 2:2 m eans n eith er “d eclared finished” 55 n o r necessarily "brought to a (gratifying) close,"56 but exp resses th e positive idea o f an achievem ent o f a desired goal. T h e task o f creating is “co m p leted” an d th u s finished: on the seventh day God had His task com pleted an d was finished with His creative w ork.’7 G od looked back to His com pleted creation a n d finished work with joy, pleasure, an d satisfaction and p ro n o u n ced it “very good” (chap. 1:31). G od set h ere the pattern for His creation. As H e created th e world in six days, so that it was com pleted and finished on the seventh day, so m an is to accom plish his work an d pu rp o se in this creation d u rin g the six w orking days o f the week an d is to follow his C rea to r’s exam ple o f rest on th e seventh day, th e Sabbath. Following the p attern o f the C reator, he too may look back u p o n his finished w ork with joy, pleasure, a n d satisfaction. In this way m an may rejoice5* not only in G o d ’s creation but also in his responsible rulership, not exploitation, over creation (chap. 1:28). Creation Sabbath and Sabbath Rest.—T h e idea that G od “rested ” on the seventh day ap p e ars in G enesis 2 :2 ,3, E xodus 31:17, an d E xodus 20:11. T h e latter text uses the H ebrew verb nwh, “to rest, take a re st," 5'1while the fo rm er passages em ploy the verb Sbt^ “to cease (working), stop (work), re st." 40 T h e relationship betw een these term s has been frequently discussed,41 but one should be cautious lest o n e presses th e differences so m uch that one denies any relationship between 23

T H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

Genesis 2:1-3 an d Exodus 2 0 :8 -1 1.4! N ot only is the m otif o f divine rest com m on to the th re e texts re fe rrin g to the C reation Sabbath but the expressions “the seventh dav” (Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 20:10), “bless" (Gen. 2:3; Ex. 2 0 :1 1), “m ake holv" (Gen. 2:3; Ex. 20:11; cf. Ex. 3 1:14). “m ake” (Gen. 2 :2 ,3 ; Ex. 20:9, 10; 31:14, 15; cf. Ex. 35:2; Deut. 5:13, 14), an d “w ork” (Gen. 2:2-4; Ex. 20:9, 10; 31:14, 15) connect these texts most closely. Genesis 2:2, 3 is filled with language th at belongs to pentateuchal Sabbath texts,45so that it has been concluded that th e seventh day o f the C reation Sabbath is "at the sam e tim e instituted as m an’s day o f re st." 44 T h e fact th at the n o u n “S abbath" is not present in Genesis 2:1-3 an d th at no explicit co m m an d m en t to keep the Sabbath is provided may find its reason in one o f the purposes o f Genesis 2:1-3, nam ely to p resen t the divine E xem plar whose exam ple m an is to follow (cf. Ex. 20:11; 31:17). T h e question o f the origin o f the verb Sdbat, "to cease (working), stop (work), rest,” a n d the n o u n Sabbat, "Sabbath," is widely d eb ated .41 It has been suggested that these w ords d eriv ed from the Arabic sabata, “to cut off, in te rru p t; re s t," 4f' o r the Arabic root Sbb, “to grow, increase, be g re a t," 47o r the A kkadian Sablpattu," the exact m eaning o f which is itself d isp u ted ,49 o r the word Sb, “seven," via the A kkadian.“ T h ese attem p ts proved fruitless and rem ain unconvincing because they are not su p p o rted by philological considerations o f com parative Semitics an d lack the su p p o rt o f the usage o f form s o f the H ebrew root Sbt in the O ld T estam ent. At the presen t th ere is no evidence fo r the root Sbt outside o f H ebrew except for Punic.41 T h e verb Sbt, “to cease (working), stop (work), rest," an d the noun Sabbat, “S abbath,” seem to sh are a com m on Hebrew root. Som e scholars derive the noun from the verb,*® while o th ers derive the verb from the n o u n ." T h e re seems to be no conclusive p ro o f for e ith e r suggestion. T h e issue o f the exact relationship o f th e n o u n to the verb and vice versa is not settled. N evertheless, it is linguistically possible that both w ords derive from a com m on ro o t.'’ O n the basis o f Old T estam en t contexts it may be suggested that the verb Sdbat an d the n o u n Sabbat are related to each o th e r from the beginning (Ex. 16:29, 30)." T h e idea o f th e verb Sdbat, “to cease (working), stop (work), re st,” as applied to God w hen H e h ad finished His creation (Gen. 2:3; cf. Ex. 31:17) expresses the notion that H e ceased from His creative activity and thus rested. T h is cessation and resting on the p a rt o f God can hardly be explained as an etiology5” o r a divine retirem en t (otiositas) from heavy activity, as is the case in pagan m ythologies,” but as som ething th at is related to m an. C reation takes place w ith referen ce to tim e, to which belongs th e duality o f days o f work a n d day o f rest. T h e latter is the “seventh day,” the Sabbath. G od’s cessation from work. His resting, on the seventh day is not necessitated because H e grew tired o r weary (cf. Isa. 40:28) but because o f His function as E x em plar for m an. Man is the “im age o f G od” (Gen. 1:26-28) an d is tau g h t bv his M odel’s exam ple how to function in the usage o f th e sequence o f tim e (cf. Ex. 31:17; 16:23-26; 20:8-11). T h e Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20 also affirm s G od’s “rest” on the seventh day, but chooses the H ebrew nuah (vej se 11; cf. Deut. 5:14), while E xodus 31:17 an d G enesis 2:3 em ploy the verbiafca/. I n the Sabbath texts the H ebrew verb nuah m eans “to rest, take a rest’’“ and, along with the th o u g h t that God “was refresh ed " (npS)w in Exodus 31:17, is p art o f th e Sabbath vocabulary that expresses G od's m ost intim ate self-identification with m an. God rests on the 24

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seventh day o f C reation week in o rd e r to provide a day o f m eeting in rest with the crown o f C reation, m an, m ade in His im age. T h e th ree texts (Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 2 0 :11:31:17) d ealing with the C reation Sabbath assert that the world is no longer being created , because G od rests from the work o f C reation on the seventh day; a day o f rest as con trasted with the days o f C reation. T h ese texts connect G od’s rest with th e institution o f the Sabbath. T h e weekly Sabbath has "its legitim ation in the prim al Sabbath (U rsabbat) o f c reatio n ."“' In resting on the Sabbath, m an p articipates in G o d ’s rest, m eeting with his C reator. Creation Sabbath and Sabbath B lessing.—Genesis 2:3 affirm s that the C rea to r “blessed” (brk)6' the seventh day ju st as H e had blessed anim als an d m an on th e day before (Gen. 1:22, 28). T h e blessing o f the Sabbath re fe rre d to in Exodus 20:11 links the C reation Sabbath with the weekly Sabbath. W hat does it m ean that the seventh-day Sabbath is blessed? W hen God is the subject, “blessing" m eans generally that “m an an d things are im bued with the pow er o f fruitfulness and prosperity, he gives life, happiness an d success.’’“ In term s o f the seventh day, it m eans that this day is “a gift o f the C reato r for m a n ," 65 im bued with a blessing that no o th e r day possesses. T h e “blessing" provides this d ay o f rest with a g ift that m akes it full o f pow er. T his pow er m akes this day fru itfu l a n d vital fo r m an ’s life.64 T h e seventh day receives th ro u g h its blessing a beneficial and vitalizing pow er th ro u g h which hu m an existence is en rich ed and com es to fulfillm ent. As such, the Sabbath is m an’s source o f unequalecl benefit in the weekly cycle. Creation Sabbath and Sabbath H olin ess.—Genesis 2:3 also affirm s that the C reato r “hallow ed" (R.V., R.S.V.) the seventh day, “m ade it holy" (N.E.B., N.A.B.), “declared it holy” (N.J. V.), o r “sanctified it" (N.A.S.B.). Both h ere and in th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t (Ex. 2 0 :11) the H ebrew text uses the verb qidaS (piel)65 from th e root qdi, "holy."66 Most basically, the idea is that God m ade the seventh day "holy" by p u ttin g it into a state o f holiness. Since the m ore elem ental m eaning o f th e H ebrew idea o f “holy” a n d “holiness” is “separation,” ’’7 the m eaning o f the holiness o f th e seventh day as affirm ed in Genesis 2:3 an d Exodus 20:11 expresses that th e seventh-day Sabbath is that very day that G od has separated from the rest o f the days. T h e separation o f the seventh day from the six w orking days is a gift o f the C rea to r for all m ankind. It should be em phasized that G od, not m an, has sep arated this seventh day. T h e seventh day is G od’s day for m ankind as a whole and not m erely His day fo r Israel. It is because o f G od’s separation of the seventh day from the six days an d His assigning holiness to it"* th at the Sabbath is designated a "holy Sabbath" (Ex. 16:23; 31:14, 15; 35:2; cf. Isa. 58:13). T h e holiness o f the Sabbath does not stem from m an ’s keeping it, but from an act o f God. M an is co m m anded to keep the Sabbath “holy" (Ex. 20:8; D eut. 5:12)'" by refrain in g from work (Ex. 20:10; Deut. 5 : 14).7" T h e injunction not to “profane" (h i, h i I ) 7' the Sabbath (Ex. 31:14, et cetera)7* is the co u n te rp a rt to the co m m an d m en t to keep it holy. T h e P entateuch has a n u m b er o f specific instructions re g ard in g activities p rohibited on th e Sabbath. E xodus 16:23 prohibits baking and cooking o n the Sabbath, indicating rest also from the daily chores o f wom en. Exodus 34:21 enjoins th e Sabbath rest also in the seasons oi plowing an d harvesting, indicating th at the Sabbath is not kept holy only d u rin g times o f norm al activity. E xodus 35:3 25

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directs th at no fire is to be kindled, an d N um bers 15:32 th at no wood is to be gathered. T h ese specific prohibitions illustrate the broad aspects o f keeping the Sabbath holy. Yet, priests d o not p ro fan e the Sabbath w hen they put the shew bread in o rd e r (Lev. 24:8) an d bring additional sacrifices (N um . 28:9). In short, th e C rea to r has m ade the seventh day holy by separating it from the six workdays and has thus provided a gift for the whole of m ankind for all time. T h e p erson who keeps the seventh-day Sabbath holy follows the E xem plar’s archetypal p attern (Gen. 2:3) an d m eets with Him on that day o f rest. H e acknowledges his G od as C reator, accepts His gift, and has a part in G od’s rest. T h e Sabbath “is a steady re m in d e r o f the C reator, [and] o f the origin an d goal o f c re a tio n .. . . Every Sabbath g ran ts anew to those who stand u n d e r [G od’s] royal dom inion the freedom [from the struggle fo r existence] that belongs to G od’s children; alth o u g h at first in a limited m easure, it is given with the renew ed prom ise o f com plete fulfillm ent.” ” Sabbath and Manna T h e gift o f th e m an n a is the occasion fo r renew ing the g re ater gift, the Sabbath. T h e n o u n "Sabbath" (Sabbat) ap p ears u n an n o u n ced in the Bible for the first time in Exodus 16:25 w ithin the narrative o f the m anna m iracle.74 It has been pointed out correctly that th e Sabbath ap p ears already before Israel’s arrival at M ount Sinai,’5 i.e., the Sabbath was kept before it was form ally com m anded to be kept holy in th e Decalogue.7'' T h e setting o f the ap p earan ce o f the Sabbath d u rin g Israel's w ilderness sojourn is the m u rm u rin g o f the whole Israelite congregation (Ex. 16:1-3).77 God revealed to Moses that bread would rain from heaven; on each o f th e first five days a portion had to be gath ered in, but on th e sixth day “it shall be twice as m uch as they g ath er daily" (verse 5). Following this instruction, “on the sixth day they g athered twice as m uch b re ad ” (verse 22— this a n d the following discussion quote from the R.S.V.), Moses explained to the people, “T h is is what the Lord has com m anded: 'T o m o rro w is a day o f solem n rest [Sabbdt6n],n a holy sabbath [Sabbat-qodeS] to the L o r d ; bake w hat you will bake an d boil what you will boil, an d all that is left over lay by to be kept till the m o rn in g ” ’ (verse 23). O n the following m orning, the Sabbath, "Moses said, ‘Eat it today, for today is a sabbath [Sabbat] to the L o r d ; today you will not find it in the field. Six days you shall g ath er it; but on the seventh day, which is a sabbath [Sabbat], th ere will be n o n e” ' (verses 25, 26). Some d o u b ters went out in disbelief to g a th e r the m anna on the Sabbath (verse 27). T hey found nothing. G od rebuked them , saying to Moses, “ How long d o you refu se to keep my com m andm ents and my laws?" (verse 28). T h e n com es the revelation th at they have received the Sabbath from Y ahw eh (verse 29a), and the injunction follows: “Rem ain every person in his hom e, let no o ne go o u t o f his place on th e seventh day" (verse 29b). T h e narrative concludes, “So the people rested [Sabat] on the seventh day" (verse 30). T h e didactic ch aracter o f this narrative is obvious th ro u g h o u t. T h e wilderness g en eration was to learn to rest on the seventh day (verse 30). T h ey were taught to be o b ed ient to their L ord, to keep His “com m andm ents” (miswat) an d His “laws" (tordt). Does this imply th at Israel had known "laws an d co m m andm ents” even before Sinai? W as th ere a Sabbath co m m andm ent known before Sinai? T h e 26

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present form o f Exodus 16 ap p ears to hint in that direction.”’ I f this be the case, n o th in g is revealed about the origin o f such a divine law o r instruction. It is assum ed to exist.1“' It may be concluded that the Sabbath "is not in tro d u ced fo r the first tim e even in th e wilderness o f Sin. w here the m anna is found. H ere, too, it is proclaim ed as som ething which is already in existence." " T h e m an n a narrative is filled with Sabbath term inology an d Sabbath theology. It has already been n o ted that for the first tim e the nouns Sabbat, "Sabbath," an d iabbaton, “Sabbath feast” (Ex. 16:23) appear."* T h e w ord “Sabbath" is qualified by th e adjective qbdel, "holy" (verse 23). In verse 26 th ere is the first identification o f th e “seventh day" as th e Sabbath. All o f this is p art o f the Sabbath teaching."’ T h e th re e usages o f "sixth day" (verses 5, 22, 29) and the fo u r usages each o f "seventh day" (verses 26, 27, 29. 30) and “sabbath" (verses 23, 25. 26. 29) reveal an additional aspect o f the preoccupation with Sabbath ideology . T h e m ajor ideas re g ard in g the Sabbath in Exodus 16 may be sum m arized as follows: 1. The “sixth day" p re p are s for the Sabbath (verses 5, 22, 29). O n it a double p o rtio n o f food is collected (verses 5, 22) so that no o n e needs to go o u t o f his house on the seventh day (verse 29). 2. T h e Sabbath is the day following the sixth day. “O n th e sixth day they gath ered twice as m uch." “ ‘T o m o rro w is a sabbath feast, a holy sabbath to th e L o r d ' " (verses 22. 23. R.S.Y'.). T h e “seventh day” is th e Sabbath (verse 26). 3. A divine com m andm ent enjoined the keeping o f the Sabbath (verse 28). 4. T h e Sabbath is "holy" (verse 23; cf. G en. 2:2, 3; Ex. 20:11). 5. T h e Sabbath is a day o f “rest" (verses 23. 29. 30). Rest m eans refraining from work. In this instance it m eans refrain in g from g ath erin g food, from engaging in th e p ursuit o f a livelihood. God had m ade am ple provisions for sustenance. T h e prohibition to stay in o n e’s house on the Sabbath in verse 29 has contextually n o th in g to d o with lu n ar phases*1 but is designed to keep the w ilderness g en eration from g ath erin g m anna (verses 27-29). Both a religious (“holy”) and h u m an itarian (“re st”) interest com e to expression. 6. T h e Sabbath is a "sabbath feast” (iabbaton)*' an d not a day o f taboos, fasting, an d m ourning. It has a “festive rin g ,” “ a day on which o ne is not to go hungry. Israel is to eat, “for today is a sabbath to the L o r d " (verse 25). T h e Sabbath is G od’s special day and is designed to bring joy, happiness, and satisfaction upon the keeper. 7. T h e Sabbath is a testing g ro u n d o f m an’s relationship with God. Som e Israelites went out "either th ro u g h u n b elief o r th ro u g h cu rio sity "'7 to collect m anna (verses 25-27). In this connection G o d ’s rebuke is h eard , “ How long d o you refuse my com m andm ents an d my laws?" (verse 28). A refusal to keep the seventh-day Sabbath m eans a refusal to obey G od’s will as expressed in His com m andm ents and laws. T h e Sabbath has th e ch aracter o f a lest o f obedience an d faith.** G od dem an d s o f His faithful a p articu lar life style."9 Exodus 16 contains key notions reg ard in g the origin, purpose, function, and m eaning o f th e Sabbath. It reveals that the Sabbath institution was known before th e giving o f th e law on M ount Sinai an d before its appearan ce in the w ilderness o f Sin, as indicated by both the incidental m atter in which it is in tro d u ced in Exodus 16 a n d the divine rem onstrance o f the people's disobedience. Sabbath and Decalogue We now tu rn to the Sabbath co m m andm ent o f the D ecalogue in E xodus 20 an d D euteronom y 5. A discussion o f the Sabbath com m andm ent in the Decalogue 27

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involves first a b rie f look at m ajor tren d s in the recent study o f the D ecalogue itself,* inasm uch as these tren d s have influenced th e debate on the in terp re tatio n an d m ean in g o f th e Sabbath com m andm ent. A Survey o f T rends.— Recent critical studies on the D ecalogue have been d o m in ated by form -critical approaches pioneered for O ld T estam ent laws by A. Alt,*1 w ho arg u ed that casuistic law grew o u t o f secular justice an d apodictic law from a cultic setting. His views dom inated the field for two decades until they w ere su p p lem en ted , b ro ad en ed , an d m odified by G. M endenhall’s thesis that th ere is a sim ilarity betw een the form o f the D ecalogue an d H ittite state treaties.'5 T h is was refined by a flood o f studies.95O pposition to these alleged parallels continues to be strong, with incisive argum ents.'” T h e last decade o f critical study has attem p ted to modify the sh a rp distinction betw een apodictic an d casuistic law a n d suggested that clan wisdom is the source o f prohibitive law.1“ A unifying elem ent o f form -critical and religiohistorical studies is the traditiohistorical claim th at the present form o f the Decalogue is th e p ro d u ct o f a long evolutionary developm ent. Its present shape is rooted in the institutional life o f Israel. A recen t observation by a th o ro u g h g o in g form -critic is notew orthy: “T h e d a n g e r o f exegesis being built on ill-founded hypothetical projections has increased dram atically d u rin g the last half-century. As a result, few passages have su ffered such d iv ergent in terp retatio n s as has th e Decalogue.'"* G reat caution is d em an d ed because it is evident that m odern D ecalogue research has led to irreconcilable conclusions. T his is tru e for the D ecalogue as a whole a n d the Sabbath co m m an dm ent in particular.97 It m ust be ad m itted that present m ethods o f research are in adequate an d that th eir conclusions d o not allow even a fair d eg ree o f certainty. Som e scholars have suggested that an alleged form o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t was originally form ulated negatively,9" while o th e r scholars have m aintained that it was positive.99 T h e re is no agreem ent re g ard in g the w ording o f the hypothetical form , although it is often believed to go back to Mosaic times along with the re m a in d er o f the so-called “prim itive decalogue" (Urdekalog).""' For exam pie, H. H. Rowley suggests th at th e original Sabbath co m m an d m en t was: “Six days shalt thou labor an d do all thy work: but the seventh day is a sabbath u n to the L ord thy G od.” 10' G. F o h re r’s proposal is "R em em ber the day o f the Sabbath.” H. Gese argues for "R em em ber the Sabbath day, to keep it holy”;"15 but K. Rabast believes it was negatively form ulated: "You shall not d o any w ork on the sabbath." "* In view o f such insu rm o u n tab le m ethodological problem s an d subjective ju d g m e n ts, it is safe to proceed on the basis o f the context o f the D ecalogue (and th e Sabbath com m andm ent) in the book o f Exodus itself. T h is context views th e D ecalogue in its present form to be G od's revelation in Mosaic tim es.105 T he Sabbath in Exodus 20.— The Sabbath com m andm ent (Ex. 20:8-11) consists o f fifty-five H ebrew w ords and is the longest o f the T en C om m andm ents. T h is length has given rise to th e assum ption that it was originally short, but ancient N ear Eastern law’ codes disprove that laws developed from short to long a n d from sim ple to com plex ones.""1 Long and short laws can stand side by side from the beginning, as pre-M osaic law codes from the ancient N ear East d em o n strate .107 H ittite laws, which are m ore o r less contem porary with Moses, reveal that a later version o f th e sam e law can be s h o rte r108 o r longer"19(cf. D eut. 5:12-15). an d that 28

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both sh o rt an d long laws are found next to each o th e r.11" Accordingly, ancient N ear E astern laws do not su p p o rt th e assum ption o f a short original law. C om parative evidence o f ancient N ear Eastern law codes militates against the view th at the Sabbath co m m andm ent in Exodus 20 is necessarily th e result o f slow grow th over a long period o f time. T h e Sabbath co m m an d m en t is a carefully stru ctu re d unit. T h e following stru ctu re seem s to be present: A In tro d u ctio n B1 C om m and C ‘ M otivation B2 C om m and C2 M otivation D C onclusion

R em em ber the sabbath day to keep it holy. (V erse 8, R.S.V.) Six days you shall labor and do all y o u r work; (verse 9) but th e seventh day is a sabbath to the L o r d your God; (verse 10a) in it you shall not d o any work, you, o r your son, o r . . . (verse I Ob) for in six days th e L o r d m ade heaven and earth, the sea, . . . and rested . . . (verse 1 la) th e re fo re the L o r d blessed the sabbath day an d m ade it holy. (Verse I lb)

T his s tru c tu re " 1 reveals the following: A contains, in the form o f an in tro d u cto ry op en in g statem ent, the key principle o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent as a w hole. B1 expresses the positive com m and to engage in work on six days, w hereas B2 gives th e o th e r side in th e prohibitive com m and o f refrain in g from any work on the Sabbath day. B2 m akes clear th at this prohibition has broad application for the en tire family an d dom estic anim als, as well as for the stran g e r o r resident alien (ger)."3 C' an d C2 provide the m otivation for th e com m ands. C m otivates the sequence o f tim e in the six-days-seventh-day duality by em phasizing that “the seventh day is a sabbath to the L ord your G od." T h e identification o f th e seventh day with the Sabbath has already taken place in the earlier m anna experience in th e w ilderness o f Sin (Ex. 16:23, 25, 26). It should be noted that the seventh-day Sabbath is “for [to] the L o r d " (see verses 23, 25; chap. 31:15; 35:2; Lev. 23:3),115 indicating th at G od is the ow ner o f this day that com es as a gift to His people (cf. Ex. 16:29) and is filled with His special blessing. C *contains the form al m otivation clause with the in tro d u cto ry "for" (ki). It provides the detailed m otivation in term s o f th e L o r d ’s six days o f work an d His resting on the seventh day. T h is m otivation has its roots in th e C reation Sabbath. T h e links betw een Exodus 20:11 an d Genesis 2:2, 3 have already been discussed. D is an in d ep en d e n t clause, jo in e d by a connective-result particle “th ere fo re " ('al-ken). It form s the conclusion. T h e last w ords o f the co m m an d m en t, “and m ade it holy," have a co rrespondence to the ex h o rtatio n o f the introductory principle A, “to keep it holy." T h e key w ords th at fram e the Sabbath co m m andm ent are (1) "the sabbath day" (’et-yom haSSabbat) in verses 8 a n d 11, and (2) the expressions “to keep it holy" (1‘qadd'Sd) in verse 8 and “he m ade it holy" (yqadd'Sehu) in verse 11. I'his o u ter fram e o f the in tro d u ctio n A an d conclusion D brackets the en tire com m andm ent, while both A an d D keep th eir own identity. T h e reason for m an's keeping the Sabbath is th at God had m ade it holy at C reation. Accordingly, a m ajor th ru st o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t falls on its holiness, which has already been the subject o f discussion in connection with the C reauon Sabbath. Sabbath holiness and 29

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Sabbath blessing stem from acts o f G od. T h e com m andm ent to keep the Sabbath holy m eans (1) to accept G od’s gift for m an, (2) to follow the divine E xem plar's p attern , (3) to acknow ledge Him as C reator, an d (4) to participate in G od's rest. It also m eans a cessation from activity o f the work that m an is engaged in d u rin g the six days ap p o in ted fo r such work. T h e tie betw een the Sabbath com m andm ent an d C rea tio n "4 is so close that G od’s six-day creation, followed by His rest on the seventh day, serves as the theological m otivation for th e seventh-day Sabbath o f th e fo u rth co m m andm ent. T h e in tro d u ctory w ord “rem em ber" (uihor)" 5 carries great weight fo r the total m eaning o f the Sabbath com m andm ent. T h e H ebrew root zkr has retrospective an d prospective aspects."" Both retrospection an d prospection are p art o f th e m eaning o f the first w ord o f the Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20. T h e retrospective aspect o f rem em bering focuses on the past. It wishes to brin g som ething to rem em brance. T h u s it indicates that the Sabbath "is not in tro d u ced for the first tim e on Sinai, it is already there. . . . However, it is not in tro d u ced fo r the first tim e even in the wilderness o f Sin, w here the m anna is found. H ere, too, it is proclaim ed as som ething which is already in ex isten ce."117 A pre-M osaic Sabbath"" or early pre-Israelite S abbath"9 is pointed to by several scholars. W. W. C annon suggested a n u m b er o f decades ago that the ancestors o f th e Hebrew s who m igrated to C anaan b ro u g h t with them som e m em ory o f the Sabbath institution, its nam e, weekly recu rren ce, a n d cessation from w ork.1” M ore recently a sim ilar viewr has been put forth by M. H. Segal, who believes "that A braham beq u eathed to his descendants the conception o f the seventh day as a divine rest day an d that this conception was known am ong the Israelites in Egy pt an d had received am ong them the nam e o f Sabbath. . . O n account o f the su d d en ap p earan ce o f the Sabbath in fairly full-Hedged form in Exodus 16, its bro ad g ro u n d in g in the fo u rth com m andm ent (Exodus 20), an d the u n iq u e choice o f the word “rem em ber" (verse 8), one is led to assum e a know ledge o f the Sabbath before the tim e o f Moses. U nfortunately, o u r present extra-Biblical sources do not allow us to trace the Sabbath. T h e O ld T estam en t answ er to th e origin o f the Sabbath is indicated in the link o f the seventh day with C reation. Exodus 20:11 a n d 31:17 connect G od’s rest on the C reation Sabbath with the institution o f the weekly Sabbath, w hich appears to be legitim ized in the C reation Sabbath (Gen. 2:2, 3).IW T h e w ord "rem em ber" in Exodus 20:8 also contains a prospective aspect. aside from the psychological one that looks to the p ast.1“4T h e prospective aspect o f “rem em b er" relates to the fu tu re . T h e im m ediate pu rp o se o f rem em bering is directed tow ard definite action in the present.'*1 T h is com es to expression in the w ording "R em em ber [iakor] . . . to keep holy [l'qadd'so]'' '* T his is also the case in the searching question o f Exodus 16:28: "How long do you refuse to keep the divine com m andm ents an d laws?" T o refrain from refusing to keep the laws o f G od is th e sam e as to "rem em ber," o r to observe, o r to keep them (chap. 31:13-17). T o " rem em b er” m eans to keep o r to observe (cf. Deut. 5 : 12). T h e m em ory o f the past (retrospective aspect) is to lead to rig h t action in the present an d to faithful obedience in the fu tu re (prospective aspect). Past, present, and fu tu re are united in the p reg n an t op en in g w ord o f Exodus 20:8. T h e im perative “rem em ber" calls for an aw areness that m akes the seventh day special th ro u g h separation from the ord in ary w orking days o f th e week. The rem em brance m otif points m an back to 30

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th e past, even back to C reation, an d provides a m eaningful pu rp o se for the observance o f th e Sabbath in the present and points forw ard to a prom ising fu tu re. T he Sabbath in Deuteronomy 5.—T h e Sabbath com m andm ent o f D euteron­ omy 5:12-15 has sixty-four H ebrew words. This difference in length, an d new aspects o f co n ten t as com pared with Exodus 2 0 :8 -11. have exercised scholars for generations.'*1 No consensus is em erging, because the issues are extrem ely com plex and overshadow ed by conflicting m ethodological problem s.1*" It should, how ever, be reem phasized that short an d long laws are found next to each o th e r in H ittite legal trad itio n , an d short later versions o f the sam e laws may be ex p an d ed o r contracted. T h u s great caution is d em an d e d in draw ing radical conclusions from th e d ifferences between the Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20 an d the oral reaffirm ation o f the sam e com m andm ent in D euteronom y 5. T h e version o f the D ecalogue in D euteronom y 5 has its own contextual life setting in an oral serm on to Israel on the eve o f th eir en tran ce into the Prom ised L and. T h e book o f D euteronom y attributes it to be orally delivered by Moses to the Israelites (Deut. 5:1). A ccordingly, the present text o f the D ecalogue in D euteronom y 5 p resents it to be a later oral version than the one w ritten in Exodus

20.

T h e stru ctu re , based on content, o f D euteronom y 5:12-15 seems to be as follows: A In tro d u ctio n O bserve the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the L o r d your God com m anded you. (V erse 12) B C om m and Six days you shall labor, an d d o all your work; (verse 13) but the seventh day is a sabbath to the L o r d C 1 M otivation your G od; (verse 14a) in it you shall not do any work, you, o r your son, or B; C om m and your d au g h ter, o r your m anservant, o r your m aid­ servant. o r your ox, o r your ass, o r any o f your cattle, o r the so jo u rn er who is within your gates, (verse 14b) that y o u r m anservant and your m aidservant may C* Motivation rest as well as you and you shall rem em b er that you were a servant in the land o f Egypt, and the L o r d your God b rought you out thence with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm ; (verses 14c-15a) th ere fo re the L ord your God com m anded you to keep D Conclusion the sabbath day. (V erse 15b) This s tru c tu re '” has m any sim ilarities and few significant differences co m pared with th at o f the fo u rth com m andm ent in Exodus 20. T h e opening section (A) contains (again in the form o f an introductory statem ent) the key principle o f th e co m m andm ent as a whole. It should be noted that its concluding clause, "as the L o r d your God has com m anded you" (verse 12c), contains the reason o r m otivation for the com m andm ent as a whole. T h e question o f the “why" o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t is answ ered with the statem ent that G od had co m m an d ed it to be th u s.1*’T h e conclusion comes back to this m otivation as being ro o ted in G o d ’s co m m andm ent. T his theological m otivation151 in parts A an d I) bracket the co m m andm ent as a whole. D euteronom y 5 does not reject the m otivation o f th e Sabbath in Exodus 20 but affirm s that it is rooted in a 31

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co m m an d m en t an d elaborates o n e aspect of the Sabbath. The recognition o f the theological m otivation o f th e g ro u n d in g o f the Sabbath in a com m andm ent o f G od can n o t be em phasized en o u g h , because it introduces an elem ent that seem s implicitly affirm ed in E xodus 20:10a (C ) an d re p eated in D euteronom y 5:14a (again O ). B ut in D euteronom y 5 som ething is m ade explicit in the co m m an d ­ m ent itself for th e first time: the Sabbath is to be kept because G od has o rd a in e d it— nay, co m m anded it—to be so. D euteronom y 5:13 (B 1) a n d verse 14b (B2) contain once m ore the positive com m and to do all w ork in six days an d the prohibitive com m and to refrain from any work on th e Sabbath day, just as in Exodus 20 (B1an d B2). T h e short expansion “o r y o u r ox, o r your ass” is new. T h is elaborates what is already im plicit in “o r your cattle" in E xodus 20:10. D euteronom y 5:14c (C2), which opens with the preposition I'ma'an, “that," provides the m otivation fo r the prohibitive com m and "in it you shall not d o any work," b u t not fo r the en tire Sabbath co m m an d m en t,1’2 as has been m aintained too o fte n .1” T h e p u rp o se o f the cessation from work on the seventh day is "rest" (verse 14). It is significant that h e re th e sam e verb—nwh, “to rest, take a re s t," 154— is em ployed as in E xodus 2 0 :11 and 31:17, w here God is the subject o f the “rest." Now the en tire household, including m anservant an d m aidservant, those o f an in ferio r status in society, are to rest together. T his brings liberation and freedom ; it is a p o in ter to do away with all inequalities in the social structure. Bef ore God all m en are equal. M an’s original status before G od is to be reenacted in society. T h e Sabbath is an institution th at is designed to bring this about. T his am plification o f th e p u rp o se of th e Sabbath with its social o r h u m an itarian aspect, its em phasis on liberation from w ork and freedom in society, is c a p tu re d in Je su s’ own words: “T h e sabbath was m ade fo r m an, an d not m an for the sabbath” (M ark 2:27). A fu rth e r aspect com es into view with the “rem em b ran ce” clause: “an d you shall rem em b er that you w ere a servant in the land o f Egypt, an d the L o r d your God b ro u g h t you o u t thence with a m ighty h an d an d an outstretched arm ” (D eut. 5:15).155 T his introduces a soteriological aspect a n d elaborates the sp h ere o f the rest aspect o f die Sabbath com m andm ent. It brings to rem em brance the deliverance from Egyptian slavery th ro u g h G od’s saving activity in the E xodus experience. It is definitely not aim ed to provide a m otivation for the Sabbath co m m an d m en t as a w hole,'’'•which is provided in G od’s com m and (verses 12, 15b) itself. C ontextually, the soteriological aspect relates to the Sabbath rest o f the slaves.1” T h e social o r h u m an itarian em phasis1“ in D euteronom y 5 : 12-15, which is likewise p resen t in E xodus 2 0 :8 -1 1 (and Exodus 16:27-29), w here Sabbath rest is ex ten d ed to th e whole household, is linked with the soteriological aspect, the divine deliverance from servitude in Egypt. O n every Sabbath G od’s people a re to rem em b er that th eir G od is a Saviour who has p u t an en d to all bondage an d w ho is the su p erio r o f all w ho wield pow er in the w orld. T h e fun d am en tal significance o f the Sabbath is both to rem ind us o f G od’s creation (Ex. 20:8-11) an d to bring to rem em brance th e freedom from servitude o f any form , achieved by G od an d ex ten d ed to all h u m an beings (cf. Ex. 23:13). T here is also a variation betw een the op en in g term o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in E xodus 20:8 an d the one in D euteronom y 5:12. T h e fo rm e r is "rem em b er" (zakor) an d th e latter “observe" (Samor). It has been suggested that 32

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th ere is little d ifference betw een these w ords.15“ N evertheless, they are not synonym s, an d th eir variations are im portant. Few hold th at “observe” is o rig in al.14" T h e p resen t canonical context m akes it later141 than “rem em ber." It is a favorite w ord in D e u tero n o m y 14,1 an d sharpens one o f the sem antic aspects o f “rem em b er." T h e term Samar has the m eaning o f “to observe, keep” w hen followed by an accusative in the fo rm o f an o rd e r, com m andm ent, agreem ent, o r obligation.145 J u s t as th e L ord “observes, keeps” (Samar) the covenant (Deut. 7:8, 9, 12; Ex. 34:7)— i.e., H e is faithful in observing His part o f the obligation— so His people, w ho are the o th e r party in the covenant, are to “observe, k eep” th eir p art o f the covenant. T h e T e n C om m andm ents are known as “the w ords o f the covenant” (Ex. 34:28; cf. D eut. 29:1,9) o r “the tables o f the covenant" (Deut. 9:9, 11, 15), and th e oral recitation o f the D ecalogue in D euteronom y 5 is p a rt o f a covenant renew al. A ccordingly, the choice o f “observe” as the first word stresses the keeping o f the Sabbath. T his we have seen to be a p a rt o f the m eaning o f the word “rem e m b er.” T h e term “observe" ap p ears to include special covenantal o v erto n es,144 which will be discussed in a later section. T h e goal o f observing the Sabbath is “to keep it holy” (Deut. 5:12; cf. Ex. 20:8). T his m eans th at it is directed tow ard definite action. O n e aspect reg ard in g the m eaning o f th e phrase “to keep it holy" (I'qadd'Sb) should now be ad ded. T h e idea expressed by the w'ords “to keep holy” (qiddaS) contains also the idea “to consecrate fo r usage in b eh a lf o f G od.” 145Ju st as priests116o r N azarites (N um . 6:2, 6-8; Ju d g e s 13:5, 7; 16:17) are placed in a state o f holiness an d consecration in o rd e r th at they may p erfo rm th eir service before G od, so the Sabbath is placed in a state o f holiness an d separation fo r service in b ehalf o f G od (Lev. 23:1-3). T his separation o f the Sabbath with its own holiness fo r service in b eh alf o f G od includes activity in com m unal w orship. W orship (cultic activity) is p art o f the Sabbath institution, as Leviticus 23:1-3 indicates. T his passage contains m any them es th at have already surfaced, such as “a sabbath to the L o r d " (see Ex. 16: 23, 25; 20:10; 31:15; 35:2); “six days shall work be done; but on the seventh day is a sabbath o f solem n rest” (Ex. 23:12; 31:15; 34:21; 35:2); an d "you shall do no work" (Ex. 20:10; D eut. 5:14).147 Its significance rests in the fact that the Sabbath is listed as belonging to the sacred festivals, “th e ap p o in ted feasts o f the L o r d " (Lev. 23:2). T h e Sabbath, like the o th e r "holy convocations" o f the annual festal ca le n d ar,148 is proclaim ed to be “a holy convocation” (verse 2)149 th at belongs to G od’s “ap p o in ted feasts” (verse 2). T h e Sabbath belonged to the festal days on which th e congregation g ath ered for w'orship as a festal assembly. Leviticus 23:1-3 claims th at in th e early history o f Israel, the Sabbath was a day o f joyous rest from weekly labor a n d a tim e o f solem n, festal w orship o f God. Sabbath and Sign A n exceptionally rich Sabbath text appears in Exodus 31:12-17.150 B efore we discuss som e o f th e new ideas expressed fo r the first tim e in this passage, we need to recognize its contextual setting. T h e instructions for keeping the Sabbath as related in Exodus 3 1 : 12-17 follow the directions o f Yahweh (Ex. 27:20; 31:11) for the sanctuary an d its service (chaps. 25:1-31:11). Both are p a rt o f the sam e oral com m unication o f Yahweh to Moses (chaps. 25:1; 30:11, 17, 22, 34; 31:1, 12) on M ount Sinai. T h e divine com m unication had ou tlined in detail the w ork to be TS1SAH-3

oo

r H E S A B B A TH IN S CR IP TUR E AND HIS TORY

do n e re g ard in g the building o f the sanctuary. T h e instructions concerning the Sabbath, com ing at the conclusion, ( I ) connect the Sabbath an d the sanctuary (cf. Lev. 19:30),151 (2) specify details about the Sabbath revealed for the first tim e, an d (3) rem ind the people o f th e limits of work: “Six days shall w ork be done, but the seventh day is a sabbalh o f solem n rest, holy to the L o r d ; w hoever does any work on th e sabbath day shall be put to d e a th ” (Ex. 3 1 :1 5 ).'" T h e present context indicates that th e Sabbath, which had been included as one o f the T e n C om m andm ents (Ex. 20:8-11), is form ally explained to Moses in its m anifold aspects on M ount Sinai. M any o f th e aspects associated with the Sabbath in E xodus 31:12-17 are already known. G od’s six-day creation and rest on th e seventh day in verse 17 is know n from Genesis 2:2, 3 an d Exodus 20:11. T h e com m and to “keep" (Samar) the Sabbath o f verses 13, 1 4 ,an d 16 is en co u n tered in D euteronom y 5 : 12, 1 5 ,as is also th e injunction to “observe" (verse 16; Deut. 5:12) it. T h e holiness o f the Sabbath o f verses 14 and 15 takes us to Genesis 2:3; Exodus 16:23; 20:8 (cf. Ex. 35:2; Deut. 5:12). T h e identity o f the seventh day as the Sabbath com es in both Exodus 16:26 an d 29 an d 2 0 :10, and the idea o f the Sabbath as a “sabbath feast" (Sabbat6n)'iS is already known in Exodus 16:23. T h e statem ent that the Sabbath “is a sign betw een me an d you th ro u g h o u t your generations, that you may know that I, the L o r d , sanctify you" (Ex. 3 1 : 13) is entirely new. T h ese words a p p e a r in sim ilar fo rm 1*4 again in Ezekiel 20:12, 20. E xodus 31:13 specifies th at the “sign” ('oth)'n is "betw een me and you,” i.e., betw een G od an d His p eo p le.'“ T h e fact that the Sabbath functions as an external, visible, and p erp etu al sign betw een God and His people is an essential p art o f the total m eaning o f the Sabbath as a sign. But the sign functions o f the Sabbath go far beyond this. T h e very n a tu re o f a “sign” is that it points to som ething beyond itself. T h e “sign” serves to m ediate an u n d ersta n d in g an d /o r to m otivate a kind o f behavior.157A sign can im part know ledge about G od’s activity in shaping h istorv.'5* It may m otivate people to believe in God, to w orship Him , and thus pro d u ce and confirm faith .15“ A sign may serve as a m em orial that brings rem em brance."“’ It can function as a m ark o r sign o f separation."’1 It can pu t attention on, confirm , o r co rro b o rate som ething beyond itself a n d thus be a sign o f confirm ation.1“ Finally, th ere can be signs o f the covenant betw een God an d His elected p eople.165 Several o f these functions of signs are part o f the sign n atu re o f the S abbath.'64 It has been freq u endy em phasized th at the Sabbath is a “sign o f o b serv atio n ,"165 which ex h o rts to fulfill a d uty,'"’ and brings to m ind an obligation.'*7 In Exodus 31:13 the Sabbath is a “sign betw een m e an d you" an d quite naturally em phasizes th e obligation an d d uty o f G od's covenant com m unity to keep the Sabbath “holy to th e L o r d ” (verse 15). T h e Sabbath is also a “sign o f separation." '“ It has been pointed out that one o f the functions o f a “sign” ('oth) is to m ediate know ledge and u n d e rsta n d in g .'69 T h e Sabbath as a “m ark o f sep aratio n ” m ediates to m en o f dif feren t religions o r faiths th e know ledge that a peculiar o r unique relationship exists between G od and th e people that keep the Sabbath holy “by which the whole world is to recognize the existence o f this relationship.” ,7“ T h e Sabbath is a "sign o f recognition" th at m arks G od’s people o ff from those aro u n d th e m .'7' Ju st as the sign placed by G od on Cain did not disgrace him (Gen. 4 : 15),175 but separated him 34

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from th e rest o f m en and assured his fu tu re existence,175 so th e Sabbath is a sign given to th e believer that separates him from the rest o f m en an d assures his fu tu re existence. As such the Sabbath is a distinguishing m ark. Aside from being a "sign o f observation” an d a “sign o f sep aratio n ,” the Sabbath is a “sign o f re m e m b ra n c e ." 1,4 T h e retrospective aspect o f “re m e m ­ brance" has already been recognized to be part o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in Exodus 20. T h e Sabbath functions as a “sign o f rem em brance” in th at it takes m an's memory' back to die origin o f the Sabbath as the seventh day o f C reation week on which God "rested, an d was re fresh e d ” (Ex. 31:17; cf. Gen. 2:3; Ex. 20:11). It is th u s a sign that m em orializes C rea to r and C reation. R em em brance not only includes th e past but actualizes175 this know ledge in p resen t an d fu tu re action: “to keep th e sabbath, observing the sabbath th ro u g h o u t th eir generations" (verse 16). G od’s people rem em b er the gracious acts o f deliverance176 an d G od's plan o f red em p tio n . T h e Sabbath is also a “sign o f know ledge."177T h is is m ade explicit in Exodus 31:13: "this is a sign . . . that you may know (lada'ath)." T h e sign serves the p u rp o se i o f know ledge.17*T h e Sabbath is a sign that im parts to Israel the know ledge (1) that Yahweh is h er G o d 179 an d (2) that h er G od "sanctifies" His p eo p le'“1by m aking t them a holy people,"" i.e., a people separated fo r a special covenant with H im ."2 T h e holiness o f G od's people, th erefo re, is derived from their being related to the holy G od, and not from any intrinsic quality o f the people. T h e redem ptive ch aracter o f th e Sabbath com es into view. T h e discussion o f th e Sabbath as a sign o f observation, sepa ra tion, rem em brance, an d know ledge, which stressed the Sabbath as a sign for m an, needs to be su p p lem ented by th e Sabbath as a sign for God. T h e m eaning o f the Sabbath as a sign for G od has com e into focus by designating the Sabbath as a “sign o L g u arantee." IMJu st as the rainbow is the perpetual sign o f g u aran tee between" God an d th e ea rth (Gen. 9:13) th at "the w aters shall never again becom e a flood to destroy all flesh" (verse 15), so the Sabbath is a “sign o f guarantee" whereby God assures His sanctifying purposes for His p eople.IMIt is a sign o f efficacious grace, a pow erful sign o f salvation. T h e Giver o f the sign guarantees His pledge o f m aking His people holy. A n o th er phase o f the Sabbath as a sign o f G od’s pledge an d g u aran tee fo r the covenant com m unity has been o ffered recendy by M. G. Kline on the basis that the Sabbath is part o f G od’s covenant and thus carries its seal.“5 H e states em phatically, “T h e C reato r has stam ped on world history the sign o f the Sabbath as His seal o f ow nership an d au th o rity .” ,“6 T his in terp retatio n is based on the parallelism o f external ap p earan ce betw een international treaty docum ents, in some o f which th e suzerain's dynastic seal com es in the midst o f the treaty docum ent. W h eth er o r not this parallelism can be sustained is beside the point. T h e Sabbath regulation ap p ears as a sign o r seal o f ow nership an d authority. God is identified as th e C reato r (Ex. 20:11; 31:17), distinguishing Him from the o th er gods;1*7 and the sp h ere o f ow nership and authority is identified as “heaven and earth " (chaps. 31:17; 20:1 1; G en. 2:1-3).'“" T h ese are ancient constituents o f the seal, nam ely th e identity o f the ow ner an d the sp h ere o f ow nership and authority. T h ey are present in the written""' and o ra l1'"' Sabbath com m andm ents revealed on M ount Sinai a n d thus m ake the Sabbath a unique sign o r seal with m om entous m eaning for th e believer. Any person who im itates the C rea to r’s exam ple by 35

T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

k eeping th e Sabbath holy as did his Lord acknow ledges Him both as C rea to r and R e -c re a to r (R e d e e m e r) . H e a c c e p ts th e S a b b a th as G o d ’s g ra c io u s a n d life-renew ing gift an d acknow ledges G od's ow nership and authority o v er him self an d all creation. T h is sets the believer o ff from the rest o f m ankind and m akes him p a rt o f th e covenant com m unity o f tru e w orshipers o f God. T h e celebration and keeping o f the Sabbath is the “outw ard sign" a n d “external seal.” G od's election, covenant, an d sanctifying activity are the “inw ard grace" an d “internal sanctification” that give it present reality. Sabbath and Covenant T h e Sabbath is directly connected with the “covenant" (brith) in Exodus 31:12-17: " T h e re fo re th e people o f Israel shall keep the sabbath, observing the sabbath th ro u g h o u t their g enerations as a p erp etu al covenant [(frith 'oldm\" (verse 16). It is tru e th at the Sabbath, in contrast to the rainbow as a "sign o f the covenant" (Gen. 9:13, 17) in the Noachic covenant and to circum cision as “a sign o f the covenant" (chap. 17:11) in the A braham ic covenant, is not explicitly called a "sign o f th e c o v e n a n t."'*' N evertheless, the Sabbath doubtlessly functions as a covenant sign o f th e Sinai (H oreb) covenant, because it is called a “sign betw een me a n d you" (Ex. 31:13; cf. Eze. 20:20) o r a “sign betw een m e an d the people o f Israel" (Ex. 31:17).'n T h e expression "a sign betw een m e an d you" brings to m ind the phrases “a sign o f th e covenant betw een me an d the e a rth ” (Gen. 9:1 3)'” an d "a sign o f the covenant betw een me an d you” (chap. 17:11) in the covenants o f N oah and A braham , respectively.ltMT h e language o f the e n tire passage o f Exodus 31:12-17 is filled with covenant term inology. T h e verbs "keep" (&dmur)m in verses 13, 14, and 16 an d "know " (yadaVs6 in verse 13 are filled with covenant overtones. T h e term “p ro fan e" ( h i l) ,'9’ which is used not infrequently with the S abbath,'“* is a term for the breaking o f o r doing away with the covenant.Im In short, ju st as the Noachic covenant has an eternal sign in the rainbow (Gen. 9:13, 17) an d the A braham ic covenant has an eternal sign in circum cision (chap. 17:11), so the Sinai (H oreb) covenant has an etern al sign in the Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is a “sign o f confession” on the basis o f which the validity o f G od’s “etern al covenant" is m aintained th ro u g h o u t the generations o f the covenant com m unity (Ex. 31:16). T h e perp etu al celebration o f the Sabbath re m in d s G o d 's c o v e n a n t p e o p le th a t th e in tim a te c o v e n a n t re la tio n s h ip established by h e r God betw een Him an d them was rooted in His gracious election and etern al covenant that was form ally established on M ount Sinai. T h e ongoing celebration (keeping, observing) o f the Sabbath does not so m uch secure G od's relationship with His p eople501 as it serves as an indicator that the "eternal covenant" relationship is still in existence. Retrospectively, the Sabbath looks back. As a sign o f rem em b ran ce the Sabbath m em orializes G od as C rea to r and His creation as u n d istu rb ed by sin (Gen. 2:2, 3; Ex. 20:8, 11; 3 1 :I7 ).OT- Prospectivelv, the Sabbath, as a sign o f an “everlasting covenant" (Ex. 31:16) in which G od b o u n d H im selP05to His covenant people an d they accepted the obligation o f celebrating the Sabbath, contains an “em phatic p ro m ise " 5"4 for all generations. As covenant sign an d rooted in C reation, th e Sabbath m akes possible redem p tive history', i.e., covenant history5"5 th at moves forw ard to its ultim ate goal. T h e Sabbath has a key part in reaching into the fu tu re tow ard the ultim ate 36

I H E S A B B A T H IN I HE P E N T A T E U C H

goal o f redem ptive, covenant history. First, the Sabbath is a sign o f m an's basic p o sture in the presence o f C od. It is a day that provides freedom and liberation from th e work an d anxiety in present existence. It brings com m union with God an d thus physical, m ental, an d spiritual regeneration and renew al. As such, it is a proleptic token o f an eschatological reality in the future."'"' It is a covenant sign in the h ere and now about an ultim ate fu tu re 101 with its h o p ed -fo r redem ption. Second, th e Sabbath stands as a sign o f an "everlasting covenant” betw een C reation (Gen. 2 :2 .3 ; Ex. 2 0 :11; H I: 17)and redem ption (I)eut. 5:15; Isa. 56:1-4), p ointing to th e great consum m ation.- ' I n this sense the Sabbath's com m em orative retrospection to C rea to r an d C reation shows itself as a pow erful token o f divine obligation20* th at m akes m an look forw ard to com plete redem ption a n d total freedom , aw aited by the en tire sin-ridden creation. T h e ex tra o rd in ary red eem in g qualities in h ere n t in the Sabbath are a sign o f g u aran tee on th e basis o f which the hope in ultim ate redem ption with its new heaven and new e a rth has a secure anchor. T h u s the Sabbath directs us to the past from which this day receives its deepest m eaning for the present an d points constantly anew to a m ost glorious fu tu re o f total freedom an d everlasting joy. Finally th e in terru p tio n o f u n h in d e re d com m union betw een G od an d His people com es to an end. T h e Sabbath is a prom ise and g u aran tee that this will take place. T h e Sabbath is a covenant sign th ro u g h which God has pledged that the present proleptic exp erien ce o f freed o m , liberation, joy, an d com m union on the weekly Sabbath is but a foretaste o f the ultim ate reality in the glorious future. NOTES 1 See Ihe informative survevs b\ T J Meek. " Hie Sabbath in the Old Testament.'//!/. 33(1914):20|*212; fc-1» kraeling. "The Present Status of the Sabbath Question.' Am eruan J o u rn a l of Srm ilit Languages a m i Literature 49 1932-33):2l8-228; R. North. “The Derivation of Sabbath.“ B iblua 1*6 ( 1935) 182*201. R. tie Vaux. Ann m l Israel Its Life anti Institutions (London. 1961). pp. 476-479.) H. Meesters. O p znek naar de mrrspmng i-an de sabbat (Awn, 1966), pp 4-83; C. W. Kiker. The Sabbath in the O ld fextam m t Cult (Tb D dissertation. Southern Baptist ThenUwK.il Seminars. 1968). pp 5*39; W Rordorf. Sunda\ (Philadelphia 1968). pp. 19*24; N.-fc. A. Anureasen, The O ld Testament Sabbath. SBL Diss. Ser. 7 (Missoula. Mont.. 1972). pp. 1-16; V Neyretti./ / Settimo jpgrw(Rome. 1973), pp. 31-108; Ci. Robinson. Thr O n gn t an d D eielofm en l of the O ld Testamrnt Sabbath (Hamburg. 1975). pp 6*24. • 1 Drikiach, Babel an d B M * (( hicago. 1903). pp 17. • Ci. Lot/. (¿urstiones de hiMona Sabbati libri dun (Leipzig. 1883). pp. 57. 58. 106. is at times credited to lie the lirst to seek the origin of the Sabbath from BabsIonian sources. 4 C. Smitn.A » n n m tD tu o i'm n (London. 1876). p. 12; C‘.. H. W. Johns..iinnun Drnii am//)oruMrtiti// (London. 1901). pp 40. 41; idem. "The Balnlonun Sabbath." Expositors rimes 17 (l905-06):566. 567; ci. \\ Koinleld. "Der Sahbatn im Alien Testament."l)rr Tawdry H e rm . ed b\ H PckHI (Wien. 1958), pp. 11-21. esp. 18.21. M. Noih. The H u to n o f Israel (New York. 1958). p 296; (.'#. von Rad. O ld T esiam m t Theology (New York. 1962). 1:16. n. 3; P R Arkrovd. Israel I n d r t Bah\lon an d Pet mo (London. 1970). p. 155 ' CL a p p e n d ix A. p p . 3 0 8 -3 2 2

6 H Zimmem. "Sabbath.' ZD M G 58 (1904): 199-202; idem. “Nochmals Sabbat. ¿ D M G 58 (1904) 458-460; T C. Pinches, "Sapattu. the Batnlonian Sabbath." P roceedm p of the Soeieti of B ibliral A rrh arolaru b 26 (l904):51-53. 162. 163. | Meinhold. Sabbat und Hin he im Allen Testament ((•Ottmgen. 1905). p. 5; idem. "Die r'nisiehuug des Sabluts." • 1909):8I 112; id tm V.m Sabbailiam /A W 4; G G e rlem a n . "klh zu E n d e s e in .“ T H A T . 1 :8 3 1 -8 3 3 . w The N e w English Bible reads “sixth d a \ “ an d fo llo w s th e S ep tu a g in t. S y ria c. and S am aritan . N ev erth eless, th e H ebrew text is w ell p reserv e d . 29 A lth o u g h th e n o u n "Sabbath" d o e s n ot a p p e a r in G e n e sis, it is th e com m unis opinio that th is is w hat is m ea n t. M J e n n i, ob a t., p. 25; W. Z im m erli. I M ase I I I : Die Urgeschichte, 3d ed . (Z urich. 1967). p. 103; N F u glister. Ciottesdienst am M enschen: Z u m Kultverstandnis des A lten Testaments (S alzb u rg. 197 3 ). p. 9 . O L oretz. Schö p fu n g u n d Mythos (S tuttgart. 19 6 8 ). p. 7 0 . fo rm u la tes sh arp ls T h e goal o f th e w h o le crea tio n a n d o f m an is God*s Sabbath. T h e creation o f tn e w orld re a ch ed its c o m p le tio n o n l\ th r o u g h th e Sabbath, th e sev en th day.** 51 A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p 194, a ffirm s w ith o th e r s (G. v o n R ad. M. N o th . W H. S ch m id t) that G en esis 2 : 1 -3 is “n ot co n c e r n e d w ith th e Sahliath in stitu tion al all. but o n ly w ith (kk!*s r e s t .. It (th e C rea tio n Sabbath] ex p la in s th e d iv in e otiasitas as th e s ev en th day o f C reation ." This |u d g m en t is noi su sta in ed in th e text itself. It is n o tew o rth y that this o n e -s id e d em p h a sis is som ew h at co r recte d in h is m o re recen t essay "R ecent S tu d ies o f th e O ld T esta m en t

38

I'HE S AB BA TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H Sabtiaih S o m e O b serv a tio n s,“ Z A W 86 ( I 9 7 4 ):4 6 6 . 467 w K. E iliger. “S in n u n d U rsp r u n g d er p r ic stc r liih c n G c s c h ic h isc r z a h lu n g ,” Zi’ifcf/in ///ü r Theologie u n d Kirche 4 9 (1 9 5 2 ) 122; W cstcrm an n . op. a t., p 2.%. H . R icscn fcld . The Gospel Tradition (P h ila d elp h ia . 1 9 7 0 ),p p . 112, 113; Fu glister. ot> a t.. p p. 9 -1 1 ; M. F. L’njicr. “T h e S ig n ifu a n te o f ih r Sabbath." Bibhotheca Sacra 123 ( 1 9 6 6 ):5 3 -5 5 ; e l al. 55 G H W aterm an . “S abbath. The Z onderran Pictorial Encyclopedia o f the Bible ((¿rand R apids. M ich .. 1975). 5:1 8 3 . M H A L A T . p 4 5 4 ; C H A L . p. 158; K B . p 4 3 7 55 S ee E. K ön ig. Die Genesis. 3d cd . (G ü terslo h . 1925). p. 163; A. H c id c l. The Babylonian Genesis, 2 d ed . (C h ica g o . 1963). p 127. n. 118. * S p eiser, op. a i.. p . 8. 57 (»crlem an . ob a t., col. 83 2 . M R icscn fcld . toe. a t.; A n d re a se n , "R ecent Stud ies," p. 46 6 . ,9 C H A L , p. 2 3 1 , K B , p. 6 0 1 . H A D . p. 172. 40 C H M .. p. 3 6 0 . K B . p. 9 4 6 . H A D . p 2 7 7 41 B u d d e . Die biblische Urgeschichte ((¿lessen . 1883). p p. 4 9 4 . 4 9 5 ; J cn n t. op. a t., p p. 19-21; W . H . S ch m id t. Die Schöpfungsgeschichte der P nesterschnfl (N e u k irch en -V lu y n . 1964). p. 72. 42 ( .. vo n R ad, D ie P n e sten ch rift im Hexateuch literarisch untersucht u n d theologisch g eu rrtel (S tuttgart. 1 934). pp. 168. 169; M. N o th , Cberlieferungsgrschichte des Pentateuih (S tuttgart. 1948). p p. 2 6 1 . 2 6 2 ; S ch m id t. Schöpfungsgeschichte. p. 157; E. N ie lse n . D ie u h n Gebote (K o p e n h a g e n . 1965). p p 3 7 . 38; N c g r c m . op a t., pp. 155 -1 6 2 . 43 This is esp ecially e m p h a siz e d by S ch m id t. .Sihitfdutigsgeuhtchle. p. 157. 44 W. Bienen, Die Arbeit nach der Lehre der Bibel. 2 d e d . (S tuttgart. 1 956). p. 2 5 ; cf. W aterm an , loc. a t.. W Z im m erli. G rundriss der alttestam entlichen Theologie (S tuttgart. 1972). p. 26: “ . .. hut in th is restin g o f C o d th e S abbath is ob v io u sly estab lish ed ." 45 A m o n g le a d in g stu d ie s are: H . H ir sc h fe ld , “R em ark s o n th e E tw n o lo g s o l Sabbdth. ' J o u r n a l of the R tn a l Asiatic Society 2 8 (1 8 9 6 ):3 5 3 -3 5 9 ; 1*. J e n s e n . "A ssyrio-hebraic a." ZeiLschnfl fu r A s n n o lo g v 4 ( 18 8 9 ) .2 7 4 -2 7 8 . M ein h o ld . Sabbai u n d Woche, p p. 12, 13; D. N ielse n , op. a t., p p . 5 1 -6 9 , H c h n .o p . a t . p p . 91*106; B e e i. Sthabbath. p p. 11-21; M a h ler, loc. a t.; S. L a n g d o n . " T h e D erivation o f Sabattu and o th er notes." /.D M G 6 2 ( l9 0 8 ):2 9 -3 2 ; M eek, op a t ., p 2 0 4 ; B L a n d sb erg e r. Der kultische Kalender der Babylonier undA ssyrer (L eip zig. 1 9 1 5 ) .p p. 132*134; N o r th , op. a t., p p . 184-193; (¿. Y am asn iro. “A S tu d y o f the H ebrew W o rd Sabbath in Biblical an d T a lu iu d ic la te ra tu rcs“ (P h .D . c n sse ru tio n . H arvard U n iversity. 1955); D e V au x, oft. a t., p p. 4 7 5 . 4 7 6 ; M eesters. op a t., p p 6 -1 6 . Kiker, op a t . p p 4 0 -5 3 . A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p . 100-106; N c g r c m . ftp. a t . p p ‘.*4-97. larm aire. op a t . p p 172-174 46 S ee D. N ielse n , op. a t., p p. 5 1 ,6 7 , 6 9 ; cf. H W eh r. Arabisches Wörterbuch «Ith cd ( W iesb a d en . 1968). p. 3 6 5 . For critical reaction s, *ee M eesters. op. a t., p p . 6 -8 ; A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p. 1 00, 101; N cg rctti. öp a t., p p 9 4 . 9 5 . R o b in so n , op. a t., p. J8 4 . 4< H. G azelles. Etudes sur le Code de L ’Alltance (Parts. 1946). p. 93; I x m a ir e , op. a l , p p 173. 174. 4M le n s e n . loc. a t., l.a n g d o n . op a t., p. 30; cf. L an d sb erger. op. a t . p p 132, 133, a n d m any o th ers. 49 S ee Z im m ern , “S abb ath .” p. 2 0 2 ; N o rth , op. a t., p p. 1 8 9 -1 9 3 . The A m n a n Dictionary o f the O riental Institu te of the University o f Chicago. 5 :25. 50 S ec H trscn feld . op. a t., p p. 3 5 5 -3 5 9 ; H e h n . “Zur Sabbatfragc." Biblische Zeitschrift 14 ( 1 9 1 7>:21 0 -2 13; idem. Siebenzahl, p. 30; L a n d sb ere er. op. a t., p. 134 sl S ec J. Friedrich a n a W K öllig. P hanizisch-P unuche ( ,ram m atik. 2 d ed . (R o m e. 197 0 ). p 6 8 , set 146. 52 H ir s c h le I d .o p .fi/.. p p. 3 5 3 -3 5 9 ;J . B a r t h . \o m in a lb tld u n g in den semitischen Sprachen ( I c io / iu . 1 894). p p. 24. 145; F B o h n . Der Sabbat im A T und im altjudischen rel^posen Aberglauben (G ü terslo h . 1 903). p o 2. 3; A. B e n t/c n . Den israelitske Sabbats O pnndelse og H istone indtilJerusalem s E ro b n n g aar 7 0 E Kr. (K o p e n h a g e n . 192.3),pp. 10. I I; N o rth .o f) a l . p p. 185* 187, E. K u tsch . Sabbat "D ie Religion in Geschichte und ( •egenwart, 3 d cd . (S tuttgart: k n h lh a m m c r . 195h), V o l V ., col. 1259; D e V a u x , itp. a t., p p . 4 7 5 . 4 7 6 . B. S. C hild s. The Book of Exttdus (P h ila d elp h ia . 197 4 ). p. 4 1 3 53 R ccen d y m ost vigorously b y N o r th , ob. a t., p p 1 8 2-201. a n d at so m e le n g th by K iker. op a t., p p . 4 2 . 4 3 M K ikcr. op. a t., p p 4 4 -5 3 . put forth th e n \p o th c s is o f a co m m o n H ebrew b iliteral root N i-g ie tli op >ti u p 2 7 0 -2 7 2 ) 79 C h ild s, ob a t . p 290: “ I h c e x iste n c e of th e sabbath is a ssu m ed by th e writer." * T h is b tn e ca se fro m th e p o in t o f view o f th e a u th or M o d e m critical th e o r ie s seek vastly d iffe r e n t ex p la n a tio n s, see m ost recen tly N eg rettl. op. a l.. p p . 1 7 3 -2 2 4 . a n d R ob tn son . a t a t., p p 2 7 0 -2 7 5 . ** M B u b er. M a u s The fte\* la tio n a n d the L w e n a n t (N ew Y ork. 1 958). p 8 0 w S ee n o te 78. 1,5 N e g r e tu . op. a t., p p . 196. 197. sp eak s o f th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e Sabbath. M A gainst th o se w h o attem p t to link p ro h ib itio n s to astrological h y p o th eses, see n o te s 4 . 6-9. w S ee n ote 78. 86 C h ild s, op a t . p 2 9 0 >7 N o th . Exodus, p 136 M C . E Keil an d F I)rltt/sch . The Pentateuch ((»rand R apid«. M ich . 1952). 2 6 9 89 W h eth er th is is to b e view ed as “th e restrictive sid e o l th e day set a sid e to Clod" (C h ild s, op. a t ., p. 2 9 0 ) is d eb atable. 90 T h e r e are n u m e r o u s critical d iscu ssio n s, th e fo llo w in g stu d ie s g iv e an o v erview o f th ese critical en d ea v o rs: K öhler, op a t., p p . 1 6 1 -1 8 4 . R ow ley. “M o te s a n d th e D ccak>guc.~ p p 8 1 -IIH . J I S tam m . “D reissig J a h re D ek a lo g fo rsch u n g .“ Theologische R undschau N e u e F olge 2 7 (1 9 6 1 ) 189-2 3 9 . 2 8 1 -3 0 5 ; A. S K a p elru d . “S o m e R ecent Points o f V iew o n th e T im e an d O r ig in o f th e D eca lo g u e . ’ V u4m Thetdogua I 8 ( I 9 6 4 ) : 8 I * 9 0 ; J . P. H yatt. "M oses a n d th e Ethical D e c a lo g u e .’* E ncounter 2 6 ( 1965): 199-206; A Jep sen . “B eitra g e zur A u sle g u n g u n d (« csch ich tc d es Dekalogs.** Z A W 7 9 (1 9 6 7 ):2 7 7 -3 0 4 . L J . Stam m an d M \ A n d re w . The Ten C om m andm ents rn R ecent Research N a p ervtlir. Ill . 1 9 6 7 ). E N ie lse n . T h e t e n ( um m andm ents in .Vm- P e n b ectn * (N a p erv ille. 111.. 1 9 6 8 ). F.. /.e n g e r . "Eine W en d e in d er D ek ak igf«»rvh u n gr“ Theologische R e n te 3 ( 1968) 199*198; H C a /e lle s . “L es O n g in e s d u D e c a lo g u e .“ Eretz Israel 9 (1 9 6 9 ). 14-19; A . J Ph illip s. .Ancient lira cT t ( .n m in a l l a u (O x fo r d . 1970). 91 Alt's essay o f 1934 is tran slated as “T h e O r ig in s of Ista c lilc l a w “ in Essays on O ld Testam ent History a n d Religion (O x fo r d . 1966). p p 7 9 -1 3 2 . 91 G M e n d en h a ll. “A n cien t O r ien ta l a n d Biblical Law." Biblical Archaeology 17 ( 1 9 5 4 ):2 6 -4 6 ; idem. “C o v en a n t Form s m Israelite T r a d itio n .“ Biblical Archaetdogy 17 (I9ft4):50*76. 91 K B a lt/er. The Coxrm anl Form ulary (P h ila d e lp h ia . 1 9 7 1); W B ev erlm . O rigins a n d History af the O ldest Sinaitu Traditions (O x fo r d . 1965). p p . 12-14. 49 -6 7 ; D R H illers. C m m m m t I be History of a B ib lu a lld e a ( B a ltim o re.1 9 6 9 ) . p p 4 8 - 5 6 .6 1 . 6 2 . 70; W . L. M oran . “M oses u n d d e r Bundcssc h lu ss am Sinai,** Stim m en der /.etI 7 0 (1 9 6 1 * 6 2 ) 120* 133. H B H u ffm o n . ” I h e E x o d u s. Sinai a n d th e C red o." C atholu B ib ln a l O uartetly 2 7 ( I 9 6 5 ) : I 0 |- 1 13; M. olis P ap vri,’*J o u rn a l of S e a r Eastern Studies 2 8 (1 9 6 9 ): I 16-121. *' F r a n / R osen th al, eel., .An A m m an Handbook. Porta L in g u a lu m O n en ta liu iit n.»., X (W iesb a d en . 196 7 ), I I . pp. 12, IS . as tran slated by P orten . op ciL, p . 116. This is q u ite a d iffer en t tran slation fro m that g iv en by A. D u p o n t-S o m m e r in “L’o stra co n ararn^en a u S abbat.” Semitun 2 (I 9 4 9 ):3 1 . I Corpus I*apyrurum Judaic arum, ed . by Y'icior A. T th e n k o v e r in collab. A lex a n d er Fuks, 3 v o ls. ((Cam bridge. 19 5 7 - 1 9 6 4 ), |: 9 5 S ee also h is full d iscu ssion o f th e S am b ath io n s (3 :4 3 -5 6 ). 4 P orten , op. a t.. p p . 117. 121. * I btd.. pp. 117, 118. * / M . p p 12 0 , 1 2 1 . 7 Frank M oore C ross, Jr., The Ancient Library of (¿umran an d M o d em B iblical Studies, rev. ed . (G a rd en C ity , N .Y ., 1961). t) 199. H Mans H ieten h ard t, " S a b b a iv o rsch n h en von Q u m ra n im Lit h te d es rabbin is« h en Ret hts u n d d e r E van gelien ." in (¿um ran-Problem e: Vortrage de\ L etp u g e r Sympasions uber Q um ran-Problrm e vom 9. bts I ■/ Oktober 1 961 ( B erlin . 196 3 ). p. 5 4. wIbid 10 I h e n u m e ra tio n an d tran slation fo llo w e d is that of C h a im R abin, ed . and trails.. The Zadokite Documents, 2d r e v .e d . (O x fo r d . 1958). II S o m e d is p u te th e m ea n in g o f th is p assage. T h e (»rigin.il reads J“D U /n DVD aUUT* R H (.lia r le s tran slated th is, “ N o m an shall last o f his o w n w ill o n th e Sabbath" (A P O T , 2 :8 2 7 ), by p ro p o sin g th e re a d in g r o y r P for 3 T y jV S o m e h ave e m e n d e d th e re a d in g t«> 3JTUV w ith th e sa m e m ea n in g , o th ers h ave a ccep ted the o rig in a l w ith r e fe r e n c e to therrii/» im p ly in g o p p o sitio n by th e sectaries g et aro u n d th e in h u m a n ity o f th e rule as it stan d s T h is is. o f co u rse, on ly su r m ise '*— Page 4 9 7 . H ow tine a ccep ts in is will, o f c o u r se , a ffect o n e's ju d g m e n t o f th e strictn ess o l th e sect. ™ J o sep h u s Jewish W ar 2. 8 . 9. (A ll citation s fro m J o se p h u s a re fro m L C L ) 17 K im b rou gh , op a t., p p. 4 8 4 , 4 8 6 . IN H ieten h ard t. t p a t . pp. 56 -6 0 . 19 P hilo M ates 2. 4. (A ll cita tio n s from Philo a re from L C L ) w R egard in g|«»sh u a's attack o n J er ich o . M osh e D avid H err (“T h e Problem of W ar o n th e Sabbath in th e S eco n d T e m p le an d th e T a lm u d u P e r io d s.' T arbu 30 (I9 6 0 -6 1 J ix (th e o rig in a l H ebrew a rticle is o n p p. 2 4 2 -2 5 6 and 3 41-3561) says: " T h e an sw er that G o d exp licitly p erm itte d it p r e se n ts a n e v e n g rea ter d iffic u lty . T h e r e are o th e r s w h o a d d that Jo sh u a d e s tr o y e d J e n c h o s o as n ot to b en efit fro m Sabbath d esecra tio n . A d m itted ly th e le g en d itse lf o f the « on qu est o f J er ich o o n th e Sabbath is fo u n d in a T a n n a itii Mid rash, but w e h a v e n o record o f a m T a n n a or A m o ra

68

T H E S A B BA T H IN T H E I N T E R T E S T A M E N T A L PERI OD ask in g why J o sh u a d ese c r a te d ih r Sabbath. O n th r o th er h an d . Pirqot b rn B aboi w h o li\r d in B ab vlon circa 8 0 0 « . 1 . explicitly states that th e w a g in g o f war is ob lig a to r s o n th e Sabbath |u st as J o sh u a an d th e k in gs o f Israel d id in th e tim e o f th e Bible. T hese s en tim en ts w ere v o iced , as is k n o w n , to com b at KaraitK view» that all war w as fo rb id d en o n the Sabbath. . . . T h is stra n g e retreat in th r o p in io n s of th e rabbinic sages is n o ca u se lor w o n d er Mrur w e fin d a m o re e x tr e m e e x a m p le in th e co n tro v ersy w ith tn e K araites an d their fo llo w ers in S e'a d v a 'ifm u n W Wede'ot (ten th c e n t u r s ). w h ere h e stated , con trary to th e N lidrash. that J o sh u a n ever fo u g h t at all o n th e Sabbath in o rd er to b ru sh aw ay his o p p o n e n ts ‘w ith a straw -— a typical attitu d e a d o p te d in polem ic For N eb u ch ad rezzar's Sabbath attacks o n J er u sa le m , see A lger F )o h n s. 'T h e M ilitärs S trategs of Sabbath A ttacks o n th e Jew s." V T 13 ( 1963) 4 8 2 -4 8 6 11 T c h er ik o v er. op a t.. 1:29. 0 I M . . p 44; se e also P apyrus 10 o n p p . 136. 137. 0 J o s e p h u s Jr u ts h Antiquities 14. 10. 12 ,4 T c h er ik o v er. op a t . pp. I I . 12. 52. 25 2 Macc 15:1-4. (A ll re fe r e n c e s to th e A p o c ry p h a w ill be fro m th e R evised S tan d ard V ersio n ) n J exits h Antiquities 12. 1. I. 17 2 Macc 5 :2 4 -2 6 ; I Macc 1:30-33. w I Macc 1:43. 19 C h ap . 2:3 2 -4 1 . Jewish Antiquities 12. 6 . 2. 51 2 Macc 15:1-4. M I Macc 9 :2 4 -4 9 ; Jeu ish Antiquities 13. 1. 3. M U fe 32. * 2 M acc 8 :2 5 . 2 6 . 54 C h a p 12:38 Jewish Antiquities 13. 2. 3. s7 I M .. 13. 8 . 4. ** I M . . 13 12. 4. 59 I M . , 14. 4. 2 . 3; se e also Jfun&h W a t 1. 7. 3. Jewish Antiquities 14. 10. 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 3 . 25; 16. 6 . 2 . 4 41 On Dreams 2. 18. 4* Jewish W ar 7. 3. 3. 45 I M . . 2 17 10. 44 Ibid.. 2 . 18. I. 45 I M . . 4 2. 3; also 7. 8 . 7. 4ft Ibid., 2. 19. 2 . It w as a sp ecial S abbath sin ce it fell w ith in th e w eek o l th e Feast o f 1 a b ern a cles 47 I M .. 2. 16. 4 4MJewish Antiquities 18. 9 . 2. 49 Ibid.. 18 9. 6 . v ‘ Jeunsh W ar 4. 9 12. 51 t hr Specuil I m w s 1. 35 M Jose o h m A gainst Aptoti 2. 17. 55 Hypothetic a / . 13. M The S p ea a l I m w s 2. 15. Moses 2. 39. w P h ilo On the Creation 43. 46 P h ilo The Decalogue 2 0 . 57 The Contemplatix'e Life 3.

40

» ¿¿fr 54

M Moses 2. 39; The S p ea a l Laws 2. 15; Alle g o n ia l Interpretation I. 4*6, O n the Creation 3 0 , 3 1 . 3 3 -4 2 . M Moses I 37; 2. 39; O n the Creation 30; The Sbecuil Laws 2. 15, 16. 61 On the Cherubim 2 6 ; On the Creation 33; Allegorical Interpretation 1. 2. 3 . 6 ; The Special Laws 2. 15. 18; On Flight and F inding 3 1 ; On Abraham 5. h* T h e S p ea a l Laws 2. 16. 65 Karl (**org K u h n , "Der g e g e n w ä r tig e S tand d er E rfo rsch u n g d er in Palästina n eu g e fu n d e n e n hchiais« h en Hands* h i if ten 4 3 . Z um h e u tig e n Stand d er Q u m ra n fo rsch u n g ," Theologische Literatur zeilung 8 5 (I 9 6 0 ):6 5 4 M J o s e p h M. B a u m g a rten . " T h e C o u n tin g of th e Sabbath in A n cien t S ources," VT In (1 9 6 6 ):2 7 7 -2 8 6 Mr p ro p o se s to ex p la in L u k e 6 : 1 an d H orace's u se o f th e term thcenm a sabbatu in Sat. 1. 9 . 6 9 o n th e bases o f th is a n cient practice. w M a s« 2. 4 8 . ^ Jewish Antiquities 12. 5. 5. oT Against Apum 2 . 2. w B arnabas 15:9. ^ B arnabas 15:4. 5. 70 2 F.noch 3 3 : 1. S e e l . D a n itlo u . “La tv p o lo g ie m illen ariste d e la se m a in e d a n s le ( h r is tia m s m e p rin m if," I tgihae C kn so a n , S 1948): 1-1 71 Vita Adae et Extae 5 1 . 2; see also Apocalypsis Mosls 4 3 . 3.

69

CH APTER 4

The Rabbinic Sabbath

Robert M. Johnston F the n u m ero u s Jew ish denom inations in existence before a . d . 70, only two survived th e destruction of Jerusalem and the T em p le.1 O ne o f these was C hristianity and the o th er was Pharisaism.- D eprived o f the T em p le and finding it necessary to adjust to the devastating results o f a tragic war an d a dram atically altered outlook, Pharisaism necessarily changed. T his post-A.o. 70 continuation o f Pharisaism is re fe rre d to as Rabbinic Judaism , an d from it virtually all m o d ern form s o f Ju d aism are descended. T h e present c h a p te r provides a b rie f sketch o f th e Sabbath as it is re g ard e d an d observed in classical Rabbinic Ju d aism .5 O n e o f the distinguishing features o f Pharisaism had been its high re g ard for oral tradition. T h e Pharisees claim ed to be heirs o f Ezra the scribe and his court known as th e G reat Assembly, the beginning o f th e S anhedrin. In d eed , Ezra and th e G reat Assembly w ere re g a rd e d as transm itters o f oral laws that could be traced all the way back to Moses.4T h e oral laws usually took th e form o f an in terp retatio n o r application o f som e p ro o f text from the O ld T estam en t S criptures, given as the considered opinion o f a no ted rabbi an d su p p o rted by the m ajority vote o f the o th e r rabbis in the court o r academ y.' But legal decisions by the S anhedrin o r even individual rabbis could be authoritative even w hen they could no t be proved from th e Bible. T h e c h a rter fo r such nonscriptural laws, known as geziroth (rabbinical prohibitions; singular, gezerah) an d takkanoth (positive enactm ents by court o r rabbi; singular, takkanah), was seen in D euteronom y 17:11. Rabbinic Ju d aism is th u s th e O ld T estam en t in te rp re te d by the trad itio n .6 For a long tim e the oral law was indeed oral; th e re was an inhibition against w riting it dow n for fear th at it m ight be treated as S cripture. Instead, it was stored u p in th e heads o f the rabbis a n d th eir disciples. How ever, as scholars continually ad d ed to th e body o f tradition, it grew so massive that m em ories w ere too severely taxed. Even m ore seriously, the deaths o f large n u m b ers of leading scholars in the g reat Jew ish wars o f the first an d second centuries ( a . d . 66-70 an d 132-135) an d th e persecution that followed the latter war m ade it ap p a re n t that the m em ories o f m en w ere too fragile a record. A teacher's head severed from his body is a book th at can no m ore be read! A nd hence, the oral tradition cam e to be w ritten down. Som etim e a fte r a . d . 135 Rabbi M eir m ade a com pilation o f laws know n to 70

T H E RABBI NI C SABBATH

him . T o this collection m ore was ad ded, an d at the beginning of the third-century Rabbi J u d a h the Prince m ade th e basic codification of Rabbinic law known as the M ishnah, which rem ains the fun d am en tal guide for o rth o d o x Jew ish life to this day. T h e M ishnah consists o f sixty-three books, o r “tractates," each d ealing with a d iffe re n t subject. T h e tractates dealing the most with the Sabbath laws are entided Shabbath and E r u b i n O n e can as litde u n d ersta n d the Jew ish religion w ithout a know 'legeof the M ishnah as o n e can u n d ersta n d C hristianity while ign o ran t o f the New Testam ent." B ut Rabbinic in terp re tatio n an d law m aking did not term inate, and the process o f am plification continued. T his p roduced a massive elaboration o f the M ishnaic tractates known as the G em ara. T h e basic M ishnah texts together with th eir G em ara expansions are known as the Talmud.'* T h e re are actually two T alm u d s: th e Palestinian (o r “Jerusalem ") T alm u d , com piled about a . d . 400, and th e m ore authoritative B abylonian T alm u d , com piled about a h u n d re d years later. T h ese are the most im portant sources for o u r study o f the Rabbinic Sabbath. Roughly speaking, the works so far m entioned are topically arran g ed . Besides these Rabbinic works th at a re topically arran g ed , th ere are o th e r works in the form o f ru n n in g com m entary on the Biblical texts; these are called midrashim (singular, midrash). Midrashim are o f various types: halakic (legal; these are the oldest type), expositional a n d hom iletic. R eference will be m ade in this ch a p te r to Mekilta o f Rabbi Ishm ael, the Midrash Rabbah, The Midrash on Psalms, an d Pesikia Rabbati. 10 Even afte r th e T alm u d was com pleted, the rabbis continued to deliver legal decisions about th e Sabbath, as they did about all o th er im p o rtan t questions in Jew ish life. T h e opinions are known as respoma. A ttem pts have been m ade to digest all o f these vast m aterials fo r easy reference. P erhaps the m ost readable such digest was m ade by M aim onides (Moses ben M aim on) in the twelfth century, but th e m ost authoritative digest o f Jew ish law today is the Shulchan Aruch, p re p a re d by Jo sep h K aro in th e sixteenth century." W e shall now see w hat these sources have to tell us about the Sabbath. Importance o f the Sabbath No o th er institution is m o re im p o rtan t to Ju d aism th an the Sabbath, a n d only circum cision com es near equaling it. T h e rabbis re g ard e d the Sabbath as equaling in im po rtan ce all th e o th e r precepts o f the T o ra h com bined.12It was said, "H e who observes the Sabbath is kept far from s in ." 15O ne serm on has the L ord declaring, “O My people, behold, you have annulled all T e n C om m andm ents. N evertheless, if you had kept one C o m m a n d m e n t. . . I would have forgiven you. A nd which C o m m an d m en t is this? It is th e C om m andm ent concerning the Sabbath day.” 14 Shabbath is th e longest tractate in the M ishnah, and the subject is dealt with repeatedly in th e o th e r tractates.11 N ot only was the Sabbath an essential feature o f Jew ish identity, but it was reg ard ed as a way o f witnessing to m en about the C re a to r16 T h e m atter was graphically p u t this way: “T h e Sabbath adds holiness to Israel. Why is the shop o f so-and-so closed? Because he keeps the Sabbath. Why does so-and-so abstain from work? Because he keeps the Sabbath. H e thus bears witness to H im by whose word th e w orld cam e into being th at H e created His world in six days an d rested on the 71

I HE SABBA I H IN S C R I P T t RE AND HISTORY

seventh. A nd th u s it savs: ‘ T herefore ve are m y witnesses, saith the L o r d , and I am God* (Isa. 43:12).” 17 C ardinal gifts o f privileges, blessings, a n d deliverances were prom ised to Israel as a rew ard fo r success in S abbathkeeping.19Above all, the final re d em p tio n was said to hinge upon correct observance o f the Sabbath. Rabbi Jo h a n a n said in th e nam e o f Sim eon ben Yohai: “ If Israel w ere to keep two Sabbaths according to th e laws th ereo f, they w ould be redeem ed im m ediately."1'’ Rabbi Levi said: “ If Israel kept th e Sabbath pro p erly even for o ne day. th e son o f David would com e. Why? Because it is equivalent to all the com m andm ents." Isaiah 3 0 :15 was cited to show that tru e re p en tan ce (“re tu rn in g ”) an d S abbathkeeping (“rest”) w ere the conditions o f salvation, th e way to hasten the com ing o f the Messiah. T he Sabbath in Haggadah A sm co n tent, all Jewish teaching is divided into two categories: H alakah (law) and H aggadah (lore). T h e latter, which includes sirictlv theological questions and speculations as contrasted with standards o f conduct, draw s o u r attention first. Sim eon ben Lakish m ade this com parison: "It is the way o f the w orld that even a king who considers him self enlightened m ight say to his servants: ‘W ork one day for yourselves an d six days for m e.' Not so th e Holy O ne, blessed be He. T h is is w hat th e Holy O ne, blessed be He, says to Israel: 'My children, keep six days fo r yourselves, an d keep only one day for M e.'"*1 It is characteristic o f H aggadah that it is filled with parables, legends, and lively im aginary dialogues such as this one, which hinges on th e fact that the seventh day, unlike the o th e r days o f the week, is not followed by an even -n u m b ered day, and th e fact that in late H ebrew the sam e w ord, kiddash, m eant both to hallow and to b etro th :“ “T h e Sabbath spoke right up to the Holy O ne, blessed be He: Each o f the days has a m ate, but I have no m ate. T h e Holy O ne. blessed be He, replied: T h e congregation o f Israel will be thy m ate. A nd when Israel stood on M ount Sinai. G od said: R em em ber the special thing 1 told the Sabbath, nam ely tluil the congregation o f Israel is to be thy m ate, as it is said: ‘R em em ber the Sabbath day to hallow it' (Ex. 20:8).” ” It becam e the custom o f m any Jew s to follow the exam ple attrib u ted to the first-century Rabbi H anina, who d o n n e d his best robe and stood at sunset on the beginning o f Sabbath, exclaim ing, “C om e and let us go fo rth to welcome the qu een S abbath,” an d the exam ple o f Rabbi Jan n a i. who similarly attired him self an d met the Sabbath with the words, “C om e, O bride. Com e, O b rid e !" ” Friday night was a tim e o f connubial consum m ation. A ltering the m etap h o r, Israel is the bride. G od h er husband, an d the Sabbath the tim e o f th eir union.“ T h ese figures im ply that the Sabbath is Israel's exclusive privilege, for it is like the wife o f a n o th e r to the heathen. Rabbi Jo h a n a n pu t it thus: "In m u n d an e affairs, w hen a king an d his consort are sitting an d conversing to g eth er, should o n e com e an d in te rru p t them , does h e not thereby m ake him self liable to pu n ish m ent o f death? So, too, the Sabbath is a reunion betw een Israel and G od, as it is said, It is a sign betw een Me an d the children o f Israel (Ex. 31:17); th ere fo re any non-Jew who, being uncircum cized, thrusts him self betw een them incurs th e penalty o f d e a th .”* T h e foregoing p arable was told to explain a point m ade by both Jose ben H anina an d Sim eon ben Lakish: "A (¿entile who keeps the Sabbath deserves 72

T H E RAB BI NI C S AB BA TH

d e a th .” 27 It was considered th at the Lord gave the Sabbath only to Israel, not to the h eath en .211 A corollary to this exclusivistic idea o f the Sabbath was the com m on Rabbinic view th at th e Sabbath com m and was given first at Sinai, though th ere w ere many deviations from that opin io n .2* A ccording to one variation, the Sabbath was know n to A dam , who com posed Psalm 92.,(1 In d eed it was said that A dam sinned on th e day he was created, but because the Sabbath interceded for him , he was not driven o u t o f th e G ard en until the e n d o f the S abbath.1' T h e re a fte r, according to this view, the Sabbath w'as forgotten until the tim e o f Moses.5* Many o f these ideas can be traced back to intertestam ental times, as can be the view that m any o f the patriarchs observed the Sabbath, particularly Jacob and Jo sep h ; the case o f A braham was m ore d eb ated .” T h e re was also a belief that Moses obtained for the Israelites in Egypt the privilege o f Sabbath keeping before his flight.'' S an h ed rin 56b reasons that the fo u rth and fifth com m andm ents were p art o f a special revelation to th e Israelites at M arah (Ex. 15:25) p rio r to th e giving o f the law at Sinai, o r even before the giving o f m anna (Exodus 16); the rabbis recognized th at “y o u r G od com m anded you" (Deut. 5:15, 16, R.S.V.) m ust re fer to pre-Sinaitic co m m andm ents. But it is now here suggested that anyone before A braham kept th e Sabbath except A dam and God, an d possibly o th e r celestial beings.35 If these w ere th e Rabbinic views o f the S abbath’s past, what o f its future? T h e Sabbath is seen as an island o f eternity within time, a foretaste o f the world to com e. T am id 7:4 declares that Psalm 92, the psalm sung by the Levites in the T em p le on th e Sabbath, is “a song for the tim e that is to com e, fo r the day th at shall be all Sabbath an d rest in the life everlasting.’’’* Closely related to this conception was the ancient teaching about the cosmic week, ded u ced from Psalm 90:4, according to which six thousand years o f e a rth ’s history would be followed by a th ousand years o f desolation, which corresponds also to th e sabbatical year o f release, w hen slaves were freed an d the land lay fallow (Ex. 21:2; 2 3 :1 1; et cetera). T h is conception, which can be traced back at least to the intertestam ental p seu d e p ig rap h a,” is also connected with Psalm 92 an d the idea o f th e eschatological Sabbath in S anhedrin 97a, b. Pirke d e Rabbi Eliezer, ch a p te r 19, states th e d o ctrin e concisely: “T h e Holy O ne, blessed be He, created seven m illennia (‘olamin), an d o f them all He chose the seventh m illennium only; the six m illennia a re for the going in an d com ing ou t for war and peace. T h e seventh m illennium is entirely Sabbath an d rest in the life ev erlastin g ."’* Som ehow parallel to the d octrine o f the eschatological Sabbath is the notion that lost souls are given respite from punishm ent in the n e th e r world on the Sabbath. As soon as the Sabbath begins, an angel nam ed D um ah, who is in charge o f th e souls, cries out, “C om e o u t of G ehenna!" A nd the souls are released and not ju d g e d on the Sabbath. YVrhen the Jew s finish the service that closes the Sabbath, D um ah again cries aloud an d says, “C om e ou t a n d com e to the house o f the shadow o f d eath a n d o f chaos.” ’9 T h e rabbis w ere called upon to explain G od’s own activity on the Sabbath. T in n eu s Rufus, the Rom an g o vernor who m artyred Rabbi Akiba, stated to Akiba, “ ‘If it is as you say th at the Holy O ne, blessed be He, honours the Sabbath, then He should not stir u p winds o r cause the rain to fall on that day.' ‘You fool!’ Akiba exclaim ed; ‘it is like one who carries objects fo u r cu b its.'" H ere Akiba appeals to 73

T H E S A B B A T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY th e ru le o f erub, according to which a m an is p erm itted tocarry m ost objects within his private dom ain, o r fo u r cubits in the public dom ain. But th e whole universe is G od's private dom ain. In a n o th er illustration, th ree o th er rabbis are depicted as silencing objections when, while visiting Rome, they taught that God keeps His own com m andm ents: "T h e re h ap p e n ed to be a sectarian th ere, w ho accosted them as they w ere going out with the tau n t: 'Y our w ords are only falsehood. Did you not say that G od says a thing and fulfils it? T h e n why does H e not observe the Sabbath?’ T h ey replied: 'W retch! Is not a m an p erm itted to carry on th e Sabbath in his own co u rty ard ?’ He replied: 'Y'es.' W hereupon they said to him : 'B oth the h ig h er and the lower regions are th e cou rty ard o f G od, as it says, “T h e whole ea rth is full o f his glory” [Isa. 6:3], an d even if a m an carries a distance o f his own height, does he transgress?' The o th e r agreed. 'T h e n ,' said they, 'it is w ritten. “Do not I fill heaven and earth ? ” (Jer. 23:24).” « An alternative explanation for G od's activity on the Sabbath was that work was perm itted to be do n e o n the Sabbath within the sanctuary, but the whole universe is G od's T em p le: “T o you it shall lie a holy day. T o G od how ever it is like a p ro fan e day.” ” In any case, against such a background, the statem ent o f Jesus in John 5:17, “ ‘My F ather is w orking still, an d I am w o rk in g '” (R.S.V.), is a claim to divinity in m ore than o n e way. The Sabbath in Halakah W hen we tu rn from Jew ish beliefs (H aggadah) about the Sabbath to the rules (H alakah) about keeping it, we are p ro n e to think that we are on fam iliar g ro u n d , for who has not heard about the bu rd en so m e legalism, so well known from the Gospels? It may com e as a surprise, th erefo re, to learn that the Rabbinic laws were in certain significant aspects a relaxation from far stricter H alakah held by earlier Jew ish sects.” S tricter rules about many Sabbath practices are found not only in earlier non-R abbinic docum ents, such as the Book o f Jubilees (especially ch a p te r 50). th e Zadokite D ocum ent ( 13:1-27; 14:6)." an d the Dead Sea scrolls, but also in th e reco rd ed practices o f the Essenes, the Sam aritans, and the Falashas.’* Rabbinic practices re p resen t an alleviation of the stricter rules, accom plished eith er by flatly contradicting them , o r— m ore characteristically—by elaborating m ore rules that perm it exceptional o r general circum vention o f p rio r rules. T h e re are several striking illustrations o f this tendency. T h e so-called "o ld er” H alakah in terp re ted Jerem ia h 17:22 very literally as a prohibition against carrying anything out o f o r into a house; but Shabbath 1: 1 circum vents this by allowing two persons, by a carefully prescribed p ro ced u re, to pass an object betw een them from outside to inside o r the reverse. T h e Sam aritans, Falashas, an d Karaites in terp re ted E xodus 16:29 very strictly, never leaving th eir dwellings on the Sabbath; but the Pharisees set u p limits within which a person could lawfully move on th e Sabbath— the “S abbath day's jo u rn e y " o f 2,000 cubits m entioned in Acts 1:12. In d eed , th e M ishnah contains an en tire tractate, E rubin, describing a legal fiction whereby these limits could be joined to g eth er to ex ten d freedom o f m ovem ent even fu rth e r. In som e cases th e Rabbinic rules seem deliberately to have contravened the rules o f earlier sects, a n d th e contraventions are generally in the direction o f g re ater convenience o r hum anitarianism . This relaxation had already begun in 74

THE RABBI NI C S AB BA TH ihe tim e o f Jesus. T h e Zadokite D ocum ent lays dow n am ong its Sabbath rules: “ No m an shall help an anim al in its delivery on the Sabbath day. A nd if it falls into a pit o r ditch, he shall not raise it on the S abbath___A nd if any person falls into a place o f w ater o r into a place o f darkness he shall not b ring him u p by a lad d er o r a cord o r in stru m e n t." 46 T h a t such rules w ere already reversed o r re p u d ia ted by the Pharisees in Jesu s' tim e can be seen from Luke 14:5, which is in harm ony with Rabbinic principles, as will a p p e a r below. Still m ore striking are two fu rth e r exam ples. T h e Book o f Jubilees 50:8 declared that “w hoever lies with his wife" desecrates the Sabbath and “shall die," which agrees with the principles o f the Sam aritans. Falashas, an d Karaites; but m arital cohabitation on Friday night was encouraged by the rabbis, as will be seen below.47 Finally, Exodus 35:3 was und ersto o d by Sam aritans, Essenes, Falashas. and Karaites to forbid all fire on the Sabbath. H ence, these gro u p s passed Friday night in darkness. But the rabbis und ersto o d the prohibition to apply only to kindling a fire (or extinguishing one) on the Sabbath; if a lam p was lit before the com m encem ent o f the Sabbath, it could be left burning. In fact, the lighting o f the Sabbath lam ps was, as we shall see, a positive duty in every' hom e.4* T h e Rabbinic m ultiplication o f rules was largely intended lo m ake the law easier to obey, to spell out exceptions, to explain contraventions.** A ctivities Taking Precedence Over Sabbath Rest T h e essence o f the Rabbinic u n d ersta n d in g o f the Sabbath prohibitions was th e avoidance o f purposive, productive labor, as will be illustrated below. But certain circum stances w ere recognized in which the Sabbath law could be suspended so th at activities that otherw ise would have been reg ard ed as breaking the Sabbath w ere perm itted. For the m ost part these activities that took precedence over th e Sabbath rest w ere connected with cerem onial duties, military action, an d th e saving o f life. T h e m ost notable ritual that su p erseded the Sabbath was circum cision, w hich norm ally had to take place the eighth day afte r birth. "R. Jose the G alilean says: G reat is circum cision, for it sets aside the Sabbath, which is very im portant an d the p ro fan atio n o f which is punishable by ex tin ctio n ."*° If the eighth day fell on the Sabbath, even th e necessary p rep aratio n s for the operation were lawful, though Rabbi Akiba laid dow n the rule. "Any act o f work that can be d o n e on the eve o f the Sabbath does not o v errid e the Sabbath, but what cannot be d o n e on the eve o f the Sabbath [for cerem onial purposes] overrides the S ab b ath ."41 But this was done only if th e birth had clearly taken place the previous Sabbath, m aking the eighth day also a Sabbath. If the case was dou b tfu l, as when the boy was born at twilight Friday, th e circum cision was p u t o ff until what m ight be considered the ten th day, S unday.” As Jesu s p o in ted out on one occasion (M att. 12:5), work d o n e in connection with the T em p le ritual was lawful on Sabbath. Even a fte r the T em p le was destroyed, th e rabbis carefully preserved and even elaborated the laws ab o u t its services, for they still retained a w istful hope that these services w ould som e day be restored. T h u s we find: “T h e offerings o f the congregation ov errid e the Sabbath and th e laws o f uncleanness, but the offerings o f the individual ov errid e n eith er the Sabbath n o r th e laws o f uncleanness," exceptions being "the baken cakes o f the high priest an d th e bullock o ffered on the Day o f A tonem ent,” because “they m ust 75

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be o ffered at a fixed lim e.” 5' W hile the baken cakes o f the high priest (Lev. 6:21) could be m ade on the Sabbath, the two loaves o f Leviticus 23:17 an d the shew bread could not be m ade th en , following Akiba’s ru le." In general, if the Mosaic Iawr fixed a calendrical day for any cerem onial act, th at date was observed even if it fell on a Sabbath. Such acts included rem oving and b u rn in g all leavened bread befo re Passover; slaughtering the Passover lamb, but not roasting it; and reap in g the o m er o f barley that was o ffered on the second day o f Passover according to Leviticus 23:10. 1 1 .“ T h e m atter was carried back one step fu rth e r, for how w ere the calendrical dates d eterm in ed ? It should be recalled that the Jewish calen d ar was lu n ar, and d u rin g the T an n aitic period, at least, the beginning o f the lu n ar m onth was d eterm in e d by observation, not calculation: the day after th e new crescent was sighted was declared by the S an h ed rin to Ik*the first day o f the m onth. But for this, th e co u rt was d e p e n d e n t on witnesses. So im portant was their testim ony considered, since th e set feasts w ere d eterm in e d accordingly, that such a witness was perm itted to p ro fan e the Sabbath in o rd e r to go and give testim ony to the co u rt o f the ap p earan ce o f the new m oon, particularly o f Nisan an d T ishri. Such a witness could transgress the Sabbath limits, take anything necessary for his jo u rn ey , and even be carried on a litter if he could not walk.“ Ever since M accabean times defensive w arfare had also been p erm itted on the S abbath.” In d eed , the rabbis noted that the wars waged by Jo sh u a an d David m ust have o v errid d en the Sabbath.** T hey taught: “G entile cities m ust not be besieged less th an th ree days before the Sabbath, yet once thev com m ence they need not leave off. A nd th u s d id Sham m ai say: ‘until it fall' [Dcut. 20:20], even on the S abbath.” ** If an Israelite city was besieged by G entiles, self-defense was perm itted on the Sabbath, but only just so long as necessarv, according to J u d a h ben B ath y ra." Individuals also w ere perm itted to take necessary m easures for self-protection: “If a m an is p u rsu ed by gentiles o r by robbers, what is th e law as reg ard s his b reaking the Sabbath? O u r Rabbis taught as follows: If a m an is p u rsu ed by gentiles o r by robbers, he may desecrate the Sabbath in o rd e r to save his life.’’“ H ow ever, a m an not u n d e r military o rd e rs may not go ou t on the Sabbath carrying arm s."' Self-protection com es u n d e r the third type o f circum stance that overrides the Sabbath: m ortal d a n g e r (pikkuach nephesh). As a m atter o f principle, any life-or-death em ergency superseded the Sabbath."’ T h at the dutv o f saving life supersedes th e Sabbath laws was ded u ced by Rabbi Ishm ael from Exodus 22:2, by Rabbi Eleazar ben A zariah from circum cision, and by Rabbi Akiba from the fact that capital pu n ishm ent for m u rd e r supersedes the T em ple service (which in tu rn supersedes th e Sabbath, an d saving life is surely b etter than taking it!).w Rabbi N athan arg u ed that Exodus 31:16 implies “that we should disregard one Sabbath for th e sake o f saving the life o f a person so that that person may be able to observe m any Sabbaths.” “ M ore problem atic was a decision reached by m ajority vote o f the sages at a secret m eeting in th e u p p e r room o f a house at Lydda after the war o f a . d . 135, w hen th e practice o f Judaism was outlaw ed a n d m any were suffering m artyrdom for keeping th e Sabbath. It was decided: “ In every law o f the T o ra h , if a m an is com m anded: ‘T ran sg ress an d su ffe r not d e a th ' he may transgress and not suffer d eath , excepting idolatry, incest [including adultery], an d m u rd e r.” “ Rabbi 76

T H E RABBI NI C SAB BA TH Ishm ael justified this ruling on the basis o f Leviticus 18:4— “Ye shall th ere fo re keep my statutes a n d my ju d g m en ts, which if a m an do, he shall live by th em ,” but not die by them.*7 1'hese rationalizations were not universally accepted, how ever, and Rabbi Dimi hed g ed an d said: “T his was taught only if th e re is no royal decree, but if th ere is a royal decree, o n e m ust incur m artyrdom ra th e r than transgress even a m in o r precept." Rabbi J o h a n a n hedged fu rth e r: “Even w ithout a royal decree, it was only p erm itted in private; but in public one m ust be m artyred even for a m inor p recep t ra th e r than violate it." 68 T h e rabbis considered that the m otive o f the persecutor m ust be considered: if he was co m m an d in g the Jew to break the Sabbath only for his personal pleasure, the Jew m ight transgress; but if the com m and were religiously m otivated, m artyrdom m ust be chosen: “For Raba said: I f a G entile said to a Jew , ‘C ut grass on the Sabbath for th e cattle, an d if not I w ill slay th ee,’ he m ust ra th e r be killed than cut it; ‘C ut it an d throw it into the river,' he should ra th e r be slain than cut it. Why so?— Because his intention is to force him to violate his religion.” 69 T h e d a n g e r to life need not be absolutely certain. “W henever th ere is doubt w h ether life is in d an g er, this overrides th e Sabbath." In certain cases m edication could be taken on Sabbath. O ne may even warm w ater for a sick person: “N or do we say: Let us wait, because perchance he will get well, but we w arm the w ater for him im m ediately."7,1 M idwifery was legitim ate on Sabbath, an d the m idwife could transgress th e Sabbath limits if necessary to go w here she was needed. But a chronic illness for which treatm en t could be postponed could not be treated on Sabbath, for it did not involve the principle o f pikkuach nephesh,71 T h e shojur o f alarm could be so u n d ed on Sabbath for a city su rro u n d e d by Gentiles o r a flood, a n d for a ship in d an g e r.72O n e could rescue a child fallen into the sea o r locked into a room by accident, and “o n e m ust rem ove debris to save a life o n the Sabbath, an d the m ore eag er one is, the m ore praisew orthy is one; and one need not o btain perm ission from the C ourt." w O ne could also extinguish and isolate a fire in th e case o f conflagration, an d certain things could be rescued from it.74 "These activities would not be p erm itted on Sabbath except to save life. It was only th e d ire em ergency th at m ade them legitim ate. Sabbath Prohibitions It is p erh ap s arbitrary to distinguish sharply between circum stances that allowed suspension o f the Sabbath laws in toto and those things that were regularly perm itted . Was w arfare a perm itted activity o r a suspension o f the Sabbath? N evertheless, the distinction is convenient. We tu rn now to the most characteristic fe atu re o f the Rabbinic Sabbath: the m ultitudinous laws stipulating what was p rohibited a n d w'hat was perm itted. In th e O ld T estam en t, only a few prohibited Sabbath activities are specifically m entioned: d o in g w ork, kindling a fire, trading. In addition, the rabbis u n d ersto o d Exodus 16:29 to forbid travel beyond certain limits, and Jerem ia h 17:21,22 to forbid carrying b u rd e n s from o n e’s dom icile to the public dom ain, o r vice versa. But w hat counts as work? In the scientific sense, raising an arm is work, and obviously th e rabbis n eed ed a d iffe ren t definition from that used by m odern physicists. T h e Biblical w ord used in the fo u rth com m andm ent and elsew here was 77

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vielakah— task, project, em ploym ent, an d the essential thing ab o u t it was not the am o u n t o f effo rt involved, but the p u rp o se .” Melakah was som ething do n e intentionally to gain o r p ro d u ce a tem poral benefit, conceived in the broadest sense o f the w ord. But that is an abstraction, an d th e rabbis p re fe rre d to think in very concrete term s, m aking not definitions, but lists. T hey obtained their basic list from an exegesis o f E xodus 35, w here Moses solemnly forbids Sabbath work an d kindling o f fire on pain o f d eath , an d then proceeds to set the tasks fo r constructing the tabernacle. H ere, th en , was the key: all the d iffe re n t activities that m ust have co n trib u ted to the building o f the tabernacle m ust com e u n d e r the ru b ric o f "w ork.” By a process o f deduction that need not concern us, they also d ecided on the basis o f D euteronom y 25:3 that the n u m b er o f prohibited basic works was thirty-nine: " T h e m ain classes o f work are forty save one: sowing, plowing, reaping, b in d ing sheaves, threshing, winnow ing, cleansing crops, grinding, sifting, kneading, baking, shearing wool, w ashing or beating o r dyeing it, spinning, weaving, m aking two loops, weaving two threads, separating two th read s, tying, loosening, sewing two stitches, tearing in o rd e r to sew two stitches, h u n tin g a gazelle, slaughtering o r flaying o r salting it o r cu rin g its skin, scraping it o r cutting it u p , w riting two letters, erasing in o rd e r to write two letters, building, pulling dow n, p u ttin g ou t a fire, lighting a fire, striking with a h am m er a n d taking o u t an y th in g from one dom ain into an o th er. T h ese are the m ain classes o f work: forty save o n e ." 78 T h is list was taken to constitute the basic categories o f w ork, which could be infinitely subdivided a n d extrapolated. T h e M ishnah itself contains a consider­ ably detailed discussion o f m any o f them . O ut o f h u n d re d s o f exam ples, we may h ere cite only a few. “T hey may not squeeze fruits to press o u t the juice, an d even if the ju ice com es out o f itself it is fo rb id d e n ." 77 Squeezing cam e u n d e r the category o f th reshing. T h e rule also illustrates the principle that one m ust not receive personal benefit from in ad v erten t o r unavoidable production that takes place on the S abbath.7" O ne could not eat on the Sabbath, for exam ple, fruit that lay fallen u n d e r the tree, because it may have fallen on th e Sabbath itself.” T h e re was lengthy d eb ate about w h eth er an d w hen an egg laid on the Sabbath m ight be eaten , som e m aintaining th at it had been form ed the day before. It was finally concluded th at such an egg m ight not be rem oved from the nest, but could be p ro tected until a fte r the Sabbath, when it m ight at last be eaten."" T h e category o f “striking with the ham m er" was ex tended to include any act need ed to finish a w ork o r com plete an article. By this token, “h e w ho rem oves th read s from garm ents o n the Sabbath is liable on the score o f striking with th e ham m er; but that is only when he objects to them ."*' U n d e r the sam e ru b ric in stru m en tal music was forbidden on the Sabbath. N or could food be p re p a re d ." 82 Prohibition o f kindling fire on the Sabbath was explicit in Exodus 3 5 :2 ,3 , and the M ishnaic list ad d ed the extinguishing o f fire. W hat to do in case o f a house fire was a th o rn y issue. It was felt that this m ight be do n e to save life, as n oted above, but not to save property.*5 T h e severity o f this rule was alleviated by certain circum ventions. T h u s, " If a gentile cam e to p u t out the fire they may not say to him , 'P u t it o u t’, o r ‘Do not put it out', since they are not answ erable for his keeping the Sabbath. But if it was a Jew ish m inor that cam e to pu t it out they may not 78

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perm it him, since they are answ erable fo r his keeping Sabbath." “All sacred books may be saved from b u rning," as well as enough food and d rin k for the rem aining Sabbath meals and o th er absolute essentials.” T h e rabbis saw it as th eir du ty to place a hedge aro u n d the sanctity o f the Sabbath (in accordance with the principle found in A both 1:1) by fo rb id d in g not only things th at clearly p ro fan ed the Sabbath but also things that m ight increase the d a n g e r o f p ro fan in g the Sabbath. T o till a lam p in o rd e r to m ake m ore oil ru n to th e wick an d th u s cause it to b u rn b rig h ter was like kindling a fire, a cardinal transgression. T h e re fo re the rabbis forbade anything that m ight tem pt o n e on this score. O n e was not allowed to search his garm ents for verm in o r read by the light o f a lam p on th e Sabbath.*5T h e re was scholarly debate on o th e r g ro u n d s as to w hether it was p ro p e r to kill verm in on the Sabbath, and one rabbi declared, “ If one kills verm in on the Sabbath, it is as though he killed a cam el.""6 B ut a clear distinction was m ade betw een a cardinal transgression and the breach o f m erely a Rabbinic enactm ent. T h e Sabbath laws w ere o f various kinds. T h e thirty-nine prohibited form s o f labor w ere p rim ary. T h e re w ere also muklzeh laws about things that had to be set ap art a n d not han d led on Sabbath, even th o u g h no labor was involved—dirty things, an d things such as fruit that fell o r eggs that were laid d u rin g Sabbath. U n d e r these laws a m an, fo r the sake o f appearances, m ight not touch m oney o r any o f the tools o f his craft, even th o u g h he did not intend to work with them . T h e n th ere w ere the shebuth laws o f Sabbath rest, forbidding things that were not considered labor in them selves, bu t that w ere felt to d etract from the restfulness an d sanctity o f the Sabbath. A list o f such acts is found in B etzah 5:2—clim bing a tree, swim m ing, clapping the hands, slapping the thighs, and stam ping th e feet. F orbidden also w ere “acts o f choice" such as sitting in ju d g m en t, concluding a betrothal, p erfo rm in g halilza (Deut. 25:9), o r contracting levirate m arriage. C apital punishm ent, burial, and w eddings could not take place on th e S abbath.'7 Many o f these acts led to w riting ou t som e docum ent, an d w riting was fo rb id d en on the Sabbath. Culpability o f Sabbath activities d ep e n d ed on intention, purpose, an d w hether benefit was received,"1as well as a p p e a r a n c e s .A distinction was m ade betw een intentional and unintentional Sabbathbreaking.*’ It was even said, “ He who m istakenly did a fo rb id d en act on the Sabbath whilst intending to d o a n o th e r is free from penalty, because the T o ra h prohibited only a calculated action.” 91 T h u s o n e was not to blam e if by drag g in g a chair across an e a rth en floor he m ade a “fu rro w ,” unless he in ten d ed to do so! T h e question was asked, “W hat if one forgot a pot on th e stove and cooked it on the Sabbath?" Rabbi Hiyya b ar Abba replied: “If o n e cooks on the Sabbath unwittingly, he may eat it; if deliberately, he mav not eat it; a n d th ere is no differen ce.” But th e rabbis soon discovered that m any began to leave the pot on the stove intentionally and then pleaded, “We forgot”; so th e sages “retraced th eir steps an d penalized him who forgot." ” Such are the perils o f leniency! T h e professional, skilled task was forbidden, while the casual, am ateurish d eed was som etim es p erm itted .“ It cannot be d en ied that the rabbis often, and with considerable zest, plunged d eep into casuistic reasoning; an d som e o f th eir rulings seem arbitrary. Against some opposition, they decided th at it was perm issible to scrape honey from a 79

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beeh iv co n th e Sabbath; it was also perm itted to set a vessel to catch d rip p in g rain/* From a conflagration one may rescue S criptures, phylacteries, an d th eir cases, but not p ray er books.*' O bjects could not be lilted o ff a cushion o r the m outh o f a ja r, but they could be shaken o ff o r wiped off.* While a m an m ight not directly carry a stone, he was p erm itted to lift u p his child even if the child had a stone in his h an d .1" T h e rabbis w ere som ew hat m ore relaxed about what children did on the Sabbath. W hile children could not be co m m anded to do som e task, spontaneous acts, such as plucking an d throw ing, m ight be allowed.*" W hile food m ight not be heated, it could be kept warm , an d th ere were various devices for this purpose. For exam ple, a vessel containing cold w ater could be put into hot w ater to warm it.” Acts w ere perm itted if a whole act o f work was not com pleted at o n e time.""’ W ork that com pletes itself (soaking, dyeing, baking, et cetera) could not be begun unless th ere was tim e to com plete itself before Sabbath; but “w ater may be conducted into a g ard en on the eve o f th e Sabbath just before d ark , an d it may go on being filled the whole day." "" T re a tm e n t o f n o nm ortal ailm ents and handicaps was not perm itted; but “an eve salve may be placed on the eye [before sundow n Friday] an d a plaster on a w ound an d th e process o f healing continues all day." O ne should not go out to war, go o u t with a caravan, o r set out in a ship less than th ree days before the Sabbath.'0' O n the Sabbath a corpse could be anointed and washed as long as the limbs were not m oved.'“* but it could be m oved if a loaf o f bread o r a child w ere placed on it: these could be m oved within the dom icile, an d the body moved th erew ith .10' W ithin certain lim itations, cattle and o th e r anim als could be fed on th e Sabbath."* Restrictions on Sabbath bathing w ere concerned only with heating o f the w ater, which was not allowed: but sw im m ing was p ro h ib ited .107 In d eed , ritual im m ersion o f the body because o f any pollution was re q u ire d .1"* T h e use o f public bathhouses o p erated by Gentiles posed a problem , since the w ater was heated on the Sabbath. T his m eant that o n e had to wait an interval afte r the Sabbath before bathing, so as not to benefit from heat gen erated on the S abbath.10* B athing presen ted o th e r problem s: " I f o n e bathes in w ater, he should first d ry him self and then ascend, lest he com e to carry [the w ater upon him] fo u r cubits in a kannelith [semipublic d o m ain ]”; so afte r bathing o n Sabbath, one may drv him self with a towel but not w ring it o u t— the towel m ay be placed on the windowsill."" If a d e e r w andered into a house on the Sabbath, trap p in g it would be w rong if d o n e by o n e m an, but perm issible if do n e by tw o.1" W om en w ere forbidden to plav with nuts o r apples on Sabbath only because it m ight level the g ro u n d ; but R. H una said certain places w ere visited with d estruction because “thev used to play a gam e with ball on th e Sabbath." "s It was forbidden to read secular d ocum ents on the S ab b ath ."5 Ealing utensils needed for subsequent meals on Sabbath could be washed, but not if the nexi meal was a fte r the S abbath.114 A G entile was not held accountable for the Sabbath, but could he work fo r a Jew’ on the Sabbath? T h e rule was: A G entile m ust not d o a Jew ’s work on the Sabbath, but he may d o his own w o rk ."' T h e re was no objection, how ever, if work inadvertently done by a G entile for a G entile also benefited a Jew ; but no Sabbath work was to be d o n e purposelv for a Jew."* T h e School o f M enasseh. in terp re tin g Isaiah 58:13. said; "Thy business is 80

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fo rb id d en , but th e affairs o f H eaven are p erm itted ;” hence one m ay m ake arran g em en ts on Sabbath for betrothals an d for religious instruction o f a child.1,7 Some religious duties were considered ap p ro p ria te on Sabbath, but o th ers were in ap p ro p riate. T h e rabbis took tu rn s waiting on the scholars each Sabbath."" In fact, certain officials o f the synagogue w ere paid for duties they p erfo rm ed on the S abbath.“1' We have already seen that while on the Sabbath day itself o n e was not p erm itted to kindle a fire, one could on Friday kindle a fire for the Sabbath, the exam ple p ar excellence being the Sabbath lights; but in the sanctuary o n e m ight even kindle a fire on S abbath.1211 O n the o th e r han d, certain o th e r d uties could not be p erfo rm ed on Sabbath. It was fo rb id d en on that day to tithe, and tithing w'as usually d o n e on the eve o f the S abbath.1,1 U n tith ed p ro d u ce could not be eaten, carried a ro u n d , o r even touched tn the hom e on Sabbath. H ence every Friday evening before Sabbath a m an asked his family th ree questions: “ H ave you tithed? H ave you p re p a re d the erub? Have vou kindled the lam p?" Phylacteries w ere not w orn on the Sabbath, an d Rabbi Isaac explained it thus: “Since the Sabbath is called a sign and the phylacteries are called a sign, o ne should not ad d one sign to a n o th e r.” 122 P erhaps the most ingenious casuistry was ex p en d ed u p o n defining and circum venting th e Sabbath limits (tedium). In Rabbinic times th ere were two limits with which to lie co ncerned: 2 ,0 0 0 cubits, and four cubits. These were based on an in terp retatio n o f Exodus 16:29— "It was taught: 'A bide ye every m an in his place' refers to the fo u r cubits; 'let no m an go ou t o f his place’ refers to the two th ousand c u b i t s . " The figure 2,000 was obtained from N um bers 35:5. O n the Sabbath no Jew was to move m ore th an 2,000 cubits beyond th e city limits w here he a b o d e .124 T h e place o f ab o d e was ra th e r crucial. A ccording to Rabbi H anina, if Sabbath comes to a m an on a jo u rn ey , his abode is an im aginary circle w ith the m an at its cen ter an d a rad iu s o f fo u r cubits. If it is in an inhabited place the w hole town plus 2,000 cubits outside it is the abode. If the m an is in a cave, the cave is his a b o d e .12' T h e four-cubit limit also applied to a person on sh ip b o ard .'“’ But th e main application o f th e four-cubit figure was to the basic work o f “carrying." derived from Jerem ia h 17:21, 22. Most objects w ere not to be carried from a private dom ain to a public o ne o r vice versa, an d no m ore than four cubits in the public d o m ain .127 W ithin one's private dom ain one could move most objects necessary, but th ere were even lim itations in th at a re a .128 T h e re were also special rules concerning a karmelith, an area that was n e ith e r a public n o r a private dom ain, such as a com m unity bath. Obviously th e re would be times when the limits would be m ost inconvenient. T h e re would be tim es, for exam ple, w hen a four-cubit limit would be em barrassing to one experiencing a call o f n ature. T h e rabbis carefully discussed all th e possibilities and attem p ted to m ake exact provision for them . T h ey even went fu rth e r an d devised som e clever circum ventions: F or instance, “If a m an was on a jo u rn e y a n d d arkness overtook him , and he recognized a tree o r a fence and said, 'Let my Sabbath resting-place be u n d e r it,’ he has said nothing; but if he said. Let my Sabbath resting-place be at its ro o t,’ he may walk from w here he stands to its root two th o u san d cubits, an d from its root to his house two th o u san d cubits. T h u s h e can travel fo u r th ousand cubits afte r it has becom e d ark ." m Is throw ing an object d iffe ren t from carrying it? Yes and No. T h e rabbis d eb ated the question: W hat if one intended to throw an object two cubits, but ISISAH-6

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threw it four? T h ey could com e to no better answ er than what am ounts to saying. It d ep ends. T h e rabbis also said: “If a m an threw anything from a private dom ain to the public d o m a in ,. . . he is culpable; but if from a private dom ain to a n o th er private dom ain with the public dom ain betw een . . . [he is] not culpable.’’ 15" It behooved one to have a good aim! But the most im p o rtan t circum vention o f the Sabbath limits was th e erub, an institution that probably arose in the first cen tu ry o f o u r era. but which Shabbath 14b attributes to Solom on, doubdess because o f its ingenuity. T h e re w ere many types o f erub,1*' but the basic idea in all o f them was the fusion o r pooling o f Sabbath limits. T o m itigate the 2,000-cubit limit, o n e need only deposit enough food fo r two meals at 2,000 cubits’ distance an d declare the spot his tem porary abode; this device gave him twice the ran g e he would otherw ise have had. T o alleviate the limits on carrying, the residents o f dwellings fro n tin g on a com m on co u rty ard all co ntributed th eir share to a dish that could be placed in the co u rty ard o r in o n e o f the dwellings; by this device all the dwellings were considered com m on to all. an d unrestricted access was had by all to all, so that anything th at m ight be carried within one's private dom icile could now be carried anyw here within the com m on one. T h is second type o f erub was also called a shittuf (p artnership). N eedless to say, the rabbis laid dow n careful rules about the m atter. For exam ple, th e en try into the courtyard could not be higher than twenty cubits n o r w id er th an ten cubits,151but this qualification could be m et, if necessary, by the installation o f som e tem porary beams. Also, needless to say, the erub m ust be p re p a re d before the Sabbath b egan.155 hence the presundow n question, "H ave you p re p a re d the erub?” Punishable Sabbathbreaking We have seen that a n u m b e r o f the Sabbath prohibitions are listed as resting solely on rabbinical au th o rity .154 A bout such prohibitions it was said: “T h e rules about th e Sabbath, Festal-offerings, and Sacrilege are as m ountains hanging by a hair, fo r S crip tu re th ereo n is scanty and the rules m a n y ."155 But the rabbis felt that w here th e S criptures w ere silent thev had pow er to bind o r loose, as it were, in o rd e r to safeg u ard the sanctity o f the Sabbath. 'R. Sim eon says: W heresoever the Sages have p erm itted aught to thee they have but given thee what is already thine, fo r w hat they have perm itted thee is only that which they had w ithheld by virtue o f the Sabbath rest.” 154 If they had pow er to lay dow n a limit, they had pow er to m odify it with exceptions an d circum ventions. So the rabbis com m anded Jew s not only to refrain from activities re g ard e d as labor (melakah), but prohibited also even such activities as only detract from the restfulness (shebuth) o f the Sabbath d ay.157 But while a clear distinction was m ade betw een a scriptural com m and, such as the prohibition against kindling a fire (which was punishable by death), and a purely Rabbinic precept, such as taking o ff the phylacteries on S abbath,14" this does not m ean that the Rabbinic teachings w ere taken lightly by the pious. "R. Aibu said: Rest even from the th o u g h t o f labor. A story is told, said R. B erechiah, o f a pious m an who took a walk in his vineyard to find ou t what it required. W hen he saw a breach in it, he resolved to rep air it at the d e p a rtu re o f the Sabbath. But then he said: Since the thought o f rep airin g it cam e to me on th e Sabbath, I will leave it forever u n re p aired . How did the Holy O ne, blessed be He, rew ard him? A cap er bush which grew u p in the vineyard fenced the breach, an d on the fruit o f 82

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the bush he sustained himself the rest o f his life ." IW T h e princ iple o f Sabbath restfulness (shebuth) was not always articulated into rules, but it was respected: “W hen th e m o th e r o f R. Sim eon ben Yohai used to talk too m uch on th e Sabbath, he would say to her: 'It is Sabbath.' an d she would keep silen t."140 W hile wom en w ere exem pted, by virtue o f their dom estic responsibili­ ties, from m any o f th e Rabbinic rules, no distinction was m ade betw een m an and wom an in reg ard to the S abbath.141 Perhaps the m ost crucial difference betw een ihe scriptural an d Rabbinic Sabbath precepts was in the m atter o f punishm ents. T h e re w ere th ree levels o f pu n ish m en t for S abbathbreaking: (a) death by stoning, (b) kareth. and (c) liability for a sin offering. Sabbath p ro fan atio n is listed am ong the offenses punishable by stoning, which was th e second-gravest form o f capital punishm ent, a fte r b u rn in g , and followed by b eheading an d strangling—all penalties that the S an h ed rin had pow er to inflict.14'' Stoning was inflicted only fo r cardinal offenses against the Sabbath, such as kindling a fire, prescribed in S cripture (Ex. 35:3). But such a penalty was indicated only if th ere w ere two witnesses to the act, an d if the o ffe n d e r w ere w arn ed .143 In o th e r words, th ere had to l>e deliberate and stubborn intent. Kareth (cutting off), often translated “extirpation," is a punishm ent often re ferred to in th e O ld T estam en t (“that soul shall be cut o ff from am ong his people"). K erithoth 1:1 lists th im -s ix transgressions for which the Bible prescribes kareth. W hatever it may have m eant originally, the rabbis u n d ersto o d it to m ean divine pu n ishm ent, ap p aren tly p re m a tu re d eath ; an d by the tim e o f M aim onides, at least, it was believed that a person in cu rrin g kareth would have no life in th e w orld to com e. Flogging o r rep en tan ce could an n u l ktireth."' D eliberate S abbathbreaking fo r which tfiere w ere no witnesses incurred kareth."' If th e p ro fan atio n o f th e Sabbath was unintentional, and the o ffen d er realized his m istake, he was liable to a sin of fering. ‘" H e that p rofanes the Sabbath' [Num . 15:32-36] is liable, a fte r w arning, to d eath by stoning if he com m itted an act which re n d ers him liable to E xtirpation if he acted wantonly, o r to a Sin-offering if he acted in e r r o r ." 1441H e is, how ever, not liable “unless the beginning and the end" o f th e act “w ere d o n e in e rro r.” I,: Rabbi Akiba m aintained that "if a m an did many acts o f w ork o f th e like kind on m any Sabbaths d u rin g one spell of forgetfulness, he is liable to o n e sin-offering for all o f th e m " l4" But if the m any acts w ere o f d ifferen t kinds, o r if the o n e act involved m any differing species o f S abbath­ breaking (according to the thirty-nine categories), a sin o fferin g was re q u ired for each k in d .14" If a m an "did an act o f work on eith er a Sabbath o r a weekday but it is not know n on which he did the act, he m ust bring a Suspensive G uilt-offering [Lev. 5 :1 7 -1 9 ]."'“ T he Positive Side o f Rabbinic Sabbath Observance A recital o f Rabbinic Sabbath rules such as the foregoing m ight give the im pression that th e Sabbath was considered negative and burdensom e, an d fo r m any it may have been so. But such an im pression in general would be one-sided and d istorted. I he rabbis w ere co n cerned to m ake the Sabbath a delight (Isa. 5 8 :13), and it would seem that they largely succeeded. “T h e Holy O ne, blessed be He, said to Moses, I have a precious gift in My treasure house, called the Sabbath, 83

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a n d desire to give it to Israel; go a n d inform th em .” 151 We now view the positive side o f Rabbinic Sabbath observance. T h e rabbis applied th e ir considerable exegetical ingenuity to the fact, p erplexing to them , that th e fo u rth com m andm ent in Exodus begins "R em em ­ ber" (zekor), but in D euteronom y it begins “Keep" (shemor). Several theories w ere p u t fo rth to explain the discrepancy.'” O ne o ften -rep eated explanation was that th e two d iffe re n t words "w ere pro n o u n ced in a single utterance— an u tteran ce which the m o u th cannot u tte r, n o r the ea r h e a r ." '“ T h e following exposition was less m etaphysical but m ore practical: “Remember an d observe. R em em ber it before it com es an d observe it a fte r it has gone.— H ence they said: We should always increase w hat is holy by ad d in g to it som e o f the non-hoIy.IM—T h u s it can be com p ared to a w olf m oving backw ard and forw ard. Eleazar b. H ananiah b. H ezekiah b. G aron says: 'R em em ber the day o f the Sabbath to keep it holy,' keep it in m ind from th e first day o f the week on, so that if som ething good h appens to com e your way fix it u p for th e Sabbath. R. Isaac says: You shall not count them in th e m an n er in which o th ers count them . But you should count them with referen ce to th e S ab b ath ."'“ T h e Sabbath was th u s the climax o f the week; it was ap p ro ach ed with increasing expectation an d left behind reluctantly. Even in tim es o f proclaim ed fasting, it was p erm itted to open the shops all day on T h u rsd ay "because o f the h o n o u r d u e to th e Sabbath"; the Sabbath was to be h o n o red w ith food, d rin k , an d fresh clothing, in fulfillm ent o f Isaiah 5 8 :13.'“ In the spirit o f N ehem iah 8:9-12, th e Sabbath was to be h o n o re d by indulgence in som e unusual luxury, especially food and d rin k ; and in o rd e r to have a better ap p etite for the first Sabbath m eat, o n e ate sparingly on F riday.'17 “Even a trifle, if it is p re p are d in h o n o u r o f the Sabbath,” is called Sabbath delight, an d it was said that the less m oney a person spen d s for Sabbaths, the less m oney will he earn."" O n Friday the Jew ish housew ife baked the special bread called challah, from th e d o u g h o f which she h ad separated a portion for the priests, according to N u m b ers 15:17-21. (A fter th e disappearance o f the T em p le system, it becam e the custom simply to throw this portion into the fire.) T h o u g h a m an m ight eat two meals on weekdays, it was considered m eritorious to eat th ree meals on Sabbath—on Friday night, afte r the Sabbath m o rn in g services, and a light meal following th e afte rn o o n serv ices. Rabbi Zerikah based the custom o f th re e meals o n Sabbath on Exodus 16:25, an d it was said: “H e who observes the practice o f th re e meals on th e Sabbath is saved from th ree evils: the tim e o f trouble before the Messiah com es, the re trib u tio n o f G ehinnom , an d the wars o f Gog and M ag o g ."ly® O f course, all food p re p ara tio n had to be d o n e before the Sabbath, an d the th ird an d fo u rth ch ap ters o f th e M ishnah tractate Shabbath describe devices for keeping food w arm — they could not lie heated on the Sabbath, but the heat they already had m ight be conserved. I he Sabbath was a favorite tim e for inviting guests to d in n e r, an d if it was know n that anyone in the com m unity o r a transient visitor was too p o o r to eat well th at day, it was a virtuous d eed to provide for him . Also, it was strictly forbidden to fast on Friday o r Sabbath, o r to m o u rn on Sabbath, the only exception being w hen th e Day o f A tonem ent fell on Sabbath. N ot only was m o u rn in g forbidden, but it was only with difficulty th at th e rabbis ag reed to allow m o u rn ers to be com forted an d th e sick to be visited on the Sabbath. W hen a sick person is visited, th e Sabbath 84

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visitor should say. “ It is Sabbath, w hen o n e m ust not cry out. a n d recovery will soon c o m e . " O n th e Sabbath one was not even to give voice to distress in his prayers. O n Sabbaths one should not only consum e a special treat but he should wear a special g a rm e n t.1*1 From R uth 3:3 Rabbi H anina in ferred that “a m an should have two sets o f g arm ents, o n e for weekdays a n d one for S abbath,” but when Rabbi Simlai e x p o u n d e d the sam e precept his h earers “wept an d said: As o u r raim ent on weekdays, so is o u r raim ent on the Sabbath. H e said to them : It is nevertheless necessary to change," m eaning that the sam e garm ent may be worn differently.'** Because so m any Jew s did m ake the practice o f having a special Sabbath g arm en t, th e G entiles mockingly said to o n e an o th er: “ How long d o you wish to live?" T o which the jo cu lar reply was: “As long as the shirt o f a Jew which is worn on the S ab b ath !"1“5 O n e fu rth e r indulgence en co u rag ed on the Sabbath by the rabbis was m arital relations: Psalm 1:3 was said to re fer to the m an who perform s his m arital duty every Friday n ig h t.,w Even a wife living separately from h er h usband had the right to have relations with him on Friday nights.'*5 As th e Sabbath drew on, the hom e was supposed to be especially cheery and b rig h t.'“ T h e re was m uch bustle on Friday to com plete the p rep aratio n s for this weekly festive occasion. In ancient Jew ish com m unities, the ap p ro ach o f the Sabbath was signaled by th e synagogue sexton (chazzan) with blasts on the shojar (ram 's horn). A ccording to one account, “six blasts w ere blown on the eve o f the Sabbath. T h e first, for people to cease work in the fields; the second, for th e city and shops to cease w ork; the th ird , for the lights to be kindled: that is R. N athan's view. R. J u d a h th e Nasi said: T h e th ird is for the phylacteries to be rem oved. T h e n th ere was an interval for as long as it lakes to bake a small fish, o r to p u t a loaf in the oven, a n d th en a long blast, a series of short blasts, an d a long blast w ere blown, and one com m enced th e S ab b ath ."167 W ork m ust be com pleted o r stopped at least half an h o u r befo re sunset. A question on the in terp retatio n o f Exodus 20:9 arose: "But is it possible fo r a hu m an being to d o all his work in six days? It simply m eans: Rest on the Sabbath as if all your work w ere done. A n o th er in terp re tatio n : Rest even from th e th o u g h t o f labor."'*" T h e Sabbath began at sunset on Friday, and this tim e was anciently d eterm in ed by observation: “W hen one star is visible, it is day; when two. it is twilight; th ree, it is n ight.” '“ A lthough in later custom the Sabbath was ush ered in by a service in th e synagogue, m ore anciently the greeting o f the Sabbath was a hom e af fair. L ighting o f th e Sabbath lam ps just before sundow n is o n e o f the oldest custom s for welcoming the Sabbath, apparently already an established custom in the tim e o f Je su s.'70 W ith the perfo rm an ce o f this cerem ony— assigned to the w om an o f the household, if th ere was o n e— the Sabbath was felt to have palpably arrived. T h e n cam e th e Kiddush (sanctification) cerem ony, w hich was believed to be a Biblical req u irem en t: “ 'T o keep it holy’ [Ex. 20:8]— T o consecrate it with a benediction. O n the basis o f this passage the sages said: At the en tran ce o f the Sabbath we consecrate it by reciting the sanctification o f the day over w in e."171 C om m enting on the different ways by which God hallowed the Sabbath (Ex. 20:11). Rabbi J u d a h said: “G od hallowed it by prescribing a blessing for it. From this teaching it follows that at the arrival of the Sabbath one declares it holy by 85

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reciting a blessing over a c u p o f w in e."175T h o u g h o rdinarily wom en were excused from observing positive precepts that d e p e n d ed on set times, they were req u ired to recite o r h ea r the recital o f the R iddush at the beginning o f S abbath.1” Following this th e first Sabbath meal p rm e e d e d . which from early times was accom panied with singing: "W hen the Sabbath com es, we welcome it with psalm ody an d song, as it is said, ‘A Psalm, a song for th e Sabbath.' ” ,M Later, w hen it becam e custom ary to g a th e r in th e synagogue for services before the Friday-evening meal, the fath er, u p o n re tu rn in g hom e, would lay his hands on each child in tu rn an d bless him , greet the Sabbath angels, and then recite to his wife the thirtv-first c h a p te r o f Proverbs; and a fte r this cam e the K iddush an d meal. Rabbi Jose rep o rts that it was taught: "Tw o m inistering angels accom pany m an on the eve o f the Sabbath from the synagogue to his hom e, o n e a good angel an d o n e an evil angel. A nd w hen he arrives hom e and finds the lam p b u rn in g , the table laid and th e bed covered with a spread, the good angel exclaims, ‘May it be even th u s on an o th e r Sabbath also,' and the evil angel unwillingly responds, ‘am en .' But if not, the evil angel exclaims, 'May it be even thus on a n o th er Sabbath also,' an d th e good angel unwillingly responds, 'a m e n .'" 1’1 O n Sabbath m o rn in g th e family would arise som ewhat later than usual and go to the synagogue, if it were within the Sabbath limits for them . T h e re th e ritual d iffe red from th at o f o th e r days, most notably in that the E ighteen B enedictions w ere red u ced in n u m b er to seven, for all prayers with reference to sickness o r o th e r trials w ere o m itted .17,1 A bout noon cam e the second Sabbath meal. Sabbath dishes w ere declared to be m ore tasty th an on o th e r days, even though co ld .'” I he following story was o ften told: “G od blessed th e Sabbath with tasty dishes. O u r T ea ch er [Judah the Prince] m ade a meal for A ntoninus on the Sabbath. Cold dishes were set before him ; he ate them and found them delicious. [On a n o th e r occasion] he m ade a meal for him d u rin g the week, w hen hot dishes w ere set before him. Said he to him : ‘T h o se oth ers I enjoyed m ore.' ‘T h ese lack a certain co n d im en t,’ h e replied. ‘Does th en th e royal p an try lack anything?’ he exclaim ed. ‘T hey lack the Sabbath,' he replied; ‘do you indeed possess the S a b b a th ? '" ,7* A fter th e noon meal th e re was a period o f relaxation. letter in the afte rn o o n o n e went to th e Beth ha-M idrash, o r synagogue school. It was th o u g h t b etter to atten d the S ab b ath-afternoon lectures than to read th e S criptures privately at that h o u r. T h is tim e o f study, discussion, an d lecture was followed by the afte rn o o n M inha services. “ It is not p erm itted to read the H agiographa [on Sabbath] except from M inha tim e onw ards, but one may recite them by heart and deliver expositions on them , and if it is req u ired for som e pu rp o se to exam ine, o n e may take u p [a copy] an d exam ine it.” Anciently, afte r the M inha service the family w ould g ath er before sundow n fo r th e th ird Sabbath meal, which was lighter than the others. As it grew d ark, the sexton once again blew a blast on the shofar, and the family conducted the cerem ony o f Habdalah (separation), m arking the boundary betw een the Sabbath an d th e secular tim e ensuing. Lights w ere kindled, spices on b u rn in g coals w ere b ro u g h t in an d sm elled, a n d grace afte r the meal was recited over a cu p o f wine. T h e H abdalah was not concluded until an interval afte r sundow n, for the people w ere loath to see the Sabbath pass; indeed, the custom o f sm elling spices was re g ard e d as a consolation fo r its passing. 86

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Most Jew s looked forw ard to the Sabhath with anticipation o f pleasure, w hether rabbi o r day laborer: "R. B erechiah taught in the nam e o f R. Hiyya bar Abba: T h e Sabbath was given solely fo r enjoym ent. R. Haggai said in the nam e o f R. Sam uel b ar N achm an: T h e Sabbath was given solely for the study o f T o ra h . A nd the two d o not d iffer. W hat R. B erechiah said in the nam e o f R. Hiyya bar Abba about th e Sabbath's being given fo r enjoym ent applies to the disciples o f the wise who weary them selves in the study o f T o ra h th ro u g h o u t the weekdays, but on th e Sabbath com e and enjoy them selves. W hat R. Haggai said in th e nam e o f R. Sam uel bar N achm an about the S abbath’s being given for study o f T o ra h applies to w orkingm en w ho are busy with their work th ro u g h o u t the weekdays, but on the Sabbath com e an d occupy them selves with the T o ra h .” 1“ For the Jew s the Sabbath was a tem ple in time, an irrem ovable place of m eeting with G od. the inalienable rallying point o f all Jews. T hey read Exodus 3 1: 17, "It is a sign . . . for ever." an d declared. “T h is tells that the Sabbath will never be abolished in Israel. A nd so you find that anything to which the Israelites were devoted with th eir whole souls has been preserved am ong them ." It is w orthy o f note th at insofar as they have preserved the Sabbath, th e Sabbath has also preserved them . NOTES 1 M m sta tem en t leave» m il of accou n t th e S a n u n u n s . w h o had for n u n \ gen era tio n » b een co n sid e r e d a» not q u ite Jew». I cs s th an a th o u sa n d o f th em rem ain todav M am grou p » o f D iaspora (o v ersea s) Jew s rem a in ed isolated from th e m ain stream o f J c w u h h istory, su ch as th e Falashas. the m ack J e n s o f E th iop ia, o f w h o m o n ls s o m e thirty th o u sa n d are left t o d a y In later Jew ish history o th er g ro u p s a ro se that may he re g a rd ed as th row back» to pre-R abbtm c fo rm s o f Ju d a ism , m ost notablv th e K araite m o v e m e n t, w hich a ro se in th e e ig h th cen tu ry A . D . . and R efo rm J u d a is m o f'co n te m p o r a ry A m erica 2 T h e N a /o r e a n s (Jew ish C h ristian s) survived b y fle ein g at an o p p o r tu n e m o m en t to Pella b ey o n d th e J o rd a n . Pharisaism su rvived b ecau se o f th e d ram atic esca p e fro m Jeru»aJem nv Rabin |o h a n a n b en Zakkai. w h o receiv ed p etm issio n fro m th e k .m u m t set Up .« v h o o l at Ja b n e h ( |a m m .it. a short distan«C fro m th e Palestinian th em on

88

I HE RABBI NIC S ABBATH ih c six day’s o f labor, but o n th e Sabbath th e m a n n a d id n ot tall: not tnrcause G o d had n o stren g th to sen d n d o w n , but b et a u se it w as S abbath in H is p resen ce." 43 O n th is g en er a l u u e stio n s e e esp ecia lly G e o r g e Foot M o u re, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age o f the Tannaim (C a m b rid g e. Mass . 1927), 2 :2 7 -3 2 . M oore speaks o f an “'o ld e r H alakah" that was m o r e strin g en t than that o f th e P h a n se e s a n d later tan n aim . w h o so u g h t to m ake th e laws m o re practicable. It is u n clea r, h o w ev er, w h eth er th e d iffe r e n c e s b etw een th e ru les o f th e M ish n ah an d th o se o f ea rlier so u r ces (J u b ilees, Z ad ok ite D o cu m en t, D ead S ea scrolls, et ce te ra ) re p r ese n t th e d iffe r e n c e b etw een n ew er an d o ld er o r sectarian d iffe r e n c e s . It is p ossib le that a g r o u p su ch as th e E ssen es re p r ese n ts n ot on lv con servatism but a lso a ten d en cy tow ard grea ter rigor. See Barbara T hierinjç. “T h e Biblical S o u r ce o f O u m ra n A sceticism .” JBL 9 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ):4 3 2 .4 3 3 . H o w ev e r that m ay b e. th ere is every probability that th e Pharisaic ru les ot S ab b a th k eep in g in J e su s’ tim e w ere stricter a n d m o re o n e r o u s th an they w ere later w h en th e M ish n ah was co m p le te d 44 T h e s e first tw o w ork s are fo u n d in A P O T , 2 : 1 -8 2 . 7 8 3 -8 3 4 . T h e Z ad ok ite D o cu m en t is n ow o fte n ca lled the C o v en a n t o f D am ascus: it is usually in clu d ed in p u b lish e d tran slatio n s o f th e D ead S ea scrolls, such as that bv T h e o d o r H . C aster. The D ead Sea Scriptures (C a rd en C ity, N .Y .. 1936). 45 O n th is ge n e r a l u u e stio n . see esp ecially S T . K im b ro u g h . J r.. “T h e C o n c e p t o f Sabbath at Q u m ra n ," R evue de Qumran 5 ( 1 9 6 4 - 19 6 6 ):4 8 5 - 5 0 1; an d J u d a h R osen th al. “T h e Sabbath Law s o f th e Q u m ra n ite s o r th e D am ascus C o v en a n ters." Biblical Research 6 ( 1961 ): 10-17 T h e s e tw o articles u n fo r tu n a tely ten d to m in im ize th e d iffe r e n c e s b etw een th e Rabbinic ru les and th o se o f th e oth ers; th is c o n ie s from o v e r lo o k in g so m e o f th e illu stration s g iv e n below C f. also tw o articles by L ou is F ink eistein : “T h e B ook o f J u b ilee s an d th e Rabbinic H alaka. " H a rva rd Theological Review 16 ( 1 9 2 3 ):3 9 - 6 1 ; an d " Som e E xam p les o f th e M accabean H alak a."JBL 4 9 (1 9 3 0 ) : 2 0 - 4 2 . O n th e d iffe r e n c e s in respect to Sabbath ligh ts, see l^auterbach, op. a t .. p p. 4 5 8 -4 6 1 . 46 1 9 :2 2 , 2 3 . 2 6 . C aster, op. cit., p. 7 8 . e m e n d s th e latter rule to ch a n g e it fro m a p ro h ib itio n to a p ositive c o m m a n d b ccau sc “th is w ou ld Ik *again st th e u niversal Jew ish ru le that sabbath law s mav b e bro k en in cases o f life an d d e a th .“— P age 104. But such an em e n d a tio n fails to tak e in to accou n t th e w h o le ten o r of th e S abbath ru les in th is and c o g n a te d o c u m e n ts, in con trast to th e Rabbinic ru les. It is illegitim ate to tra n sfer Rabbinic p rin ciple» to th e g r o u p that p ro d u c ed th is w ork. T h e em e n d a tio n is ev e n m o re u n lik ely o n form al g r o u n d s, fo r th e co m m a n d stan d s in th e m idst o f so m e tw en ty-five o th e r co m m a n d s, every o n e o f w hich is a p roh ib itio n . 47 S ee n o te in A P O T , 2 :8 1 . 82. 4* S ee l.a u ter b a c h . op. cit., p p . 4 5 4 -4 5 8 . 49 C f. W h ite, op cit., p p. 3 8 . 3 9 . 2 7 8 . 27 9 . 50 Mek A m alek 3 51 Shab. 19:1. « Shab. 19:5. 55 T e m u r a h 2 :1 . M M en ah oth 11:2-3: c f. Shab. 19:1: Pesah im 6:2. H Pesahim 3:6; 6:1 -6 ; M en ah oth 10:1-3, 9. 56 R osh h a-S h an ah 1:4. 5 . 9. 57 A fter a th o u sa n d p io u s J ew s a llow ed th em selv es to be m assacred rather th an d e fe n d th em selv es o n th e Sabbath. M attathias a n d th e o th er Jew ish le a d e rs in th e stru g g le against A n tio ch u s F p ip h a u es d e c id e d that in the fu tu r e th ey w ou ld fight in su ch a situ ation ( 1 M acc 2 : 2 9 - 4 1 ). A cco rd in g to 2 M accabees 8 :2 5 -2 8 , af ter Jew s d ef ea ted th e arm y o f N ican or th ey cea sed p u rsu it b eca u se the Sabbath was d ra w in g on . T h e r e s e e m s to h ave b e e n less co m p u n c tio n ab out e v e n ro u tin e m ilitary serv ice o n S abbath in O ld T esta m en t tim es; 2 K ings 11:4-11 tells o f so ld iers d o in g g u a r d d u ty a n d e v e n p articip atin g in th e coup d'etat again st Q u e e n A thaliah. •" (¿en . R. 7 0 :15. w Shab. 19a. M M ek. Shabbata I. 61 N u m . R 23:1 Shab. 6:4. ',1 S uch cases are system atically d iscu ssed by M aim om d es (C o d e . Sabbath 2 :1 -2 5 ). 64 M ek. Shabbata I. Ibid It will be se e n im m ed iately that tw o o f th ese a rg u m en ts a re alm ost id en tical w ith th o se u sed by Jesu s. Rabbi E leazar‘s a r g u m e n t as it a p p e a rs in M ekilta is virtually id en tical w ith that fo u n d in J o h n 7 :2 3 . In Y om a 8 o b it is so m ew h at e x p a n a e d : “R. Eleazar a n sw er ed an d said: It circum c ision . w hich attach es to o n l\ o n e o f th e tw o h u n d red and fo rty-eigh t m em b ers o f th e h u m a n b od y, s u sp e n d s th e Sabbath, how m uc h m o re shall th e sa v in g o f th e w h o le bodv s u sp en d th e Sabbath!" T h e sayin g o f S im on b en M enasiah is q u ite sim ilar to M ark 2 :2 7 . B ec a u se o f th ese sim ilarities, so m e J ew ish sch olars h ave in sisted that J esu s w as savin g n o th in g new but m erely e c h o in g th e stand ard h u m an itarian ism o f th e P h a n se es. T h is view ru n s a g ro u n d o n a ch ro n o lo g ica l d ifficu lty , for b oth Rabbi E leazar and Rabbi S im on b en M enasiah ta u g h t tw o or m o r e g en er a tio n s later th an J e su s. I. A braham s. Studies in Pharisaism an d the Gospels, First S eries (L o n d o n . 1 9 17), p. 13 0 . tries to m eet th is d ifficu lty by n o tin g that in Y o m a 8 5 b S im o n ’s savin g is attribu ted to J o n a th a n b en J o se p h , an d “th e variation in assign ed a u th o r sh ip su g g ests that th e savin g o rig in a ted w ith n eith er, but w as an o ld e r tradition"; he traces th e teach in g ultim ately to th e d ecisio n o f M attathias in I M accabees 2 39. T o this 1 w ou ld reply, A b rah am s is q u ite right in savin g that th e sayin g o rig in a ted w ith n eith er rabbi, but is o ld er— th e u n k n o w n o rig in a to r o f th e tea ch in g was J esu s, w h ose strik in g savin gs m ust h ave p a ssed in to co m m o n co in a g e e v e n a m o n g n o n fo llo w ers, w h o w ou ld h ave had n o reason to re m e m b e r th e so u r ce, a n a in d e e d ev e ry reason not to recall it. T h e r e is n o verbal p arallel in 1 M accabees, n or any sta tem en t o f a g en er a l p rin cip le. ^ S a n h éd rin 74a; Y om a 85a; a n d else w h ere . 67 S a n h éd rin 74a. Rabbi Ish m ael's d ictu m is attrib u ted to Rabbi S a m u el in Y om a 8 5 b . w h ere it o ccu rs in the sam e co n tex t as th e savin g o f Rabbi Eleazar an d th e sayin g attribu ted th ere to J o n a th a n b en J o s e p h but in M ekilta to S im on b en M enasiah . T h e savin g that M ekilta attribu tes to Rabbi N ath a n is a ssig n ed by Y om a 8 5 b to S im o n b en M enasiah. ^ Ibid 69 S a n h éd rin 74b . 70 Y om a 8 :6 ; 8 4 a . b. 71 Shab. 18:3: 2 2 :6. ^ T a a n ith 3:7.

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T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y n Y um a M b 74 Ibid ; but see a lv i Shab. 16:1-0 n 1. C '.runfeld, T h t Sabbath A GuttU to lt% I ’n d m ta n d in g a m i O b t m n m r (J eru sa lem . 1 972). p 19. co n clu d e» (o d e fin e a mrhikah a» "an at I ih ai »how» m an s m a ite rv o v er th e w o r ld !» th e c o n stru ttiv e ex e rcise of tin in tr lli|;r m r and «kill " 76 Shab. 7 :2 . C f M ek S hab b ata 2; S h ab 9 7 b n S hab 2 2 : 1 r* For th is reason O r th o d o x Jew* w h o fin d il n ecessary (o m ilk to w » o n Sabtiaih p o u r o u t th e m ilk o b ta in ed ra th er than receiv e an v b en efit fro m it. n P csh ah im 4:8. *u B e t/a h 1:1 ; B e t/a h 2a-4b ; S hab 43a. S hab 75b . « E rub 104a; M ek PUcha. 6 *’ M aim on id rc. C o d e . Sabbath 12:3. M Shab . 16:6. I; 117b. 15 Shab 1:3. » S h a b 12 a 1,7 B et/a h 5:2: Mek S hab b ata 2: S h ab 2 3 :4 . 5. “ Shab 12:1-6; Shah . 73b; S u k k ah 3 :1 4 ; c f M a im o m d es. C o d e. Sabbadi 1:6 " Shab 2 2 :3 -5 » C f I e r u m o th 2:3. 91 S a n h éd rin 62b . ®* Shab . 38a. ” C f. S h ab 46b . ** S h eb iith 10:7; B c t/a h 5:1. w Shab. 1 6 : 1 .2 ; R uth R 6 :4 . 96 Shab 2 1 :2 . 3. Shab 21:1 * Y e lu m o th 1 1 3 b -114a w S hab 3:1 -5 ; 4 : 1 . 2; 22:4 Shab 10:2. 5; 20:5: M ek S h a b b a u I 101 S hab 1:5. 10, I I , 18a " « S h a b 2 2 :6 . 18a lu , M .T . S em a h o th 46a. "M S hab 2 3 :5 ; c f. R uth R 3:2 " » Etc I R 5 :1 0 :2 106 Shab 2 4 :2 -4 ; R uth R 3:2 107 S h ab 39 b -4 0 b '°» B e t/a h 2:2 "" Le» R 34 :1 6 . " " S h a b 141a, 147b 111 S hab 13:5-7. " * Erub 104a; Lam R 2:2:4 111 M .T . S o ferim 4 1 a . " » S h a b 118a 1,5 M ek Pischa 9. 116 S hab 23:4 117 S hall 150a " • Shab. 7 4 a " * M .T K allali R abbalhi 55a 1.0 Mek S h ab 2. 1.1 S hab 2:7; D en tal 4:1. '** Mek Pischa 17. Erub. 51a; M ek. Vavassa*. 6 . 1.4 Erub 4 :1 . 3; 5 :7 . '*» N u m R 2:9; E rub. 41b . IWl E rub 4:1 117 H o ta \o th 1:3; S h ab 7:4-H:7; 9 :5 -7 ; 1 0 :1 5 . '» S h a b . 17:1-8; 1 8 : 1 .2 . ,N E n ib 4 :7 . ,w S h ab 7 3 a an d 1 1 1 151 H ru b y. op n i., p p . 4 4 9 -4 5 1 . 1.1 Erub. I : f 1.1 M ek V a v a u a ' 3. 1.4 B e t/a h 5:2 ,, s H aiiigah 1:8. ' « E n i l 10:15. 157 M ek S hab b ata 1 IM C f. M .T . A b oth d e Rabbi N ath an 2 7 a . I,g Pesikta R abl.au 2 3 :3 . 14.1 Lev R 34 16. Pesikla R abbati 2 3 :3 . 141 M ek. B a ch o d esh 8 ,4J S a n h éd rin 7 :4 . 1 M ek S h alib aia I ; S a n h éd rin 7:4; 7 :8 . I4* M akkoth 13a. b. I4' K en t b oth 1:1

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T H E RAB BI NI C S ABBATH 146 S a n h e d n n 7:8. 147 S h ab 11:6. ,4# K en t b o th 3:10. 149 Shah. 72b. ,5a K c r i t h o t h 4 :1 . *** Shab. 10b. IM M ek. B a ch o d esh 7. Pesikta Rabbati 2 3 : 1, c i cetera 115 S h c h u o th 2 0 b ,S4 G e n R 9 :1 4 ad vocates a d d in g an extra h ou r to Sabbath, tak rn fro m Fridas 115 M ek B a ch o d esh 7 ,v> T a a n ilh 1:6; M idrash o n Psalm 9 2 :3 . 157 Pesikta R abbali 2 3 :6 , 7; P esh ah im 99b . 159 S h ah 1 1Mb. la-v R 3 0 :1. ,w M ek Vavassa* 5 . Shab. 1 18a ,9° G en . R lOO 7; S h ab 12b 191 S h ab 113a. Cien R 11:2; N u m R 10 1. Pesikta R abliati 2 3 I ,M R uth R 5 : 12. 143 Lam R . P roem 17. ,M N ed arim 8 6 ; 3 :1 0 . Baba K am a 82a; N id d a h 3 8 a , b; K rlh u h o th 6 2 b . P i e e x p r e ssio n “eat gat In.' u se d in *om e o f th ese re fe ren ce s, it grn rrally taken lo be an e u p h e m ism . 144 K ethu fu xh 5 :9 . in ter p r eted in K eth u b oth 65b . S h ab 23b . 25b . 197 S h ab 35 b S in ce o n e shcnild n ot b ea i b u r d e n s o n th e Sa!>bath. a n d th e last blast o f th e %hofar m a rk ed the b e g in n in g (h e Sabb ath , a quandarv arose: W hat d id th e c h a ix tn d o w ith h is thofar after th e six blasts* Rabbi J o se l»en H a n in a said he allow ed tim e to c a m it h o m e , bhiw ing it a little earlv. bul th e rest o f (h e rabbis said h e "had a h id d en p lace o n th e to n of his ro o f, «»here h e p laced h is \Kafai, Ixrcause n eith er a shitfat nor a ir u m p e i m ay Ik* h a n d led o n th e Sabbath** (to u ch in g m u sical in stru m en ts violated tn e Sabbath m ukiieh laws). O th ers said that th e in stru m en ts m as tie m o v ed as part o f a ce rem o n ia l d u lv (Shab. 36a). »“ M ek B a ch o d esh 7 »«»Shab 35b 179 O n th e h n t o n o f t h » cu sto m , see L au terb ach . op a t.. pt> 4 5 4 -4 7 0 O n F x o d u s 13:22 th ere is a Rabbinic ( o m m e n t T h is p a sv ig e su g g e sts that s o u can learn fro m th e lo r a h w hat ih e p r o p e r cu sto m o n th e e v e o f th e Sabbath sh o u ld be T h e oillar of fire shcnild sh in e forth w h ile th e pillar o f th e cloucl is still p resen t" (M ek. B esh allai li. I ). m ea n in g that th e S abbath ligh ts sh o u ld b e k in d led o n Fridas w h en th e r e is still d a y lig n t. (For m o re d eta ils about Sabbath n tu a l. w ith r e fe ren ce s, see th e w ork s bv S egal. M illgram . an d S ch auss.) 171 M ek B a c h o d e th 7 ,7» Pesikta R abbati 2 3 :6 177 S h e b m n h 2 t>b 174 M idrash o n Psalm 9 2 :3 175 S h ab 119b 174 M idrash o n P vd m 2 9 .2 177 Pesikta R alibau 23 8 179 G e n R 11:4; S h ab 119a 179 Lev R 15 4 199 Pesikta R abbati 2 3 9 ,9‘ M ek Shab»Mta I

CHAPTER 5

The Sabbath in the New Testament

Walter F. Specht H R IS T IA N S accept th e New T estam ent as norm ative for belief an d life. It is th ere fo re o f im portance to exam ine what the New T estam ent has to say about the Sabbath. T h is is especially im portant since the m ajority o f C hristians today reg ard the Sabbath as Jew ish an d believe that Jesu s an d /o r His apostles changed the day o f rest from the seventh to the first day, the dav on which C hrist arose from the dead. Sabbaton, th e G reek w ord for "Sabbath." is found sixty-seven tim es in the critical text o f th e G reek New T estam ent. T h e plural o f this w ord, sabbata, may be reg ard ed as a transliteration o f the A ram aic, shabbeta, the em phatic state o f the singular n o u n , m eaning "the S abbath.” 1 In its G reek transliteration it was ap p a ren d y taken as a plural, an d hence the singular sabbaton was constructed from it. A n o th er possible explanation is to re g ard the singular as a transliteration o f the H ebrew shabbath, w hereas the plural cam e from the A ram aic.2 L exicographers recognize two clearly d ifferen tiated m eanings fo r sabbaton in the New T estam ent: (1) Sabbath, the seventh day o f the week, a n d (2) the period o f seven days betw een Sabbaths, i.e.. week.' T h e second m eaning is d em an d e d when sabbaton o r sabbata is used in a genitive construction with a num eral: a clear exam ple is fo u n d in Luke 18:12, w here the Pharisee boasts, “ I fast twice a week," du tou sabbatou. It would obviously not m ake sense to translate: “I fast twice on Sabbath." It is well know n that the Pharisees fasted on M ondays and T hursdays. In seven passages (eight if the long e n d in g o f M ark is included),' the first day o f the week is designated by the n u m eral "one" an d the genitive o f sabbaton. mostly in the plural.* T h e fact that the n u m eral is fem inine indicates that the fem inine noun “day" is to be u n d ersto o d . T h e re g u la r G reek word for "week," hebdomas. which had been used in the S eptuagint, is not found in the New T estam ent. T h e idiom used for the days o f the week occurs in the G reek tides o f a few o f the psalms in th e G reek version. Psalm 24 (Psalm 23, S eptuagint) is designated tes rmas sabbaton, "fo r the first day o f the week." Psalm 48 (Psalm 47, S eptuagint) has in its title deutera sabbatou, “fo r the second day o f the week." Psalm 94 (Psalm 93. S eptuagint) is designated as tetradi sabbaton, “for the fo u rth day o f th e week" (W ednesday). Most probably these originally m eant the first, second, a n d fo u rth

C

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r H E S A B BA T H IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

days a fte r th e Sabbath. Friday, how ever, was know n as prosabbaton, an d Psalm 92 (Psalm 91. S eptuagint) was, according to the title, used in the tem ple ritual fo r that day. In th e New T estam ent passages w here sabbaton m eans "Sabbath," the word occurs forty tim es in the singular an d nineteen times in the plural. But in m ost o f the o ccurrences o f the w ord in the plural, the context m akes it clear that a single day is in ten d ed .” As a m atter o f fact, in the Gospels a n d Acts, the only clear instance in which sabbata is plural in m eaning is in Acts 17:2, w here the num eral "th ree" used with it dem ands th at m ore th an o n e Sabbath is m eant. T h e Revised S tan d ard V ersion, however, translates sabbata in this passage as "w eeks.” In passages w here sabbaton clearly m eans Sabbath, th ere is no consistency in usage betw een th e sin g u lar an d the plural when a single day is in ten d ed . In the story o f th e plucking o f heads o f wheat o n the Sabbath, M atthew uses the plural in c h a p te r 1 2 :1 an d th e singular in c h a p te r 12:2. Luke's usage is in reverse with th e singular in c h a p te r 6 : 1 an d th e plural in c h a p te r 6:2. In the story o f the healing o f the m an with th e w ithered hand, M atthew 12:10-12 an d M ark 3:2-4 use th e plural, w hereas the parallel in Luke 6:6-9 has the singular. Similarly in th e S eptuagint the plural is som etim es used w here the original H ebrew has the singular, an d w here it is obvious that the reference is to a single day.7 T h e re m ay be a parallel h e re to the custom o f using the G reek plural for festivals such as th e Feast o f Dedication (John 10:22), the Feast o f U nleavened B read (M ark 14:1), a m arriage feast (M alt. 22:2), o r a birthday celebration (M ark 6:21)." T he Sabbath in the G ospels O f the sixty-seven occurrences o f the term sabbaton in the G reek New T estam en t, fifty-six are found in the Gospels: eleven in M atthew, twelve in M ark, twenty in Luke, an d th irte e n in Jo h n . In six o f these references sabbaton m eans "week.” Five o f these speak o f the “first day o f the week," the day on which o u r L ord arose from th e dead. T h e rem aining fifty re fer to the Sabbath, the seventh day o f th e week. T he Sabbath Service in Nazareth.—A ccording to the Gospel o f Luke, Jesus, n ea r th e beginning o f His G alilean m inistry, visited His hom etow n o f N azareth. "A nd he cam e to N azareth, w here he had been b ro u g h t up" (Luke 4:16).* N azareth was the hom etow n o f both Jo sep h and Mary, a n d following the re tu rn from the flight into Egypt o f th e holy family, they re tu rn e d to this insignificant m ountain village in Galilee (M att. 2:23). It is called "th eir own city" (Luke 2:39), an d becam e th e childhood hom e o f Jesus, w here H e lived till He was about 30 v e a rso fa g e (chap. 3:23). His re tu rn th e re a fte r H e began His public m inistry was, consequently, a source o f curious interest on the part o f the villagers who had know n H im so m any years. "A nd he went to the synagogue, as his custom was, on the sabbath day" (chap. 4:16). Tw o in terp retatio n s o f the ph rase "as his custom was" are given by com m entators." Some would restrict the reference to Jesu s' teaching m inistry in the Jew ish synagogue (verse 15): “As his custom was," as a teacher. H e e n te re d the svnagogue in N azareth on the Sabbath day. O th ers u n d ersta n d the ph rase as a • Unleu othcrwur indicaicd. all Stnpiurr referentes in this ihapier arr (rom ihc Re\i»ed Standard Versión.

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T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY referen ce to th e years Jesus lived in N azareth. A lfred Plum m er, fo r exam ple, has w ritten: “It had been ‘His custom ' d u rin g His early life at N azareth to atten d the synagogue every sabbath.""' Ralph Earle states: ‘“ As his custom was' (verse 16) points to a lifelong habit o f atten d in g the synagogue on the sabbath d a y ."" But w hichever view is correct, it is evident th at Jesus, as a loyal Israelite, was a Sabbath observer. Paul Jew ett boldly states: “T h e re can be little doubt, th en , that Jesus, as a devout Jew , observed the Sabbath. T o feature Him as the g ra n d innovator, who swept it aside in the nam e o f liberty, is to rem ake Jesu s in the im age o f the E n lig h ten m en t.” '* O n the occasion re ferred to in Luke 4, H e stood u p in the synagogue an d read from Isaiah 61. T h e n He sat dow n to in terp re t the passage as a referen ce to H im self an d His mission. His work is to be u n d ersto o d in term s of Isaiah's “S ervant o f Yahweh." Jesus proclaim s that the prophetic scriptures find th eir fulfillm ent in Him as the Servant o f God. T he Sabbath Controversies.— All fo u r Gospels bear witness to the fact that the Sabbath was o n e o f the m ain areas o f conflict between Jesu s and the Jews. It may be well to raise the questions: W hy did these controversies take place? W hat w ere they about? Why did the Gospel w riters regard them o f sufficient im p o rtan ce as to record them fo r the instruction o f the church? A careful study o f these controversies shows that the point at issue was not w hether the Sabbath should be kept o r not. Sam pey was correct w hen he asserted: " T h e re is no reason to think that Jesu s m eant to discredit the Sabbath as an institution." ” Jesu s H im self asserted, as The New E nglish Bible translates His words: ‘“ Do not suppose th at I have com e to abolish the Law an d the prophets; I did not com e to abolish, but to com plete’” (M att. 5:17). W hat th en was the issue? Plainly it was the m an n er o f Sabbathkeeping. T h e question was not Should the Sabbath be kept? R ather, it was How should the Sabbath be kept? T h e Pharisees insisted that it be kept according to the oral rules that the rabbis had developed dow n th ro u g h th e years. "Jesus did not reject the institution o f th e Sabbath as such, but only the tradition o f the elders reg ard in g S abbathkeeping.” " H e refused to abide by th e m an-m ade rabbinical rules for Sabbath observance, by which the Sabbath had becom e a b u rd e n instead o f a blessing. O n e has only to read the tractate Shabbath in the M ishnah to realize the extent o f these rules.* It seem s that Jesus deliberately challenged these oral traditions. H e sought to free the Sabbath from burdensom e restrictions, an d m ake it a day o f spiritual freedom and joy. T h e Evangelists re g ard e d these conflicts as o f sufficient im portance fo r the chu rch to include them in th eir Gospel accounts. The church was not to observe the Sabbath according to these rules, but ra th e r as a day o f helpful service afte r the p attern o f the M aster. It is lawf ul to d o good o n that day. H e who observes the Sabbath m erely as a legalistic requirem ent will never receive the blessing God in ten d ed it to bring. T h u s the church did not reject the institution as such, but it did reject th e m an-m ade rules for observing it. The Conflict Over Plucking Grain on the Sabbath.—T h e first Sabbath conflict th at is recorded in all th ree of the Synoptics (Matt. 12:1-8; M ark 2:23-28; • For so m e o f (h e d eta ils, te e ch a p ter -4.

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T H E S AB BA TH IN THF. NEW T E S T A M E N T Luke 6:1-5) co ncerned th e legality o f the disciples' act in plucking heads o f wheat on the sacred day. Jesus an d His disciples w ere going th ro u g h som e grain fields on a Sabbath. T h e disciples w ere h u ngry (M att. 12:1), an d they plucked som e heads o f wheat and, afte r “rubbing them in th eir hands" (Luke 6:1), ate the grain. T h e re u p o n th e Pharisees accused them o f an unlaw ful act. T h e legitimacy o f plucking heads o f grain from som eone’s field was not in dispute. T h e Old T estam en t law had provided: “W hen you go into your neig h b o r’s standing grain, you may pluck th e ears with your han d , but you shall not pu t a sickle to your neighbor's stan d in g grain" (D eut. 23:25). But the Pharisees b ra n d ed th eir act as unlaw ful because they w ere engaged in work on the Sabbath. T h e O ld T estam ent law forbade agricultural activity on the day o f rest: " ‘Six days you shall w ork, but on the seventh day you shall rest; in plowing lim e a n d in harvest you shall r e s t'” (Ex. 34:21). As noted in ch a p te r 4, the M ishnah specified thirty-nine m ain categories o f w ork tfiat w ere forbidden on the S abbath.11 T hese included reaping, th reshing, winnowing, and grinding. T h e Pharisees evidently in terp re ted plucking as reaping, rubbing the heads in one's hands as threshing, an d blowing away the ch a ff as winnowing. H ence, the disciples w ere w orking, even th o u g h a very small am o u n t o f grain was involved. T h e M ishnah declares that a p erson is guilty who takes "ears o f grain equal to a lam b's m o u th fu l.’’ “ “A m ong th e scribes it was assum ed that a teacher was responsible for the behavior o f his disciples."17 H ence the Pharisees co n fro n ted Jesus with the challenge: “ 'Look, why are they doing what is not lawful on the sabbath?’ ” (M ark 2:24). M atthew gives th e challenge in the form o f a statem ent: “ 'Look, your disciples are doing what is not lawful to d o on the s a b b a t h ( M a t t . 12:2). In Luke the challenge is given to the disciples: " ‘Why a re you doing w hat is not lawful to d o on the sab b ath ?'" (Luke 6:2). Jesus, how ever, declared that they were guiltless (M att. 12:7) in satisfying th eir h u n g er. In th eir defense H e first o f all cited the exam ple o f David: “ ‘Have you never read what David did, w hen he was in need an d was hungry, he an d . . . those who were with him ?’" (M ark 2:25). In his flight from Saul, David went to Ahim elech the p riest,1* and upon his request was given the sacred “bread o f the Presence" to sh are with his m en (1 Sam. 2 1 : 1-6), which only the priests w ere to eat (Lev. 24:9). The point h ere seem s to be that David was the anointed o f the L ord, with all that this im plied. I f it was right for the anointed David an d his hungry com panions to eat the holy bread belonging to the priests, how m uch m ore could the h u n g ry disciples o f the Son o f David violate the scribal rules about the sacred Sabbath. Most likely th e bread that David received was not that which was in G o d ’s p resence o n th e table in the holy place, but ra th e r that which had been rem oved to be replaced by f reshly baked loaves ( 1 Sam. 2 1:6). The day on which the exchange o f th e new fo r th e old was m ade was the Sabbath. In the view o f some rabbis, the day on which David received the loaves was the S abbath.'“ T h e scripture does not state th e day o f th e week, but if it was indeed the Sabbath, then the exam ple o f David would be even m ore apropros. A ccording to the Gospel o f M atthew, Jesus also cited the exam ple o f the priests from th e law itself as a preced en t for the action o f the disciples: " ‘O r have you not read in the law how on the sabbath the priests in the tem ple p ro fan e the 95

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sabbath, an d are guiltless?'" (M att. 12:5). O n the Sabbath, as already noted, the old loaves o f "the bread o f the Presence” w ere rem oved an d fresh loaves put on the table. T h e re was incense to be off ered, an d the daily b u rn t off erings w ere doubled on the Sabbath (N um . 28:9, 10). H ence th ere w ere anim als to be slain, wood to be p re p a re d an d placed on the altar, et cetera. T h u s, as M aim onides pu t it centuries later, th ere was “no Sabbat ism in the T em ple."10 The priests actually w orked h a rd e r on th e Sabbath than on any o th er day o f the week. But th eir work was not sinf ul, because it was in the service o f G od. T h e ir priestly service was justifiable work, because it was sacred, not secular. T h e arg u m e n t based on this exam ple rests on a fam ous principle o f herm eneutics term e d qal wahomrr, that is, “the light and weighty," applied to an actual p recep t o f the law.*1T h e C hristological statem ent in M atthew 12:6 is indeed significant: “ ‘I tell you, som ething g re ater than the tem ple is h e re .” ' It is an assertion th at o u r L ord is su p e rio r to the Jew ish regulations o f w orship. H e is g reater th an th e T em p le an d its cultus. It was to Him an d His w ork as both priest and sacrifice that the T em p le services pointed forw ard. He cam e to ea rth as the R edeem er o f th e world. His disciples w ere associated with Him in th e great work of red eem in g m ankind, a work that was sacred, not secular. H ence it was right for them to satisfy th eir physical h u n g e r to receive stren g th to carry on th eir work fu rth er. T h e real n atu re o f the Sabbath was often gravely m isunderstood. M ere cessation o f labor was not th e essence o f the Sabbath. It was never G od's intention that the Sabbath be m ade a day o f useless inactivity. T h e Sabbath was to be a day when m an forsook his secular pursuits an d devoted the day to w orship an d to the service o f God. A ccording to M atthew , Jesu s also re fe rre d to som e well-known w ords o f the p ro p h et Hosea: “ ‘A nd if you had known what this m eans, “1 desire m ercy, an d not sacrifice," you would not have condem ned the guiltless’" (Malt. 12:7). Jesus had com e lo establish the rule o f the kingdom o f G od. In the eyes o f a gracious God. mercy is o f far m ore im portance than a legalistic obedience to the law. H ence on a n o th er occasion o u r Lord accused the scribes an d Pharisees o f neglecting the w eightier m atters such as " ‘j ustice an d m ercy an d faith,’" while m eticulously tithing ’“ m int an d dill and cu m m in '" (chap. 23:23). In M ark's account (chap. 2:27), Jesus then raised the issue o f the p u rp o se o f the Sabbath. T h e Sabbath was not an end in itself. "T h e sabbath was m ade for m an. an d not m an for the sabbath." It was designed to be a blessing to m an. a day o f physical rest, but also a day devoted to spiritual exercises. T h e Pharisees treated the day as th o u g h m an were created to serve the Sabbath, ra th e r th an th e Sabbath m eeting th e needs of m an. R. Shim ’on ben Menasya about a . u . 180 m ade a sim ilar statem ent: " The Sabbath is given over to you but you are not su rre n d e re d to the S ab b ath ."“ E. Lohse asserts: "B ut in such sayings the rabbis are not in any way attacking th e Sabbath com m andm ent. T h ey are simply saying that in exceptional cases the Sabbath may be infringed to save h u m an life. In M ark 2:27, how ever, m an and his needs are said to be o f g re ater value than the c o m m an d m en t."” All th ree o f the Synoptic Gospels record the concluding statem ent, “T h e Son o f m an is L ord even o f the sabbath" (M ark 2:28; Matt. 12:8; Luke 6:5). T his statem ent asserts C h rist’s sovereignty over the Sabbath. He, a fte r all, was with o u r heavenly F ath er when the Sabbath was m ade (John 1:1-3). T h e re fo re He. ra th e r 96

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th an th e scribes a n d Pharisees, has the authority to state what is lawful an d not lawful to do on the day o f rest. It was not the Sabbath law itself that Jesus' disciples had violated, b u t th e m an-m ade pharisaical regulations re g ard in g Sabbath observance. Jesu s on m ore than one occasion com pletely ignored the oral law so T h e text o f C odex Bezae, the leading representative o f the so-called “w estern" type o f text, varies strikingly from that o f most New T estam en t m anuscripts. T h e saying re g ard in g the lordship o f C hrist over the Sabbath (Luke 6:5) is placed a fte r verse 10. Between verses 4 and 6 this m anuscript reads: “O n the sam e day, seeing one w orking on the Sabbath day, he said to him , ‘M an, if you know' what you a re doing, you are blessed; but if you d o not know, you are accursed and a tran sgressor o f the law ."’ T h u s this m anuscript adds an o th er Sabbath incident to th e series. A lthough this verse has littleclaim to be a p art o f the original text o f Luke, B ruce M etzger thinks that “it may well em body a H ealings on the Sabbath.— M ark and Luke describe the healing o f a dem oniac who in te rru p te d the synagogue service on a Sabbath in C ap ern au m (M ark 1:21-28; Luke 4:31-37). Jesu s was teaching in the synagogue, a n d the people were astonished at His teaching. W hen the m an "who had the spirit o f an unclean d em o n " (Luke 4:33) cried out in the service, Jesus com m anded the dem on: " ‘Be silent, an d com e out o f h im !'” (verse 35). T h e re u p o n afte r convulsing the m an, the dem o n cam e out. T h e reaction o f the w orshipers was: “ 'W hat is this?"' A new teaching! W ith authority he com m ands even the unclean spirits, an d they obey him “ ' (M ark 1:27). Evidently the issue o f healing on Sabbath was not raised on this occasion. Later, ap p aren tly on the sam e Sabbath, Jesus healed Peter's m other-in-law o f a high fever in P eter’s house in C ap ern au m (Matt. 8:14, 15; M ark 1:29-31; Luke 4:38, 39). T h e re is no record o f a controversy H owever, th e Synoptic Gospels record a n o th er healing on the Sabbath th at did give rise to controversy: the healing o f the m an with the w ithered h an d (Matt. 12:9-14; M ark 3:1-6; Luke 6:6-11). P erhaps by this tim e the scribes an d Pharisees were fully aw are that Jesus did not allow the Sabbath to in te rru p t His healing m inistry, an d they were ready for a confrontation. L ater Jesu s again en tered the synagogue at C ap ern au m a n d began teaching. A m an was p resen t whose right han d (Luke 6:6) was w ithered, indicating som e kind o f paralysis. A ccording to the M ishnah. a sick o r injured person could be treated on th e Sabbath only if life was actually in dan g er: “W henever th ere is do u b t w hether life is in d a n g e r this overrides the Sabbath."*5T h e case o f the m an was obviously not covered by this provision, since the w ithered h an d presen ted no im m ediate th rea t to life. H ence the scribes and Pharisees w ere w atching closely to see what Jesu s would do, in o rd e r to have a case against Him . A ccording to M atthew (12:10), they in fact asked Him . “ Is it lawful to heal on the sabbath?" (Interestingly, th e apocryphal Gospel according to the H ebrew s, as stated by Jero m e, presents th e m an as pleading: “I was a m ason, seeking a living with my hands; I beg you, Jesus, resto re my health to m e, so that I need not beg for my food W hat should Jesu s d o in such a situation? H e first o f all had the m an stand up so th at all could see him. M atthew relates that H e then answ ered the question o f

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th e Pharisees by asking a counterquestion that required an affirm ative answ er: “ ‘W hat m an o f you. if he has o n e sheep and it falls into a pit on the sabbath, will not lay hold o f it an d lift it out?' ” (M att. 12:11). W hile th ere w ere rabbis who w ould not allow an anim al to be rescued on the Sabbath, they at least allowed it to be m ade com fortable in the pit.*7 Should o n e be m ore considerate o f an anim al than a h u m an being? ‘" O f how m uch m ore value is a m an than a sh e e p !'” (verse 12). A ccording to the accounts in M ark and Luke. Jesus confronted the Pharisees with th e question: “ 'Is it lawful on the sabbath to d o good o r to d o harm , to save life o r to kill?"' (M ark 3:4).^ They could not, o f course, say that it was law ful to do harm , and they would not say it was lawful to d o good. H ence they rem ained silent. C. E. B. C ranfield is correct in asserting: “T o om it to d o the good which one could do to som eone in need is to d o evil.” ” T o leave a m an with a w ithered h an d “in his d efo rm ed condition was to destroy him insofar as a full, com plete life was c o n c e rn e d .. . . So simply to do nothing for the poor m an was to d o evil, to destroy him."*0 Jesu s th en “looked a ro u n d at them with anger, grieved at th eir hardness o f h eart" (verse 5). G ustav Stahlin gives two reasons for this anger: “It is first the w rath o f th e m erciful L ord at legalists w ho will not accept the new way o f mercy and salvation, an d who thus allow them selves to be carried away by mercilessness and even m ortal enm ity (verse 6). It is secondly the w rath o f love, which seeks to win even the Pharisees for the kingdom o f m ercy an d which en co u n ters only hate because they want law, not love. T h e re is thus m ixed with holy w rath a divine pity for th eir piety which is so far from G od.” *' Jesu s th en com m anded the m an to stretch ou t his hand. W hen he did so, it was restored. T his led the Pharisees to conspire with the H erodians as to how to do away with Jesus. T h u s while they w ere unwilling to see a m an with a d efo rm ed han d resto red on the Sabbath, they felt no com punctions about plotting the death o f o n e they h aled. T h ereb y they gave th eir answ er to the question: ” ‘Is it lawful on the sabbath to d o good o r to d o harm , to save life o r to destroy it? '" O n the o th er han d Jesus set fo rth the principle “ It is lawf ul to d o good on the sabbath” (Matt. 12:12). F. F. B ruce sum m arizes Je su s’ position: "In stead o f following the sabbath law as ex p o u n d ed in the schools o f Hillel o r Sham m ai, Jesu s insisted that, since the sabbath was given to m en for th eir relief and well-being, any action w hich prom oted that end was specially ap p ro p ria te to the sabbath day. T h e rabbis would have agreed that, in an urg en t case o f life or d eath , medical attention m ight be given on the sabbath day, but if the patient could w ithout d a n g e r wait until the next day, then the healing action should be postponed. Jesu s arg u ed on the contrary that the sabbath was a pre-em inently suitable day for the p erfo rm an ce o f such works o f mercy, w h eth er the case was u rg en t o r not, since such works were so com pletely in keeping with C od's pu rp o se in giving the day. O n the o th e r hand, anything that ten d ed to m ake the sabbath law b u rd en so m e conflicted with that p u rp o se .” ” Sabbath H ealings Peculiar to Luke.—T h e Gospel o f Luke records two o th er Sabbath healings, which also provoked controversy. O n e o f these, given in Luke 13:10-17, was the healing o f “a wom an who had had a spirit o f infirm ity for eighteen years; she was bent over and could not fully straighten herself." T h e statem ent that she had “a spirit o f infirm ity” suggests that h er illness was a result o f the pow er o f dem ons. Jesus im m ediately healed h er by announcing to h er th at she 98

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was cu red a n d by laying His h ands upon her. As contrasted with the previous controversy, in this instance the healing cam e first and the debate followed. T h e opposition originated with the "ru ler o f th e synagogue," who was angry with Jesu s but scolded the congregation instead: “ 'T b e re are six days on which work o u g h t to be d o n e; com e on those days an d be healed, an d not on the sabbath day’” (verse 14). Jesus called this m an and all who accepted his in terp retatio n ‘“ You h y p o crites!'” H e proceeded to show how they had concern fo r the well-being o f anim als on Sabbath, but no genuine concern for the w elfare o f people. A re anim als m ore im portant than people? T h e values o f an institution such as th e Sabbath w ere not to be placed above hum an values. T . W. M anson in terp rets: “You u n d o the bonds o f your d ra u g h t anim als to refresh them , and you feel that this is no infringem ent o f the holy day, but you protest against the release o f a h u m an creatu re, a d a u g h te r o f A braham , from which Satan— the source o f the evil spirit— has clam ped upon h er not for a day but for eighteen years!’’” T h e w om an’s illness was not the will o f God. She was bound by Satan. Should not God bring h er freedom even on Sabbath? W. F. A rndt calls attention to the pow erful antithesis in Jesu s’ a fortiori arg u m en t: “a d a u g h te r o f A braham —an i­ mals; eighteen years o f suffering— thirst for one day; a bond o f Satan—a m ere physical lack."5* Not only should such a wom an be allowed liberation on Sabbath, she o u g h t to be freed. W here th ere is pow er to free such a one, th ere is the obligation to d o so.( O n this occasion Jesus won the controversy: “All his adversaries were pu t to sham e; and all the people rejoiced at all the glorious things that w ere d o n e by him " (Luke 13:17). T h e o th er Sabbath healing reco rd ed only in Luke was th at o f th e healing o f a m an with the dropsy (chap. 14:1-4). T h e m iracle o ccurred in the hom e o f a “ru ler who belonged to th e Pharisees" w here Jesus was a Sabbath d in n e r guest. T h e presence o f a m an suffering from dropsy presented Jesus with a challenge. He grasped the initiative by asking, “ ’Is it lawful to heal on the sabbath, o r n o t?'" T h ese lawyers an d Pharisees "could not answ er yes o r no w ithout ap p earin g either lax in th eir attitu d e to the Law o r harsh an d unsym pathetic tow ards suffering." ” H ence they gave no answer. Jesus th en proceeded to heal the man. H e th en asked: “ W hich o f you, having an ass o r an ox that has fallen into a well, will not im m ediately pull him ou t on a sabbath day?’" T h e O ld T estam en t law laid dow n the obligation of helping an anim al in need that belonged to a b ro th e r or even an enem y."’ But noth in g is said about re n d erin g such help on the Sabbath day, an d th e rabbis varied in th eir in terp re tatio n .57 A pparently, Jesus was on com m on g ro u n d with His theological o p p o n en ts in approving h u m an e action to anim als in n ee d .” B ut if an anim al can be helped, why not a m an? N either th e host n or th e guests h ad an answ er to that question. Sabbath H ealings Peculiar to John.—T w o Sabbath healings that b ro u g h t Jesus into sh arp conflict with the Jew s are recorded exclusively in the Gospel o f Jo h n . O n e was th e healing o f the lam e m an at the pool o f B ethesda (John 5:1-9). While Jesu s was in Jeru salem at “a feast o f the Jew s" He saw a chronic invalid o f thirty-eight years lying in one o f the porticoes su rro u n d in g the pool, waiting for the troubling o f th e waters. T h e pool apparently was fed by an interm itten t spring. A p o p u lar superstition explained this natural p h en o m en o n as a 99

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su p ern atu ral tro u bling o f the w ater by an angel.’" Jesus asked the u n fo rtu n a te m an. ‘“ Do you w ant to be h ealed ?'" T h e n H e com m anded. “ Rise, take u p your pallet, an d walk.' ” By faith the m an set his will to obey the com m and, and in doing so received healing a n d restoration. He d em onstrated the reality an d com plete­ ness o f his cu re by walking an d carrying hom e the pallet on which he h ad been lvin8- . . . . It is only at th e conclusion of the account of th e m iracle that J o h n inform s us that it o ccu rred o n the Sabbath (verse 9b). It was an open challenge to the rabbinical rules o f Sabbalhkeeping. T h e m an who was healed was not in acute d a n g e r o f losing his life, and could, th erefo re, have waited for healing until after the S abbath.4” In addition th e healed m an violated one o f th e thirty-nine principal kinds o f labor forb id d en on the Sabbath by carrying his pallet.*1T h e Jew s lost no tim e in rem in d in g him that by carrying this m at he was doing som ething unlaw ful on the Sabbath. T h e m an, how ever, in his new -found health, fell no com punctions o f conscience in obeying C hrist's com m and. Since Jesus was the source o f life and wholeness to him . why should H e not also be the source of p ro p e r laws? W hen the Jews learn ed that th e h ealer was indeed Jesus, as they had suspected, they began to lake hostile action against Him (verse IB). T h e G reek suggests that this was not because o f a single violation, but because it had becom e a habit. The Sew English Bible re n d e rin g is: "It was works o f this kind d o n e o n the Sabbath that stirred the Jew s to p ersecute Jesus." Jesu s' defen se o f His action rests on two basic prem ises: (1) His intim ate relationship with Gas dawning. But how can one speak o f daw ning at sunset? L ohseexplains, “T h e reference is obviously to the shining o f th e first star as th e Sabbath com es."7'1 Luke's n arrativ e continues: "T h e w om en who had com e with him from Galilee followed, a n d saw the tom b, a n d how his body was laid; then they re tu rn e d , and p re p a re d spices an d ointm ents. O n th e sabbath they rested according to the co m m andm ent. B ut on the first day o f the week, at earlv daw n, they went to the tom b, taking th e spices which they had p re p a re d " (Luke 23:55-24:1, R.S.V.).7* T h e recognition o f th e relation o f these wom en to Jesu s a n d His Messianic m inistry m akes this sim ple account very significant. Next to the twelve apostles they w ere am o n g Jesus' m ost intim ate and m ost devoted followers. T hey risked th eir lives to follow Him to th e cross. T h e ir devotion is shown by th eir hasty purchase o f spices an d ointm ents to anoint the body o f th eir Lord. Even so they felt that they could not violate the Sabbath even to give h o n o r to th eir d ead M aster. T h e spices and ointm ents w ere purchased for use w hen the Sabbath was over. Sundow n was too n ear to think o f using them on the day o f p rep aratio n . “O n the sabbath they rested according to the com m andm ent." If we ask, A ccording to what com m andm ent? the answ er is obvious: T hey rested according to th e com m andm ent that has to do with the Sabbath. T hey rested “in 104

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obedience to th e c o m m an d m en t.’’" T h e accusative, to sabbaton, indicates that they rested "all th ro u g h the sabbath" (G oodspeed). T h e conjunctive particle men befo re sabbaton o f the last clause o f Luke 23:56 corresponds to the adversative conjunction de o f ch a p te r 24:1, indicating that ch ap ters 23:56 and 24:1 are one sentence. At the close o f c h a p te r 23 th ere should be only a com m a, for the de carries th e story on w ithout a break."1T hey rested for the d u ratio n o f the Sabbath, but at early daw n on the first day o f the week they w ent to the tom b to continue th eir work.*2 T h ey were gready d istu rb ed w hen they found the tom b em pty. But an angel in fo rm ed them : “ ‘1 know that you seek Jesu s who was crucified. H e is not here; for he has risen, as he said. Com e, see the place w here he lav” ’ (Matt. 28:5, 6). Jesus, too, h ad rested from His great w ork o f redem ption, bu t now H e was alive forev erm o re.” L uke plainly refers to th re e distinct days in this Passion narrative: the day o f p re p ara tio n , th e Sabbath, an d the first day o f the week. O n the first o f these He was crucified, on the second H e rested in the tom b, on the th ird H e rose from the tom b. His m ost devoted followers also rested on the Sabbath in obedience to the co m m andm ent. T h e N a tu re o f the G o s p e ls —T h e significance o f what the Gospels record co n cerning th e Sabbath can be b etter u n d ersto o d a n d appreciated w hen one considers the p u rposes for which these docum ents w ere w ritten. It is generally recognized today that they are not histories as such, th o u g h they contain historical facts.*4 N or are they prim arily biographies o f Jesus. T hey are ra th e r church books w ritten for the p u rp o se o f pro m o tin g the C hristian faith (Luke 1:1-4; J o h n 20:31). T h ey w ere w ritten by com m itted C hristians to aid in sp read in g the good news o f what G od has d o n e in Jesu s C hrist. T h ey are prim arily theological handbooks o f the early church.*1 T h e Gospels record m uch o f what Jesus said and did. We may well ask, Why? T h e answ er is ap p a ren t: because what Jesus said and did is norm ative for the C hristian. H e is th e c h u rc h ’s Messiah an d L ord. T h eref o re w hat H e said is binding on those who profess to follow Him . A nd what H e did is also norm ative. H e is the stan d ard o f belief an d practice. In the light o f this, what Jesu s said an d did with reference to the Sabbath has great significance. H e did no t speak w ords abolishing the Sabbath. A lthough He p erfo rm ed m iracles o f healing on that day, these acts w ere holy deeds in harm ony with th e spirit o f th e Sabbath. H e did. however, en d eav o r to free the day from the in terp retativ e restrictions that th e je w ish oral law had placed upon it. H e m ade it a day o f spiritual freedom an d helpful service. It m ust fu rth e r be recognized th at when the Gospels recorded the sayings and doings o f Jesus, they also reflected the faith and practice o f the early church. T h e accounts in the book o f Acts likewise give evidence o f early C hristian faith an d practice, and to this book we now tu rn . T h e Sabbath in the Book o f Acts T h e G reek word fo r "Sabbath," sabbaton, occurs ten times in the G reek text o f the book o f Acts. In the King Jam es V ersion it is translated as “Sabbath" nine times,*6 an d “week" once."7 In th e Revised S tan d ard V ersion these figures become "Sabbath" eight times and “w eek” twice.** 105

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T h e first occu rrence o f “Sabbath" in the Acts o f the Apostles is in ch a p te r 1:12. T h is passage m erely asserts th at the M ount o f Olives, w here the Ascension took place, “is n ear Jeru salem , a sabbath day’s jo u rn e y away." T h is is the only place in the Bible w here the phrase “sabbath-day’sjo u rn e y " is found. It re ferred to the distance a Jew could travel on the Sabbath according to the regulation laid down by th e scribes. T h e M ishnah gives th e distance as 2,000 cubits,” the distance that was to sep arate th e ark from the Israelites in th eir m arch a ro u n d Jerich o (Joshua 3:4). T h e p astu re lands for a distance o f 2,000 cubits outside th e city walls o f Levite cities w ere also assigned to these cities. F u rth erm o re, the cam p o f Israel, the place out o f which no Israelite was to go on the Sabbath (Ex. 16:29), was held to ex ten d 2,000 cubits beyond th e tabernacle. T h e re is no evidence that Jesus felt b o u n d by this scribal in terp retatio n . With the exception o f the m enuon o f the Sabbath by Jam es at the Jeru salem C o n feren ce (Acts 15:21), the rem aining references to this day in the Acts a re all connected with Paul’s m issionary work. T h e Sabbath is associated with the fo u nd in g o f ch u rches in Pisidian Antioch (chap. 13:13-52), Philippi (chap. 16:11-15), Thessalonica (chap. 17:1-9), C o rin th (chap. 18:1-4), an d , according to the W estern text, E phesus (verse 19d). As a loyal Jew (chaps. 24:14; 28:17) Paul kept the Sabbath. H e en tered the synagogues not only to teach but to w orship on that day. N o r is th ere any hint that he reg ard ed the G entile C hristians as free to observe som e o th e r day, such as Sunday, as the weekly day o f rest. T h e Sabbath Services in P isid ian A ntioch.— The Gospels m ake it clear that Jesus began His public m inistry o f preaching and teaching in the Jew ish synagogues.*1 A ccording to the book o f Acts th e apostle Paul and his associates followed th e sam e practice in th eir m issionary work in the Gentile world.*1 Im m ediately a fte r th eir o rdination at Antioch on the O rontes River, Paul and B arnabas sailed for C yprus. T h e re , "w hen they arrived at Salamis, they proclaim ed the word o f G od in the synagogues o f the Jews" (Acts 13:5). It is worthy o f note th at frequently in the book o f Acts, synagogue preaching a n d the Sabbath a re linked to g eth er." T h e earliest specific m ention o f this connection is the account o f Paul’s an d B arnabas' mission to Pisidian Antioch in the lake district o f southw est Asia M inor (verse 14ff.). T his city evidently had a large Jew ish com m unity, and on th e Sabbath th at followed th eir arrival the m issionaries “wenl into the synagogue an d sat dow n.” As devout Jew s they p articipated in the synagogue w orship service. W hen the time cam e for th e serm on, "after the read in g o f the law and the pro p h ets," the visiting m issionaries w ere invited to speak a “ ‘w ord o f e x h o rta tio n ," ’ evidently a synagogue term fo r a homily. T h e ad d ress that Paul gave in response to that invitation, along with several given by P eter, was used by C. H. D odd to reconstruct the Kerygma, o r preaching message, o f the early ch u rch .5” W e cannot e n te r into a study o f the co n ten t o f Paul’s ad d ress h ere, but we m ust note the kind o f audience th e apostle had, and the reaction to his message. It is evident that the w orshipers in the synagogue consisted not only o f Jew s, eith er by birth o r conversion, but also o f devout G entiles who w ere attracted by the m onotheistic theology an d high ethical principles o f Ju d aism . Paul addresses his audience as " ’m en o f Israel, an d you that fear G o d ’ ” (verse 16). Again he refers to them as “ ‘b re th re n , sons o f the family o f A braham , an d those am ong you that fear God " (verse 26). T h ese G od-fearers, 106

T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T who are m en tio n ed a n u m b er of times in Acts,” w ere Gentiles who atten d e d the synagogue with varying degrees o f attachm ent to Judaism , but who had not been circum cised as a m ark th at they had fully taken on the yoke o f the Jew ish law. It is am ong these dev o ut Gentiles that P aul’s m issionary preach in g enjoyed the greatest success, as the re m a in d er o f the ch a p te r suggests. T h e presence o f these G entile w orshipers in the Jew ish synagogue on the Sabbath is very significant. Lohse has correctly observed: “B eyond the circle o f the Jewish com m unities which everyw here in the D iaspora sanctified the Sabbath to the God o f Israel m any g o d-fearers an d proselytes also kept the Sabbath as a day o f re st."94 Even in O ld T estam en t tim es the G entile "so jo u rn er” (ger) who dwell with the H ebrew s was com m anded to keep the Sabbath.*’ T h e G od-fearers o f Paul’s day, o f course, lived in a vasdy d iffe ren t social environm ent. N evertheless they fo u n d th eir way to the synagogue on the Sabbath. At th e conclusion o f the Sabbath service at Pisidian Antioch the people on th eir way o u t begged th at Paul continue his subject on the following Sabbath (verse 42). T h e King Jam es Version, based on the Texlus Receptus, states that this request cam e from "the G entiles." B ut the b etter G reek m anuscripts do not have the addition o f ta ethniat this point, and we may safely assum e that th ere w ere both |ew s an d Gentiles am ong the people who m ade this request. V erse 43, th en , tells us th at “m any Jew s a n d devout converts to Ju d aism followed Paul and B arnabas." T h e re is som e u n certainty re g ard in g the m eaning o f the G reek phrase translated as “devout converts to Ju d aism ." Does this re fe r to "G od-fearers” o r to full proselytes to th e Jew ish faith? Probably the latter is intended. Paul an d B arnabas urg ed those who were especially interested in C hristianity "to continue in the grace o f G od." “T h e next Sabbath alm ost the whole city gath ered to g eth er to h ear the word o f G od" (verse 44). Evidently the Gentiles who had atten d ed th e service on the previous Sabbath spread the w ord to th e ir neighbors with rem arkable results. It is doubtf ul th at th e synagogue could hold such a crow d, and p erh ap s som e Jews were unable to get into th eir own synagogue. In any case, th e ir anim osity was aroused and they strongly opposed the teaching o f the C hristian m issionaries. Paul an d B arnabas told them plainly that since they were rejecting th eir necessary o p p o rtu n ity , th e m essage w ould now be presented directly to the Gentiles (verse 46). As a result m any Gentiles becam e C hristians, "and the w ord o f the L ord spread th ro u g h o u t all the reg io n ” (verse 49). In a sh o rt tim e the aposdes w ere expelled from that area an d m ade th eir way to Iconium . w here they again "en tered together into the Jew ish synagogue, an d so spoke th at a great com pany believed, both o f Jew s an d o f G reeks" (chap. 1 4 :1). T h e re is no m ention o f th e Sabbath in the record, but it may nevertheless well have been on the day o f rest w hen this occurred. T h e Sabbath Day in P h ilip p i.—O n Paul’s second m issionary to u r he h ad Silas as his associate. T h ey w ere w orking in Asia M inor and had com e to T ro a s when Paul had a vision o f a m an from M acedonia pleading, " ‘C om e over to M acedonia, and help us' ’’ (chap. 16:9). T his vision was in te rp re te d as a call from G od to leave the n arro w confines o f Asia M inor and op en u p die continent o f E u ro p e to the spread o f th e gospel: “A nd w hen he had seen the vision, im m ediately we sought to go on into M acedonia, concluding that G od had called us to preach the gospel to them " (verse 10). It is to be noted that in relating the story Luke changes from the 107

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th ird person to the first person plural, suggesting th at he jo in ed the band of m issionaries at T ro a s and accom panied them to Philippi.” T h e m issionaries recognized the urgency o f the call and resp o n d ed im m ediately. T h ey set sail from T ro a s for the island o f S am othrace a n d from th ere sailed to N eapolis, th e seaport o f Philippi in M acedonia. W hen they arrived in Philippi, they spent som e days in this "leading city o f the district o f M acedonia, an d a R om an colony” (verse 12). W hen the Sabbath cam e, they found the place w here a g ro u p of devout Jew s and G od-fearers m et fo r w orship and jo in ed them . T h e King Jam es V ersion states: "A nd on the sabbath we went out o f the city by a river side, w here p ray er was wont to be m ad e” (verse 13). T h e w ord translated "prayer" (proseuche) can m ean not only the act o f pray er but also a place o f prayer. H ence, a n o th e r translation is possible, as in the Revised S tan d ard Version: "w here we supposed th e re was a place o f p ra y er.” T h e re is no consensus am ong New T estam en t students re g ard in g w hat this place o f p ray er was. Som e hold that it was a synagogue.'"' But the fact th at only wom en are m entioned as atten d in g the service, ap a rt from the m issionaries, m akes this in terp re tatio n extrem ely doubtful. It may have been a house,” o r perh ap s an inform al m eeting place in the o p en a ir.'“1T h e re the m issionaries sat dow n “an d spoke to the w om en who had com e together" (verse 13). Paul's first convert in E u ro p e was Lydia from T hyatira, a dealer in p u rp le woolen cloth. She is described as “a w orshiper o f G od,” which suggests that she was a G od-fearing G entile. She a n d h e r household (probably including em ployees an d servants) were baptized, an d she insisted on en tertain in g the m issionaries in h er hom e. It is possible that E uodia an d Svntyche, m entioned in Philippians 4:2, may also have becom e converts at this time. It is again worthy o f note that Gentiles join Jew s in w orshiping on the Sabbath. T h re e Sabbaths in T hessalo n ica.— From Philippi Paul an d Silas followed the great m ilitary road, the Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, “w here th e re was a syna­ gogue o f the Jew s" (Acts 17:1). In his Gospel Luke m entions that w hen Jesus arriv ed at N azareth, “w here he had been brought up," he en tered the syna­ gogue on th e Sabbath “as his custom was" (Luke 4:16). Exactly the sam e ex p res­ sion is used o f Paul, who went into the synagogue "as was his custom ” (Acts 17:2). For th ree sabbata he discoursed with the T hessalonians “from the scriptures, ex­ plaining and proving that it was necessary fo r the C hrist to su ffe r an d to rise from the d ead , and saying, ‘T h is Jesus, whom 1 proclaim to you, is the C h rist'" (verses 2. 3). Sabbata in verse 3 is translated as “weeks" in the Revised S tandard Version, with "sabbaths” in a footnote. “T h is is the only certain New T estam en t exam ple o f the use o f odP fkrra [sabbata] as plural in m eaning as well as in fo rm ." 101 Most likely it should be tran slated “Sabbaths" here, though the word can indicate the period o f tim e betw een Sabbaths, i.e., w e e k s . But it is evident th at Paul labored in Thessalonica fo r a longer period than th ree weeks.103 F u rth erm o re , in his Philippian letter Paul declares that this C hristian com m unity sent help to him at T hessalonica “once and again.”'w H ence, the account in Acts seems to re fe r only to his labor in th e synagogue. As the result o f th at labor som e o f the Jew s accepted C hristianity, “as did a great m any o f the devout G reeks an d not a few o f the leading w om en” (verse 4). T h e first T hessalonian letter confirm s the conclusion th at th e C hristian com m unity in T hessalonica was largely G entile ( 1 T hess. 1:9). 108

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T h e first contact Haul m ade with G entiles was in th e Jew ish synagogue on the Sabbath. B erea.— W hile the Sabbath is not m entioned in connection with Paul’s work in B erea, th e re is a referen ce to his en try into the synagogue. Many o f the Jew s in this city accepted C hrist, “with not a few G reek wom en o f high standing as well as m en” (Acts 17:12). T h e Sabbath in C o rin th .—A fter a dish earten in g experience at A thens, Paul arrived at C o rin th , w here he sought lodging and rem unerative labor. He found both in th e hom e o f Aquila an d Priscilla, fo r they an d he were “tentm akers," o r. as m any expositors in terp re t, “leather-w orkers," o r “saddlers" (Acts 18:1-3).'* D uring th e week, th en , he toiled with these Jew ish converts. But on every Sabbadi he preach ed in th e synagogue, “an d p ersuaded Jew s and G reeks" (verse 4). T h e W estern text o f this verse reads: “A nd going to the synagogue every Sabbath he arg u ed and in tro d u ced the nam e o f the Lord Jesus, and persu ad ed nol only Jews, but also G reeks." W hen Silas a n d T im othy arrived with financial su p p o rt. Paul was able to devote his full tim e to his m issionary work. His strong em phasis on Jesu s as the Messiah aroused opposition on the part o f the unbelieving Jews. H e th ere fo re fo u n d it necessary to leave th e synagogue and carry on his work in th e house o f T itius Ju stu s, next d o o r to the synagogue (verses 6, 7). A m ong the Jew s who becam e converts to C hristianity was C rispus, “the ru le r o f the synagogue” (verse 8). Paul rem ain ed in C o rin th for a year an d a half (verse 11). O n his way to Palestine he m ade a b rie f stop at Ephesus, w here he “went into th e synagogue and a rg u ed with the Jew s” (verse 19). T h e W estern text includes the words “a n d on the Sabbath." O n his th ird m issionary jo u rn e y Paul again visited Ephesus. T h e record states: "A nd he en tered the synagogue an d for th ree m onths spoke boldly, arg u in g a n d pleading about the kingdom o f G od” (chap. 19:8). A fter th at he withdrew from th e synagogue an d carried on his work in "th e hall o f T y ra n n u s" for two years (verses 9, 10). T h e result was “that all the residents o f [the province o f| Asia h eard th e w ord o f the L ord, both Jew s an d G reeks" (verse 10). A lthough Paul found it expedient to w ithdraw from the synagogue on a n u m b er o f occasions, it is evident that the C hristians did not at first com pletely sep arate them selves from the synagogues. B efore he becam e a C hristian, Paul him self went to th e high priest to get letters to the synagogues o f Damascus, au thorizing him to arrest the C hristians he foun d in those synagogues, w hether m en o r wom en, a n d to bring them b ound to Jeru salem (chap. 9:1, 2). C hristians did not yet constitute a separate g ro u p in d ep en d en t o f the Jew ish synagogue congregations (com pare chaps. 22:19; 2 6 :11). O f course, th e tim e did com e when they w ere forced to leave the Jewish synagogues. T h e Sabbath and th e Je ru sa le m C o n feren ce.— As m ore and m ore Gentiles jo in ed th e C hristian m ovem ent, the question o f w hat should lie expected o f them cam e to the fore. Must a G entile first becom e a Jew before he could be a bona fide Christian? W hat was to be the basis o f fellowship between Jew ish an d G entile Christians? Many Jew ish C hristians, particularly those with a Pharisaic point o f view, m aintained that G entiles who w anted to be C hristians should take on the whole yoke o f th e Jew ish law. T h e ir m essage to G entile converts was: ‘“ Unless you are circum cised according to the custom o f Moses, you cannot be saved’" (chap. 109

T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY 15:1). C ircum cision was em phasized because it was the mark, o f subm ission to the whole Jew ish law—oral as well as w ritten (verse 5; Gal. 5:3). Paul and B arnabas, however, m aintained that Gentiles should not be saddled with the yoke o f the Jewish law.106 T h e Jeru salem C onference was called to consider the m atter an d to arrive at a decision. R epresentatives from the G entile churches went u p with B arnabas and Paul to th e apostles an d elders in Jeru salem (Acts 15:2). A fter considerable debate Peter set fo rth the arg u m e n t that the fundam ental principle h ad already been settled by the Holy Spirit, who h ad com e with equal pow er on uncircum cised Gentiles an d circum cised Jews, indicating that they were on the sam e level. God had accepted the G entiles an d cleansed th eir hearts by the Holy Spirit as soon as they p u t th eir faith in Jesus. Should the C hristian com m unity go beyond w hat God req u ired (verses 7 -1 1)?107 B arnabas an d Paul then reh earsed the story o f the m iraculous signs and w onders th at G od was p erfo rm in g am ong the Gentiles (verse 12). T h ese m iracles were an attestation o f G od’s acceptance o f the mission am ong Gentiles. Finally, Jam es th e leader o f the Jeru salem church proposed the following decision: ‘"M y ju d g m e n t is th at we should not trouble those o f the Gentiles w ho tu rn to G od, but write to them to abstain from the pollutions o f idols and from unchastity an d from w hat is strangled a n d from b lo o d '" (verse 20). T h is solution was accepted by “the apostles an d th e elders, with the whole church" (verse 22, R.S.V.). How should these prescriptions for G entile converts laid dow n by the con feren ce be reg ard ed ? A re we to conclude that these w ere the only ethical o r m oral stan d ard s re q u ired o f G entile C hristians? YV. G utbrod has aptly pointed out that “th e d ecree should not be re g ard e d as in any sense a m inim al ethics, an abstract o f th e Law which in a kind o f com prom ise tries to m ake at least the fu n d am en tals o f th e Law obligatory in place o f the whole Law."10* W hat the Jeru salem C ouncil laid dow n was the term s fo r fellowship betw een Jew ish and G entile C h ristians.ltw “T h ese requirem ents did not provide the g ro u n d o f salvation o r o f ch u rch m em bership but o f a w orking ag reem en t for G entile and Jew ish c o n v e rts."110 Practices th at w ould scandalize Jew s were singled out. Prohibitions w ere laid down th at th e Jew ish world held to be binding upon all m en. Gentiles w ere to avoid th e pollution o f idols, i.e., to abstain from eating the flesh o f anim als slain for pagan sacrifices (verse 29), which m ight im ply a sharing in pagan polytheistic w orship.1" Second, they w ere to abstain from blood, which symbolizes life, which belongs to God alo n e.112 T hey w ere also to abstain from the eating o f th e flesh o f strangled anim als, inasm uch as th e blood rem ained in th e m .1” Finally, unchastity was fo rb id d en , which included any form o f illicit sexual intercourse o r m arriage o f closely related p erso n s."4 T h o u g h th e text underlying the Revised S tan d ard V ersion is to be p re fe rre d to the “W estern" text, the latter o f Acts 15:20, 29 is o f great interest. It om its the w ords “a n d from w hat is strangled" a n d at the en d adds a negative form o f the golden rule: “an d not to do to others what they do not wish d o n e to th em .” T o abstain from blood can be in te rp re te d as forbidding bloodshed, i.e., m u rd er. T h u s th e decrees can be in te rp re te d as forbidding the th ree cardinal sins in Jewish eyes: idolatry, fornication, a n d m u rd er. T h ese plus the addition o f the golden rule (in negative form ) tran sfo rm the prohibitions into purely ethical dem ands. 1 10

T H E SA B BA TH IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T ¿UL ¡GQO

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A fter setting fo rth these principles, Jam es added: “ ‘For from early generations Moses has h ad in every city those who preach him, fo r he is read every Sabbath in th e synagogues’ ’’ (verse 21). T h e significance o f this statem ent has been variously in terp re ted . O n e explanation given is that since Jew s are in every city, the Gentiles should respect these principles so as not to cause constant o ffen se."5 In every city th e re are synagogues w here Moses is read. A second ex planation is that Moses would su ffer no loss by not re q u irin g the Gentiles to observe the whole Jew ish law, for these Gentiles had never been ad h e ren ts o f Ju d a ism ."11 A n o th er is th at th e yoke o f the Jew ish law is not to be placed on Gentiles, for th ere are en o u g h preachers o f Moses already in the synagogues every Sabbath. A fo u rth in terp re tatio n is that th ere is am ple o p p o rtu n ity fo r Gentiles to know these basic principles, for Moses’ w ritings are read every Sabbath. As po in ted o u t earlier, the early G entile C hristians cam e from “G od-fearers” who w ere already w orshiping in the synagogues on the Sabbath. It is evident also th at C hristians did not im m ediately sever all connections with the synagogue. H ence, the best explanation, in o u r view, is that the Jeru salem C ouncil is not enjoining an y th in g new o r strange, but that with which the Gentiles would already be fam iliar, th ro u g h the reading a n d exposition o f the Mosaic law in the synagogues."7 It is significant that th e m atter o f S abbathkeeping is not m entioned as an issue at this conference. H ad th ere been a m ovem ent on foot to d o away with the Sabbath o r to chan g e the day o f w orship to Sunday, th ere would no doubt have been considerable d ebate and bitter contention on the part o f the large n u m b er o f Jewish C hristians who w ere “ 'zealous for the law” ’ (chap. 21:20). Gentiles w ere not adm o n ish ed to respect the scruples o f their Jew ish b re th ren with referen ce to the Sabbath. T h e silence o f the conference on this subject eloquently testifies to the continual observance o f the Sabbath by both Jew ish and G entile C hristians. N O TES

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to e 2 T

' A d iffe r e n t ex p la n a tio n o f th e final - a is o ilc r e d in F. B la u , A D eb ru n n er . a n d R obert W. F u n k . A Greek Gram m ar of the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther Early Christian Literature (C h icag o , 196 1 ). par. 141 (3): 'T ä ß ß cix a • rOtt* ♦ 6 to m ake ii p r o n o u n c e a b le in (»reek ” * A . I R ob ertson . A G ram m ar of the Greek S e w Testam ent in the L ig h t o f H isto n ra l Keiearck (N a sh v ille, 1 934), pp 9 3 . 105. * S ee su ch stan d ard ( .reek lexicon * as H enry G e o r g e L id d ell an d R obert St o n . A G re ekE n g lish L exu o n . rev and au g m . by H en rv Stuart J o n e s (O x fo r d . 194(1), p. 15 7 9 , J o sep h H enr> T h a y er. .4 Greek-Engltsh L exu o n o f the Sexr Testament (N e w S'ork. 1889). p p 3 6 5 , 566; W alter B a u er, ¿4 Greek E nglish L exu o n of the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther Early C hristian Literature, rev. a n d a u g m bs W illiam F. A rm ll a n d F. W ilb u i G in g n c h (C h ica g o . 1 9 5 7 ).p 7 4 6 ; a n d C A bb ott-S m ith , ,4 M a n u a l Greek L exu o n o f the S e w Testam ent, 3d ed . (E d in b u r g h , 1937). p p . 3 9 9 . 400. 4 A b n e l lu m m a n o f th e ev id e n c e re g a rd in g th e p r o b le m o f th e e n d in g o f Mark is g iv e n in B ru ce M. M eU g er. 4 T extual Commentary on the Greek S e w Testam ent (L o n a o n , 1971), p p. 122 -1 2 6 . s Matt 2 8 :1 ; Mark 16:9; L u k e 24:1: J o h n 2 0 : 1, 19, A cts 2 0 :5; I C or. 16:2 * Matt 12:1. 5 . 10. I I . 12; 2 8 :1 ; Mark 1:21; 2 :2 3 . 2 4 . 3:2. 4 , L u k e 4 :1 6 ; 6:2; 1 3:10; A cts 13:14; 1 6 :1 3 7 Ex. 16:25. 26; 2 0 :8 . 10; 3 5 :3 ; N u m . 15:32; D e u i. 5:12 * R o b ertso n , op. c i t . p 4 0 8 . la m e s H o p e M o u lto n a n d N igel T u r n e r . A G ram m ar o f S e w Testam ent Greek E d in b u rgh . 1963). 3 :2 6 . 27. * S ee W o lfg a n g S ch rä g e. ’o w a y u i Y V T O S T , 7 :8 3 1 . n. 21 6 . 10 A lfred P lu m m er, .4 C n tu a l a n d E xeg etu a l Com mentary on the Ctasbrl A ffo rd in g to 5. L u kr, 5th e d .. IC C E d in b u rgh . 1922). p. 118. 11 R alph Earle. “Luke.** Wesleyan Bible (.om m enlary. 4:2 3 3 . 12 Paul K. J ew ett. T he Lord's b a y ((»rand R ap id s. 1 9 71). p o 3 4 . 35. 15 J o h n R ichard S a m p e v . “Sabbath," International Standard Bible Elncydopaedia ((«rand R apids. 193 9 ). 4 :2 6 3 1 . 14 Je w e tt, lot eu. 15 M tshnah S h ab b ath 7 :2 (D anb v) S hab b ath 7:4. 17 W illiam L. L an e. The Gospel A ffo rd in g to M ark. S I C (G rand R a p id s. 1974). p . 115.

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** Mark 2 :2 6 »peaks o f A biathar as th e p riest, but 1 S am uel 2 1 1 . 2 n a m es th e p n e st a» A h m iele ch A h iaih ar s u c c e e d e d to th e o ffic e a fter his fath er A h im eie ch 's d e a th ( I Sam 22:20*23). 19 H e rm a n n L. St rack a n d Paul B illerb eck . Das Ei'angelium nach \latthau% Frlautert aus Talmud und Midrasch, Kommentar zum Seuen Testament (M u n ich . 19 2 2 ). 1:619; E d u ard L o h se, " odP Patov," T D ST , 7 :2 2 . n. 170 20 M aim om d es Pesach I . q u o te d in F red erick W . Farrar. The I j f e o f Christ (P o rtla n d . O r e g .. I9 6 0 ), p 3 3 3 For ea rlier rabbinical sta tem en ts e x p r e ssin g th e sam e p oin t o l v ie « . see S ir.u k a n d B illerbeck . op r t f . p p 6 2 0 * 6 2 2 21 W . D . D avies. T he Setting o f the Serm on on the M o u n t (C am b rid g e. 1964), p p 103. 104; D avid D a u h e. T he S'eu' Testam ent a n d Rabbinic J u d a ism (N ew Y ork. 1956). p. 68 22 M ekilta. Ex. 3 1 :1 2 -1 7 . tractate S hab b ata (L au terb ach ); c f l o h s e . op n t.. p. 14

23 Ibid . p. 22. 24 25 26 27

B ru ce M. M e u g e r . T he Text o f the .Yrxr Testam ent (N ew Y ork. 1968). p. 50. M ish n ah Y om a 8 :6 . B u rto n H . T h r o c k m o r to n . Jr.. e d .. Gospel Parallels (N ew Y ork. 1 957). p. 5 1 . n. M alt. 12:10. L oh se. op. n t.. p. 2 5 . n . 1 9 ^ n In th e last cla u se L uke 6 :9 has “ *to save life o r to d estro v it?*” 29 C . E. B. C ra n field . T he Gospel A ffo r d in g to S a in t M ark (C a m b rid g e. E n g .. 1959). p 120. H ersch el H . H o b b s. T he Exposition of the G at p e t of L uke ((»rand R apids. 1966). p 112 sl G ustav S ta h lin . “6 gvr)" (E ). T D S T . 5 :4 2 8 . 52 F. F. B ru ce. S e w T estam ent H istory ( U n d o n . 1969). p p. 173. 174 M T . W . M a n so n . The Gospel o f l.u k e (N ew Y ork. 1 9 3 J). p p. 164. 165 54 W illiam F A rn d t. T he Gospel A ffo r d in g to S t L uke (St. L o u is. 1956). p. 3 2 9 M C. B. (laird. T he Gospel o f S i L uke. Pelican Gospel (commentaries (Baltimore. 1963). p. 175. * Ex 23:5; D eu t 2 2 :4 57 Strack an d B illerb eck . op. a t., 1:629. M B ru ce, op. a t . p . 105. T h e Sabbath reg u la tio n s o f ih e Q u m r a n c o m m u m ts w ere ev e n stricter th a n th o se of ih e strictest Pharisees. W ith r e fe r e n c e to h u m a n e treatm en t o f an im a ls o n Sabbath the “ D am ascu s R ule" specifically states: MN o m an shall assist a beast to giv e b in h o n th e Sabbath d a y . A n d if it sh o u ld fall in to a c is te m or pH. h e shall not lift il o u i o n th e S abb ath ” (C D x i.. G V erm es. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English [B a ltim o re. 1 962). p. 113) 59 M ost textu al critics a r e a g re ed that J o h n 5:3b . 4 . ab ou t ih e a n g e l tro u b lin g th e w ater, is not an o rig in a l p a n of th e C k»p el o f J o h n but w as m ost p ro b a b h a_m argin al gloss that crep t in lo th e tex t It is not fo u n d in th e ea rliest and best G reek m an u scrip ts o f th e G o s p e ls (P *6 7* A BC * D W %upp 3 3 ). N o r d o e s it o ccu r in sev era l O ld l^itm m an usc ripts, th e tru e text of th e \ u lg a te. o r th e C u r etim a n S triae o r th e C optic v ersio n s. M ore th an iw en iv m an u scrip ts that d o co n ta in it m ark it w ith a ste n sk s a n d o b eli as b ein g susp ect F u rth er m o r e, it co n ta in s a n u m b er o f n o n -J o h a n n in e w ord s an d ex p r e ssio n s, th r e e o f w h ich are fo u n d o n ly h ere in th e e n tir e N ew T esta m en t. 40 S ee Y om a 8 :6 ; Strack a n d B illerb eck . op a t.. 1:623*639; 3 :5 3 3 f f 41 Shab b ath 7:2; Strack an d B illerb eck . op a t.. 2:454*461 42 C . H D o d d . T he Interpretation o f the Fourth Gospel (C am b rid g e. 195 3 ). p. 320. 45 M ish n ah N ed a rim 3 : 1 1. 44 Shab b ath 18:3; 19:2. 45 L eon M orris. The Gospel A ffo r d in g to J o h n . S I C (G rand R apids. 1 971). p p 4 0 8 . 4 09. * Shab b ath 7:2. 47 S hab b ath 2 4 :3 . 49 C f. Shab b ath 14:4 49 L o h se. op. a t., p . 28. 50 Floyd V . Filson. A Commentary on the Gospel A ffo r d in g to S t M atthew (I o iid o n . I9 6 0 ), p. 2 5 5 51 S ee A lex a n d er B alm ain B ru ce. “T h e S ynop tic G osp els." in The Expositors’ Greek Testam ent, ed . W . R obertson N icoll (G rand R apids [1 942?]). 1:293 52 T h e o n ly variants listed for th e \e r s e in th e critical a p p ara tu s o f Kuri A la n d 's Synopsis O uattuor F.i'angehorum (S tu ttgart. 1964) are th e su b stitu tion of ih e g e n u in e sin gu lar (D L Q (H?*1). or p lu ta l (0 9 4 e) for ih e d a tiv e ca se of "Sabbath.” a n d ih e a d d itio n o f t \ (on ) lief o r e “Sabbath (E FG H 5 6 5 1424). M For e x a m p le . J. C . F e n to n . The Gospel o f S t M atthew , Pelican Gospel Com m entanes (B a ltim o re. 1963). p. 3 8 7 . M W illo u g h b y C . .Allen. A C ritical a n d E xegetical Com mentary on the Gospel According to S M atthew. IC C ( E d in b u rg h , 1912). p p . Iv (n. l i . 2 5 6 . ” L o h se. op. a t., p . 13. * Strack a n d B illerb eck . op a t ., 1:953. ST S h e rm a n F.. J o h n s o n on M an. 2 4 : 19. 2 0 . IH , 7:5 4 7 ; F ilson. lot. a t.. A. W. A rg v le . The Gospel According to M atthew (C am b rid ge. E n g.. 1963). p. 183, A lfred P lu m m er. Aw Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S. M atthew. 2 d ed . (L o n d o n 1 1960?]), p p . 3 3 3 , 334; L o h se . op. a t., p. 29; Strack an d B illerbeck . op a t., p p . 9 5 2 . 9 5 3 M F ilson . Inc. n t. w Matt 2 7 :6 2 . Mark 15:42; L u k e 2 3 :5 4 ; J o h n 19:14. 3 1 . 42. 60 M orn s, trp. a t ., p. 8 1 6 . 61 J a m es H o p e M o u lto n and G e o r g e M illigan. T he Vocabulary o f the Greek Testam ent {('$rand R apids. 195 9 ). p. 4 9 0 ; M orris, op. a t., p. 7 7 6 . n. 97. f'2 J o s e p h u s Antiquities o f the J e n ’s 16. 6 . 2. M Duiache 8 . 1 . M M artyrdom o f Polycarp 7. 1. 55 W. £ . V in e. Expository Dictionary o f S e u ' Testam ent W ords (L o n d o n . 194 0 ). 3 :2 0 4 . 66 J o se p h u s War o f the Jews 4. 5. 2. fi7 E d w in A. A b b ott.J o n a n n m e G ram m ar (L o n d o n . 1906). p p . 9 2 . 93. 68 For e x a m p le , see B ro o k e Foss W estcott. Aw Introtluctw n to the Study of the Gospels. 4 th e d . (L o n d o n . 1872). p 340; P lu m m er, The Gospel According to S. J o h n (C am b rid ge. E ng.. 1 923), p. 3 7 9 . and m an y o th ers. 69 W illiam M illigan a n d W illiam F M ou lton , The Goabel A ccording to J o h n (N ew Y ork . 1883), p. 3 8 8 70 A. T . R ob ertson . W ord Pictures in the S e u Testam ent (N a sh v ille, 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 3 ), 5 :2 9 9 . S ee ih e illu m in a tin g article “T h e O r ig in s o f ih e Eucharist" b y A. J. B. H ig g in s in S e w Testam ent Studies, 1 (1 9 5 4 -5 5 ), esp ecia lls p p . 2 0 6 -2 0 8 71 G e o r g e B en ed ict W’in er. A G ram m ar o f the Idiom of the S e w Testam ent. 7 lh e d . (A n d o v er . Mass. ( IH69]). p 189

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71 Ex. 12:11. 21; N u m . 9:2-6; 2 C h r o n . 3«: 15. S ep tu agin t. 74 D c u i 16:2*4; 2 C h r o n 3 0 ;lff., S ep tu a g in t. 74 A rts 12:3. 4; L u k e 2 2 :1 ; Mark 1 4 :1 ; M all 2 6 :1 7 . J o h n 2 :1 3 . 23; 6 :4 ; 11:55; 12:1 75 T h e o d o r Zahn. Introduction to the S e w Testament (G rand Rapid», 1953), 3 :2 9 6 76 M ail 2 7 :5 5 . 56; Mark 15 4 0 . 4 1 ; L uke 2 3 :4 9 , 56 77 L u k e H: 1-3 7,1 L o h se. op a t., p. 2 0 . n. 159. 79 Epephosken. acc o rd in g to R ob ertson (G ram m ar, p. 8 8 5 ). it a r o n a u v e im p erfect. ■ ° L u i e 2 3 : 5 5 .2 4 : L •* T h e accu sative case in e x p r e ssio n s o f tim e in d icates ex ten t or d u r a tio n o f lim e. A . T . R o b ertso n a n d W. M ersey D avis. A S e w Short G ram mar o f the Greek Testament ( S e w Y ork. 1933). par. 3 4 5 (c), R o b ertso n . Grammar, p. 4 9 5 ; W illiam W eb ster. Syntax an d \tru * n « u of the Greek Testament (n p . 1864). p. 6 3 . q u o te d in H E. D ana a n d J u liu s R. M a n lev . A M an u al G ram mar of the Greek S e w Testament (N ew \ o r k . 1955), p. 91. H en ry A lfo r d . The Greek Testament. 6 th e d . (B o sto n . 1872). 1:664 M Rev | : | 8 . M S ee. e .g .. (ie o r g e E ld on l^ id d . A TheolofQ of the S e w Testament (G rand R apids. 1974). p p . 174. 175. Ralph P Martin. S e w Testament F ou n dation ((»rand Rapids. 1975), 1:10. * A cts I 12. 13:14. 2 7 , 4 2 , 44; 15:21; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4 n C h a p 20:7 “ T h e ch a n g e was m a d e Irom "sabbath" to “w eek" in A cts 17:2. m M ish n ah , r.rubin 4:3*8. 90 M att. 4:23; 9 :3 5 ; 12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21. 39; 6:2; L u k e 4 :1 5 . 16; 6 :6 ; 13 10; J o h n 6 :5 9 ; 18:20. 91 A cts 9 :2 0 ; 1 3 : 5 .6 . 14. 14:1; 17:1; 18:4. 19; 19:8. e l cetera. w C h a p . 13:14; 16:13: 17:2; 18:4. 19d w C . II D o d d . The Apastohc Preaching a n d Its Developments (N ew Y ork ( 1944J). 94 In a d d itio n to A cts 13, see: A cts 10:1, 2 2 ; 16:14; 17:4. 17; 18:7. 94 L o h se. op. a t., p. 18. « Ex 2 0 :1 0 ; 2 3 :1 2 97 T h e r e a d in g o f th e “W estern te x t” as g iv e n in C o d e x B ezae is. “ H a v in g a w a k e n e d , th en , h e related th e vision t o u s. a n d w e re co g n ized th ai ih e L ord h ad ca lled u s to ev a n g elize th o se in M acedonia." * Heinrich Greevcn. M JKQOOCVXO|iai.~ T D S T . 2:808 99 Karl H e in ric h R en g sio rf. “.10104 *65 ." T D S T . 6:602. 100 B au er. A rn d t, an d G in g n c h . op a t.. p. 720. 101 F. F. B ru ce. The Acts of the Apostles (( n icago. 1952). p. 324. C f. Lev 2 3 :1 5 ; 2 5 :8 . ,w 1 T h e s s 2 :9 . 2 T h e s s. 3 :7 -1 0 . 104 Phil 4 :16. ,n' W ilhelm M ich aelis. "oxrivonoto?.'' T D S T . 7 :3 9 3 . 394 106 T h e W estern text o f verse 2 a fter th e w ord s " no sm all d isse n sio n w ith th em ' a d d s “for Paul in sisted thal ih ev s h o u ld rem ain ju st as th ey w ere w h en th ey b eliev ed " 107 V erse 12 in th e W estern text beirins. “ A n d w h en th e eld e rs h ad c o n s e n te d to th e w ord s sp o k en by Petet . . ." m W G u lb ro d . T D S T . 4 :1 0 6 7 109 J o h a n n e s W eiss, Earliest Christianity (N ew Y ork. 19 5 9 ), 1:312. 1.0 G e o r g e E ld on L ad d , The Young Church (L o n d o n an d N ew Y ork. 196 4 ). p 6 1 . 1.1 S ee Lev 17:7-9; 2 C or 8 : Iff.; 10. “ » G e n . 9:4; Lev. 17 :1 0 ff.; D e u i 12:23 1,5 Lev. 17:13. 1.4 L ev. 18:6-18. 1.5 B ru ce. The Acts of the Apostles, p p . 3 0 0 . 301 1.6 R ich ard B elw ard R ack nam . The Acts itf the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1951; r e p n n le d (.r a n d R apids. 196 4 ). p 2 5 4 1.7 A. C. H e rv ey , Acts of the Apostles, The P u lpit Commentary (L o n d o n ancl Nes* Y ork (1 9 1 3 ]), 2:4.

I SI&AH-S

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113

CHAPTER 6

Sunday in the New Testament

Walter F. Specht ANY C hristians honestly believe that Jesus a n d /o r His apostles changed the day o f rest from the seventh-day Sabbath to th e first day o f the week, i.e., Sunday. H ence, afte r exam ining the passages w here the term “Sabbath" occurs in the Gospels an d Acts, fairness d em ands th at notice also be taken o f the passages in th e New T estam en t that speak o f th e first day o f the week. Obviously the d esignation “S unday" is not used in the New T estam ent. R ather, the days are designated by n u m b e r a fte r the m an n er o f Judaism . T h e re are seven o r eight passages in the New T estam en t th at speak o f the first day o f the week. T h e exact n u m b er d ep en d s on w hether one accepts the long en d in g o f M ark ( 16:9-20), found in a large n u m b er o f m anuscripts, as a gen u in e p a rt o f th e second Gospel. All but tw o 1 o f the passages that m ention the first day o f the week are in the Gospels an d re fe r to the sam e first day— nam ely, the day on which o u r L ord rose from th e dead. A ccording to the testim ony o f all fo u r Gospels, the devoted Galilean w om en who accom panied Jesu s to je ru sa le m w ere the first to receive the good news o f the R esurrection. C. E. B. C ranfield points out that the prom inence o f wom en in all fo u r Gospels “goes a long way tow ard authenticating the story' as a whole . . . ; for this is a featu re which the early C h u rch would not be likely to invent."* In Jew ish c u ltu re wom en w ere ineligible to bear a credible w itness .1 The First Day o f the Week in Mark Inasm uch as M ark is usually re g ard e d as the earliest o f the Gospels, it seems logical to begin with its account o f the em pty tom b (M ark 16:1-8). C oncerning this account C ranfield rem arks: " T h e naturalness o f the first part (esp. verse 3), th e simplicity and restraint o f verses 5-8, an d the su rp risin g feature o f the wom en's silence all point to its authenticity. It reads like an eyewitness’s account, not a dram atization o f a religious conviction ."4 M ark specifically nam es th ree wom en as am ong those who had followed Jesus in Galilee an d m inistered to Him : Mary M agdalene; Mary, the m o th er o f Jam es the Y ounger an d Joses; an d S alom e 3 (chap. 15:40, 41). T hese th ree, along with m any o th e r w om en, witnessed th e C rucifixion, an d the two Marys also observed 114

SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

Jesu s’ burial: they "saw w here he was laid" (verse 47). T his tragic day is identified as “the day o f P rep aratio n , th at is, the day before th e sabbath” (verse 42). T h e fact o f Je su s’ burial becam e a p art o f th e central tru th o f the gospel as Paul preached it (1 C or. 15:4). “W’hen th e sabbath was p ast ,"6the two M arys an d Salom e purchased arom auc oils to an oint th e body o f Jesus. T his purchasing was evidently d o n e on S aturday evening afte r sunset. T hey w ere unable to com plete th eir service o f love to their beloved T ea c h e r on Friday b efo re sunset, and so had to wait until a fte r the Sabbath. T h is was in ten d ed to be th eir final act o f love and devotion. It is evident th at they re g ard e d Jesu s’ d ea th as the end. T hey did not expect Him to rise from th e d ead. T o an o in t one w ho had lain in the tom b that long m ust have been unusual. C ranfield explains: "Love often prom pts people to do what from a practical point o f view is useless .’’7 “Very early on the first day o f the week they w ent to the tom b when the sun had risen" (M ark 16:2). T h e re is som e confusion re g ard in g the m eaning o f the tem poral expressions used. “Very early” norm ally refers to the period o f the fo u rth watch, i.e., from th re e to six o’clock, but this would not agree with the expression "w hen th e sun had risen." H. B. Swete suggests that they left their abodes “ju st before daybreak and arrived ju st a fte r sunrise ."8 At any rate, they seem to have com e as early as possible to com plete the rites o f burial. O n th eir way to the tom b they w ondered how they would get the stone rolled back from the opening.* But w hen they arrived, they found it had already been rolled back. Inside they saw “a y oung m an" clothed in dazzling apparel who said to them , " ‘Do not be am azed: you seek Jesu s o f N azareth, who was crucified___ H e is no t here; see th e place w here they laid him ’” (verse 6 ). T h u s the great news o f the R esurrection was m ade known to them , b u t they could not believe th e ir ears and fled in te rro r a n d am azem ent from th e tom b. T h ese m om entous historical events took place on the first day o f the week."' But, th o u g h M ark’s Gospel was w ritten m ore than a q u a rte r o f a cen tu ry afte r the events took place, th ere is no hint that the day on which they occu rred had acquired any sacred character w hatever. It is not called a day o f rest o r a holy day. M ark 16:9 also contains a referen ce to the first day o f the week. U n fo rtu n ately , it is not possible today to d eterm in e how the Gospel originally en d ed . T h e fam ous uncial codices V aticanus and Sinaiticus, an d th e Sinaitic form o f th e O ld Syriac an d som e o th ers conclude with verse 9. T h e O ld Latin m anuscript, C odex Bobiensis, contains a sh o rter en d in g that seems to have o rig in ated ab out th e m iddle o f the second century o r early p a rt o f the third. Four G reek uncials have this e n d in g followed by the longer e n d in g (verses 9-20). A large n u m b e r o f G reek m anuscripts have this longer en d in g , but som e o f these indicate uncertainty about it by m ark in g with asterisks, obeli, o r a critical note. T h e F ree r Gospels o f the fo u rth an d fifth centuries contain an expansion o f the long e n d in g by inserting a substantial addition (the F reer Logion) betw een verses 14 an d 15. T h e language, form , an d style o f all these additions is non-M arkan. F u rth erm o re , the connection o f verses 9-20 with what precedes is not sm ooth. T h is en d in g consists o f th re e parts: (1) th ree post-R esurrection appearances o f Jesu s (verses 9-14); (2) th e com m ission to the apostles to preach the gospel (verses 15-18); a n d (3) an account o f th e ascension o f Jesu s to G od’s right hand (verses 19, 20). T h e th ree ap p earances evidently took place on the first dav o f the 115

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week (verse 9)." V erse 9 in the Revised S tan d ard Version* reads: “Now w hen he rose early on th e first day o f th e week, he a p p e are d first to M ary M agdalene, from whom he had cast o u t seven dem ons." G ram m atically the tem poral phrase “on the first day o f the week" may he construed with e ith e r “rose" o r “ap p e are d ," but probably the R.S. V. is correct in taking it with “rose." T h e w ord “first” in the clause "he a p p e are d first" can be taken in an absolute sense, o r as first in relation to the th ree ap p earan ces m entioned. M ary hasten ed to bear the news o f this C hristophany to "those who had been with him [the apostles, cf. chap. 3:1-1], as they m o u rn ed an d w ept” (verse 10). But h er re p o rt that "he was alive a n d h ad been seen by h er" was met by incredulity (verse 1 1 ). T h e second ap p earan ce seem s to be an abbreviation o f the story o f the walk to Em m aus by two disciples (not o f the twelve) recorded in detail by Luke (chap. 24:13-35). Jesu s ap p e are d to them in " an o th er form ." But w hen they re tu rn e d to the eleven to tell w hat they had seen, th eir re p o rt, too, was met with unbelief (M ark 16:12, 13). Finally, H e a p p e a re d “to the eleven them selves as they sat at table; a n d he u p b ra id e d them for th eir u nbelief and hardness o f heart" (verse 14). T his ap p earan ce seem s to be identical with the o n e m entioned in Luke 24:36-53 an d /o r Jo h n 20:19-29. T h is longer en d in g o f M ark seem s to have been known by the m iddle o f the second cen tu ry , an d verse 19 is cited by Irenaeus.'- But this passage again gives no hint th at th ere is anything sacred about the first day o f the week o r that C hristians were m eeting fo r w orship on that day. T h e F irst Day o f the W eek in M atthew A ccording to the Gospel o f M atthew “m any” Galilean w om en w ho had accom panied Jesu s to Jeru salem observed His crucifixion and d eath “from a fa r” on th at awful Friday (Matt. 27:55). T h e Mosaic law forbade that one w ho had su ffered a crim inal's d eath be allowed to rem ain hanging on a tree overnight; the body was to be b u ried the sam e day.” Jo sep h u s confirm s that the Jew s in New T estam en t times rem oved those who had been crucified an d buried them “before the going dow n o f the su n .” HT h is was even m ore essential on a Friday, w hen the Sabbath was ab o ut to begin. Jo sep h o f A rim athea, "a rich m an" an d “a respected m em ber o f the council" (M ark 15:43), ob tained perm ission from Pilate to p erfo rm this service for Jesus. H e followed th e first-century Jew ish custom o f burial in a white linen s h ro u d .n Jesus was b u ried in Jo sep h 's own tom b, cut in the rock, which had not been previously used, an d the en tran ce was secured by rolling a large stone in fro n t o f it. T o all o f this Mary M agdalene an d the o th e r Mary were witnesses. T h e re is then no question ab out th eir ability to identify the right tom b two days later. As a gesture o f th eir g rie f they w ere silting "opposite the sepulchre" (Matt. 27:61).'" T h e account o f the sealing o f the tom b an d the stationing o f a g u ard is peculiar to M atthew (chap. 27:62-66). Perm ission for this was g ra n te d by Pilate to the “ch ief priests a n d Pharisees" on the next day, "that is, after the day o f p rep aratio n ," i.e.. the Sabbath. T h e delegation from the S anhedrin suddenly recalled that Jesu s had predicted that afte r H e was put to death He w ould rise • t ’nlcM o th erw ise n o te d , all S crip tu re re fe r e n c e s in this ch a p ter a re fro m ih c R evised S ta n d a rd V ersio n .

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again “ “ ‘afte r th ree days.’’” ’ T hey th e re fo re w anted the tom b g u ard ed until “ ‘the th ird day.” ’ T h ey expressed fear that the disciples would steal His body a n d then claim H e rose from the dead. Pilate replied sharply an d perem ptorily, “T ak e a g u ard [i.e., o f R om an soldiers, not m ere T em p le police ],17 an d m ake it as secure as you can.” So they sealed the tom b a n d stationed a g u ard o f Rom an soldiers. But the precautions they em ployed only provided fu rth e r evidence o f the resurrection o f o u r Lord. T h e ea rth q u ak e an d the descent o f an angel to roll away the stone, as connected with th a t resu rrectio n , are described in M atthew 28. T h e tim ing o f these events is given in verse 1. U nfortunately, how ever, all Bible students are not ag reed on the in terp re tatio n o f the tem poral expressions given in the verse. T h e ch ief difficulty lies in harm onizing the phrase opse sabbaton (“late on the S abbath”) with the expression th at follows, "at the [hour] daw ning tow ard the first day o f the week.” T h e first m ight be taken to m ean tow ard sunset S aturday night, w hereas the second suggests tow ard sunrise on Sunday m orning. Opse de sabbaton is re n d e re d as “now late on the Sabbath day” in the Revised Version, th e A m erican S ta n d ard V ersion, an d th e New A m erican S tan d ard Bible (omits day). T h e Latin V ulgate translates it as vespere autem sabbati, “how ever on sabbath evening.” T h o se w ho follow these re n d erin g s are forced to in te rp re t “as it began to daw n tow ard the first day o f the week” as m eaning when the first day o f th e week was ab out to begin on S aturday evening. T h e verb epiphoskein, to daw n, m ust th en m ean “to daw n o n ,” as in Luke 23:54. T h e re are two m ain objections to this. First, to in te rp re t opse de sabbaton as m eaning “late on the S abbath” is to m ake Matthew' co n tradict the o th e r Gospel accounts, all o f which have the w om en visit the tom b early S unday m orning. Second, the whole course o f th e narrativ e in M atthew 28 indicates th at the events th ere recorded occurred in the daytim e, not in th e evening. T h e w om en hastened from the em pty tom b to tell the disciples that they had seen an angel who in fo rm ed them that Jesus was alive (verses 5-8). W hile this was going on (verse 11) som e o f the soldiers from the R om an g u ard w ent into the city a n d re p o rte d to th e ch ief priests the startling news o f the R esurrection. T h e chief priests quickly assem bled the S anhedrin, which o ffered a sum o f m oney as a bribe to th e soldiers to tell the falsehood that Jesu s’ disciples had com e by night while th e g u ard s w ere asleep an d h ad stolen th eir M aster’s body. T h e Jew ish authorities o ffered p rotection to the soldiers should this word reach Pilate. T h e clear im plication is that these things were h a p p e n in g in the daytim e. How th en can th e two tem poral expressions in M atthew 28:1 be harm onized? Opse is prim arily a tem poral adverb th at usually denotes late in, o r the last of, the perio d o f tim e in question; hence, in M ark 4:35 it m eans “late in die day,” i.e., in the evening ."1 B ut it can also be used as an im p ro p er preposition, signifying “a fte r”— a well-attested m eaning in G reek papyri. H ence, the Revised S tan d ard V ersion an d m ost recen t translations re n d e r opse sabbaton as “a fte r the S abbath .”19 Lohse asserts th at opse sabbaton corresponds to the Rabbinic Motzaey Shabbath, “the term in atio n o f th e Sabbath,” an d “thus m eans the night from th e Sabbath to the first day o f th e week o r the first day o f the week itself.”™ From th e stan d p o in t of g ra m m a r by itself, one may translate e ith er “late on the S abbath” o r “a fte r the S abbath.” B ut the analogy with the o th e r Gospels, plus the co n tex t a n d th e p h rase “at the [hour] daw ning into the first [day] o f th e w eek,” decide th e m atter in favor o f the latter. 117

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T h e two M arys cam e early in the m orning “to see the sepulchre." A ccord­ ing to M ark a n d Luke, they cam e to com plete the w ork o f anointing Jesu s’ hodv with spices an d p erfum es as a final trib u te o f love. But in M atthew's Gospel they are depicted as com ing to see the tom b. T h e Jew s in Jesu s’ day observed two periods o f m o u rn in g for a deceased loved one: th e first period was betw een th e d eath and burial, a n d the second was the period following in term en t. Does M atthew's account suggest that we are to connect this early-m orning visit with th e second period o f m ourning? This is possible. At any rate, the apocryphal Gospel o f Peter has them say, “Even if we w ere not able to weep and lam ent him on th e day in which he was crucified, yet let us now d o so at his tom b" (chap. 12:52). T h e Gospel o f M atthew is variously d ated from the late sixties to a ro u n d a . d . 80. T h a t Gospel was the m ost p o p u lar one in the early church. It was quoted m ore frequently by early C hristian w riters than any o th er, and was re g ard e d as th e teaching Gospel and as the ch u rch 's Gospel. Does it reflect even a hint that the first day o f the week was now to be observed by C hristians ra th e r than the seventh day? We have fo u n d no evidence o f such a change in M atthew. It is tru e th at Jesus ap p e are d to the wom en as they d e p a rte d from the tom b “with fear and great joy" (chap 28:8). T hey “took hold o f his feet an d w orshiped him " (verse 9). H owever, this had to d o not with th e day o f the week but with the trem en d o u s im pact o f the risen Lord upon these devoted followers. M atthew knew n o th in g o f the observance o f Sunday as a day o f worship. The First Day o f the Week in Luke T h e Gospel o f Luke is usually d ated about the sam e tim e as M atthew, o r p erh ap s a little later. William M. Ramsay considers Luke as one o f the greatest o f historians.*' He was a m an o f culture, with a trained m ind an d literary charm . In his prologue (Luke 1:1-4), he claims to have accurately” traced the course o f the “Jesus-event" a n d to have w ritten an "orderly account "15 o f what h ap p e n ed . H ence it is o f special interest to note how carefully he presents the sequence o f the events o f Jesu s' d eath , burial, and resurrection. T h e day o f Jesus' d e a th and burial was “the day o f P reparation.” w hen the Sabbath was about to begin (Luke 23:54). All th ro u g h the S ab b ath ” the devoted w om en w ho had p re p a re d to p erfo rm the last rites “rested according to the com m an d m en t" (verse 56). But at early daw n on the first day o f the week they cam e with th eir spices to com plete th eir work (chap. 24:1). T h e passage from Luke 23:55 to 24:1 is in reality but one sentence in the G reek. T h e adversitive conjunction de o f Luke 24:1 co rresp o n d s to the conjunctive particle men o f Luke 23:56. It is u n fo rtu n a te that the ch a p te r division was m ade in the m idst o f a sentence, for th e story goes on w ithout a break: the w om en rested on the Sabbath, but on th e first day o f th e week they did not rest.“ W hen they arrived at the tom b "at early daw n," they found the stone rolled aw ay* from th e m outh, a n d no corpse inside. T hey did. how ever, see two m en, evidendy angels, “in dazzling ap p arel," who asked, “ ‘Why d o you seek the living am o n g th e d e a d ?”'*7 T h e se angels recalled to th eir m inds Jesus' own prediction, rep eated th re e times,*' that H e would not only su ffer an d be crucified but would rise from th e d ead “ ‘on th e th ird day’” (chap. 24:4-8). Jesus' followers ought to have clung to His w ords a n d expected a resurrection: " ‘R em em ber what he told 118

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you’" (N.E.B.). T h ese devoted w om en w ere not only led to retail His w ords but to lay hold of th em in faith, and they h u rrie d to bring the good news to the apostles an d o th e r followers o f Jesus. B ut the aposdes re g ard e d the re p o rt as nonsense, and refu sed to accept it (verses 9-11). A n exquisite story, peculiar to Luke, follows; it stresses the tru th that the death o f Jesu s was not a m eaningless tragedy but a fulfillm ent o f the plans and p u rposes o f G od. O n the very sam e day m entioned in verse 1, two disciples were walking to Em m aus, a village ab o u t seven miles from Jeru salem . As they walked and talked o f th e startling events that had tran sp ired in Jeru salem , the risen L ord, disguised as a stran g e r,jo in ed them and asked, “W hat are these w ords that you are exchanging with o ne a n o th er as you walk ?"'9In response to His question they told o f Jesu s the N azarene, who was recognized by His miracles an d teachings as a p ro p h e t but who had suffered a violent d eath at the hands o f the chief priests and rulers. His followers had been hoping that He would prove to be m ore th an a p ro p h e t— the Messiah, who w ould deliver Israel from the yoke o f Rom e—but now th eir hopes seem ed to be doom ed to disappointm ent. At the sam e time, these two individuals seem ed to have been aw are o f Jesu s’ p rediction re g ard in g a resu rrectio n on the th ird day, fo r they ad ded, "Yes, and besides all this, it is now the th ird day since this h ap p en ed " (verse 21 ).w M oreover, they knew o f th e re p o rt o f the w om en that the tom b was em pty an d that angels had d eclared th at Jesu s was alive. Som e o f th eir com pany had even checked the re p o rt o f th e em pty tom b and found it to be accurate (verses 22-24). T h e n th e Divine T ea ch er, still disguised as a stran g er, reproved their spiritual dullness. T h e sufferings o f the Messiah w ere a necessary fulfillm ent o f O ld T estam en t prophecies (verse 25ff.): “A nd beginning with Moses and all th e p ro p h ets, he in te rp re te d to them in all the scriptures the tilings co n cerning h im s e lf (verse 27). T hey felt th eir h earts strangely w arm ed as H e ex­ p o u n d e d th e S criptures. T h e n at the en d o f th eir walk, they pressed Him to stay with them . W hen H e sat down at the table with them . H e assum ed the position o f host; H e blessed the bread, broke it, an d offered it to them . Suddenly th eir eyes w ere op en ed . T h ey recognized Him , but then im m ediately H e vanished from th eir sight. L ater th at sam e evening the apostles and o th er C hristians w ere startled and frig h ten ed by the su d d en appearance o f the risen C hrist in th eir midst. How H e got th e re o r w here H e cam e from , no one knew. H e had to assure them th at H e really was th eir beloved M aster. ‘“ See my hands an d my feet, that it is I m yself,’" H e u rg ed . “ 'H a n d le m e, an d see’ ” (verses 39,40). B ut even this was in­ sufficient to allay th eir d oubts an d fears. H ence H e asked fo r food an d was given a piece o f broiled fish, which He ate before them (verses 42, 43).” Jesu s th en attem p ted to teach them th e significance o f Old T estam en t scriptures as in­ te rp re te d in the light o f the cross an d resurrection. “ ‘T h u s it is w ritten,’ ” H e told th em , ‘“ th at th e C hrist should suffer an d on the th ird day rise from the d e a d ’“ (verses 46, 47). It is a m arvelous story an d full o f d eep significance. B ut th o u g h Luke w rote several decades afte r th e events portrayed an d wrote his Gospel specifically to teach T h eo p h ilu s ab o u t the C hristian faith (chap. 1:4), we fail to delect even a hint th at th e Sabbath was now to be laid aside and that C hristians w ere to observe the first day o f th e week. 119

T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY The First Day o f the Week in John T h e testim ony o f the Gospel o f J o h n re g ard in g the Sabbath an d the first day o f th e week is o f special interest for two reasons: ( 1 ) its late date an d (2 ) its apostolic authority. A lthough this Gospel cannot be d ated precisely, the m ajority o f New T estam en t scholars o p t fo r a date a ro u n d the en d o f the first century. T h e re is no conclusive evidence that this is the case, but such a d ate would harm onize with the testim ony o f early C hristian w riters.” If the Gospel is indeed that late, its testim ony re g a rd in g the C hristian day o f w orship is very significant.” F u rth erm o re , although the Gospel as it stands is anonym ous, th ere are good g ro u n d s fo r re g ard in g its testim ony as originating from Jo h n the apostle, an eyewitness of Jesus. T h is view has the su p p o rt o f early C hristian w riters, and the Gospel itself ap p e ars to affirm it. The next-to-last verse o f the postscript (chapter 2 1) declares: "T his is the disciple who is bearing witness to these things, a n d who has w ritten these things: an d we know that his testim ony is tru e" (verse 24). T h e “we” o f this verse is an unidentified g ro u p , consisting p erh ap s o f contem porary ch u rch leaders capable o f certifying the au th o rsh ip an d authority o f the Gospel. To what disciple are they referrin g ? Verse 20 identifies him as “th e disciple whom Jesu s loved, who h ad lain close to his breast at the su p p er." T h is statem ent refers back to th e an n o u n cem en t by Jesu s o f His betrayal in J o h n 13:23ff. T h e fact that the disciple re fe rre d to was p resen t at the Last S u p p er indicates that he was o n e o f the twelve. His place o f h o n o r next to Jesu s suggests that he was one o f the in n er circle (Peter, Jam es, a n d J o h n ).MT h e disciple w hom Jesu s loved was later standing n ear the cross an d accepted from Jesus the sacred ch arg e o f caring for His m other (chap. 19:25-27). H e witnessed the awful en d an d saw the stream s o f w ater and blood issuing from Jesus' pierced side. "H e who saw it has b o rn e witness— his testim ony is tru e, an d he knows that he tells the tru th — that you also may believe" (verse 35). A ccording to J o h n 18:15, 16, Peter an d a n o th er disciple followed Jesus to the court o f the high priest. H e was sufficiently known to secure access not only for him self but fo r P eter as well. J o h n 20:2 seems also to identify “th e o th e r disciple” with th e disciple whom Jesu s loved. S upport for the conclusion that diis disciple was J o h n is fo u n d, too, in the fact th at n eith er Jam es n o r J o h n is nam ed in the Gospel. T h e two, how ever, are m entioned in J o h n 2 1 :2 as "the sons o f Zebedee." We conclude th at it is J o h n ’s authority that lies behind the fo u rth Gospel. T h e fact th at he was o n e o f Jesu s’ closest followers adds great weight to his testim ony. J u s ta s J e s u s is in the bosom o f the F ather (John 1: l 8 ),so Jo h ti the Beloved lay close to th e breast o f Jesu s at the Last S upper. J o h n ’s Gospel pictures Mary M agdalene as com ing to the tom b "on the first day o f th e week," “early, while it was still d a rk ” (chap. 2 0 :1). W hen she found the stone rem oved from the d o o r o f the tom b, she concluded that the body o f Jesus had been rem oved, an d she ran to re p o rt this to Sim on P eter an d Jo h n . T h ese two disciples began ru n n in g to g eth er to the tom b, but J o h n o u tran Peter an d arriv ed first (verses 2-1 0 ). A lthough he looked into the o p en ed tom b, he did not e n te r it until afte r P eter arrived an d had gone in. W hat Jo h n saw in the tom b convinced him that this was no grave robbery. I h e condition o f the graveclothes, with th e napkin carefully rolled up. had m eaning fo r him. “H e saw and believed" (verse 8). A pparently Mary had followed P eter and J o h n back to the tom b at a slower 120

SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T pace, an d rem ain ed behind a fte r t|jey "went back to th eir hom es” (verse 10). In h er d eep g rie f she looked into the tom b, w here she saw “two angels in w hite, sitting w here th e body o f Jesu s had lain, o n e at the head an d one at the feet. T h ey said to her, ‘W om an, why a re you w eeping?” ’ T h e n tu rn in g aro u n d , she saw Jesus, whom she su p p o sed to be the g a rd e n e r, an d requested, “ ‘T ell me w here you have laid h im '” (verse 15). In His fam iliar way He spoke h er nam e, “ ‘M ary.’” She sp ran g forw ard to em brace Him , but Jesus said to her, “ ‘Do not hold m e” ’ (verse 17). T h e n she hasten ed to the disciples with the news, “ ‘I have seen the L o rd .” ’ T h e following evening the risen C hrist ap p eared to the eleven disciples, ap art from T h o m as. T h is h ap p e n ed “on the evening o f that day, the first day o f the week” (verse 19). Evidendy the G ospel is h ere using the Rom an m eth o d o f reckoning tim e (from m idnight to m idnight) ra th e r than the Jew ish (from sunset to sunset). T h e referen ce is to the evening after the first day (i.e., S unday night), not th e evening th at began it, as in Jew ish reckoning. For w hat p u rp o se had the disciples g ath ered together? Was it to celebrate the R esurrection? T h is could no t be, fo r they did not at this tim e believe that Jesus had risen from th e d e a d .’5Was it to w orship o r hold religious services on the first day o f the week? J o h n gives no evidence o f any such service. H e gives no hint that the first day has any im p o rtance to the disciples. H e asserts, ra th e r, that they had gath ered to g eth er beh in d locked doors fo r self-protection. T h e place w here they were gath ered was p erh ap s the sam e u p p e r room w here the Last S u p p e r had been celebrated, an d w here they w ere ap p aren tly staving.“ T h e d o o rs ” w ere closed and locked “for fear o f the Jew s” (verse 19). Jesu s stepped into th eir m idst and gave them th e Semitic salutation “ 'Peace be with you.” ' As evidence that H e was indeed th e risen L ord. H e “show ed them his h ands an d his side” (verse 20). I hen He com m issioned them with the w ords “ ‘As the F ather has sent m e, even so I send you.’” A nd, as an anticipation o f Pentecost, “he b reath ed on them , a n d said to them , ‘Receive th e Holy S pirit’"(verses 21,22). Did Jesus give them any indication that th e first day o f the week was now to be substituted for the Sabbath? J o h n ’s Gospel knows n o th in g o f any such thing. T h o m as, th e disciple who fo r som e reason was absent, later refused to accept th e testim ony o f th e ten th at they had indeed seen the risen C hrist. “ ‘Unless I see in his h ands the p rin t o f the nails, and place my finger in the m ark o f the nails, and place my h an d in his side, I will not believe,” ’ h e insisted (verse 25). A bout a week later Jesu s again en tered the locked room when T h o m as was presen t (verses 26-29). T h e Revised S tan d ard V ersion gives the tim e as "eight days later." Literally, th e G reek reads, “afte r eight days.” T his is no doubt an idiom , m eaning on th e eighth day, ju s t as the prediction o f Jesu s’ resurrection “after th ree days” in M ark (chaps. 8:31; 9:31; 10:34) m eans "on the th ird day” (see Matt. 16:21; 20:19; Luke 9:22; 18:33). T h e Jew s used the inclusive m eth o d o f reckoning time. T h e specific day o f the week is not indicated, though it is usually taken as m eaning th e following Sunday. A pparently J o h n did not see any special significance in th e day. T h e specific p u rp o se o f Jesu s’ appearan ce was evidently to give T h o m as the kind o f evidence he d em an d e d in o rd e r to believe. Jesus th ere fo re invited the d o u b tin g T h o m as to pu t his finger in the nailprints an d his h an d in Jesu s' side. T h o m as was overw helm ed a n d exclaim ed, “ ‘My Lord an d my G od!’” (John 20:28). 121

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T h e final post-R esurrection ap p earan ce o f Jesu s to the disciples o ccu rred on th e shore o f th e “Sea o f T ib eriu s” (chap. 21:1-8). Seven disciples (Peter, T hom as, N athanael, Jam es, J o h n , a n d two others, possibly A ndrew an d Philip) had gone fishing. At daybreak, a fte r an unsuccessful night on the lake, a lone figure called to them , "H ave you caught anything?" T h e ir answ er was No. "Well, cast your net on the right side o f the boat and you will catch som e." T hey did so, an d as a result caught 153 fish. J o h n im m ediately recognized th at the one responsible for the catch was th e risen L ord. T h e im pulsive P eter then left the net, th e fish, the boat, and his com panions, plunged into th e sea, and swam to shore. T h e ch ief p u rp o se o f this m anifestation o f th eir Lord was to reinstate P eter as a legitim ate m em ber o f the apostolic band afte r his tragic betrayal o f the M aster. T h e day on which this revelation was m ade is not stated. T h e day itself apparently had no significance. Jo h n , like th e o th er Gospel writers, gives no su p p o rt to the idea th at th e day o f rest an d w orship had been changed from the Sabbath to Sunday. T h is is indeed surp risin g if such a change was supposedly m ade in the first century. If Jo h n 's Gosepl is to be d ated a ro u n d th e end o f the first century, his silence about any such ch an g e is certainly striking. T h e First-D ay M eeting at T roas T h e book o f Acts gives th e only explicit New T estam en t account o f a public religious g ath erin g on "the first day o f the week" (Acts 20:7-12). O n his way to Jeru salem Paul stopped for seven days at T ro as, a tow n situated n ear th e site of the ancient city o f T ro y . O n the final day o f his stay there, the C hristian believers g ath ered to g eth er "to break b re a d .” Luke states that this g ath erin g took place on “the first day o f the week," which would co rresp o n d roughly with the day we call Sunday. T his passage is, consequently, repeatedly cited as evidence that C hristians w ere now observing S unday as a day o f w orship. It is th ere fo re im p o rtan t to look closely at the passage to discover the n a tu re o f the evidence set forth. T h e re are several questions th at need to be asked re g ard in g this gathering: Was this a re g u la r w eekend m eeting? O r was it occasioned by th e presence a n d the im m inent d e p a rtu re o f the apostle Paul? A nd specifically w hen, in relation to o u r present S unday, did the g athering occur? T h e ref erence to th e use o f lights a n d to the p rolongation o f the service past m idnight, even till daybreak, plus the d eep sleep o f Eutychus, m ake it obvious that this was a night gathering. But on what night in relation to Sunday— the n ight before S unday o r the night after? F u rth erm o re , what is m eant by th e breaking of bread? Was this a fellowship d in n er, th e L ard's S u p p er, o r p erh ap s a com bination o f the two? U n fo rtu n ately, som e o f these questions cannot be answ ered with certainty. T o begin with, th ere is no evidence that this g ath erin g was a re g u la r w eekend service, as it is o ften assum ed to have been. T h e context would ra th e r suggest that this was a special farewell m eeting fo r the apostle Paul, who was leaving the following m o rning. T h e fact that this m eeting was held on “the first day o f the week" does not m ake it evident that the C hristians o f T ro a s habitually m et on that day.“ Evidence has already been cited to indicate that this was a night m eeting. F. F. B ruce suggests that this tim ing was for the convenience o f the m em bers who may 122

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have had lo work d u rin g the daytim e.” Be that as it may, all com m entators agree, and it is clear from die text, that this was a night m eeting. But on what night in relation to th e first day o f the week? Does Luke use the Jew ish m ethod o f reckoning a 2 4 -h o u r day from sundow n to sundow n,*’ o r the Rom an m ethod o f reckoning from m id n ight to m idnight? T h e re is an honest d ifference o f opinion on this m atter. If Luke is using the Jew ish m ethod o f reckoning, the m eeting was held on what we call S aturday night, ex ten d in g to early Sunday m orning. T his was the view held by C onybeare and Howson in their classic work on Paul: "It was the evening which succeeded the Jew ish sabbath. O n the Sunday m orning the vessel was about to sail."“ T his in terp re tatio n is reflected in a n u m b er o f recent English translations o f the New T estam e n t .42 Foakes-Jackson was in ag reem en t with this view when he w rote: "Paul an d his friends could not, as good Jew s, start on a jo u rn e y on the Sabbath; they did so as soon after it as was possible, viz. at daw n on the ‘first day'— th e Sabbath having en d ed at s u n s e t . I f the g ath erin g took place on S aturday night, it would affo rd little su p p o rt fo r S undaykeeping. H ow ever, th e re are o th e r Bible students who arg u e that this g ath erin g was held on Sunday night ra th e r th an on S aturday night. M acG regor lakes this view and argues th at “on the m orrow " m eans the m orrow after the first day o f th e week, i.e., M onday .44 B ruce asserts: "L uke is not using the Jew ish reckoning from sunset to sunset but the Rom an reckoning from m idnight to m id n ig h t ."*1 Lake and C adbury also d efen d this point o f view .46 In the face o f such an honest d ifferen ce o f opinion it would not be safe to be dogm atic about the specific night o f th e week designated. If, how ever, th e m eeting was on Sunday night, the breaking o f bread , which took place after m idnight, m ust have been on M onday m orning. H ence, th o u g h it could have been the Eucharist, it would affo rd little evidence for Sundaykeeping. T h e p u rp o se o f the night gathering, Luke declares, was “to break b read ." It h ad becom e custom ary in Palestine to break bread with the hands ra th e r th an to cut it with a knife. T h e host at the table, after the offering o f thanks, broke the loaves a n d d istrib u ted them to his guests .47 H ence, this prelim inary action becam e th e nam e fo r com m on meals in the early C hristian com m unities,4" even in the G entile world. T h e act o f breaking the bread was rem iniscent o f the days when Jesu s as the host broke bread for His follow ers .49T able fellowship, th erefo re, gave expression to th e spirit o f unity an d com m union th at prevailed. T h e m em ory o f Jesus an d the spirit o f koinoma gave a religious character even to a com m on meal. “T o break b read ," however, could also re fe r to die L o rd ’s S u p p er,w a meal dedicated to th e m em ory o f Him who "took bread, blessed an d broke it, and gave it to th e disciples " 51 as a symbol o f Himself. C onsequently, m any re g ard the b reaking o f b read at T ro as as a celebration o f the L ord's S upper. It w ould be n atural to expect such a celebration in connection with Paul's visit at T roas. However, th ere are features o f the account that m ilitate against this view. O n e is that the b reaking o f b read o ccu rred afte r m idnight, which ap p ears to be strange if th e p u rp o se o f th e g athering in the evening was to celebrate the L ord's S upper. F u rth erm o re, verse 11 speaks only o f Paul as eating bread, not the en tire congregation. Also th ere is no m ention o f a cup n o r o f any prayers. T h u s, this often-cited passage affords no real evidence for S undaykeeping in New T estam en t times. T h e re is not even certainty re g ard in g the night involved: 123

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Was it S aturday-S unday o r Sunday-M onday? In eith er case, the g ath erin g was exceptional—a farewell gath erin g fo r the great m issionary a n d his traveling com panions. N o r is it certain th at the L o rd ’s S u p p er was celebrated. T h e expression “to b reak b read " could re fe r to the beginning o f a farewell su p p er. But g ran tin g the possibility that this was m ore than a farewell fellowship m eal, th ere is no evidence th at this had becom e a weekly practice. In d eed , th ere are n u m ero u s exam ples in the book o f Acts o f religious gatherings on th e Sabbath in which the apostle took part. But th e re is no evidence w hatever th at re g u la r assemblies for w orship took place on the first day o f the week. M oreover, the book o f Acts repeatedly pictures Paul as telling the Jew s that he was tru e to th e basic religion o f their fathers as laid dow n in th e law an d the p ro p h e ts (Acts 24:14). A fter his arrest he boldly asserted: " ‘N e ith er against the law o f the Jew s. n o r against the tem ple, n o r against C aesar have 1 o ffen d ed at all” ’ (chap. 25:8). In the presence o f A grippa he declared: ‘“ A nd so I stand h ere testifying both to small an d great, saying nothing but what the p ro p h ets a n d Moses said would com e to pass” ’ (chap. 26:22). Finally, in Rome he called to g eth er the Jew s o f that city an d asserted that he had d o n e nothing against the Jew s o r the custom s o f th eir fathers (chap. 28:17). How could he possibly m ake such assertions, which w ere not challenged, if he had tau g h t the G entiles to forsake the Sabbath an d observe a n o th e r day as the day o f worship? T h e C ollection on th e F irst Day o f the W eek T h e chronologically earliest referen ce to the first day o f the week in the New T estam en t d o cu m ents is in 1 C orinthians 16:1, 2,“ w here Paul gives instruction co n cerning th e relief o fferin g "for the saints." T h ese “saints” w ere the Jew ish C hristians o f Jeru salem an d Ju d e a . E arlier in his career as a C hristian, Paul with Silas h ad been sent to Jeru salem with funds from Antioch in a tim e o f fam ine (Acts 11:29, 30). Now the great apostle was planning fo r a m ajor love o fferin g from the ch u rches o f M acedonia an d Achaia for these poverty-stric ken b re th ren . T h is was a m atter th at loom ed large in P aul’s m ind an d was o n e o f the objects o f his th ird m issionary to u r.” H e looked u p o n this o fferin g as a sign an d pledge o f the unity in C hrist betw een the G entile and Jew ish C hristians. A nd to the C orinthians h e gave directions re g ard in g it sim ilar to those he had previously given the G alatian churches: “O n the first day o f every week, each o f you is to puL som ething aside an d store it u p, as he may p ro sp er, so th at contributions need not be m ade w hen I com e" (1 Cor. 16:2). Paul u rg ed every m em ber o f the C orinthian C hristian com m unity to take p art in this co n tribution. Every week each C hristian was to co n trib u te from iiis week's earnings, laying aside this weekly o fferin g "on the first day o f the week." Why did Paul select the first day o f the week as the day when these m onies were to be laid aside? M any see in this an indication that S unday had already acquired a religious significance. Leon M orris com m ents: “T his is the first piece o f evidence to show that C hristians habitually observed that day."* R alph M artin writes: “T h is is u ndoubtedly an allusion to the C h u rch ’s holy day, the day o f C hristian fellowship in com m em oration o f the L o rd ’s R esurrection . . . an d the day o f th e S u p p er-m e al."” Steven B arabas declares: “Paul directed the C orinthian 124

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C hristians to b rin g th eir weekly o fferin g to the charities o f the C h u rch on th e first day o f th e w eek."“ But a carefu l exam ination o f the passage leads us to ask w hether such conclusions are in h ere n t in the text, o r w hether they are simply a reading back into the New T estam e n t o f developm ents that cam e later? No sacred character w hatever is ascribed to the first day o f the week by the apostle Paul in this text. N or does th e passage say anything about going to church o r bringing a weekly offering to th e c h u rc h ’s charities on th at day. T h e first day o f the week is ra th e r spoken o f as a fitting tim e for an ex am ination o f accounts, an d the p u ttin g aside o f fu n d s from the week’s profits. “T h e referen ce," G rosheide concedes, “is not to the church services but to a personal assignm ent which everyone had to p e rfo rm ."37 “Each o f you is to pu l som ething aside an d store it u p , as he may prosper" is the direction. T h e A m erican S tan d ard V ersion gives a literal ren d erin g : “Let each o n e o f you lay by him in store, as he m ay p ro sp er." “Lay by him " (parheauto titheto) m eans to p u t aside at home."' G rosheide com m ents: “Paul trusts th e C orinthians: he does not ask them to h an d in th eir collection on a weekly basis, they are allowed to keep the collected m oney and ihus little by little a significant am o u n t will be saved u p ." 5“ And C raig explains, “Paul’s ex h o rtatio n called for regularity in saving ra th e r than for faithful atten d an ce upon th e assemblies.""1' If these C hristians were m eeting for public w orship on the first day, o n e may well ask why they w ere adm onished to put aside fu nds privately at hom e on th at day. No reason is indicated for the selection o f the first day o f the week. Deissm ann has suggested th e possibility th at the first day o f th e week may have been payday in the Im perial p erio d .6' T h e sam e suggestion is m ade by J. H ering in his com m entary on 1 C orinthians.“* If this is so, the reason fo r the choice o f the day has n o th in g to d o with any supposed sacredness now attrib u ted lo that day. T h e act o f reviewing th e course o f Providence and the prosperity experienced may be, o f course, a deeply religious one, but that does not m ean that the day on which it is d o n e is th e re fo re sacred. Long ago N e an d er correctly observed: “All m entioned h e re is easily explained, if one sim ply thinks o f the ord in ary beginning o f the week in secular life."“ T h e b eg inning o f the week may well have been designated, fu rth e rm o re , so th at the o fferin g could be given the priority it deserved. B efore the d em ands o f secular life could absorb the week's earnings, they were adm onished to plan for this special o ffering. T h is passage sets forth valuable suggestions for systematic an d regular fund raising. But to ex tract from it evidence o f a change in the day o f w orship is to give a forced in terp retatio n . The Lord’s Day in Revelation 1:10 In addition to the New T estam en t references to the "first day o f the week," which have been exam ined, th e re rem ains to be considered the reference to “the L o rd ’s day" in th e o p en in g c h a p te r o f the Apocalypse. The passage reads: “ I Jo h n . . . was on th e island called Patm os on account o f the w ord o f G od an d the testim ony o f Jesus. I was in the Spirit on the L o rd ’s day, a n d I h eard behind me a loud voice like a tru m p et" (Rev. 1:9, 10). T his is the only passage in the Bible w here the exact G reek phrase here 125

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translated “th e L o rd ’s day” is found. U nfortunately, th e re is no indication in th e context to guide us in know ing what day is re fe rre d to. N or do co n tem p o rary C hristian w riters help us, fo r th ere is no unequivocal use o f the phrase in any au th en tic do cu m ent for nearly a century afte r Jo h n . N evertheless, the vast m ajority o f com m entaries in te rp re t this as an u n d o u b ted referen ce to Sunday. T h e re is, o f course, no question that Sunday becam e known as the L o rd ’s day at a som ew hat later time. Kunake by itself, in fact, becam e the nam e fo r S unday in later G reek, and rem ains so in the m odern form o f the language. T h e Latin equivalent Dominica dies, fo u n d in the V ulgate o f th e passage, becam e the nam e for S unday in ecclesiastical Latin. In fact Dominica is reflected in the nam e for S unday in the R om ance languages, e.g., domenica in Italian, dommgo in Spanish, a n d dnnanche in French. But the question at issue is w hether Sunday was known as "the L o rd ’s day” in the late first century, an d w h eth er J o h n m eant S unday by the p hrase in Revelation 1: 10. T h e re is no specific evidence o f either. It m ust fu rth e r be pointed out that J o h n ’s Gospel is usually d ated later than the Apocalypse. Yet, as noted above, the Gospel ref ers to S unday sim ply as "the first day o f the week," which seems strange if it was then know n as “th e L o rd ’s day." A few co m m entators in te rp re t "the L o rd ’s day" in Revelation 1:10 as equivalent to the O ld T estam en t "Day o f the L ord,” i.e., the eschatological day o f ju d g m en t.“ A lthough the O ld T estam en t phrase Yom Yahweha (Day o f Yahweh) is not translated as kunake hemera in the S eptuagint, but as he hemera tou kunou, using th e genitive ra th e r than th e adjective, it may be arg u ed that th ere is little dif f erence in m eaning betw een the two.6*T h e genitive may well have been used by th e Septuagint translators in im itation o f the H ebrew , which has a d e a rth o f adjectives and frequently supplies the lack by the use o f a genitive construction. T h o se who in te rp re t “the L o rd ’s day” in Revelation 1: 10 as the fu tu re “Day o f the L o rd ” a rg u e that Jo h n in vision was tran sp o rte d to that day, and beheld its events being un fo ld ed . A ccording to this view. Revelation 1: 10 means: “In my trance I fo u n d m yself at the day o f ju d g m e n t.” C harles H. Welch, in advocating this view, writes: “T h e book o f Revelation is taken up with som ething infinitely vaster than days o f the week. It is solely co ncerned with the day o f the L o r d . T o read that J o h n becam e in spirit on the L ord's day (m eaning Sunday) tells us practically nothing. T o read in the solem n in troduction that J o h n becam e in spirit in the Day o f the L ord, that day o f p rophetic im port, is to tell us practically everything .”67 But does th e context o f the phrase “the L ord's day” in Revelation 1: 10 perm it this kind o f in terp retatio n ? I think not. T h e vision that Jo h n beheld after being caught u p by the Spirit was not o f events that belong to the eschatological "Day o f th e L ord." R ath er it was a vision of the glorified C hrist walking am ong the seven lam pstands. re p resen tin g th e seven churches, as a m inister to them in the present age. In Revelation 1:9, 10, th e p ro p h e t gives the place a n d tim e w hen he received th e vision, ra th e r than im plying that in his vision he was tran sp o rted to the final day o f ju d g m e n t: “I J o h n . . . was on the island called Patm os___I was in the Spirit o n th e L o rd ’s day.” A th ird in terp retatio n , which has not been given adequate attention by most New T estam en t students, is that “th e L o rd ’s day" refers to the C hristian Pascha, th e an n u al celebration o f C hrist's resurrection, which later cam e to be called 126

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'‘Easter." It is entirely possible that the earliest references in postcanonical w riters to “the L o rd ’s day" d o not re fer to a weekly observance at all, but to a yearly R esurrection-day celebration. T h is annual L ord’s day was an a p p ro p ria te tim e for the baptism o f catechum ens a n d the celebration o f the Eucharist.“ D ugm ore suggests that th e re could be no m ore fitting tim e for J o h n to have a vision o f the risen an d glorified C hrist than on the anniversary o f the R esurrection. A basis for such an annual celebration m ight well be seen in Paul’s first letter to th e C o rinthians, w here the L ordship o f C hrist is especially em phasized. Was Paul suggesting such a celebration w hen he wrote: “F or C hrist, o u r paschal lamb, has been sacrificed. Let us, th erefo re, celebrate the festival" (1 C or. 5:7, 8)? T h e fact th at C hrist arose on the day w hen the offering o f first fruits was presented by the Jew s seems to form the background o f a later statem ent: "But in fact C hrist has been raised from the dead, the first fruits o f those who have fallen asleep" (chap. 15:20). Finally, if one in terp rets the phrase “the Lord's day" according to the analogy o f S cripture, a case can be m ade for re g ard in g it as a reference to the seventh-day Sabbath. T h e Sabbath was set ap a rt fo r sacred use at C reation (Gen. 2:2, 3). T h e interm ediate agent in that creation, according to several New T estam en t passages,'*" was th e L ord Jesus C hrist. T h e fo u rth o f the fam ous T en W ords describes the seventh day “as a sabbath to the Lord your G od" (Ex. 20:1 Off.). In the book o f Isaiah G od calls it " ‘my holy d a y '” and “ ‘the holy day o f the L o rd ” ’ (Isa. 58:13). All th ree o f th e Synoptic Gospels q uote Jesu s saying, “ ‘T h e Son o f m an is lord even o f the sabbath’" (M ark 2:28; cf. Matt. 12:8; Luke 6:5). T h is view may also have th e su p p o rt o f an interesting reference to the L o rd ’s day in th e apocryphal Acts o f Jo h n : "A nd on the seventh day, it being the L ord's day . . It is not possible to be certain that the a u th o r refers to th e seventh day o f the week. H e may possibly m ean the seventh day o f the jo u rn ey , but the fo rm er seems probable. B ut if J o h n m eans the Sabbath in Revelation 1:10, why should he re fer to it as “the L o rd ’s day"? T h e book o f Revelation has as its background the conflict betw een the “L ord C aesar" an d the “L ord C hrist.” C hristians w ere facing persecution an d th e th reat o f m artyrdom because o f their refusal to recognize C aesar as lord. For them th e re was but one Lord, Jesus C hrist (1 C or. 8:5, 6). D eissm ann has show n that th ere w ere special days devoted to the Rom an em p ero r. W ould it not be ap p ro p ria te u n d e r such circum stances to exalt Jesus C h ristas “th e ru le r o f kings on e a rth ” (Rev. 1:5), an d to re fer to the Sabbath as the real “L o rd ’s day”? In conclusion, one may say that th ere is not sufficient data given in the book o f Revelation to be certain o f the correct in terp retatio n o f the phrase “the Lord's day" in Revelation 1:10. T h e p o p u lar attem pt to equate it with S unday does not rest on evidence supplied by the S criptures but upon postapostolic usage o f the phrase, long a fte r Jo h n 's time. T h e view that the phrase refers to the eschatological day o f ju d g m e n t is doubtful. M ore attention should be given to the possibility th at the ph rase refers to an annual resurrection celebration. A nd study could well be given to the idea that what is m eant is in reality th e seventh-day Sabbath.

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* C . E. B. ¿ r a n fie ld . T h e Gospel A ccording to Sa in t Alar* (G a m h tid g e. E n g ., 195 9 ). p. 4 6 3 .

* lh a g e n n m m n u tou labbatun m ean s "the S abbath h avin g in te r v e n e d " " H enrv B a m a v S w ete. The Gosbel A ccording to Si M ark (G rand R a p id v 1951), p. 395.

9 T h e b i d Latin m a n u scr ip t C o o e x B ohiensisffcj a d d s a d escrip tio n o f th e R etu rret n o n after**‘fro m Ilie d o o r to 'h e tomb"* in verse 3: “S u d d e n ly , at th e th ird h o u r ot th e d av, th ere was d a rk n ess o v et th e w h o le ea r th , a n d a n g els d e s c e n d e d from h ea v en , an d rising in th e sp len d o r o l llu* living G o d thev a scen d ed to g eth er w ith lu m . a n d im rnediatelv it w as lig h t” (se e W illiam L. L an e. The Gosbel According /» M ark, \ l ( . [(«rand Kapxlv. 1974 J. p. 5 8 2 . n 3). 10 In th e p h rase th e “first day,** th e G reek u ses th e card in al n u m era l “o n e " 11 In con trast to verse 2. th e o rd in a l n u m era l p r d tf is u sed for "first." a n d “Meek" (sahbatou) is vingul.o '* Iren a eu s A^arro/ H ere\ie\ 3 .1 0 . 5 (A N F 1:426); cf. th e ]xissib le r e fe r e n c e t o Mark 1 6 :1 7 , IM. m 2 . 2() 3 (p . 3 8 « )

17 R ob ertson . W ord P uturcs in the S e w Testam ent (N a sh v ille, 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 3 ). I 2 3 9 ** W alter B au er, .4 G reek-Engltsh Lexicon o f the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther E a r h Christian Literature, rev an d augru In S ee th e G ood S e w s B ible (T .tA ^ J , C*oodsj>red. The Jerusalem Hible. W ev m o u lh %tran slation . et ce te ra , c l

\\

m R am sa

Ike

r m M ta m ^ tim tm e f^ N m a T ta ta m e m lfp a w n A R a p id s, I M S )

** ( »reek ka th e x n tin t g ta p h e m . “w rite so m e th in g lor s o m e o n e in correct c hronologM al o rd er ." B au er. A rn d t, and I h e accu sative c a s e , to uibbatiin. in d icates d u r a tio n of tim e A llie d P lu m m er. .4 t.n tic a l Exegetical Commentary an the Gospel According to S Luke. IC C t E d in b u rg h . 192*2). p. Ju T h e sto n e at th e en tr a n c e of th e tom b w ou ld be d ifficu lt to re m o v e A n in ter estin g a d d itio n t o L uke 2 3 :5 3 in ( B ru te, /or. rii. 46 F. | h »ak es )ac k son an d K irsopp L ik e , ed s.. The B eginnings o f Christianity, tiart I The Acts of the Apostles. 5 so ls (L o n d o n . 1920*33). vol. 4: K irsopp la k e an d H en rs J C a d b u ry . E nglish T ra n u a tt on a n d C o m m u n io n , p. 2 5 5 . 47 J o h a n n es B rh m . "xMuu." r D S T , 5 72 8 . 7 2 9 4" I b i d . p 7 2 9 ; A cts 2 :4 2 , 46. 4M Matt. 14:19. 15:36; Mark 8 :6 , 19 *> I C or 11:20. 41 Matt 2 6 .2 6 . M I C o rin th ia n s is usually d a te d r. a.D. 57. M R om . 15:25-27; 2 C orin th ian * 8 , 9; A cts 2 4 :1 7 . 44 L eon M o r n s. The F m t Epistle of P a u l to the Corinthians (G rand R apids. 1958). p. 2 3 8 . ct. O scar C u llm a n n . E a rh C hristian W orship (L o n d o n . 1953), p p . 10, I I M R alph I* M artin, W orship in the E a r h ( h u rth ( U n d o n . 1964), p . 79. “ S te te n B arabas. “S abb ath ,“ T he Z o n d en 'a n P u to n a l Bible U u tio ru in (G rand R a p id v 1 9 6 3 ). p. 7 36. 57 F W. G r o sh e id e . Commentary on the F ir\t E fistle to the C onnthians. X I C (G rand R a p id s. 1953). p. 3 9 8 B au er. A rn d t, a n d G in g r ich , up rif.. pp. 8 2 3 , 6 1 5 . w G r o sh eid e . op. a t , p. 398 611 C laren ce T u ck er C ta ig . F x e g c sis o f “T h e F itsi Epistle to the C orin th ian s." IB . 10:236. 61 A d olf D eissm a n n . L ig h t fr o m the A n n e n l East (N ew Y ork |I 9 2 2 |) . p . 361 68 J e a n H e r in g . T he First Epistle of S a in t P a u l to the (o n n th ia n s (L o n d o n , 1962). p. 183 63 A u g u stu s N ea tld er. G eneral H is to n o f the C hristian Religion a n d Church (B o sto n . |854-187()> . I 2 3 9 64 E xam p les in clu d e F I . A H o r t, The Apocalypse of S i J o h n b i l l (L o n d o n . 1908). p 15; J. B S m ith . A R exrlation of Jesus C hnst. e d . by I. O tis V od er (S cottd ale. P e n n .. 1961). p p 3 1 9 -3 2 4 . J A. Seiss. The Apocalypse. 7th e d .. 3 so ls (N ew Y ork. 19(H)). (J ia r le s W W elch . This Prophecy (B a n stea d . Eng . 19m )). p 49 ** Isa 2:9; A m o s 5 :1 8 -2 7 ; Jo el 2 :1 1 , 31; S ep h 1:7. 14; 2 :2 . 3; 3:8. et cetera ** W ern er F o e rs ter, " x iu o ^ .' T D X T . 3 .1 0 9 6 . In I C o rin th ia n s 11:20 Paul speaLs nf th e L ord 's S u p p e r . u sin g th e ad jective ku n a k o n (th e on ly o la c e o th e r tlian R evelation 1:10 w h ere th e ad jective is fo u n d m th e N ew T esta m en t), w hile in I C o rin th ia n s 10.21 h e sp e a k s o f th e laird 's table, u sin g th e g en itiv e ton ku n o u 67 W elch , loc. a t. w C . W D u g m o r e. “Lord's D as an d Easter." X eotestam entua et patnstica, s u p p le m e n t to .Votum T estam ent um (L eid e n . 1962). 6 :2 7 2 -2 8 1 la w r e n c e T . G e ra is. “T h e Pascha and th e O rig in of S u n d a s O b servan ce," A U S S $ ( l9 6 5 ):8 5 -9 6 . K en n eth A. S tran d . “A n oth er Look al ‘Lord's D as' in th e Earls C h u rch a n d in Rev. I. 10," X ew Testam ent Studies (1 9 6 6 -1 9 6 7 ), 1 3 :74-181. w J o h n 1:1-3; C o l. 1:15-17; H e b 1 : 1 .2 .

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CHAPTER 7

The Rise of Sunday Observance in Early Christianity

Samuele Bacchiocchi HE question o f the origin o f Sunday observance in early C hristianity has in recen t years aroused great interest on the p art o f scholars o f d ifferin g religious persuasions. N um erous scientific an d scholarly studies on the subject have a p p e are d over the past two decades and are clear evidence o f renew ed interest in finding a m ore satisfactory answ er to the ever-intriguing question o f th e tim e, place, a n d causes o f the origin o f C hristian Sundaykeeping.'

T

Jerusalem and the O rigin o f Sunday The tendency in these recent studies has been to attrib u te to the apostles, o r even to C hrist, th e initiative and responsibility fo r the ab a n d o n m en t o f S abbathkeeping a n d th e institution o f S unday observance in its place. T h is thesis that th e institution o f S unday observance goes back to the very first com m unity o f Jeru salem rests o n several assum ptions. It is assum ed by som e students, for instance, that since Paul could hardly have p io n eered th e observance o f Sunday inasm uch as he is the only New T estam en t w riter who w arns against the observance o f days (Col. 2:16; Gal. 4:10; Rom. 14:5, 6), S unday observance m ust have first begun in the prim itive com m unity o f Jeru salem , p rio r to Paul’s G entile mission. It is pointed oul that if Paul had been the p ro m o ter o f S unday observance, he would have m et and answ ered objections from a J u d a i/in g opposition, as was the case with reg ard to circum cision. The absence o f any trace o f a Sabbath-Sunday controversy betw een Paul an d the Ju d a i/in g party is, th erefo re, in terp re ted as indicating that w orship on the first day o f th e week is an original apostolic institution that Paul found well established and th u s accepted as a fait accompli.1 It is also p resu m ed by som e that since the events o f the R esurrection an d /o r the ap p earan ces o f Jesus o ccu rred in Jeru salem on a Sunday, th e apostles m ust th en have instituted S unday observance in th e city to com m em orate these very events by a distinctive C hristian day an d with a unique C hristian liturgy. T his 132

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y action was allegedly en co u rag ed by (he im m ediate necessity felt bv the earliest C hristians in Jeru salem to have a special tim e a n d place for th eir w orship, since they “no longer felt at hom e in Jew ish sabbath w orship." * M oreover, it is arg u ed that only th e apostolic authority exercised in Jeru salem — the m other ch u rch o f C h risten d o m —could have legitim ately changed the day o f w orship an d enforced it on C hristians at large. T h ese arg u m e n ts ap p e a r persuasive, but their validity m ust be tested in the light o f th e historical inform ation provided by both the New T estam en t and the early patristic literatu re reg ard in g the theological orientation o f the Jeru salem church: Do th e earliest docum entary sources suggest that the first C hristians "no longer felt at hom e in Jew ish sabbath w o rsh ip "' and consequently ab an d o n ed at once its reg u lar w orship tim e an d places? Did the prim itive church o f Jeru salem break im m ediately an d radically from the Jew ish religious traditions an d services? A re th ere evidences that the resurrection o f C hrist was first com m em orated in Jeru salem on a S unday th ro u g h the celebration o f the Lord's S upper? O w ing to the lim ited scope o f the present ch ap ter, only b rief answ ers can be provided here, with referen ce in the notes to my m ore extensive treatm ent. The R esurrection.—T h e widely accepted view that “the event o f the resu rrectio n has d eterm in ed the choice o f Sunday as the day o f w orship” ' rests m o re on speculation than o n facts. A re th ere any sayings in the New T estam en t enjoining th e co m m em oration o f C hrist’s resurrection on the actual day o n which it occurred? No! Is S unday ever called in the New T estam ent th e “Day o f R esurrection"? No! It is consistently d en o m in ated "first day o f the week.” * Was th e “Lord's S u p p er" celebrated exclusively on S unday to com m em orate C hrist's resurrection? No! The New T estam e n t suggests that it was celebrated at indeterminate times a n d on various days (cf. 1 C or. 11:18, 20,33, 34). M oreover, the rite proclaim s, prim arily, “th e Lord's death till he com es" (verse 26),* not the R esurrection. Is C hrist's resu rrectio n presented in the earliest docum ents as the prim ary theological m otivation fo r S unday w orship. No! Both B arnabas and Ju stin M artyr, who provide the earliest record o f Sundaykeeping, m ention the R esurrection as th e secondary o r additional reason for its observance, th o u g h this is not to deny th e fact that the R esurrection later becam e the d om inant reason for Sunday observance.* T h e foregoing indications suffice to discredit the claim that C hrist's resurrection d eterm in e d the origin o f C hristian S unday w orship d u rin g the lifetim e o f th e apostles. T he Jerusalem Church in the New Testam ent.—T h e book o f Acts, which provides the earliest historical account o f the Jerusalem ch u rch , gives no hint that the acceptance o f th e Messiah caused converted Jew s to ab an d o n im m ediately the re g u la r w orship tim e an d places o f th eir own people. P eter a n d J o h n , for exam ple, after th e Pentecost experience, went u p to the T em p le at the h o u r o f p ra y e r (Acts 3:1). T h e re are am ple indications that attendance at the T em p le and synagogue was still co n tin u ed by C hrist's followers, though com plem entary private m eetings were co n d u cted loo. T h e synagogue is, in fact, the place o f w orship most * V ersio n .

I n l c i s o th e r w ise in d ica te d , all S crip tu re referen ce« in thiv »h apter are taken fro m th e R evised S tand ard

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T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND H IS T O R Y frequently m en tioned as a tten d e d no t only by C hrist and His disciples b ut also by C hristian converts. Paul, fo r exam ple, m et regularly in the synagogue on the Sabbath with “Jew s an d G reeks” (Acts 18:4, 19; 13:5, 1 4 ,4 2 ,4 4 ; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17). Apollo, likewise, w hen he arrived at E phesus, m et with th e believers in the synagogue (chap. 18:24-26).* Close attach m ent to Jew ish religious traditions an d services is particularly noticeable in th e early Jeru salem church. Its m em bership was com posed mostly o f converted Jew s (chaps. 2:41; 4:4; 5:14), characterized as " ’zealous for the law’” (chap. 21:20). Luke rep o rts (in Acts) th at "a great m any o f th e priests w ere obedient to th e faith ” (chap. 6:7). Presum ably these converted priests becam e the “eld ers” who to g eth er with Jam es adm inistered th e Jerusalem c h u rch .’ T h e very choice o f Jam es, “the L o rd ’s b ro th e r” (Gal. 1:19), ra th e r than an apostle as leader o f th e chu rch , indicates how Jewishly o rien te d the new leadership and “C hristian priesthood" in Jeru salem really were by placing em phasis on blood relationship with C hrist. Several works o f Ju d eo -C h ristian origin reveal m ore explicidy than does th e New T estam e n t that in choosing the leaders o f the church, the m atter o f blood relationship was re g a rd e d as m ore im p o rtan t than any o th e r kind o f previous relationship with C h rist .10 C ertain events re p o rte d in Acts co rro b o rate this conclusion. For instance, the Jew ish p ersecution re p o rte d in Acts 6-8 was ap p aren tly not against the whole church b u t prim arily against the “Hellenists," a nonconform ist g ro u p . A ccording to Acts 8 :1, the ch u rch was “all scattered . . . except the apostles.” T h a t the apostles were allowed to rem ain in the city suggests that they did not share the radical ideas o f th e Hellenists, but m aintained an allegiance to basic Jew ish traditions." Several additional m atters re p o rted in Acts fu rth e r establish this fact. First, we may notice th at at the earliest C hristian ecum enical council, held in the city o f Jeru salem (about a . d . 49-50), Jam es, the presiding officer, proposed th at the Gentiles who becam e C hristians w ere to be exem pted from circum cision, but at the sam e tim e they w ere “ ‘to abstain from the pollutions o f idols an d from unchastity an d from what is strangled a n d from blood. F or from early generations Moses has had in every city those who preach him , for he is read every sabbath in the synagogues’” (Acts 15:20, 21). T h e inclination tow ard traditional Jew ish practices is obvious .11 Second, in the account o f Paul’s last visit to Jeru salem ( a . d . 58-60), th e facts th at Paul “was hastening to be at Jeru salem , if possible, on the day o f Pentecost” (chap. 20:16) an d that Paul's com pany had spent the days o f “U nleavened B read ” at Philippi (verse 6 ) suggest that C hristians still regulated th eir lives by th e norm ative Jew ish liturgical calendar. Finally, m ore enlightening still is the account o f what h a p p e n e d in Jeru salem itself. Jam es a n d the elders not only in fo rm ed Paul that the m any thousands o f converted Jew s w ere “ ‘all zealous fo r the law' ” (chap. 2 1 :20) but these leaders even co n fro n ted the apostle with the ru m o r that he dissuaded Jewish believers from practicing ancestral custom s such as circum cision.” T o discredit the malicious accusation an d to prove that he him self “live[d\ in observance of the law" (verse 24), Paul u n d erw en t a rite o f purification in th e T em ple. In such a clim ate o f p ro fo u n d attachm ent to Jew ish religious observances, is it conceivable th at a longstanding and cherished custom such as S abbathkeeping • For a d u c u u io n o f th e Sabbath a n d S u n d a y in th e

New T e sta m e n t.

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ie e th e p r ec ed in g tw o c h a p t e n .

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y had been abro g ated and th at a new day o f w orship had been intro d u ced in its place? H ardly! T he Jerusalem Church After A.D. 70.— Because o f indications such as the foregoing, som e scholars p re fe r to place the beginning o f S unday observance no earlier th an a . d . 7 0 .m It is arg u ed that the flight o f the C hristians from Jeru salem to Pella an d the d estruction o f the T em p le m ight have encouraged Palestinian C hristians to b reak away from S abbathkeeping at that time. U n doubtedly, th e exodus from an d the destruction o f Jeru salem had decisive effects on the relationship betw een C hristianity an d Judaism . T h e re are. how ever, significant historical indications that exclude the possibility th at the Judeo-C hristians o f Palestine in tro d u ced S unday observance as early as the year a . d . 70 o r soon th ereafter. T h e historians Eusebius (c. a . d . 260-340) an d E piphanius (r. a . d . 315-403) both inform us th at the c h u rch o f Jeru salem up to the siege o f H ad rian ( a . d . 135) was com posed of, an d adm inistered by, converted Jew s .11 Eusebius describes a g ro u p o f them , known as Ebionites, as being “zealous to insist on the literal observance of th e Law ." 10 E piphanius adds that those Jew ish C hristians who fled from Jeru salem becam e know n as the sect o f the N azarenes, who "fulfill till now Jew ish rites as circum cision, the Sabbath, an d o th e rs ." 1’ T h e fact that the N azarenes, who re p resen t “the very direct descendants o f the prim itive com m unity""' o f Jeru salem , retain ed S abbathkeeping as one o f th eir distin­ guishing m arks fo r centuries afte r the destruction o f Jeru salem shows persuasively th at this was the original day o f w orship o f the Jeru salem church and that no ch an g e from Sabbath to Sunday occurred am ong Palestinian Jew ish C hristians im m ediately a fte r the destruction o f the city in a . d . 70. A n o th er indirect indication o f the survival o f Sabbath observance am ong Palestinian Jew ish C hristians is provided by the curse o f the C hristians (Birkath-ha-Minin), which the rabbinical authorities in troduced ( a . d . 80-90) in the daily p ra y e r .19 It has been conclusively shown th at this was a test designed to bar the C hristians from presence an d /o r participation in the synagogue service." T h e fact th at m any Jew ish C hristians in Palestine still considered them selves essentially as Jew s, keen to atten d the Sabbath services at the synagogue, discredits any attem p t to m ake them responsible at this tim e fo r the introduction o f S unday observance.'11' It was not until the year a . d . 135 that a radical change took place in the church o f Jeru salem . A t th at tim e E m p ero r H ad rian destroyed the city, expelled both the Jew s a n d th e Jew ish C hristians, and prohibited categorically the practice o f the Jew ish religion, especially S abbathkeeping and circum cision .22 In accordance with th e e m p e ro r’s edict, the city was re p o p u lated by foreigners, and only G entile C hristians w ere allowed to enter.*' T h e latter d iffe red from Jew ish C hristians not only racially b u t presum ably also theologically, since E piphanius suggests that they provoked a controversy by intro d u cin g E aster S unday.M A significant m inority o f C hristians ap p aren tly refused to accept the innovation occasioned by the new im perial repressive m easures taken against Jew ish religious practices.“ T h e fo reg o in g historical data discredits any attem p t to m ake the Jeru salem ch u rch p rio r to a . d . 135 the cham pion o f liturgical innovations such as S unday observance. We have found that this church was both racially and theologically the closest and m ost loyal to Jew ish religious traditions. A fter a . d . 135, how ever, 135

T H E S A B BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y radical changes took place in the Jeru salem c h u rch as a result o f H adrian's d ecree that p rohibited the practice o f the Jewish religion and particularly the observance o f th e Sabbath. But the new small C cntile ch u rch that becam e established in the cit\ no lo n g er enjoyed religious prestige o r authority. In fact, for the second century n o th in g is know n o f th e Jeru sa lem ch u rch , with th e exception o f a few u n certain nam es o f bishops.'* It would be futile, th erefo re, to probe fu rth e r into the origin o f S unday observance am ong the new insignificant O entile c h u rch in Jerusalem . Since the ad o p tio n o f new religious feast days and their en fo rcem en t on the rest o f C h risten d o m could presum ably be accom plished only by a ch u rch that severed h er ties from J udaisin rarly an d that enjoyed wide recognition, the church o f the capital o f the em p ire ap p e a rs to be the m ost likely birthplace o f Sunday observance. Several religious, social, an d political conditions that prevailed both in th e city o f Rom e a n d in the C hristian ch u rch in that city substantiate the validity o f this hypothesis. Rome and the O rigin o f Sunday T h e ancient C hristian ch u rch in Rome, contrary to most E astern churches, was com posed prim arily o f a G entile C hristian m ajority (R om ans 11 an d 13) an d a Judeo -C h ristian m inority (R om ans 14). Paul in his Epistle to th e R om ans explicitly affirm s: "I am speaking to you G entiles’* (chap. 11:13).77 I h e p redom inance o f (»entile m em bers an d their conflict with the Jew s, inside and outside the ch u rch , resulted, as staled well by L eonard G oppelt, in “a chasm betw een the C h u rch and th e Synagogue . . . unknow n in the Eastern churches.” ** Early D ifferentiation.— It is a recognized fact also that C hristians w ere early distinguished from the Jew s in the capital city. T h e latter, in fact, seem ingly influenced N ero (through the Em press P oppaea Sabina, a Jew ish proselyte) to relieve him self o f the charge o f arson by p u ttin g the blam e on the C hristians." A ccording to T acitus, N ero “fastened the guilt [i.e., arson] an d inflicted the m ost exquisite to rtu res on . . . C hristians.” " T h e fact lhai in Rome the C hristians were clearly d ifferen tiated from the Jew s m ore quickly than was the case in Palestine suggests the possibility that the ab andonm ent o f the Sabbath and adoption o f Sundav as a new day o f w orship could have occurred first in Rom e as part o f this process o f d ifferen tiatio n from Judaism . A dditional significant factors present in the C h u rch o f Rome enable us to verify the validity o f this hypothesis. Anti-Judaic Feelings and Measures.— Following the d eath o f N ero, the Jew s experienced a setback. Military , political, fiscal, an d literary repressive m easures were taken against them on account o f th eir resurgent nationalism , which ex ploded in violent uprisings in m any places. Militarily, th e statistics o f bloodshed provided by co n tem p o rary historians, even allowing fo r possible exaggerations, are most im pressive. T acitus (c. a . d . 33-120), for instance, re p o rts having heard th at 600.000 Jew s w ere besieged in the a . d . 70 w ar.” Dio Cassius (c. a . d . 150-235), slates th at in th e B arkokeba w ar o f a . d . 132-135, som e 580.000 Jew s w ere killed in action, besides the num berless who died o f h u n g er and disease.” Politically, u n d e r Vespasian ( a . d . 69-79) both the S an h ed rin and the high priesthood w ere abolished: an d u n d e r H ad rian , as we noted earlier, the practice o f th e Jew ish religion an d particularly S abbaihkeeping were outlaw ed.” 136

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SE RV A NC E IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y Also, fiscally, th e Jew s w ere subjected to a discrim inatory tax, the Jiscus judaicus, which was in tro d u ced by Vespasian and intensified first by D om itian ( a . d . 81-96) a n d later by H a d rian .M Literarily, a new wave o f anti-Sem itic literatu re surged at that time, u n d oubtedly reHecting the R om an m ood against the Jews. W riters such as Seneca (died a . d . 65), Persius ( a . d . 34-62), P etronius (died c. a . d . 66), Q uintilian (c. a . d . 35-100), M artial (c. a . d . 40-104), Plutarch (c. a . d . 46-after 119), Ju v en al (died c. a . d . 125), a n d T acitus (c. a . d . 55-120), who lived in Rome for most o f th eir professional lives, reviled the Jew s racially an d culturally.” Particularly w ere the Jew ish custom s o f S abbathkeeping a n d circum cision contem ptuously d erid e d as exam ples o f d e g rad in g superstition. T h ese repressive m easures a n d hostile attitudes prevailing tow ard th e Jew s w ere particularly felt in the capital city. T itus, for exam ple, because o f the m o u n tin g hostility o f th e populace against the Jews, was forced, though "unwillingly” (invitus), to ask B erenice, H erod the Y ounger’s sister (whom he w anted to m arry), to leave R om e.“ T h e Jew ish problem becam e particularly acute by H a d rian ’s tim e as a result o f that e m p e ro r’s policy o f radical suppression o f the Jew ish religion. Such circum stances ap p aren tly en co u rag ed C hristians, too, to pro d u ce a whole body o f anti-Jew ish literature, which began ap p earin g at that tim e.” A “C hristian theology" o f separation from , an d contem pt for, the Jew s was developed. C haracteristic Jew ish custom s, such as circum cision a n d S abbath­ keeping, w ere particularly condem ned. T he Church o f Rome and the Sabbath.—T h o u g h denunciations o f Sabbath observance can be found in the writings o f C hurch Fathers from m any geographical areas, it is in th e C h u rch o f Rome that we find evidence o f the earliest concrete m easures to wean C hristians away from veneration o f the Sabbath an d to urg e S unday observance exclusively. Ju stin M artyr, for instance, w riting from Rome ab out the m iddle o f the second century, presents a m ost devastating and systematic co n d em n ation o f the Sabbath, as well as giving the earliest explicit account o f C hristian S unday w orship services. H e em pties the Sabbath o f all its theological significance, reducing it to a tem porary o rdinance derived from Moses, which G od im posed solely on the Jew s as “a m ark to single them o u t for p u n ish m en t they so well deserve for th eir infidelities.” w H e refers, on the o th er h an d , to Sunday as "the day on which we all hold o u r com m on assembly, because it is th e first day on which G od, having w rought a change in the darkness a n d m atter, m ade th e w orld; an d Jesus C hrist o u r Saviour on the sam e day rose from the d e a d ."59 Ju stin 's negative view o f the Sabbath is reflected also in the early introduction o f the Sabbath fast by the C hurch o f Rom e, in spite o f the opposition o f Eastern C hristianity a n d o f several W estern churches. T h a t the C hurch o f Rome was the cham pion o f th e Sabbath fast a n d anxious to im pose it on o th e r C hristian com m unities is well attested by the historical references from Bishop Callistus ( a . d . 217-222), H ippolytus (c. a . d . 170-236). Pope Sylvester ( a . d . 314-335), Pope Inn o cen t I ( a . d . 401-417), A ugustine ( a . d . 354-430). and Jo h n Cassian (c. a . d . 360-435)/° T h e fast was designed no t only to express sorrow for C hrist's d ea th but also, as Pope Sylvester em phatically states, to show “contem pt fo r the Jew s" (execratione Judaeorum) and for th eir Sabbath “feasting" (destrucliones ciborum)." 137

T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY How would fasting on the Sabbath serve to avoid “a p p e arin g to observe the Sabbath with the Jew s," to use the w ords o f V ictorinus o f Pettau (died c . a . d . 304) ?42 T h e answ er is to be found in the fact that for the Jew s the Sabbath was definitely not a day o f fasting o r o f m ourning. Even the strictest Jew ish sects objected to fasting on th e Sabbath. T h e rabbis, th o u g h they d iffered in th eir views re g ard in g th e tim e and n u m b er o f the Sabbath meals, agreed that food on the Sabbath ought T h a t the early C hristians ad o p ted this Jew ish custom is im plied, for instance, in A ugustine’s rhetorical re m ark in which, w hen re fe rrin g to the Sabbath, he says: “Did not th e trad itio n o f th e elders prohibit fasting on the one han d , a n d enjoin rest on th e o th er?” 44 F u rth e r su p p o rt can be seen in the opposition to the Sabbath fast by C hristians in the East an d in som e im p o rtan t W estern areas, such as in Milan at the tim e o f A m brose (died a . d . 397), and in certain churches an d regions A strict Sabbath fast w ould naturally preclude also the celebration o f the L o rd ’s S u p p er, since p artak in g o f its elem ents w ould be re g ard ed as breaking the fast. C onsequently, as re p o rte d by several Fathers, th e Sabbath was m ade in Rome not only a day o f fasting b u t also a day in which no Eucharistic celebration an d no religious assemblies w ere allowed."’T h e transform ation o f the Sabbath from a day o f feasting, joy, an d religious celebrations to a day o f fasting, m ou rn in g , an d no religious assembly rep resen ts concrete m easures taken by the C h u rch o f Rom e to force C hristians away from the veneration o f the Sabbath. O n th e o th e r h an d , this practice en h an ced S unday, a day o f rejoicing and feasting w hen the Sabbath fast W hen did the C h u rch o f Rome in troduce the weekly Sabbath fast? T h e historical genesis o f religious custom s cannot always be established w ith certainty, an d this is tru e re g ard in g Sabbath fasting. T h a t it was in troduced early in Rome, how ever, is clearly im plied by the following statem ent o f H ippolytus (w ritten in Rom e betw een a . d . 202 a n d 234): “Even today (K at yap vuv) some . . . o rd e r fasting on the Sabbath, (a practice] o f which C hrist has not spoken, d ishonoring th e Gospel o f C h rist ." 47 T hough it is difficult to establish w hether H ippolytus was re fe rrin g to B ishop C allistus’ decretal enjoining a seasonal Sabbath fast o r to som e M arcionites against whom he w rote a treatise (possibly to both?), the expression “even today" clearly presupposes that the custom h ad been know n for som e time. It has been suggested that the weekly Sabbath fast o riginated as an extension o f th e an n u al Holy S aturday o f the Easter season, w hen all C hristians fasted .48 T h is view ap p ears alto g eth er plausible, since, fo r instance, T ertu llian an d A ugustine associated the two. T ertu llian specifically ap p ro v ed the annual paschal Sabbath fast an d co n d em n ed the weekly Sabbath fast that Rom e and a few W estern ch u rches practiced. “You som etim es continue y o u r Station [i.e., fast] even ov er the Sabbath,—a day never to be kept as a fast except at the passover seaso n ."4“ An additional indication o f a connection betw een the two custom s is pro v id ed by the fact that th e annual paschal S aturday fast, like the weekly one, was designed to express not only sorrow for C hrist's d eath but also contem pt for the p e rp e tra to rs o f His d eath , nam ely the Jews. T h e Didascalia Apostolorum (c. a . d . 250), for instance, enjoins C hristians to fast on Easter Friday an d S aturday "on account o f th e disobedience o f o u r b re th ren [i.e., the J e w s]. . . because th ere o n th e People killed them selves in crucifying o u r Saviour." w

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y O u r investigation so far has established that the change in the day o f w orship seems to have been encouraged, on the o n e hand, by the social, political, m ilitary, and literary anti-Judaic im perial policies th at m ade it necessary for C hristians to sever th eir ties with the Jews, an d , on the o th e r hand, by the very conflict existing betw een Jew s an d C hristians. T h e C hurch o f Rom e, whose m em bers, mostly o f pagan extraction, exp erienced a break from the Jew s earlier than in the East, and w here th e u n p o p u larity o f the Jew s was particularly felt, ap p ears to have played a leading role in inducing the ado p tio n o f S unday observance, as well as in d ow n g rad in g th e S abbath by th e weekly Sabbath fast. Sun W orship and the O rigin o f Sunday W hy, it may now be asked, was S unday ra th e r than a n o th er day o f the week (such as Friday, th e day o f C hrist's passion) chosen to evidence the C hristian separation from Ju daism ? A nti-Judaism explains the necessity that arose to substitute a new day o f w orship for the Sabbath, but the reasons for the specific choice o f S unday m ust be fo u n d elsew here. Significant indications suggest that Sun w orship with its “S un-day” was influential in d eterm in in g the choice o f Sunday. Sun W orship and the Planetary Week Prior to A.D. 150.—T o establish a possible causal relationship betw een Sun w orship and the C hristian adoption o f S unday observance, it is crucial to verify th e contem poraneous existence by the end o f th e first century o f both a w idespread Sun w orship an d a com m on use o f the planetary week with its “sun-day— dies solis.” * Only if the planetary' week was in use in th e G reco-R om an w orld already in the first century o f o u r era an d the Sun was being v enerated on S unday does the possibility exist that C hristian converts from paganism , facing the necessity to w orship on a day th at would be d iffe ren t from th e Jew ish Sabbath, w ere oriented tow ard th e day o f the S un.sl G aston H. H alsberghe has persuasively dem o n strated in his recent m o n o g rap h , The Cult of Sol Invictus, that Sun w orship was “o n e o f the oldest co m ponents o f th e R om an religion.” As a result o f the pen etratio n o f E astern Sun cults, H alsberghe concludes that “from the early p art o f the second century a . d . , the cult o f Sol Invictus was d o m in an t in Rom e an d in o th er parts o f the E m pire." ** T h e identification an d w orship o f the em p ero r as Sun-god, en co u rag ed by the Eastern theology o f th e "K ing-Sun," an d by political considerations, undoubtedly co n trib u ted to th e diffusion o f a public Sun cult.” Did the p lan etary week also w ith its "dies solis— day o f S un” already exist in the first cen tu ry a . d . in the G reco-R om an world? Only in such a case could the pred o m in an t Sun cults have en h anced th e day o f the sun an d consequently influenced C hristians to adopt this day fo r th eir weekly w orship after re in te rp retin g its symbolism in the light o f the C hristian m essage .54 Several testim onies from such ancient w riters as H orace (c. 35 B . C . ) , T ibullus (c. 29 B . C . ) , P etronius (died c. a . d . 66), F rontinus (c. a . d . 35-103), P lutarch (c. a . d . 46-after 119), Philostratus (c. a . d . 170-245), a n d Dio Cassius (c. a . d . 130-220) clearly attest the existence an d com m on use o f the planetary week already in the first cen tu ry a . d .55 M ural pictures an d inscriptions o f the planetary gods an d days u ncovered in Pom peii and H erculaneum , as well as the so-called "indices • S ee th e a cco u n t o f th e p lan etary w eek g iv e n by S. D ou glas W a terh o u se in a p p e n d ix A , p p. 3 0 8 -3 2 2 .

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nundinarii" a n d th ree stone calendars (presenting in the right colum n th e eight letters from A to H o f the Rom an nundinum m arket week and in the left colum n

the seven letters from A to G o f the planetary week, a n d to be d ated no later th an the tim e o f T ib eriu s, a . d . 14-37), erase all do u b t o f the com m on use o f the planetary week in ancient Rom e from at least the beginning o f the C hristian E ra.“ T h e prevailing Sun w orship an d the contem poraneous existence o f the planetary week caused a significant developm ent. T h e day o f S aturn, which originally was th e first day o f the planetary week (as clearly evidenced by the indices nundinarii and by the m ural inscriptions found in Pompeii and H erculaneum , w here th e days o f the week a re given horizontally startin g with the day o f S aturn), was in tim e su p p lan ted by th e day o f the S un, which m oved from second place to It is difficult to d eterm in e the exact tim e when the prim acy an d the prestige o f the day o f S atu rn was tra n sfe rre d to that o f the Sun. T h at this h ad occurred already by th e m iddle o f the second century is clearly indicated by the fam ous astrologer Vettius Valens. In his Anthology, com posed betw een a . d . 154 and 174, he explicitly states: “And this is the sequence o f the planetary stars in relation to the days o f the week: Sun, M oon, Mars, M ercury, J u p ite r, V enus, S a tu rn ." ” Statem ents from Ju stin M artyr an d T ertu llian , as well as several M ithraea an d two constitutions o f C onstantine (M arch 7 an d Ju ly 3, a . d . 321), confirm that th e day o f the Sun occupied the dom inant place in the sequence o f th e days o f th e week.5* Since th e em ergence o f th e day o f the Sun over that o f S aturn occurred ap p aren tly in the early part o f the second century in concom itance with the C hristian adoption o f Sunday observance in place o f the Sabbath, one may ask. Is the latter related to the form er? Did the advancem ent o f the day o f the S un to the position o f first day o f the week possibly influence C hristians, who desired to d ifferen tiate them selves from th e Sabbath o f th e Jews, to ad o p t and ad ap t such a Several kinds o f evidence su p p o rt this hypothesis. It is a fact, first o f all, that C hristian converts from paganism w ere constantly attracted tow ard the veneration o f th e Sun. T h is is indicated not only by the freq u en t condem nation o f this practice by the F athers but also by significant reflexes o f Sun w orship in the C hristian liturgy.5* In early C hristian art an d literatu re, fo r instance, the im age o f the Sun was o ften used to re p resen t C hrist, the tru e “Sun o f righteousness.” “’ In the earliest know n C hristian mosaic (dated c. a . d . 240), found below the altar o f St. Peter in Rome, C hrist is portrayed as the Sun (helios) ascending on the q u ad rig a chariot with a nim bus behind His head from which irradiates seven rays in the form o f a T (allusion to the cross ?).61 T h o u san d s o f hours have been devoted to draw ing the sun disk with an equal-arm ed cross beh in d the head o f Christ a n d o f A n o th er significant indication o f the influence o f the Sun culls on early C hristian w orship is provided by the change in orientation fo r pray er from Jeru salem to th e East.MSom e o f the reasons advanced by the Fathers to justify the ado p tio n o f th e eastw ard position for p rav er are that the O rient rep resen ts the birth o f light, the orien tatio n o f “the ancient tem ples," G od’s paradise an d /o r C h rist’s co m in g." A pparently, C hristians who previously, as pagans, had venerated the Sun, when faced with the necessity o f dissociating them selves from the Jew s, not only ab an d o n ed the orientatio n tow ard Jeru salem for p ra y e r but

H I E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

also rev erted to th e direction o f sunrise, re in te rp retin g its m eaning in the light o f the C hristian m essage. W ould not the daily praying tow ard the Sun encourage C hristians to w orship also weekly on the day o f the Sun? P erhaps th e most explicit exam ple o f Sun w orship’s influence on the C hristian liturgical calendar is the adoption o f the pagan feast o f the dies natalis Solis Invicti— th e birthday o f the Invincible Sun— which was celebrated on D ecem ber 25. T h a t the C hurch o f Rome introduced an d cham pioned this date (as in th e case o f Easter Sunday) is accepted by most scholars/* M ario Righetti, for instance, a renow ned Catholic liturgist, writes: "A fter the peace the C hurch o f Rom e, to facilitate the acceptance o f the faith by the pagan masses, fo u n d it convenient to institute the 25th o f D ecem ber as the least o f the tem poral birth o f C hrist, to divert them from the pagan feast, celebrated on the sam e day in h o n o r o f th e ‘Invincible Sun' M ithras, the co n q u e ro r o f d a rk n e ss."“ T h ese few exam ples evidence sufficiently the influence o f Sun cults on C hristian th o u g h t an d liturgy. A m ore direct indication o f the influence o f the pagan v eneration o f the day o f the Sun on the C hristian adoption o f the very sam e day is provided by the freq u en t use o f the symbology o f the day o f the Sun to justify S unday observance. Ju stin M artyr (c. a . d . 100-165) em phasizes th at C hristians assem ble “on the day called S unday . . . because it is the first day on which God, having w rought a change in the dark n ess an d m atter, m ade the w orld ."66 Is the nexus betw een the day o f th e Sun and the creation o f light on the first day a p u re coincidence? It hardly seem s so, not only because Ju stin him self in his Dialogue with Trypho explicitly com pares the devotion that pagans re n d e r to the Sun with that which C hristians o ffe r to C hrist, who is "m ore blazing an d bright than the rays o f the su n ,”*7 b u t also because the coincidence between the creation o f light on the first day an d th e veneration o f the Sun on the selfsam e day is clearly established by several Fathers. Eusebius (c. a . d . 260-340), for instance, refers explicitly to the m otifs o f the light a n d o f the day o f the Sun to justify Sunday w orship: "In this day o f light, first day a n d true day o f the sun, w hen we g ath er afte r the interval o f six days, we celebrate th e holy an d spiritual Sabbaths. . . . In fact, it is on this day o f the creation o f th e w orld that God said: “'Let there be light"; and th ere was light.' It is also on this day th at the Sun o f Justice has risen for o u r souls."6“ Such testim onies an d o th ers that could be cited clearly reveal that the choice o f th e day o f th e Sun was not m otivated by the desire to venerate the Sun-god on his day, but ra th e r by the fact that such a day provided a fitting symbology that could efficaciously com m em orate an d explain to the pagan world two fu n d a ­ m ental events o f th e history o f salvation—creation and resurrection.69Je ro m e well expresses this point: “If it is called day o f the Sun by the pagans, wre m ost willingly acknow ledge it as such, since it is on this day that the light o f the world has appeared and o n this day the Sun of Justice has risen." 70 U ndoubtedly, th e existence o f a rich Judeo-C h ristian tradition that associated the Deity with th e sun and light facilitated an d encouraged such an am algam ation o f ideas .71 It ap p ears, th erefo re, that the ingredients necessary to influence the C hristian choice o f th e pagan day o f the Sun were already present w hen the latter m ade its ap p earan ce in Rome. V arious Sun cults were d om inant in ancient Rome by th e early p art o f the second century, and their symbology soon found co u n terp arts in C hristian literature, art, an d liturgy. F u rth erm o re, the valoriza141

T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y lion o f the day o f the Sun over that o f S atu rn (which we found to be concom itant with th e C hristian ad option o f Sunday observance in place o f the Sabbath) seem ingly influenced th e C hristian choice o f th e sam e day, since its rich symbology was conducive to w orship o f the tru e Sun o f Righteousness, who on the day "divided light from darkness an d on the day o f the resurrection separated faith from infidelity."7* T he Early T heology o f Sunday A b rief survey o f th e basic theological m otivations advanced by th e early Fathers to justify both the choice and the observance o f Sunday will enable us to test the validity o f the conclusions em erging from o u r study. R esu rrectio n .— We noticed earlier thal the New T estam ent gives no hint that th e apostles instituted a weekly o r yearly com m em oration o f the R esurrection on Sunday. It is notew orthy, in fact, that both B arnabas and Ju stin , who lived at the very tim e w hen Sunday w orship was rising, present the R esurrection as the second o f two reasons, im portant but not p re d o m in a n t.” N evertheless, the resurrection o f C hrist eventually em erged as the prim ary reason fo r the observance o f Sunday. A ugustine p erh ap s provides the most explicit enunciation o f this when he writes: “T h e L o rd ’s day was not declared to the Jew s but to the C hristians by the resu rrectio n o f the L ord a n d from that event its festivity had its o rig in .’’ 74Several liturgical practices such as th e prohibition to fast an d to kneel on Sunday, as well as th e celebration o f a S unday-m orning Lord's S u p p er, were in troduced to h o n o r specifically th e m em ory o f the R esurrection .75 Since, however, C hrist’s re su rre c ­ tion initially was not the exclusive o r p re p o n d e ra n t justification fo r Sunday w orship, we need to recognize an d evaluate the role played by o th e r theological m otives as well. Creation.—T h e com m em oration o f the anniversary o f the creation o f the w orld is a justification frequently adduced by the Fathers for observing S u n d ay .76 W e cited earlier Ju stin , Eusebius, an d Jero m e , who m ention the creation o f light on th e first day as a reason for S undavkeeping .77 A pp aren d y this justification was in ten d ed prim arily for pagans to w hom C hristians wished to explain that o n the day o f th e Sun they did not venerate the S un-god but ra th e r celebrated the creation o f light a n d the rise o f the Sun o f R ighteousness, events o ccurring on the first day. In th e polem ic with S abbathkeeping C hristians, how ever, the C reation arg u m e n t was used in a m odified form to show th e superiority o f Sunday over the Sabbath. In th e Synac Didascalia (r. a . d . 250) the term s o f the dispute are most explicit: “Cease th ere fo re , beloved b re th ren , you who from am ong the People have believed, yet desire (still) to be tied with the bonds, and say that the Sabbath is p rio r to the first day o f th e week because that the S cripture has said: In six days did God make all things; and on the seventh day he finished all his works, and he sanctified it. “We ask you now, which is first, A laf o r T au ? For th al (day) which is the g re ater is th at which is th e beginning o f the world, even as the Lord o u r Saviour said to Moses: In the beginning God created the heaven and Ihe earth.” 7’ A sim ilar reasoning ap p ears, th o u g h in a m ore refined form , in the treatise On the Sabbath and Circumcision, found am ong the works o f A thanasius (c. a . d . 296-373), but probably spurious: “T h e Sabbath was the en d o f the first creation, th e Lord's day was the b eginning o f the second in which He renew ed an d restored 142

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OBSERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y the old. In th e sam e way as H e prescribed that they should form erly observe the Sabbath as a m em orial o f the en d o f the first things, so we h o n o r the L o rd ’s day as being th e m em orial o f the new creation. Indeed. H e did not create a n o th e r one, but H e renew ed th e old one an d com pleted what H e had begun to d o ."’9 T h is notion o f the Sabbath as herald o f the end o f the first and o f the beginning o f th e second creation is totally foreign to the S criptures and ap p aren tly was devised to refu te the S abbathkeepers’ claim o f the superiority o f the Sabbath as th e m em orial o f C reation. The Eighth Day,— A n o th er valuable arsenal o f apologetic techniques to d efen d th e superiority o f S unday over the Sabbath was provided by the symbology o f th e eighth day. As a designation fo r Sunday, this term first ap p ears in anti-Judaic polem ical writings, such as the Epistle of Barnabas an d the Dialogue with Trypho. It was widely em ployed in C hristian literatu re o f the first five ce n tu ries." Such a designation ap p aren tly derives from chiliastic-eschatological specula­ tions on the seven-day C reation week (som etim es called "cosmic week") prevailing in Jew ish and Jew ish C hristian circles."' T h e d u ratio n o f the w orld was subdivided into seven p eriods (or m illennia), o f which the seventh (identified with the Sabbath) generally re p resen ted paradise restored. At the e n d o f the seventh period th e etern al new eon would daw n, which eon cam e to be known as “the eighth day" since it was the successor to the seventh. In th e polem ic with S abbathkeepers, the symbology o f the eighth day was applied to S unday to prove the superiority o f the latter over the Sabbath. A wide range o f arg u m en ts were draw n not only from apocalyptic literature but also from the S criptures, philosophy, an d the natural world. As the eighth eschatological day, S unday was d efen d ed as the symbol o f the new world, su p erio r to the Sabbath, which rep resen ted only the seventh terrestrial m illennium .1“ Also, as the Gnostic o g d oad, S unday was p resen ted as a symbol o f the rest o f spiritual beings in the supercelestial etern al world, found above the sevenness o f this transitory w orld.“ M oreover, S unday could be prestigiously traced back to th e “prophecies” o f the O ld T estam en t, by m eans o f the Biblical n u m b er eight, which the Fathers found in several references from the O ld T estam ent, such as the eighth day for circum cision; th e eight souls saved from the Flood; the fifteen cubits (seven plus eight) o f the Flood w aters above the m ountains;“ the superscription o f Psalms 6 and 11 (“for th e eig h th day”);“ the fifteen (seven plus eight) gradual psalm s;“ the saying “give a p o rtio n to seven, o r even to eight," o f Ecclesiastes 11:2 ;'7 the eighth day w hen J o b o ffered sacrifices; an d o th ers.“ Invested with such “p rophetic" authority, th e eighth day could “legitim ately" re p resen t the fulfillm ent o f the reign o f the law, allegedly typified by the Sabbath, and the in au g u ratio n o f the kingdom o f grace supposedly exem plified by Sunday. Jero m e expressed this view by saying th at “th e n u m b er seven having been fulfilled, we now rise to the Gospel th ro u g h th e eig h th .” ” T h e polem ic use o f the symbolism o f the eighth day that developed out o f apocalyptic, Gnostic, an d Biblical sources to prove the superiority o f Sunday over the Sabbath co rro b orates again that S unday w orship arose as a controversial innovation a n d not as an u n d isp u ted apostolic institution. In d eed , when the Sabbath-Sunday controversy subsided, the very nam e “eighth day” an d its in h ere n t eschatological m eaning (used first by B arnabas an d afterw ard by n u m ero u s Fathers) w ere form ally and explicitly re p u d iated as a designation and 143

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m otivation for Sundaykeeping! J o h n C hrysostom (c. A.t>. 347-407), B ishop o f C onstantinople, provides a most explicit confirm ation o f this developm ent. A fter explaining th at the eighth day rep resen ts exclusively th e fu tu re life, he affirm s categorically: "It is for this reason that no o n e calls the L ord’s day the eighth day T h is b rie f survey o f the various early C hristians' m otivations for Sunday observance suggests that th e new day o f w orship was introduced in a clim ate o f controversy an d uncertainty. It ap p ears thal because o f ihe exigency that arose to sep arate C hristians from the Jew s a n d th eir Sabbath, G entile C hristians ad o p ted the venerable day o f the Sun, since it provided an adequate tim e an d symbolism to com m em orate significant divine events thal occurred on that day, such as the creation o f light a n d th e resu rrectio n o f the Sun o f Justice. T h is innovation provoked a controversy with those who m aintained the inviolability and superiority o f th e Sabbath. T o silence such opposition, we found that the symbolism o f th e first day an d of the eighth day was introduced and widely used, since they p ro vided valuable apologetic arg u m en ts to d efen d the validity and superiority o f S unday. As the first day, Sunday could allegedly claim superiority over the Sabbath, since it celebrated th e anniversary o f both the first an d the second creation, the latter in au g u rated by C h rist’s resurrection. T h e seventh day, on th e o th e r h an d , could claim only to com m em orate the com pletion o f C reation. As th e eighth day. S unday could claim to be the alleged continuation, fulfillm ent, an d rep lacem ent o f the Sabbath, both tem porally an d eschatologicallv.

T h e picture that has em erg ed in this c h a p te r is that the o rigin o f S unday was th e result o f an interplay o f Jew ish, pagan, a n d C hristian factors. Ju d aism , we fo u n d , co n trib u ted negatively to the rise o f S unday by creating the C hristian desire for a radical separation from Jew ish observances such as the Sabbath. It also co n trib u ted positively by providing the cosmic m illenarian week an d the consequent possibility o f d efen d in g S undav as the eighth day rep resen tin g the Paganism suggested to those C hristians who had previously known th e day an d the cull o f th e Sun the possibility o f ad o p tin g the “venerable clay o f the Sun" as th eir new day o f w orship. s' nce ',s r 'c^ symbology was conducive to ihe w orship o f C hristianity, lastly, gave theological justification to S unday observance by leaching thal th e day com m em orated im p o rtan t events such as th e inauguration o f C reation, th e resu rrectio n o f C hrist, an d ihe eschatological hope o f the new w orld to com e. It ap p ears, th erefo re, that Jew ish, pagan, an d C hristian factors, tho u g h o f d iffe rin g derivation, m erged to give rise to an institution capable o f satisfying the exigencies o f m any Jew ish and pagan converts. O u r study has also show n (we hope persuasively) thal the adoption o f Sunday observance in place o f th e Sabbath did not occur in the Jeru salem church by virtue o f th e au th o rity o f C hrist o r o f the apostles, bu t ra th e r took place several decades later, evidently in th e C h u rch o f Rom e d u rin g the second century. Ii was solicited We fo u n d , too, that the earliest theological justifications d o not reflect an organic Biblical-apostolic teaching, but ra th e r d ifferin g polem ic argum entations.

I HE RISE O F SUNDAY OBSERV ANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

T h o se Biblical testimonia th at w ere draw n from the O ld T estam en t (references to the n u m b ers eight an d one) to prove the legitimacy an d superiority o f Sunday were eventually ab an d o n ed , since they were based on faulty, questionable, and questioned. Biblical herm eneutics. T h is m eans, to state the m atter frankly, that S unday observance does not rest on a fo u n d atio n o f Biblical theology an d /o r o f apostolic authority, but ra th e r on later co n trib u to ry factors to which we have briefly alluded above. Any attem pt, th erefo re, to fo rm u late a Biblical theology o f S unday to help solve the pressing problem o f its w idespread pro fan atio n is doom ed to fail. M ore hopeful results could be ex p ected from edu catin g o u r C hristian com m unities to rediscover an d accept those p e rm a n e n t values a n d obligations o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t th at are still relevant to C hristians today. Ed. N ote: Although various items of importance regarding the Sabbath and Sunday from the second through fifth centuries A .D . are noted at random within the broader contexts of chapters 8-10, a more systematic and comprehensive treatment of the subject is provided i n appendix B at the end o f this volume. It may also be noted here that the topic o f “The 'Lord's Day' in the Second Century" is treated in appendix F. NOTES 1 A m o n g (h e m o re recen t an d sign ificant stu d ies a rc W illy R ord orf. S u n d a y (P h ila d elp h ia . 1968); C. S. M osn a, Storia della dom enica dalle o n jp m fin o agii tm u del V secolo, A n alecta G rego ria n a 17 0 (R o m e. 1969); Franc is A. R egan . “ D ies D o m in ica a n d D ies Solis: T h e B e g in n in g s o f th e L ord's Day in C h ristia n A ntiqu ity" (S .T .D . d isse rta tio n . C atholic U n iversity o f A m erica, 1961); a n d Paul K. Jew ett, The L ord’s Day (G rand R apids. 1971). S ee S a m u e le B a cch io cch i. From Sabbath to Sun d a y (R om e. 1977). for ad d itio n a l b ib liograph y. 2 T h e s e a ssu m p tio n s an d co n clu sio n s a rc exp licitly p resen ted bv J ew ett, op. cit.. p p. 5 6 , 5 7 . R o rd o ri also ex c lu d e s th e possib ility that th e o b se rv a n ce o f S u n d ay is a I'aulm e in v en tio n , first b eca u se Paul had “b een so stro n g in his p o lem ic again st an y k in d o f d e v o tio n to p articu lar days,** an d s eco n d b eca u se "he w ou ld h ave a n sw ered th e o b jectio n s o f a (u d a izin g o p p o s itio n .” H e in ter p r ets th e sile n c e o v er th e Sabb ath -S un d av issu e as "the m ost e lo q u e n t p r o o f that th e o b se rv a n ce o f S u n d ay had b een r e co g n ized by th e en tir e a p o sto lic C h u rch a n d h ad b een a d o p te d by th e P a u lin e ch u rch es." — O p. a t., pp. 2 1 8 .2 1 9 . J. A . J u n g m a n n . T he M ass o fth e R om an R ite (N e w Y ork, 1 950). 1 : 2 0 ,2 1 , a rg u es that th e re p la cem en t o f th e S abbath w ith S u n d ay o ccu rred b etw een th e m a rty rd o m o f S tep h e n a n d the p ersecu tio n o f th e year a . d . 44 as a result o f th e Jew ish p ersecu tio n . M osna a lso re a so n s that th e C h ristia n s in J eru sa lem d e ta c h e a th em selv es very early fro m th e T e m p le an d sy n a g o g u e b eca u se o f th e p ersecu tio n fro m th e relig io u s le a d e rs (op. a t., p p. 179, 180). 't'his view is d iscre d ited bv th e fact that th e First J ew ish p ersecu tio n was a p p a r en d y d ire cted , not again st th e w h o le c h u rch , but p rim arily again st a n o n c o n io r m ist g r o u p k n ow n as “ H ellenists." T h is is s u g g e ste d by A cts 8 : 1, w h e re it is re p o r te d that w h ile tn e H ellen ists “w ere sca ttered ,' th e a p o stles w ere a llo w ed to rem ain in th e c ity ,u n d o u b te d ly b eca u se th ey d id n ot sh are th eir bold view s (see p . 134). M o reo v er, as w e shall n o te , th e J e r u sa le m ch u rch was d e e p ly attach ed to Jew ish o b se rv a n ces u ntil a . d . 13a. s R o rd o rf. op. a t., p. 2 1 8 ; cf. M osn a. op. a t., p. 53. * R o rd o rf. op. a t., p. 2 1 8 . 5 M osn a. (yp. a t., p. 4 4 . For o th e r ad v o ca tes o f th is view , see n o te 2. 6 S. V. M cC aslan a c o g e n tly states that “to say that S u n d a y is o b se rv ed b eca u se J e s u s ro se o n that day is really a petitw p n n a p u , for such a celeb ration m igh t just as w ell be m on th ly o r a n n u a lly a n d still be an o b se rv a n ce o f that p articular oav*”— “T h e O r ig in o f th e L ord's D a y J B L 4 9 (1 9 3 0 ):6 9 . 7 In 1 C o rin th ia n s 1 1 Paul takes p a in s to in stru ct th e C o rin th ia n s co n ce rn in g th e m anner o f c e leb ra tin g th e L ord's S u p p e r , but o n th e q u e stio n o f th e time o f th e assem bly h e rep eats n o few er than fo u r lim es, "w hen you co m e t o g e th e r .’ o v v ep x 01^ (verses 18. 2 0 , 3 3 . 3 4 ), im p ly in g indeterm inate d ays. M o reo v er, th e fact that Paul e m p lo y s th e ad jective "L ord's.” x v o ia x o c . to d escrib e o n ly th e n atu re o l th e S u p p e r a n d not S u n d a y (th e latter h e calls by the Jew ish d esig n a tio n "first d ay o f th e w eek" [ch ap . 16:2]), esp ecially w h e n m en tio n o f th e sa cred n ess o f th e tim e co u ld n a v e s tr e n g th e n e d th e ap ostle's p lea for a m ore w o rsh ip fu l attitu d e d u r in g th e p artak in g o f th e L o rd ’s S u p p er, h ard ly su g g e sts that S u n d a y was alread y k n ow n as th e "Lord's day" o r that th e L ord's S u p p er was celeb ra ted e x clu siv ely o n S u n d a y . T h e latter view is d e fe n d e d stren u o u sly bv R o rd o rf (op. a t., p p. 2 2 1 -2 2 8 ). H is a rg u m en ts, h o w ev er, are righ tly rejected by M osn a. op. a t., p. 5 2 . an d by O . B etz in his re v iew o f R o r d o r fs b o o k (JB L 83 (I 9 6 4 ]:8 I* 8 3 ). C o n c e r n in g th e m ea n in g o f th e L ord 's S u p p e r , th e allu sio n to C h rist’s sacrifice is clear a lso in the S ynoptic a cco u n t o f th e Last S u p p e r (M att. 2 6 :2 8 ; Mark 14:22-25; L uke 2 2 :1 7 -2 0 ). T h e D idache (d a ted b etw een a . d . 7t) a n d 150). th o u g h it d e v o te s th ree ch a p ters (9, 10. 14) to th e L ord ’s S u p p e r a n d lists m any rea so n s for e x p r e ss in g th ank s o v er th e c u p an d b read , m ak es n o a llu sio n to C h rist’s resu rrection . T h e sa m e is tru e o f C lem en t's Epistle to the C orinthians (d ated ab ou t a . d . 9 5 ). T h e R om an b ish o p em p lo y s severa l sym bols (ch ap s. 2 4 -2 7 ) to rea ssu re the C hristians o f C o rin th that “th ere shall b e a fu tu r e resu rrection , o f w hich H e has re n d er ed th e L ord J e su s C hrist th e first-fruits" ( A S F 2 4 : 1 ). b u t o m its th e m en tio n o l th e L ord ’s S u p p er a n d S u n d a y w orsh ip . T h is o m issio n is certain ly su rp risin g i f th e F.ucharist was alread y ce leb ra ted o n S u n d ay and had acq u ired th e c o m m em o r a tiv e v a lu e o f th e R esu rrecu on . TS1SAH-I0

14 c

T H E S AB BA TH IN' S CR I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y B I h e crucial passage* o f B arnabas a n d |u s tin a re ex a m in e d al le n g th in S a m u ele B a cch io cch i. A nti-Judaism and the O n g m o f Sunday (R o m e. 1975), p p . 94*1 If’», and in idrm, From Sabbath to Sunday, pp. 2 1 8 -2 3 3 . 9 B. Bagat t i su g g e sts that the c o n v e r te d priests naturally “c o n tin u e d to ex e rcise tn eir m in istry ” ( The Church From the Circumcision (Jeru salem . 1 9 7 1). p. 6 7 ). T h e ir m inistry m ay w ell h a v e b een n e e d e d , sin ce, a cc o rd in g to L u k e, th ere w ere “m a n y th o u sa n d s . . a m o n g th e Jew » o f th o se w h o h ave b elieved " (A cts 2 1 .2 0 ). F. F. B ru ce a d v a n ces th e h y p o th esis that " there m ay w ell h ave b een seven ty o f th em (i.e .. e ld e r s l, co n stitu tin g a s o n o f N a za ren e S a n h éd rin , w ith J a m es as th eir president.**— Commentary on the Book of the Acts (G rand R apids. 1954). p. 4 2 9 . T h e sa m e view is h eld by C narles W. C arter a n d R alph Far le. The Acl% of the Abostles (G rand R apids, 1959). p. 322. 10 For a co n cise su rv ey o f the ex a lta tio n o f la m e s in in e J u d e o -C h r is tia n literatu re, see B agatti. op. a t., pp. 7 0 -7 8 ; c f. B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 142*145. 11 T h is view is p ersu a siv ely d e fe n d e d t>y O . C u llm a n n , “C o u ra n ts m u ltip le s d a n s la c o m m u n a u té p rim itive." in Jud/o-chnstianism e (P a n s, 1972). p. 58; idem, ‘ D issen sio n s W ith in th e Early C h u r c h ,'* V mon Seminary Quarterly R eview 2 2 ( 19 6 7 ):8 3 -8 7 . In th e ch a r g e m ad e again st S te p h e n , th e r e is a g en eric r e fe r e n c e to th e T e m p le , la w . a n d cu sto m s; but th e r e is n o specific a llu sio n to th e S abbath If, as s o m e sp e cu la te (cf. R o rd o rf, tip. cit.. p p. 1 2 7 ,2 1 7 ), th e H ellen ists p ro m o ted S u n aay o b se rv a n ce, th ev w ou ld h ave stirred u p a sh arp c o n tro v er sy , esp ecially in view o f th eir ‘“ vocal* m issionary activity" a n d o f th e loyal a d h e r e n c e to Jew ish cu sto m s o f th e J er u sa le m ch u rch . T h e fact that n o e c h o o f such a p olem ic can b e d e te c te d in A cts su g g e sts tnat n o ch a n g e in th e d av o f w o rsh ip h ad yet o cc u r red . ** S everal p o in ts a re n otew orth y in th e p rop osal o f J a m es, a p ro p o sa l a p p r o v ed by “th e a p o stles a n d th e c id e r s ” (v erse 22). I T n e e x e m p tio n from circu m cision was g ra n ted only “ *to th e b reth ren w h o are o f th e G en tiles' " (verse 2 3 ). th ere b ein g n o co n ce ssio n in th is regard for th e J ew ish C h ristia n s, w h o c o n tin u e d to circu m cise th eir ch ild ren . TTiisis in d icated b o th by th e ex iste n c e a fter th e C o u n cil o f a circu m cisio n p a rts, a p p aren tly su p p o r te d by J a m es (Gal. 2 :1 2 ). an d by th e co n c e r n o f th e le a d e rs o f th e Jer u sa le m ch u rch to s ile n c e th e ru m o r that Paul w as teac h in g le w s “ ‘not to circu m cise th eir ch ild r en or o b se rv e th e custom s*" (A cts 2 1 :2 1 ). 2. M o reo v er, o f th e fo u r p ro v isio n s o f th e d e c r e e n o ted in A cts 15 :2 0 . o n e is m oral (ab sten tion “ 'from th e p o llu tio n o f id o ls . . an d fro m w hat is stra n g led an d fro m blood* **). I his u n d u e co n ce rn fo r ritual d efilem en t an d fo o d law s is reflective of th e great resp ect p rev a ilin g for th e ce rem o n ia l law. 3. Finally, th e statem en t that J a m es m a d e to su p p o rt his p ro p o sa l is also sign ificant: “ ‘For n o m early g en er a tio n s M oses h as h ad in ev e ry city th o se w h o p reach h im . for h e is react every sabbath in th e sy n a g o g u es' '* (v erse 21). T h o u g h J a m e s ’s rem ark h as b e e n variously u n d er sto o d , in ter p r eters gen erally r e co g n ize that b o th in his p ro p osal an d in its ju stification J a m e s reaffirm s th e b in d in g n atu re o f th e M osaic law. w hich w as cu sto m a rily ta u g h t every S abbath in th e sy n a g o g u es. T h e m a n ifesta tio n o f su ch an ex c essiv e resp ect b> th is J er u sa le m C o u n t il lo r tn e M osaic ce rem o n ia l law e x c lu d e s categorically th e h y p o th esis that th e J er u sa le m ch u rch h ad alreadv b ro k en away fro m S ab b a th k eep in g a n d p io n e e r e d th e a d o p tio n o f S u n d ay w orship. 15 It is p ossib le, as s u g g e ste d by R. C. H . L en ski. that “th e se Jew ish b eliev ers in Palestine s u ffe r e d b c ta u se o f false ru m ors reg a rd in g Paul."— The Interpretation o f the A d s o f the Apostles (C o lu m b u s. O h io . 1 944). p. 8 7 8 . T h e co n c e r n o f th e le a d e rs of th e ch u rch to se e Paul d em o n str a te p u b licly nis resp ect for an cestral cu sto m s rev ea ls, as sta ted by L en ski. that "they retain ed th eir J ew ish w ay o f livin g, circu m cised their ch ild r en , ate k o sh er, kept th e Sabbath, etc."— Ibul 14 T h is h y p o th esis is ad v a n c ed by R egan , w h en h e w n tes: “C an o n e point to anv o n e ev en t m partit ular in w hich th e d ecisiv e break o c c u r rcd b etw een th e Sabbath and that dav w e now call S unday? A m ost likely d a te w o u ld p robably be th e year a .d . 70 w ith th e d estru ctio n o f th e T e m p le o f Jeru sa lem ." —-Op. a t., p 18. ,s E u seb iu s Ecclesiastical History 4. 5. 2-11 ( N r N F f t 1 :1 7 6 . 177); E p ip h a m u s Adx>enus haereses 7 0 . 10 (P C 4 2 :355*358). 16 Eccl. H ist 3 .2 7 . 3 (L C L ). O n th e q u e stio n o f th e liberal w in g o f th e E b iom tes w h o o b se rv ed S u n d a y in a d d itio n to th e Sabb ath , see th e d iscu ssio n in B acch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday, pp. 153-156. 17 A d ve n u s haereses 2 9 . 7 (P C 4 1 :4 0 1 ). M. S im o n . “La m ig ra tio n à Pella: L é g e n d e o u réalité," in Judéo-chnstianism e, p. 48. J . D a m élo u a lso view s th e N a /a r e n e s as th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e A ram aic -sp ea k in g C h ristian s w h o fled to T ra n sjo rd a n and w h o ’sep a ra ted fro m th e rest o f th e C h u rc h b ecau se th ey re g a rd ed th e Jew ish o b se rv a n ces o f Sabbath an d circu m cisio n as still o f o b ligation" (The Theology o f Jeursh Christianity [L o n d o n . I 9 6 4 |. p. 56). A sim ilar assessm en t is g iv en by B agatti. op. a t., p p. 3 1 -35. 19 T h e d a te a . d . 8 0 -9 0 for th e in tro d u ctio n o f th e m aled ictio n is a ccep ted by p ractically all sch olars. For an e x te n siv e b ib liograp h y, se e W. S ch ra g e. “¿UTOcjvvtÏYcirfOÇ." T D N T . 7 :8 4 8 . S e e esp ecially th e stu d y o f M .S im o n , V ents Israel (P a n s, 1964; reprin t o f 1948 e d .) p. 2 35. 21 J a m e s Parkes rem arks, “T h e fact that th e test was a sta tem en t m a d e in th e sy n a g o g u e serv ice show s th a l a l the u m e o f m a k in g it th e J u d e o -C h n s tia n s still fr eq u en ted th e sy n a g o g u e .“— The Conflict »/ the Church arul the Synagogue (L o n d o n . 1934). p . 78. 22 T h e fo llo w in g is a sa m p le o f sta tem en ts o fte n o c c u r n n g in th e T a lm u d r e g a rd in g H ad rian's an ti-Jew ish p olicies: “T h e G o v e rn m en t o f R om e h ad issu ed a d e c r e e that th e) sh o u ld not study tn e T o ra h a n d that th ey sh o u ld not circu m cise th eir so n s a n d that they sh o u ld p r o fa n e th e Sabbath** (B T a lm u d . R osh h a -S h a n a h 19a (S o n c in o ]). J. D eren b o u rg . w h o p ro v id es a w e ll-d o c u m e n ted treatm en t o f H ad rian's war a n d p o lities, writes: “T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f R om e p ro h ib ited , u n d e r p en alty of d e a th , circu m cision , th e o b serv a n ce o f the Sabbath a n d th e stu d y o f th e law."—E ssai sur l'histoire et ta géographie de la Palestine (P a n s. 1867), p 4 3 0 . n E u seb iu s r é p o n s : “W n c n th e city had b een e m p tie d o f tn e Jew ish n a tio n a n d h ad s u ffe r e d th e total d estru ctio n o f its a n cie n t in h ab itan ts, it w as c o lo n iz e d by a d iffe r e n t race A n d as th e C h u rch th e r e was now c o m p o se d o f G e n tiles, th e first o n e to a ssu m e th e g o v e r n m e n t o f it after th e b ish o p s o f th e circu m cisio n was M arcus."— Eccl. H ist -I 6 . 4 ( S P S ’F V 1 :1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ). 24 A d iten u s haereses 70. 10 (PC 4 2 :3 5 5 .3 5 6 ) " T h e c o n tr o v e r sy a t o w ( H t i ^ x ^ — litera lly . “w as stirred u p ”] after th e e x o d u s o f th e b ish o p s o f th e circu m cisio n ( a . d . 135) a n d it has c o n tin u e d u ntil o u r u m e .” T h e b ish o p m ak es specific r e fe r e n c e to th e fiftee n J u d e o -C h n stia n b ish o p s w h o u ntil a . d 135 o b serv ed th e Q u a rto d ec u n a n Passover For a d iscu ssio n o f Epipham us* text, see Bat t h u m hi. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 161. 162. a n d idem, Anti-Judaism and the O ngiri o f Sunday, p p. 4 5 -5 2 25 B agatti (op. a t., p. 10) is o f th e o p in io n that th e Passover co n tro v er sy in J eru sa lem w as p ro v o k ed by th e retu rn o f J u d c o -C h ristia n s to th e city, sin ce a o o u t sixty years later N arcissu s. B ish o p o f J er u sa le m , fa cin g o p p o s itio n from Q iia rto d ec im a n s. a p p e a le d for h e lp to his teach er C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria (P C 9 :1 4 8 0 ) T h is h y p o th esis d o e s not e x c lu d e th e p ossib ility th al e v e n a m o n g ih e new ( ’» entile m em b e r sh ip so m e re fu sed to accep t th e new E aster S u n d ay d a te, sin ce tn e latter w as by n o m ean s u n iversally a cc ep te d by all. O n th e ex te n t o f th e o b se rv a n ce o f E aster S u n d a y ,

146

T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y see th e le n g th y treatm en t in B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p 1 9 8 -2 0 4 . especially n n . 9 7 , 101, 102. O n th e G en tile b ish o p s o f J er u sa le m , net E u sebiu s Eccl t i n t 5. 12 ( S P S F f 2 1:226). 27 T h a t ih e m ajority o f tn e m em b ers in R om e w ere p agan co n v erts itc lea rly in d ica ted a lio by Paul’s sta tem en t in R om ans 1: M1 am e a g e r to p r e a c h th e g o s p e llo >ou also w h o a re in R om e" (v erse 15). "I h a v e o fte n in te n d e d to co m e to you m o r d e r that I m ay reap som e.h a rv est a m o n g you ft* u e ll a« am ong the m t of the Gentile»** (v erse 13). ** L eon ard G o p p e lt, Les O ngtnes de TEglise (Paris, 1961), p. 80S. 29 Several authors suggest this possibility See. for instance, A. von Harnack. The M u tto n a n d E xpansion o f Christianity in the First Three Centuries (New York, 1908), 1:51. 40(); J. Lehreton andII. Zeiller, The History o f the Prtwuttve Church (New York. 1944), 1:372; Ernest Renan. A n tic h n s U Boston. 1897), p 109; rierre Banffol. P n m itn * Catholicism.

(London. 1911). p. 19. w Annales 15. 44.

51 H istonae 5. 13; J o se p h u s W ar o f the Jeu>s 6 . 9 . 3 sp ecifies that 9 7 ,0 0 0 Jew s w ere tak en ca p tiv e a n d 1.1 m illion e ith e r w ere killed or p erish ed d u r in g th e siege. 12 H istonae 6 9 . 13. ” S ee n o te 2 2 ab ove. S o m e sch olars m ain tain that sacrifices still co n tin u e d at th e T e m p le after a . d . 7 0 . th o u g h in a red u ce d form ; cf. K W . ( lark. “W o rsh ip in th e Jerusalem T e m p le a fter a . d . 7 0 . S e w Testam ent Studies 6 ( 1 9 5 9 - 19 6 0 ):2 6 9 -2 8 0 . u A cco rd in g to S u e to n iu s fc. a . d . 7 0 -1 2 2 ), thcfiscu sju d a icu s was ex c ised fo r th e tem p le o f l a p i tn CapUoltnus e v e n fro m thld Testam ent and th e e ig h th day o f th e G o s p e l. bv w hich w e rise to holv a n d spiritu al things" ( 7 'rattatui tuper P ialm oi (C S E E 2 2 :1 4 )). S ee al» Epuiola 26 10 (P L 16:1088). S ec EbutoUt 2 6 . 8 (P L 16:1088): G regory th e G reat M orabum 3 5 . 8 . 17 (P L 7 6 :7 5 9 ): Jerom e C tm m n U r h u in E t c l n u u t n 1 1 .2 (P L 2 3 : 1 157).

** Gregory the ('»real, referring lo the eighth day when lob offered seyen ucrtlicn alter the leaning of hi» «on» and daughter», explains. T h e Hon truly indKatn that the btnaed Job when of (enng u t nine» on the eighth dav. wa, celebrating the mystery of the resurrection "— M aralium I. 8. 12 (P L 75:532). w (o m n r M a n m m E c r i a m O n 11.2 (P L 20:1157) S e e a h o E pttlitla 26 9 (P L 16:1088). 90 D t (ombunctumr 2. 4 (P C 47:415).

CHAPTER 8

The Sabbath in Asia

Werner K. Vyhmeister H E p resen t ch ap ter will exam ine the main sources dealing with Sabbath and S unday observance in Asia from approxim ately the fo u rth to the seventeenth centuries. A fter an introductory survey o f the situation in N ear E astern Asia, and an exam ination o f the anii-Judaistic lite ratu re o f the period, a brief account will be given o f what is know n about Sabbath-Sundav observance am ong the N estorians (including C hina an d India) and the A rm enians .1

T

Sabbath and Sunday in Asia in the Early Centuries By th e second h alf o f the fo u rth century, the practice o f keeping both Sabbath and S unday was w idespread in C hristian Asia, as w ittiessed by several docum ents. For exam ple, th e so-called Constitutions o f the Holy Apostles,, com posed in Syriac, a . d . 375, reflect what probably was the most generalized attitu d e tow ard SabbathSunday observance in th e Eastern C h u rch at that time: “But keep the Sabbath, an d th e L ord's day festival; because th e fo rm er is the m em orial o f the creation, and th e latter o f th e re su rrec tio n ."* T h e Sabbath is never supposed to be a day o f fasting (except on Easter, on account o f C hrist's b u rial ).5 Even slaves would work only five days so th at “o n die Sabbath-day and the L o rd ’s day" they could “go to ch u rch for instruction in piety .”4 T h e sixteenth canon o f the synod o f Laodicea (c. a . d . 364) prescribes: “T h e Gospels are to be read o n the Sabbath, with the o th er S crip tu res ."1 As will be noticed later, canon 29 tells C hristians not to ju d a iz e o n the Sabbath day. But then, canons 49 a n d 5 1 recognize the special n atu re o f both Sabbath an d Sunday d u rin g L ent .6 T h e C hristian ed ito r (from Antioch-Syria?) who at about the sam e tim e ex p a n d ed th e Ignatian Epistles slates: "T h e re fo re let us no longer observe the Sabbath in a Judaistic way and rejoice in idleness. . . . But each o f you should observe Sabbath in a spiritual way, rejoicing in study o f laws---- A nd afte r keeping the Sabbath, let every lover o f C hrist celebrate the festival o f th e L o rd ’s Day— the resu rrectio n day, d ie royal day, the most excellent o f all days .”7 Socrates Scholasticus indicates (c. a . d . 440) that “alm ost all churches th ro u g h o u t th e world celebrate the sacred m ysteries on the sabbath o f every 151

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week."" Essentially the sam e is re p o rte d by Sozom en (c. 450) w hen he states that th e “people o f C onstantinople, an d alm ost everyw here, assemble to g eth er on the Sabbath, as well as on the first day o f the week .”9 B oth Socrates an d Sozom en, in the tests q u o ted in p art above, single o u t only Rom e and A lexandria as places w here th ere was no Sabbath assembly. Socrates also states th at even A rians in C o n stantinople co n gregated on “S aturday a n d L ord's day— in each w eek ." 10 B ishop A sterius o f A m asea o f Pontus in Asia M inor (c. 400) says in o n e o f his homilies: "It is beaudful to C hristians an d to the industrious that the team o f these two days com es to g eth er; I speak o f the Sabbath an d the L o rd ’s day, which tim e in its course brings a ro u n d weekly. For as m others an d nurses o f th e ch u rch they g ath er th e people, set over them priests as instructors, an d lead both disciples and teachers to have a care fo r souls."" S unday observance, along with Sabbath observance, had becom e so well accepted, according to Syrian bishop T h e o d o re t o f C vrrhus (c. 393-c. 458), that even th e Ebionites kept both days .11 H ow ever, th ere w ere several dissenting voices .15 F u rth erm o re , even in those areas w here Sabbath was being observed, Sunday had already becom e the im p o rtan t liturgical day o f the w eek.” Slowly in som e places, ra th e r quickly in others, the Sabbath becam e som ething like a fossilized festivity for m any Eastern C hristians. T hey refused to follow the exam ple o f Rom an C hristianity o f fasting on the Sabbath d ay .1' But, eventually, the Sabbath ceased to be a day o f rest, while it was still considered, officially, as a day o f festivity. T h e E astern O rth o d o x C h u rch is p erh ap s the best exam ple o f this evolution in th e practice o f Sabbath observance. Even as late as the seventeenth century Sam uel Purchas (c. 1577-1626), listing the beliefs a n d practices o f the G reek C h u rch o f th e C onstantinople p atriarchate, states that “they solem nize S aturday (the old Sabbath) festivally, an d eat therein flesh, forbidding as unlaw ful, to fast any S aturday in the yeere, except Easter Eve .”16 So, the distinguishing m ark o f Sabbath was not rest but festivity heightened by the absence o f fasting. T h e situation o f the M aronite C hurch was for a while similar. T h e M aronites, writes Purchas, d o not “fast on the Lords day, n o r on the S abbath .”17 T h is an d o th e r practices w ere ab an d o n ed by them w hen, u n d e r the C ru sad e rs’ influence, an ag reem en t was m ade with the Rom an C h u rch in 1182; but an anti-R om an reaction led to the revival o f the recently ab an d o n ed practices. H ow ever, the national synod o f 1596 resulted in th e final subm ission o f the M aronites to the Rom an S ee.1" H ere again. Sabbath observance was in essence the absence o f fasting. It should probably be briefly ad d ed that S unday observance was not at first u n d ersto o d as necessarily m eaning com plete cessation o f w ork on that day. C o n stan tin e’s Sunday law o f M arch 7 ,3 2 1 , although recom m ending S unday rest, also expressly indicated th at "persons engaged in agriculture may freely an d lawfully co n tin u e th eir p u rsu its ."19 In his S unday law o f July 3, 321, C onstantine ad d ed th at “all m en shall have the right to em ancipate an d to m anum it on this festive day, and the legal form alities th e re o f are not fo rb id d e n .”20 Je ro m e (c. 345-r. 419), re fe rrin g to nuns in B ethlehem , w rote th at “o n the L o rd ’s day only they proceeded to the ch u rch beside which they lived, each com pany following its own m o th er-su p erio r. R eturning hom e in the sam e o rd e r, they th en devoted them selves to th eir allotted tasks, an d m ade garm ents e ith e r for 152

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them selves o r else for o th e rs .*’*1 H ow ever, later legislation,” to g eth er with persistent an d grow ing ch u rch pressure, succeeded eventually in m aking Sunday also a day o f rest. How can we explain the grow ing em phasis on Sunday to the d etrim en t o f Sabbath observance in Asia d u rin g the early M iddle Ages? Several factors a p p e a r to have been w orking, such as: ( 1 ) the obvious prestige o f a day whose observance was req u ired by im perial laws, since C onstantine I; (2) the relation betw een Sunday and C h rist’s resurrection, em phasized repeatedly by C hristian w riters, with S unday being m ade to a p p e a r m ore m eaningful to C hristians than was the m em orial o f C reation (the Sabbath); (3) persisting anti-Judaism ; an d (4) to a m uch lesser d eg ree, th e influence o f the R om an Catholic C h u rch .” T h e im pact o f factors 1 an d 2 in favor o f Sunday observance is so obvious that no additional com m ent is necessary. T h e im portance o f anti-Judaism as a factor in th e ra th e r fast ab a n d o n m en t o f Sabbath observance has been noted in c h a p te r seven, but deserves som e fu rth e r attention h ere because o f the fu rth e r developm ents d u rin g this later period. Anti-Judaism in Church Canons and Byzantine Legislation C anon 29 o f th e synod o f Laodicea (c. 364) reads; “C hristians m ust not ju d aize by resting on the Sabbath, but most work on that day, ra th e r h o n o u rin g the L o rd ’s Day; a n d , if they can, resting then as C hristians. But if any shall be fo u n d to be ju d aizers, let them be an ath em a from C hrist.’’” T h e Apostolic Canons, later in corporated as part o f book 8 o f the Apostolic Constitutions, cam e from the sam e period (c. 381). O f special interest are canons 65, 70, an d 71; “65. If any one, eith er o f the clergy o r laity, en ters into a synagogue o f the Jew s o r heretics to pray, let him be deprived an d suspended. . . . “70. I f any bishop, o r any o th e r o f th e clergy, fasts with th e Jew s, o r keeps the festivals with them , o r accepts o f the presents from th eir festivals, as unleavened bread o r som e such thing, let him be d eprived; but if he be one o f th e laity, let him be suspended. “71. If any C hristian carries oil into an heathen tem ple, o r into a synagogue o f the Jews, o r lights u p lam ps in th eir festivals, let him be su sp en d e d .’’’5 C hristian-Jew ish contacts seem to have been freq u en t, o r at least easy. Even som e o f the clergy were, evidently, participating in som e Jew ish cerem onies and festivals. T h e re was the risk o f losing sight o f th e uniqueness o f the C hristian gospel. As canon 62 implies, som e “o f the clergy for fear o f m en, as o f a Jew , o r a Gentile, o r an heretic" w ent so fa r as to “deny the nam e o f C h rist ."*6 Jew ish influence was indeed strong. Laws w ere enacted by the Byzantine em p ero rs to keep Jew s from proselytizing am ong C hristians ,*7 though the laws also g u aran teed the status o f Ju d aism as a lawful religion. H ow ever, the laws also established that th e Jew s should not insult the Patriarch (396),*" n o r should they mock the cross at Purim (408).** Possession o f C hristian slaves by Jew s was at first reg u lated (417).*' an d later forbidden (sixth ce n tu ry ).’1 E m p ero r Leo the Isaurian (r. 680-741) reiterated that Jew s could not possess C hristian slaves.” No new synagogues could be built (423, 438).” Jew s were to be exiled for circum cising non-Jews (423) an d punished with d eath for proselytizing (438).” Ju stin ia n I (483-565) revised a law o f H onorius (409 o r 412) that com m anded that Jew s 153

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should be left u n d istu rb ed on Sabbaths an d feast days, by ad d in g that on their feasts Jew s w ere not entitled to sum m on C hristians.” Leo the Isaurian, about two to th ree centuries later, insisted that proselytizing to Judaism a n d apostasy to Ju d aism w ere to be pu n ish ed .“ C anon 11 o f the Q uinisext C ouncil (692) w arns C hristians: "Let no o n e in the priesdy o rd e r n o r any laym an eat the unleavened bread o f the Jew s, n o r have any fam iliar in tercourse with them , n o r sum m on them in illness, n o r receive m edicines from them , n o r bathe with them ; but if anyone shall take in h an d to do so, if he is a cleric, let him be deposed, but if a laym an let him be cut o ff ."57 Anti-Jewish Christian Literature From the Fourth to Fifteenth Centuries T o the foregoing evidences o f C hristian anti-Judaism should be ad d e d the fact that betw een the fo u rth a n d the ninth centuries m ore than twenty Eastern C hristian w riters p re p a re d one o r m ore works against the Jew s.5* Some o f these works w ere w ritten with the p u rp o se o f w inning Jew s to C hristianity. But, as A. P. H aym an com m ents in the introduction to o n e o f these books, "the C h u rc h ’s anti-Jew ish polem ic was m otivated, not by any abstract theological considerations, but by a very real th rea t to its position.” 5* W riting ab o u t anti-Jew ish docum ents w ritten by N ear E astern m onks from the seventh th ro u g h eleventh centuries, A. Lukyn Williams suggests that “not a few” o f them “give the im pression o f being w ritten by those w ho had indeed Jew s aro u n d them , an d th ere fo re feared the influence o f Jew s on others if not on them selves, yet never cam e into any close intellectual contact with Jews. T hey wrote in the ho pe that th eir w ords would provide w eapons for th eir b re th re n who did m eet them , an d would also answ er difficulties about the relation o f the New T estam en t an d the C hurch to the O ld T estam e n t an d the Synagogue. T h e fo rm er reason m ust not be elim inated, o r even unduly m inim ised, although the latter was m ore successful in the results a tta in e d ."4" T h e real problem underlying J o h n C hrysostom ’s eight Homilies against the Jews (387-389) is “that o f C hristians participating in Jewish festivals, with som e getting circum cised. T h is tim e, however, it is specifically G enule C hristians who are involved .”41 Isaac o f A ntioch (fifth century a . d . ) , in his Homily Two against the Jews, “witnesses to the fact that the sam e stale o f affairs existed in his days as h ad existed in those o f Jo h n C hrysostom ; his hom ilies inveigh against C hristians w ho practice circum cision a n d celebrate Jew ish festivals.”4* J a c o b o f S erug (c. 4 5 0-521), in his th ree Homilies against theJews, “ap p ears to be dealing with real difficulties raised in the m inds o f his congregation by th eir Jew ish n eig h b o u rs ."45T h e sam e h ap p en s with P seudo-E phraim ’s De Fine et Admomtione ,44 and with Je ro m e o f Jeru salem (eighth century a . d . ) . C om m enting on Je ro m e ’s work, Williams suggests that, a fte r all, "the C hristian C hurch was even in the eighth century exposed to d a n g e r from Jew ish influence, and felt b ound to arg u e with Jew s according to its o p p o rtu n ities an d know ledge ."45 T h e early centuries o f Byzantine history clearly show a “progressively increasing hostility betw een the Jew s and th eir C hristian n eig h b o u rs ."46 T h e vitality o f Ju d aism a p p e are d as a p erm an en t th rea t to the C hristian C hurch. YVhat did this anti-Judaism m ean in term s o f Sabbath observance? O ne indication is given in A p h rah at's Homilies (336-345), w ritten, from all appearance, 154

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“to provide C hristians with arg u m en ts with which to com bat Jews, an d to stren g th en the faith o f C hristians who were w eakening in the face o f Jew ish attacks ."47 His th irteen th homily deals specifically with the Sabbath (De Sabbato).** T h e Jew s boast that they live by the Sabbath, suggests A p h rah at, an d he co unters th at th e Sabbath was not given to distinguish between life an d d eath , righteousness an d sin. Its p urpose, he says, was not to be the great test o f obedience to G od, but to provide physical rest; an d its observance is useful for health but not fo r salvation. O therw ise, he continues, it would have been established from th e beginning o f the world, and for all creatures, w hereas the patriarchs, in spite o f the fact lhac they w ere am ong G od's elect, did not keep the Sabbath. Domestic anim als, he fu rth e r posits, observe the Sabbath as m en d o in spile o f th e fact that th ere is no com m andm ent o r divine rem u n e ratio n fo r them ; and thus it is clear that the Sabbath corresponds to a physical need, not to a religious duly. In view o f this, A phrahat concludes that it has been an d still is perm issible, w hen d eem ed necessary, not to observe the Sabbath, for instance, in tim e o f war, as in th e cases o f Jo sh u a an d the Maccabees. F u rth erm o re , Jews should not p rid e them selves in its observance; it does not give them any m erits. How ever, th e institution is nevertheless good, desired by G od. If He rested, how m uch m ore should we! T h e Sabbath should be observed in G od’s way, a n d for failure to do so properly, the Jew s were scattered abroad. It seems clear that in A p h ra h a t’s co m m unity 49 the Sabbath was observed along with Sunday, as the Apostolic Constitutions prescribe. Som e o f the believers kept the Sabbath in the sam e m an n er as the Jews. A phrahat him self does not d are to elim inate Sabbath observance entirely, but he tries to elim inate what he considers its Jew ish character, which, to him , em pties the Sabbath o f religious significance .40 A som ew hat later w riter, Pseudo-G regory o f Nyssa, in his Selected Testimonies from the Old Testament against theJews (c. 400), declares that the Sabbath was given to the Jew s to slop th eir desire for m oney. W hen they cam e oui o f Egypt, he says, they did not have any th in g except what the Egyptians had given them , and ihey w ere eag er to m ake m oney by continuous toil. T h e re fo re God lim ited th eir labor to six days o nly .*1 T h e re is also som e d o cum entary evidence show ing that converted Jew s w ere req u ired to ab an d o n com pletely th eir Sabbath observance. In a long profession o f faith o f u n certain E astern origin, attached to the Clementine Recognitions, a converted Jew states, in part: “ I ren o u n ce the whole w orship o f the H ebrew s, circum cision, all its legalisms, unleavened bread, Passover, the sacrificing o f lambs, th e feasts o f Weeks, Jubilees, T ru m p ets, A tonem ent, T abernacles, an d all the o th e r H ebrew feasts, th e ir sacrifices, prayers, aspersions, purifications, expiations, fasts. Sabbaths, new m oons, foods an d drinks. A nd I absolutely re n o u n ce every custom an d institution o f the Jew ish laws ."51 A sim ilar, but sh o rter, profession o f faith from the church o f C onstantinople also specifies ab an d o n m en t o f th e S abbath .55 Byzantine e m p e ro r H eraclius (610-641), as part o f his efforts to unify his em p ire w hen it was th rea ten ed by Moslem invaders and by o th er forces, com pelled m any Jew s to be baptized "from fear, o r even by direct physical com pulsion .”54T h e church, know ing that the new com ers had not been instructed, drew u p treatises with that purpose. O ne o f these treatises is The Teaching o f Jacob 155

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(634),55 which declares that the Israelites, before Moses, had n eith er co m m an d ­ m ents n o r S abbath observance. But once the law o f Moses cam e, they w ere told to keep th e Sabbath and all the com m andm ents. A fter Jesus C hrist, the Sun o f R ighteousness, cam e, one should n o t ab an d o n Him and go the way o f the S abbath .56 T h e section is fittingly entitled “T h e uselessness o f Sabbath." If, as it ap p ears, The Teaching o f Jacob reflects the official position o f the O rth o d o x C h u rch in the B yzantine E m pire, by 634 (and perh ap s som ew hat earlier) th e Sabbath had ceased to have any significance for that ch u rch as a day o f physical rest. N evertheless, by force o f tradition the Sabbath still retain ed a small d eg ree o f liturgical im portance. A bout a cen tu ry later, Jo h n o f Damascus (c. 675-c. 749), the last o f the great Eastern F athers, w riting in M oslem -ruled Syria-Palestine, p re p a re d a docum ent entitled “Against the Jews, C oncerning th e S abbath .”57 A nd The Disputation of Sergius the Stylite against a Jew ap p ears to belong to the sam e century (c. 730-c. 770). Its geographical setting is som ew here betw een Hom s (Emesa) an d A ntioch, in Syria, an d its p u rp o se was “to stren g th en C hristians” who w ere “in d a n g e r o f apostatizing to Ju d aism .” “ C h ap ter 22 starts with the following interesting rem ark: "T h e Jew said: T h e n , when 1 ap p ro ach ed you, I ap p ro ach ed inadvisedly, for I was unaw are th at you (C hristians) had all this knowledge. But now I am am azed how, a fte r know ing (all) this, th e re are am ong you som e C hristians who associate with us in the synagogue, a n d who bring offerings an d alms a n d oil, and at th e um e o f the Passover send unleavened bread (and), doubtless, o th e r things also. T h ey are not entirely C hristians, an d som e o f o u r m en had said that, if they w ere truly C hristians, they w ould not associate with us in o u r synagogue an d in o u r law. A nd now, because o f this, we are all the m ore scandalized." “ R egarding the Sabbath, the a u th o r repeats som e o f the well-known argum ents, closing with the statem ent “Also God does no t cease work on the S abbath ."60 Sergius, in trying to explain why som e "weak and feeble" C hristians "give oil o r b rin g unleavened bread to your provocative synagogue,” suggests that these are “d o u b te rs . . . the children o f heathen an d th eir m ind has not yet been cleansed from th e fear o f th e ir fathers' idols. O r they are the children o f H ebrews, an d the fo rm e r custom still prevails over th em .”61 “A nastasius,” in his Dissertation against the Jews (c. 1050),“ briefly restates the well-known anti-Sabbath position. T h e Sabbath rest was given to the Jew s in Old T estam en t times, he says; but w hen Jesus came, the Jew s crucified Him on the g ro u n d s that H e had broken the law an d do n e away with the Sabbath. H ad He? W ould n o t the Jew s save a beast on Sabbath, an d not a m an? A nd they also circum cised on the S abbath .65 A fter quo tin g Psalm 9 5 :8 -1 1, he develops the idea o f a new kind o f rest as follows: " T h e re fo re a n o th e r [heterosj sabbatism [sabbatismos] and an o th e r [hetera] rest has been left, which is (the) faith in C hrist, as (the) Lord said th ro u g h Jerem iah the p ro p h et: ‘B ehold (the) days are com ing, an d 1 will establish with the house of Israel and with the h o u s e o f ju d a h a new covenant' [Jer. 31:31]. W hen he says new, he m akes th e first o n e o ld ."M Dionysius B ar Salibi (died 1171), Jacobite m etropolitan o f A m id (Diabekr) in the u p p e r T igris valley, 100 miles n o rth o f Edessa, was the a u th o r o f several com m entaries on Biblical books, an d o f a work entitled Against the Jews. As late as the th irteen th century the Jacobite C hurch felt the need to pro m u lg ate canons 156

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th at “fo rb id th e p articipation o f bishops an d o th e r clerics in the Jew ish Passover celebrations, enjoin the faithful to work on the sabbath and no t to observe it in the Jew ish m an n er, a n d . . . forbid C hristians to receive unleavened bread from the Jew s .”65 T h e anti-Jew ish w ritings continued into the fo u rte en th and fifteenth centuries, but these Jacobite canons a p p e a r to be the latest source w here the Sabbath occupies a p ro m in en t place. T w o Marginal Christian Groups C onsidered to Be Influenced by Judaism T w o m arginal groups are m entioned by several au th o rs as S abbathkeepers, with no re fere n ce to S undaykeeping on th eir part. T h e first o n e seems to have o rig in ated as a result o f the schism created within Novatianism by Sabbatius, d u rin g th e reign o f T heodosius I (379-395). Socrates Scholasticus calls Sabbatius “a converted Jew . . . who nevertheless continued to retain m any o f his Jew ish prejudices ."66A catalog o f heresies, attrib u ted to M aruthas, Bishop o f M aipherkat (died c. 420), gives the following description o f the Sabbatians: “T h ey say th at the sacrifice should be o ffered on Sabbath, a n d not on Sunday; th at the Torah should be read to the people, and not the Gospel. C ircum cision has not been abolished, nor th e com m andm ents o f the Law elim inated. T h e (Jewish) Passover m ust be observed because the New T estam ent is not o pposed to the O ld. H olding u n to th e Law, they still p re te n d to be C hristians .”67 Purchas (r. 1625) describes the second g ro u p as follows: “T h e re are others, co n tin u in g from ancient times u n d e r divers Lords, Rom anes, G reekes, Saracens an d C hristians, called S urians, unfit fo r W arre, m en for the m ost p art U nfaithful!, D o u b le-d ealin g , Lyers, In c o n s ta n t, F o rtu n e fa w n e rs, T ra y to rs , G ifi-ta k e rs, esteem ing T h e ft an d Robbery fo r nothing, Spyes to the Saracens, im itating th eir L anguage an d C ondition. . . . T hey keepe S aturday holy, n o r esteem e S aturday Fast lawfull but on Easter Eeven. T hey have solem ne Service on Saturdayes, eate flesh, an d feast it bravely like the Jew es.” 6* Purchas does not stale w here this g ro u p was located. But the context suggests eith er Syria, o r less probably, Asia M inor. T h e re is no way o f know ing w hether th ere was any connection betw een these “Surians" a n d the “Sabbatians.” T he Nestorians In 424 th e hostilities betw een Persia an d Rome led to the severance o f th e ties betw een th e East Syrian C h u rch (in Persian territory) and the faraway patriarchal see o f Antioch (u n d e r Rom an control), and in 486 N estorianism was officially ad o p ted by the Persian Church.®* T his N estorian “C hurch o f th e East" had its patriarchal see in Seleucia-C tesiphon until c. 762, w hen it was m oved to B aghdad. In 1258 it m oved to Mosul an d , finally, a fte r 1400, to M aragha, east o f Lake U rm ia .70 T h e N estorians distinguished them selves as m issionaries, A. M ingana re fe rrin g to them as "the most m issionary ch u rch that the w orld has ever see n .”71 T h ey sp read from Persia to A rabia, India, T u rk e sta n , Siberia, a n d C hina, with th eir g reatest expansion being reached in the th irteen th century.7* Since separate sections below are devoted to C hina and India, the rest o f the p resen t section will deal with the info rm ation available on Sabbath-Sunday observance in the o th er areas reached by th e N estorians. 157

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A canonical letter w ritten by N estorian p atriarch Ishu'-Y ab (c. 585) dis­ cusses S unday observance at som e length: “In reg ard to the Lord's day, th e holyfirst day o f the week. . . . Since the kingdom o f heaven has been ann o u n ced , the day o f th e bodily resu rrectio n o f the Son o f God has been given to the children o f the house (the C hristians) in place o f G od's day o f rest; an d the day in which the g eneral renew al has been figuratively accom plished an d will really be accom plished, in place o f the day o f rest that benefits m en an d anim als; the day th at begins the week, in which this transitory world began, an d in which also the fu tu re world will begin, that will have a beginning but no en d , in the place o f the day in which the week ends. . . . In the first day o f the week, o u r Lord broke an d o p en ed the Sheol by m eans o f His resurrection, laid the foundation o f the C h u rch an d p reached the Kingdom o f heaven. T h at is why th e children o f the d o ctrin e o f life m ust keep, from evening to evening, the day in which these m arvels w ere accom plished. . . . Some o f the faithful abstain them selves, d u rin g the first day o f the week, o f w orking o r traveling until the church (service) has finished. But others, be it because o f an em ergency stro n g er than th eir good will, o r b e c a u s e o f t h e i r o w n d i s d a i n f u l , r e b e llio u s a n d f r o w a r d w ill, lik e disobedient ch ildren, treat the L ord's day, the first day o f the week, as they treat the sabbath o r the second day o f the week, and thev d o not h o n o r it at all, that is, they do not want to h o n o r them selves that day by perform ing divine works and justice. T h is is inadm issible. T h ey w ork out o f love o f the m oney that leads to sin and does not last."” T h is interesting text clearly shows that, officially, the day o f w orship for the sixth-century N estorian ch u rch was Sunday. Sabbath rest seem s to have been so com pletely ab an d o n ed th at individuals who did not h o n o r S unday at all were accused o f treatin g that day as if it w ere as secular as Sabbath o r M onday. O n the o th e r h an d , those who w orked o r traveled on S unday afte r the church services w ere over w ere not condem ned. F u rth e r on in this sam e letter (addressed to the C hristians in the island o f D aral, who had pearl fishing as o n e o f th eir main occupations), th e patriarch deals with the special situation o f the pearl divers who o ften had to dive on S unday. If they can com e to church, he declares, let them com e; if not, it w ould be necessary to find a solution to protect them both from sinning and from financial loss .74 From th e sixth century on, S unday is th e only day o f rest that we have been able to find in N estorian sources, an d in descriptions o f N estorian practices by W estern m edieval travelers .75 T h e only rem n a n t o f Sabbath observance seems to be th e persistent obligation to refrain from fasting on that d ay .76 By the sixteenth century the N estorians had retreated to the only place that still seem ed safe fo r them , the roughly trian g u lar area between Lake U rm ia, Lake Van, an d Mosul (in w hat is today northw estern Iran, eastern T u rk ey , and n o rth e rn Iraq). Very little is known o f th eir history d u rin g the next two centuries. A fter the N estorian schism o f 1551, the Rom an Catholic C h u rch e n te re d the scene, an d two U niate patriarchates eventually developed, both recognized by the Papal See .77 H owever, w hen at the beginning o f the nin eteen th century the Protestants learned o f the existence o f these C hristians, they found them “anti-popish" with “n eith er icons n o r crucifixes in their churches, only a sim ple an d symbolic C ross."7" S unday was still being kept, quite strictly am ong the m ountain dw ellers, but not so strictly in the plains .79 158

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China T h e first reliable inform ation on the presence o f C hristianity in C hina dates from th e T ’ang dynasty (618-907)."° It is found in the im perial edicts o f 638, 745, and 845, in th e fam ous N estorian M onum ent, uncovered n ear H si-an-fu in 1623 o r 1625, an d in o th e r N estorian records discovered in C hina d u rin g the first h alf o f the tw entieth century. T h e N estorian M onum ent, erected in 781, describes the arrival in C h'angan o f B ishop A lopen (635) an d gives som e inform ation on the "propagation o f the L um inous Religion” in C hina. It also has a description o f the beliefs and practices o f th e N estorian C hristians in C hina that includes the following inform ation: “Seven times a day they m eet fo r w orship and praise, and earnesdy they o ffer prayers fo r the living as well as for the dead. O nce in seven days, they have "a sacrifice w ithout th e anim al’ (i.e., a bloodless sacrifice). T h u s cleansing th eir hearts, they regain th eir p u rity ."81 J e a n V u illeum ier ( 1864-1959) takes this text as a p ro o f o f Sabbath observance in seventh- and eig h th-century C h in a ."1 O n the o th e r hand, P. Y. Saeki, a Jap a n ese ex p ert on the N estorian M onum ent and o th er N estorian docum ents and relics in C hina, states on linguistic gro u n d s that the text refers to S undaykeeping ."5 In som e o f th e o th er N estorian docum ents discovered in C hina th ere are a few hints th at seem to su p p o rt Saeki’s position. First o f all, it is puzzling to discover th at no m ention o f a weekly day o f rest is found in a ra th e r lengthy ex p o sitio n -p arap h rase o f the T e n C om m andm ents that ap p ears in the “Jesu s­ Messiah S utra," w ritten probably betw een 635 an d 638, ju st after A lopen's arrival. T h e o th e r com m an d m ents are m entioned, the first th ree in an oblique way, the last six in a very clear m a n n e r .*4Was the a u th o r afraid to be clear about the weekly rest because o f th e N estorians' recent arrival? In J u n e o f 1905 Dr. A. von Le Coq discovered several Syriac m anuscripts in Kao-ch‘ang, C hinese T u rk e sta n . O ne o f diese m anuscripts is a portion o f a N estorian ch u rch book “giving the nam es o f p ro p e r A nthem s, etc., to be used on Sundays and the C h u rch Festival days" for the whole year. It belongs to the ninth o r the ten th cen tu ry , at th e latest .*5 Line 16 states, “First I say this that on a Sunday shall th e C h u rch be consecrated": an d line 23 refers to S unday’s “evening service."“ A n o th er set o f Syriac m anuscripts, discovered at the im perial palace in Peking betw een 1925 an d 1926, are “a portion o f the N estorian H ym ns in the N estorian Service Book . . . used on Sunday th ro u g h o u t the y ear ."*7 T hey w ere w ritten in th e tw elfth o r the th irteen th century, o r earlier.** An interesting referen ce is m ade in one o f the hym ns to the S unday o f the m artyrdom o f two "blessed m arty rs.” ” A lthough these docum ents are not in them selves com pelling p roofs re g ard in g th e day o f w orship, the little inform ation they provide on the weekly day o f rest basically harm onizes with what is already know n about the N estorian practice in o th e r areas o f Asia. It may be ad d ed that u n d e r the M ongol em p ero rs o f the th irteen th century, Rabban Sawma, a N estorian m onk, traveled all the way from Peking to W estern E urope, an d th at th ro u g h o u t the book that records his life an d travels, S unday ap p ears to be th e norm al day o f worship. T h e re is not even a hint o f Sabbath-Sunday tension in the detailed account o f his contacts with the Rom an Catholic C h urch. In Rome he celebrated the Eucharist on a Sunday, with full 159

T H E S A B BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y papal approval, an d the pope even invited him to stay with him in R om e .90 T h u s, in C hina d u rin g this period we d o not find any evidence o f C hristian S aturday observance. T h e re a re several docu m ents that, on the contrary, suggest that as early as the seventh century Sunday was the only day o f weekly rest am ong C hristians th e re .91 India It is not know n w hen C hristianity originally reached India. T h e first possible traces o f its existence th ere are from the third century, ” and clear evidence begins with th e fifth cen tu ry .9’ T h e C hristian church in India was su b o rd in ated to the N estorian p atriarch ate o f Seleucia-C tesiphon, and Syriac was its liturgical language. A lthough eventually C hristianity spread widely th ro u g h o u t In d ia ,94 w hen Vasco d a G am a arrived in India in 1498 he found the vast m ajority o f the rem aining C hristians living on the M alabar Coast in southw est India. A ccording to a co n tem p o rary N estorian In d ian source, 30,000 families lived th ere .” T h e re are no known references to Sabbath observance by the church in India before the arrival o f the P ortuguese. D uring the synod o f D iam per (1599), Rom an Catholic A rchbishop Aleixo de M enezes succeeded in getting the approval o f a d ecree req u irin g that all the books w ritten in the Syriac tongue be tu rn e d over to Jesuit F ath er Francisco Roz, to be "perused an d corrected, o r d estro y ed .”* Ju liu s Richter, com m enting on this decree, writes: “It is to this vandalism that we m ust a ttrib u te the scarcity o f reliable inform ation concerning the earlier history o f the T h o m as C h u rc h ." 1” How ever, it is difficult to im agine that all the books w ere located. O n th e o th e r han d , the absence o f docum entary evidence gives us no special freed o m to speculate; an d both S tephen Neill and Jo h n Stewart assum e that before th e arrival o f the P ortuguese th e M alabar C hristians kept S unday." T h e sam e N estorian Indian docum ent re fe rre d to above, w ritten in Syriac possibly in th e first decade o f the sixteenth century, describes the first landing o f the P o rtuguese in India an d som e o f the N estorians’ initial contacts with them . T h e a u th o r tells how he m et these P ortuguese, for the first tim e, in th e town o f C an an o re an d stayed with them for two and a h a lf m onths. T h e n he continues: “T h ey o rd e re d us one day to say mass. T hey have p re p are d for them selves a beautiful place, like a chapel, an d th eir priests say th eir mass in it every day, as is th eir custom . O n the Sunday, th erefo re, o f Nusardail [the sixth Sunday after T rinity], afte r th eir priest had finished his mass, we also w ent an d said mass, at which they w ere greatly pleased with us."'" In 1505, a Rom an Catholic Italian traveler, Ludovico di V arthem a, left the following com m ents about the T h o m as C hristians he met at kayam kulam (north o f Q uilon): “ In this city we found some C hristians o f those o f St. T hom as, som e o f whom are m erchants an d believe in C hrist, as we d o . . . . T h ese C hristians keep Lent longer th an we do: but thev keep Easier like ourselves an d they all observe the same solemnities that we do. But they say Mass like the G reeks.” ,0" N o fu rth e r details are given, b u t the im plications seem quite clear that Sunday alone, not both S aturday an d Sunday, was th e weekly dav fo r worship. T h e detailed descriptions o f the custom s an d o f the religious practices o f the T h o m as C hristians, w hen they first cam e in contact with the P ortuguese, m ention only S unday observance .'01 H owever, “Sunday labor was not in fre q u e n t ."1011 W ednesday a n d Fridav w ere th e weekly davs o f fasting."’’ with no fasting on the 100

I H E S A B B A TH IN ASIA S abbath 104 n o r on S unday .105 Sundays and the days o f lasting w ere kept from sundow n to su n d o w n .1® Relations betw een th e T h o m as C hristians an d the P ortuguese w ere friendly for a few years. H ow ever, tension began to rise w hen some Rom an Catholic priests started p en e tratin g into th e local churches, insisting on saying m ass according to the Latin rite. T h e R om an Catholic C hurch e n te re d m ore an d m ore into the affairs o f th e T h o m as C hristians, until it finally succeeded in bringing them to the Rom an fold in th e synod o f D iam per (1599). T h e acts a n d decrees o f this synod are the best witness to the effo rt o f the Rom an C atholic C h urch to “straighten out" the T h o m as C hristians in alm ost incredible detail re g ard in g th eir religious beliefs a n d practices .107 E verything th at was supposedly w rong seem s to have been m entioned in the decrees. T h e synod decided that it was w rong to eat flesh on Saturdays, m aking S aturday, along with Friday, a day o f fasting.1'“ It was also w rong to fast o r keep the festivities from evening to evening. T h ese had to be kept from m idnight to m idnight, to be in harm ony with th e “Holy M other C h u rch .” "” T h u s, ‘‘the O bligation o f ceasing from labour b eg in sat the m idnight o f the said day [Sunday], and ends at the m id night o f Monday.""" Sunday is m entioned m any times as the only day o f weekly rest .111 No Sabbath-Sunday tension is detected in any o f the m any d ecrees.11* T h e re is, how ever, som e evidence re g ard in g observance o f the Sabbath tow ard th e e n d o f th e seventeenth century. A bout 1673, C. Dellon, a F renchm an, was im prisoned by th e Inquisition while traveling in India. A fter his release, about two years later, he w rote a book, The Inquisition at Goa, and in his account he refers to people accused before the Inquisition o f "assisting at the Jew ish S abbath," In T h e accusation o f J udaizing included “having conform ed to the cerem onies o f the Mosaic law; such as not eating pork, hare, fish w ithout scales, &c., o f having atten d ed th e solem nization o f the sabbath, having eaten the Paschal Lamb, &c ." 114 At least two w riters 115 have concluded from Dellon's account that th ere w ere m any S ab bathkeepers am ong the C hristians in India at that tim e .111 How can this be so, inasm uch as th ere was no know n Sabbath keeping before the synod o f D iam per in 1599? Dellon him self seems to provide the answer. B efore he deals in detail with th e treatm en t o f th e ju d a iz e rs by the Inquisition, he gives an account o f the force conversion, in Portugal, o f m any Spanish and P ortuguese Jew s who cam e to be classified as "New C hristians." T h e “ New C hristians" had a very difficult tim e being accepted by the “O ld C hristians." Most, if not all, o f th eir business dealings and social contacts were with o th e r “New C hristians." T h e ir conversion was not always believed to be true. T hey w ere u n d e r constant suspicion o f s e c re tly p r a c tic in g J e w is h c e r e m o n ie s , in c lu d in g S a b b a th o b s e r v ­ an ce .117 M any o f them , u ndoubtedly, w ent to the P ortuguese colonies with the hope o f escaping th e rigidities o f life in P o rtu g al.11" W hen th e Inquisition asked Dellon to m ention the nam es o f his accusers, he finally had to nam e som e o f his b re th ren , the only ones th at knew o f his S abbathkeeping because they had, to g eth er with him , been keeping the Sabbath. T h e "New C hristians . . . look fo r th e ir accusers an d accomplices in a certain class .”119 It seem s clear, in the context, that the "certain class" re fers to th e “New C hristians." It is n o t im possible, as h ap p e n ed with Judaizing C hristians in o th e r areas o f th e world, that som e C hristians o f Indian origin w ere attracted by the

I HE S A B B A T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HIS TORY

cerem onies practiced by “New C hristians" who were still Jew s at heart. H ow ever, Dellon's account seems to have only “New C hristians" in m ind. T h ese are the only known Sabbath keeping C hristians in India before the nineteenth ce n tu ry .180 Armenia C hristianity en te re d A rm enia a p p a ren d y by the beginning o f th e th ird ce n tu ry .1,1 A fter th e synod o f V agharshabad (491), in which the A rm enian C h u rch co n d em n ed the C ouncil o f C halcedon, the A rm enians ad h e re d to the strict Nlonophysite d o ctrin e .'” T ension arose with th eir G reek O rth o d o x neighbors, a n d M onophysitism lost g ro u n d w hen A rm enians and Byzantines united u n d e r E m p ero r H eraclius (610-641). In 652, when E m p ero r C onstans II (641 -688) a p p e are d at Dewin (T e v in )," the decisions o f C halcedon w ere solemnly proclaim ed on S unday in the m ain c h u rc h .”10 Both th e Sabbath and S unday seem to have been kept in A rm enia, probably from th e fo u rth century on. In the seventh century, the fathers atten d in g the Q uinisext C ouncil (692) acknow ledged that they had “learned that in the regions o f A rm enia a n d in o th er places certain people eat eggs a n d cheese on the Sabbaths and Lord's days o f the holy len t.” The council decided that “the whole C h u rch o f God which is in all the world should follow one rule," that is, the G reek O rth o d o x ru le .1,4 Som e years later, in 719, probably as a reaction, th e A rm enians at the synod o f Dewin (Tevin) tried to draw a m ore m arked line betw een them selves and the G reeks. T h ey decided, am ong o th e r things, to abstain from fish, oil. eggs, and b u tter d u rin g Lent, except on Sundays and S aturdays.'“ In th e C ouncil o f M anazkert in 728, atten d e d by all the A rm enian bishops and also by som e Jacobite bishops, “C halcedon was rep u d iated afresh . . . the five days' prelim inary fast before Lent restored, S aturday as well as Sunday m ade a day o f feasting an d synaxis [religious g ath erin g ]."126T his action suggests that the Sabbath rest had been at least partially forgotten. T h e Sabbath had probably b eco m eju st a day w ithout fasting, not intended fo r religious m eetings, as was the case with th e o th e r E astern churches. T h e council restored the significance o f the Sabbath as a day both o f feasting an d religious gathering. M anazkert’s im portance is indicated in F. C. C onybeare's com m ent that in general, "these rules have been observed in the A rm enian ch u rch ever sin ce."'” C ontacts betw een the A rm enians an d the R om an Catholic C h u rch d u rin g the C rusades resulted, eventually, in the establishm ent o f the A rm enian U niates, o r U nited A rm enians, who severed ties with th eir church an d attached them selves to R om e.1” A m ong them was the Lousinian dynasty o f the last in d ep en d e n t A rm enian kingdom o f Cilicia, including Leo VI, who gave him self u p to the Egyptian M am elukes in 1375. E arlier in th e fo u rte en th century, an E thiopian m onk an d fo u n d e r o f a new m onastic house, E ustathius (c. 1273-1352), who had left his country because he could not keep Sabbath th ere unm olested, had arrived in A rm enia a fte r stopping in C airo, Jeru sa lem , and C yprus (see pp. 176, 177). Did he, perhaps, choose to spend his last fo u rte en years in A rm enia because he could keep the Sabbath th ere as he th o u g h t he should? It seems that from early tim es the A rm enians had a ch u rch o rd e r o f a sim ilar n atu re to, but still d iffe ren t from , the Didascalia Apostolorum. Several m anuscripts 162

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o f this A rm enian Dtdascalta are known today. Five o f them , exam ined in som e detail by A braham T eria n o f A ndrew s University, w ere copied from the th irteen th to th e eig h teen th century. In all except one, th ere is a clear injunction for Sabbath observance .1*9T h e following translation, m ade by T eria n , is from an eig h teen th -cen tu ry m anuscript: “T h e apostles o rd e re d an d firmly established that on the Sabbath day th ere should be feast an d w orship in all the world; th ere should also be a m em orial (service) for all m artyrs. O n that day the priests should o ffe r the eucharist and recite th e Psalms joyfully, fo r they ann o u n ce the com ing o f th e G reat King. It behooves all saints to rejoice in the presence o f C hrist." T h ese m anuscripts are not a com pelling p ro o f that A rm enians continued to keep th e Sabbath d u rin g the latter part o f the M iddle Ages a n d early m odern times. H ow ever, th e discovery in the n in eteen th century that the A rm enian C h u rch still had a special reg ard for the Sabbath suggests that Sabbath and S unday were kept by this ch u rch , at least to a certain extent, all th ro u g h these cen tu ries .”0 Summary and C onclusions T h e observance o f Sabbath to g eth er with S unday was w idespread in C hristian Asia d u rin g the second half o f the fo u rth century, an d continued to be so fo r approxim ately a n o th e r century. How ever, th ere is no clear docum entary evidence that afte r die year a.d. 500 Sabbath and Sunday w ere observed together by th e m ain C hristian churches in Asia, the only exception being the A rm enian C h u rch , plus som e “New C hristians” in India, who also observed the S aturday Sabbath. N evertheless, a certain respect fo r the Sabbath was show n, an d continues to be show n, by ih e Eastern churches in general by th eir refusal to m ake the Sabbath a day o f fasting. But even this vestige o f the Sabbath's fo rm er status was lost am o n g such C hristians as the N laronitesand the U nited A rm enians w hen they cam e into com m union with Rome. As in earlier C hristian history, anti-Judaism continued to be, from th e sixth century on w ard , o n e o f the most im portant factors in accelerating the process o f ab an d o n m en t o f Sabbath observance. T h e church often felt th re a te n e d by the synagogue, an d several C hristian p reach ers and w riters did th eir best to show that Sabbath observ ance was only o n e m ore Jew ish practice, o f no value for C hristians if not definitely anti-C hristian. However, th eir very concern in trying to discourage Sabbath observance shows that the practice persisted o r reap p eared fo r centuries with varying intensity, in d iffe ren t areas o f N ear E astern Asia, an d in open defiance to th e official teaching o f the O rth o d o x , the N estorian. an d the Jacobite churches. NOTES 1 W c Hill be lim n e d to a rath er succinct p resen ta tio n o f th e d o c u m e n ts that d e a l w ith S abb a th -S u n d a s o b serv a n ce, giv in g only th e historical b a ck g ro u n d that is in d isp en sa b le to u n d er sta n d in g each d o c u m e n t T h e so u rces w e have b een ab le to locate giv e o n l\ fragm en tary in fo rm a tio n o n S abbath-Sunday o b se rv a n ce in A sia 2 CunstUuIutTii o f the H oly Apostles 7. 2 . *23 ( A S F 7:46$). C f. 2 . 7 59; 5. 3. 2 0 ( A S F 7:423, 449)

*Ibid.

4 Ibtd .. H. 4. 3 3 ( A S F 7 :4 9 5 ) It sh o u ld probablv b e m en tio n ed h ere that Kphraetn th e S yrian (i 3 0 6 -3 7 3 ). the great classical w riter o f th e Syrian C h u rc h w h o d ie d in Svria ab out th e tim e w h en th e to -ca lled G o w titutum s o f the H o h Apostles w ere tak in g fin al sh a p e in that co u n tr y . c learlv p rea c h e d in favor o f Sunday o b se rv a n ce I rv in g to im p ress on his listen ers th e im p o rta n ce o f S u n d a v . h e said that Sundav had tak en fro m Sabbath th e b irth rig h t, as J a co b d id . and as was d o n e w ith E p h raim . H e calls fo r a m o r e c a r efu l ob servan ce o f S u n d a v . not on ly as a dav o f physical rest (Serm on

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pour l'ofhce de n u it de la résurrection du Seigneur, in W illy R o rd o rf. Sabhat et dim anche dans t'Eghse ancienne (N eu ch .itcl. S w itzerlan d , 1972], p. 185). 5 T he Canoru of the Synod H eld in the City o f luiodicea ( N P N F /2 14:133). 6 Ibid.. 14 155. 156. 7 P s e u d o -Ign atiu s S ta g n e sians 9 :3 . 4. c d . by F u n k -D iek am p , q u o te d in A . K raft, “S o m e N o te s o n Sabbath O b servan ce in Early C hristianity." A U S S 3 :2 4 . S ee a lso T raitions 9 :5 -6 (K raft, op. cit., p. 2 4 . n . 19). 8 S o cra tes S ch olasticu s Ecclesiastical H istory 5. 2 2 (N P N F /2 2 :1 3 2 ). 9 S o z o m e n , Ecclesiastical H istory 7. 19 (N P N F /2 2 :3 9 0 ). 10 S ocrates S ch o la sticu s EccL H ist. 6. 8 (N P N F /2 2 :1 4 4 ). 11 A steriu s o f A m asea. H om ily 5. o n Matt. 19:3 (P C 4 0 :2 2 5 ). 12 T h e o d o r e t o f C yrrh u s H aereticarum Fabularum 2. I (P C 8 3 :3 8 9 ). C f. E u seb iu s Ecclesiastical H istory 3. 2 7 (in The Loeb Classical Library [C a m b r id g e. M ass.. 1949] 1. 2 6 3 ). 15 E p ip h a m u s i t 3 1 5 -4 0 2 ), b ish op o f S alam is, C yp ru s, in h is M ed icin e Bax (3 7 4 -3 7 7 ) again st h ere sies (P anarion) co n sid ers that th e "little" w eek ly Sabbath has b een su p e r se d e d by C hrist, "the great Sabbath," o f w h o m it w as a type. P a n a n o n Haereseim 3 0 , 3 2 , 6 -9 (K. H oll, C C S 2 5 , 1915), q u o te d in R o rd o rf, op. a t., p p. 4 5 , 5 5 . E p ip h a n iu s a d d s, in De Fide (3 7 7 ) 2 4 .7 (H o ll. C C S 3 7 , 1933): "In certain p laces, r e lig io u s s e n ices are ce leb ra ted a lso o n th e Sabbath d ays, but n ot everyw h ere." S e e R o rd o rf. up. cit.. p p . 5 4 . 5 5 . G r egory o f N vssa (3 3 1 ? -3 9 6 ? ) o p p o s e d th e a ttitu d e o f so m e C h n s u a n s w h o d is h o n o r th e S abbath d ay but k e e p S u n d a v . w h e n h e tells th em : "D o you n o t k now that th ese d a y s are sisters."— De C astigatw ne (P C 4 6 :3 0 9 ). M ore will be said o n this p o in t later in th is ch a p ter w h en th e an ti-Jew ish C hristian literatu re o f th e f o u n h a n d th e fifth c e n tu ries is d iscu ssed . 14 J o h n C assian (c. 360-c. 4 3 3 ) in h is Institutes o f the Coenobia 3. 11 (N P N F /2 1 1:218), m e n tio n s that o n S u n d a y m o rn in g in "the L ord's co m m u n io n , th ey u se a m o re so le m n an d a lo n g e r s e n 'ic e o f Psalm s a n d prayers a n d lesson s. . . . A n d n e n c e it resu lts t h a t . . . an in d u lg e n c e o v e r o th e r tim es seem s to b e g ra n ted to th e b reth ren o u t o f re v eren ce o f th e Lord*! re su rre ctio n . . a n d . by rea so n o f th e d iffe r e n c e w hich is in te r p o se d , it makes the day to be looked fo r u a r d to more solemnly at a festival, an d o w in g to th e an ticip ation o f it th e fasts o f th e co m in g w eek are less felt." (Italic s su p p lied . ) 15 C assian ex p la in s that R om e kept th e S abbath fast b eca u se tra d itio n said that Peter fasted o n S abbath b e fo r e h is e n c o u n te r w ith S im on M agu s. B ut th is fast w as n ot in te n d e d to be ca n o n ica l. I f Peter h ad had to last o n S u n d a y , w e w ou ld h ave d o n e it to o , fo r that o n e o cc a sio n , as “a m atter o f n ecessity." but "no ca n o n ica l ru le o f fa stin g w ould h ave b een m ad e g e n e r a l fro m this."— Institutes 3. 10 (N P N F /2 11: 2 18). C assian reitera tes that Sabbath is n ot a d av o f fastin g in th e East. W e “a re ch a rg e d to giv e to both d ays— that is. to th e sev en th a n d eig h th ea u a lly — th e sa m e sh a re o f th e service." T h e d isp en sa tio n o f fa stin g is n ot J ew ish , but fo r th e b en efit o f th e w e a n e d b o d y . I f th r o u g h o u t th e w h o le year w e fast live d ays a w eek , o u r b od y "w ou ld easily be w orn o u t a n d f ail, u n less it w ere rev iv ed by an interval o f at least tw o days."— Ibid., 3. 9 .; cf. ch a p . 12 (N P N F /2 1 1 :217. 2 1 8 ). 16 S a m u e l Pure h as, H akluytus Posthum us or P ure has H is Pilgnm es (N ew Y ork. 1 965). 1 :350. C f. B. I. K idd , The Churches o f Eastern Christendom (L o n d o n . [1 9 2 7 ]), p p . 7 0 , 7 4 , l3 o , 131, 4 7 0 ; C h arles J o s e p h H e fe le . A History o f the C h n stuin Councils (E d in b u r g h . 18% ). 2 :3 2 0 . T h e Q u in isex t C o u n cil (6 9 2 ). u n d e r C reek O r th o d o x c o n tro l, d e t id e d "that also in th e C h u rc h o f tn c R om an s th e ca n o n shall im m ovab ly stand fast w hich says: If an y cle n c shall b e fo u n d to fast o n a S u n d ay o r S aturday (ex ce p t o n o n e o ccasion o n ly ) h e is to b e d e p o se d ; and if h e is a laym an h e shall b e cut o f f " (can on 55). C a n o n 5 6 req u ires that "on th e Sabbaths an d L o rd ’s d a y s o f th e holy lent" all C hristian s. A rm en ia n s in clu d ed , sh o u ld "abstain fro m ev e ry th in g w hich is killed." an d also " from eg g s a n d ch eese" (N P N F /2 1 4 :3 9 1 ). S ee also R. L O d o m . " T h e S abb ath in th e G reat S ch ism o f a . d . 1054." A U S S 1 (1 9 6 3 ):7 4 -8 0 . 17 Purchas. op. a t., p. 38 7 . Ibid.; A . A. S ta m o u li. "M aronites." S chaff-H erzog 7:1 8 9 . 19 Codex J u stm u in u s [h erein a fte r cited as C l] 3. 1 2 ,3 , trans. in P h ilip Sc h a ft. History o f the C hristian Church (G rand R apids. 1957). 3 :3 8 0 . n. I. 20 Theodostan Code [h e r e in a fte r cited as C T , Codex Theodosianm ] 2. 8. I. tran slated by C ly d e Pharr (P rin ceto n , N .J., 19 5 2 ). p 44 21 The le tte rs o f S t. Jerom e. L etter 108, to E u sto ch iu m , sec. 2 0 (N P N F /2 6 :2 0 6 ). 22 For in stan ce. Sun d ay law s by: (a) E m p erors (»rattan Y alen tia n a n d T h e o d o s iu s I. o f N o v em b er 3 . 3 8 6 . fo rb id d in g litigation o n th e "L ord's Dav" (C T 1 1 .7 . 13. trans. in Pharr, op. cit.. p. 3 0 0 ); an d (b) E m p eror T h e o d o siu s II o f th e Eastern R om an E m p ire, o f F e b r u a n I, 4 2 5 , fo rb id d in g public sp e cta cle» circu s, th ea ter— o n S u n d a y (ibid., 15. 5. 5. in P h a n . op. cit., p. 4 3 3 ). S e e n o te o f M. A . K u g cn cr an d r.gd. 1 1 if fa u x o n th e e ffec t o f T h e o d o siu s ll 's law o n the p re a c h in g o f patriarch S e v e r u s o f A n tio ch (5 1 2 -5 1 8 ). in Les H om iliae Cathédrales de Sév+re D ’Antioche, in Patrologia O n en ta lu [h erein a fte r cited as PO ] (P a n s. 1922). vol. 16. p. 862. 23 A s S o /o m e n a n d S ocrates S ch olasticu s record it. R om e's p o sitio n again st Sabbath o b se rv a n ce w as w ell k n ow n in th e fifth ce n tu ry . It u n d o u b ted ly had so m e in flu en ce o n th e p ractice o f E astern C hristian s. H o w ev e r, R om an C a tholic in flu e n c e o n th e M aron ite C h u rc h a n d o n a s eg m en t o f th e A rm en ia n C h u rch is m o re clearly se e n m u ch later in th e M id d le A g es (b e g in n in g w ith th e C m sa d e s) 24 A s tran slated in N P N F /2 14:148. C f. M arcel S im o n . Verus Israel (Paris. 1964). p p . 3 8 2 . 3 8 3 . 4 2 2 . 4 2 3 . 25 The Ecclesiastical C anons o f the Same H oly Apostles (A N F 7 :5 0 4 ). » Ibid., 7 :5 0 3 . 50 4 . 27 For a d eta iled listin g o f th ese law s, se e la m e s Parkes, T he C onftirt o f the Church a n d the Synagogue (C lev ela n d . 1961), p p . 3 7 9 -3 9 1 . T h e law s cited in n o te s 2 8 to 3 6 a re tak en fro m this sou rce. 28 C T 16. 8. 11. o f A pril 2 4 . 3 9 6 (P h arr, op a t , p. 380); cf. C T 16. 8. 2 2 . o f O ct. 2 0 . 4 1 5 ( P h a n . op. cit., p. 3 8 1 ). 29 C T 16. 8 . 18, o f May 2 9 . 4 0 8 (Pharr, up. a t . p. 3 8 1). M C T 16. 9. 4 . o f A p ril 10. 4 1 7 (Pharr, op cu.. p . 3 8 1 ). 51 C J 1. 3. 54 an d 1. 10. 2 (S ch a ff. op. a t , p 387). 52 E cloga. A p p . 6. 2 6 (p. 3 8 8 ). 35 C T 16. 8. 2 5 . o f Feb. 15. 4 2 3 . C T 16 8. 2 7 . o f J u n e 8 . 4 2 3 ; N o v ella 3 o f T h e o d o siu s II. o f J a n 3 1 . 4 3 8 (d. 3 8 1 ). u Ibid.; cf. E cloga. A p p . 6. 3 0 o f L eo th e Isa u n a n statin g that circu m cisio n o f a C hristian sh o u ld be p u n ish e d (p 388). S5 C J 1. 9 . 13 (S ch a ff. où. n t.. p . 387). 36 E cloga, A p p . 4. 2 4 , 16 (p. 388). 57 The Canons o f the C o u n cil in T rullo (N P N F /2 14:370) M T h e fo llo w in g in c o m p le te list has b een co m p iled fro m A. L ukvn W illiam s. A di*rsus Judaeos (C a m b rid g e.

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1935), p p 9 3 -2 0 3 ; Parkes, op a l . o p . 2 7 1 -3 0 6 ; S im o n , op. a t., an d A. P H a sm a n . tra m . T he D ep u ta tio n o f Sergius the S h iite a gains i a Je m (L ou vain . 1 9 73). pp. 1-77 M ost o f tn e anti-Jew ish litera tu re in th e N ea r East d u r in g th e p erio d u n d er c o n sid era tio n w as w ritten in G reek . T h e Svriac w riters w ill be specifically in d ica ted 1 A p h rah at (Syriac). H o m ilie s (3 3 6 -3 4 5 ). 2 . J o h n C h r v so sto m . E ig h t H omilies A gainst the leu* (3 8 7 -3 8 9 ). A Dem onstration to Jew s a n d Greeks th a t Christ is God (c. 386). 3. P seu d o -C h rv so slo m , A gainst Jeu-s a n d Greeks (t.e H eathen ) a n d Heretics, a n d A gainst Jen's, u ith reference to the B razen Serpent (d a les u n k n ow n ). 4. P scu d o -G re g o rv o f N yssa. Selected Testimonies from the O U Testam ent against the Jew s (c. 4 0 0 ). 5 M arooth a (S y n a c ). Book o f Evidences (b e fo r e 4 2 0 ). 6 . Isaac o f A n tio c h . H om ily T w o against the Jew s (first h alf, fifth cen tu rv ). 7. M ana (S v n a c ). Against the Jew s (4 5 7 -4 8 4 ). 8. J a co b o f S eru b IS \n a c . r 4 5 0 -5 2 1 ). th r e e H omilies against the Je u i 9. T he Discussion o f Archbishop G regentius with the Je w H erban tc. 480). 10. (¿uestums addressed to Antiochus the D ux (sixth cen tu ry?). 1 1. lo h n , a N esto ria n (Syriac), w rote a treatise again st th e Jew s (sixth cen tu rv ). 12. P s e u d o -E p h raim (Svriac). De F ine et Adm onitione. Rhythm against the Jews d e ln rre d upon P alm S u nday, and Rhythm 44 (fo u r th , fifth , an d sixth ce n tu ries). 13. T he Teaching of Jacob (S argis d 'A b erg a ) (6 3 4 ). 14. L eo n tiu s. A gainst the Jews (c. 660?). 15. The Trophies o f Damascus (6 81). 16. S te p h e n o f B ostra. A gainst the Jew s (e. 7 0 0?). 17. le r o m e o f J er u sa le m . A D ialogue concerning the H oly T rm ity. the Discussion o f a J e w with the C hristian tc. 7 3 0 ). 18. J o h n o f D am ascus. Against the Jews, concerning the Sabbath f t , 740). 19 The D isputation o f Sergius the Styhte against a J e w tc. 730-c 7 7 0 ). 2 0 . " A n astasius.“ Dissertation against the Jew s (c. 1050). 2 1 . D ion ysiu s bar Salibi (Svriac). Commentaries, an d A gainst the Jews (a .d . 12). 2 2 . A n d ro n ic u s o f C o n sta n tin o p le. A D ialogue against the Jew s (1 3 1 0 ? ). 2 3 . G e n n a d iu s. A R efutation o f error o f the Jew s (c. 1455). T h e r e is a c o r r e s p o n d in g w ealth (ab out tn ir u -eight w riters) o f an ti-Jew ish litera tu re a m o n g Latin a n d S p an ish a u th o rs (fo u rth to fiftee n th cen tu ries). S e e W illiam s, op a t., p p. 2 0 6 -4 1 8 . w H avm an . op. a t., p. 75; cf. S im o n , op a t., p p. 3 5 4 -3 9 3 . 40 W illiam s, tip. a t., pp. 159, 160. 41 H avm an . op a t., p .7 5 ; cf. P G 4 8 :8 4 3 -9 4 2 . W illiam s, op. a t., o . 133. n . 2 . co m m en ts: “C h ry so sto m 's h a tred of th e Jew s is not c o n fin e d to th ese e ig h t H o m ilie s, as m av b e seen fro m th e co u n tless re fe r e n c e s to th em M attered th ro u g h o u t h is w orks “ ” H avm an . op. fit., p. 74. 4S Parkes, op a t . p . 2 7 9 . 44 W illiam s, op. a t., p. 104. 45 Ibid., p. I6§ 4,1 Parke*, op a t., p. 3 0 5 . 47 Hayrnan, oi>. a t., p p. 7 5 . 7 6 , b ased o n Jacob N e u sn e r . A phrahat a n d Judaism ( L e id e n . 1971). p p 1 2 4 . 125, 144. 149, 168. 171; cf. W illiam s, op. a t., p. 102. 4N A p h rah at, D e Sabbato, m Patrología Synac a [h erein a fte r cited as PS], ed . by R. ( »ratlin, part 1 (P a n s, 1894), 1 :5 4 0 -5 7 f 4U For several years A p h rah at was b ish o p an d abbot o f th e m on astery o f Mar M athai, o n th e ea stern sid e o f the T ig n s (u n d er Persia), a few m iles n orth east o f M osul. H e d ie d c. 350. 40 S im o n , op a t . p p . 3 7 5 .3 7 6 ; cf. W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 9 7 .9 8 ; A p h ra h a t. De Fide, in P S 1:43; idem. D e C a n ta te, in P S 1:78, 9 6 2 , 1Ó19 41 Delecta Testim onia A d i m u s Judaeos 13 (PG 4 6 :2 2 2 ); W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 125. 128. 129. w PG 1 :1 456. tran s. in Parkes, op. a t., p. 3 9 8 . 45 A ssem an i Cod. I M . 1. 105. q u o te d in Parkes, op. a t., p. 397. 54 W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 151. 152. 45 T h e n a m e in G reek is The T eaching o f Jacob In E thiopic th e n a m e is Sargis d'Aberga (W illiam s, op. a t., p. 152). T h e E th iop ic text w ith French tran slation is in P O 3 :5 5 5 -6 4 3 , an d 13:5-109. 56 P O 3 :6 1 2 . 47 J o h n o f D am ascu s De Fide O nhodoxa (P G 9 4 :1 2 0 1 -1 2 0 6 ). 48 H a v m a n . op a t., p. 74 (cf. D isputation 2. 8 . 3. 5 . a n d m ost o f ch a p . 22). 19 D isputation 2 2 . 1; cf. D isputation, 4. 12 (ibid.. p. 72). *° D isputation, 4. 103 (ibid., p. 9). 61 D isputation, 2 2 . I. 12. 5 (ibid.. p p. 7 2 . 7 6 . 73). 61 A ttrib u ted to A nastasiu s o f Sin ai (sev en th centu rv ). but not his w ork , a cc o rd in g to W illiam s, op. a t., p. 175. based o n in tern al e v id e n c e T e x t in PG 8 9 :1 2 0 3 -1 2 8 2 . M P G 8 9 1 2 4 1 -2 4 8 0 . M Ibid . 8 9 :1 2 5 2 . C f. co l 1249; W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 177, 178. 180 M H avm an . trp a t., p. 76. a n d n 99: " S u m m a n zrd in K aw erau. Die jakobitische Kirche, p. 106. fro m Bar H ebräern ' Som ocarum . C f. also K azan. Isaac of Antioch's Homihs. O C [O nem C .hnstuinus (L eip /ig -W irv lia d en )]. 4 9 :6 9 “ P erh aps a very b r ie f n o te o n th e Syrian J a to b ite s sh o u ld lie a d d e d h ere. The fen re fe r e n c e s w c h a v e fo u n d about their w eek ly d ay o f rest m en tio n on ly Sun d av o b se rv a n ce (m an u scrip ts o f 8 2 4 . 1 084. 121 4 . 1 539. a n d also in fo rm a tio n o n th eir cu sto m s in th e tw en tieth ce n tu rv ). S ee H W C o d ringt o n . Studies o f the Svnan Liturgies (L o n d o n , (r. 1937J). p p . 4 4 -4 7 ; se e also Sept M enologesJacobites, in P O 1 0 :1 2 5 -13 0 (m a n u scrip ts o f 1210 an d 1465). 9 2 , 134. C f. in fra , sectio n 6 (A rm en ia ) o n th e p r e s e n c e o f a few J a co b ite b ish op s in th e C o u n cil o f M anazkert (7 2 8 ). w h ere Sabbaths as w ell as S u n d a y s w ere m a d e d avs o f fea stin g an d relig io u s g a th erin g . S ee n o te 127. ** S ocrates Sch olastic u s Eccl. H ist 5. 21 ( N P N F t2 2 :1 2 9 ); cf. 7 . 5 . 12 ( S P S F V 2 : 15 5 . 15 6 . 15 8 ), S o z o m e n . E ccl H u t.. 7. 18 X P S F t2 2 :3 8 8 . 389). C a n o n 7 o f th e C o u n cil o f (.o n sta n u n o p le (3 8 1 ) m en tio n s th e S abbatians to g eth er

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w ith several o th er h eretical g ro u p s i.\7 \V f7 2 1 4 :185). C f. also J o a n n e s D o m m icu s M ansi. Sarrorum (.o n a lio ru m N o va el Am plisstm a ColUctw (G raz, i9 6 0 ) , 3 :5 6 4 . W ith so m e m od ification s, this ca n o n is in co r p o r a ted in th e Q u im sex t C o u n cil is 1 homos-Christen (W ü rzb u rg , 1966), p. 7 7 . R ichter, op. a t., p. 78. I0* R ich ter, oft. a t., p. 78 103 P od ip ara, loc. a t., R ich ter, op a t., p. 78. 104 R ich ter, op. a t., p. 78. 103 M oraes. op. a t., p. 199. 106 p od ip ara, Saga za-Ab is re p o rte d to have explained in Lisbon the following about Sabbath observance in Ethiopia (in the context o f a re p o rt on o th e r beliefs an d practices, as well): “W e are bound by the Institutions o f the Apostles to observe two days, to wit; the Sabbath a n d the L o rd ’s-day, on which it is not lawful for us to do any work, no, not the least. O n the 180

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Sabbath-day, because God, afte r he had finished the creation o f the world, rested th ereo n ; which day, as God would have it called the Holy o f Holies, so the not celebrating th e re o f with great honor and devotion seems to be plainly co n trary to G od’s will and p recept, who will su ffer heaven an d earth to pass away sooner than his w ord; a n d th at especially, since C hrist cam e not to dissolve the law, but to fulfill it. It is not, th ere fo re , in imitation of the Jews, but in obedience to Christ and his holy apostles, th at we observe that day, the favor that was show ed herein to the Jews, being tra n sfe rre d to us, C hristians. . . . We do observe the L o rd ’s-day afte r the m an n er o f all o th e r C hristians in m em ory o f C hrist’s re su rrec tio n ." 106 M eanwhile, in the East, the Moslem military leader A hm an ibn Ibrahim (nicknam ed G ran , the “left-handed"), o f the su ltanate o f Adal, had started his raids an d incursions that b ro u g h t ruin, devastation, a n d misery upon C hristian E thiopia. As early as 1529 he inflicted a m ajor defeat on Lebna Dengel. In desp eratio n th e king sent Jo a o B erm udez to E u ro p e in 1535 to sum m on help. T ry in g to enlist the sym pathy an d su p p o rt o f P ortugal and o f o th e r C hristian pow ers, the king m ade it be know n that he was willing "to b rin g the m onophysite C h u rch , w ithout changing its ch aracter o r doctrine, u n d e r the su p rem e ju risd ictio n o f th e C h u rch o f R om e .” 107 B erm u d ez’ em bassy eventually resulted in the arrival at the Red Sea po rt o f Massawa ( 1541 ) o f 400 P ortuguese soldiers with firearm s, sent by P ortugal from Goa (India) u n d e r the leadership o f C ristovao d a Gam a, y o u n g er b ro th e r o f Vasco. M eanwhile young C laudius (Galawdewos, 1540-1559) had succeeded his fa th e r on th e E thiopian th ro n e. W ith the decisive help o f the P ortuguese firearm s he succeeded in d efeating, and in finally killing, G ran (1543). For all practical p u rposes the Moslem m enace h ad en d ed . Now the country needed to be rebuilt. C o n fro n tatio n with the Rom an Catholic C h u rch began soon a fte r the above-m entioned decisive m ilitary victory. B erm udez was back in Ethiopia an d insisted th at th e R om an rite be en fo rced th ro u g h o u t the country. C laudius refused, an d , according to the royal chronicler, finally (c. 1545) had B erm udez “exiled to th e co u n try o f G a fâ .. . . C laudius disliked the religion o f the F ranks.” W ishing to convert Ethiopia to the Rom an faith, Pope Ju liu s III ap p o in ted a Patriarch o f Ethiopia (1554). In o rd e r to p re p are the way for him , Gonçales R odriguez a n d two o th e r Jesuits went to Ethiopia first (1555). T h e king treated them kindly, but firmly rejected th eir pressure to abandon the faith o f his ancestors. In 1557 Jesu it B ishop A n d ré d e O viedo arrived in E thiopia.I(WT h e royal ch ro n icler com m ents: “T h e object o f this voyage . . . was to criticize the tru e faith which was b ro u g h t to E thiopia from A lexandria an d openly to proclaim the false belief which issued from R om e .” 110 C laudius explained to O viedo that he already had a m onophysite A buna. H e arg u ed with him an d his com panions, "defeated them in arg u m e n t an d co n fo u n d ed th e ir falsehoods .” 111 O u t o f these disputes cam e what is know n as C laudius’ “C onfession o f F aith.” T h e Jesuits, as others before them , had accused the Ethiopian C h u rch o f observing several Jew ish custom s an d laws. C laudius refu tes these charges in the context o f a fairly com prehensive confession o f faith. In re g ard to Sabbath and S unday observance he writes: “B ut as fa r as o u r celebration o f the Sabbath day is concerned, we d o not celebrate it as th e Jew s do, who have crucified C hrist, saying: Let His blood (fall) over us and over o u r children. For these Jew s n eith er draw w ater n o r kindle a fire 181

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n o r cook any food, n o r bake bread, n eith er [do] they go from house to house. ‘But we celebrate it in bringing the offering [i.e., the Sacram ent] on it an d in keeping the agape, as o u r fathers, the apostles, have com m anded us in the Didascalia. We d o not celebrate it in the way that Sunday is celebrated, which is the new day, about which David said: O n this day which the Lord has m ade, let us be glad a n d full o f jo y .” 11* C laudius follows very closely Zara Yaqob's position o f a century earlier. S unday seems to be p re fe rre d , but he is far from ready to give u p the Sabbath. T h e contrast betw een the Jew ish and the C hristian (E thiopian) ways o f observing the Sabbath is sharply draw n. Soon afterw ard, in 1559, C laudius was killed in battle. His b ro th e r Minas (1559-1563) succeeded him. A fter the victory over Graft, 100 o r 150 surviving P ortuguese soldiers had settled in Ethiopia an d had becom e an integral p a rt o f the p o p u latio n ."5 In the words o f A. Jo n es and E. M onroe, “C laudius had allowed the Abyssinian wives an d slaves o f the P ortuguese to ad o p t the Rom an faith, an d had perm itted the Abyssinians to atten d the Rom an churches. Minas forbade this, and when Bishop O viedo defied him , he was barely restrained from killing the Jesu it with his own hands." 114 A bout this tim e the Mashafa Tomar (“Book o f the L etter”) ap p eared , translated from the Arabic. A ccording to tradition, the original “cam e dow n from heaven in th e C h u rch o f Saints P eter a n d Paul in Rom e in D ecem ber, A. G r. 1050, in the presence o f all the principal priests an d a very large co n gregation ." 1,5 "T h e letter deals with C hristian doctrines in th e broadest sense, but directs particular atten tio n to th e im portance o f Sabbath observance.” "• Minas was succeeded by his son Sartsa Dengel (1563-1597), who reversed his fa th e r’s policy, protected O viedo, tolerated the R om an priests, an d was even accused by th e native clergy o f having asked the pope to send m issionaries to Ethiopia. His ch ronicler records the baptism en masse o f a newly co n q u ered h eathen people, p e rfo rm ed on a Sabbath an d th e im m ediate Sunday, in the twenty-fifth year o f his re ig n ."7 The Ephemeral Trium ph o f the Anti-Sabbath Party (1604-1632).—Some years later, in 1603, Spanish Jesu it P ero F. Paez arrived in Ethiopia. A m an o f ex tra o rd in ary ability, h e m astered G e ez in one year. His "com m on sense, shrew dness a n d discretion” "* appealed to all classes. He established a school in the m onastery o f F rem onat (near Aksum ), to which both E thiopian and P ortuguese ch ildren w ere ad m itted, an d w ere taught the Rom an faith. T h e fam e o f Paez as a teacher soon reached the royal court. In April, 1604, he was received by the new king, Za Dengel (1603-1604). T h e king “both favourably and patiently" listened to "several D isputes . . . about C ontroversies in R elig io n .. . . Mass was also said afte r th e Roman m an n er, and a S erm on P reach’d; with which Zadenghel was so taken, that . . . he resolv’d to subm it him self to the Pope.” ", Za D engel’s decision to jo in the Rom an Catholic C hurch becam e clear to his subjects when he set fo rth an edict "That no Person should any longer observe the Sabbath as a Holy day." 'm L etters followed from him to both Pope C lem ent V III and King Philip III o f Spain a n d Portugal, asking fo r artisans, soldiers, an d m ore Jesu it fathers to instruct his subjects .1,1 T h e reaction in Ethiopia was fast an d violent. Peter, the A buna, released the people from th eir oath o f allegiance to the king, and excom m unicated Za Dengel. 182

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Only once before had a king been excom m unicated (for incest). A successful m ilitary revolt en d e d with the defeat an d death o f the king, only m onths later, in O ctober o f 1604, in spite o f his being su p p o rted by about 200 P ortuguese soldiers with firearm s.1“ T o Za D engel’s reign belongs the Saw am Nafs (“R efuge o f the Soul"), a letter w ritten to the king by Newaya Masqal from the latter's place o f exile in Egypt. It is an a ttem p t to convince the king to hold firm to the A lexandrian faith. In c h a p te r 2 the a u th o r tells th e king that in yielding to the Jesuits and rejecting the Sabbath he has ig n o red both the law o f th e C rea to r and the canons o f the apostles. T h e n , tu rn in g against th e "innovators" who arg u e that the Jew s crucified Jesus because H e b ro k e the Sabbath, he quotes Jo h n 5:18, and concludes th at if the charge o f His break in g th e Sabbath is en o u g h to justify abolishing Sabbath observance now, th en th e belief in God as Jesu s’ F ath er should also be abandoned. Newaya Masqal’s logic could be charged with ignoratio elenchi, but he is one m ore clear exam ple o f the d ee p concern fo r Sabbath observance shown so m any times by E thiopians .115 A fter som e th ree years o f a war o f succession, the th ro n e was finally m ade secure in the h an d s o f Susenyos (1607-1632). T h e king “was an educated m an and . . . was favourably im pressed by the intelligence and learning o f the Jesuit priests ." 1,4 H e eased the restrictions against th e Rom an faith and perm itted proselytizing. L etters w ere sent to the pope a n d to the king o f Spain requesting assistance .115 By 1612 Susenyos had privately decided to becom e a Rom an Catholic. T h e re w ere several public disputes on the two n atu res o f C hrist, a key point o f d isagreem ent betw een the A lexandrian (m onophysite) and the Rom an faith. T h e Jesuits won every time. E ncouraged by these results, the king published an edict giving liberty to all his subjects to em brace Rom an C atholicism .'“ E thiopian M etropolitan Sim eon, several o f the nobility, an d m any o f the clergy decided to rebel. T h e rebels were defeated by Susenyos (1617), who in the year 1620 published a n o th er edict forbidding Sabbath observance as Jew ish and re p u g n a n t to C hristianity. An anonym ous reply to this edict so incensed the king that, according to Ludolf, he "renew ’d the Edict about the Sabbath, and co m m an d ed th e H u sb an d m en to Plough an d Sow upon that Day, ad d in g as a Penalty u p o n th e O ffen d ers, for th e first Fault the F orfeiture o f a weav’d V estm ent to th e value o f a Portugal Patack; for the second, Confiscation o f Goods, and th at th e said O ffence should no t be prescribed to Seven years; a certain form usually inserted in th eir m o re severe D ecrees ." 1,7 L u d o lf could not hide his ad m iratio n fo r the piety o f the E thiopians "since they w ere thus to be com pell’d to the Neglect o f th e Sabbath by such Severe Laws, w hen we can hardly be in d u c’d by stricter Penalties to observe th e Lord's-D ay ."118 T o m ake su re that the d ecree would be obeyed, a general, accused o f having refu sed to work on the Sabbath, was “beaten with rods, and publicly d e g ra d e d ,” 129 an d in trying to explain his position to the chief nobles an d com m anders o f the arm y, Susenyos expressed his su rp rise at the accusation th at he had ch an g ed the religion o f the country. H e h ad only re fo rm ed it. C hrist, in fact, had two natu res, he a d d ed . “In the next place he had abrogated the Observation of the Sabbath Day, became it became not C hristians to observe the Jew s Sabbath.”150 T h e arm e d rebellion against the “P rophanation o f the Sabbath," as it was called by some, sp re a d .'51 B ut the king was able to defeat the rebels. E ncouraged by 183

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his victories, in 1622 he issued a proclam ation to his subjects giving the reasons why he had ab a n d o n ed the A lexandrian faith an d accepted the R om an. H e urg ed them to follow his exam ple. But the rebellion co n tin u ed .1” H aving received a reply from Paul V, Susenyos answ ered in a letter d ated J a n u a ry 31, 1623, prom ising to obey him as universal pastor o f the ch u rch , an d asking for a P atriarch.1” M ore Jesuits cam e in 1623. T h e n , in 1624 o r 1625, A lphonso M endez, th e new P atriarch, arrived. H e is described as “a brave an d a bold m an, but rigid, uncom prom ising, narrow -m inded a n d in to le ran t ." 154 M endez “m ade Susenyos a n d his sons an d officials and priests m ake a new confession o f th e Rom an Faith in F ebruary 1626, an d to swear solemnly by the Gospel an oath o f obedience to His H oliness the Pope;" an d he in tro d u ced sw eeping ch an g es.1” S aturday becam e a day o f fasting.1* T h e changes so abruptly in tro d u ced soon began to tu rn the tide against the king, an d he was co n fro n ted with a grow ing opposition to the religious civil w ar th at was ru in in g the country. In response to arg u m en tatio n by enem ies o f th e Jesuits, King Susenyos finally yielded slightly .'*7 An edict was published th at p erm itted again the exercise o f all the ancient cerem onies that w ere not re p u g n an t to the faith. W hen M endez protested, suggesting that a new edict be p ublished with th e help o f o n e o f the Jesuits, the king com plied. But the new edict specified in article 2 “T h a t the Festivals should be observ'd according to th e ancient C o m p u tation o f T im e," an d in article 3 that w hoever w anted to d o so could fast on th e fo u rth day o f th e week instead o f on the S abbath.15" A fter one m ore m ilitary victory against the rebels, Susenyos, pressed by his son Fasiladas an d o th ers to stop the carnage o f his own subjects, proclaim ed religious freedom in Ju n e , 1632.IW Thus en d ed the most decided attem pt to m odify the religious faith o f Ethiopia, the Sabbath included, since C hristianity had en tered th e country in the fo u rth century a . d . Susenyos died a Rom an Catholic in S eptem ber o f the sam e year. T h e new king, Fasiladas (1632-1667), o rd e re d the Jesuits out o f the country (1633), a n d th en started “b u rn in g all th e Catholic books he could find, an d . . . beheading an d h an g in g every priest, w h eth er Jesuit o r C apuchin, an d all who were associated with th e m ." 140His son, Y ohannes I (1667-1682), went even fu rth e r by expelling all Rom an Catholics from Ethiopia (1669).1,1 E thiopia had now e n te re d a new period o f relative isolation. Sabbath observance (to g eth er with th at o f Sunday) has co ntinued u n in te rru p te d since the seventeenth cen tury until to d ay .1,1 H ow ever, the quality o f Sabbath observance is, by far, not unifo rm in all p arts o f the c o u n try .145 Summary and C onclusions Both th e Sabbath a n d Sunday w ere observed in fourth-century Egypt. H ow ever, S unday was th e p re fe rre d day. C om m union was adm inistered in A lexandria (c. 385) only on these two days, and the Sabbath was never supposed to be a day o f fasting, except o n Easter Sabbath. M oreover, until c. 400 th ere w ere no public services in th e Egyptian m onasteries— except for V espers an d N octurns— o th e r th an on the Sabbath an d Sunday. It ap p ears that d u rin g the first h alf o f th e fifth century, C hristians in A lexandria sto p p ed assem bling together an d celebrating the “sacred m ysteries” on th e Sabbath. However, th e churches in the neighborhood o f A lexandria and 184

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elsew here in Egypt participated in the “m ysteries” on Sabbath evening. It is possible that th e A lexandrian change o f posture can be traced to the anti-Jew ish o u tb reak u n d e r A rchbishop Cyril (412-444) that resulted in the expulsion o f the Jew s from A lexandria. C hristian-Jew ish relations had been less th an cordial in A lexandria at least since the second century a . d . T h e available d o cum ents also suggest that from approxim ately the year 500 Egypt ab a n d o n ed all sem blance o f Sabbath observance. C hristianity e n te re d the kingdom o f Aksum in the fo u rth century. It is assum ed th at Sabbath and Sunday w ere from the outset observed as days o f rest, following the practice o f the ch u rch o f A lexandria to which the ch u rch o f the A ksum ite kingdom was closely attached. B eginning, apparently, with the eleventh century, th e A lexandrian See began ex ertin g pressure on the E thiopian C h u rch to follow its exam ple in ab a n d o n in g Sabbath observance. By the second half o f the th irte e n th cen tu ry , Ethiopia was well on h er way tow ard following A lexandria. An increasingly stro n g pro-Sabbath reaction was cham pioned by E ustathius an d his followers b eginning in the first half o f the fo u rte en th century. It culm inated with th e full legal reinstatem ent o f Sabbath as a day o f rest (along w ith Sunday) by King Zara Yaqob d u rin g th e first h alf o f the fifteenth century. In th e last q u a rte r o f the fifteenth century, the first Rom an Catholic priests en tered E thiopia. In 1541 a force o f 400 P ortuguese soldiers arrived in answ er to King Lebna D engel’s d esp erate plea for help against the Moslem invaders. A fter victory, B erm udez first, then O viedo a few years later, unsuccessfully ex erted pressu re on kings C laudius and Minas to subm it to the Rom an C hurch, and to ab an d o n , am o n g o th e r beliefs and practices, the observance o f the seventh-day Sabbath. Jesu it P. F. Paez was successful in attracting King Za D engel to the Rom an Catholic faith. T h is m onarch issued an edict forbidding Sabbath observance (1604). A fter th e king was killed in the ensuing revolt, Paez won over King Susenyos, who becam e a R om an Catholic. Susenyos issued harsh edicts com m anding th e people to work on the Sabbath and crushed alm ost all arm ed opposition. B ut a fte r Paez’s death (1622), Patriarch A lphonso M endez's rigid, un co m prom ising ways stren g th en e d the anti-Jesuit party. T h e king, a fte r a final m ilitary victory, d ecreed com plete religious freedom and abdicated. His son Fasiladas expelled the Jesuits. L ater King Y ohannes (1669) expelled all R om an Catholics from his kingdom . Since th e sev enteenth century, Ethiopia has kept, u n d istu rb ed , both Sabbath and Sunday. H ow ever, real Sabbath observance today, as far as the Coptic C h u rch is co n cerned, is confined mostly to the ru ral areas in the n o rth e rn provinces. NO TES 1 C a n o n s later a p p r o v e d by n a m e— n ot q u o te d — as b in d in g , in ca n o n 2 o f the Q u in isex t C o u n cil in 6 9 2 . N otitia H u to n o -L ittera n a (in tro d u cto ry n o tes to th e w ork s o f St. Peter; P G 1 8 :4 4 9 , 450 ). a Saruti Petri Episcopi A le x a n d n m f t M a rtyn s Etas tula Canonira trans. in N P N F f2 14:601. 3 T h e H om ilia d r S rm e n tf is o n lv attrib u ted to A th a n a siu s, b ish o p o f A lex a n d ria (c. 2 9 6 -3 7 3 ). It is co n s id e r e d o f d u b io u s au th e n ticity (P G 2 8 :7). 4 S. P N . A th an asii H om ilia de Sem enie (P G 2 8 :1 4 4 ); se e E n glish v ersio n in S D A B S S B , N o . 1422. 5 Ibid (PG 2 8 :1 4 4 . 145) 6 S. P. N. A th an asii D t Sabbatis f t C trc u m n sw n f (P G 2 8 :1 3 3 . 137). (Italics su p p lie d .) F ren ch v ersio n in W illy R o rd o rf, Sabbat f t dtm anrhe dans I’EgU sf a n c tm n e (N cu t hatel. S w itzerlan d. 1 972), p. 9 1 . 7 Ibid. (PG 2 8 :1 4 0 ); F ren ch v ersion in R ord orf. op. a t., pp. 185, 187. * Ibid (PG 2 8 .1 4 1 ); R ord orf. o f a t., p. 187. S ee also a clearly sp u rio u s w ork attrib u ted to A th a n a siu s. Syntagm a D o ftn n a f ad M onafhos, O mnrsque C nrutianut tarn Clcncos quam Laicos (P G 2 8 :8 3 7 ). T h e a u th o r classifies Sabbath

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o b servan ce to g eth er w ith actions su ch a» »as trig " r i b " to a b ro th er, o r d e a lin g w ith m agic a n d in ca n ta tio n s, as s o m eth in g that a C hristian «hould n ot d o (col M 9 ) H o w ev e r. S abbath a n d Sunday a re sin g led o u t as d a vs w h en t.isim g sh o u ld not takr p lace, exc ep t 1«*r Faster S a lilu th *«• *1 8 4 0 | The C arum ual Ai&ruvn o f Timothy. the M ost H oly B uhttp of Alexandria, to ho VVai O ne o f the C L Fathery Gathered Together at Constantinople, to the Q u/iium i Proposed to H im (o m e r n tn g Bisfutpt a n d Clerus. Q u e stio n X II I . in N P X F I 2 , 14 (A p p en d ix IX >:613 < e e PC. 33 ISO'» S ee a b o R o rd o rf. op rtf., p p 10$, 105 : \'a\\mUu> IhM ona ad l.a u iu m ^ • n . M I" PC N 1 0 1 0 ), a n d chap» 15. 1 6 (PC S 4 : 1 0 3 6 ) S ee a b o R ord orf. op fit., p. 87. R o rd o rl. op fit., p. 8 5 . q u ote» Vita / la m ti P a th tm n 2 S a t follow s “H e [P a ch o m iu s] p rescrib ed , th e « u p e n n te n d e n i o f th e m on astery w ul a rran ge lo r th ree (session» o f) in stru ction : o n e o n th e S abbath a n d tw o o n S u n d a \ “ A ccord in g to R o rd o rf. th e C optic text o f Pachom iu»' ru le is not that clear. It states that th e “in stru ctio n had to take p lace. ob ligatorily, tw ice a week.*'— Ibid.. n. 3 11 I b id . 138 ( n i 3 4 :1 2 3 6 ) S ee R ord orf. op. rtf., p. 2 0 7 11 J o h n C^assun The )n \titu te\ of the Coenobw 3. 2 ( N P N f t 2 11 213). 15 I b id , 5 2 6 ( S P S F V 11 2 4 3 ) 14 I bid . 2. 4 (N P N F /2 1 1:206) 11 I b u i , 2 . 6 ( N P S ’FI2 11 2 0 7 ) ' • J o h n ( a u i a n . Conferenres 2 3 . 21 (N P N F f2 1 1:531). 17 C f. ch ap . 8 . n n . 14. 15. S ocrates ScholastM u s E fciesunttcal H utory 5. 2 2 (N P N F J2 2 .1 3 2 ). 19 S o to m e n E ffle iu u tifa l H uiory 7 19 (N P N F f2 2 390) *° S ocrates Scholastic u s E c tl. H u t. 7. IS ( N P S F f t 2 :1 5 9 ). cf. M arcel S im o n . V e rm Israel (P a ra . 1 964). p 382. » Had n Ibid 25 C f ( a u u n ' t w itn ess (r. 4 0 0 ). w ith S ocrates Scholastic us' a n d S o to m en '» sta tem en ts i t 4 4 0 ). H R ord orf. op a t., p 2 0 8 . an d p 2 0 9 . n 4; Cl. K ruger. “E u sebiu s o f A lex a n d ria .“ S th a ff-H eru tg . 4 2 0 8 15 T e x t in PC* 0 6 /1 :4 1 3 -4 2 1 . F ren ch version in R o rd o rf. op rtf., p p. 209*219. ** Ibtd . col. 4 1 6 . r Ibui n I b u i. c o ls 4 1 9 . 4 2 0 79 Ibid , co ls 4 2 0 . 421 50 R ord orf. op rtf., p. 2 1 9 . n. 3. ex p la in s that th e fragm en t ha» b een attrib u ted to Peter o f A lex a n d ria (d ied 3 1 1 ) But R ord orf argue» that th e “S u n d ay le g isla tio n “ in th e fra g m en t “»cerns im p ossib le at th e b e g in n in g o f th e fo u rth centu ry “ O n th e o th er h an d , th e con ten t» a re strikingly sim ilar to E usebiu» o f A lex a n d ria » h o m ilv 16 ** (P seu d o ) P eti u s A le x a n d n n u m . Fragm entum . in Texte u n d L'ntersuehungen :ur G exthuhte der a lu h n s tln h e n I iteratur. so l 2 0 . e d by G S ch m id t (1 9 0 1 ). q u o te d in R ord orf. op. n L . p p 219*221 n R ord orf. op rtf . p 2 2 1 . n . I M Zac h arie le Sc h olastiu u e V w de S M r t (P O 2 :3 2 ). u S e e m P O 1 4 :344. a r e fe r e n c e to “th e holy n igh t o f th e li ir d s Dav in The li f e of Abba Jo h n Ktuime John K h a m l was a Syrian w h o lived in Eftvpt (so m etim e b etw een /0 0 an d 8 6 0 ). T h e r e are r e fe ren ce s to »e»eral co n set rations d o u r o n Sunday in th e th ir te e n tn ce n tu ry , in M o u fa /z a l I bn Abal-Fazail. H u U m e des Sultans M a m lo u k». P O 14 4 4 7 -4 5 1 . M A lex a n d er Ros». Pansebeta or. A K ir» o f a ll Religions in the W orld (L o n d o n . 1 6 5 5 ). p. 494 *• Ciregory D ix. e d .. T he Treatise on the Apastabe Tradition o f S t H tp p o h tu s o f Rom e ( liin d im . 196 8 ), p Ivm 17 Ibtd.. p lix M W ilson B B ish ai. “S abb ath O b se r v a n c e fro m C optic S ources." AVSS I ( I 9 6 3 ):2 7 . c f a parallel tex t in 1st "127 Canons des ApStm." 1:65. trans. fro m A rabic to F ren ch bs J e a n IV n er a n d A ugu»tm P e n o r . in PO 8 :6 4 9 . ** T h e Arabic v ersion was m a d e fro m th e C opu c b e fo r e 1295 T h e r e are »eyera! m an uscrip t» In P O 8 :5 6 7 * 5 7 0 . m an uscrip t» are m e n tio n e d fro m th e »ears 1339. 1348. 13 5 3 . 1 641. 166 4 . a n d 1 7 3 0 * I tn d . 2 4 5 (P O 8 :6 8 4 ) 41 I b td , I 4 0 (P O 8 :6 1 2 ) 41 C f j> 175 in th is sam e ch a p ter o n th e im p act that Ib n al-Assa!*» (o ile r turn o f C anons ( 1 238). p rep a re d for the b en efit of (.o p tic C h ristian s in E gyp t, h ad o n E th iop ia ° Edw ard I 'lle n d o r ff. The Ethiopians. 2d e d (L o n d o n . 196 5 ). p. 4 9 44 Idem , “H ebraic-Jew ish E lem en t» in A bvssin ian (M o n o p h ssite ) C h ristia n ity ." /o w n w j/o / Sem etu Studies I (J u h . 1 956) 2 1 6 * 2 5 6 . idem, E th u tn a and the Bible (L o n d o n . 1968). p p IS -3 0 w Idem Fthurpta. p. 23. 46 Ibui T h ere is a late E th iop ian trad ition a cco rd in g to w hich in p re-C h ristian d a y s part o f th e p o p u la tio n follow ed th e Jew ish re lig io n , an d th e o th e r part w o rsh ip e d th e “s e r p e n t.“ S ee uiem, F. th u p u m \. p 9 7 ; !?. A W allis B u d g e. A H istory o f Ethiopia (L o n d o n . 1928). 1:148. C f w ith th e a lso late trad ition d e p e n d ') o f th e q u e e n o f Shelia. S o lo m o n , an d M eneltk I th at, for all practical p u r p o ses, w as treated as historical fact w h en it was in clu d ed in th e 1955 C o n stitu tio n I 'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p p 6 4 . 6 5 . 143. 144. 194. B u d g e, op t i t . pp. 194*200. 2 2 0 * 2 2 7 . et ce te ra 47 I'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopia™ , p. I l l a M axim e R o d in so n . “Sur la Q u e stio n de» In flu e n c es Ju ives' e n E th iop » J o u r n a l o f Sem etu Stu d iet 9 (S p rin g 19(H): 12 T h eir n u m b er has b een variously estim a ted at b etw een 1 5 ,0 0 0 an d 6 0 ,0 0 0 A m o n g th e w orks they haye w ritten w e find th e “C o m m a n d m e n ts o f th e S a b b a th '' C lle n d o r ff. E th io p ia n». p p 111. 154 S ee a lso Ernst H am m er»t h n n d t. Stellung u n d B edeutung dei Sabbat* in AOuopten (S tuttgart. 1963). p p 66*69. ** I b u i, 51*19. 51 S ee T a d d e ss e T a m rat, C hurrh a n d State in F.thutpui 1 2 7 0 - 1 ) 2 7 (O x fo r d . 197 2 ). p p. 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 . It sh o u ld probably b e m e n tio n e d at th is p oin t that th e E th iop ian e u n u c h b a p tited by P h ilip (A cts 8 .2 6 - 3 9 ) was n ot an A k su m ite subject, bu t a m in ister o f o n e o f th e C a n d a ce s o f N u b ia, w h o se cap ital w as at M eroe. 130 m iles n o rth o f K h a n u m (in p resen t-d av S u d an ) ** S in ce that tim e , a n d u n til J u n e 2 9 . 1959, th e E th io p ia n C h u rch d e p e n d e d o n A lex a n d ria fo r her m etro p o lita n A lm ott w ith ou t ex c e p tio n th e A b u n a was an E gyp tian . (•. A. M a lo n ey . “E th io p ia n R ite.” S C E 5 :5 8 7 . I# K ruger. “Aby»»inia a n d th e A byssin ian C hu rch." S r h a ff H erzog. 1:19; B J . K idd. The C hurthes o f Eastern (.hnstendom ( la in d o n , I9i?7), p p. 4 4 8 , 4 4 9

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M B u d g e. op. at.. p. 2 5 8 ; I 'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians. p p 100. 101. M C f. c n a p 8 . p p 151. 152. and c h a p 9 , p p. 1 7 3 .1 7 4 . K id d , up at., p 153. writes: “C o n ser v a tiv e b eca u se o f ih cir a g e -lo n g isolation , ih r A b yssin ian s h a v e retain ed cu sto m s o n c e p revalen t in fa rlv day»— th e c o m m u n io n o f in fa n ts fro m th e ch alice, th e o b se rv a n ce o f Sabbath a* w ell a» S u n d a s. a n d th e celeb ra tio n o f th e Agape1." “ History of the Patriarchs o f Alexandria 2. 3. 3 3 0 . q u o te d in T a m rat. op at., p. 2 09.

60 “ L'nd b eob ach tet n ich t S en Sabbat wie d ie j u d e n " H a m m e r « hrnidt'» (op at.. p. 6 0 ) tra n sla tio n fro m Ge^ez. 61 Ibvd T h e Dtdascalta w a ^ n t t e n in S y n a d u r in g th e th ird cen tu ry a . d . It w as in co r p o r a ted , w ith a d a p ta tio n s, in ^ * T h e p se u d o -C le m e n tin e w ork k n ow n as “T e a c h in g o f th e A p ostle Peter to C lem en t," tra n sla ted Irom the Arabic in to L th iop ic at th e e n d o l th e f o u n e e n ih centu ry , or early fiftee n th centu ry (n ot later th an 1425). Ib id . p. 4 2 . /a r a - ^ a iq o b Mfahajd Bnhan (“B ook o f Light") 2 (h e r e a fte r cited as MB), q u o te d in T a m ra t. op. c il . p. 2 1 0

71 (nutia E wostatfwos, e d . by B T u raiev in Monumenta Aethurpiae Hagu»lt*gia. fuv m (P etro p o li. 1 9 0 5 ), p. 9 1 . u u o te d in T a m ra t. op. ni., p. 2 0 7 . C f. R ud olf K n u an d H u b ert k n s s -H e in n c h . in I olhskundluhe Anteile in Kuli und Legerule athiopnt her Heihger (W iesb ad en . 1975). p. 112. T h ey state that E w ostatew os (E u stath iu s) was th e fo u n d e r o f the teac h in g o n th e san ctification o f th e S abhath Som eh ow th e \ seem to fo rg et that o n p a g e 15 thev h a se re fe r r e d to a m ira cle o fC a b r a M an tas Q e d d u s o n a w om an w h o w as in tro u b le b ecau se, a m o n g oflter th in g s, th e d id not h o n o r the Sabbath ( S a tu r d a \). T h e m iracle is su p p o se d to h ave h a p p e n e d several d eca d es b efo re E ustathius' b irth (cf p. 9) As E phraim Isaac h a s d e a r lv slated . “B y an d large th ere is now sch olarls a g re em en t that k e e p in g Saturdav Sabbath is •ill a n cien t E th iop ian custom.**-— A Sew Text-Cntual Intrudu/tion to Maihafa BerhAn, with a Translation of Botik I (l.e td e n . ¿umtat/u'as. p. 9 6 . q u o te d in T am rat. op. a t . p. 2 0 7 . n . 6 .

T a m ra t. op at., jj 2 3 8 . c f H a m m e r sc h m ^ t. op rif., p p. 3 0 . 31.

MB 1 3 (Isaac, op. ait..

108). C f. Isaac, op a t . p p . 9 5 -9 8 . 1 0 8 -1 11; see also p p . 133, 134.

w J . M H a r d e n . \h e Ethiopu Didascalia, T ra n sla tio n s o f C hristian L itera tu re. S eries 4: O rien ta l T e x ts (L o n d o n . 1920). Q uoted in H am m e rsc h n u d t. ot> at., p p 3 7 . 38 D ix . op a t . p p 4 3 . 44 See a lso H a m m e r * h m id t. op. at., pp. 4 2 -4 7 ; I. O u a sten . "A postolic C o n stitu tio n s." SCE. vol. I. p p 68 v>. 6 9 0 It sh o u ld be n o te d that th e p h rase “an d o n th e Sabbath and" d o e s n ot a p pear in th e c o r r e sp o n d in g text o f th e Canons of Hippohitui. a h fth - or sixth -cen tu rv drastic recastin g o f th e Apostolu Tradition d o n e in E gvpt D tx.op a t . p p. Ixxvi. Ixxvti. 4 3 .e s p n. 1 It seem s to be an E thiopic in terp o la tio n , u n d e r lin in g th e E th iop ian C hu rch's d e e p co n ce rn for S abbath o b se rv a n ce C f. a n o th e r in stan ce o f an in terp o la ted “Sabbath" m th e K lhiopit versio n o f th e Egyptian Church Order (that d o e s n ot a p p e a r in th e Sahidic an d Arabic v ersio n s) in K en n eth A S tran d . "A f u rth er N o te o n th e Sabbath in C optic S o u r ces, A t / S S 6 (19 6 8 ): 154, 155. 91 U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopiani. p 14V " T h e .Sinociai is th e E th io p u n tran slation o f th e ca n o n s o f th e A p o stles a n d th e a p ostolic co n stitu tio n s tak en fro m th e A le x a n d n a n C h u rch , p lu s th e ca n o n s o f th e ec u m en ica l (Council o f N icaea I an d th e ca n o n s of th e six local sy n o d s o f A ncvra. N co ca esa rc a . (¿an gres. Sardica. A n tio ch , a n d L aodicca."— G A L u d o f f x ommentanus ad Suam Hvtonam Aethiopicam (K tankfurt, 169 1 ). p. 3 0 3 . q u o te d in T a m ra t. op cU.. p 94 The Apostolu Canons are s o m etim es called Statute* of the Apostles. o r (.anones Eeeleaastia T h ey are p a ri o f b o o k 8 ot the Apmtolu Constitutions (ASF 7 :5 0 0 -5 0 5 ); H am m ers« hrmclt. t> en. T his letter, as we shall see later, advocated a sabbatizing o f Sunday with com plete abstention from work o n that day. Licinianus re m in d e d his co rresp o n d en t th at u n d e r th e new law th ere was no prohibit ion o f labor on th e day of th e L ord. In fact, he ad d ed , if th e faithful d o not go to ch u rch on th at day, it is far b etter for them to d o som ething—gard en in g , spinning, hiking, o r som e o th er usefid activity.1’ T h e re was so little thought o f stopping work on Sunday th at th e C ouncil o f O rleans in 538 expressed grave concern ab o u t th e fact th at som e encouraged idleness on the first day o f th e w eek.” At Rom e at the end o f the sixth century Pope G regory th e G reat was greatly distressed because som e “Jew ishness" was seeping into the chu rch . Some people advocated the prohibition o f work, even necessary work, on Sunday. H e had also h ea rd that som e went as far as fo rb id d in g any bathing. T his ap p e a re d to G regory as a re tu rn to legalism. He show ed that one should distinguish betw een bathing for cleanliness and bathing for pleasure and lust. T o sto p w orking is m eaningless, since tru e S undaykeeping is rest from sin, a “sabbath” that is fo u n d in C hrist alone.M D uring that period, C hristians refused to see any identity betw een th e O ld T estam en t rest an d S unday because they associated die seventh day with idleness and foolishness while they looked upon S unday as a day fo r w orship and useful activities. A ugustine proclaim ed loudly that Sunday is not fo r th e Jews: “T h e day o f th e L ord is n o t for the Jew s, but because o f the resurrection o f the L ord, set a p a rt for th e C h ristians ." 15 For th at reason th e C hristians saw no reason to draw from the prescriptions o f the fo u rth com m andm ent norm s for th e observation o f S unday .16 T h a t sh a rp distinction betw een the two days was vividly symbolized at Rome and in som e o th e r places by the fact that S aturday was a day o f fasting an d 192

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Sunday a day of rejoicing, u p o n which it was utterly w rong to m o u rn .17 W hile th e desire to distinguish Sabbath from Sunday was very strong, one m ust note, how ever, th at in th eir legislation the C hristian em p ero rs had attem p ted to secure cessation o f certain activities. T h ey applied to S unday, it ap p ears, th e traditional n o rm followed in th e observation o f pagan holidays: Licet quod praetennissum noceret, “O n e may do what would cause harm if it w ere o m itted .” T h u s ru ral labors th at could be postponed, trials in court th at had to do with the quest fo r gain, a n d en tertain m en ts w ere fo rb id d e n .“ In o rd e r to en courage public w orship, the church also began soon to co n d em n certain types o f labor. At the Council o f O rleans, which had opposed Ju d aizin g tendencies, the people w ere told not to plow, p ru n e vines, erect fences, plant posts, et cetera, that “o n e may have leisure m ore easily to atten d church and take p a rt in p ra y ers .” 19 A lthough Pope G regory had upheld a spiritual rest, he d em an d ed th at all secular activities should stop to allow the people to devote th eir tim e to p ra y e r .20 T h is is the reason why he was so critical of Jan u a riu s, bishop o f C agliari, who used his Sundays fo r harvesting crops. Som e w ent even fu rth e r in sabbatizing the day o f the Lord. As we have seen, the Council o f O rleans refers to C hristians who w anted to prohibit the p re p ara tio n o f food and th e use o f farm anim als, an d G regory the G reat knew som e who rep ro v ed bath in g on Sunday. T h e m ost curious witness o f that tendency is the fam ous Letter from Heaven, to which allusion has already been m ade. It ap p e are d first in Spain but enjoyed an im m ense success both in the West an d in th e East. In som e places in the East it still enjoys credence today.” T h e text o f this letter to which B ishop Licinianus re fe rre d has not been p reserved, an d he m entions only prohibition o f food p re p ara tio n an d walking. H ow ever, it is in teresting to see what was included in later versions.” T h e letter began with a p reface telling the story o f the d o cu m en t—how it was fo u n d at o n e o f the m ost fam ous shrines o f C hristianity, at Jeru salem o r on the m ain altar o f St. P eter at Rom e, a n d how it was w ritten not by an angel but by C hrist H im self, with His own blood o r with letters o f gold. T h e letter itself d em an d e d the strictest Sabbatarianism : “Do not sit in the forum on th e L o rd 's day a n d ju d g e idle m atters o r go h u n tin g and g ath erin g gam e on this day. Do n o t milk cattle on this day either, but ra th e r be occupied with the poor. Do n o t send your oxen to work on this day. . . . You m ust not wash your clothes n o r wash o r cut your h a i r .. . . T ru ly I say to you, be very faithful in keeping th e day o f the L ord, not even g ath erin g vegetables from your gardens on the day o f th e L o rd ."24 A ccording to th e letter, the day should be consecrated to pious purposes, fo r going to ch u rch , fo r visiting the sick, fo r com forting the w orried, an d for m aking peace with o thers. It u ttere d a frig h tfu l curse against those who w ere irrev eren t in church: "I advise you by this letter th at th ere m ust be no one in my churches, m an o r w om an, who d ares to talk an d chit-chat, o r to sit dow n o r to go o ut d u rin g mass befo re th e solem n rites are finished.” N atu ral and su p e rn a tu ra l disasters w ere th rea ten ed against the tran sg res­ sors. T o fam ines, locusts, and sicknesses w ere ad d ed such things as b u rn in g stones an d poisonous flying snakes. W om en w ho d a re to work in the g ard en w ere w arned th at “I will sen d u p o n you w inged snakes to beat an d d ev o u r your breasts.” T h e episde m ad e m uch use o f the O ld T estam ent. It g ro u n d e d the du ty to t s is a h - i j

193

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keep Sunday on th e Sabbath com m andm ent, a n d called for careful observation from sunset on S aturday night, “from the n in th h o u r o f the sabbath until the first h o u r o f th e second day.” ** T h is concept o f the L o rd ’s day m ust have been shared by som e o f the A rian rulers, fo r th e Visigoths su ffe red a telling defeat by the R om ans in 543 because the attack was m ade on Sunday a n d the G oths would not fight.“ T he Saturday Sabbath in the Early Period T h e re w ere C hristians who kept the seventh day, probably along with the first day o f th e week. G regory the G reat writes in the epistle that has already been quoted: “It has been re p o rte d to me th at m en o f a perverse spirit have sp read am ong you som e despicable doctrines th at are com pletely opposed to o u r holy faith, teaching th at all work m ust be in te rru p te d on the Sabbath. W hom could I call them but p reach ers o f the A ntichrist? Is it not A ntichrist who shall com e an d force all to keep Sabbath an d S un d ay ?”27 In the beginning o f the seventh century, th erefo re, we have at Rom e people who advocated total rest on the seventh day, an d it is in teresting that the pope calls that day “Sabbath." Finding people at Rom e who advocate keeping both Sabbath an d Sunday should not be a great surprise, since we have witnesses to that practice in o th er parts o f th e Em pire. In th e Apostolic Constitutions (com piled in the later h a lf o f the fo u rth century), for instance, we are told: “But keep the Sabbath a n d the L o rd ’s day festivals; because the fo rm er is th e m em orial o f the creation an d the latter o f the re s u rre c tio n .. . . I. Peter, a n d I, Paul, have o rd ain ed : let the slaves w ork five days; but on th e Sabbath day a n d the L ord's day let them have leisure to go to chu rch for instruction in piety: on the Sabbath in re g ard to the creation; on the L o rd ’s day in re g ard to the re su rrec tio n ."” G regory o f Nyssa (c. 330-c. 395) explains: “W ith w hat eyes can you behold Sunday, if you desecrate the Sabbath? Don’t you know th at these days are b re th ren ? H e who esteem s the one, disregards also th e o th e r .”29Jo h n Cassian (c. 360-435) states concerning Egyptian m onks that they “had no public assemblies on o th er days, besides in the m o rn in g a n d at evening, except on the Sabbath o r on the L o rd ’s day. w hen they m et at the th ird h o u r to celebrate the co m m u n io n .” 50 A ugustine noted a great flexibility tow ard w orship requirem ents: “In som e places th e com m union takes place daily, in som e only on the Sabbath a n d the Lord's day, a n d in som e only on the L o rd ’s d ay .”51 T h e tension concerning the keeping o f both Sabbath a n d Sunday is reflected in a homily given at a Sabbath m eeting, b u t op posing S abbatarian idleness an d proclaim ing the superiority o f Sunday over th e seventh day.5* It is that variety o f uses that Socrates Scholasticus (died 445) describes in his Ecclesiastical History: “A lthough alm ost all churches th ro u g h o u t th e w orld celebrate the sacred m ysteries on the Sabbath o f every week, yet the C hristians o f A lexandria an d at Rom e on account o f som e ancient traditions have ceased to do this.” ” T he Sabbath in the Celtic Church C ertain scholars have assum ed that the Celuc C hurch kept the seventh day o f th e w eek .54 A study o f th e available evidence shows first th at fo r the Irish, the Sabbath was distinct from the L o rd ’s day. A ccording to C olum ba’s b io g rap h e r A dom nan (late seventh century), the saint said on his d eathbed: “T ru ly this day is 194

T H E S A B BA T H AND L O R D S DAY DUR ING T H E MIDDLE AGES

for m e a Sabbath, because it is my last day o f this present laborious life. In it afte r my toilsom e labours I keep Sabbath; a n d at m idnight o f this following venerated L ord's Day, in th e language o f the S criptures I shall go the way o f the fathers." ” In the sam e work we are told that it was the custom in Ireland to go to ch u rch and celebrate mass on th e L o rd ’s day: “[Colum ba] obeyed th eir com m and and on the L ord's Day according to custom he e n tered the church, along with them , after the read in g o f the g o sp e l.. . . W hile the rites o f the Mass were being celebrated o n the L ord's Day according to the custom .” “ C olum ba's Rules for his m onks (early seventh century) contain references only for a Lord's day public worship. T h e Sabbath seems to have received som e special recognition. In C olum ba's directions for th e choir office, the singing o f m ore psalms was o rd a in e d fo r the nights o f Sabbath an d S unday th an for the o th er nights o f the week. "O n the most holy nights, nam ely on those o f the L ord's Day o r the Sabbath, th ree times the sam e n u m b er is p erfo rm ed at m orning, that is. with thrice ten an d six psalm s ."57 St. David’s followers “from the eve o f the Sabbath until the light shines in the first h o u r afte r the break o f the Sabbath, em ploy them selves in watchings, prayers an d genuflexions, except one h o u r afte r m orning service on the S ab b ath ."“ T hese special vigils rem in d us o f the practices com m anded by J o h n C assian.” T h e m onks' diet was im proved on Sabbath an d Sunday. O n those days they could a d d a little cheese boiled in w ater to their slim fa re .*0 Some texts may well indicate som e recognition o f the seventh day also. T h e ancient law Senchus M or states that "even' seventh day o f the year" was to be devoted to the service o f th e Lord.*' In a letter attrib u ted to C olum ba but whose real au th o rsh ip is unkow n we find a passage that m ight indicate a spiritualized S abbathkeeping. “We are bidden to work on six days but on the seventh day which is the Sabbath, we are restrained from every servile labour. Now by the n u m b e r six th e com pleteness o f o u r work is m eant, since it was in six days that the L ord m ade heaven an d earth . Yet on the Sabbath we are forbidden to labour at any servile work, th at is sin, since he who com m its sin is a slave to sin, so that, w hen in this present age we have com pletely fulfilled o u r works, not h ard en in g o u r h earts, we It is not clear w h eth er the L ord's day was kept in the early Celtic C h u rch in a Sabbatized way, th at is, according to the Old T estam en t laws. In the Life o f Patrick by M uirchu, we a re told that St. Patrick, resting on the L o rd ’s day, heard pagan laborers building earthw orks nearby. T h e saint forbade them to work on the L ord's day. In an o th e r passage o f the sam e work it is said th at “it was [Patrick's] custom e not to travel betw een vespers o f the Lord's night an d the daw n o f the second day o f the week ."45 In A dm onan's Life o f Columba, how ever, we find that saint help in g w ayfarers to be fe rried across the strait an d to be received at Iona on a Sunday. H e also refers to a m onk fishing on a S unday with o th e r men.*' W e find in th at Life no th rea t against violators o f Sunday rules, sim ilar to those that abound

T his attitu d e tow ard the Sabbath and to the Sabbatizing o f S unday m ust be considered in th e b ro a d e r setting o f a strong c u rre n t o f interest in, an d reverence for, Ju d aism a n d the O ld T estam en t, which Marcel Simon calls "the ju d aizin g craze ."4* It had very d e e p an d ancient roots, an d its pow erful attraction was felt

f H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

particularly strongly by the C hristians o f Syria. J o h n C hrysostom delivered eight hom ilies at Antioch in 386 an d 387, probably to w arn the faithful against the allurem ents o f th e synagogue. He was m oved to action by the large n u m b e r o f C hristians who had no intention o f leaving the church but who atten d e d Jew ish services not only as observers but as enthusiastic participants.^ T h e great o ra to r was especially exercised because the great Jew ish holidays w ere im m inent an d he knew that C hristians would find their way en masse to the synagogue. Many went th ere because they believed that the Jew ish cerem onies w ere solem n an d holy .*7 In fact, an o th e r C h u rch F ather, Jero m e , talks about C hristians who th o u g h t that those rituals w ere holier than those o f the Christians.** T h e sam e c u rre n t re ap p ea red later in som e parts o f the West, w here we find nuclei o f C hristians isolated in lim e an d space w ho w anted to keep the gospel and observe Jew ish precepts at the sam e time. M any o f them lived in the Visigothic realm . Isidore o f Seville speaks o f m any who are n eith er truly Jew s n o r truly Christians.*'* A n o th er d o cum ent inform s us that late in the seventh century in Septim ania th ere was a disquieting am ount o f “ju d aizin g .” “ T h e Visigothic rulers w ere led to enact the d eath penalty fo r C hristians who practiced Jew ish rituals .'1 T h is m ust not have been en forced successfully, since Pope H ad rian I in 794 w rote a letter to th e Spanish bishops to com plain that nothing was being d o n e about C hristians who fratern ized with Jew s in pleasures an d beliefs.4*C hristian au th o rs o ften speak o f C hristians p artaking in Jew ish Sabbath banquets.” T h e popularity o f Ju d aism may have been because m any C hristians w ere convinced that the Jew s p reach ed fa r b etter than the priests.M The sam e situation is re p o rted elsew here. T h e anonym ous a u th o r o f a com m entary on D euteronom y from th e m iddle o f the eighth century knew C hristians who held to the gospel and to the Jew ish precepts.” R abanus M aurus (776-856). th e great abbot o f Fulda, m entions “Jew s an d Ju d aizers in o u r tim e," “ a g ro u p lo which F ulbert o f C h artres (c. 960-1028) also re fe rre d in his serm o n s .57 The w ords “Ju d aize r" an d “Judaizing" w ere used, it is true, very loosely—som e­ times fo r very m in o r deviations from orthodoxy. While recognizing this fact, B. B lum enkranz, one o f the leading authorities in this dom ain, concludes his study o f Ju d aizin g cu rren ts by saying, “In a conscious, determ in ed way, C hristians accepted Jew ish practices, influenced as they w ere eith er by the reading o f the Old T estam en t alone, o r by real contact with Jews, above all in observing the Sabbath rest o r in accepting som e o f the food p re c e p ts."5* A ccording to the th irteen th canon o f the C ouncil o f Frioul in N o rth e rn Italy held in 796 o r 797 th ere w ere farm ers who kept the S abbath.“ The fact that the recently co nverted B ulgarians w rote Pope Nicholas I to ask w h eth er they should stop th eir w ork on the Sabbath indicates th at the Sabbath rest was still a live m atter in that region in the tenth century.*® A council at the end o f the ninth century u rg ed th e people to keep Sunday ra th e r than Sabbath an d drew stern m easures against Ju d a iz in g .61 I he very frequent repetition o f the anti-Sabbath canon o f Laodicea in m edieval councils shows the persistence o f Sabbatizing.6’ T h e anti-Sabbath attitu d e o f the W estern C hurch was an im portant factor in th e G reat Schism o f 1054.” T h e E asterners w ere very critical o f the W estern practice o f fasting on S aturday because it contravened the canons o f so m any councils. T h e W esterners fell that th e word o f the pope should be sufficient to settle that m atter an d d em an d ed the pro m p t subm ission o f th e Byzantines.w T h e 196

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q u arrel em bittered itself as the Catholics accused th e C hristians o f C onstantinople o f Ju d aizin g with the Jew s an d C hristianizing with the C hristians, while genuine believers should look upon th e Jew s and th eir Sabbath with execration. “T h e E asterners, C ardinal H u m b ert w rote, “chose to observe the Sabbath with the Jew s .’’ 65 A fter th e schism , the p atriarch o f C onstantinople, Michael C erularius, w rote the patriarch o f Antioch an account o f the tragic event and said, "For we are com m anded also to h o n o r the Sabbath equally with the L o rd ’s day and to keep it an d not to work on it ."66 T h e desire to have a S abbath-type holiday was also affected by the ever-increasing use o f the O ld T estam en t by the church itself in its liturgy and laws. It was easy to draw analogies betw een the A aronic priesthood and the Catholic hierarchy, the Paschal lam b an d the sacrifice o f the mass, the Passover an d C hristian Easter. In G aul a n d in Spain the O ld T estam ent becam e a creative p attern fo r C hristian ritu al .67 T h e influence was not always as obvious as with re g ard to the Paschal lam b, which was blessed by the priest on Easter Day and eaten at d in n e r im m ediately afte r, but it was reflected in countless usages, as C hydenius has show n in his book Medieval Institutions and the Old Testament.“ T h is p o pularity o f the O ld T estam e n t m ade it the m odel, as well, fo r courtly cerem onials, especially in C arolingian times. Inasm uch as the C hristian rulers were considered to be the p ro p e r successors and im itators o f the O ld T estam ent kings, it becam e custom ary for th e popes, for instance, to address the C arolingian kings as “Novus D avid .”“1 T h u s both church and state exalted the use o f the O ld Testament.™ T he D ecalogue as a Basis for Sunday O bservance by the Barbarians T h e decline o f learning th at accom panied the victory o f the b arbarians led to a g re ater reliance upon the Mosaic law in general. As the new co n querors developed th eir own legislation they attem pted to include the Biblical ideals, ra th e r th an Rom an law, in th eir codes. “T h e fu rth e r a law rem oves itself from Rom an law,” writes V erdam , “th e m ore it seeks su p p o rt in Mosaic law, at least in so far as C hristianized peoples a re co n c ern e d ."’ 1 T h is was tru e until the revival o f Rom an law in the twelfth an d th irte e n th centuries. W ith th at great influence o f the O ld T estam en t p attern it com es as no su rp rise th at the ch u rch tu rn e d to the D ecalogue in its efforts to secure the observance o f S unday by the barbarians. Asking the new converts to keep a special day for w orship was not an easy endeavor. Even in an ancient C hristian cen ter such as Arles in the sixth century, if we believe the serm ons o f C aesarius o f Arles, S undaykeeping left m uch to be d esired. H e describes the people w ho leave before mass is finished; he talks o f o th ers who still rest on T h u rsd ay in h o n o r o f J u p ite r, but would do any w ork on the day o f the L o rd .72 Late in the sixth century in Spain, M artin o f B raga also contrasted the zeal o f th e pagans for the day o f J u p ite r with the carelessness o f the C hristians.” A lthough ref erences to S undaykeeping by the barbarians are very scanty, one can see th at ch u rch atten d an ce m ust have been extrem ely sparse by the exiguity o f the places o f w orship and the rep eated lam ents o f ecclesiastical w riters about the inattention, th e noise, and the constant babbling d u rin g m ass .74 As C helini points out, th e laym en w ere hardly to blam e: "Spectators o f a d ra m a in which they have no role, witnesses of a banquet o f which they are not guests, th eir interest w ears o ff 197

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quickly ."75 T h e re was practically no participation o f the people. T h ey could hardly follow th e serv ice since it was held in a foreign tongue an d even the practice o f b ringing offerings had been lost. Very few people took com m union. Bonifacius advised them to participate "p er tem pora" (from tim e to tim e).7* E gbert in E ngland noted th e difference betw een the Eastern C hurch, w here everyone had to c o m m u n e o n Sunday u n d e r penalty o f excom m unication, and the ch u rch in the West, w here no effo rt was m ade to enforce participation .77 T o enfo rce S undaykeeping am ong the barbarians, the church used d iffe ren t m ethods. It enacted ecclesiastical legislation derived from the Mosaic laws, enlisted state su p p o rt o f its efforts, an d even appealed to th e superstition and credulity o f th e flock. It is interesting to note that as a result th ere developed gradually a new perspective that em phasized outw ard in terru p tio n o f physical activities ra th e r th an the prim itive spiritual rest from sin. T h e m ajor Sabbath d evelopm ent d u rin g the M iddle Ages is that the sh arp distinction betw een the Sabbath and L o rd ’s day faded away, an d S unday becam e the C hristian Sabbath to be kept according to the fo u rth co m m an d m en t.7* T h e connection betw een S undaykeeping and the D ecalogue rest was clearly established at th e Second C ouncil o f M acon in 585, which justified by th e Old T estam en t a strong call for com plete ceasing o f work on the L o rd ’s day. In the canons o f that council, S unday was exalted as the day when the L ord freed us from all sins, as the etern al day o f rest foreshadow ed by the rest o f the seventh day o f the law an d the p rophets. F or that reason, C hristians should in te rru p t all th eir activities an d sp end the day in prayer an d tears at the nearest ch u rch .7* A few years later the prohibition o f w ork was ex ten d ed to all, C hristians and non-C hristians. At the C ouncil o f N arbonne (589) it was decided th at “all, w hether child o r slave, G oth o r Rom an o r Syrian o r G reek o r Jew , m ust cease from all work on th e Day o f th e L ord.” O nly one exception was contem plated: an em ergency trip th at req u ired the hitching o f the oxen; but otherw ise, anyone caught transgressing th e law would be p u n ish ed —the freeborn by a fine o f six solidi, the slave by o ne h u n d re d blows.*' T h u s S undaybreaking becam e a punishable offense. It is in teresting to note th at civil su p p o rt fo r the S abbatarian S unday cam e quickly. T h e canons o f th e C ouncil o f Macon w ere upheld by an edict o f King G u n th ram (Nov. 10, 585), which stated clearly that those who did not heed the priestly ex h o rtations would have to face th e severity o f the ju d g e s ."1 T h e decisions o f N arb o n n e w ere soon backed by a law o f C hildebert II that also prohibited any Sunday work u n d e r th rea t o f heavy fines."* Along with these ecclesiastical an d civil effo rts to enforce S unday observance, we m ust not fo rget th e effect upon the b arbarian tribes o f the tales o f m iraculous punishm ents for transgression o f S unday rest. M any o f those stories w ere already reco rd ed by G regory o f T o u rs (540-594). H e tells us, for instance, th at in Lim ousin a large g ro u p o f people w orking in the fields on Sunday w ere consum ed by fire .*5T h e re was also a m an w ho insolently started to plow on S unday but whose h an d s were set solidly to the handle o f the plow w hen he touched it to m ake an ad ju stm en t .*4 A n o th er m an who n eith er respected n o r feared the day o f the R esurrection w ent to a grain mill. A fter grin d in g his wheat, he tried to take his han d o ff the h an dle o f the mill but found that his han d was stuck to it .*5 A nd the sam e p u n ish m en t cam e to that sam e m an again the following year. Sim ilar 198

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m isfortunes fell on one who tried to set u p a post, to a w om an who was p u ttin g b read in th e oven, even to a girl who was com bing h e r hair.“ Som e were crippled in the attem p t to break Sunday, G regory o f T o u rs tells us. T h e fingers o f a w orker who was m aking a key contracted to g eth er a n d never o p en ed ag ain .*7 T h e limbs o f a wom an who was baking bread afte r sunset on S aturday night w ithered away. At B ourges th ere was som eone whose hands becam e com pletely d efo rm ed because he had tried to fence his field on S unday.“ Even em ergencies failed to protect the transgressors. A m an o f B ourges who feared th at rain would spoil his hay went to load it on his cart, bu t he felt fire b u rn in g his leg. A fter re tu rn in g hom e, he tried to resum e his labor a fte r mass, only to feel his eyes hit by sh a rp th o rn s.1” It is by such tales that the sanctity o f S unday was im pressed upon the com m on people. Sundaykeeping Casuistry and Extreme Sabbatarianism In the following centuries th ere developed an ever-increasing casuistry concerning Sundaykeeping. T h e prohibitions becam e m ore and m ore encom ­ passing. T h e acts th at were prohibited an d those that were allowed were defined with g re ater a n d g re ater detail. T h e tren d was greatly accelerated by the generalization o f private confession, which led to the use o f penitential books in which sins an d penances w ere carefully catalogued.* By now S unday had becom e an institution in its own right, a duty req u ired from all, since transgression would b rin g the d a n g e r o f divine punishm ent individually a n d collectively. In d eed , Sunday legislation took an increasingly im p o rtan t place in th e statutes o f the barbarian states. T h e right o f all persons to have S unday rest was solem nly affirm ed and su p p o rted by severe punishm ents for those who in terfe red with it. Even the tasks req u ired from the serfs had to stop on th at day. F eudal lords could not require them to work in th eir fields o r to use th eir anim als fo r th e cartage o f goods .'1 As fo r the freem en who persistently transgressed S unday, in som e places they eventually lost th eir freedom an d becam e serfs, fo r as the Bavarian Laws (744) state: "Let him lose his freedom and becom e a servant, since he did not want to be free on the holy day ."91 T h e appeal to the Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f the Decalogue becam e m ore and m o re definite. In the Laws o f the Alemani (725), we are told th at abstention from physical labor is co m m anded by h u m an an d divine law.” In the Bavarian Laws the p ro p e r way o f keep ing th e first day o f the week was, for the first tim e perhaps, derived direcdy fro m the Decalogue. O ne m ust not harvest on S unday n o r travel by chariot o r by boat, they declare, because the L ord has said, “You shall not do any work, you o r y our m an serv an t o r your m aidservant, o r your ox, o r your donkey o r any o f those u n d e r your co m m and ."*4 At the Rom an C ouncil o f 826, over which Pope E ugene II presided, it was agreed that it is im p o rtan t to secure S unday rest th ro u g h g reat threats lest th e people, forgetting the w ord o f God, m ight engage in secular activities, since G od m ade the heavens an d the ea rth an d all th at th erein is .95 T h e Letter from Heaven enjoyed an im m ense influence at th at lim e an d was circulated widely. New an d m ore striking stories o f heavenly punishm ents for S undaybreakers w ere told. Lists o f S unday hallowings show ing the glory of S unday grew lo n g er a n d longer, not now to persu ad e the Jew s, but to instill in C hristians the d u ty to rest on th at day. Pirm in, the fo u n d e r o f the m onastery of 199

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R eichenau, saw S unday in all the great events o f salvation history: “T h e day o f the L ord was created first. It was th en th at darkness was dispelled an d light shone. O n th at day th e elem ents o f th e world an d the angels w ere created. T h e people o f Israel left Egypt on S unday as if it had gone th ro u g h a baptism th ro u g h the Red Sea. O n the sam e day th e m anna, the food from heaven, was given for the first time. It is co n cerning that day th at th e p ro p h e t exclaims, ‘T his is the day that the L ord has m ade, let us rejoice in it.' It is also on that day that C hrist was raised from th e d ead ; that the Holy Spirit cam e from heaven u p o n the apostles. It is called th ere fo re Day o f the L ord th at we m ight abstain from earthly activities an d the indecencies o f the world, devoting ourselves to the divine offices."* T h e ex trem e limit o f Sabbatarianism was reached, perhaps, in Ireland, w here, as we have seen, th e re was a long tradition o f veneration for the Mosaic teachings. A feeling o f the unique im portance o f Sunday observance am o n g the Irish is reflected in the list o f the fo u r laws o f the Irish in the Felire o f O engus (eighth century), w here th e rule of the L ord's day is included with Patrick’s rule n o t to kill clerics, A dam an’s rule not to slay w om en, a n d D aire’s rule not to steal o x e n .” It is also interesting to observe that the Liber ex Lege Moysi, a collection o f Mosaic com m ands, which may be d ated perh ap s as early as the seventh century, includes several passages on the im portance and m an n er o f Sabbathkeeping.**" I n Irelan d we find also an extraordinary' n u m b er o f accounts o f m iraculous p un ish m en ts o f S undaybreakers.” N o d o cu m ent expresses b etter the Irish Sabbatarian ideal than the Cain Domnaig, o r Law o f S unday, w here are found to g eth er a Letter from Christ on S undaykeeping, a g ro u p o f m iraculous punishm ents against the contem ptors o f th e day o f rest, and the Cain Domnaig itself , a Sunday legislation."1" T h e o p en in g o f th e Letter from Jesus sets the tone. It is the dram atic account o f the sending o f the letter, an event that caused th e whole ea rth to trem ble from the rising to the setting o f th e sun. Stones and trees w ere throw n u p into the air, and the tom b o f P eter was o p en ed at that tim e. Obviously the au th o r w anted the re a d e r to place that event on th e sam e ran k as the R esurrection. For him “w hatsoever plague an d trouble has com e into th e w orld, it is th ro u g h the transgression o f Sunday that it has com e .” 101 With such a beginning we m ust not be surprised by the su p ern atu ral woes that, according to the letter, befall S undavbreakers. In the East, m onstrous bruchae, whose h air is m ade o f pins o f iron, have been known to go out into the vineyards, cu t the branches, an d roll over the fruit. Iron-w inged locusts eat th ro u g h the w heat they en co u n ter. If that exam ple is not enough, it is ad d ed that tears o f blood will fill the eyes o f those who have forced o th ers to desecrate the holy day. W hat the su p e rn a tu ra l anim als have left will be destroyed by terrible tem pests, hailstorm s, an d flying serpents. Pagan invaders will com e an d enslave th e w retched sinners and o ffe r them as sacrifices to th eir gods. T h e day m ust be kept holy not only because it is com m anded by Jesu s C hrist b u t also for all th e w onderful things that have h a p p e n e d on it. T h e n in the Irish Letter from Heaven com es the longest list o f Sunday hallowings found anyw here: th e beginning o f C reation, th e resting o f the ark on M ount A rarat, the appearan ce o f th e rainbow a fte r the Flood, the crossing o f the Red Sea, the gift o f the m anna, th e conception of Jesus in th e womb o f Mary, the birth o f Jesus, the adoration o f th e Magi, the baptism o f Jesu s, the feeding o f the m ultitude, the T ra n sfig u ratio n , th e triu m p h al entry, the victory o f C hrist at the T em p tatio n , the first teaching o f 200

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Jesu s in the T em p le, the changing of w ater into wine, J o h n ’s vision that is reco rd ed in the book o f R evelation, the R esurrection, and Pentecost. Sunday w onders have not ceased, fo r the day o f ju d g m e n t an d the renew al o f all things will com e on Sunday. T h e list o f prohibited activities rem inds the re ad er o f the detailed Jew ish Sabbath regulations. "T his is what I forbid," saith the Lord. “O n S unday th ere shall be no d isp u te, o r lawsuit, o r assembly, o r strife, o r bargain, o r horse-driving, o r sw eeping th e floor o f a house, o r shaving, o r washing, o r bathing, o r washing clothes, o r g rin d in g in mill o r q u ern , o r cooking, o r ch u rn in g , o r yarn-w eaving, or adultery, o r jo u rn e y in g by anyone beyond the b o rd e r o f his own territory, o r racing, o r shooting with sp ear o r arrow , o r riding on horse o r ass, o r boiling food, o r swim m ing, o r horse-riding, o r splitting firewood, o r [going on a boat] coracle on w ater, o r any th ing involving w rong.” ">2 Very severe punishm ents are th rea ten ed against S undaybreakers by the a u th o r o f the letter, usually heavy fines, with the loss o f the anim al o r the serf involved on th e occasion, o r the destruction o f the tool used for the transgression. A few dispensations are given: fleeing before pagans, w arning th e people o f the com ing o f raiders, going to th e help o f som eone— but on the condition o f not re tu rn in g befo re the en d o f Sunday. It is lawful to seek som eone to give C om m union, but not to baptize. Anim als can be helped, fires fought, cattle protected from th e w olves, crops saved from p lu n d er, and o f course, the sick may be assisted.'” However, th e S abbatarian tren d was not welcome everyw here. T h e C ouncil o f Les Estinnes (c. 743) took a strong stand against a Jewish u n d ersta n d in g o f Sunday: “W e who are C hristians m ust not observe the Sabbath according to the letter. C hristians m ust observe the Sabbath in this m anner: by abstaining from dishonesty, frau d , perjuries, blasphem ies, and all illicit things.” "* T h e sam e a ttitu d e a p p e are d at the C ouncil o f C loveshore (747), w here the cultic significance o f the holy day was em phasized.'“ T h a t latent theological conflict may also have been at the root o f the very hostile reception given at that tim e by the leaders o f the Franks to the preaching o f the Letterfrom Heaven. In the Admomtio generalis (789), the letter is called "worst and m ost false,” not to be believed o r read but to be b u rn e d , lest by such w ritings the people m ight be led into e r r o r .'06 It was co n d em n ed also at a synod at Rom e in 745."" Civil Enforcem ent o f the Sabbatarian Sunday T h e C arolingian rulers w ere, ju st the sam e, zealous d efen d ers o f S unday­ keeping. Pepin th e S hort, C harlem agne, an d th eir successors attem p ted to enforce Sunday rest. Strangely, the Admonitio generalis, which co n d em n ed the Letter from Heaven, may well m ark the triu m p h o f the Sabbatarian Sunday. In that do cu m en t we find detailed instructions given in c h a p te r 81: “We o rd e r, what the L ord has also prescribed in his law, that no physical work be p erfo rm ed on th e day o f th e L ord as my fa th e r o f good m em ory prescribed in his synodal edicts, that is, that m en should n o t work in the fields, that they should not cultivate the vineyards, o r plow in the fields, o r harvest the grain o r m ake hay, o r erect fences, o r clear forest lands o r fell trees. T h ey m ust not break stones on roads, build houses o r d o g ard en work. O nly th ree uses o f the wagons are perm issible on 201

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Sunday: to drive to war, to fetch fo o d stu ff o r take a body to the cem etery in an em ergency---- W om en shall not do th eir weaving eith er o r cut garm ents, o r sew o r em b ro id er. It is n o t allowed fo r them to card wool, o r beat hem p o r wash g arm ents publicly o r sh ea r sheep, so that the h o n o r an d the rest o f the Day o f the L ord may be preserved in every way. Let all go to ch u rch fo r the m ystery o f the masses and let them praise G od fo r all his blessings on that day." T h e missi dominici, C h arlem ag n e’s representatives, w ere instructed to pay close atten tio n to the m an n er in which Sunday was kept everyw here they w ent ,109 and th e effo rt only increased d u rin g the d ark years tow ard the e n d o f his reign. In 813, for instance, the prohibition o f servile labor was re p eated at th e five re fo rm in g synods o f Arles, Reims, Mainz, Chalon su r Saone, and T o u rs. T h e holding o f public m arkets on that day was especially decried because so m any people loafed th ro u g h them ra th e r than going to c h u rc h .110 T h e sam e zeal tow ard stopping all servile w ork on S unday was m anifested by the newly converted rulers. W hen King S tephan o f H ungary attem p ted to C hristianize his realm in 1016, he issued Sunday edicts. “If a priest, o r a noblem an, o r anyone else finds one w orking on Sunday, let him drive him away from his work. If th at m an works with oxen, [the official] may take the ox an d give it to the people fo r food. If he works with a horse, let the horse be confiscated, which the ow ner may redeem with an ox, that shall be also given to the people fo r food. If he works with tools, let those an d the garm ents be confiscated, which he may redeem with his skin [a Hogging ]."111 H arsh Sunday legislation was also enacted by King K nud (died 1035) in D enm ark, w here C hristianity had now triu m p h ed . Sunday as the Christian Substitute for the Sabbath From a theological standpoint, it is interesting to com pare a few passages on the Sabbath from the C arolingian period: c h a p te r 51 in the Education o f the Clergy (819) by R abanus M aurus, th e learned abbot o f Fulda; canon 50 o f the Synod o f Paris (829); T h e o d u lf o f O rleans' Capitula; an d ch ap ter 26 o f the Capitula o f R udolf o f B ourges, which reveals clearly T h e o d u lf s influence ."5T his will help us to evaluate som e o f the changes th at took place betw een Isidore’s tim e an d that o f Rabanus. All these w ritings g ro u n d the origin o f S unday in the resurrection o f C hrist; all ju stify its keeping by the tradition o r the custom o f the apostles, although the canon o f the Parisian synod reveals som e d o u b t concerning this by saying "ut creditur" ("as generally believed"), a n d by adding, “but very certainly by the au th o rity o f th e c h u rch .” All fo u r docum ents bolster the claims o f S unday sacredness by references to essentially the sam e Sunday hallowings (the creation o f light, the resu rrectio n o f C hrist, the com ing o f the Floly Spirit, an d the gift o f the m anna). All fo u r u rg e cessation from secular activities, and they insist on the superiority o f the C hristian institution over the Jew ish one. A lthough the references to S unday hallowings are taken from Isidore, the u rg in g to stop secular activities on that day is new. O f special interest is that for the first tim e we begin to sense a clear consciousness o f a substitution o f Sunday for Sabbath—a change justified by the authority o f tradition ra th e r than scriptural com m and. B eyond these essential agreem ents, we discover som e interesting differences o f em phasis. T h e passage in R abanus, copied verbatim from Isidore, presents the m ain ideas o f th e patristic S undaykeeping, the im portance o f spiritual rest, the 202

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glory o f the first day that is also the eighth day, an d the radical difference betw een the sinful idleness o f the Jew s an d the festal spirit o f the C hristian day. T h e canon o f the Synod o f Paris is preoccupied with the general desecration o f the L ord's day. It is clearly a pastoral utterance th at uses both religion and superstition, containing especially n u m erous stories o f m iraculous punishm ents o f S unday desecrators. It appeals to all priests, rulers, an d lay people to show reverence for th e L o rd ’s day. W e find a stro n g Sabbatizing spirit in the passages o f T h e o d u lf o f O rleans and R u d o lf o f B ourges. T h e o d u lf provides for som e travel o r navigation on the L o rd ’s day if it does not in terfe re with church attendance. R udolf expands that to a long list o f twenty-five specific Sabbath activities on the farm o r in the hom e that are totally p rohibited on Sunday. Both au th o rs em phasize that the day m ust be spent in holy activities with family an d friends. T h e ecclesiastical origin o f S unday is unequivocally staled by H enry o f A u x erre (died c. 880): “T h e Sabbath day was held very sacred a n d solem n indeed by th e ancient ritual; all work stopped an d all devoted them selves to p ray er an d to meals. T h a t observation has been tran sferre d m ost fittingly by C hristian custom to Sunday because o f reverence fo r the resurrection o f the L o rd .""5 Sunset-to-Sunset Celebration o f Sunday D uring th e C arolingian p erio d th ere was also a strong effo rt to enforce a sunset-to-sunset keeping o f Sunday. T h e Synod o f Frioul (796 o r 797), presided ov er by th e p atriarch o f A quileia, the friend an d the theological adviser o f C harlem agne, specified in canon 13 th at the L ord's day began at nightfall ."4At the Synod o f R ouen, held in the m iddle o f the ninth century, it was slated very clearly that holy days had to be celebrated from evening until evening.11' Practically the sam e w ording is fo u n d in the fam ous Semio Synodalis, about whose au th o rsh ip th ere is m uch d eb ate bu t which ap p ears to date from the m iddle o f the ninth century: “Let th e priest teach th at Sundays and o th e r holidays m ust be celebrated from evening until ev ening .”116In the homily o f R abanus M aurus already cited, we read , “Let us keep th e Day o f th e L ord an d let us hallow it, as the lawgiver form erly co m m anded o f th e Sabbath day: ‘From evening un to evening shall ye keep the S abbath.’ Let us th e re fo re be careful that o u r rest shall not be vain, bu t from Sabbath evening u n to S unday evening let us stay away from o u r w ork in the fields an d from all business and let us devote ourselves to divine w orship .”117 It is to th at practice o f S aturday vespers that we owe a beautiful C hristian hym n. Hymn fo r Saturday Vespers, by P eter A belard, the fam ous scholastic doctor: O what th e ir jo y and th eir glory m ust be. T h o se endless Sabbaths the blessed ones see! C row n fo r th e valiant; to weary ones rest; God shall be all, and in all ever blest. W hat are th e M onarch, his co u rt, an d his throne? W hat are th e peace a n d the joy that they own? T ell us, ye blest ones, that in it have share. If w hat ye feel ye can fully declare. 203

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T ru ly “Je ru sa le m ” nam e we that shore, “Vision o f peace," that brings joy everm ore! Wish and fulfillm ent can severed be n e ’er. N o r th e th ing prayed for com e short o f the prayer. We, w here no trouble distraction can bring, Safely th e an th em s o f Zion shall sing; W hile for thy grace. L ord, th eir voices o f praise T h y blessed people shall everm ore raise. T h e re daw ns no Sabbath, no Sabbath is o ’er. T h o se Sabbath keepers have one an d no m ore; O n e an d u n en d in g is that triu m p h song W hich to th e angels an d us shall belong. Now in the m eanw hile, with hearts raised on high. We fo r th at country m ust yearn an d m ust sigh. Seeking Jeru salem , d e a r native land. T h ro u g h o u r long exile on Babylon’s strand. Low befo re H im with o u r praises we fall, O f whom , and in whom , and th ro u g h whom are all; O f w hom , th e F ather; an d th ro u g h whom , the Son; In whom , th e Spirit, with these ever O ne. Sunday an Ecclesiastical Institution By th e twelfth century, Sunday had becom e quite fully the church substitute for th e seventh day. T h e rest began at sunset and lasted until the next sunset. All secular w ork was strictly prohibited u n d e r stern ecclesiastical an d civil penalties, fo r n o th in g except very strin g en t necessity was allowed to in terfe re with church atten d an ce (though dispensations could be g ran ted by ecclesiastical authority). T his concept o f S undaykeeping was spelled o u t clearly by the great decretalists. In his collection o f 1234, G regory IX. for instance, collated a d ecree from the Synod o f M ayence from the early p art o f the ninth century and a letter from Pope A lexander III to the A rchbishop o f T ro n d h e im in Norway teaching how Sunday m ust be kept. A lthough those w ere local docum ents, they acquired a m uch g re ater au th o rity w hen they w ere included in a m ajor canonic collection. T h e lines th at follow from the canon law sum m arize the final stage o f S undaykeeping in the M iddle Ages: “We com m and that all Sundays m ust be observed with th e greatest veneration from sunset until sunset and that all m ust abstain from any unlaw ful w ork___A lthough the seventh day has been devoted in a very special way to hu m an rest by the pages o f the Old an d the New T estam ents an d th e chu rch has com m anded to observe it and the days devoted to the S uprem e Majesty as well as the birthdays o f the holy m artyrs by refrain in g from all secular work, we to whom has been en tru sted the rule o f the church by the ru le r o f all m ust m ake for the faithful a fair application to those things which necessity requires. T h u s, the Apostolic See com es with its usual mercy to the relief o f those 204

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who d o not look for an excuse for servile works, that is to say, sinful works, bu t for the possibility to provide th e necessities o f food and garm ent. Knowing by the rep o rts o f m any th at your region does not abound in fruits an d th at the sea which traditionally provided your people with m uch o f th eir food has been less g enerous th an usual, by P eter’s and o u r own authority we g ran t that except on the great feasts o f the years, your parishioners may devote them selves to fishing on Sundays o r o th e r holidays, when the h errin g s com e tow ard the land because o f the u rg en t necessity o f the catch o f those fish. T his is g ran ted , however, with the re q u irem en t that a fair p o rtio n o f the catch be given to nearby churches and to the p o o r o f the L o rd .” T h e theology o f the m edieval C hristian Sunday received its final elaboration in the works o f th e great scholastic theologians o f the th irteen th century. T h e change from th e seventh to the first day was authorized by m aking the Sabbath a Jew ish cerem ony an d the fo u rth com m andm ent a cerem onial law. This, however, raised th e problem o f a cerem onial com m and in the m idst o f the m oral law. It was A lexander o f Hales (died 1245) who attem p ted to solve that problem by finding the com m on g ro u n d o f Sabbath a n d S unday in n atu ral law. A lthough m an should be free fo r com m union with G od at all times (since he is His creature), this is im possible because o f tem poral necessities. T h u s God claims a specific am o u n t o f time. God in th e law o f Sinai ap p o in ted the seventh day, and the church chose the day o f the L o rd ’s resurrection. T h e com m and to rest is a com m and o f n atu re, hence a m oral com m and th at all C hristians m ust obey, while the seventh day was a Jew ish an d a cerem onial law th at is no longer binding upon C hristians."9 T his new ap p ro ach to the fo u rth com m andm ent reflects a d eep change in C hristian th o u g h t that m arks w hat has been called the second feudal age. T h ro u g h th e C rusades, th e increase o f trade, the discovery o f A ristotle, an d the study o f R om an law sp u rre d by th e long struggle betw een papacy an d em pire, the horizon o f m edieval m an was greatly broadened. A new ap p ro ach to know ledge was developed, based on tru st in th e rational capacity o f m an to discover the secrets o f th e universe. T h e w orld is a w orld o f o rd e r, ruled by secondary n atu ral cause, o rd a in e d by th e g reat first cause, God. T his o rd e r is the lex aetema th at can be discovered in all branches o f learning. T h ro u g h reason pagans, Moslems, and C hristians can equally well discover th at divine o rd e r in the m oral m ak eu p o f m an. It is that natu ral law that provides the foundation fo r all m oral systems, all judicial codes, all social institutions. T h a t n atu ral law is th e essence o f the Decalogue, and th erefo re, o f th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t.120 Sunday is the practical application, th e positive C hristian in terp retatio n , o f the natural duty to have com m union with G od, which is recognized by all m en. T h u s, we have now arrived at the concept o f S unday as a purely ecclesiastical institution. It is a cultic institution prim arily, an d the church may d eterm in e what is perm issible an d what may not be d o n e on that day. T hom as A quinas expressed th at th o u g h t very clearly: “ In th e New Law the keeping o f the S unday supplants th at o f the Sabbath, not in virtue o f th e p recept o f the law, but th ro u g h determ in atio n by the ch u rch and the custom o f th e C hristian people. F u rth erm o re this practice does no t stand as a figure as did th at o f the Sabbath in the O ld Law, a n d so the prohibition o f w ork on S unday is not as strict as it was on the sabbath; som e works are allowed on S unday which w ere fo rb id d en on the sabbath, cooking an d the like, fo r exam ple. Even 205

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with re g a rd to works th at are forbidden, dispensation by reason o f necessity is easier in th e New Law th an in th e O ld Law, th e reason being th at a figure belongs to th e proclaim ing o f a tru th , no detail o f which may be set aside. B ut observances considered absolutely can be changed according to circum stances o f tim e a n d place.” 1!l T h o m as is preoccupied with the problem o f eith er why w hat ap p ears to be a cerem onial co m m and is included in the D ecalogue o r why G od did no t enunciate also o th e r p rescriptions concerning w orship such as p ray er a n d devotion. H e answers: “T a k e n in its literal sense the co m m andm ent to keep the sabbath is partly m oral, partly cerem onial. It is m oral in that m an should set aside som e tim e in his life fo r co n cen tration u p o n the things o f God. For m an is connaturally predisposed to set aside a portion o f his tim e for every affair o f necessity— for bodily refresh m en t, for exam ple. . . . W herefore it is in accord with a dictate o f n atu ra l reason th at a m an reserve som e tim e for spiritual n o u rish m en t___B ut it is a cerem onial p re cep t on the g ro u n d s th at in this com m andm ent a p articu lar tim e is d eterm in e d in o rd e r to signify creation. It is also cerem onial in its allegorical sense, i.e., as it was a sign o f C hrist's repose in the tom b on the seventh day; likewise in its m oral sense, i.e., as sym bolizing desisting from every act o f sin an d resting in God; in this sense, too, it is in a way a general precept. It is also cerem onial in its anagogical sense, i.e., as it prefigures rest in the enjoym ent o f G od in heaven.” 122 In T h o m as, A ugustine’s ideas had becom e jo in ed with the subsequent d ev elopm ent o f S unday observance. T h e spiritual value o f Sabbath was linked with th e absolute re q u irem en t o f rest fo r the w orshiper. By th e use o f the typically m edieval “four-senses” in terp re tatio n o f S criptures, the literal historical m eaning o f th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t was replaced by the allegorical, the m oral, an d the anagogical m ean ings.'” Sabbath, it was asserted, should lead the C hristian to think o f C h rist’s rest in the tom b, o f the m oral duty to desist from sin, an d o f the fu tu re blessedness in heaven. T h e bond with C reation had been totally lost. By his distinction betw een th e way Mosaic judicial and cerem onial com m ands had becom e void, T hom as m ade the literal keeping o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent a very grievous sin. T h eju d icial provisions are dead, he claim ed, but n o t deadly. A ru le r could very p ro p erly revive them in his territories. C erem onial prescriptions, on th e o th e r h an d , are d ead a n d deadly fo r those who keep them afte r C hrist has com e, fo r they are a rejection o f C hrist's sacrifice on the cross.124 It is in teresting to observe th at this new theological u n d ersta n d in g o f Sunday was soon reflected in Jew ish-C hristian controversies over the Sabbath co m m an d ­ m ent. In his Scrutinium Scripturarum, o n e o f the m ost com prehensive a n d learned m anuals o f C hristian apologetics against the Jews, Paul o f B urgos (1350-1435), a converted Jew ish rabbi, justifies the C hristian discarding o f the Sabbath rest by reasoning th at the S abbath’s b ein g a m oral com m and, it is not tied to any day o f the week. Since th e original Sabbath was ju st as m uch a sign o f red em p tio n and freed o m as a m em orial o f C reation, he indicates, it is perfectly p ro p e r for C hristians to com m em orate the great red em p tio n that they find in Jesu s.125 W ith S unday considered as an ecclesiastical institution, it was u p to the church to define th e p ro p e r way o f keeping it; an d the last step in the m edieval theological developm ent o f S unday was m ade by th e casuists, am ong w hom w ere R aym ond de P en n efo rt (died 1275) an d G uillaum e de R ennes (13th century). Such casuists attem p ted to define for the faithful what w ere m ortal an d what w ere venial sins in 206

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the transgression o f Sunday. W hat, for instance, if a person should go to a m arket on Sunday? T h is was not a m ortal sin if it was not d o n e regularly o r if o n e w ent to take care o f necessities. It was a m ortal sin if one went because o f greed o r if the m arket h ad been fo rbidden by th e bishop. A n o th er exam ple o f a m ortal sin was for stu d en ts to w rite th eir iessons on S unday unless they could not learn otherw ise.1“ Such casuistry— this effo rt to classify and distinguish what is right and w rong— is reflected in Jo h n H uss’s com m entaries on the fo u rth c o m m an d m en t.127 As he does with all th e o th e r com m ands, H uss considers the Sabbath p recep t from th ree d iffe re n t perspectives. First he shows the general significance o f th e day o f rest, th en he p resen ts its special m eaning, and finally he concludes with a discussion o f its deepest value. T h e Sabbath co m m and o f the D ecalogue urges us first to rem em ber, an d Huss hastens to show how vital it is to do so. A wom an, he tells us, who forgot and jo in ed a procession on a day w hen she had had sexual relations with h er husband was publicly d ra g g ed an d to rm en ted by the devil. H e proceeds to w arn us that d ru n k s an d d an cers ru n a g reat risk o f transgressing that com m and, an d with the casuist’s skill he defines for us w hen d ru n k e n n ess a n d dancing on Sundays are sins and when they are not. T h e n he takes us to a hig h er level, the sanctification o f the day o f rest. H e does so negatively, by pointing o u t how the com m and can be broken in fo u r d iffe ren t ways: by m anual work, atten d in g m arkets, seeking secular pleasure, an d pleading in ju stice. H e provides a list o f w orks that can be justified on th e day o f the L ord. T h e th ird level is the most m eaningful to Huss. T h e com m and, he declares, tells us to con tem p late the spiritual realities, an experience that brings th ree goods to th e co n tem p lato r: spiritual seeds, which norm ally would be crushed by the daily ro u tin e, g erm in ate an d bloom ; secular thoughts becom e totally insipid and worthless; and th e h ard flesh that holds us captive m elts away in th e light o f Him who is th e tru e Sabbath. As S unday becam e an ecclesiastical institution, its significance as the feast o f the R esurrection was b lu rred . Instead, each S unday was individualized and dedicated to som e p articu lar feast, m ost com m only with the T r i n i t y . O n the o th e r h an d , S aturday becam e the day o f th e virgin M ary129Peter D am ian en d o rsed warmly th e dedication o f S aturday to M ary.150At the Council o f C lerm ont in 1095 it was d ecreed th at all C hristians should "recite the office o f the Blessed V irgin every Sabbath day.” 151 Because the relationship with the Old T estam e n t was lost, the sunset-to-sunset observance was slowly discarded. In the fifteenth cen tu ry Nicholas Siculus (died 1445) expressed the view that all weekly holidays should begin at sunset except Sunday, lest the people m ight Ju d a iz e .158B eginning S unday at m id n ig h t becam e general in the sixteenth ce n tu ry .'” T he Saturday Sabbath W hat was th e fate o f the Sabbath as a day o f rest d u rin g the late M iddle Ages? In som e d o cu m en ts th ere are references to the ttuabbali, a p o p u lar nam e fo r th e W aldenses, which som e have taken as evidence that they w ere a S abbathkeeping sect.'” T his in terp re tatio n ap p ears to be incorrect as far as th e sect in general is concerned. T h e d o cu m ents reveal what th e m ain grievances against those people were. T h ey took th e “conversatio apostolica” very seriously. T h ey believed th at 207

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Jesu s co m m an d ed His followers to give u p th eir possessions an d to go to preach th e gospel. W hen ecclesiastical authorities d enied them the right o f preaching the gospel, they felt it was a m atter o f obeying G od ra th e r than m en, an d they defied the church. In his attack against the W aldenses, Alan o f Lille says: 'T hey are called W aldenses afte r th eir heresiarch. who was nam ed W aldcs. He, by the pro m p tin g o f his own spirit, not sent by G od, invented a new sect in that, w ithout the authority from a prelate, w ithout divine inspiration, w ithout knowledge, w ithout learning, he p resu m ed to preach: a p h ilosopher w ithout th o u g h t, a p ro p h et w ithout vision, an ap osde w ithout a mission, a teacher w ithout a t u t o r .. . . [His followers] d a re to preach to fill th e ir bellies ra th e r than th eir m inds an d , because they d o not wish to w ork with th eir own h ands to obtain food, they m ake the evil choice o f living w ithout em ploym ent, p reaching falsities so that they may buy food.” 1,1 Alan ad d ed th e grievance that wom en w ere allowed to preach also: "T hese persons resist th e Apostle in that they have w om en with them and have them preach in th e g atherings o f the faithful, although the Apostle says in the first epistle to th e C orinthians, ‘Let wom en keep silence in the c h u rc h e s.'” 1“ U n d a u n te d by the papal o rd e r to stop such practices, the W aldenses w ent into clandestinity a n d spread th eir ideas u n d e r the garb o f pilgrim s, cobblers, barbers, harvesters, et ce te ra.'” T h e W aldenses’ m ajor crim e, in th e eyes o f their co n tem poraries, was insubordination. S abbathkeeping was not an issue. E b rard o f B ethune in his l.tber Antiherrsis indicates that they w ere in ag reem en t with the ch u rch on th e reading o f the gospels, respect for Sunday, an d the practice o f fasting an d p ra y e r.1“ In his description o f the W aldenses. Peter o f V aux-de-C ernay adds a detail that clarifies th e nam e insahbati: "B ut to pass over m any points o f th eir unbelief, th eir e rro r consisted chieHy in fo u r things: to wit. in the w earing o f sandals after the apostles: in th eir refusal, u n d e r any circum stances, to swear an oath; [their refusal] to take life; and in th eir claim that any o ne o f them in case o f necessity, so long as he is a sandal w earer, may p erfo rm the sacram ent o f th e Eucharist, even th o u g h he may not have been o rd ain ed by a bishop." I'he Latin w ord for sandal is sabbatum, th e root o f the Spanish zapato an d the French sabot. T h e sandals w ere an outw ard sign o f their being im itators o f the apostles in living th e vita apostohca an d the justification o f th eir preaching the gospel. T h e w earing o f the sandals seem s to have indicated a certain standing in th e sect, as is also shown by Anselm o f A lessandria: "Also the sandal-w earers am ong them , whom they call priests, carry only one cloak and e ith e r go b arefooted o r w ear shoes o r sandals cut away at the lop.” 140 In view o f th e foregoing, o n e can u n d ersta n d why Pope Innocent 111 w rote to D uran d o f H uesca, who had recanted his W aldensian faith, that he should stop w earing sandals: " T h ere fo re, we adm onish, we advise, we ex h o rt those o f you who have not yet ad o p ted this fashion o r those who shall be associated with you in the fu tu re not to bind them selves to the custom o f w earing sandals o p en at th e to p n or to w ear such footgear, so that thus the scandal may entirely d is a p p e a r." 1,1 T h e Sabbath was not totally forgotten as a day o f rest, however, an d it is interesting to note that instances of S abbathkeeping occur w here the W aldenses had p reach ed with the greatest success. In n o rth e rn Italy we find the sect o f the Passagini in th e tw elfth an d the th irte e n th cen tu ries.1**T h e ir beliefs are described 208

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and attacked in th e Summa contra Haereticos, the au th o rsh ip o f which is o ften attrib u ted to P rae p o sitin u so f C rem o n a.1” W hile the W aldenses took Jesus as th eir sole au th o rity a n d em phasized the S erm on on the M ount, the Passagini attem p ted to up h o ld the whole o f the Old an d the New T estam ents. For that reason they observed th e Mosaic precepts, even circum cision an d the distinction o f clean and unclean m eats. Because the Sabbath was instituted long before the Law was proclaim ed on Sinai, they observed that day as th eir day o f rest an d w orship.'” In n o rth e rn France, the secret m eetings o f a g ro u p o f S abbathkeepers w ere d en o u n ced to th e au th orities in 14 2 0 .1,8Sixteen o r eighteen persons o f Douai w ere arrested with the p reach er, a m an from the nearby town o f V alenciennes, and ju d g e d by th e trib u n al o f the Inquisition for denying that the F ather, the Son, and the Holy G host are one Person; fo r disrespect o f th e sacram ents; for denial o f the p erp etu al virginity o f Mary; for keeping S aturday as th eir Sabbath; an d for stating that the masses fo r th e dead have no value w hatsoever. T h e second folio o f that collection o f ju d g m e n ts o f heresy records the d eath o f a priest, H en n eq u in o f Langle, “for k eeping his Sabbath on S aturday and o th e r reasons." O n the last folio we are told th at th e p re ach e r o f the g ro u p , B ertoul T h u rin , was executed "for keeping S atu rd ay as his Sabbath." Was th ere any relationship betw een those people an d the B ohem ian “Picards" m en tio n ed in several late m edieval an d R eform ation era docum ents?'* A ccording to th e Summanum nnpiae ft pharisatcae picardorum religionis, som e o f them w ere Sabbathkeepers. W hile their real place within the heresies o f the late M iddle Ages has n o t been fully d eterm in ed , it is clear that they stood very close to the W aldenses, whose th irst fo r the conversation evangehca they sh a re d .1,7 A ccording to th e accounts o f th eir o p ponents, they showed little respect for chu rch au th o rity , ex plained th e gospel at private m eetings, a n d gave the sacram ents very d iffe ren d y from th e Catholics. T h ey condem ned prayers for the dead and th e leaching o f purgatory , an d they scoffed at processions an d o th e r traditional rituals. T h e Summanum explains also th at they om itted the festivities in h o n o r o f M ary a n d the saints, keeping Sunday only. In fact, it ad ded, “som e celebrate Sabbath with the Jew s.” '* T hev may well be the “new kind o f Jew s" to whom Erasm us alluded in his De Amabilt ecclesiae concordia in 1533.,w In E ngland th e Lollards also insisted on the right o f lay people to possess and preach th e W o rd .'“ T h ey w ere followers o f J o h n Wycliffe, who proclaim ed the su p rem e au th o rity o f S criptures, far above that o f popes, C h u rch Fathers, o r councils. His translation o f the Bible into the vernacular, op en in g the sacred writings to the com m on people, was considered as a form o f blasphem y by the clergy.1*' The Lollards did not m anifest the greatest veneration for Sunday. Sir Lewis C lifford, a fo rm e r sym pathizer o f theirs, gave a re p o rt to A rchbishop A rundel that “they did not hold any day as hallowed o r holy, not even Sunday, but that every day they w ere equally free to work, to eat an d to d rin k .” 15! We even have a reco rd o f the recantation in O ctober, 1402, o f a m an who had already abjured several heresies but still m aintained that the Sabbath o f the O ld T estam en t was to be observed until good reason should be shown him to the contrary. Sabbathkeepers were re p o rted in the Scandinavian lands at that tim e. In Norway Bishop Aslak Bolt, in the year 1435, called together a provincial council at B ergen, in o rd e r to p u t a stop to “S aturday observance," which, he said, was being practiced in a n u m b er o f places in the la n d .1* Bishop Bang, a Danish prelate, TSISAH-14

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T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E A N D HISTORY believed th at th e revival o f S abbathkeeping may have been a result o f the w ording o f th e two first catechism s w ritten in N ordic countries. In one o f them the co m m an d m en t was w orded: R em em ber to keep th e seventh day holy," an d in th e o th er, “Do not forget to keep the seventh day h o ly ."155 T h e re arose a stro n g ju d a iz in g m ovem ent at N ovgorod in Russia. T h e origin o f that g ro u p is com m only attrib u ted to the teachings o f L ithuanian Jew s betw een 1470 an d 1475. Because o f th eir im portance in political an d econom ic circles, th e re was a large d eg ree o f tolerance for the Jew s in Muscovy. T h o se Ju d aizers questioned th e T rinity, the efficacy o f the sacram ents, and the authority o f the writings o f the early C h u rch Fathers. O n the o th e r hand, they asserted the prim acy o f th e Mosaic law, the singleness o f the G odhead, an d the sanctity o f the Sabbath. T h ese assertions b ro u g h t about a series o f harsh persecutions by the O rth o d o x C h u rch and the e n d o f the era o f toleration for the Jew s in that re g io n .15* Conclusion As we conclude this ch ap ter, we may say that the history o f the Sabbath and th e L o rd ’s day d u rin g the M iddle Ages is extrem ely interesting an d significant. We see the evolution o f the L o rd ’s day from a spiritual rest, totally in d ep en d e n t o f the Mosaic p recept, to a day o f physical rest defined com pletely in term s o f the Old T estam en t. Sunday, a day that in the beginning had relatively little im portance, becam e an ecclesiastical institution protected by religious and civil sanctions. T o that d eg ree th e “Sabbatical rest’’ survived d u rin g the M iddle Ages. But also, all th ro u g h o u t th at period th e re w ere gro u p s o f people who, eith er th ro u g h the exam ple o f the Jew s o r because o f th eir study o f the S criptures, attem p ted to keep th e day that Jesu s and the apostles had kept. For obvious reasons we know little ab out th eir n u m b er o r th eir nam es, bu t th eir presence shows that in every age th ere w ere som e who attem p ted to place the W ord o f God above the traditions o f m en. NOTES 1 Tractate on tlu G asprl o f J o h n 2 0 (N P N F H 7 : 13 2 - 133). I Exposition o f tlu Orthodox Faith 4 . 2 3 ( M ‘S E '2 9 :96). 5 Q u o te d in A. L u k vn s W illiam s. A dversut Jtulaeos A Bird's Eyevtew o f C h m tia n Apologtae u n til the Renaissance (C a m b rid g e. 1935). p. 2 9 1 A 2 2 . 3 0 ( N P S t f I 2 : 5 1 1 ). O n th e e ig h th day. se e H . D u m ain e. “ D im a m h e." D A C L 4 /1 :879*884; J. D a n illo u , Bible el L iturgte (Paris, 1958), p p. 349*354; J. (Jaillard, " D im ani he." Ih ctto n n a n e de la s p m tu a h t/ ( 195 7 ). 3 :9 5 2 * 9 5 9 ; S. B a cch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977). p p . 2 7 8 -3 0 0 5 M or ahum Itb n 2 5 . 8 (P L 7 6 :7 5 9 ). • De eeclesiastms offictis I. 2 5 . 3. 7 6 . 18 (P i. 8 2 :2 5 0 , 25 1 ); on th e m ed ie v a l u se o f Isid o r e o f S ev ille’* S u n d a y sta tem en t, se e P. H ev lv n . H istory o f the Sabbath. 2 d e d (L o n d o n . 1636). 2 :1 37*142. 8 Serm. 9. 3 (Corpus Christiarurrum 41 :1 1 0 ). T h e “sham elessls" refers probably to b a refo o ted d a rn in g . 9 J o s e p h J u n g m a n n . “D ie H e ilig u n g d e s S o n n ta g s im fru h ch risten tu m u n d im M ittelalter," in O er T agaes H e r m (V ien n a , I9d 8), p . 6 2 . 10 E f u t IOft 2 0 (C S E L 5 5 :3 3 5 ). II " id len ess is an e n e m y o f th e so u l. B ecau se th is is so, th e b reth ren o u g h t to be o c c u p ie d at sp ecified lim es in m a n u al lab ou r, a n d at o th e r fix ed h o u r s in holy re a d in g . . . . O n S u n d a \ a lso , all. save th o se w h o are a ssig n e d to v arious o ffic es, shall h ave tim e fo r r e a d in g If. h o w e v er, an v o n e be so n eg lig en t or so slo th fu l as to be u n w illin g or u n a b le to read or m ed ita te, h e m u st h a v e s o m e w ork g iven h im . so as not to b e idle. For w eak b reth ren , or th o se o f d elica te c o n stitu tio n s, so m e w ork o r craft shall be fo u n d to k e e p th em fro m id le n e ss, a n d yet n ot such as to c rush th em by th e h eavy lab ou r o r to d riv e th em aw ay."— R ule 4 8 in M arshall B a ld w in , e d .. Christianity Through the Thirteenth C entury (N ew Y ork, 1970), p p. 9 0 , 9 1 . T he great o p p o s iu o n o f th e m ed iev a l ch u rch to id le n e ss, as o n e o f th e m ajor vices, c o lo r e d sig n ifu a n d y th e attitu d e tow ard th e Sabbatic rest. 11 (“I f on ly C h ristia n s w h en th ey d o n ot g o to ch u rch o n that d ay w o u ld d o so m eth in g u se fu l a n d n ot d a n c e! it

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T H E S A B B A T H AND L O R D S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES w ould b e m u ch b etlc r fo r a m an to d o so m e H ardening, to g o for a trip, an d for th e w o m a n to u se h er d is ta lf an d n o t. as th ey »ay. to ju m p a ro u n d and d a n c e an d sprain lim bs cr ea ted by G od a n d sh o u t lo u d ly o n e's lo n g in g fo r lust by ch e a p songs!'*)— Elp u t. . . . Contra ros tfut credebant eputolas de carlo ceadisse. R. Priebsch. e d .. in Letter fro m H ea ven on the O bseri’ance o f the Lord's Day (O x fo r d . 1936), p. 2. IS C a n o n 2 8 (M G H Concilia 1:82), trans. in J. N . A n d re w s an d L. R. C o n ra d i. History o f the Sabbath (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1 912). p. 485 14 "W e. th e r e fo r e , accep t spiritu ally an d h old spiritu ally this w hich is w ritten ab out th e Sabbath. For th e Sabbath m ea n s rest. Bui w e h ave th e tru e Sabbath in ou r R ed eem er H im se lf . . . W e in tro d u ce, th en , n o b u r d e n th r o u g h th e gates o n th e Sabbath d ay if w e draw n o w eig h ts o f sin b rou gh t to m y k n o w le d g e , n a m elv . that it has b een p rea c h e d to vou by p erv e rse m en that n o o n e o u g h t to w ash o n th e Lord's day. A n d in d e e d if any o n e craves to w ash fo r luxury a n d p lea su re, n eith er o n any o th er d ay d o w e allow th is to be d one." — E pist 13. 1 {PL 7 7 :1 2 5 3 . 1254). 15 L p ist ad J a n u a n u s 55. 23 (N P N F IX 1:310). 16 I n is was th e g e n e r a l attitu d e tow ard Jew ish laws. "In g en era l w e ca n say o f th e first c e n tu ries that o n the w h o le C hristian ity d id not feel attracted tow ard s M osaic law *— P. J. V crd a m . M osaic L a w in Practice a n d Study throughout the Ages (K a m p en . 1959), p. 18. '7 S ee K. S tran d , T h e E arly C hristian Sabbath Selected Essays and a Source Collection (W o rth in g to n . O h io . 1979); idem, "Som e N o tes o n th e Sabbath Fast in Early C hristianity.'* A U S S 3 (1 9 6 5 ): 171*173; F. C abrol. “J eu n es." D A C L 7 /2 :2 4 9 8 ; B acch iocch i. op cU., p p. 185-198. ,H Mac ioIh u s Saturnalia I. ll>. II (trails. B o rn ec q u e [ P a n s (n d .)]. 1: 1 53-155); D u m a in c . op. a t., p p. 9 4 7 ,9 4 8 . E. D u b lan ch y, “Dim anc lie .'” D ictionane de thtologie t alhnhque {P an s, 1 9 1 1). 4 / 1: 13 1 1. 1 312. B io n d i B io n d i. / / d in tto romarw crutiano (M ilan , 1952). 2 :1 6 2 -1 6 7 . 19 S ee n ote 16 *° “O n th e L o rd ’s d a y . h o w e v er, th ere sh o u ld b e a cessation o f e a r th h labor la labore terreno cessandum est), a n d atten tio n g iv e n in every w ay to p rayers, so that if a n y th in g is d o n e n eg lig en tly d u r in g th e six d a y s, it m as b e ex p ia te d by su p p lica tio n s on th e day o f th e I^ord's resu rrection *— Epist. 13. I. n o te (P L 7 7 :1 2 5 4 . 1255). Ibid , 9. 1 (P L 77:9^ 9). 12 In his article "Christ (lettre d u ) to m b te d u c ie l” (D A C L 3' I 1 5 3 4 -1 5 4 6 ). E. R enoir g iv es an ex c e lle n t su rv ev o f o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e m an u scrip ts an d th e w h erea b o u ts of that letter b oth in E astern a n a W estern C hristian ity, t h e letter had an im m e n se su ccess in th e East. T h e r e are G reek . A rm en ia n . S y n a c , A rabic, a n d E thiopic tra n sla tio n s o f th e letter. D iffere n t texts of th e letter can b e fo u n d in E tien n e B a lu /e . C a p itu la n a regum fra n co ru m (P a n s. 1780). 2 :1 3 6 9 -1 3 9 9 ); Jo h a n n A. Febricius, Codex A p o a y p h i N o v i Testament» (H a m b u rg , 1 7 1 9 ) .p p 3 1 0 * 3 1 4 , P rieb sch , op a t.. p p. 3 6 -3 9 ; an d I G. O 'K ee fe, “Gam D om naig I. T h e E pistle C o n c ern in g S unday." E n u . 2 ( 1905): 1 8 9 -2 1 1, w h o gives th e tex t o f an Irish version . E n glish tran slation s o f th e letter are p r o s id e d in O 'K eefe's article. in A n d re w s a n d C o n ra d i, op. a t., p. 4 9 7 , a n d in C M ervyn M axw ell's " C ollection o f Papers fo r th e C lass o n H istory o f Sabbath and Sunday" (A n d re w s U n iv ersity . 1978). p p. 4 7 8 -4 8 1 . S ee also J. M ichl, TJriefe. ap ocrvp h e." le xico n fu r Theologie und Kirche, 2d ed . (1 9 5 8 ), 2:6 8 9 ; R. K ottje. Studien zum E tnfluss des A lien Testamentes a u ) Recht u n d L itu rg te des friih en M iltelalters (6-8 |a h r h u n d e n ), (B o n n . 1964), p p. 52 -5 6 ; A . d e S an to s O te ro . "Der a p o c r v p h c so g e n n a n te S o n n ta g sb n e i," S tudia P atrutica (B erlin . 19 6 1 ). 3 2 W -2 9 6 . T h e text of L icin ian u s' letter to V a len tin iu s is fo u n d in PL 7 2 :6 9 9 -7 0 0 . O n that letter, se e m ore p articularly J . M a d o /, l.u tn u in o de C artagena y ta i cartas, E stud ios o n ic n s c s , 1/4 (M ad rid, 1948). R en oir te n d s to accep t C . S ch m id t's b elief in an Eastern orig in o f th e letter. "Fragm ent e in e r Schrift d es M artvrer B ish o fs P etru s von A lex a n d rien ," Texte und I ’ntersuchungen (B er lin , 1920). 2 0 :4 -4 6 . Prieb sch is q uite critical o f that view . H e b eliev es (p. 33) that B a lu /e 's text lies q u ite clo se to th e text c o n sid ere d at th e S y n o d o f R o m e m 7 4 5 K ottje claim s that th e text in c lu d e d in th e Irish C am D om naig. w hich can be d a ted fro m th e b e g in n in g o f the e ig h th ce n tu ry , m ay w ell b e o u r earliest Latin tex t (p. 54). 23 I q u o te fro m M axw ell's tran slation . N M axw ell, op a t., p p. 4 5 8 , 46 1 . 25 “d e h ora n o n a u sq u e lu ce sc en te d ie lu n e fen a iis." m an u scrip ts /. a n d V, P rieb sch , op. a t., p p 7. 8. 26 H evlvn . op c i t . p p 115. 116. Prieb sch (p assim ) sh ow s that th e S a b b a ti/in g o f S u n d a y w en t fro m W est to East, fro m th e V isigotm c realm s to th e Franks an d on . 27 E pist 13. 3 (P L 7 7 :1 2 5 3 . 1254; N P N F /2 13:92. 9 3 ). w 7. 23 (Didascalia el constUutiones apostolorum. e d . by F. X. Funk (P a d erb o rn . 19051. p. 4 0 9 ; A N F 7 :4 6 9 ). 29 D e castigatione (P G 4 6 :3 1 0 ). 50 D e coenobiorum institutis 3. 2 (C S E L 17:34); c f. 3. 9 (C S E L 17:43. 4 4 ) C asstan a d d s c o n c e r n in g the S atu rd a y -n igh t an d S u n d a y -n ig h t vigils. “W e are c h a rg e d to g iv e b oth d ays— that is. to th e sev en th an d eig h th eq u a lly — th e sam e sh a r e o f service, as it says, ‘G ive a p o rtio n to tn e sev en th an d th e e ig h th eq u ally,' Ecc. 1 1:2." 1 he a u th o r a d d s, h o w e v er. “T h is d isp en sa tio n fro m fastin g m ust not be u n d er sto o d as a p a rticip a tio n in Jew ish festivals bv th o se a b ove all w h o a re sh ow n to be free fro m alfjew rish su p er stitio n s.“ 51 E pist. 5 4 . 2 (C S E L 2 4 /2 :1 6 0 ; Fathers o f the Church 12:255). 52 D e semente (P G 2 3 :1 4 4 ). 55 Ecclesiastical H istory 5. 2 2 (P G 6 7 :6 3 5 ; N P N F l2 2 :1 3 2 ). S o zo m en states also in his history . “T h e p e o p le o f C o n sta n tin o p le an d several o th er cities assem b le to g e th e r o n th e Sabbath, as w ell as o n th e n ex t d a v , w hich cu sto m is n ev er o b se rv ed at R o m e o r at A lexan d ria." — H ist, eccles. 7. 19 (P G 6 7 :1 4 7 8 ). S ee M arcel S im o n . Verus Israel (Paris. 1964). p p 3 7 4 -3 7 6 u W. T . S k e n e (Celtic Scotland (E d in b u r g h . I876J, 2 :3 4 9 , 3 5 0 ) a sserted that th e C eltic C h u rch k ep t th e sev en th d a v . a n d his a s s e n io n w as re p e a te d bv m an s later w riters. G . A . K e o u g h stu d ied th e e v id e n c e u sed oy S k e n e and sh o w ed that it was a m isu n d e r sta n d in g o f th e texts. (“A n Inquirv in to th e D a vs o f th e W eek O b serv ed as H oly D ays by th e C e lu c C hu rch" (M .A . th esis. S D A T h e o lo g ic a l S em in ary . I946J. p p . 84 -8 8 ) In his Celtic Church in B rita in (L o n d o n . 1972). L eslie H a r d in g e p resen ts lim ited e v id e n c e for so m e reco g n itio n o f th e sev en th d ay in th e C eltic C h u rch . 35 Adom nan's L ife o f Colum ba. e d . by A . O . A n d er so n a n d M. O . A n d er so n (L o n d o n . 1961), p p. 5 2 3 . 36 Ibid.. p p 5 0 1 . 5 1 9 . 57 Sancti C.olumbani Opera, e d . by G. S. M W alker (D u b lin . 1957). p. 181; cf. p . 159. M Second L ife o f Si. D aind in Ln-es o f Saints from the Book o f Lismore. e d . bv W S to k es (O x fo r d . 189 0 ), p. 4 3 0 . 39 S ee n ote 30. 40 L ife o f B rendon o f C lonfert in Vitae Sanctorum H ibem iae. e d . bv C h P lu m m er (O x fo r d , 1910), 1:117; Book o f Si. D a iid in Councils a n d Ecclesiastical D o c u m e n t R e la tin g to G reat B ritain a n d Ireland, ed . by A. W. H a d d a n a n d W illiam Stubbs. 3 vols. (O x fo r d . 1 8 6 9 -1 8 7 8 ). 1:113. T h e r e w ere also stories o f relea se from tn e p ain s o f h ell o n S aturday.

211

T H E S A B BA T H IN S CR IP TUR E AND HIS TORY T ripartite L ife o f Si. Patrick, cd . by W. S to k e s. 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1887). 1:1 1 7 . D om L ouis G o u g a u d «tales that "in th e C eltic ch u rch es S aturday b o re s o m e th in g o f a festive ch aracter, w hich was ex p r e sse d by g rea ter le n g th a n d so lem n ity in th e liturgy an d also in th e m o n a ste ries by a less rig o ro u s d iet "— Christianity in Celtic Lands (L o n d o n . 193 2 ). p. 3 2 3 . C f. W . P h in ip p . e d .. H istory o f the Church o f Ireland (L o n d o n . 1933). 41 A ncient L aw s o f Ireland, cd . by W . N. H an cock an d o th ers (D u b lin . 1 8 6 5 -1 9 0 1 ). 3 :4 1 . 42 Columbaru opera, p. 2 0 3 . O n th e text itself, see H a r d in g e . itp. cit.. p . 83. 45 M u irc h u ’s L a tin L ife o f Patrick, in th e Book o f A rm agh. I. 2 5 ; 2. 3. Q u oted in H a r d in g e . op a t., p p. 7 9 . 8 0 . 44 A dom nan s L ife o f Colum ba, p p . 2 7 1 . 53 5 . H ie ed ito r s o f that w ork co n clu d e: “ It seem s to fo llo w that the sabbatical S u n d ay had not yet b een a cc ep te d by A d o m n a n or in Io n a at th e tim e w h en A d o m n a n w rote."— P age 29. T h e y d a te th e w riting o f A dom nan i I j f e b etw een 6 8 8 an d 6 9 2 . ab out a c e n tu r y a fter th e d e a th o f C o lu m b a (p. 96). 45 MLa p o lém iq u e an ti-ju ive d e Saint J ea n C h rv so sto m e et le m o u v em en t judatsant d 'A n tio ch e." in M arcel S im o n , Recherches dnistoire judéo-chrétienne (Paris, I9f>2), p. 144. 4+1 Horn. 1 (P G 4 8 :8 4 4 ). T h e s e h o m ilies h ave b een tran slated a n d stu d ie d by C. M ervvn M axw ell. “C h ry so sto m 's H o m ilie s against th e Jew s" (P h .D . d isse rta tio n . U n iversity o f C h ica g o . 1966). a n d a lso a p p e a r in Discourses against J u d a m n g C hnstutns. trans. Paul W . H ark in s (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 1979). 47 Horn I (P G 4 8 :8 4 7 ). 48 In Ezech 3 3 :3 3 (P L 2 5 :3 2 6 ). C f. A u g u s tin e ’s E fistl* 196. 4 A d Aselhcum de cavendo ju d a ism o (P L 3 3 :8 9 8 . 8 9 9 ). M arcel S im on d iscu sses th e p o p u la rity o f tn e scv cn -n ra n ch cd ca n d lestick in early C hristian art a n d sees th e r e a m a n ifesta tio n o f th e attraction o f J u d a ism . "Le c h a n d e lie r à sep t b ran ch es," Recherches, p p. 181 -1 8 7 . 49 Quaes t a d v .J u d ., Praef. in Liber de i»ants quaestionibus. cd . by P. A . C. V eg a and A. E. A n sp a ch (E scu n a l. 1940), q u o te d in B. B lu m en k ra n z. J utfs et chrétiens dans le monde occidental (Paris. I9 6 0 ), p. 6 2 . M uch o f th e in fo rm a tio n on m ed iev a l J u d a izcr s is d raw n from that w ork. 50 J u lia n o f T o le d o . Insult, in tyr. gall. 2 (P L 9 6 :7 9 7 ). 41 T h e rubric o f th e law is De ludaizantibus chnstianis. Leges Visigothorum 12. 2. 16 ru n to arrest a th ie f o r p u r su e a p r iso n e r . For th e sake o f C hrist o n e m ay p rep a re fo o d for gu ests. A farm er m a y g o to ca p tu re a sw arm o f b ees and firing a bull to a cow . C attle can be p ro tecte d fro m th e w olves. T h e law th rea ten s th e w itn ess o f S u n d ay d esecra to r w h o rem ain s silent as m u ch as th e S un d avb reak er. 104 M a n s » 13:378. 105 Ibid . 12:399. 4 0 0 . 106 C ap 7 8 (M G H C ap 1:60). 107 Boniface's Epist. 5 9 (M G H E p. sei. 1:1 1 5 , 116). T hese d ecisio n s d id n o t p u t an e n d to th e u se o f th e Letter fro m H eaven in th e W est. In 1200 a certain E u stace from N o rm a n d y cam e to E n g la n d to a d v o ca te S u n d ay rest. H e rea d to th e p e o p le a letter fro m h ea v en . S e e A. H. L ew is. A Critical History o f the Sabbath a n d the Su n d a y m the C hristian Church (P lain field. N .I.. 1905), p p . 1 8 2 -184. H e also sp o k e o f p agan in vasion s o f m o n stro u s an im a ls w ith h ea d s o f lio n s, hair o f w o m en , an d tails o f cam els that w ou ld d e v o u r th e d esecra to r s o f th e h o ly days. L ater in that centu ry th e fla g ella n ts struck th e im agin ation o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le bv th eir self-in flicted laceration s and u sed a letter fro m h ea v en to call fo r h a llo w in g th e L ord's d a y . S ee G o r d o n L eff. Heresy m the Later M iddle Ages. 2 vols. (M a n ch ester, 196 7 ), 2 :4 8 5 -4 8 8 . 108 Cap. 8 1 (M G H Cap. 1:61). S e e R osam u n d M. K itten ck , T he Frankish Church a n d the C arohngian Reform , 7 8 9 S 9 5 (L o n d o n , 1977). 109 Cap. 4 6 (M G H Cap. 1:105); C ap 11 (M G H C ap 1:146); C ap 13 M G H C ap 1:152). 1.0 M G H Cone. 2 :2 5 2 , 2 5 6 . 2 7 0 . 2 § 3 . 2 9 2 1.1 M a n s i 1 9 :370, 3 7 1 . 112 R hab an u s M aurus (P L 107:355); Sy n o d o f Paris (M G H Cane 4 2 : 6 4 3 ,6 4 4 ); T h e o d u lf o f O r lea n s (P L 1 0 5 :1 9 8 , 199); R u d o lf of B o u rg es (M a n si 14:955). ' ,s Horn. 181 (P L 9 5 : 1424). T h e p assage is so m etim es attrib u ted to A lcu in . S ee H an s H u b er, G a st u n d Buchstabe der Sonntagsruhe (S alzb u rg. 1958), p . 190, n. 2 6 6 , fo r th e ev id e n c e. 114 M G H Cone. 2 :1 9 4 . 195. P riebsch (op. cit.. p p . 7-9) sh ow s that th e em p h a sis o n su n set-to -su n set k e e p in g o f S u n d a y ca m e d u r in g th e C arolin gian p eriod . 115 H e fele-L e cie rcq . 3 :2 8 7 . 2 8 8 . 116 M a n si 1 4 :889-898. 1.7 P L 11 0 :7 6 -7 8 . R u d o lf o f B o u rg es w rote: " C o n v en ie n d u m est sabbato d ie cu m lu m in a rib u s ad ec clesia m ."— M a n si 1 4 :955, 9 5 6 . P o p e N ich olas 1 also o r d e r e d su n set-to -su n set k eep in g o f th e L ord ’s d ay. Epist. 6 3 (P L 1 1 9 :1 0 0 4 ). S ee a lso K ottje. op. a t., p . 46; G aillard, op. cit., p p. 9 6 1 . 9 6 2 1.8 Corpus ju r is ca n o n ia . pars secunda. D ecretalium Collec hones, c u . by E. F ried b erg (L eip z ig . 1 8 8 1 ),c . 1, x d e fe n is , ii. 9 an d c. 3, x de fern s, ii, 9 . 1.9 3 .2 . 3, sect. 1 De tertwpreceifto. Sum m a thet>logica (A d C laras A qu as. 1 9 2 4 -1 9 4 8 ). 4 :4 9 0 -5 0 4 . O n th e p la ce o f th e O ld T esta m en t in m ed iev a l ih e o fo g v . se e C h e n u , où a t., p p. 146-161. 120 T h e im p lication s o f th at p h ilo so p h ica l d e v e lo p m e n t for natural law a n d D eca lo g u e are d escrib e d in M ichel V illey, L a form ation de la pensée juridique moderne (Paris. 1968), p p. 114, 115. '2I S um m a theolo£iae$2i2de. 1 2 2 .4 a d 4 . In la 2 a e . 100.5 T h o m a s gives a feu d a l d im e n sio n to S u n d a y k ccp in g : T h e first th ree c o m m a n d m e n ts (th e s e c o n d co m m a n d m en t is o m itted in C atholic ca tech ism s) d e fin e th e d u ties to th e L ord: fid elity, re v eren ce , an d service. 122 Ibid.I 2 a2ae. 122. 4 a d I 125 O n th e fo u r fo ld sen se o f S crip tu res, see .Summa ihedogiae l a l a e . 10. S ee also H e n r i d e L u b d i. E xégésem édiéiule (Paris. 1961 ), 2 d part. 1 :4 0 3 -4 15; B e n i S m allev. The Study o f die Bible in the M id d le Ages (1 9 5 2 reprin t ed .; N o tr e D a m e. In d .. 1964). p p. 2 4 2 -2 6 3 . 124 .Summ/i theologuie la 2 a e . 104. 3. 125 S ee W illiam s, op. cit., p . 2 7 2 , 27 3 .

213

T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY 1.6 S i. T h o m a s h ad ca refu lly d istin g u ish e d b etw een d iffe r e n t ty p es o f opera sennlia. O n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f Sun d ay casuistry see D u b lan ch v. ob cit., cols. 1 3 2 0 -1 3 2 2 ; H u h er. op a i.. p p. 1 95-200; V in cen t J. Kelly. Forbidden Sunday a n d Feast Day O ccupations ( W a sh in g to n . 1943). Expositw Decalogi. e d . by W en zel Flaishaus. in Opera O m nui (1 9 0 3 ; rep rin t ed . O snabrück. 1 9 6 6 ). 1 /1 :1 4 -1 7 . i n S ee G aillard, op. a t., co l. 9 6 2 b ; also idem, "Le d im a n c h e et le cu lte d e la S ain te T rinité,** in l.e H uitièm e Jo u r, Vie Spirituelle 7 6 ( 1 9 4 7 ):6 4 0 -6 5 2 . 1,9 O d o m . op. cit.. p p . 7 9 . 8 0 . n. 58a. 130 O pusculum 33. 3. 4 (P L 1 4 5 :5 6 4 -5 6 7 ). 151 M a n ti 2 0 :8 2 1 . IS* D ublanchy . op. a t., col. 1321. ' » Ibid 154 S everal ex c e lle n t stu d ie s o n th e W ald en ses h ave ap p e a red a b ro a d , but th ere is u n fo rtu n a tely n o recen t sch olarly w ork in E n glish ; read esp ecially le a n (¿ o n n et a n o A m e d e o M olnar. Let V audou a u M oyen Age (T u rin . ( 1974)); A M olnar. S to n a dei Voidest, v ol. 1 ; D alle origini all'adesum e alla R ifo rm a ( T u n n . 197 4 ). K urt-V icto r S clg c . Die ersten W aldenser (B er lin , 1967); R. M an selli. Studi sulle eresie del secolo X’.l i (R om a. 1953); E. D u p r é -T h e se id e r . Introduzione aUe eresie medioex^ali (B o lo g n a . 1953). For co llectio n s o f so u rce m aterial: J. G o n n et. e d .. E nchiridion fo n tiu m valdensium (T o rr e P ellice. 1958); W alter L. W ak efield an d A ustin P. Evans. Heresies o f the H ig h M iddle Ages Selected Sources Translated a n d A nnotated (N ew Y ork . 1969). 133 De fid e catholua in W ak efield a n d Evans, op. a t., p p. 2 1 7 . 2 1 8 . Joach im o f Fiore m a d e th e sam e a ccu sa tio n in th e De articulu f d e i. S e e G ö n n e t an d M olnar. op. a t., p. 5 1 . 1.6 W akefield an d Evans, op. cit., p . 2 1 9 . C f. S tep h e n o f B o u rb o n . Tractatus. in ib i d . p. 2 0 9 . 137 S tep h e n o f B o u rb o n . Iractatus. in ibid.. p. 21 0 . 138 "In re a d in g th e g o s p e l, in k e e p in g S u n d a y , in fastin g, in prayer you a re o n e w ith us." in G ö n n e t a n d M olnar. op. « / . p . 152. 119 H ystona albtgensis. in W ak efield an d Evans, où. a t., p p . 2 4 0 . 2 4 1. “T h e y are called insabbati b eca u se ev er sin ce th ey licgan th e W ald cn sian spiritu al p erfec ts h ave b e e n w earin g a sign in th e sh a p e o f a sh ield o n th e to p o f th eir sand als. ’— Akten der Inquisition zu C a n assorte. in Beiträge zu r Sektengeschichte des M ittela lien . voL 2 o f D okum ente, ed . by I. v o n D o llin g cr (1 8 9 0 ; rep rin t e d . N ew Y ork , n .d .). p. / . O n th e u se o f th e n a m e insabbati ("sandal w ea rers’*), see S clg c. a t. fit., 1:139; 2 7 0 , n. 1 18; Cionnct a n d M olnar. op a t., p p. 140. 141; I. G ö n n e t. L e to n fe ssio m d ife d e w ld e si prim a della R iform a (T o r in o . 1967), s.v. "sandaliati", W. Farle H ilgert. "R eligious P ractices o f th e W ald en ses a n d T h e ir D octrin al Im plications,*’ (M .A . th esis. S D A T h e o lo g ic a l S em inary . 1964). p p. 4 9 -5 6 . T h e W a ld en ses w ere a lso ca lled xandahati a n d sotulani (fro m »otuians sh o e). T h e d o c u m e n ts show clearly th e sig n ifica n ce that w as a tta ch ed to th e w c a n n g o f sandals. T h e m isu n d er sta n d in g o f th e weird insabbati was c o m p o u n a c d by th e fact that Puritan tran slators o f th e W a ld cn sian c h ro n ic les tran slated th e l*atin dies dom im ca an d th e F ren ch dim anche by Sabbath. S ec H ilg ert, p p . 5 6 -5 8 . 140 Traclatus de her etuis, in W ak efield an d Evans, op. cit., p. 3 7 1 . 141 (July 8, 1209) in W ak efield a n d Evans, op a t., p. 22 8 . It is u n lik ely th at S a b b a th k cep in g w o u ld a p p e a r a m o n g th e A lb igcn ses sin ce they te n d e d to d isp a ra g e tn c O ld T esta m en t a n d its law s. S ee A. S ch m id t. H istoire et doctnne de ta secte des (.athares ou Albigeois (Paris. 1 8 49), 2 :2 9 4 . C h ristin e T h o u se b e r , “C o n tr o v erses v a u d o iscs ca th a res iv: Loi m osaïq ue." in Hérésie ethérétiques (R o m e. 1969). p p 129 -1 5 2 T h e tex t o f D u ra n d o f H u csca w h ere h e attacks th e C athars' view s o n th e M osaic law is fo u n d in Se»g«\ op a t.. 2 :1 6 1 -1 9 3 . 141 O n th e P assagin g sec C h. M olin ier. “Les ra ssa g im . F tu d c sur u n e secte c o n tem p o ra in e d e s C a th a res et d e s V a u d ois." M ém oires de f Acadéwue de T ouIo u m , 8 2 s * n c . I 0 :4 2 8 -4 5 8 ; Paul A lp h a n d é r s.Z .« idées men aies chez les hétérodoxes latins au début du X l l l e uécle (1 9 0 3 ; rep rin t cd . F rank fu rt a/M ain . 1976). p p 1 6 8-173; R aoul M anselli. “ I P a ssa g in i,“ Bulletino d e lti stituto Sto rn o Italiani» ber il Medu> F i o e Arc hw io M u r ato n a n o 7 5 ( 1963): 1 8 9 -2 1 0 T h eir n a m e a p p e a rs first in th e ca n o n s o f th e C o u n cil o f \ e r o n a in 1 184 an d last in a list o f h ere sies bv P o p e N ich o la s IV in 1 291. 143 Ed. by J a m es A. G arvin a n d Jam es A. C orb ett (N o tre D a m e. In d .. I9 $ 8 ). 144 Ibid . p p . 130, 131 143 T h e fate o f that g r o u p is stu d ie d in Paul B cu zart. Les hérésies pen d a n t le M oyen Age et la réforme ju sq u'à la mort de P hilippe II. 1 ) 9 8 dans la région de D ouai. d 'A rm s et au pays de ïA lle u (Paris. 1912V I b ave u sed th e a rticle by D en is R o m ain , t i o n d a m n é s i m ort p ou r avoir fait le sabbat e n sam edv." R evu e adven tu te. M arch, 1976, p p. 7 -9 , w h e r e a p ictu re o f th e fo lio o f th e origm .il d o i n in cn i is m< Iu d ed . 144 Little is k n ow n co n c e r n in g ih c Picards. S o m e d o cu m en ts, in clu d in g th e S u m m a n u m , are in clu d ed in th e s eco n d v o lu m e o f D nllin gcr's Beiträge, see also Frederick G. H ey m ann.yoA n ZrJui and the H ussite R n -o lu tw n ( P rin ceto n . N .J .). p p 2 0 9 -2 1 3 ; H ow ard K am m sk v. A History o f the H ussite R ei'o lu tw n (B er k e ley , C a lif., 1 9 6 7 ),p p 3 5 3 -3 5 9 . *4* O n th e in flu e n c e o f th e Y au d m s in n orth ern F rance, se c Paul le u t r a t , Les V audou (Paris. 1966), ch a p s. 3-6. L e ff re fe rs to th e p re se n c e o f th e V au d m s at D ou ai in Heresy. 2 4 8 1. T h e n a m e p trard was p ractically sy n o n y m o u s w ith Waldenses in th e later M id d le A g es. M M artini. Pierre Yaldo (Paris, 1961), p. 132. O n th e W ald cn sian s' p resen ce in C en tra l E u rop e, sec L eff, op. a t., p p. 4 5 2 -4 8 5 . esp . p. 4 7 7 , (b onn et an d M olnar. op a t., p p 1 54-158; K am insky, op. a t.. p p 17 3 -1 8 0 ; H c y m a n n . op. a t .. p . 2 1 0 , n. 19. ,4* D ollin gcr .o p . n i , p 6 6 2 . L e ff r e p o n s th e p resen ce o f W a ld en ses in P o la n d w h o h ad th eir day o f p ra y er o n th e s ev en th d ay. O p cit., p 4 6 4 149 In Opera O m nia, c d by J L cclcrc. 10 vols. (1 7 0 3 -1 7 0 6 ; reprin t ed . H ild esch cim . 1 962), 5 :5 0 5 . L u th er a n d C alvin knew also ab ou t th e tio h e m ia n Sabbatarians L u th er, le ctu res on Genesis, LW 2 :3 6 1 . C a lv in . D e vera p articipation/ in sacra coena, corpus R eform atorum 9 :5 9 0 . O n th e activities o f th e Sabbatarians in H a p sb u rg la n d s, se e J. K . Z em an . Anabaptists a n d the Czech Brethren in M o r a iw . (T h e H a g u e. 1969) passim . 130 O n th e L ollard s, se c la m e s G a r d n er . Lollardy a n d the Reform ation i n E n g la n d . 4 vols, ( la m d o n , 1908). J. A . T . T h o m p s o n . The Later Lollards. U N - 1 5 2 0 (O x fo r d . 1965). L e if. p a t., p p . 5 5 9 -6 0 5 ; M. E. A ston , “ la illa rd v a n d S ed itio n . 1381-1431,** P u l a n d Present. N o. 17 (A p ril, I 9 6 0 ) .1-44 l3^ For th e L ollard s a n d S crip tu res, sec G ard n er, op a t . 1:1 0 0 - 1 18. 132 W alsin g h a m ’s H istoria A nglicana, ed . bv H. T . R ile s . 2 sols. (L o n d o n . 18 6 9 ), 2 :2 5 2 -2 5 3 . q u o te d in G a r d n er , op o f ., p . 48. ™3 G ard n er, op. a t., p. 54. 134 A . C . B an g. Luther's Katekism us H istoria. 2 vols. (C hristian a. 1893 * 1 8 9 9 ). 2:87 133 Ibid ,3f* H en ry C. H u tten b a ch . 'T h e J u d a izin g H eresy an d th e O r ig in s o f th e M u scovite A n ti-S em itism ,“ in Studies in M edieval C ulture, IV /3 (K alam azoo. 19 7 4 ). p p 4 9 6 -5 0 6 .

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CHAPTER 11

Sabbath and Sunday in the Reformation Era

Kenneth A . S trand

H E R efo rm atio n Era in h erited the religious traditions an d practices o f the M iddle Ages, but in certain respects the P rotestant R eform ers m ade significant changes. W ith re g ard to the chief weekly day for C hristian w orship services, such m ajor R eform ers as L u th er, Zwingli, and Calvin continued the p attern o f S unday observance, th o u g h with changes in rationale fo r keeping the day a n d in attitu d e tow ard abstinence from work. C ertain R eform ation groups, however, m oved fu rth e r away from m edieval tradition by reverting to the ancient p attern o f observing the seventh day o f the week (Saturday) as the Sabbath o f the Lord. O n th e o th e r hand, som e R eform ers ten d ed to retain a good deal o f the m edieval “Sabbatarian" attitu d e tow ard Sunday. T h e presen t ch a p te r will provide a b rief overview o f S abbath-Sunday attitudes, discussions, a n d practices d u rin g the R eform ation Era. T re a tm e n t h erein will be lim ited to the E u ro p ean continent, inasm uch as a later ch a p te r will deal with the Sabbath an d S unday in connection with the English R eform ation.

T

Sabbath and Sunday in Germany and Northern Switzerland As n o ted in the p receding ch ap ter, m edieval Rom an Catholicism had set forth a twofold basis for weekly S unday observance; nam ely, (1) th at the Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f the D ecalogue was still fully binding on C hristians, and (2) that th e day o f the week for such observance (which included refrain in g from regular work) had been tra n sfe rre d from S aturday to Sunday by the authority o f the C atholic C h u rc h .1 (This line o f arg u m en t, incidentally, received significant C atholic reaffirm ation d u rin g the R eform ation Era itself by the C o u n ter-R efo r­ m ation C ouncil o f T re n t, which concluded its work in 1563.)2 In general, th e m ajor P rotestant R eform ers, including M artin L u th e r an d his colleagues at W ittenberg, broke quite radically with this Rom an Catholic twofold basis for S unday observance. In th eir em phasis on salvation th ro u g h faith an d in th eir rejection o f religious legalism, the R eform ers quite naturally ten d ed to 215

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rem ove th e m edieval “Sabbatarian" restrictions that had becom e attached to Sunday observance. T h ey also quite naturally rejected, o f course, the idea that th eir own practice o f observing S unday for w orship services was in any way the creation o f th e Rom an C atholic C h u rch .5 L u th er, as early as 1520 in his fam ous Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, explicitly encouraged a reduction in the n u m ero u s cerem onies and festival days inherited from m edieval Catholicism , stating that “all festivals should be abolished, and S unday alone re tain ed ."* His m ention o f S unday as an exception is significant, an d the G erm an R eform er continued th ro u g h o u t his career to feel th at S unday was useful as th e m ain weekly day fo r C hristian w orship. His attitu d e in this respect, how ever, was not based on any belief th at Sunday was especially ap p o in ted by God as the day for this purpose. "A lthough all days are free an d o p en , o n e like an o th er," he once declared, "it is nevertheless useful, good, an d necessary to observe one, be it Sabbath, Sunday, o r any o th e r day, because God wants to rule the world ord erly a n d peacefully." * Interestingly en o u g h , he followed u p this statem ent with a reference to the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in the Decalogue, indicating that G od “gave six days over to labor" but req u ired rest for servants an d even for w orking anim als on the seventh day." In various o f his w ritings L u th er also had a good deal to say about th e Sabbath o f the Old T estam en t a n d about the Sabbath com m andm ent itself.7 H e believed that the day on which A dam and G od’s children in O ld T estam ent times had rested was th e seventh day o f th e week, the day now called Saturday. In E den, A dam had kept the Sabbath as a day for reflection on the works o f G od a n d fo r bestow ing h o n o r on the C reator; an d after th e Fall he continued to keep it. A braham kept it too. In d e ed , the Decalogue itself was pre-M osaic. with only “those cerem onials th at pertain to definite persons" being Mosaic.* But curiously en o u g h , in polem ical context L u th er could also classify both the ban on images an d th e Sabbath com m andm ent as ceremonial.* In ad d ition to believing that G od's children in Old T estam en t times had literally observed the Sabbath on each seventh day o f the week, L u th er conceived o f th e seventh-day Sabbath as a préfiguration o f eith er eternity itself o r an era o f “sleeping” p rio r to th e etern al age (p a tte rn ed afte r C hrist's resting in the tom b on the Sabbath a n d resurrection on Sunday). Prior to this were six ages that would take the w orld from A dam to the second com ing o f C hrist.1" How ever, Isaiah 66:23— “from one new m oon to an o th er, and from one sabbath to an o th er, shall all flesh com e to w orship before me, saith the L o rd ”— receives allegorization o f a d iffe ren t sort. T h is m eans, says L uther, that “th ere shall be a daily sabbath in the New T estam en t, with no difference as to tim e ."" W ith respect to the Sabbath co m m an d m en t itself, it ap p ears th at L uther looked u p o n it as having both m oral an d cerem onial aspects—-G o d ’s com m and to rest being m oral, a n d the specific day o f the week being cerem onial. In this way he was able to justify his position that C hristians could keep any day, ju st so long as they did keep one. Q u ite em phatically in a serm on at T o rg a u in 1544 L uther explained, “Since o u r L ord has com e, we have the liberty, if Sabbath o r S unday does not please us, to lake M onday o r a n o th e r day o f the week an d m ake a Sunday out o f it.” 1* M oreover, L u th er felt that the observance m ust be in a totally nonlegalistic m anner. U ndoubtedly, L u th e r’s position re g ard in g Sabbath and Sunday was also held 216

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by his W ittenberg followers generally. N evertheless, certain refinem ents o f that position may be seen am ong them . L u th e r’s close associate Philip M elanchthon, for exam ple, stressed the concept that the Sabbath com m andm ent in the D ecalogue was o rd a in e d o f G od to provide for preaching and public w orship; and in this respect it was a com m andm ent binding on all m en .15 T his particular pu rp o se o r in ten t o f the Sabbath com m andm ent, he felt, was still fully applicable to C hristians; but th e specific day designated in the com m andm ent (the seventh day o f th e week) p ertain ed , in his o pinion, only to ancient Israel, with C hristians now observing S unday instead. T h u s, M elanchthon som ew hat heightened L u th e r’s treatm en t o f th e Sabbath com m andm ent. L u th e r’s o ld er colleague A ndreas C arlstadt o f B odenstein also heightened L u th e r’s em phasis on keeping the Sabbath co m m an d m en t.1* C arlstadt’s m ajor treatise on th e subject, Concerning the Sabbath and Commanded Holy Days, a p p e are d in 1524, two years afte r a breach had occurred betw een him and L uther. A m ajor portion o f this treatise deals with the n a tu re o f th e Sabbath and the m an n er o f Sabbath observance, an d includes a protest against such activities as personal en tertain m en t, joy riding, norm al m enial tasks (for exam ple, a cook’s lighting o f a fire), an d m aking horses an d oxen work on the Sabbath. Finally, in the tenth ch a p te r C arlstadt raises th e question o f the p ro p e r day to keep. He refers to Sunday as a day “which m en have established"; an d as for the seventh day o f the week, S aturday, he sim ply indicates that this is a disputed qu estio n .11 Interestingly en o u g h . L u th er responded in the following way to C arlstadt’s b rie f an d ra th e r noncom m ittal discussion o f the p ro p e r day: “Yes, if K arlstadt were to write m o re about the sabbath, even Sunday would have to give way, and the sabbath, th at is, S aturday, w ould be celebrated. H e would truly m ake us Jew s in all things, so th at we also would have to be circum cised, e tc ." 16 T h is type o f reaction was also displayed by L u th er tow ard real Sabbathkeepers who a p p e are d in such places as M oravia and A ustria. H e said, for exam ple, “In o u r tim e th ere arose in Moravia a foolish kind o f people, the Sabbatarians, who m aintain that the Sabbath m ust be observed a fte r the fashion of the Jews. P erh ap s they will insist on circum cision too, for a like reason.” 17 Somehow, the G erm an R eform er ten d ed to classify any C hristian em phasis on Saturday observance as p art o f a reversion to a Judaistic way o f life, w h eth er this was with respect to C hristian S abbathkeeping groups o f which he had h eard o r w h eth er it was with reg ard to suspicions about his own fo rm er close colleague C arlstadt. In n o rth e rn Switzerland at Zurich, H uldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) fostered a refo rm p ro g ram from 1519 onw ard. His attitu d e tow ard Sunday was quite sim ilar to th at o f L u th e r.1" At approxim ately the sam e tim e M artin B ucer (1491-1551), who advanced th e R eform ation cause in S trassburg in southw estern G erm any with an a ttitu d e generally m ore tolerant than the o th e r contem porary R eform ers, placed a stran g e em phasis on strict Sunday observance—an em phasis that was rem iniscent, in fact, o f R om an Catholic practice in this re g a rd .19 In d eed , B ucer went so fa r as to state, “ It m ust be a m atter o f special concern for those who wish the K ingdom o f C hrist to be restored am ong them th at Sunday religious observance be renew ed an d established."20As for the m an n er o f keeping “religious days singularly consecrated to G od" (Sunday was, o f course, prim arily intended), B ucer declared th at “n o one [is to] do unnecessary co rp o ral works with 217

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im punity on such d a y s ,. . . m uch less be absent from the sacred gatherings an d do works o f the flesh.’’ A m ong these "works o f the flesh” were such activities as “m aking sham eful gains, distu rb in g the religious spirit o f b re th ren by d em an d in g rep ay m en t o f d eb ts,” et cetera. Sports and o th er personal pleasures w ere also to be set aside.21 F u rth erm o re , in N ovem ber o f 1532, Bucer an d his colleagues went so far as to request from the civil authorities in S trassburg that on Sundays an interdiction be placed on all works beyond those strictly necessary for bodily needs. By 1534 the city ad o p ted an o rd in an ce in this reg ard , sanctioned by heavy financial penalties.22 B efore concluding o u r discussion o f Bucer, we should ad d that in spile o f all o f his em phasis on strict S unday observance, this R eform er had w ritten in his com m entary on M atthew 12 that it was a “superstition” to condem n work on Sunday as being sin— a statem ent that seems puzzling in view o f his o th e r rem arks and especially in view o f his efforts tow ard politically enforced S unday "Sabbatarianism .” w In any event, it ap p ears evident that am ong the various Protestant R eform ers on the E uropean continent, B ucer's attitu d e was the most akin to that o f th e later strict P uritan Sabbatarians in E ngland, who m ight well have draw n from him in this respect. T he Q uestion o f Sabbath and Sunday in Southwestern Switzerland T h e P rotestant reform m ovem ent swept southw estern Sw itzerland within two decades a fte r its ap p earan ce in W ittenberg, Zurich, an d Strassburg. T h e m ain refo rm ce n te r in this region was Geneva, and the chief reform leader was J o h n Calvin (1509-1564). Calvin’s refo rm ca ree r in G eneva spanned the years from 1536 to 1564, with an interim spent in S trassburg from 1538 to 154l.M E arlier in th e 1530s the R eform ation had been carried to (lie southw est regions o f Sw itzerland from the P rotestant canton o f B ern, with G uillaum e Farel being am o n g th e first preachers to evangelize Geneva. By May o f 1536, the city had declared itself P rotestant, an d it was but two m onths later that Farel urged Calvin to help him organize the religious institutions there. Before tu rn in g to an analysis o f Calvin’s own Sabbath-Sunday attitude, it will be well to notice certain discussions involving Farel an d o th er Protestant preachers who had p receded Calvin to G eneva, such as P ierre V iret and Jacques B ernard. O n e o f th e m ethods utilized by the Protestant R eform ers in sp read in g the gospel was th at o f public debate, called “disputation." Interestingly en o u g h , in several o f the d isputations in G eneva and neighboring Lausanne, the question was raised as to w h eth er the P rotestants w ere consistent in w orshiping on Sunday an d rejecting o th e r institutions claim ed by the Catholic C hurch, as has recently been called to atten tio n by Daniel A u gsburger.25 In 1534, for exam ple, th ere was a disputation betw een Farel an d a Catholic Dom inican m onk, G uy Furbity, a do cto r o f the Sorbonne.** W hen the P rotestant representatives stated that m an could not introduce any o rdinance into the chu rch , Furbity resp o n d ed that God o rd e re d the Jew s to keep S aturday, “but the chu rch th ro u g h the pow er given to h er has changed S aturday into Sunday because o f the resurrection o f th e L o rd .” H e ad d ed that "we celebrate S unday because o f a co m m andm ent and law o f the ch u rch , not because o f the co m m andm ent o f G od," an d that a person following G od’s com m and literally 218

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“sh ould rest on S aturday." v T h e P rotestant p re ach e r resp o n d ed th at all days are equally sacred, a n d that C hristians rest on Sunday to h e a r G od's W ord a n d to give rest to th eir neighbor. T o this, th e D om inican m onk replied that if the keeping o f o ne day in seven w ere sufficient, a person could rest on any day o f the week, with the result being d re ad fu l confusion. A nd once again he em phasized that the Bible specifies th e keeping o f S aturday, with Sunday observance being based solely on the au th o rity o f th e Catholic C h u rc h .28 D u rin g May an d J u n e o f 1535, a fu rth e r disputation was held in which the Catholic representatives P ierre C aroli an d Je a n C happuis debated the P rotestant leaders Farel, V iret, and B e r n a r d /'T h e line o f arg u m en tatio n relating to Sabbath and S unday was basically sim ilar to that used in the earlier debate, but the Protestants e n te re d a fu rth e r p oint to the effect th at resting on the seventh day (by which in this instance they m eant Sunday) was, to use A u g sb u rg er’s parap h rase, “no m o re a co m m and o f the church than a re the w ords o f som eone telling som ebody else to help his n eig h b o r who is experiencing great necessity."5,11n both cases, they claim ed, th ere was h u m an need; an d thus, in the sense o f ethical concerns, both could be considered com m andm ents o f G od.51 Needless to say, such an analogy h ad little w eight with the Catholic o p p o n en ts in view o f the R eform ers' otherw ise strong appeal to Sola Scnptura. A still fu rth e r disputation in which the Sabbath-Sunday question w'as raised was held in th e city o f L ausanne in O ctober o f 1536, a fte r Calvin had jo in e d Farel in refo rm atio n work in G eneva.” Farel was again central in the debate from the P rotestant side, a n d he was assisted by V iret. A Dom inican m onk, D om inique de M onbouson, held fo rth for the Catholics. In a portion o f the d ebate d u rin g which V iret was re p resen tin g the P rotestant side, the question arose as to why the Protestants observed S unday ra th e r than the S aturday Sabbath, if it w ere not because th e C atholic C hurch had authority to m ake an o rdinance beyond and outside S cripture. Said D om inique d e M onbouson, “If you refuse to m ake any change in S crip tu re and m ust slop at the words and the letter [of S cripture], you ou g h t to keep Sabbath like th e Jew s!” ” V iret resp o n d ed by end eav o rin g to prove that S unday observance was in the final analysis d raw n from a Biblical base. But as A ugsburger has aptly pointed out, "V iret had asserted that a spiritual observation was m ore im p o rtan t than a literal observation an d that practical considerations (need o f tim e to assemble together, duty to provide rest for the labors) could be taken into account in justifying a practice that did not agree fully with the w ords o f the law ."M T h e re was inconsistency in this kind o f an ap p ro ach , as A ugsburger has fu rth e r pointed out, for “w hen it cam e to images, fo r instance, which the d efen d ers o f Rom e arg u ed w ere set u p only to facilitate a spiritual w orship an d provide a sim ple an d practical m eans to com m unicate som e religious notions to the u n ed u cated people, o r even w hen it involved th e fasts an d L ent which were in ten d ed to cu rb sensuality, they objected.” 55 T h e th ree d isputations d o not indicate any observance o f the seventh-day Sabbath on e ith e r side, o f course; but they d o give evidence o f an interesting issue raised by the Catholics as to w h eth er the Protestants w ere really being consistent w hen they observed S unday a n d rejected o th er festivals claim ed on the authority o f th e Catholic C h urch. W e now com e directly to a consideration o f the attitu d e o f J o h n Calvin 219

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him self re g ard in g S aturday a n d S unday.“ B efore his arrival in G eneva. Calvin had already clarified his basic position re g ard in g the two days in the first edition o f his Institutes o f the Christian Religion, published in Basel in the sp rin g o f 1536. H ere he set fo rth th ree basic considerations with reg ard to the Sabbath com m andm ent: (1) the Sabbath is a m oral institution vitally significant for spiritual grow th; (2) it is the an ch o r for public w orship; (3) it has great social value in g u aran teein g rest for servants. As A u gsburger has pointed out, "these th ree ideas consutute th e stru ctu re o f Calvin’s th o u g h t on the Sabbath. In later works we may find fuller expositions, slight shifts in em phasis, efforts to m eet objections, but he never altered these essential viewpoints." ” In his early w ork Calvin, m uch like L uther, em phasized that the choice o f the p articu lar day was ra th e r u n im p o rtan t. But even afte r Calvin’s close association with B ucer in S trassburg from 1538 to 1541, he continued a sim ilar attitude. F or exam ple, in his com m entary o n Colossians 2:16 (w ritten som e five o r six years after his re tu rn from S trassburg to Geneva) he states that "we d o not by any m eans observe days, as though th ere were any sacredness in holy days, o r as th o u g h it were not lawful to work on th em ,” ad d in g that the observance “is d o n e for gov ern m en t and o rd e r, not for the days." " A lthough Calvin had a good deal to say at various times th ro u g h o u t his career about Sabbath (or Sunday) observance, we m ust com e quickly to w hat is to be considered th e G enevan R efo rm er’s definitive treatm en t o f th e question in his 1559 edition o f the Institutes.” H ere he reiterates, though with slight shift in em phasis, th e th re e basic considerations he first set forth in 1536.* H e clarifies, however, that th ere is no connection betw een the Sabbath com m andm ent an d the observance o f the C hristian Sunday. T h u s he rejected the views o f both the Catholic scholastic theologians and L u th e r re g ard in g a m oral versus a cerem onial distinction in th at co m m andm ent as laying the foundation for observance o f an o th er day th an S aturday.41 Even th o u g h a S abbatarian type o f S unday observance was, in Calvin’s opinion, going "thrice as far as the Jew s in the gross an d carnal superstition o f sabbatism," ” th e G eneva R eform er nevertheless also indicated, as he had in his com m entary on Colossians. th e need fo r observance o f discipline and o rd e r. H e has aptly sum m ed u p his position as follows: “ It was not, how ever, w ithout a reason that the early C hristians substituted what we call th e L ord's day fo r the Sabbath. T h e resurrection o f o u r Lord being the en d and accom plishm ent o f that tru e rest which the ancient Sabbath typified, this day, by which types w ere abolished, serves to w arn C hristians against ad h e rin g to a shadowy cerem ony. I do not cling so to the n u m b er seven as to bring the chu rch u n d e r b ondage to it, n o r d o I condem n churches fo r holding th eir m eetings on o th e r solem n days, provided they g u ard against superstition. T his they will d o if they em ploy those days m erely for the observance o f discipline and reg u lar o rd e r." 45 Anabaptists and the Sabbath We now tu rn to the so-called “Radical R eform ation,” in contrast to the m agisterial refo rm parties. O u r attention goes especially to the A nabaptists, who for th e most p art used Sunday as th eir weekly day o f w orship, but am ong whom were gro u p s observing the seventh day o f the week, Saturday. T h e basic study o f 220

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these S abbatarian A nabaptists o f the sixteenth century has been do n e by G e rh ard F. H asel.44 T h e A nabaptists consisted o f m any groups scattered widely th ro u g h o u t the E u ro p ean co n tinent, an d w ere given th eir nam e by th eir enem ies because o f th eir belief in ad u lt baptism . Actually th e A nabaptists did no t consider them selves to be “rebaptizers" (as th e term "A nabaptists” signifies), fo r they simply did not accept in fan t baptism as being any baptism at all. As to th eir o th e r beliefs and practices, these varied from g ro u p to g ro u p . For the most part, the A nabaptists seem ed to have been pacifistic, but a few segm ents took u p the sword an d created violence th at gave the A nabaptist nam e u n d u e an d generally ill-deserved notoriety.45 In several lists o f sects com piled both by Catholics an d by P rotestants in the latter h alf o f th e sixteenth century, Sabbatarian A nabaptists (observers o f S aturday) are m en tioned am o n g o th er groups. Such S abbatarians certainly were not in the m ajority o f A nabaptists, but they were still sufficiently n u m ero u s and well en o u g h know n to be noted by com pilers o f lists o f sects an d by w riters who p ro d u ced polem ical works against them .46 A m ong th e early leaders o f S abbatarian A nabaptists, the nam es o f Oswald Glait an d A ndreas Fischer stand out prom inendy. A bout 1527 a n d 1528 these two individuals accepted S aturday as being the L o rd ’s Sabbath. T hey traveled about considerably, b u t one o f th eir chief centers was at N ikolsburg in M oravia. Both Glait an d Fischer w rote books re g ard in g the Sabbath, but u n fo rtu n ately their books are no lo n g er extant. N evertheless, we are able to d eterm in e the basic co n ten t o f those books from answ ers given by th eir opponents. T h e most significant source for d eterm in in g G lait’s Sabbath d octrine is a response w ritten by C asper Schw enkfeld.47 It seems from this response th at G lait’s chief arg u m en t for the necessity o f keeping the seventh day as the Sabbath was the D ecalogue itself. Says Schw enkfeld, “T h e strongest a rg u m e n t o f Oswald [Glait] is the n u m b er o f th e T e n C om m an d m en ts___H e holds irrevocable the th o u g h t that God did not give eight o r nine but ten com m andm ents, which he wants everyone to keep." M oreover, according to Schw enkfeld, Glait “wants to m ake it u n d ersto o d th at eith er the Sabbath m ust be kept too or. all the o th e r nine com m an d m en ts m ust be re je c te d ."4" T h e following are am ong several fu rth e r points o f interest that em erge in Schw enkfeld’s response to Glait: (1) Glait believed th at the Sabbath had been co m m anded an d kept from C reation, with G od’s having com m anded A dam in Paradise to celebrate the Sabbath; (2) Glait felt that although circum cision began with A braham , th e Sabbath a n d o th e r laws existed from the beginning o f the w orld; (3) Glait fu rth e r believed that the children o f Israel's keeping o f the Sabbath earlier th an at Sinai, as evidenced in E xodus 16, was p ro o f th at the Sabbath did not originate at Sinai.48 With re g ard to Fischer, know ledge o f his S abbatarian d octrine is derived m ainly from a polem ical treatise against it w ritten by V alentine C rautw ald.50 C rautw ald, in fact, refers to som e sixteen points by Fischer th at he endeavors to critique. Basically, the line o f Fischer’s arg u m e n t goes som ew hat like this: T h e T e n C om m andm ents are ten covenant w ords that include the Sabbath, so that if the Sabbath is n o t kept, one breaks the com m andm ents o f God. Moses, the p ro p h ets, and th e New T estam e n t com m and the observance o f th e T en C o m m andm ents, and th e re fo re the Sabbath is included. W hen the law is re fe rre d 221

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to by Jam es a n d Paul, it is th e law that includes the Sabbath. M oreover, faith establishes th e law, an d th e re fo re it also establishes the Sabbath. Paul an d the o th e r apostles held m eetings on the Sabbath; an d C hrist, the apostles, and all the early C hurch F athers kept the Sabbath holy. Pope V ictor an d E m p ero r C onstantine w ere the first to o rd e r that Sunday should be kept. T h e T e n C o m m an d m en ts are eternal. Fischer’s eleventh point is especially w orth noting because o f its personal reflection on S cripture evidence: “T h e S criptures speak so o ften about the Sabbath; if 1 w ould have as m any texts and passages about S unday as th e re are ab out Sabbath, I would keep Sunday instead o f Sabbath.” 51 In concluding, it w ould be well to quote h ere Hasel's sum m ary p arag ra p h re g a rd in g Glait an d Fischer: “Because o f the n a tu re o f the sources, a com parison o f th e S abbatarian teachings o f Glait an d Fischer is m ost difficult. It is certain, how ever, th at both leaders o f S abbatarian A nabaptism based th eir teachings on th e sola scriptura principle o f the R eform ers. It is, th erefo re, not surprising that this R eform ation ap p ro ach provided them with a pow erful basis o f a rg u m e n ta ­ tion an d that th eir proclam ation o f Sabbatarianism m et with considerable success. B oth m en re g ard e d the O ld an d New T estam ents as inseparable an d indivisible. In this view they w ere fa r in advance o f th eir time. Biblical scholars have in recent decades m o re a n d m ore recognized this in h eren t unity. T h e re is close proxim ity o f th o u g h t a n d p resentation in the teachings o f Glait an d Fischer. T h is may be ex p ected o f p ro p ag ato rs who associated together, u niting th eir efforts in com m on m issionary activity, an d w ho th ro u g h circum stances were forced to d efen d to g eth er th eir S abbatarianism .” 5* T h e Seventh-D ay Sabbath in Spain R eform m ovem ents in Spain u n fo rtu n ately have received relatively little atten tio n , taking a su b o rd in ate place to the m ore dram atic an d w idespread R eform ation activities to th e no rth . H ow ever, in 1972 M ario Veloso b ro u g h t to light som e truly in trig u in g aspects o f the R eform ation in Seville.55 A m ong the R eform ers to w hom Veloso calls attention is C onstantino Ponce d e la F uente, who atten d e d th e universities o f Alcala an d Seville an d subsequently becam e quite fam ous as a p reach er. T o his preaching fam e, which he had achieved by 1536, he ad d e d distinction as a w riter d u rin g the 1540s. In 1548 he was invited by Prince Philip to serve as chaplain fo r a trip o f that prince th ro u g h o u t various lands o f E urope. It was not until 1555 that C onstantino re tu rn e d to Seville, w here he was alm ost im m ediately attacked by inquisitorial forces. H e finally died in prison in February, 1560. As Veloso points out, C onstantino was a representative o f an in d ep en d e n t refo rm atio n , ra th e r than having connections with L utheranism . H e had actually learn ed his d o ctrine from two earlier S paniards, Valer an d Egidio.M It is interesting to note that even while C onstantino was on trial and d u rin g his im p risonm ent, the staunchly an ti-L u th eran E m p ero r C harles V was sym pathetic to him .55 T h e particular aspect o f C onstantino’s d octrine that interests us h e re is his attitu d e tow ard S abbathkeeping. T his falls within the fram ew ork o f his d o ctrin e o f righteousness a n d perfection. H e states, for exam ple, “You m ust keep th e T e n C o m m andm ents if you do not wish to be an enem y o f G od.” 5* M oreover, as Veloso points ou t, to C onstantino perfection was possible fo r the C hristian 222

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“only because his life lies in C hrist an d because C hrist’s works are d o n e in his life." In C o n stan tin o ’s own words, "W orks are only pieces and leftovers o f the riches o f Jesu s C hrist, an d all is attrib u ted to Him an d has value th ro u g h Him , an d in Him do we p u t o u r tru st.” 57 N ot only did C o nstantino declare the im portance o f obedience to the T e n C o m m an d m en ts lest we “be an enem y o f G od," but he specifically pointed o u t that observance o f S aturday was p art o f that obedience to the Decalogue. A nd he also explained the Sabbath com m andm ent and the m eaning o f “servile w ork” that should not be d o n e on the Sabbath day. Servile work, he states, is the kind in which "one works o r causes an o th e r to work corporally, w ithout being necessary o r for charitable purposes." T h is work, he continues, was forbidden by G od on S aturday, not th at at the tim e o f the giving o f the D ecalogue such work was evil in itself, n o r that “it should be so now; but that m an should find him self u n en cu m b ered for the tru e spiritual sanctification o f the holy day." “ R eg ard in g th e significance o f G od's instituting o f th e Sabbath, C onstantino declares that “God ap p o in ted a stated day to be o ffered to H im self as a tithe, on which, u n en cu m b ered by o th e r cares m an should offer, inw ardly and outw ardly, acknow ledgem ent to the Lord w ho created him, who sustains him in this world, and w ho has prom ised him g reat an d etern al benefits." T h e day, says C onstantino, is o n e in which according to G od's provision "m an should m eet with o th er m em bers o f th e ch u rch w here h e should be as a living evidence th at he, together with them , gives trib ute [to G od] with the sam e kind o f obedience as th eirs.” ” C onstantino's references specifically to the S aturday Sabbath are from two o f his works re fe rre d to by Veloso. T h e references are b rief but nonetheless telltale. It ap p ears th at C onstantino plan n ed to elaborate on the Sabbath in a later w ork, a work th at ap p aren tly was never p roduced o r published.“ In sum m arizing the th ru st o f C onstantino’s rem arks on the S aturday Sabbath, Veloso has aptly slated: “T h ese references to Sabbath-keeping on the seventh day seem to be unique am ong the m ajor theologians o f the R eform ation and im ply a concept o f die Sabbath that did not develop to any great extent until the rise o f the S abbatarian A nabaptists, the Seventh Day Baptists, and especially, in the n in etee n th century, the Seventh-day A dventists.” 81 O th e r S abbathkeepers in the R eform ation Era A lthough space will not perm it a survey o f all E u ro p ean Sabbathkeeping g ro u p s in evidence d u rin g the R eform ation Era. at least b rief notice should be m ade o f th e fact th at observers o f S aturday sprang u p quite w idely th ro u g h o u t the C o n tin en t, an d a few illustrations will be given relating to such gro u p s.“ As one exam ple, in T ransylvania tow ard the en d o f the sixteenth century A ndreas Eossi, a wealthy noblem an influenced by Judaistic teachings o f one Francis David, in au g u ra ted a Sabbath m ovem ent.61 Eossi began intensive personal study o f S cripture a fte r th e d ea th o f his wife an d two sons, a n d am ong convictions that he gained from this study was that Saturday, the seventh day o f the week, was G od’s tru e Sabbath day. T hrough w riting an d o th er contacts he raised u p a sizable n u m b er o f converts who w ere observing the S aturday Sabbath by the last decade o f th e century. A lthough Eossi him self died about 1600, some p ro m in en t colaborers, including Sim on Pechi, an ad o p ted son, continued to prom ulgate the Sabbath 223

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d o ctrin e in th e early seventeenth century. D uring the first two decades o f that century. Pechi him self advanced politically until he becam e chancellor o f state; but loss o f favor led him to an im prisonm ent. D uring som e nine years in prison, he devoted tim e to p re p ara tio n o f a com m entary on Genesis an d to com posing a n u m b er o f hym ns, m any o f which specifically ho n o red the seventh-day Sabbath.” A pparently, a fte r severe p ressu re in 1638 an d 1639, he eventually re p u d ia ted his Sabbath observance, at least outw ardly."' In spite o f the fact th at various persecutions w ere inau g u rated against these T ransylvanian S abbathkeepers (they u n d erw en t various severe persecutions b eginning ab out the year 1595), their n u m b er at first increased. In 1618, w hen a re fo rm ed bishop with 300 soldiers attacked the Sabbatarians an d arrested their m inisters, som e twenty-two o f their ch u rch buildings w ere confiscated. T h e very n u m b er o f ch u rch buildings thus confiscated is, as J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R. C o n rad i aptly note, "an evidence o f the extent o f the Sabbath m ovem ent” in that region o f T ransylvania (the S /ekler district).“ From ab out 1538 to 1540, stern m easures against the S abbathkeepers, including confiscation o f personal pro p erty an d im prisonm ent until d eath , virtually destroyed th eir existence in T ransylvania, though som e rem nants o f these Sabbath keeping C hristians con tin u ed on. In fact, o n e m ight (hink that th ere had been som ew hat o f a resurgence o f Sabbath observance by 1668 in that Prince Apafy at the Besztercze Diet in Ja n u a ry o f that year com plained that th ro u g h “secret devices,” “Ju d a ism ” (the reference was ap p aren tly to C hristian Sabbatarianism ) was daily increasing. In any event, how ever, interrogations two years later revealed only six S abbatarian towns— a considerable reduction from earlier tim es.“7 T h e persecutions, especially those o f 1638-1640, had the effect o f spreading the T ransylvanian Sabbatarian influence beyond T ransylvania itself, as some Sabbatarians m anaged to escape an d carried th eir doctrines and practices to distant places, including C onstantinople. M oreover, ihe Sabbatarian w ritings o f such leaders as Eossi an d Pechi apparently spread far and wide. For instance, a copy o f Pechi’s Genesis com m entary o f 1634 had reached M aros-V asarhely in H ungary, w here it was personally seen by C onradi in the year 1890.“" In Norway, Finland, an d Sweden th ere w ere also extensive gro u p s o f observers o f th e S aturday S abbath.“* Evidence is available o f such groups d u rin g the late M iddle Ages th ro u g h the action o f Catholic councils against them , including the councils held in B ergen, Norway, in 1435 and in Oslo (C hristiania), N orw ay, the following year. T hese councils lo rb ad e abstention from w ork on S aturday.70 It ap p e ars that in the early years o f th e sixteenth century, before the Protestant R eform ation reached Scandinavia, th ere w ere two kinds o f observance o f the S aturday Sabbath in Norw ay—o n e w herein Rom an Catholic priests caused the com m on people to hallow S aturdays in a fashion sim ilar to Sundays u n d e r penalty o f fine to the bishop, an d a n o th er kind that was outlaw ed by the C atholic C h u rch .71 Possibly the differen ce involved varying ecclesiastical attitudes in d ifferen t geographical locations m ore than it did any significant divergences in practice, but this we cannot tell for certain from the docum ent that stipulates the req u ired Sabbath observance. That docum ent un fo rtu n ately is only fragm entary and obscure, but it at least alerts us to the curious fact that som ew here in Norway in th e early sixteenth century th ere w ere Rom an Catholic authorities o rd e rin g 224

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th at S aturday be observed as well as S unday .72 F u rth e r evidence re g ard in g Sabbath observance in Norw ay com es from the period after L utheranism reach ed Scandinavia. T h e re is, fo r exam ple, an edict o f C h risto p h er H uitfeldt, “lord o f B ergen, Stavanger, and V ardoe," d ated 1544, which am ong o th e r things refers to the fact th at “som e o f you, especially in A ardal, in Sogn, con trary to the w arning given you last year, keep S aturday.” His edict im posed a fine o f ten m arks on anyone found keeping S aturday.” A decade later, in 1554, evidence o f S aturday observance in Finland is affo rd ed th ro u g h a letter o f Swedish King G ustavus I Vasa, w ho had fostered the L u th eran R eform ation in his lands, which included Finland as well as Sweden. In this letter he earnestly com m ands that any o f these folk in F inland w ho have fallen into w hat he calls “such e rro r" should forsake it im m ediately .74 T h e m ain evidence re g ard in g observance o f the S aturday Sabbath in Sw eden arises som ew hat later, tow ard th e en d o f the sixteenth century an d in the early p a rt o f th e seventeenth century, with som e evidence at least as late as 1667.75T h e re ap p ears to have been in Sw eden at this tim e two types o f Sabbath observance, as had been the case in Norw ay about a century earlier. But w hereas th e specifics in Norway are unclear, the types in Sweden are quite clearly distinguished as a Judaistic S abbathkeeping (on th e part o f converts to Judaism ) and a genuinely C hristian S aturday observance. T h e latter frequently, bu t not necessarily always, entailed a con tin u in g observance o f Sunday as well.76 King G ustavus II A dolphus (died 1632) was especially forceful in his activity against S abbathkeepers .77 In addition to T ransylvania an d the N ordic countries, th e re are evidences o f observance o f th e S aturday Sabbath from the N etherlands, France, Russia, an d elsew here in E urope, as A ndrew s an d C onradi point o u t .78 H owever, it should be bo rn e in m ind th at in som e cases the S abbathkeeping may have been on the p art o f Jew s o r C hristian converts to Ju d aism , ra th e r than by C hristians them selves. N evertheless, that th ere was in d eed Christian observance o f S aturday by groups sp read widely th ro u g h o u t all sections o f E urope seems clear from the sources. A nd it may lie noted that in E ngland, as well as on the C ontinent, th ere w ere some w ho observed this day d u rin g the sixteenth century, p rio r to the P uritan Sabbathkeepers, who will be treated in the next c h a p te r .79 It m ust not be assum ed, how ever, that the people w ho kept S aturday w ere by any m eans in th e m ajority o f the C hristians o r that they w ere even a large m inority o f them . T h e m edieval trad itio n o f Sunday as the day for C hristian w orship con tin u ed th ro u g h o u t C hristian E urope as the main one observed by P rotestant gro u p s as well as by Rom an Catholics. However, it is interesting to note th at in m any places, sizable com m unions o f sincere C hristians w ho had studied S cripture faithfully did decide to h o n o r th e ir L ord on the seventh day o f the week because they felt th at this was in harm ony with G od's com m and. Sum m ary W e have now very quickly traced the question o f Sabbath an d Sunday in the R eform ation Era. Basically, the m ajor P rotestant R eform ers continued to utilize th e day o f w orship hallow'ed by the Rom an Catholic C h u rch th ro u g h o u t the M iddle Ages. H owever, in th eir effo rt to avoid legalism, an d with their strong em phasis on justification by faith, the m ajor R eform ers ten d ed to shy away from an y th in g like a “S abbatarian” ap p ro ach to Sunday observance. In fact, m ost o f ts is a h -i

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T H E S AB BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY them in G erm any an d Sw itzerland felt that S unday was not necessarily the day to Ik- observed, ju st so long as one day in seven was set aside fo r special religious purposes. M artin B ucer seems to have been an exception in that he ten d ed to give a "Sabbatarian" em phasis to S undaykeeping. Such an em phasis did not com e into vogue as a w idespread Protestant practice until taken up by certain P uritans in E ngland d u rin g the seventeenth century, a m atter treated in ch a p te r 12. T h e P rotestant R eform ers in southw estern Sw itzerland actually found them selves in som ew hat o f a dilem m a when facing th eir Rom an Catholic adversaries on the m atter o f Sunday observance. In several disputations in G eneva and L ausanne the Rom an Catholic representatives chided the R eform ers with inconsistency for rejecting Catholic cerem onies in general, while ad h e rin g to S unday as a weekly day for w orship services. How ever, th ere were certain R eform ation Era C hristians who en d eav o red to go beyond the m ajor R eform ers in reform m easures taken. T h ese included the A nabaptists, am ong whom w ere at least som e Saturday-observing groups. A dh eren ts o f the S aturday Sabbath included also an im portant Spanish R eform er o f Seville, C o nstantino Ponce de la F uente; an d Saturday-observing C hristians, although always in the m inority d u rin g the R eform ation Era, w ere actually ra th e r n u m ero u s am o n g various groups. M oreover, such Sabbathkeepers w ere quite widely dispersed th ro u g h o u t E urope in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

N OTES 1 S ee p p 2 0 4 -2 0 6 in ch a p ter 10. Especially n otew o rth y in th is co n n e c tio n is fh c line o l a rg u m en t o f I b o n u s A qu in as. S'umiw Theologua. 2 2 . q u est 122. art. 4 (A m e n ta n e d by B en zigcr B ro th ers. 1947) * For a discussion of “The 1 rurd C.ommandment~ (fourth lommandment). tee T he (uU ethum o f the ( o u n a l of T r m t (pp 352-362 in ihe Baltimore ed.. 1829)

3 A basic study of Luther s attitude toward the seventh-das Sabbath ha» been pros ided bs William M l-indccn.

M artin l.uther'i Religious Thought (Mountain View. Calif., 1971), pp 191-199, in a chapter entitled "Sabbath " 4 T h is is hi» p oin t 18 u n d er th e sectio n “P roposal» for R efo rm " The Addrew is available in a n u m b er o f F.nglish translation* (as w ell as in G erm an e d itio n s, in clu d in g th e stan d ard W eim ar ed .). S ee. e g . mv Reform Appeal* o f l.uthrr a n d C alxm (A n n A rb o r. M ich .. 19 7 4 ). col. 4 6 T h e tran slation h ere is that o f L W 4 4 :1 8 2 4 W eim ar c d .. 1 6 :4 7 8 -4 7 9 . F.ngl trans. in l-a n d c e n . op a t.. p. 196 ‘ See Landccn. op. f i t . pp 19b. 197 For a tum m an. see Landccn. op a t.. pp 191-197. I L W 5 :2 0 Mil» appraisal is found, e.g.. in both Von /w illin g u n d KarbiUidt and Wider die him m lu h ih en Propheten 10 S ec. e .g .. l.W 2 :1 2 9 -1 3 0 . 3 : 1 4 1 -1 4 2 . a n d 8 :6 7 . as w ell as th e d iscu ssio n in la n d c c n . op a t . p 194. II l.W 4 0 :9 3 ** Ihi» tran slation fro m the F r la n se n c d of L u ther's w ork s is that o f J \ A n d rew s a n d L. R (x m r a d i. H u to n of the Sabbath a n d T i n t Day ajf the lir e * . 4tn e d . (W a sh in g to n . D C .. 191 2 ). p. 6 0 5 In his “L arger C atechism " o f 1529. L u ther had voiced a sim ilar ty p e o f sen tim en t in a statem en t n o ted in /.IV 4 0 .9 3 19 M clant h th o n 's p o sitio n nas b een b ricfls but adequate!* su m m a rized by D aniel A u g sb u rg cr, "Calvin an d the Mosaic Law" (T h D d issertation . U n iversity o f S traslxn irg, (9 7 6 ), 1:253. 254 14 Detail» regarding Carlstadt arc given bv Augsburgcr. >tp a t., pp. 248. 249. See also Andrews and Conradi, op f i t . op. 652-656 (iarlstadt s treatise mav be found m F.ricn licit/* h. KarL\tadb S ch n ften aus den Ja h ren 1 52J-25 (Halle

(SaaV). 1956). I 23-47 Discussions of Carlstadt's attitude toward the Sabbath commandment are giscn bv C*ordon Rupp. P a iie m t of Reform ation iPhiladelphia. 1969). pp 123-130. and by R. Willard Wcntland. "The Teaching ol Andreas Bodcnsicm von Carlstadt on the Sescnth Das Sal>bath" (M.A. thesis. SDA Theological Seminars. 1947)

15 T e x t in H e r U sc h , op a t., p 4 I R eg a rd in g S u n d ay, C arlstadt d ecla res that it is “v y n h ey m lich " that m en have in stitu ted ii W cn tlan d (op. a t . p. .13) tran slates this as " one is ala rm ed that m en h ave in stitu ted it." a n d A n d rew s and C on rad i (trp f i t . p 6 0 4 ) ren d er th e clau se as "one feels u neasy b eca u se m en h ave in stitu ted it ” Yynheym luh m this c o n te x t u n d ou b ted !* carries the id ea o f " open." "clear." "know n" (cf. H ertzsch . op fit., p 10 0 " w n h e v m lic h ■ bek ann t" ). th u s w e m igh t tran slate. " C on cern in g S u n d a y , it is k n o w n that m en h ave in stitu ted it •J L W 4 0 9 4 17 L W 2 :3 6 1 . C f. l-in t le e n a t., p. 198. A lso n otew orth v arc o th e r r e fe ren ce s bv L u ther to S a b b a th k eep ers as p ro v id ed in A n d re w s a n d (U m rad i, op. a t., p. 6 4 0 . 18 Z w ingli's }Misition is briefly treated by A u g sb u rg cr. op. a t., p. 2 5 5 19 B u cer s p osition has b een carefu lly n o ted by A u g sb u rg cr, (rp fit., p p. 2 5 4 .2 5 5 , a n d th e d escrip tio n g iv e n ticlow is a su m m ary of th e a ccou n t g iv e n th ere. *° Wilhelm Pauck. ed.. Melnnrhthon an d Rurer, LCC. 19:252

226

S AB BA T H AND SUNDAY IN T H E R E F O R M A T I O N ERA

n R eferr ed to bv A u g sb u rg er. up a t.. 2 :8 1 . n. 3 7 . an d also q u o te d in A nd rew » a n d C o n ra d i. op. a t.. p. 6 0 6 . T h e statem en t d im e s fro m B u eer's Commentary an M a tth eu . ch ap . 12. I n p resen tin g th is sta tem en t. A n d rew s a n d C o n ra d i seem to h ave b een u n aw are o f B u cer's o th er sta tem en ts arid action s w ith regard to S u n d a t . T h e a p p a ren t co n flict o f this statem en t by B u cer^ w itluh c o th er ev id e n c e re g a rd in g h im has n o t. to m s k n o w le d g e , b e e n a d eq u a tely e x p la in e d . 14 N u m e r o u s a cco u n ts o f th e h istorical b a ck g ro u n d are available. P erh aps th e best relatively brief su m m ary in E nglish is that g iv en bv W Uliston W alker. J o h n C a h tn : T he O rganiser o f Reform ed Protestantism ( / 5 0 0 - ¡5 6 4 ) (N ew Y ork. 1906; now available in S h o t k en pb. e d .. 1969. w ith ex c e lle n t in trod u ctorv b ib liograph ical essay by J o h n T . M cN eill). T h e first a d eq u a te treatm en t o f th ese d isp u ta tio n s fro m th e p oin t o f view o f th e S a b b ath -S un d ay issu es is the ex c elle n t uitu Ir bv D aniel A u g sb u rg er. "Sundav in th e P re-R eform ation D isp u ta tio n s in F ren ch S w itzerla n d .” A U S S ^

f y ‘ tn tm fntr™ ^

a cc o u n l

**rsl d isp u ta tio n

•"* Ibtd.. p p 2 7 0 -2 7 2 . g iv e s th e a c c o u n l o f th is s eco n d d isp u ta tio n .

/ W , p p . 2 7 3 -2 7 6 .j p v e s th e a cc o u n t o f th is th ird d isp u tation .

56 A u g sb u rg er, “C alvin a n d th e M osaic Law." 1 :2 5 6 -2 8 4 . has g iv en a d eta iled trea tm en t o f ( a lv i n ' i p o sitio n th ro u g h o u t th e R eform er'» ca r eer, an a ly zin g th e various s ta te m e n ts fo u n d in ed itio n s o f th e Institutes of the Christian Religion, in co m m en ta ries, an d in o th e r so u r ce m aterials. S pace lim its h ere forb id ev en a turn m ars o f th is ex te n siv e a n d ex c e lle n t trea tm en t, an d o n ly a cu rsors o v erv iew o f C alvin's basic p o sitio n can he n o ted . T h e q u o ta tio n is as g iv en in th e n ew E d in b u rgh ed itio n o f C alvin's Commentaries The Eputles *V P a u l the Apostle to the (ia la tia m , F.f>hestan.s, PhUtbptans a n d Colosstans, trans. by T H. L Parker (E d in b u rg h . 1 965). p 357 Parker n o te s in his in tro d u ctio n , p. v, that (lalvin had b e g u n his w ork o n th e se b ook s bv O cto b er o f 1 5 4 6 a n d that th e p refa ce was dated February o f 1548 T h u s, il is ap p aren t that C alvin's com m en t* h ere n o ted m ust h ave b e e n w ritten a p p ro x im ately five or six years after his retu rn to G e n e v a fro m S trassb u rg in S ep tem b er. 1541. 49 T h e Institutes, 1559 ed .. are available in several E n glish tran slation s, in clu d in g tw o v o lu m es o f L C C a n d a tw o -v o lu m e E d in b u rgh ed W ith regard to th e r e fe ren ce s g iven h e r e in , v o lu m e a n d p age n u m b er s Mill b e th o se o f the E d in b u rgh ed . as re p rin ted in (»rand R apids. M ich igan , bv W illiam B E erd m a n s Pub. C o .. 1957. T h e “ F o u rth C o m m a n d m en t'' is treated in th e Institutes 2 8 2 8 -3 4 (1 :3 3 9 -3 4 4 ) Prior to h is m o re d e ta ile d d iscu ssion o f th ese th r e e co n sid era tio n s. C a lsin stm plv su m m a rizes th em , in ib t d

40

.

41 A lth o u g h h e d o c s refer in ibtd.. par. 31 (1 :3 4 1 ) to “th e te r e m o n ia l part o f th e co m m a n d m en t" as b ein g ab olish ed i»\ th e ad ven t «»t ( h n s t. h e dec ries th e |irit

itix C.

I III S AB BA T H IN T H U NEW WOR1.I) T h e “ Sabbath C o n feren ce s” In response to invitations, Jam es an d Ellen W hite atten d ed six (or seven, according to som e reckonings) im p o rtan t “general m eetings” in C onnecticut, New York, Maine, an d M assachusetts betw een A pril 20 and N ovem ber 18-19, 1848. Participants spoke o f them as “general m eetings" in view o f the fact that A dvent In-lievers and in terested friends in the general vicinity o f each m eeting were invited to atten d . They w ere also re fe rre d to as "conferences" (later "Sabbath conferences"), but they w ere not conferences in the usual sense o f the term . T h e ir purpose was to in stru ct those who atten d e d on m ajor points o f d o ctrin e already determ in ed , not to co n fer in o rd e r to d eterm in e doctrine. T hose in atten d an ce ‘“ were not all fully in the tru th ” '; “hardly two ag re e d ”; "som e w ere holding serious erro rs, a n d each strenuously urg ed his own views"; o th ers "loved the tru th , but w ere listening to an d cherishing e r r o r ." 51 Jam es and Ellen W hite an d Jo sep h Bates w ere the principal speakers, their main subjects being the Sabbath, th e th ird angel’s message (Rev. 14:9-12) in relation to th e S abbath, an d last-day events in prophecy. T his was the "present tru th " in which these m eetings established the scattered A dvent believers. " T ru th gained the victory," Ellen W hite wrote. " O u r b re th re n renounced th eir e rro rs and united u p o n the th ird angel's m essage, an d G od greatly blessed them and ad d ed to th eir n u m b e rs ." ” It was in the setting o f the th ird angel’s m essage that the Sabbath becam e relevant to m any Adventists and began to take hold o f them as a group. At each o f th e m eetings differences o f opinion an d discord gave way to harm ony, an d these scattered believers in New England and New York began to feel a bond o f unity an d fellowship. S abbathkeeping Adventists, Jam es W hite wrote in 1853, had com e from various denom inations "holding d iffe ren t views on som e subjects; yet, th an k H eaven, the Sabbath is a m ighty platform on which we can all stand u n ited . A nd while standing h ere . . . all party feelings are lost.’’” A rth u r S palding estim ates that th ere were at that time, all told, no m ore than one h u n d re d o f these S abbathkeeping A dventists, who form ed the nucleus o f what later becam e th e Seventh-day A dventist C h u rc h .” The Present Truth an d The Advent Review In N ovem ber, 1848, Ellen W hite told h er husband that he should begin publishing a sm all p a p e r to advance the cause o f present tru th . In response, Jam es W hite b ro u g h t o u t th e first issue o f The Present Truth in July, 1849. H e later wrote diat it had not been his intention to “issue m ore than two or th ree n u m b ers,” but eventually th ere w ere eleven, the Iasi d ated N ovem ber, 1850.” Articles on th e Sabbath, filling nearly iwo th ird s o f the space in th e eleven issues (865 o f 1408 colum n inches), traced the Sabbath back to C reation and presen ted its im m utability. It had not been changed, could not be ch an g ed , and was th ere fo re still binding. T h e first two issues dealt exclusively with the Sabbath; later issues touched also on C hrist's m inistry in the heavenly sanctuary, th e third angel's m essage, a n d th e “shut door." The article on the sanctuary p re sen ted the Sabbath o f the fo u rth com m andm ent in that setting, while that on the th ird angel’s message p resen ted th e Sabbath as the great test that would signify G od's loyal people p rio r to th e re tu rn o f Jesus, which was considered very im m in en t.“ T his p a n « ul.n .n in |r w.is addressed .specifically lo first-day Adventists. T w o years later i in

THE S A B BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND H IS T O R Y

Jam es W hite w rote that “in the fulfillm ent o f the prophecy o f Rev. xiv, 6-14, in the Second A dvent m ovem ent, the ‘co m m an d m en ts o f G od' hold a place, as the last great testing tru th , just before the Son o f m an lakes His place on the white cloud to reap th e harvest o f the e a r th ." ” In tro d u cin g the first n u m b er o f The Present Truth, Jam es W hile said that lo r several m onths he had been "b u rd e n e d with the duty o f w riting, and publishing the present truth for the scattered flock" o f A dvent believers. H e identified "the keeping o f th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t" as all-important present truth." In the sam e sentence he h astened to ad d th at "this alone, will not save an y o n e ." ” T h e title o f the little jo u rn a l, to g eth er with the fact that it was devoted prim arily— an d in its first two issues exclusively— to the seventh-day Sabbath, tacitly identifies the Sabbath as u p p erm o st in the m inds o f Jam es and Ellen W hile as “present tru th ” for that time. T h e Sabbath was still "news," as Jo sep h Bates had described it three years before. T h e influence o f the Sabbath conferences and The Present Truth in uniting the A dvent believers is also evident in letters from readers. Som e o f these letters were from persons m inistering to th e "little flock scattered abroad." O th ers w ere from som e who h ad accepted present tru th — the Sabbath and the th ird angel's message. T h e re w ere also ann o u n cem en ts o f fu rth e r "conferences," in 1849 an d 1850, in various parts o f New England an d New York. In a letter from N orth Paris. M aine, d ated O ctober 16, 1849, an d published in The Present Truth in D ecem ber o f that year, J. N. A ndrew s w rote that "the C o n feren ce recently held in this place, resulted in m uch good." "E rroneous" an d “painful" views had long separated “the b re th re n " in that vicinity, bu t the conference had u nited them “in the great an d im portant tru th s o f G od." He concludes: “How im p o rtan t it is, beloved b re th re n , in this, o u r final struggle with the d ra g o n , that we be fo u n d U N IT E D in 'the commandments o f God and the testimony o f Jesus Christ."' O n th e sam e page o f th at issue, a n o th e r co rresp o n d en t in V erm ont writes o f being “very m uch en co u rag ed in view o f what is being d o n e by the late publications": he tells o f neighbors em bracing the Sabbath as a result o f reading "your little p ap e r." ” A n o th er re a d e r re p o rted that "the p resen t state o f the cause in this p art o f th e State is cheering. O u r last conference, held A pril 20 an d 21, was o ne o f th e best I ever atten d ed . T h e b re th re n all seem ed to be very firm on the tru th .” A n o th er g ro u p in C am den, M aine, he says, "have lately em braced the Sabbath." T h ey h ad been “scattered a n d to rn " by various erro rs, but recent efforts have p ro d u c ed “a stro n g union" am ong th e m .40 I he S abbath d o ctrin e proved to be the catalyst needed to unite the scattered A dvent believers an d to weld them to g eth er as a coherent, cohesive g ro u p . P rior to 1848 Sabbath observance am ong them had been a m atter o f personal conviction an d practice on the part o f a few individuals. By late 1849 it had becom e the accepted n o rm am ong those A dventists who later ad opted the nam e Seventh-day Adventist." In 1851 Ellen W hite wrote: “G od’s people are com ing into the unity of the faith. Those who observe the Sabbath o f the Bible are united in th eir views o f Bible tru th . But those who o p pose the Sabbath am ong the A dvent people are d isu n ited an d strangely divided." ” In the final issue of The Present Truth she spoke o f that as being the “gath erin g tim e" in which God pui|H»M*d to “recovei die rem n an t of 11 is people." Foi this reason they should he "united and zealous in the

I III. SABBA'I II IN I HE NEW WORLD work" o f sp read in g th e tru th . Also fo r this reason “i t . . . [was] necessary that the tru th should be published in a p aper, as [it had been] p re a c h e d ."44 This "gathering" and unification was largely accom plished th ro u g h th e Sabbath conferences o f 1848 to 1850 and publication o f The Present Truth. T h e Sabbath was thus, in a very real sense, the unifying factor a ro u n d which the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch cam e into being, and it is still a p o ten t force that binds to g eth er the A dventist people a ro u n d the world, tran scen d in g all barriers o f nationality, race, language, political ideology, and econom ic status. It levels all b arriers an d m akes the m ost diverse people one in C hrist as has nothing else in the history o f th e world. C uriously, betw een N um bers 10 and 11 o f The Present Truth 44Jam es W hite brought out th e five reg u lar issues and two extras o f an o th er periodical, The Advent Review. T h e fact that he did not in corporate its articles into fu rth e r issues o f The Present Truth points to the unique role he conceived for each jo u rn a l, one as a harb in g er o f the Sabbath an d the o th e r o f the fact that these a rd e n t Sabbatarians w ere still dedicated Adventists. T hey “w ere now carrying forw ard the torch o f prophetic tru th once held aloft by the en tire body o f A dventists p rio r to and im m ediately following the great disappointm ent," he w rote.“ T h u s, publication of The Advent Review at th isju n c tu re b ro u g h t these two m ajor facets o f S abbatarian Adventist belief back into balance. T h is was the p re lu d e to W hite’s publication o f volum e 1, N um ber 1, o f the Second Advent Review and Sabbath Herald (now the Adventist Review), in N ovem ber, 1850, th e sam e m o n th in which the final num bers o f both The Present Truth and The Advent /J m tw a p p e a re d . T h at m ust have been a busy m onth fo rja m e s W hite. T his m erg er o f th e Sabbath an d the A dvent in one publication m ade seventh-day A dventism a p erm a n en t entity on the religious scene. It fo u n d expression also, eleven years later, in the choice o f the nam e "Seventh-day A dventist." Prior to 1861 those who ad o p ted the nam e identified them selves, and w ere spoken o f by others, variously as “the little flock,” "Second A dvent Sabbath K eepers." "Seventh-day A dvent people," and “S abbath-keeping A dventists ."46 D eserving o f special m ention am ong the multiplicity o f A dventist publica­ tions on the Sabbath was J. N. A ndrew s’ classic History of the Sabbath, first published in 1861 and revised an d re p rin te d repeatedly for m ore than h alf a century (the fo u rth edition was co au th o red by L. R. C onradi). T his volum e re p resen te d the m ore m atu re d ev elopm ent o f his series o f articles in the Review in A pril an d May, 1853.4’ In Ja n u a ry , 1854, Jam es W hile an n o u n c ed his intention to publish a series o f twelve to fifteen Sabbath an d A dvent tracts o f 32 to 100 pages each. T h e first fou r o f these w ere ready in A ugust .48 D e term in in g W hen to B egin the Sabbath S abbathkeeping Adventists w ere ag reed on the binding force o f the Sabbath com m and and the p ro p e r m ode o f Sabbath observance. Exam ining the S criptures for them selves, they concluded that the Seventh Day Baptists were right on these m atters and followed th eir exam ple in everything except the point o f when to begin th e Sabbath. T h e latter observed the Sabbath from "even to even," which they defined as from sunset to sunset.4* “W ith the Seventh Day Baptists," w rote |atn es W hite, "we ag ree on the institution, design, and perpetuity o f the S ab b ath ."'“ But a m ajority ol Adventists, in accepting the Sabbath from the 2.r»l

I III-. S ABBAI II IN S< K11* I I ' KI AND H l X I O R N

Seventh Day Baptists, had evidently missed the definition of “ev en ” as "sunset. Thus it had been with Jo sep h Bates, th ro u g h whom the Sabhath cam e to most Adventists an d who began th e Sabbath at six o ’clock Friday night. O th e r Adventists w ere beginning it at sunset, an d still others at m idnight o r at sunrise S aturday m o rn in g .” Obviously this diversity o f practice on so im p o rtan t a m atter could not continue indefinitely w ithout affecting the unity o f the fledgling ch u rch , which, mirabile dictu, the Sabbath had b ro u g h t about. Fearing such a division unless the issue “could be settled by good testim ony,” in A ugust, 1855, Jam es W hite asked J . N. A ndrew s to m ake a th o ro u g h investigation o f the m atter and p re p are an article on th e subject for the Review. A ndrew s was already recognized as a careful Bible scholar.4’ A ndrew s’ review o f the evidence a p p e are d at length (72 colum n inches) in the Review for D ecem b er4 , 1855. In the Review for Ju n e 2, 1 8 5 1 ,he had advocated a six o'clock S abbath, but now, following a detailed exam ination o f the Biblical evidence for sunset as m arking the beginning an d end o f each day, an d thus also of the Sabbath, he concluded th at th e re is no Biblical evidence w hatever for six o'clock as "even," in the expression “from even u n to even, shall ye celebrate your sabbath." C iting Putnam's H and Book o f Useful Arts that clocks and watches were invented in 1658, he com m ented with typical New England logic th at if six o ’cloc k were in d eed the p ro p e r tim e to begin the Sabbath, then “fo r nearly the whole space o f 6,000 years the people o f G od have been w ithout th e m eans o f telling w hen th e Sabbath co m m en ced .” Im peccable logic! In an accom panying note A ndrew s announced that for him “the result o f the investigation is the firm conviction th at the com m encem ent an d close o f each day [and th u s o f the Sabbath] is m arked by the setting o f the sun." “T h e Seventh Day Baptists have always held to this d o ctrin e ,” he explained, "but I have never h ap p e n ed to m eet with th eir views. H ad I done so, 1 should not have rem ained in e rro r on this subject." "Besides this, as I now learn, a considerable n u m b er o f o u r b re th re n have long been convinced that the Sabbath com m ences at su n set."” L ater C ontacts W ith the Seventh Day B aptists D uring the thirty-five years from 1844 to 1879 a m ore o r less friendly relationship prevailed betw een Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists. The first official contact betw een the two groups cam e with a letter from J. C R o g ers, " c o r r e s p o n d in g s e c r e ta r y ” o f “ th e S ev en th Day B ap tist C e n tra l Association," to ja m e s W hite as e d ito r o f the Review dated Ju ly 28, 1853. H e had been com m issioned "to co rresp o n d with the Seventh-day A dvent people, and learn th eir faith." Jam es W hite published his response to R ogers' letter in the Review two weeks later.” In 1869 a friendly o v ertu re from the Seventh-day A dventist G eneral C onference, then in its sixth year, elicited "a fratern al reply" from its Seventh Day Baptist c o u n te rp a rt, which in tu rn ap p o in ted one o f its n u m b er as “a delegate lo the next m eeting o f that body.” In 1870 Roswell F. C ottrell re p o rte d in the R n ’iew that he a tte n d e d th eir G eneral C onference session in Little G e n e s e e , New York, and had been "courteously invited by vote to take part in their deliberations." At the sam e session they voted “co-operation with th e Seventh-«lav Adventists, bin without com prom ising distinctive principles," but i.ihled "a m otion to send a 252

I III S AB BA TH IN ITIF. NKW WORLD delegate to the A dventist C o n fe re n c e ."“ O ver the next ten years Seventh-day Adventist leaders such as J o h n Nevins A ndrew s, U riah Sm ith, Jam es W hite, and J. H W aggoner w ere com m issioned as representatives to the annual Seventh Day baptist G eneral C o n feren ce sessions, w here they were always cordially welcomed and seated as delegates. T h e Seventh Day Baptists reciprocated, an d th eir delegates w ere as cordially received a n d welcomed by the Adventists. R eports o f the "pro sp erity ” atten d in g the work o f the Adventists were m et with Baptist resolutions "expressing fraternal jo y ." 46 T h is interchange o f delegates has continued in term itten tly to the present lime. C ertain u n fo rtu n a te incidents, how ever, involving a few overzealous Adventists acting on th eir own initiative, gradually drove a wedge o f sorts betw een Seventh Day Baptists an d Seventh-day Adventists. T he years 1850 to 1880 witnessed relatively ra p id grow th o f Seventh-day Adventists, an d an occasional loss o f Seventh Day B aptist m em bers to the Adventists. “T his loss m ight have been sustained with a m inim um o f m isu n d erstan d in g ” except for several instances o f the traum atic b re ak u p o f a Seventh Day B aptist congregation by A dventists whose i ru d e tactics aro u sed distrust and re sen tm en t th at lingered for m any years.” T h e most blatant such episode occu rred o n e w inter day in 1855 when an Adventist, D. P. Hall, ap p e are d at the Hayfield, Pennsylvania, Seventh Day baptist ch u rch an d challenged all com ers to a rousing debate. T h e result was a split in the Hayfield ch u rch that left b itter feelings on both sides. Several Seventh Day Baptist congregations w ere thus w eakened by a loss o f m em bers to the Adventists, and som e disbanded altogether. It was often the case, how ever, th at a 3

I H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

o p e r a te d a n u m b e r o f s e m in a rie s , c o lleg e s, a n d o n e u n iv e rs ity — A llre d University— but these educational institutions have been e ith er discontinued or secularized.6* T h e Sabbath is the only significant point o f belief on which Baptists and Seventh Day Baptists d iffer. O ne co n tem p o rary Seventh Day B aptist a u th o r refers to it as th e “only ju s t reason fo r o u r denom inational existence, separate from o th er B aptists .”65 T h e ir zealous endeavor, especially over the past century and a half, to inspire am ong fellow C hristians o f o th e r faiths an appreciation of the seventh-day Sabbath is w orthy o f com m endation. But th eir dw indling m em b er­ ship over the past eight decades suggests th at the Sabbath alone does not provide sufficient incentive to attract m em bers a n d to m aintain a separate d enom inational existence. O nly as one im p o rtan t facet o f Bible tru th along with o th e r tru th s can the Sabbath be u n d ersto o d a n d ap p reciated in its tru e perspective an d so win m inds and hearts on any significant scale .64 T h e ir 1801 m em bership o f slightly m ore th an 1,130 peaked a little m ore than a century later at som ething m ore than 9,30065— an average gain o f approxim ately eighty m em bers p e r year, fa r below the grow th rate o f e ith e r the U nited States o r tbe world. Since the tu rn o f the cen tu ry th eir m em bership has decreased back to approxim ately its 1840 level .66 P erhaps th e m ajor success o f th eir th ree centuries an d m o re o f dedicated d en o m in atio n al witness in the New W orld was the acceptance o f the Sabbath by a few M illerite Adventists d u rin g the 1840s. O th e r S abbathkeeping Sects Distinct both historically an d adm inistratively from re g u la r Seventh Day Baptists are ab o u t 150 G erm an Seventh Day Baptists, the re m n a n t o f a g ro u p organized in 1728 (they established them selves in E p h rata, Pennsylvania, in 1732), with roots in the O ld W orld. In belief they are sim ilar to the D unkards, with w hom th eir fo u n d e r was associated p rio r to th at time. T h ey practice com m unism and celibacy .67 A n u m b e r o f small C hristian denom inations o r gro u p s observe the seventh day o f th e week as the Sabbath. T w o o f these grew ou t o f the Second A dvent M ovem ent o f 1844— the Seventh Day C h u rch o f God (D enver), with about 8,000 m em bers, an d th e C h u rch o f G od (Salem, W est Virginia), with ab o u t 2,000. T h e fo rm er o rig in ated about 1900 an d the latter in 1933. Related to the West Virginia g ro u p is the so-called W orld H e ad q u arte rs o f the C hurch o f G od in Jeru salem , Israel, led by th e late A. N. D ugger. Based in P ortsm outh, V irginia, is the C hurch o f G od an d Saints in C hrist, which was established in 1896 an d in 1980 had a m em b ersh ip o f ab o u t SS.OOO.68 A m o re recent g ro u p th at observes the seventh day o f the week as the Sabbaih is H erb ert W. A rm stro n g ’s W orldw ide C h u rch o f God. O riginally a Q u ak er, he u nited with the C h u rch o f G od in O reg o n , a n d in 1934 began a radiobroadcast, later in co rp o ratin g u n d e r th e nam e Radio C h u rch o f God. In 1968 the nam e was changed to W orldw ide C h u rch o f G od. With h ead q u arters in Pasadena, C alifornia, m em bership has been re p o rte d variously as betw een 30,000 and 100,000. (In 1978 A rm stro n g ’s son, G a rn er T ed , broke away to found the C hurch o f G od, In te rn a tio n a l .)69 T h e S tran g ite C h u rch o f Jesu s C hrist o f la tte r-d a y Saints, organized in W isconsin in 1844, i n i 980 had p erh ap s 300 m em bers. 11 claims to lie “the o n e and 254

M i l SA BBA I I I IN I III NFW WORI I)

original Chur« h ol Jesus C hrist ol Latter-D ay Saints” an d that its fo u n d e r. Jam es |. Strang, is the oidy legitim ate successor to Jo sep h Sm ith. In several respects, including observance o f the seventh-day S abbath, Strangites d iffe r from o th er M orm ons .70A ccording to the Book o f Mormon the seventh day is the Sabbath, but the M orm on C h u rch explains that it is im practical to observe S aturday in the m odern world. Finally, th ere is a seventh-day Pentecostal g ro u p o f about 25,000 with head q u arters in Brazil known as the A dventist C h u rch o f Prom ise, organized in 1932 an d consisting o f som e 500 congregations in various countries o f South Am erica.7' A d v en tist In d e b te d n ess to the Seventh Day B aptists T h e ex ten t o f Adventist indebtedness to the Seventh Day Baptists for an u n d ersta n d in g o f the Sabbath is evident from the constant use m ade o f Seventh Day B aptist publications, especially th eir Sabbath T ra ct Series, d u rin g the early years o f th e ch u rch . "T h e w ritings o f the Seventh Day Baptists have been a great com fort an d stren g th to us," w rote Jam es W hile in 1853.7! O n page 7 o f volum e 1, N um ber 1, o f The Second Advent Review and Sabbath Herald (N ovem ber, 1850) ap p eared the editorial note: “We call special atten tio n o f the b re th re n to th e articles, in this n u m b er from the publications o f the Seventh-day Baptists [sic]. T hey are clear, com prehensive, and irrefu tab le. We intend to enrich th e colum ns o f the Review and Herald, with extracts from their excellent works on the Sabbath. “We also design to get out a large p am phlet, containing the sam e m aterial from th eir publications, that we publish in this p aper. Such a work, judiciously circulated, will certainly do a great am o u n t o f g o o d ." 7’ T h e first n u m b e ro f th e /to 'tru /co n tain s four such reprints, which fill 124 o f its 166 colum n inches, fully th ree fo u rth s o f the space. T h e second issue, in D ecem ber, contains o n e Seventh Day B aptist article on the Sabbath, a n d one each by J. N. A ndrew s a n d Jo sep h B ates .74 T h e twelve issues o f volum e 1 devoted 769 colum n inches to th e Sabbath, o r 38.5 percent o f the space. O f this, 399 colum n inches w ere from S eventh Day Baptist sources and 370 by A dventist au th o rs, o r 20 and 18.5 p ercen t o f th e total, respectively. I his clearly reflects the ex ten t to which pio n eer A dventists w ere indebted to the Seventh Day Baptists for their u n d ersta n d in g o f th e Sabbath. O n th e fro n t page o f N u m b er 6 is a poem o f seven stanzas, " It's J e w ish ,'" in defense o f th e Sabbath, by fo rm er Seventh Day Baptist Roswell F enner C o ttrell .74 At the sam e tim e C ottrell had sent Review ed ito r Jam es W hite a copy o f an eight-page tract he had w ritten about the Sabbath— A Letter to the Disciples of the Lord. O f this tract Jam es W hite w rote in the sam e issue o f the Review: “We think it is very good, an d h o p e to be able to publish it entire, soon." It a p p e are d two weeks later in N u m b er 8 , six m onths before the a u th o r becam e an A dventist .76O ver the next forty years C ottrell contributed 1,692 articles and o th er items to th e p ap e r and was listed as a m em ber o f the original "Publishing C om m ittee," with J. N. Andrews a n d U riah Sm ith, and later as a "corresponding e d ito r ."77 Many of his articles dealt with the Sabbath, which ever rem ained a precious trea su re to him. R epeatedly, th ro u g h the colum ns o f the Review, he appealed to his "d ear" fo rm er Seventh Day B aptist “b re th re n ” to espouse the Advent hope, as he had done 255

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The Sabbath in Adventist Theology C o n sideration o f possible alternatives to the events o f history—a contrast between what actually h ap p e n ed an d w hat m ight have h a p p e n e d — is o n e useful way by which to estim ate the m eaning an d im portance o f those events. W ithout the Sabbath th e re obviously would not be a Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. What would have becom e o f the m id-n in eteen th -cen tu ry M illerite A dventists who becam e S abbatarians had they not accepted the Sabbath? A nd w hat would have becom e o f th e Seventh Day Baptists had they, as a body, accepted the hope o f an im m inent A dvent? A nswers to these hypothetical questions can be in ferred from the relative success, over the years, o f S abbatarian A dventism , non-S abbatarian Adventism , and non-A dventist S abbatarianism — that is, from a theological perspective, o f th e A dvent an d the Sabbath in a symbiotic relationship, an d of each ap a rt from the o th er. M ore im p o rtan t than eith er o f these questions, how ever, is the m eaning an d im portance o f the A dvent and the Sabbath to each o th e r in Seventh-day A dventist theology, an d thus to the ch u rch in its life, mission, and witness. S abbatarian A dventists em erged as a discrete, identifiable g ro u p in 1849, and the relative stren g th o f the th re e religious g ro u p s in that year is taken as a basis foi co m paring th eir relative viability over the intervening years, as d eterm in e d by m em bership grow th. O th e r significant factors have, o f course, been involved, especially (!) p ro p h etic guidance in the life an d w ork o f the ch u rch an d (2 ) the Adventist concept o f world mission. P ost-1844 M illerite A dventists who did not accept the Sabbath eventually coalesced into th ree groups extant in 1980—T h e A dvent C hristian C hurch, with ap proxim ately 30,000 m em bers; the C hurch o f God (A braham ic Faith), with about 6,500; a n d the Prim itive A dvent C hristian C hurch, with 600 or so— a total o f som e 37,000 m em bers.’'' T h is total represents slightly m ore than one percent o f th e 3-m illion-plus w orldw ide m em bership o f Seventh-day A dventists."’ From this we m ight conclude that A dventism unth the Sabbath has been ap p ro x i­ mately one h u n d re d times m ore effective than it has proved to be without the Sabbath. T h e significant theological d ifferen ce betw een Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists is, o f course, em phasis on the im m inence o f the A dvent. T h e 1849 Seventh Day B aptist m em bership o f 5,949 far o u tn u m b ere d that ol Sabbatarian A dventists, o f whom th ere w ere about 100“ —a ratio o f b etter than 5 9 to 1. O r we m ight say that th ere w ere 0 .0 17 tim es as m any S abbatarian A dventists as th ere w ere Seventh Day Baptists. In 1978 Seventh Day Baptist m em bership stood at 5,139 (810 less than in 1849),” an d that o f Seventh-day A dventists at m ore than 3 million, a ratio o f 584 to 1. A ccordingly, the Sabbath with the A dvent has proved to be 30,647 times m ore effective than it has been without th e A dvent. T h u s on a strictly em pirical, historical basis, the Sabbath an d the A dvent have proved to be o f significant im portance to each other. Evidently the m erging o f the Sabbath with the h o p e o f an im m inent A dvent d u rin g the form ative years 184»i to 1849 was a theological and religious event o f the first m agnitude, an d a brief resum e o f th e interrelatio n sh ip betw een the two in the form ulation ol Seventh-day A dventist theology d u rin g those years is ol m ajor im p o rtan ce in a study o f th e history ol the Sabbath. Ii may. as well, point the way to an even m ore

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effective witness to the Sabbath in years to com e. T o begin with, d u rin g those form ative years Adventists tested the Seventh Day Baptist concept o f the Sabbath by the Bible an d ad opted it as th eir own. In historic Seventh Day Baptist th o u g h t, the fo u rth precept o f the Decalogue m em orializes th e C rea to r-creatu re relationship, which is o f ultim ate im portance to o u r very existence. At first glance the Sabbath ap p ears to be an arbitrary com m and, th at is, an expression o f the au th o rity o f the O ne who gave it an d not one whose in h e re n t m oral quality is obvious, as with the prohibitions against m u rd er, ad u ltery , and theft. Recognition o f the Sabbath is th e re fo re an acknow ledgm ent o f G od’s au th o rity as C reator, on an even h ig h er level than com pliance with th e o th er nine. It is a test o f a p erso n ’s recognition o f his C reato r and his attitu d e tow ard Him . With this p u rpose in view, G od in ten d ed the Sabbath for all m ankind, for all time. God has never altered the Sabbath com m and, an d it is, in fact, in h eren tly unalterable. Any attem pt to change it constitutes an overt challenge to th e au th o rity o f the C reator. In Seventh Day Baptist th o u g h t the Sabbath is also d estin ed to play a key role in the great fu tu re eschatological crisis when tru th will be in the balance. Finally, "the rest o f the holy Sabbath" is an "earnest to G od’s people, o f the eternal rest, which is reserved for them in heaven,” an earthly "type" o f that heavenly "an tity p e ."*5 A dventist ap p reciatio n of, and reliance o n , the extensive Seventh Day B aptist literatu re about th e Sabbath available to them d u rin g the years 1846 to 1849 has already been d o cu m en ted . T hose pio n eer Adventists ad o p ted the S eventh Day Baptist exposition o f the Sabbath in toto and gratefully acknow leged th eir indebtedness to th e Seventh Day Baptists. But the Sabbatarian A dventist concept o f an im m inent A dvent m eant th at they could not be content to let m atters rest there. In effect. Seventh Day Baptist theology o f the Sabbath devoted m ost o f its time to looking intently into the rearview m irro r o f history, while the A dvent hope kept A dventist eyes fixed on the road ahead. Adventist conviction with respect to the fu n d am en tal validity o f the 1844 experience despite the d isappointm ent, a conviction that cam e as a result o f th eir study o f C hrist’s m inistry in the heavenly sanctuary, led to a com prehensive an d coherent theology o f the Sabbath in relation to th e A dvent. T h ey in co rp o rated this theological stance at once into the title chosen fo r th eir publication, The Second Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, and a decade later into th e nam e Seventh-day Adventist. T h e first step in the theological d e p a rtu re o f w hat w ere to becom e Seventh-day A dventists from the rest o f th eir disappointed A dvent b re th re n took place the m o rn in g following the b itter d isappointm ent o f O ctober 22, 1844. Like a flash o f light it cam e to H iram E dson’s m ind that the "sanctuary" to be "cleansed" on that m em orable day was not this earth , as the Millerites had supposed, but the sanctuary in heaven in which C hrist, since His ascension, has been m inistering to I lis people h ere on ea rth the benefits o f His infinite sacrifice o f love.MFor several years after 1844 th e o th e r A dventists w orked on the basis o f the idea that the event they had an ticip ated — the literal a p p e arin g o f C hrist in the clouds of heaven— was correct, but th at they had been m istaken in figuring the tim e aspect o f the prophecies. As a result they set one d ate after an o th er for C hrist to com e. W ith C rosier an d those w ho accepted his explanation reg ard in g the sanctuary in heaven. Millet itc A dventists had been right with respect to the tune but w rong as to IMSAII I f

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I'lIF. S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND H IS T O R Y th e nature o f th e event, specifically wilh respect to the identity ol the “sanctuary" that was to be “cleansed." N ow here in the Bible could they find evidence suggesting th at the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is this ea rth , w hereas the New T estam en t, an d most particularly the book o f Hebrew s, is replete with the concept o f a heavenly sanctuary o p eratin g since C h rist’s ascension. T h is concept o f the sanctuary protected those w ho accepted it against fu rth e r time setting, an d drew a sh a rp line o f distinction betw een them and o th er Adventists. B ut even m ore im p o rtan t, it directed their attention to the law o f C od an d the Sabbath. In Ellen W hite's vision in the late w inter o r early spring o f 1847, m entioned earlier, she saw Jesu s stan d in g by the ark in the heavenly sanctuary. B efore h er eyes He o p en ed the folded tables o f stone on which the T en C o m m an d m en ts w ere inscribed, a n d a halo o f light encircled the fo u rth .“ She u n d ersto o d this em phasis on the fo u rth com m andm ent as divine confirm ation o f the seventh-day Sabbath and was confirm ed in h er own acceptance o f it. T h e Sabbath was th u s linked to the sanctuary in heaven. In an editorial in the Ju ly 25, 1854, Rexnew entitled “T h e R elation which the Sabbath sustains to o th e r Points o f Present T r u th ,” U riah Sm ith wrote: “T h e sanctuary an d the Sabbath are inseparably connected. W hoever adm its the tru th o f th e first m ust adm it it also o f the second: the sanctuary contains the ark, the ark contains the law, an d the law contains the fo u rth com m andm ent unabolished an d u n ch an g ed ." "N o tru th need be m ore clearly d em o n strated than that th e Sabbath o f the L ord, instituted and given to m an at C reation, is still binding u p o n th e whole h u m an family. P erhaps no tru th can be m ore clearly d em o n strate d .” “Especial atten tio n should be called to this point in these last days.” “ T h e im m inence o f the A dvent gave point and urgency to the Sabbath as "p resen t tr u th ,” which had been lacking in the Seventh Day B aptist witness to it. In 1850 Ellen W hite wrote: “I saw that the tim e for Jesus to be in th e most holy place was nearly finished an d that tim e can last but a very little lo n g e r .. . . T h e sealing tim e is very sh o rt, an d will soon be over.......T im e is alm ost finished.’ . . . Said the angel. 'Get ready, get ready, get re a d y .'” ” It was this concept o f a very imminent A dvent th at gave particular point an d urgency to the Sabbath, an d this was intensified by th e discovery, a little later, o f its relationship to the th ird angel's m essage o f Revelation 14:9-12. A dventists had already identified the proclam ation o f C hrist's com ing in 1844 with th e fulfillm ent o f the first angel's m essage o f Revelation 14:6, 7, and the "m idnight cry" d u rin g the su m m er o f 1844 as the historical c o u n te rp a rt o f the second angel's m essage in verse 8. T h e first angel sum m ons all m en everyw here to w orship th e C rea to r, whose w ork o f creation th e Sabbath m em orializes, and the second w arns against p o p u la r rejection o f th at message. But th ere was a third angel with a w arning against the m ark o f the beast, which they u n d ersto o d to be the satanic c o u n te rp a rt o f the seal o f G od. Identifying th e seal o f G od with the Sabbath, they concluded th at the m ark o f the beast m ust be Satan's counterfeit Sabbath. F u rth erm o re , inasm uch as the first angel an n o u n ced th e h o u r o f divine ju d g m e n t, a n d inasm uch as Jo h n presen ted the com ing o f C hrist as following im m ediately u p on the proclam ation o f the m essage l>v th e tliird angel, they concluded that the Sabbath was to lx* the great final lesi ol loyalty to C od im m ediately preceding C hrist's com ing, w4ii A n r s i r llrn t |» .m i li> |>

L'I.I

I'HE S A B B A T H IN SCRIP I I' Kl AND IMS IOKN

19 E llen C . W h ite. L ife Sketches (M o u n ta in V iew , C alif., 1 915), p. 95; idem, 'Testimonies fo r the Church, ‘I v o b (M ou n tain V iew , C alif.. 1§48). 1:76; idem. S p iritu a l G ifts, 4 vols. (B attle C reek , M ich ., I 8 6 0 ), 2 :8 3 . V) F.llen C . W h ite, E arly W ritings (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1882), p p. 3 2 , 33; idem, L ife Sketches, p p. 9 5 , 'Jti. 100 *' S p a ld in g , op a t., p p 190-195; W h ite, L ife Sketches, p p. \& f, 108, 1 10*112. ** S p a ld in g , op a t., p 191; W hite. L ife Sketches, p. 111. ** Review . A u g 11, 1 8 5 3 ,p 52. w S p a ld in g , op a t , p. 197 M I fnd . p T95. W h ite. L ife Sketches, p. 125; The Present T ru th , D ecem b er, 1 8 4 9 .p . 4 7 . M a r tin b o r o u g h . op n / . p | i 18 5-189, list» th e fo cu s o f ea ch article in b oth T he Present T ruth a n d T he A d ven t R evieur T he Present T ruth. A u g u st. 1849, p p . 2 1 -2 3 ; A p ril. 185 0 , p p. 6 5 -6 9 . ,7 Review . A u g_ 1 1, 18 5 3 , p. 53. M The Present Truth, J u ly . 1849. p p . I. 6 . (Italics su p p lie d .) 99 Ibid , D ecem b er . 184$. p 39. 40 I b id , M ay. 1 8 50. p 80 41 C f. R eview , A u g 11. 1853, p. 52. 4* W h ite. E arly \V n tin e s. p 6 8 45 The Present T ruth. N o v e m b e r . 18 5 0 . p p . 8 6 . 87. 44 May an d N o v em b er. 1850. 45 "H istorical S ettin g o f T h e s e D ocum ents.'* Facsimile Reproductions o f The Present T ru th a n d T he A d v en t R e v u u • (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 11946]). p. 8. 46 R eview , |a n 24. 1 8 54. p 4; A u g 11. 1853. p 52; D ec 5. 185 4 . p. 125, The Present Truth. A o n l. 185 0 . p 71 47 J o h n N . A n d rew s. History o f the Sabbath a n d First Day o f the W eek (B a ttle C reek . M ich .. 1861). " R e v i e w . J a n 2 4 . 1854. P *4; A u g 2 9 . 1 8 54. p . 2 1 . Oct. 17. 1 854. p 8 0 49 Ibid . D ec. 9 . 1852, p 1 13. re p r in ted fro m The Sabbath Recorder *° R eview , A u g 11. 1853. p 52. 51 Ibid , May 2 6 . 1853, p 4 . D ec 4 , 1 8 55, p 76. ” Ibid , D ec. 4 . 1855. p. 78 M Ibid., J u n e 2 . 1851. p 9 2 . D ec 4. 1 8 55. p p 7 6 -7 8 44 Ibid., A u g I I . 1853. d. 52 55 M ain, op a t . pp. 198. 199. R eview . Sep«. 2 0 . 1870, p 109. 56 M ain, op. a t., p p . 2 0 0 -2 0 5 , 2 0 7 -2 0 9 57 R ussel J T h o m se n . Seventh Day Baptists— T heir Legacy to Adi3. 15 G r u n fe ld , op. n t.. p p . 4 . 5. 16 R ack m an. p a t ., p. 54. 17 N orm an L am m . F aith a n d Doubt: Studies in T raditional J e u is h T hought (N ew Y ork . 1 971). p. 2 0 4 .

276

T H E SABBATH IN MODERN JEWISH THEOLOGY

18 ,f 10 11

G r u n fe ld . op. ext., p p . 9 , 10. S a m son R ap h ael H irsch . " T h e J ew ish Sabbath.** in Judaism E tern a l (L o n d o n . 1 9 3 6 ). p. 152. H e rm a n n C o h e n . Religion of Reason (N ew Y ork . 1 9 /2 ). p . 161. H e rm a n n C o h e n . Reason a n d H ope: Selections fr o m the Jew ish W ritings o f H erm a n n C ohen (N ew Y ork . 197 1 ), pp.

** Cohen, op. at., p. 157. n lbuL M Ibid.. p p . 15«. 155. 4 5 8 . 23 L eo B aeck. This People Israel. T he M ea n in g o f Jew ish Existence (N ew Y ork. 1964). p p . 1 37. 138. 26 Idem . “M ystery a n d ( io m n u n d m c n l." in Contemporary Jew ish Thought, e d . bv S im o n N o v e c k ([W a sh in g to n ], 1963K p. 20 2 . 27 B aeck . “M ystery a n d ('.om m andm ent.** p. 2 0 3 . 28 Ibid.. p p . 2 0 3 . '202 29 M artin B u b er. Moses (O x fo r d . 1946). p p . 8 5 . 132. 133. 8 4 . 30 Ibid.. p p 8 4 . 8 5 . 178. 51 Franz R osen zw eig . T he Star o f Redem ption (N ew Y ork. 1971). p p . 3 1 0 . 3 11. » / W . . p. 3 1 2 . M Ibid.. p p . 3 1 2 -3 1 5 . 34 N a h u m G latzer, E ranz R o se n zu n g : H is L ife a n d T hought (N e w Y ork. 1 953), p. 179. 33 G latzer. op. tit., p p. 7 5 , 78. 36 Rabbi S ey m o u r a ie g e l, w h o su c c e e d e d to th e sem in ary's S im on P ro fesso rsh ip in Jew ish th eo lo g y p rev io u sly o cc u p ie d by H e sc h e l, an d w h o h as h im s e lf w ritten o n th e Sabbath (“T h e M eaning o f th e Sabbath.** u n p u b lish ed m a n u scrip t), p ro v id ed valu ab le criticism o f th e essay at this a n d o th e r p oin ts. 37 A braham J o s h u a H e sc h e l. G od in Search o f S ia n A Philosophy o f J u d a ism (N ew Y ork. 1 955). p p. 2 0 . 2 8 3 . M Ibid., p. 20. rr 19 A braham J o sh u a H e sc h e l. T he Prophets (N ew Y ork an d F.vanston. 1 962). p p. 2 5 9 .2 6 0 . 2 2 4 . 3 0 9 . C o m m en ta ry o n H esch el's th eo lo g y sh ow s n o sign o f sla ck en in g . S o m e o f th e m ost h e lp fu l, in ch ro n o lo g ica l o rd er: F. La B C h e rb o n m e r, “A. I. H e sc h e l an d th e P h ilo so p h y o f th e Bible." Commentary 2 7 (January, 1 9 5 9 ):2 3 -2 9 ; Zalrnan M. S ch ä ch ter. “T w o Facets o f Ju d aism ." T radition 3 (S p rin g . 1961 ).T 9 1 -2 0 2 ; E liezer B erk o v its. “D r A. I. H e sc h e l’s T h e o lo g y o f Pathos." T radition 6 (S p r in g /S u m m er. 1 9 6 4 ):6 7 -1 0 4 ; Fritz A. R otsch ild . “T h e R elig io u s t h o u g h t o f A b raham H e sc h e l.“ C o n serva tn r Ju d a ism 2 4 (Fall. 1968): 1 2 -14; Franklin S h e rm a n . T he Promise o f Heschel (N ew York. 1970): Sol T a n e n z a p f. “A b raham H e sc h e l an d his C ritics," Judaism 23 (S u m m e r. 1 9 7 4 ):2 7 6 -2 8 6 A braham J o sn u a H e sc h e l. T he Sabbath (N ew Y ork. 1951), p. 9 9 . 41 Ibid 42 H e sc h e l. G od in Search o f S la n . p. 4 1 7 . 43 H e sc h e l, Sabbath, p . 28. 44 Ibid.. p. 27. 45 Ibid., p p . 6 -8 . 46 Ibid.. p p . 16. 17. 47 H e sc h e l. Prophets, p. 2 5 8 48 H e sc h e l. Sabbath, p p. 2 9 . 2 1 ,1 8 . 49 llnd.. p p . 6 6 -6 8 . 30 W. G u n th e r Plaut, " T h e Sabbath in th e R efo rm M ovem ent." in Reform Judaism : A H istorical Perspective, e d . bv J o s e p h L. B lau (N ew Y ork . 1973). » 244 J a cob I. P etu ch ow sk i. “B o o k b in d e r to th e R escue!" Consen>ative Ju d a ism 91 (Fall. 1975): 12. 14. 32 E m il L. F a c k c n h cim , “Review o f G od in Search o f S ia n ." C onservative J u d a u m 16 (F ail. 1 9 6 0 ):5 3 ; E u g e n e B. B orow itz. “G o d a n d M an in J u d a ism T o d a y : A R efo rm Perspective.** Ju d a ism 2 3 (S u m m e r, 1 9 7 4 ):3 0 8 . 33 S ee J o s e p h B S oloveitch ik . “T h e L on ely M an o f Faith." Tradition 7 (S u m m e r. l9 6 5 ):5 -6 7 . S o lo v eitch ik . u n lik e H esch el has w ritten relatively little for th e p u b lic, but n e v e r th e le ss has b e c o m e highlv re v ered fo r his k n o w le d g e and tea ch in g o f th e T a lm u d . H is a fo r e m e n tio n e d essay is su b jective, th e tale o f a “p erso n a l dilem m a " ; in o th e r w o rd s, it is aggadah O n th e m atter o f Sabbath th eology h e is. like H e sc h e l. in ter este d in m an's d irect e x p e r ie n c e o f lim e, n ot in abstract co n ce p ts. B ut h e w ou ld u n d o u b te d ly d iffe r co n sid era b ly in to n e fro m H esch el in a m d escrip tio n h e m igh t g ive re g a rd in g m an's a w a ren ess o f re d e m p tio n in th e Sabb ath " con ven an tal tim e e x p e r ie n c e . For fu rth er d eta ils o n S o lo v eitch ik . see p a g es 7 3 3 -7 3 5 in m y o rig in a l article in th e J o u r n a l of Ecum enical Studies. It se e m s to m e that Soloveitchik** th eo lo g ica l ou tlo o k has th e p oten tial for fu rth er d e v e lo p in g certain cr ea tiv e a sp e cts o f Sabbath th e o lo g y , an d 1 w ou ld h o p e that h e w ill allow h im se lf to p u b lish m o re ex ten siv ely . 34 A b raham J o sh u a H e sc h e l. .A Passion fo r T ruth (N ew Y ork . 1973), p. 3 2 3 . 33 S ee B orow itz. op. cit.. p p 3 0 6 -3 0 8 . ** H e sc h e l. Sabbath, p . l 6 f .

277

CHAPTER 15

Contemporary Theologies of the Sabbath

H ans K. LaRondelle HF. present ch a p te r surveys som e contem porary theologies of the Sabbath (frequently used ¡is a designation for Sunday), as held by four particular groups: th e radical-critical school, neo-orthodoxy, evangelicals, a n d certain small d en om inations a n d sects. Space lim itations necessitate that o u r treatm en t include only a few o u tstan d in g representatives o f each g ro u p an d that the Sabbath theologies o f such individuals be sum m arized ra th e r briefly.

T

Radical-Critical Concepts o f the Sabbath Radical-critical scholarship starts from the presupposition that the origin o f the Sabbath rem ains a m ystery a n d cannot be solved by any scientific verification. Several conflicting hypotheses o f a possible origin have been proposed, such as the gloomy B abylonian-Assyrian taboo days, o r the rest day o f the Kenites (a tribe o f sm iths), o r a feast day o f the full m oon, o r an ancient m arket day. an d various o th e r theories.* 1 Several conservative scholars have indicated the inconclusive­ ness an d unlikeliness o f such extra-Biblical origins o f the S abbath.2 Especially the careful study o f J . H. Nleesters has shown conclusively that “all effo rts to explain the origin o f th e Sabbath from extra-Israelite institutions o r custom s m ust be co u n ted as a failure," so th at only o n e conclusion rem ains: the Sabbath, ju st as the seven-day week, cannot be anything but a unique, Israelite creation, w ithout a c o u n te rp a rt elsew here at any tim e.’ T h e sam e conclusion has been draw n bv many o th er scholars, including E d u ard Lohse, who states that the m eaning an d content o f th e O ld T estam ent Sabbath “are exclusively controlled by Israel's faith in Yahweh."* It is generally felt am ong critical scholars that th e seventh-day Sabbath dates back to Mosaic times, but th at the fo u rth com m andm ent as found in the D ecalogue o f Exodus 20 o r D euteronom y 5 is the product o f later redactors. * For d etails, v c c h a p ter 1. p p . 2 1 . 2 2 .

278

CONTEMPORARY THEOLOGIES OF TH E SABBATH

While it is acknow ledged lhai th e Sabbath is connected with Yahwism fro m the beginning, th e m otivation fo r th e Sabbath celebration because o f the C reation m otif in Exodus 20:11 is th o u g h t to be a later addition a ro u n d 500 B . C . by a red acto r who was in spired by read in g the priestly n arrative o f C reation in Genesis 1-2. T h e E xodus m otif as m otivation fo r the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in D euteronom y 5 is also taken as a later addition by the redactor o f th e book o f D euteronom y a ro u n d 650 b . c . Many have tried to reconstruct the so-called original Sabbath com m andm ent, an d a com m on conclusion is that it probably was form ulated negatively: "You shall p erfo rm no w ork on the seventh day." Since 1930 the tren d has been to date this so-called original Sabbath co m m an d m en t early, d u rin g Israel's d esert jo u rn ey , o r even to let it orig in ate with Moses him self.' T h e C reation narrative with m ention o f th e Sabbath, in Genesis 2 :2 ,3 , how ever, is usually postulated as being w ritten by priests after th e codification o f the D euteronom ic Decalogue, d u rin g th e B abylonian exile. T h a t is, on the basis o f Genesis 2:2, 3, a n o th er re d acto r created th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t o f E xodus 20:8-11 with its C reation motif. In th e field o f New T estam en t studies Rudolf B ultm ann an d his followers have expressed som e radical-critical concepts re g ard in g the Sabbath that have been ad o p ted also by som e o f the m ore conservative evangelical scholars. B ultm ann considers th e Sabbath story o f Jesus a n d His disciples in the grainfield o f M ark 2:23-28 (cf. M atthew 12:1-8) as a construction o f the prim itive ch u rch , m olded by the post-R esurrection faith o f the early C hristians. He holds th at the story re p resen ts th e later theology by which the C hristian ch u rch ascribed the justification o f h er Sabbath custom s to Jesus. Also, he regards th e expression “Son o f m an" (Christ) as com ing from a later translator o f the Aram aic, an d concludes that every m an is a “lord o f th e Sabbath" a n d th ere fo re receives the liberty to d isreg ard the Sabbath co m m an d m en t.6 E rnst K asem ann agrees basically with B ultm ann. b u t feels that the prim itive ch u rch sh ran k back from so m uch freedom re g ard in g the Sabbath, an d th ere fo re coined th e p h rase in M ark 2:28 th at it was ra th e r the “Son o f m an” who was the L ord o f the Sabbath. A nd E. Lohse's position is sim ilar.7 In a m ore historical study, Willy R ordorf, in Sunday; The History of the Day of Rest and Worship in the Earliest Centuries of the Christian Church, states: “It is a m isu n d erstan d in g to hold th at Jesus did not attack the sabbath co m m an d m en t itself, but only th e casuistical refinem ents o f the Pharisees." He goes so far as to say th at the Sabbath “had failed in its divine purpose, a n d as a consequence rebellion against it o r d isreg ard o f it was no sin.” H e even states o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t th at "this com m andm ent enslaved hum an beings” : “For this reason he [Jesus] was no t afraid o f calling in question th e co m m andm ent contained in th e priesdy tradition o f the Old T estam ent." O n this assum ption R o rd o rf concludes th at all o f Jesu s’ healings on the Sabbath days w ere provocations to serve “the express intention o f show ing that fo r him the sabbath co m m an d m en t h ad no binding force.” " Jesu s' declaration th at " ‘the sabbath was m ade for m an, not m an fo r the sabbath’” (M ark 2:27, R.S.V.) was th ere fo re “throw ing overboard th e en tire sabbath theology established by post-exilic Ju d aism ." T h is is R ordorF s u n d e r­ standing o f Jesu s' M essianic consciousness "which knew no bounds," so th at even the S abbath co m m an d m en t o f th e O ld T estam en t “was sim ply a n n u lle d " ’ before 279

T H E SABBATH IN SCRIP PURE AND HISTORY

th e ceaseless activity o f Jesus. T h e w ord o f Jesu s as transm itted in M atthew 24:20, “ 'P ray th at y o u r flight may not be . . . on a sabbath"' (R.S.V.), is dism issed with the sim ple rem ark th at this text "is a secondary, ex p a n d ed version o f M ark 13:18, w here th e re is no m ention o f the sabbath . . . it is usually said that this expansion derives from Jew ish C hristian circles strict in th eir observance o f the law.” 10 R o rd o rf sharply separates the C hristian S unday from the “Jew ish" Sabbath, d eriving from th re e New T estam en t verses (1 C or. 16:2; Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10) “th at S unday clearly played an im p o rtan t role even in the Pauline c h u rc h e s." 11 He acknow ledges th a t the New T estam en t now here announces the origin o f the C hristian observance o f Sunday, but nevertheless concludes from the a p p e a r­ ances o f the risen L ord o n Sunday evenings that (he C hristian w orship a ro u n d the L o rd ’s S u p p er on S unday reaches back to the apostles o f C hrist “an d even to the in tention o f th e risen L ord him self.” 11 In sum m ary, radical-critical concepts concerning the Sabbath show n eith er trust in the historical reliability o f the Biblical accounts an d stories n o r d u e respect for th e tran sm itted text o f S cripture. N eo-O rthodox T heologies o f the Sabbath U ndoubtedly the m ost p ro fo u n d theology on th e Sabbath ever w ritten is that by neo-o rth o d o x theologian Karl B arth in his Church Dogmatics." B arth is in basic ag reem en t with J o h n Calvin, who h ad stressed that the Sabbath co m m andm ent was re g ard e d o f su p rem e significance in the O ld T estam ent. Calvin had noticed th at the Sabbath was held in “singular estim ation” “above all com m andm ents o f the law" because it is the distinctive sign o f G od’s covenant o f grace with Israel, as well as a foreshadow ing o f the spiritual a n d heavenly rest. B arth's Christological theology develops especially Calvin’s concept that the Sabbath is a C reation o rd in an ce an d that the C rea to r aroused m an's zeal to observe the Sabbath with g re ater piety by His own exem plary d eed o f resting on the seventh day o f the C reation w eek." T ak in g th e work o f C reation in Genesis 1 theologically as “the external basis” o f G od's covenant o f grace, B arth in terp rets G od's resting on the seventh day in Genesis 2:2 as the "secret" beginning o f G od’s covenant o f red eem in g m an, because G od's resting m eans th at H e has com m itted H im self to belong to m an and this world. B arth is convinced that G od’s resting on the seventh day o f the C reation week, in Genesis 2:2, signifies a specific C readon ord in an ce as a blessed gift for all m ankind. C reation, with m an at its head, w ould find its com pletion only in fellowship with God H im self an d participation in His divine rest, joy, and freed o m : "W hat is concretely revealed in the first and divine observance o f the Sabbath, an d in the im plied invitation to the creation to observe it as well, is no m ore an d no less than the m eaning an d intention o f the covenant betw een God an d m an.” 11 B arth in terp re ts this covenant betw een G od an d m an, rep resen ted in Sabbath fellowship, as a covenant o f grace an d redem ption to be fulfilled in C hrist. T h u s th e C reation Sabbath speaks prophetically o f C hrist and m ust be u n d ersto o d Christologically from the beginning in Genesis 2. T h e Sabbath as the sign o f the prom ised rest o f grace really cam e not at the en d but at the beginning o f m an's w orking week, since m an was created on the sixth day. Man could th e re fo re celebrate on th e Sabbath only G od’s own works an d m erits. 280

C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E O L O G I E S O F T H E S AB BA TH

T h e fo u rth co m m andm ent, declares B arth, com m ands Israel to e n te r into the rest o f divine grace an d not to have the slightest tru st in th eir own work o r righteousness b efo re G o d . 16Israel was thus rem in d ed weekly th at the C rea to r was th eir R edeem er, th eir Ju stih e r, a n d th eir Sanctifier. M oreover, B arth considers th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t as the com prehensive a n d fu n d am en tal com m and o f all G o d ’s co m m andm ents, as the sum total o f G od’s covenant o f red eem in g grace, because only in this co m m andm ent are law and gospel fully united! F u rth erm o re , he recognizes not only the Christologtcal saving significance o f the Sabbath but also an eschatological ju d g in g aspect. A ppealing to Isaiah 58:13, 14, a n d Jerem ia h 17:24-27, B arth observes a hid d en relationship o f the Sabbath with th e day o f th e L ord a sju d g m e n t day. T h a t day will be, how ever, also the day o f resto red blessing, the day o f the ultim ate fulfillm ent o f the prom ise given in the first Sabbath. C onsequently, B arth is convinced “not w ithout a certain awe, [of] the radical im portance, the alm ost m onstrous range o f the Sabbath co m m and­ m en t.” ” In B arth ’s theology o f the Sabbath th ere can be sensed an unbearable tension betw een his idea that the Sabbath is a C reation ord in an ce a n d the sign o f red eem in g grace, on the one han d , and his conclusion that the resu rrectio n o f C hrist has terminated the history o f G od’s covenant o f grace to g eth er with its sign, the Sabbath day, on the o th e r hand. B arth tries to justify theologically the historic change o f rest day from the seventh-day Sabbath to Sunday by the C hristian church. He states— surprisingly— that the first advent o f C hrist, culm inating in His resu rrectio n from the d ead on the first day o f the week, m eant the conclusion o r “term in atio n o f th e history o f the covenant and salvation .” 18T h e re fo re th e first day “h ad to becom e” the day o f rest o f the new time. B arth seems to realize th at the “necessity" o f this switch o f rest days is not obvious in such reasoning w ithout scriptural legitim ization. H e p resents two arg u m en ts for his S unday theology that he feels m ust serve to solve "this a p p a re n t revolution against its divine o rd e r in creatio n .” 19 His first arg u m e n t is an appeal to th re e controversial texts— 1 C orinthians 16:2; Acts 20:7; Revelation 1:10—w ithout any attem p t at exegesis. H e states only that early C hristianity “began to keep the first day o f the week instead o f the seventh as a day o f rest . . . as a d eb t o f obedience.” w O n e w onders where in S crip tu re B arth has read such a com m and, w hen n eith er L u th er n o r Calvin could find it! But B arth th en prom ises “also a direct proof." T his consists in the C hristian “discovery” th at th e original o rd e r set by God for m an at C reation was the rest day first (on G o d ’s seventh day), followed by six w orking days: “T h e ‘L ord's Day’ was really his first day. H ence it o u g h t always to have been his first day an d not his seventh an d last." T h u s B arth tries to solve his dilem m a by explaining that the "first d ay” rest was not really “an innovation but the discovery o f the calculation which was already hidden in the calculation o f Genesis 1.”11 B arth adm its th at his so-called "direct p r o o f for the "Sunday Sabbath" is only an inference, since his p ro o f is “h id d e n ” in the calculation o f the Genesis C reation account. B ut o ne may well ask: I f the seventh-day Sabbath as the L o rd ’s day really had been A d am ’s first day, thus sym bolizing that m an lives by G od’s initiating and m aintaining grace, why the need for the church to change this "divine o rd e r in creatio n ”? 281

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In th e final analysis, B arth's attem pt to prove a Sunday Sabbath shows th at he can n o t accept an actual term in atio n o f the Sabbath an d the Sabbath com m and­ m en t in the new covenant o f C hrist. H e even defen d s a basic continuity o f the S abbath when he concludes: “ New T estam en t C hristianity did not proclaim a p articu lar an n u lm en t but, as it w ould ap p e a r from 1 C orinthians 16:2 and Acts 20:7 qu ite naturally began to celebrate this holy day on the first day o f the week, it was not rebelling against the o rd e r o f creation but was acting in p ro fo u n d ag reem en t with what is said in Exodus 20:8f. an d Genesis 2: If. on the basis o f the Sabbath c o m m an d m en t ."’1 It finally becom es d e a r how B arth can see the hallow ing o f S unday in “p ro fo u n d ag reem en t" with the C reation Sabbath o f Genesis 2 an d with the Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f Exodus 20: nam ely, by dissecting the Sabbath from the seventh day a n d by considering the Sabbath exclusively as the rest o f grace. T h en the Sabbath only hovers over the seventh day but is not the seventh day. T his Docetic philosophical Sabbath concept is obviously a non-Biblical assum ption. Also, B arth h ere reaps w hat he has sown in his position to accept th e C reation account o f Genesis 1 as a “saga" only, th at is, no t as historically real an d authentic, but tru e in its “k e rn e l." ” . In his spiritualizing in terp re tatio n o f the Sabbath, B arth re tu rn s som ew hat to Calvin, w ho had already detached G od's rest from the seventh day in his com m entary o n Genesis 2:3. Calvin had stated: “First, th erefo re, God rested; then he blessed this rest, that in all ages it m ight be held sacred am ong m en .”’4 In this respect Calvin a n d B arth do not allow S cripture to say what it actually says in Genesis 2:3: “So God blessed the seventh day an d hallowed it. because on it God rested from all his w ork which he h ad do n e in creation" (R.S.V.). S cripture does not state th at God blessed His rest, bu t that G od blessed and hallowed "the seventh day," because H e had rested on th at day a fte r six days o f creative work. It is not the rest, but th e rest day, that God blessed. T h is is em phatically rep eated in the Decalogue, E xodus 20:11, with its pointed com m ission that the red eem ed Israel should " rem em b er th e sabbath day, to keep it holy. . . . The seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God" (Ex. 20:8-10, R.S.V.). B arth's dogm atic Sabbath theology would have becom e m ore consistently Biblical a n d less speculatively philosophical if he, as a Biblical theologian, could have seen th at the resu rrectio n o f C hrist and the seventh-day Sabbath are not in tension with each o th er, because the resu rrected C hrist remains the “faithful C rea to r” (1 P eter 4:19). Probably m ore than any theologian in recent C hristian history, B arth has em phasized the gospel o f G od’s free grace in th e seventh-day Sabbath as th e o rd a in e d sacram ent o f salvation. It is th ere fo re h a rd to u n d ersta n d why he can conclude that C h rist’s resu rrectio n was to terminate the very sign o f G od’s everlasting covenant that H e gave in the beginning to m ankind, not ju st to Israel later. Following in the footsteps of B arth, the G erm an O ld T estam ent scholar Ernst J e n n i in 1956 developed his “theological foundations o f the Sabbath co m m an d ­ m ent in the O ld T estam en t" in a challenging study.” Jen n i observes basically two kinds o f fo u n d ations fo r the Sabbath com m andm ent; one is in the D ecalogue o f Exodus 20 (verse 11), poin tin g back to G od’s rest in C reation, the o th e r in the D ecalogue o f D euteronom y 5 (verses 14, 15) pointing back to Israel's deliverance from Egypt. In Exodus 2 0 Je n n i sees the typical “priestly" foundation rep resen ted 282

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an d in D euteronom y 5 the "D euteronom ic" one. although he thinks th at both kinds o f theological foundation w ere "certainly ad d e d to th e com m andm ent later.” H e even declares: "T h e original Sabbath co m m andm ent m ust have been fo rm u lated in sh o rter form an d have contained no fo u n d a tio n .*6 T h a t is, o f course, a typical radical-critical concept. In D euteronom y Je n n i sees a redemptwe-histoncal foundation o f the Sabbath established. T h e Sabbath is consecrated to Yahweh as th e gracious L ord and L ib erato r o f Israel. T h is counts for the cheerful ch aracter o f the Sabbath in Israel b efo re th e B abylonian exile (Isa. 58:13). T h e so-called priestly foundation o f the Sabbath in Exodus 2 0 :1 1 an d 31:17, an d G enesis 2:2, 3, tran sfers the Sabbath back to the creation o f the world. Because th e Sabbath is called a “p erp etu al covenant" (Ex. 31:16), th e abiding obligation is stressed to g eth er with the grace ch aracter o f Israel's redem ptive institutions. Thus th e holiness o f the Sabbath is m ade in d ep en d e n t from hu m an achievem ent a n d astrological m agic .*1 In Genesis 2, Je n n i distinguishes a th reefo ld p u rp o se o f the C reation Sabbath. First, th e Sabbath is “th e goal o f C reation," in the sense that th e w orld is not created for itself o r left to itself, but that on the Sabbath the w hole cosm os, led by m an, would praise C»od in w orship. Second, th e C reation Sabbath is the open d o o r to m ake th e history o f G od's covenant possible.*" G od's hallowing o f the Sabbath m akes room for cultic w orship, separated from secular life. T h ird , the Sabbath rest o f Genesis 2 im plies a prom ise that points forw ard “to the perfect goal o f creation, th e p erfect realization o f th e covenant. T h e sign becom es the presage o f what is to come."** T h e New T estam en t, Je n n i says, teaches us that the O ld T estam ent Sabbath, as a typological “witness o f C hrist," has been fulfilled in the com ing o f Jesus C hrist (M att. 11:28; 2 C or. 1:20), although, according to H ebrew s 4:9, C hrist fu rth e r g u aran tees a perfect rest that rem ains. “In this rest the prom ise o f th e earthly Sabbath will lie fulfilled." “ J e n n i's Sabbath theology allows the radical-critical concept o f the origin o f the Sabbath to deny th e trustw orthiness an d historical reliability o f the C reation n arrative in G enesis 1-2. T h e Sabbath was in reality not in au g u rated at the creation o f th e w orld, reasons Je n n i, but later by Moses; an d priests o f Israel then projected the Sabbath o f Israel back to the creation o f the world in Holy S cripture. C onsequently, th e Sabbath becom es exclusively the sign o f G od’s covenant o f grace with Israel, im plying the prom ise o f a perfect rest as the goal o f C reation at the en d o f history. A lthough B arth and Je n n i both em phatically unfold the redem ptive and eschatological significance o f the seventh-day Sabbath in the O ld Testam ent, each theologian has a radically d iffe ren t in terp retatio n o f the C reation Sabbath in Genesis 2. W hile B arth stresses th e Sabbath o f Genesis 2 as an ordinance of C reation for m ankind in th e beginning, Je n n i firmly rejects the Sabbath as a C reation ord in an ce. A ccepting th e periodic "m arket-day" o f the heath en nations as the hypothetical origin o f the Sabbath, Je n n i believes that the religious seventh-day Sabbath is only an institution o f Moses for the nation o f Israel. C onsequently th e justification o f S unday observance by the C hristian church also diverges substantially with these two neo-orthodox theologians. B arth can see S unday only as a shifted Sabbath. Je n n i, on the o th e r hand, believes in an abrogated 283

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Sabbath, based on the presupposition that the Sabbath is only a Jew ish institution. D iverging Evangelical T heologies o f the Sabbath T h e existing disunity a n d u ncertainty in P rotestant liberalism and n eo -o rth o ­ doxy co n cerning a Biblical Sabbath theology are only aggravated by the confusion o f conflicting Sabbath in terp retatio n s in evangelical circles. Tw o m ain stream s o f diverging Sabbath theologies can be discerned in contem porary evangelicalism . T h e first stream accepts the seventh-day Sabbath as a divine C reation ordinance, based on G enesis 2:2, 3 an d Exodus 20:8-11. It develops, how ever, a Sunday-Sabbath theology on the assum ption that the resu rrectio n o f C hrist actually shifted o r tra n sfe rre d the Sabbath co m m andm ent to S unday, th e first day o f th e week. T h e final appeal is always to a trio o f texts— Acts 20:7; 1 C orinthians 16:2; an d Revelation 1: 10— usually with little o r no effort at real exegesis. Sunday is re g ard e d as th e “L o rd ’s day" o r the “C hristian Sabbath." T h e second stream rejects the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance, on the basis o f a radical-liberal evaluation, an d accepts th e Sabbath m erely as an Israelite and Jew ish Sabbath intended as a covenant gift o f G od fo r the Jew ish nation only. A Sunday theology is th en developed on the assum ption th at C hrist radically abolished th e S abbath as a holy day. S unday observance by the ch u rch is often readily acknow ledged as a postapostolic ecclesiastical institution, created for chu rch o rd e r an d in rem em brance o f th e resurrection o f C hrist on the first day o f the week. Yet f requently too. S unday as a religious day o f w orship is piously re g ard e d as au thorized by the guidance o f the Holy Spirit, possibly instituted by C hrist o r the apostles. But S unday is not conceived as a S unday Sabbath. Not every evangelical theologian o r w riter can be classified clearly in o n e o f these two m ain stream s. Som e interm ingle various elem ents o f both views o r give in terp retatio n s o f their own. Evangelical T heology o f the Transferred Sabbath.— The view th at S unday is the C hristian Sabbath an d that C hristian Sunday observance really fulfills the fo u rth co m m andm ent o f th e D ecalogue is basically the theological position o f (1) th e Rom an Catholic C hurch as developed by Thomas A quinas an d explained in th e C atechism us R om anus ( a . d . 1567); (2) the English P uritans; an d (3) the party o f Jaco b u s Koelm an in the R eform ed State C hurch o f the N eth erlan d s in the so-called battle fo r the S abbath in the second half o f the seventeenth cen tu ry .5' T h e concern is not w h eth er S aturday o r Sunday should be kept as the day o f w orship, but ra th e r on what g ro u n d s S unday is to be kept as a holy day, how Sunday is to be related theologically to the Sabbath com m andm ent in the Decalogue, an d w h eth er C hrist o r the apostles o r the postapostolic ch u rch had initiated S unday observance— in short, w hether S unday observance is o f divine origin o r based on m ere ecclesiastical authority. T h e P uritans an d th e Koelm an party m aintained that Sunday was th e tru e Sabbath by divine nght an d the m oral fulfillm ent o f the Sabbath com m andm ent. T h e ir a rg u m e n t was based on the philosophical distinction o f a separate m oral an d cerem onial precept within the fo u rth com m andm ent, a concept in troduced into C hristian theology by T hom as A quinas. T o them , as to A quinas, the perp etu al moral p recept would d em an d only o n e day chosen arbitrarily ou t o f the week fo r w orship, bu t the transitory ceremonial precept would d em and th e specific seventh day o f the week, in com m em oration o f the creation o f the world. Koelm an 284

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insisted th at C hrist o r the apostles by divine authority changed th e Sabbath into S unday rest, but th at this change left the m oral essence o f the com m andm ent u n to u ch ed , since th e change p ertain ed only to the cerem onial aspect, the additional idea o f th e “seventh" day o f the week. Several p ro m in en t D utch scholars, G. Voetius, A braham K uyper, W. Geesink, and G. Vos, have carried on in the K oelm an tradition, with various refinem ents. A. H. S trong, a Baptist, calls S unday “th e C hristian S abbath,” which "co m m em o rates. . . the new creation o f the world in C hrist, in which G od's work in h um anity first becom es com plete." A ppealing to Revelation 1:10, Acts 20:7, an d 1 C orinthians 16:1, 2 (all w ithout exegesis). S trong claims th at "C hrist’s exam ple and apostolic sanction have tra n sfe rre d the Sabbath from the seventh day to the first, for the reason th at this last is the day o f C hrist’s resurrection, and so the day when G od’s spiritual creation becam e in C hrist com plete.” S trong im m ediately m odifies this absolute statem ent by declaring, som ew hat less assuredly, th at the change “seems to have been d u e to the resurrection o f C h rist,” ” thus acknow ledging that the “change" is a m atter o f a theological inference. John M urray o f W estm inster Theological Sem inary in Philadelphia has shown concern, in his The Sabbath Institution, to establish “the perpetuity o f the principle em bodied in th e F ourth C om m andm ent, namely, the divinely instituted sanctity o f every re c u rrin g seventh day.” In d eed , for M urray, S unday observance stands o r falls with th e question o f divine institution. Expediency “can never carry the sanction o f law and it cannot bind the conscience o f m en .”34 H e affirm s th e Sabbath in Genesis 2 as a C reation ordinance, instituted before the Fall o f m an, and acknow ledges clearly: “Sin does not abrogate creation o rdinances an d red em p tio n does not m ake superfluous th eir obligation and fulfillm ent.” ” R eg ard in g th e fo u rth com m andm ent, M urray argues that "it would require the m ost conclusive evidence to establish the thesis that the fo u rth com m and is in a d iffe ren t category from the o th e r nine. T h a t it finds its place am ong the ten words w ritten by th e finger o f G od u p o n tables o f stone establishes fo r this co m m an d m en t an d for the labour a n d rest it enjoins a position equal to th at o f the th ird o r th e fifth o r the seventh o r the te n th .” A nd Je su s’ words in M ark 2:27, 28, co n cerning His lo rdship over the Sabbath, do no t m ean any abrogation o f the Sabbath b u t ra th e r His sealing to m an that which the Sabbath institution involves: “O u r L ord Him self confirm s its p erm a n en t relevance ." 56 H ow ever, M urray re g ard s Sunday as the C hristian Sabbath by the device o f dissecting th e “S abbath" from the seventh day o f the week an d tra n sfe rrin g that “S abbath” to th e first day o f the week. Recognizing that the Sabbath as a C reation o rd in an ce com m em orated the com pletion o f C reation, he says: “In the C hristian econom y the Sabbath is the L ord's Day and th ere fo re the m em orial o f the com pletion o f a work o f G od g re ater than that o f creatio n .”57 H e re an illegitim ate contrast is in tro d u ced , which is utterly foreign to the Bible, nam ely that C hrist as R edeem er would destroy a good m em orial o f a perfect work d o n e by H im self as C reato r. It contradicts also M urray's own statem ent that "sin does not abrogate creation o rd in an ces an d red em p tio n does not m ake superfluous th eir obligation an d fulfillm ent.” ” 285

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H e rb ert W. R ichardson has tried to elevate Sunday as the Sabbatical sacram ent fo r “th e A m erican vision o f holy worldliness, the sanctification o f all things by th e Holy Spirit." R ichardson rejects the traditional theology that argues that the Sabbath com m andm ent is not like the o th e r nine but only a cerem onial shadow that C hrist later abolished. H e characterizes this arg u m en t as m otivated by “anti-Jew ish polem ics." O pting basically for the position o f the P uritans, he fu rth e r acknow ledges th e fo u rth co m m andm ent as constituting "a universal m oral law,” an d accepts the priority o f the “creation in te rp re ta tio n ” o f G enesis 2 above th e "red em p tio n in terp re tatio n " o f D euteronom y 5 .59 H arold Lindsell has placed a som ew hat unusual twist to Sunday-Sabbath theology in his article “T h e L o rd ’s Day and N atural R esources.” A fter simply eq u atin g S unday with the Sabbath o f Holy S criptures, he suggests that C hristians should press for social S unday legislation in o rd e r to enforce “outw ard Sabbath observance for unbelievers." As the reason for this objective, he offers the idea that only the ch u rch knows what is good fo r the world, because G od’s special revelation (Scripture) gives the insight into G od's natural revelation (natural laws), which m eans in this respect that every m an should obey "G od’s n atu ral law o f one day o f rest in seven .”*0 O n the basis o f this philosophical abstraction Lindsell favors state legislation or political coercion o f all th e non-C hristians in o rd e r to accom plish the objective o f “th e p ro p e r use o f the Lord's Day, wholly apart from any religious im plications,” “to bring u n re d eem ed m en to the place w here they will keep it also— b u t for d iffe ren t reasons.” “ But we may well ask, Is it conceivable to keep the Sabbath "p ro p erly ” w ithout religion, w ithout keeping the day holy? A nd is not this kind o f externalizing com pliance with re g ard to the Sabbath com m andm ent a form o f secularization, which Lindsell detests so m uch within the church? In an editorial o f N ovem ber 5, 1976, in Christianity Today, Lindsell surprisingly proposes, however, "that Saturday be set aside as the day o f rest for all people," in o rd e r to help solve the national energy crisis. T h is arg u m e n t includes an interesting adm ission: "Jews a n d o th er Sabbatarians w ould be well served by this decision. For Protestants an d Catholics it should prove no theological hardship: ap a rt from the fact that o u r L ord rose from the d ead on th e first day o f the week, th ere is nothing in S cripture that requires us to keep S unday ra th e r than S aturday as a holy d a y ." ” Jam es P. W esberry. e d ito r o f Sunday m agazine o f the Lord's Day A lliance o f the U nited States, presents an o th e r interesting variation by stating: “Jesu s did not abolish the old Sabbath, bu t he enlarged an d ennobled it a n d m erged it into the L ord's Day” an d "T h e old Jew ish Sabbath was buried in the grave with Jesus and when he arose it took on new dim ensions ."45 "It is p erp etu ated by being tra n sfig u re d ." ” E ditor W esberry thus defen d s a shifted Sabbath, which was “tra n sfo rm e d ” by C hrist into S unday as the L o rd ’s Day. N evertheless, he frankly acknowledges: “ There is no record o f a statem ent on the part o f Jesu s authorizing such a change, n o r is th ere recorded such a statem ent on the p art o f the apostles."” Evangelical T heology o f the Abrogated Sabbath.—A basically d ifferen t school o f Sabbath in terp re tatio n , which enjoys the favor o f contem porary evangelical scholarship, was d efen d ed by the Dutch theology professor Jo h a n n e s Coccejus d u rin g the Sabbath controversy in H olland in the seventeenth century. 286

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He took th e position th at the seventh-day Sabbath was not a C reation o rdinance b u t only a cerem onial. Mosaic institution that was abrogated by C hrist. H e f u rth e r held th at S undaykeeping was a purely ecclesiastical institution. Focusing on the m ost serious {joint o f debate, the origin an d authority o f Sunday as the day o f the L ord, Coccejus shocked the S undaykeeping churches with this p en e tratin g question: “I f it is m oral to rest because G od has rested, then it is also m oral to rest on th e day on which God rested. If we tran sfer the rem em bering o f G od’s rest to a n o th e r day o f th e week, we rem ove what God has given an d instituted. I f it has been cerem onial to keep the seventh day, w hy then is the keeping o f o ne o f the seven days m o ral ?" 46 T h e R eform ed Evangelical Old T estam en t scholar, J. L. Koole, has stressed an inescapable theological consequence if the Sabbath m ust be accepted as a C reation ord in ance. His point may be p arap h rased thus: Ju s t as we are presently n o t p erm itted to m u rd e r because the sixth com m andm ent was already in force p rio r to th e law o f Moses, so we would not be free now to reject the Sabbath o f the fo u rth co m m andm ent if the Sabbath was already in force p rio r to Moses’ law .47 In o th e r w ords, if the Sabbath was actually instituted in the beginning in Paradise, th en C hristians also are u n d e r the obligation to observe the C reation Sabbath. Defying th e long R eform ation an d P uritan tradition, as well as the position o f K uyper, Geesink, and Bavinck, Koole urges the re ad er to think this th ro u g h logically and consistently b efo re accepting the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance. Koole does not hesitate to conclude that those who view Sunday rest as a renew ed Sabbath, re q u ired by the fo u rth com m andm ent, m ust, in the n a tu re o f the case, tran sfer that rest day back to Saturday. But because the Sabbath cannot be scientifically verified o r proved to have been historically instituted in Paradise, Koole does not accept the C reation Sabbath as a fact. Basically following Je n n i, Koole regards Genesis 2:2, 3 m erely as a vision o f Moses co n cern in g a heavenly reality o f G od’s rest, o f which Israel's Sabbath was the symbol an d sign. Israel’s Sabbath th ere fo re had the n a tu re o f a sacram ent, a real e n c o u n te r betw een h u m an an d divine resting. T h e Sabbath rest was to Israel both a sign o f th e rest o f grace, provided already in G od's covenant with A braham , and a m em orial o f th eir deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 5:15), and th ere fo re a sign o f red em p tio n also. Ig n o rin g th e fo u n d atio n o f the Sabbath in the fo u rth com m andm ent in E xodus 20:8-11, Koole considers the Sabbath exclusively as the m em orial o f Israel's gracious deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 5:15), instituted for the first time d u rin g Israel’s jo u rn e y in the w ilderness (Exodus 16). T h e n , by com paring C h rist’s resu rrectio n from the d ead with Israel's redem ption from Egypt, he concludes th at G o d ’s redem ptive act in C hrist is g reater than that which He p erfo rm ed for Israel. O n th at basis he infers that Sunday should have precedence over th e Sabbath fo r C hristians. S unday th ere fo re is not and cannot be the Sabbath o r a f ulfillm ent o f the fo u rth com m andm ent. In basic ag reem en t with Koole's Sabbath an d S unday theology are the publications o f P. Visser, a pastor o f the R eform ed C hurches in the N etherlands. A nd a n o th e r D utch scholar, R. J. V anD erV een, has gone so far as to deny even the legitimacy o f any S unday theology.4" A lthough O scar C ullm ann is not to lie classified am ong the evangelicals. 287

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his influence on them has been such that b rief notice o f som e o f his exegetical com m ents o n Jesus an d the Sabbath is in o rd e r here. In his The Chrtstology o f the New Testament C ullm ann in terp rets Jesus' saying in M ark 2:28, R.S. V. (“ ‘So th e Son o f m an is lord even o f the sabbath’") to m ean that Jesu s had com e to set m an free from Sabbath observance. C ullm ann accepts the possibility, based on the A ram aic expression bamasha behind both M ark 2:27 and 28, that Jesu s may have an n o u n ced th at m an in general has now received the authority to be lord o f th e Sabbath. I n case Jesus did m ean exclusively Himself by the expression “Son o f m an,” as M ark clearly u n d erstood it, Jesu s proclaim ed that H e had com e with divine authority to abrogate all Sabbath observance. C ullm ann sees th e sam e sense expressed m o re explicitly in Jesu s’ w ords o f J o h n 5:17, “in which Jesu s does give a Christological foundation for non-observance o f the Sabbath." ” In fact, h e even goes so far as to d eclare that Jesus' words “until now" in J o h n 5:17 are "an allusion to th e new day o f rest o f the com m unity, the dav o f C hrist's r e s u r r e c t io n r||i£ p a t o u x u q io u [hemera tou huriou] (d ay o f th e L o r d ) .’’ T h e designation “day o f the L ord” in Revelation 1:10 he simply identifies with Sunday, a n d declares the following w ithout any historical evidence: “In fact, in his time, th e day o f C h rist’s resurrection, called in Rev. 1:10 Kugiaxi) rm epa [kuriake hemera], was already universally celebrated in Christian C hurches.’’5" How ever, C ullm ann does not claim, as B arth does, that S unday celebration is basically an obedience to the fo u rth com m andm ent. H e blundy proclaim s th at the idea o f je s u s ’ w ords “until now ” in Jo h n 5:17 “justifies the disobedience ”'1 to the O ld T estam e n t Sabbath com m andm ent. Paul K. Jew ett, professor o f system atic theology at Fuller T heological Sem inary in Pasadena, C alifornia, has presen ted a full-scale Sabbath theology in his The Lord's Day: A Theological Guide to the Christian Day o f Worship. Jew ett basically develops the position o f R ordorf, Je n n i, and C ullm ann, but modifies it by his own in terp retatio n . T h e Sabbath o riginated with Moses in Exodus 16, he declares, and th ere fo re is not a C reation o rdinance, only a “Jew ish Sabbath." "Jesus, as a devout Jew . observed the Sabbath" an d "did not reject the institution o f the Sabbath as such, but only the tradition o f the elders re g ard in g S abbathkeeping." N everthe­ less, Jew ett surprisingly draw s from this the conclusion that Je su s’ attitu d e tow ard the Sabbath convinced His disciples that th eir M aster did not req u ire them any lo n g er to observe the Sabbath. H e also com m ents: “ It cannot be supposed th at the fact o f th e resu rrectio n as such could have b ro u g h t about this change [to Sunday], ap a rt from th e au th o rity an d teaching o f Jesu s him self."M In co n sid ering the apostolic writings, Jew ett dismisses the idea that the apostle Paul w ould have innovated S unday w orship am ong (he G entile C hristians. However, re g ard in g Revelation 1: 10, he states: “ In all subsequent Patristic usage th e term ‘L o rd ’s Day’ refers to S unday, a n d th e re is no reason to suppose Revelation 1:10 is an exception to this rule.” ” O n this crucial point it becom es evident th at Jew ett ignores the Sola Scriptura principle, which Protestantism since L u th er, Calvin, an d Zwingli has established as the sine qua non o f P rotestant faith. Second, he ignores also the recognized principle o f historical m ethod, that an expression is to be in te rp re te d only in term s o f evidence that is p rio r to it o r co n tem p o rary with it, not by historical data from a later p e rio d .’' T h ese two principles— th e theological h erm en eu tic and the historical-scientific m ethod— 288

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m ust be responsibly applied b efo re o n e in terp rets the unique expression the “L ord's day" in Revelation 1:10 .*55 In his effo rt to reconstruct the origin o f Sunday worship, Jew ett opts fo r w hat he calls th e “likely hypothesis” that S unday w orship o riginated in the custom o f celebrating th e L o rd ’s S u p p er on th e first day o f the week right from the first E aster S unday on. H e appeals to a com bination o f texts— Acts 20:7, Luke 24:33-43, and J o h n 20:19-23.“ Because Jew ett h asjo in ed those w ho reject the Sabbath as a C reau o n Sabbath, he cannot m aintain th at th e C hristian Sunday is, in principle, obedience to the C reation rh y th m o f six days o f labor followed by one rest day. B ut nevertheless, he seeks to g ro u n d S unday w orship on som e divine fou n d atio n o r scriptural su p p o rt, doing so th ro u g h a philosophical rationalism by which he can say Sic (“Yes”) and Non (“N o") at th e sam e tim e to the fo u rth com m andm ent: IVi to the Jew ish weekly cycle, a n d No to th e Jew ish S abbath .57 Basic to Jew ett's S unday theology is the assum ption “W e can only suppose th at th e early C hristians, both Jew s an d G entiles, accepted the weekly cycle o f tim e as a divinely given in stitu tio n ."511 C onsequently, not in the seventh-day Sabbath, but in th e week “as such”— the cycle o f seven days—Jew ett views the unity o f redem ptive history betw een Israel an d the church, betw een the O ld T estam en t an d th e New T estam ent. Jew ett even asserts th at the apostles taught the G entile C hristians “to observe the Jew ish w eek,” “th e sabbatical sequence o f time, but rejected the Sabbath Day.” T his im plies th at C hristians who g ath er fo r w orship on the first day o f th e week “stand u n d e r th e sign o f the Sabbath in that they g ath er every seventh day.” F u rth erm o re , according to Jew ett, by the nonobservance o f the seventh-day Sabbath, C hristians indicate the fulfillm ent o f their redem ptive rest in the C hrist who has com e, an d by th eir observance o f the first day they indicate th eir n eed and ho p e fo r th e fu tu re , eternal rest w hen C hrist will re tu rn . T his is Jew e tt’s theology o f "the dialectic o f fulfillm ent in h o p e ."59 Jew ett accuses the R eform ers L u th er an d Calvin for th eir radical No to the fo u rth co m m an d m en t and th eir equalizing o f all days o f the week fo r C hristians. But he proceeds to condem n likewise all C hristian S abbathkeepers who say w holeheartedly Yes to the fo u rth co m m an d m en t because o f th eir presu p p o sed “Ju d aism .” “ Jew ett disagrees, too, with those R eform ed Evangelicals who try to identify S unday as “L o rd ’s day" with S unday as a civil institution. S unday rest is not obligatory for unbelievers. T h e re simply cannot be a real L o rd ’s day w ithout faith, because “th e L o rd ’s Day rest is preem inently a soul rest, a spiritual experience." N evertheless, th e civil Sunday law is a fruit o f the gospel in society a n d “a genuine boon to m a n k in d ."61 O n e step beyond Jewrett we arrive in the circle o f the D ispensationalists, such as L. S. C h afer. W hile Jew ett still contends for “continuity, w ithout identity” o f Sabbath and S unday, D ispensational theology' radically opposes every continuity o f Sabbath and Sunday. It reg ard s the two rest days as the symbols par excellence o f two absolutely u n re la ted a n d opposing dispensations o f “p u re law a n d p u re grace .”62 D ispensational theology is p ro m o ted with m odifications by the * Regarding Revelation 1:10, see chapter 6, pp. 125-127.

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radiobroadcasts an d literatu re o f R ichard W. D eH aan o f G ra n d Rapids, M ichigan (Why Christians Worship on Sunday), an d o f the M oody Bible Institute in Chicago, Sabbath Interpretations o f Some Small Denom inations and Sects W. T . Purkiser, o f the C h u rch o f the N azarene, in his article “T h e Sabbath Q uestion,” m akes the challenging assertion: “First off, let it be said that the Sabbath belongs to the New T estam en t as well as to the O ld T e sta m e n t." ” T aking Jesu s' words in M ark 2:27, 28, as “the most basic statem ent o f the New T estam en t re g ard in g th e Sabbath," he concludes that th e Sabbath “belongs not only to Moses, Isaiah, an d N ehem iah, but it belongs to every person w ho acknow ledges Jesus C hrist as L ord an d Saviour." P urkiser hastens to declare, how ever, that the eq u atio n o f Sabbath with S aturday o r the seventh day o f the week is a false assum ption: "N o o n e has ever been authorized to add to the fo u rth co m m an d ­ m ent afte r the w ords ‘the seventh day’ th e fu rth e r words 'o f a traditional weekly cycle, o r S atu rday.’” W hile calendars are “o f m an's contriving,” G od has only ap p o in ted “th e Sabbath principle," an d “th at principle is always a n d simply, EVERY SE V E N T H DAY BELONGS T O GOD! ”M P urkiser incorrectly calls the identification o f the seventh-day Sabbath with o u r S aturday a m ere Jew ish tradition. O f S unday he states: “It is the perpetual m em orial o f the resu rrectio n o f the L ord Jesu s C hrist from the d e a d ” an d tries to elevate S unday into a new Sabbath by illegitimately translating M ark 16:2, "A nd very early th e first o f the Sabbaths" (cf. also Malt. 28:1). H e declares that these texts at least h in t “that one series o f Sabbaths was en ded, and a new series was b eg inning.’’“ T h is is, o f course, an irresponsible m anipulating o f the G reek text, and it defies the com bined New T estam e n t scholarship re p resen te d in the A uthorized. Revised, an d o th er stan d ard translations.“ In the Sabbath theology o f the Seventh Day Baptists we com e into contact with a basically d iffe ren t approach in contem porary thought. T h e w ritings o f A. H. Lewis, A. J. C. B ond, an d H. E. S aunders, published by the A m erican Sabbath T ra c t Society in Plainfield, New Jersey, re p resen t a P rotestant Sabbath reform m ovem ent that tries to lead C hristians back to the Biblical Sabbath by bringing Basing him self on the Holy S criptures as G od’s special revelation, a n d guided by a Christological u n d ersta n d in g o f the O ld T estam ent, S aunders develops a concise theology o f the seventh-day Sabbath in his book The Sabbath: Symbol of Creation and Re-Creation (1970). His fu n d am en tal thesis is that the Sabbath stands not only as a m em orial o f C reation but also as a m em orial o f re-creation, red em p tio n , an d re su rre c tio n .67 S aunders quotes Lewis, who states: “T h e Day o f God leads to the H ouse o f G od, to the Book o f G od, an d to the Son o f G od.” 6* H ow ever, in th eir enthusiasm for a C hristo-centric theology o f the Sabbath, Lewis and S au n d ers u n fo rtu n ately shift the resurrection o f C hrist from the first day o f A cknow ledging th e o rd in an ce o f baptism as the symbol o f re-creation— a once-in-a-lifetim e experience— S aunders extols the Sabbath as the “symbol o f the co n tin u in g baptism o f the Holy S pirit.” “T h e Sabbath stands at the h ea rt o f the m essage o f reconciliation ju st as it stands at the h eart o f G od’s original p u rp o se for m an." T h e Sabbath is “the G od-ordained symbol o f his ow n presence in lim e and

C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E O L O G I E S O F T H E S AB BA TH etern ity ,” that is, o f fellowship o f the C rea to r and m a n .69Because m en may behold G od in clearer light in Jesu s C hrist and may experience God in a m ore intim ate fellowship, “th e Sabbath m eans infinitely m o re” since C hrist .70 In d eed , th e Sabbath now rep resen ts the life o f m an restored in C hrist: “It is a re m in d e r th at God is still in control an d m an is only redeem ed an d saved by an act ‘in lim e' o f th e etern al God. W hat C hrist did in redeem ing th e w orld was to restore m an to his created place as an etern al being.” T h is was the significance o f Je su s’ healing and forgiving on the Sabbath day. T h u s Jesu s m ade the Sabbath, the m em orial o f th e creative pow er o f God. “a sign o f G od’s redeem ing and sanctifying and u p h o ld in g pow er in C hrist.” Je su s’ death an d resu rrectio n did n o th in g to alter this fact: “instead it has m ade it all the m ore im perative that m an ‘rem em b er th e Sabbath Day to keep it holy .”’ 71 Seventh Day Baptists also envision that the Sabbath is the great “symbol for the unification o f th e peoples o f the w orld u n d e r allegiance to the revelation that has com e to m an, an d which C hristians all accept .’’ 75 T h e C h u rch o f Jesus C hrist o f Latter-day Saints (M orm on), as re p resen te d by Jam es E. T alm age, teaches th at S unday “is the acceptable day fo r Sabbath observance, on the authority o f direct revelation specifying the Lord's Day as su ch .”75 T h is “d irect revelation” refers to a vision o f the fo u n d e r an d p ro p h et Jo sep h Smith on Sunday, A ugust 7, 1831, which is published in The Doctrine and Covenants. In this passage Jo sep h Sm ith exhorts his fellow believers to w orship on G od’s “holy d ay,” also re fe rre d to as the “L o rd ’s day.” 7'* T h e re is no d irect o r explicit equation o f “L o rd ’s day” and Sunday, but this revelation is used by the M orm on leaders to seule the issue .75 T o those who are no t satisfied with this settlem ent, the M orm on C hurch o ffers th eir re p rin t o f the pseudoscientific G reek arg u m en tatio n o f the M ethodist Sam uel W alter G am ble, Sunday, The True Sabbath of God (1900),76whose reasoning is simply reiterated by K. F. C oom bs, The True Sabbath— Saturday or Sunday (1948), an d by Le G ra n d R ichards, A Marvelous Work and a Wonder (1950). T h e M orm on position is also rep resen ted by Presidents D. O. McKay an d C. W. Penrose in th e ir rep eated exhortations to observe Sunday on the basis o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f E xodus 20 .77 Interestingly, the M orm on a u th o r B. H. R oberts, in exam ining the “first-day" texts in the New T estam ent, adm its th at the change o f rest days by C hrist o r the apostles can only be called “pro b ab le ." 78 U n d erstandably, m any M orm ons have w ondered from the very start w hether a re tu rn to th e Biblical holy day o f the L ord is not th e real restoration o f tru e worship. O n e o f these was O rson P ratt, o n e o f the “Tw elve Apostles," who w rote in 1850: “A gain, m ust the seventh day o r the first day o f the week be kept holy unto the Lord? T h e New T estam en t does not clearly answ er this question. T h e re is ra th e r m ore evidence in that book for keeping holy the Sabbath day o r Saturday, than th ere is fo r keeping the first dav o r Sunday. T h e New T estam en t is very indefinite on this subject, an d th e re fo re it is an insufficient g u id e ."79 T h e In tern atio n al Bible S tudents Association (Jehovah’s W itnesses) has developed a peculiar in te rp re ta tio n o f the Sabbath o f the Bible. T h e original seventh day o f th e C reation week in Genesis 2:2, the day o f G od's Sabbath, is calculated to last exacdy 7,000 years. T h ese are divided into 6,000 years o f hu m an history until A rm ag ed d o n an d 1,000 years o f the “K ingdom S abbath” u n d e r C hrist in th e fu tu re . In the publication Let God Be True we read: “M an being 291

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created tow ard the close o f the sixth day, he was p u t on the earth tow ard the e n d o f 42,000 years o f earth 's p re p ara tio n . So in course o f tim e the g ra n d cycle o f seven ‘days' will ad d u p to 49,000 years .""0 Inasm u ch as G o d ’s Sabbath is still proceeding, according to this g ro u p , “every day th at C hristians exercise faith and obedience th ro u g h C hrist, they are keeping Sabbath, G od’s Sabbath o r rest.” *' A ccordingly, no weekly day is recognized as a holy day o r Sabbath day. Summary and C onclusion It is obvious th at m o d ern theologies o f the Sunday "Sabbath" are quite divergent. W ith the rise o f radical text criticism and m odern evolutionism , the Sabbath was less a n d less accepted as a C reation ordinance, so that fo r various scholars th e Sabbath com m andm ent in the D ecalogue was in te rp re te d as a m ere Jew ish feast day a n d redem ptive shadow o f the old covenant. R ordorf, C ullm ann, and Jew ett, fo r instance, project S unday observance back into apostolic times an d exalt S unday as the day o f C hristian w orship according to the intention o f the risen L ord Him self. Karl B arth ’s an d Ernst Jen n i's neo-R eform ed Sabbath theologies surprisingly u n fo ld neglected gospel dim ensions o f the Old T estam en t Sabbath with keen an d re fresh in g insights. T o them , the Sabbath is noth in g less th an the sacram ent o f grace. W hile B arth accepts the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance, he ends in virtually proclaim ing Sunday as the C hristian Sabbath "in p ro fo u n d ag reem en t with" th e fo u rth com m andm ent. Jen n i, how ever, rejects the Sabbath as a C reation o rdinance, considering the Sabbath to be a Jew ish shadow that was abro g ated by C hrist. In Evangelicalism, two m ain stream s o f diverging Sabbath theologies have developed. T h e o ld er P uritan stream m aintains that the Sabbath was instituted by God as a C reation o rd in an ce fo r m ankind, was reinstituted fo r the people o f Israel u n d e r Moses, an d was tran sfo rm ed by C hrist o r His apostles into a "Sunday Sabbath." By way o f this strange tra n sfe r theory, the fo u rth com m andm ent is "in prin cip le” ap p lied to S unday observance. T h e new er stream o f Evangelical Sabbath in terp retatio n , how ever, drastically rejects both th e Sabbath as a C reation o rd in an ce and the P uritan theology o f S unday as a tran sferre d Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is conceived m erely as a redem ptive shadow o f th e old covenant ritual, com pletely abolished by Christ Him self. A recent com bination o f these two m ain stream s is presented by Jew ett, who proposes th at C hristian believers with th eir S unday observance obey the principle o f a Sabbatical-week rhythm as the abiding m oral principle o f the fourth co m m an d m en t. For him S unday is not a C hristian Sabbath in any respect, only the believers’ o u tw ard sign o f having fo u n d th eir souls’ rest in the resu rrected C hrist. T h u s Jew ett tries to com bine law and gospel in his S unday theology'. In D ispensationalism , with its dichotom y betw een law an d gospel, all such attem pts are considered futile because the S unday o f “p u re grace" is in no way related any lo n ger to th e O ld T estam en t Sabbath com m andm ent o f “p u re law." It becom es quite evident that any Sabbath theology w hatsoever is inextricably connected, not only with a Biblical protology (doctrine o f the beginning o f all things) a n d eschatology (the en d o f things) but also with soteriology (doctrine o f red em p tio n ) an d the Biblical in terrelatio n sh ip o f law and gospel. A nd it seems 292

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th at a fully developed Biblical Sabbath theology m ust h o n o r all the dim ensions o f the scriptural Sabbath, uniting C reation, redem ption, and final perfection in one abiding sacram en t o f G od’s everlasting covenant, as presented in H ebrew s 4. W eighed in th e balances o f this revealed unbreakable unity o f G od's work in C reation, red em p tio n , an d final restoration, all Sunday theologies are found wanting, in th at they create an un-Biblical dichotom y betw een th e work o f the C rea to r a n d th e work o f the R edeem er, the R e-C reator.* NOTES 1 S ee th e review in |. I. Stam m a n d M. E. A n d rew , T he Ten Com mandm ents in Recent Research. 2 d e d .. (L o n d o n . 1970). p p 9 0 -9 3 . 2 R d e V a u x M n o m / /f n f /( N e w Y ork. 1 9 6 1), 2 :4 7 5 -4 8 3 ; R obert N o rth , " T h e D eriv a tio n o f S a b b a th .” Bibhca 3 6 (1 9 5 5 ): 1 8 2 -201; N eils-E rik A. A n d re a se n . T he O ld Testam ent Sabbath. S B L D is s.S e r . 7 (M issou la. M on t.. 197 2 ). p p . 1-8. * 1. H . M eesters, O p Zock S a a r De O orstnong V an D e Sabbat (A ssen . 1966), p. 82. 4 E d u ard L oh se. " o a ß ß a io v ." T D S T . 7:3. 5 M eesters, oft. n t.. p p. 1 0 3 -1 0 6 , 162. * R ud olf B u itm a n n , The H istory of the Synoptic Tradition (N ew Y ork. 1963), p. 16. 7 Loh.se, op. cti., p. 2 2 . S ee also E. K asem an n , “B eg r ü n d et d e r n t.lieh e rianen d ie E in h eit d e r Kirche?" Ex^angelische Theologie II (1 9 5 1 -1 9 5 2 ): 18. " W illy R ord orf, Sun d a y (P h ilad elp h ia: 1968), p p. 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 6 . 9 Ibid., pp. 6 2 , 7 0 . 71. 10 Ibid.. p. 6 8 . 11 Ibid.. p. 21 5 . 12 Ibid.. p . 23 7 . 13 Karl Barth. C hurch D ogmatics. 111/4, p p . 4 7 -7 2 ; 111/1, p p . 213*228. 14 J o h n G alvin Institutes o f the Christian Religion 2. 8. 2 9 -3 1 . 15 B a rth , ap a t.. I l l / 1. p p. 2 1 7 . 2 1 8 . " I b t d . . 111/4. p p 5 4 . 5 5 . 17 Ibid.. p p . 5 b . 5 7 . 1,1 Ibid.. p. 53. 19 Ibid . I l l 1. p. 2 2 8 .

thut

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21 Ib id (Italics su p p lie d .) » Ibid.. 111/4, p. 55. 25 S ee th e in cisive criticism o n Barth's p resu p p o sitio n s in Cienesis 1 by G. C . B erk o u w er. The T rium ph o f Grace in the Theology o f K a rl B arth. (G rand R apids. 1 9 5 6 ). t h ap. 3. 24 J o h n C alvin . Commentaries an the F tr\t Book o f Sloses (G rand R apids, 1 948), 1:106. 23 E rnst J e n n i. D ie Theologische B e g rü n d u n g de\ Sabbatgebotes im A lten Testam ent (Z urich. 1956). 26 Ibid.. p. 5. 27 Ibid., p p . 18. 22. 28 Ibid.. p p . 25»27. w Ibid.. p. 35. 30 Ibid.. p. 39. 31 T h o m a s A qu in as, Sum m a Theologica 2 a 2 a e. 122. 4: W estm in ister C o n fe ssio n 2 1. 7. ( I(>46). S ee H. B. V isser. De G achiedenis i«an rim SabbaLwtnjd mulrr ae G ereform errdrn in de Z n rntiende E eu w (U trech t, 1939). ch a p . 6. 32 A u g u stu s H o p k in s S tro n g , Systematic Theology (P h ila d elp h ia . 1907 ), p p . 109, 110. 53 Ibid.. p. 410. 34 John M u rray, T he Sabbath Institution (L o n d o n . 1953), p p 3 . 4. » I b t d . p . 5. 36 Ib td . p p . 6 . 7. 57 Ibid.. p. 14. * Ibid.. p. 5. 39 H e r b e n W R ich ard son , T o u a rd an A m rn ca n Theology (N ew Y ork, 1967), p p . 112 -1 1 5 . 40 H arold U n d s e ll. " T h e L ord ’s D av an d N atural R esources." Christianity Today, M ay 7, 1 976, p p . 9 . 11. 41 Ibtd.. p p . 12. 9. 42 H a r o ld Lind sell. “C o n sid e r th e C a se fo r Q u iet Saturdays," Christianity Today. N o v . 5, 1 976. p. 42. 43 J a m es 1* W csb erry. “A re W e C o m p r o m isin g Ourselves*'" Sunday. A p r iM u n e , 197 6 , p p . 4. 5. 44 .lines P. W csb errv. “T h e C ase fo r Q u ie t Sundavs." Sunday. Jan u a ry . 1 ^ /7 . p. 3. 45 W esb erry, "Are W e C o m p r o m isin g O u rselves?" p. 5. 46 J o h a n n e s C occeiu s (1 6 5 8 ). q u o te d in V isser, op. a t., p. 129. 47 * . L. K oole, D e T ien Gebodrn (B aarn . 1964), p. 75. 48 P. V isser, Z undagsrust en Zondagshethging (K äm p en , 1959). idem. Decaloog en Zondag (K ä m p en , 1967); R. | V a n D e r V e e n , "H et V ier d e G ebod ," in De Thora in de T hora. U .B .B S eries. N o . II (A a lten , 1963), D ccl I. 4‘* O scar C u llm a n n , The Chnstology o f the N ew Testam ent, rev. ed . (P h ila d elp h ia . 1963), p. 152. C u llm a n n d e v e lo p s his e x e g e sis of J o h n 5 :1 7 in th e section "Jesus an d th e Dav o f Rest." a d d e d to h is b o o k E arly C hristian W orship, (L o n d o n . 1969), p p. 8 8 -9 3 .

• The next chapter will provide a "Sabbath theology " that averts this sort of dichotomy and provides a positive approach to the subject.

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50 Cullmann. t a r t y C hristian W orship, p. 91. 51 Ib id . p . 92. M Paul R. Jewett. T he Lord's Day: A Theological G uide to the C hristian Day o f W orship (Grand Rapids. 1971). pp. 34, 35.

M Ibid., pp. 56. 57, 59. M Sec SD A B C . 7:735. 55 See Kenneth A. Strand. “Another Look at 'Lord’s Day* in the Earlv Church and in Rev. 1. 10," N e w Testam ent Studies 13 (1966-1967): 174-181. 36 G. E. Meuleman. among many, has concluded, however: “Nevertheless it cannot Ik* proved whether they began to celebrate the first dav consciously as a remembrance of the resurrection . .." in ‘‘I)e Zondag." Geref. W eekblad. 13c irg. nr. 8. lewcil. op. eti.. pp. 80. 117. ** Ibid.. p. /9. w Ibid . pp 77. 80. 82. 81 60 Ibid . pp. 80-82 61 Ibid.. pp. 160. 165, 146 M L. S. Clnaler. Grace: The G lorious Theme (Philadelphia. 1922). p. 245. 63 W. T. Purkiser. “The Sabbath Question.’*T he H erald of Holiness; reprinted in Sunday. Scpiembcr-Octobcr, 1973. p. 8. 64 Ibid . pp. 9, 16. M Ibtd.. pp. 17, 18. 66 This syntactical innovation is soundly rebuked by Wilbur Fletcher Steele. “Must Syntax Die That the Sabbath May Live?” M ethodist R eview , May. 1899. pp. 401-409. reproduced in Russel J. Thomsen. Latter-day S am is a n d the Sabbath (Mountain View. Calif.. 1971). appendix. The author stales that this particular translation of Matthew 28:1 (as “the first of the Sabbaths’*): “rests upon the profoundest . ignorance of a (aw of syntax" (p. 402). The established law of syntax referred to states that when a noun and an adjcctivc belong together (e.g.. “first" and "Sabbaths"), they must agree in gender, number, and case. As the adjcctivc “first'* {mian m Matthew 28:1) is of a feminine gender, and the noun “Sabbaths" {sabbaton) is of neuter gender, the two do not belong in the same category . This Tact forever excludes the translation “the first of the Sabbaths.“ The correct translation remains therefore: “the first (day) of the week." And New Testament scholarship concludes unanimously that the nouns Sabbaton (singular) or Sabbata (plural) mean only “week" in some contexts: Mark 16:9; Luke 18:12; I Corinthians 16:2; Matthew 28:1; Mark 16:2; Luke 24:1 J o h n 2 0 :1 . 19; A cts 2 0 :7. H erb ert E. S a u n d ers. The Sabbath: Symbol o f Creation a n d Re-C reatum (P la in field . N J .. 1970). p p 5 4 -8 0 . M A. H . L ew is. “T h e M ission o f th e Sabbath." The Sabbath Recorder. A p n l 2 6 .1 9 4 3 . p p. 2 7 3 . 2 7 4 . q u o te d in ibid., p.

6° .

^

*** S a u n d ers, op. a t., p p. 6 5 . 74 70 A h va J . C. B o n d . The Sabbath (P lain field . N .J.. 1 9 25). p. 118. q u o te d in ibut., p. 74. 71 S a u n d ers, op. a t.. p p . 7 6 . 78. 7* Ibid.. p. 78. ^ 73 la m e s E. T a lm a g c , A Study of the Articles o f Faith (Salt Lake C ity. 1942). p. 4 5 1 . 74 S ectio n 5 9 :9 -1 3 . 73 S ee A. L. C row ley. Statem ent of B eliefs of the Church o f Jesus Christ o f Latter-day Saints L a k e C ity: 1 9 6 3 ) .p . 121; I jc (»rand R ichards, A M arvelous W ork a n d a W onder (Salt Lake C ity. 1 9 5 0 ).p p . 2 8 7 -2 9 4 ; B ru ce R. M c C o n k ie.M o rm o n D octrine 2 d ed . (Sail Lake C ity, 1966). s.v "Sabbath"; J o s e p h F ield in g S m itn . Ansu'ers to Gospel Questions. 2 v ols. (Salt Lake City: 1957-1966)« 2 :5 8 . 59. T h o m se n claim s, h o w e v er, that th ere really is n o rev ela tio n fro m G o d in S ectio n 5 9 o f The Doctrine a n d Covenants that elev a tes S u n d a y in to th e h o ly Sabbath (p. 19). “T h e basis fo r S u n d ay o b se rv a n ce in th e M orm on C h u rc h , as in th e R om an C atholic C h u rc h , lies in trad ition alone" (p. 53). 7fl S am u el W alter (»am b le. S unday, the T rue Sabbath o f G od (Salt Lake C ity. 195 4 ). p p . 1 5 4 -1 7 1 ; G a m b le had o rigin ally p u b lish e d h is irresp o n sib le C reek arg u m en ta tio n in th e N o v em b er. 1 897, M ethodist Reineu (" S atu rd an an ism: a B r ie f R eview ," p p . 8 b 7 -8 8 3 ). w hich was so u n d ly e x p o s e d by S teele (sec n o te 6 6 ) as b ein g “a m o n u m e n ta l b lu n der" (p . 4 0 9 ). 77 S ec T h o m s e n , op. a t., p p. 103 104. 78 B. H . R oberts, ' T h e L ord ’s D ay,“ Im provem ent E ra I (N o v e m b e r , 1 897):51. 79 Orson P r a tt’s Works (Salt L ak e C ity, 1945), p. 170 (origin ally p u b lish e d b betw etw eeen 1 8 4 8 a n d 1851 in L iv erp o o l. E n glan d ), as q u o te d in T h o m se n , irp. a t., p p. 2 0 . 2 1 . Lei G od B e T rue, 2 d ed . (N ew Y ork. 1946), p. 168. •» Ibid., p. 179.

CHAPTER 16

Reflections on a Theology of the Sabbath

Raoul Dederen HE Sabbath issue involves far m ore th an the m echanics o f keeping th e right day as a holy day o f rest and worship. Essentially, it is a m atter o f belief o r disbelief in Jesu s C hrist as C rea to r an d R edeem er, as revealed in the S criptures; th ere fo re it bears upon the fu tu re orientation o f one's en tire way o f life. In this ch a p te r I wish first to consider briefly the basic theological significance o f th e Sabbath as it is conceived in S cripture, and second to discuss how this day o f rest sheds light u p o n the p attern o f m an's basic p osture in the presence o f G od and o f his fellow m en. A lthough a b rief treatm en t o f this kind cannot provide satisfactory answ ers to all p ertin e n t questions. I shall be quite satisfied if I can add to o u r m utual u n d ersta n d in g o f th e theological dim ension an d practical im plications o f the question b efo re us. For I think that one o f o u r most im perative tasks is to uncover an d to ap p reciate th e im plications o f the Sabbath com m andm ent fo r m odern theological th o u g h t an d practice in the church o f today.

T

A Basic Affirmation About God Let us first in q u ire into the m eaning o f the Sabbath rest as conceived in the Scriptures. It is now generally recognized that the weekly Sabbath was “certainly o f great antiquity" and belongs to the earliest strata o f Israelite religion .1 A nd alth o u gh various hypotheses re g ard in g its origin have been proposed,- yet very little light has been ad d ed to the Biblical record that traces it back to the creation o f the w orld .5 T h e o rd e rin g o f m an ’s life to include rest on the seventh day is evidendy a u n iq u e elem ent in Israel’s concept o f tim e.' By fa r th e m ost frequently m entioned o f all the days re fe rre d to in th e Old T e s ta m e n t,'th e Sabbath is a fundam ental elem ent o f the religion o f the Bible." It is m entioned th ree times in connection with the creation o f the universe: once in the Genesis n arrative o f C reatio n 7 an d twice as foundation o f the Sabbath com m andm ent." T h is is quite significant w hen one keeps in m ind that the d octrine 295

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o f C reation concerns the fundam ental relationship between God an d the w orld, a relationship th at is at the very h eart an d ce n te r o f the C hristian gospel. T h e idea th at G od is C rea to r is indeed one o f the basic affirm ations ab o u t God d ial the Biblical writers,'' an d C hristians afte r them , have re g ard e d as the indispensable fo u n d atio n u p o n which th eir o th e r beliefs re st.1" Interestingly enough, it is in the very first pages o f the Bible, at the ce n te r o f w hat the Biblical witness tells us about G od as C reato r, th at we discover for the first tim e the concept o f th e Sabbath day. So considered, an d because it is em inently a revelation o f the n a tu re o f G od a n d o f His p u rp o se," the Biblical Sabbath yields theology in the strict sense o f the term , i.e., it provides us with a d octrine o f God, o f G od as C rea to r o f heaven an d e a rth , and o f m an ’s final goal in Him . T he D ivine Rest— Its Im plications T o clarify this, let us consider the Biblical statem ent itself. T h e Genesis account affirm s that on the sixth day, a fte r creating heaven and ea rth an d m an, God looked back with satisfaction u p o n His w ork o f C reation. H e saw that “everything th at he had m ade" was good, even “very good.” 1' Moses specifically indicates th at it was at th at point that G od laid the fou n d atio n o f the Sabbath by resting on th e seventh day: “T h u s th e heavens an d earth were finished, a n d all the host o f them . A nd on the seventh day God finished his work which he had do n e, an d he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. So God blessed th e seventh day a n d hallowed it, because on it G od rested from all his work which he h ad d o n e in creatio n .” 15 T h a t G od rested afte r His work o f C reation is a fact u n d erlin ed with equal clarity in th e fo u rth com m andm ent o f the Decalogue: ‘"R em em b er the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, an d do all your work; but the seventh day is a sabbath to the L ord y our G o d ;. . . fo r in six days the Lord m ade heaven and earth , th e sea, a n d all th at is in them , a n d rested the seventh day; th ere fo re the L ord blessed th e sabbath day an d hallowed it .”14 In both instances w hat is involved is not a divine decision to rest in the sense o f leaving som ething u n d o n e. N o r are the ideas o f tiredness an d com pensating recu p eratio n to be connected with this divine re st.1’ T h e em phasis is on com pletion—com pletion o f an activity, o f a function. G od’s work and C reation were com plete at the m om ent in which H e took tim e to re st .16For although heaven and ea rth were indeed finished, G od’s w ork was not en ded. T h e end cam e when He rested on the seventh day, thus m aking the Sabbath day a definite part of C reation. O nly then was His wrork d o n e .17 W hat are th e im plications o f the idea o f a divine rest on the seventh day o f C reation? Let m e briefly m ention two o f them . First and forem ost, we are dealing here with th e d o ctrin e o f G od, with theology a n d not anthropology. W hat we have before us is no c ru d e an th ro p o m o rp h ism , arg u in g back from m an to G o d .1* N or is it an attem p t to find a divine sanction fo r an already existing weekly rest by giving it fo u rth place in a set o f ten com m andm ents. T h e arg u m en t, definitely theological, is all the o th e r way a ro u n d , from G od to m an ra th e r than from m an to God. T h e S criptures begin from th e C reation account and from G od’s rest in which m an is graciously com m anded to share. A most rem arkable theological tru th is thus stated, nam ely, that by resting on the Sabbath day God is m aking plain His desire to e n te r into a p e r­ 296

R E F L E C T I O N S O N A T H E O L O G Y OF T H E S AB BA T H sonal relationship with His creation. F ar from being satisfied m erely to create the world an d m an a n d then leave them to forge th eir own destiny. H im self re tirin g to the position o f a d etached spectator, God willed to coexist with m an a n d ex­ pressed this in a m ost m eaningful way, nam ely, by instituting the Sabbath and th en inviting m an to participate in His rest and blessedness.'® T ru ly , this seventh day, blessed an d sanctified by G od, was “given in grace to the w orld .”80 It was “ ‘m ad e fo r m an ” ’ a n d given to him , as C hrist H im self declared." G e rh ard von Rad correctly points out th at this divine rest “is in every respect a new thing along with th e process o f c reatio n ."“ G od has com e into m an ’s world an d H e has come to stay. Clearly, in th e S criptures C reation is n o t re g ard e d as a timeless revelation that took place in th e orderly course o f n atu re , but as a historical w ork o f God that launches history— history th at itself is u n d ersto o d as a dialogue betw een G od an d m an. T h is points to a second theological im plication in the Biblical concept o f a divine rest at th e en d o f the C reation process: G od, because H e is the G od o f history, is also th e God o f the covenant a n d o f the prom ises. M an is the goal o f C reation; b u t C reation, because it m eans fellowship, is also obedience, p a rtn e rsh ip in a covenant. T his covenantal relationship, strongly em phasized in the S criptures, affirm s anew th e astonishing proxim ity o f the creatu re to the C rea to r. It testifies, on the one han d , to G od’s sovereign pow er in history,” His goodness an d loyalty to His covenanted p eo p le ,24 while on the o th e r it calls for m an ’s allegiance— allegiance expressed, am ong o th e r ways, in his grateful observance o f th e Sabbath rest, th e “sign” of this covenant." T his underscores the religious ch aracter o f the S abbath, w hich is no longer m erely G od’s gift,1* but also a day “to th e L o rd ," ” the Sabbath "o f the L o rd ,"2* a day “holy to the L ord” ” and consecrated to Him . As Ellen G. W hite has expressed it, “Its observance was to be an act o f g ratefu l acknow ledgm ent, on th e part of all who should dwell upon the ea rth , that G od was th eir C rea to r and th eir rightful Sovereign; that they w ere the w ork o f His h an d s and th e subjects o f His authority."*’ T h is is not to say that this day provides benefits fo r God o r secures His rights. B ut on this day, set a p a rt by H im , G o d ’s presence is particularly m anifest. It belongs fully to Him , a n d com es entirely and in a particu lar way u n d e r His L o rd sh ip .51 It is in th e light o f this relationship betw een G od an d m an, betw een G od an d His people, th at the Sabbath m ust be u n d erstood. It is this unfathom able intim acy o f C rea to r an d creatu re. F ath er a n d son, that gives this day the fullness o f its significance. M otivations for Sabbath Observance But let us now tu rn o u r attention to the significance o f the Sabbath rest an d to the role it is to play in the belief an d practice o f C hristian congregations. W hat are the basic m otivations fo r observing the Sabbath day? A Day o f Rest.—i n o rd e r to answ er the question, I wish to consider the d iffe ren t form ulations o f the Biblical co m m andm ent re g ard in g this particular day. In E xodus 20 the Sabbath day is connected with the C reation rest: " ‘R em em ber th e sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, an d d o all your work; b u t the seventh day is a sabbath to the L o rd your G od; in it you shall not do any w o rk ,. . . fo r in six days the L ord m ade heaven and ea rth , the sea, a n d all 297

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th at is in them , a n d rested the seventh day; therefore the L ord blessed th e sabbath day a n d hallow ed it .’ " 52 A ccording to the fo u rth com m andm ent, then, the Sabbath is first of all a day o f rest. It is to be sanctified by dem onstratively laying all work aside. T h u s m an will be rem in d ed at least once every seven days o f his creatureliness and o f the fact that ap a rt from G od he is unable to u n d ersta n d him self o r find the right relation to his work. T h e Sabbath day is a tim e d u rin g which m an brings his work to a standstill, a day on which he ceases his toil to gain a livelihood an d allows G od's grace to be the first an d last w ord in his life. T his is the day on which he com pletely su rre n d e rs to God a n d places him self unreservedly an d unconditionally at G od’s disposal.” For six days o f every week the w orld belongs to us, as it were. For six days we may stam p o u r creative im press on things and m ake them the agents o f o u r will. But on th e seventh day we are to testify that, afte r all, the w orld is not o urs but G od’s, th at we are not its lord and m aster but m erely G od’s vassals. O u r observance o f th e Sabbath attests to the facts that we live and work only by G od’s grace, that H e is o u r L ord a n d M aster, a n d that we recognize Him as such. O u r resting on that day is a d em o n stration o f hom age to G od, proclaim ing Him C rea to r and M aster o f the w orld a n d o f ourselves. M an needs a constant re m in d e r o f this relationship betw een the transcendent goodness and sovereignty o f G od and his own essential creatureliness .54For if God is not th e ce n te r o f o u r lives, o u r creaturely needs will drive us to m ake som ething else th e cen ter, a n d so devote o u r allegiance to a false loyalty.” C o rresp o n d in g to the divine rest, the Sabbath rest does not connote recuperation after toilsom e work, but a sim ple cessation and abstention from fu rth e r work. O n the Sabbath day m an does not belong to his work; he renounces his autonom y an d affirm s G od's d o m inion over him . But alth o u g h cessation o f work is com m anded, this is by no m eans all th at is req u ired . C onsecrated to God as C reator, this day becom es a “tithe" on time, ju st as the tithe o f o n e ’s earnings, the firstborn o f the flock, an d th e first fruits o f the harvest w ere a tith e o f th e w ork o f th e o th er days .'6 T h e Sabbath rest thus expresses the consecration o f o n e ’s existence an d tim e to G od in the sam e way as th e T em p le in Jeru salem expressed the consecration o f space .17 T h u s, while unquestionably re q u irin g cessation o f work, the Sabbath consists o f som ething m ore th an m ere physical rest; it is a "holy" day, a day to be “kept holy." Its holiness derives from G od's resting on that particular day o f the C reation week and hallowing it.5" Likewise, m an is directed to keep it holy too. As the imago Dei, m an knows and follows the will an d exam ple o f his divine F ather. T h e reality o f the imago Dei im plies the imitatio D ei* A Day o f R ejoicing.—T h e re is a second basic m otivation for observing the Sabbath day, nam ely as a day o f joy, a m em orial o f redem ption. D euteronom y 5:15 attaches th e Sabbath co m m andm ent to the m em ory o f Israel's slavery in Egypt an d subsequent salvation. A fter instructing Israel to ‘“ “observe th e sabbath day, to keep it holy ,’” "40the co m m an d m en t a d d s :.....You shall rem em b er th at you were a servant in the land o f Egy pt, a n d the L ord your God b ro u g h t you out thence with a m ighty han d an d an o u tstretched arm ; therefore the L ord your God co m m anded you to keep the sabbath day...... 41 H ere the reason for observing the Sabbath day is th e joyous affirm ation that God delivered Israel from servitude in Egypt. O n every Sabbath day Israel was to rem em b er that God was h e r liberator, 298

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th at H e had p u t an end to h er slavery. T h e Lord o f the covenant, who suffers no o th e r god and rules over the whole o f creation, who as C reato r com m anded that His people observe th e Sabbath day, was also the E m ancipator o f Israel. Since He red eem ed them from Egypt, H e “th e re fo re ” com m anded them to keep the Sabbath day. T h e association o f the Sabbath with red em p tio n is unm istakable.4' I'he D euteronom y statem ent does not m ean that Moses considered C reation as insufficient reason for Sabbath observance, n o r does it re p resen t the addition o f a foreign elem ent to the m em orial o f the original C reation re st .41 Moses simply introduces a fu rth e r reason fo r G o d ’s right to sum m on Israel to keep the Sabbath. In G ary C ohen's words, “T h e original creauon b ro u g h t m an forth un to God out o f that which was nonexistent; redem ption b ro u g h t m an forth un to G od ou t o f T h e analogy for C hristians is so obvious as not to req u ire m uch elaboration. Suffice it to say that o u r re d em p tio n , as C hrisuans, is o f no lesser significance than was that o f Israel o f old. D elivered from the slavery o f sin 4' a n d o f the devil,4" we are "a new c reatio n .”47 We a re invited to pu t on the new n a tu re “created afte r the likeness o f G od,’’4" who created us, an d with whom we e n te r into a new fellowship. In both Old an d New T estam ents we find an unbreakable unity betw een G od's work in C reation an d His w ork in redem ption. T his unity, unequivocal in the D euteronom y passage, is expressed even m ore forcefully in H ebrew s 4, w here the apostle, in th e context o f the C reation Sabbath, ex horts his read ers to e n te r into T h u s, as a m em orial o f C reation and a sign o f red em p tio n , the Sabbath becom es a symbol o f G od’s dual activity as C reator, for it proclaim s His creative pow er in the universe and His re-creative pow er in m an's soul.“ T his unity o f creation and red em ption is clearly expressed in one o f the most distinctive featu res o f th e New T estam en t witness in reg ard to C reation, nam ely, that C hrist is declared to be th e agent o f both the first and the second creation: H e is the creative W ord th ro u g h whom G od created all things .'1 Sabbath observance, w hich keeps fresh in o u r m inds the tru th o f the divine creative pow er, gives m eaning and reality to those rep eated New T estam e n t declarations th at all things w ere m ade th ro u g h C hrist and that w ithout Him was not anything m ade that was m ade. O nce every seven days, on the Sabbath day, the C hristian, like Israel o f old, is specially invited to rem em b er that God is a liberator who has put an en d to all b o n dage and slavery. For th e C hristian, each Sabbath experience testifies to the fact th at his Lord is C reato r an d that H e has set him free— no longer to be co n q u ered by any pow er, not even bv death. In o u r proclam ation and observance o f th e Sabbath th ere will, th erefo re, always be a strong an d joyous affirm ation o f C reation: th e affirm ation that th e world an d hu m an life are essentially g o o d ,'2an d the attestation that Jesus C hrist is the living L ord o f the church, the L ord o f A Day o f H ope.—T his leads us to a third m otivation fo r Sabbath observance. T h o u g h Genesis 1 and 2 m ake C reation the beginning o f all things— an d the Sabbath its m em orial—belief in C reation is not reduced to a m ere protology, to a m ere d o ctrin e o f th e origins o f th e world an d m an. C reation is also an act o f the p resen t instant, an d it rem ains tru e to itself till the h o u r o f the eschatological restoration. T h is is why the Sabbath day, a day o f rest and rejoicing, is also a day o f

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T his day th at signifies th e basic fact that God is C reato r an d m an is c reatu re also rem ains th e sign o f the continuing presence o f God in the life o f m an till the day com es when full fellowship with G od will once again be realized. The weekly Sabbath is a rem in d er, th en , o f the o th er “day o f th e L o rd ," ” w hen o u r red em p tio n shall be com pleted— w hen C hrist, o u r C rea to r an d R edeem er, will re tu rn as sovereign L ord and u sh e r in the final consum m ation o f the history o f salvation. T h u s the Sabbath, the m em orial o f C reation and deliverance, is also a sign o f hope, o f expectation o f C hrist the Lord com ing in glory at the en d o f time. It is th e sign o f a ho p e that looks tow ard the com plete freedom o f the children o f G od in th e fu tu re , a freedom an d restoration aw aited by the e n tire creation.” As such, it gives perspective, th ru st, and d e p th to m an’s whole life— to his very being and to th e w ork he does d u rin g the six days o f his own tim e.“ But the Sabbath rest is even m ore th an ju st a positive eschatological sign. It is also a sign th at already g rants participation in that to which it points, for even now it provides a fo retaste o f the fu tu re entran ce into G od’s joyful rest. It is a sam ple, a taste, as well as a sign, o f the eternal peace to come. Each Sabbath day is like a step o r lan d m ark in a long line o f prom ises th at runs th ro u g h m an's generations tow ard th e etern al Sabbath— that day at the en d o f all days w hen all oppression and strife will cease and when m an reaches th e culm ination o f rest that is in the For this reason, while I fully side with Karl B arth in reg ard to th e vital significance o f th e Sabbath as the symbol o f continuity and unity betw een G od's work in C reation an d in re d em p tio n ,” it is on quite d iffe ren t prem ises. B arth ’s position is based on a teleological in terp retatio n o f the first chapters o f G enesis that absorbs Israel's protology in h er soteriology and eschatology.'" Denying A dam ’s original state o f integrity. B arth cannot say that God was pleased with m an as he fu nctioned in his original historical reality.“ G od’s rest on the original seventh day, th ere fo re , m ust be in terp re ted teleologically and soteriologically too, i.e., as a préfig u ration a n d in au g u ratio n o f C hrist’s redeem ing work. W hile I gladly recognize the close relationship betw een C reation, re d e m p ­ tion, an d eschatology, 1 perceive them in the context o f the historical reality o f m an ’s fall, red em ption, an d restoration.“*In my view, the New T estam ent, like the O ld, reg ard s all th ree as intrinsic parts o f the everlasting proclam ation o f the one L ord a n d Saviour Jesus C hrist.“ All th ree are rooted in the sam e G od, who is C reato r. R edeem er, an d L o rd .*1 T h e G od o f grace, being also the L ord o f C reation and history, is thus the First an d the Last. M ore specifically: W hen the New T estam en t considers the eschatological restoration o f all things, it does not speak o f this as the eventual realization o f C reation but as the final restoration o f G od’s initial C reation that was m arred by sin. C reation, red em p tio n , and restoration o f all things belong together. W hen considered in the context o f the Genesis account re g ard e d as historical reality—a C reation m arred by sin but to be resto red on “that day"— the eschatological im plications o f the seventh-day

C onsidered in the context o f its Biblical origin and its essential m eaning and aim, th e Sabbath day is a day o f e n c o u n te r with G od. It is a day o f rem em brance, o f joy, an d o f hope— a day in which the C hristian believer receives anew all things

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from G od. Yet its im port goes beyond even these. It is in deed striking that the fo u rth com m andm ent is found in the D ecalogue exactly at th e articulation o f the com m andm ents dealing with the serv ice o f God and those co ncerned with o u r fellow m en an d o u r daily life. T h e Sabbath seem s to be th e sign o f w hat every o th e r day ou g h t to be, in that it defines an d illum ines m an's attitu d e in all o f his deeds. M an's actions— indeed, m an’s whole life— find th eir tru e m ean in g in th e context o f the fundam ental attitu d e d en o ted by the Sabbath day as a day belonging to G od. T o m any for whom it has becom e evident that faith an d life, d octrine an d practice, cannot be separated, the com m andm ent enjoining Sabbath observance can be seen to be, in the w ords o f H ans W. W olff, “an archetypal m odel for o u r theology."“ T h e re is little d oubt, for instance, that at the h eart o f the Sabbath idea is the w orship o f the C hristian com m unity. T his is not to say that th e celebration o f w orship is th at which sets this day ap a rt an d sanctifies it.M but ra th e r that the Sabbath day is hardly conceivable ap a rt from the celebration o f divine w orship .*5 T o keep the L o rd ’s day holy is also to g ath er to g eth er to h e a r an d to study G od’s W ord, to confess and to share the C hristian faith, to o ffer p ray er an d praise to God. Yet Sabbath w orship is not to be conceived as an isolated act, o n e that rem oves m an from his everyday world. O n th e contrary, it is the cen ter from which everv day o f th e week receives its m eaning an d light. T h is is so in at least two ways. Relativization o f Man’s Work.—T h e Sabbath day involves rest—cessation o f m an ’s daily labor, as we n oted earlier, a n d th ere fo re also a re cu rrin g relativization o f his labor. By this experience, m an is repeatedly taught the lesson that G od, and not his work, is th e sum total o f everything in his life. I'he Sabbath, a n d the cessation o f work implicit in it, is G od's corrective to m an's ultim ate confidence in his own toil. It is a w arning against m an's potential inebriation upon becom ing aw are o f his own pow er an d efficacy. T h e Sabbath serves to put m an's labor in the right perspective, so that m an tu rn s to God as the only source o f his existence. T ra n scen d in g h u m an labor, how ever im pressive that labor may be, the Sabbath rest tells m an in a very concrete m an n er, “It is not your work o r activity that saves you. but it is G od's perfect grace. Do not fret about tom orrow , n eith er becom e in fatuated by y o u r achievem ents. G od grants as m uch to His beloved while th e\ sleep. Seek first th e kingdom o f (io d an d His righteousness an d all these things shall be yours as well.” A theology o f the Sabbath, th ere fo re , is a theology o f m oderation and sobriety. It invites m an to acquire the p ro p e r perspective tow ard his e a rth h achievem ents, an d p ersuades him to ref rain from p utting his confidence in his work— that is, in himself. It is also a theology of grace an d freedom . F o rw h e n G o d com m ands m an to rest on the seventh day, H e restores in him the sense of belonging to G od, thus freeing him again from the things o f the created world.'* A nd as m an shares with his M aker the experience o f the Sabbath rest in ceasing from daily toil, he becom es m ore aw are o f his spiritual freedom . R esting from work an d freed from secular routine, m an is given a ra re o p p o rtu n ity to reflect upon and exp erien ce the divine love that created him and red eem ed him. T h e re is in the Sabbath a quality o f re-creation and relationship that cannot be fo u n d unless o n e discovers the potential with which God invested this p articu lar day. H ere we m eet G od on a plane not possible on any o th e r dav o f the 301

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week,6’ for as A braham H eschel points out, th at into which we e n te r “is not a d iffe ren t state o f consciousness but a d iffe ren t clim ate."“ W hile it is tru e that we d o not autom atically realize this Sabbath quality by m erely resting on the Sabbath day, th ere is a quality o f Sabbath observance th at cannot be found o n any o th e r day th an G od's own day, the day H e “blessed." “ C hristians will never u n d ersta n d what it really m eans to keep the Sabbath until they try it—a n d try it not m erely as a day o f rest, but o n the level o f its full G od-invested potential fo r divine-hum an fellowship. T he P ositive M eaning o f Man’s Labor.— M an’s labor, having thus been placed in correct perspective by the Sabbath rest a n d w orship, acquires positive significance. T h e Sabbath actually becomes the basis for the form ulation o f a C hristian ethic that calls o n m an in general to acknow ledge the rule o f G od as exp erien ced an d celebrated in the life o f the C hristian com m unity. For this is indeed the day w hen G od’s people assem ble to h ea r th e W ord o f G od, receiving it with g ratitu d e, praise, an d rejoicing. A nd the sam e gratitu d e, praise, an d rejoicing are to characterize m an's daily tasks. It is in w orship that the tru e G od is confessed an d the C hristian is called to live in G od's tru th . H ere the C hristian is n o t only challenged but is g ran ted freedom to live the totality o f his life in th e responsibility o ffered him by the tru th o f G od. H ere m an brings his o fferin g a n d is called u p o n to live from what he earns, acknow ledging that every th in g he owns belongs to G od. in whose sight all m en are equal .70 Now th at he has felt th e nearness o f G od, and has been renew ed in the L ord's likeness, the C hristian is free to en co u n ter the world that God created. H e is free to fulfill th ere in his daily labor, b etter eq u ip p ed for the tasks o f the com ing week, in d eed , b etter eq u ip p ed fo r the whole task o f living. As he starts a new week, he is n o t only a m an who has ex p erien ced G od's creative an d redem ptive love, but h e is also a C hristian “raised up" with C hrist, silting “in the heavenly places in Christ J e s u s ."71 In this com m union with G od. all things are his, so that he may use them to th e glory o f G od. G od's grace has set him free, free from the fear o f m an an d from th e w orship o f things. It is this abiding, week-long presence, resulting from the calm a n d peace o f the Sabbath day, that g enerates and em phasizes the ethical dim ensions im plied in th e Sabbath rest.7* The “ Arbitrariness” o f the Sabbath In an arbitrary m an n er God ap p o in ted that on the seventh day we should com e to rest with His creation in a particular way. H e filled this day with a content th at is "u n co n tam in ated " by anything related to the cyclical changes o f n a tu re or th e m ovem ents o f the heavenly bodies .75 T h a t content is the idea o f the absolute sovereignty o f G od, a sovereignly unqualified even by an indirect cognizance o f th e n atu ral m ovem ents o f tim e an d rhythm s o f life. As the C hristian lakes heed o f th e Sabbath day an d keeps it holy, he does so purely in answ er to G od’s com m and, an d simply because G od is his C reator. T h u s, the Sabbath com m and com es n e a re r to being a tru e m easure o f spirituality than any o th e r o f the com m andm ents, an d , as in th e days o f Israel o f old, it is o ften m ore o f a test o f loyalty to G od th an is any o f th e o th e rs .74T o be willing on the Sabbath day to withdraw from the ty ran n y o f th e world o f things in o rd e r to m eet the Lord o f heaven and ea rth in th e quiet o f o u r souls m eans to love G od with all o u r hearts, souls, m inds, an d bodies. B efore concluding, I should like to m ake a cautionary distinction. It should be 3 02

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d e a r by now th at th e Sabbath does have significance for the tw entieth-century m an, an d possibly m ore th an fo r any previous m an. T his is prim arily because the striking changes that have characterized m odern m an urgently req u ire him to rediscover him self and to reestablish fellowship an d com m union with G od an d his fellow m an. T h e increasing secularization o f o u r culture, with its hectic activity, the d isintegration o f o u r social life, the im personal connection o f m an with his God symbolized by such m o d ern fads as the “God Is D ead" craze, has ad d e d to the confusion that dom inates o u r co n tem p o rary W estern w orld.” In such an atm o sphere, th e Sabbath as a day o f rest, kept holy unto G od, has all too o ften becom e a traum atic experience, and this in m any ways. For one, too m any o f us a re tem p ted to secularize the Sabbath, to deprive it o f its su p ern atu ral content an d o f any dim ension o f reality beyond em pirical experience. T h e n , having dep riv ed it o f its intrinsic quality, we use it for o u r own selfish pleasure. R ather than a day o f light that illum ines the whole o f m an’s tim e, it com es to be held as any o th e r day lived by m an in his newly found autonom y. By th e sam e token, it loses its dim ension o f sanctification. However m uch we may choose to replenish it again with m eaning, it rem ains fo r m any an em pty day, having lost its characteristic as th e Sabbath day in the scriptural sense. It simply subsides to the inescapable ty ran n y an d servitude o f th e weekdays. But th ere are o th e r ways o f denying the basic m eaning o f th e Sabbath day. Busy an d preoccupied with the problem s o f a driving an d com plex daily Ufe in a m adly ru sh in g , neurotic society, som e tend to find in the Sabbath rest only boredom a n d uneasiness. Viewed as a day when all th ere is left is to wish for its h o u rs to be gone, the Sabbath is to them a b u rd e n , an obligation, an d S abbathkeeping becomes a “jo b o f religion ."76T his has litde in com m on with the Biblical institution, for instead o f being lived and experienced as a tim e o f refresh m en t an d renew al g ra n te d by a loving C reator, the Sabbath has becom e a b u rd e n , an em pty tim e that m an seizes to carry out his own plans an d devices. T h u s fo r those viewing it with this attitude, it has verily d eg en erated into a negation o f G od’s covenant o f grace. C hrist's u n co m prom ising opposition to the Pharisees’ erro n eo u s u n d e r­ standing o f S abbathkeeping revolved precisely a ro u n d this decisive factor .77“ ‘T h e sabbath,” ' said He, “ ‘was m ade for m an, not m an for the sabbath .”’78 In o th er words, th e Sabbath wfas m eant to be a boon to m an, not a burden. It is not a day taken away from m an by G od in an exacting spirit, b u t a day given by G od in love to m an. T o consider th e Sabbath as a day o f sorrow an d gloom is a denial o f its authentic m eaning as a day o f jo y a n d delight, calling fo r m an ’s free and g ratefu l obedience as the necessary result o f blessings received. It is this freedom an d love th at C hrist affirm s w hen rem in d in g us that “ ‘the Son o f m an is lord even o f th e sabbath.’ ” 79 Conclusion T h ese few rem arks m ust suffice to indicate th at an authentic theology o f the Sabbath is an invitation to keep the seventh-day holy in th e spirit o f joy and thankfulness to G od the C rea to r fo r His gracious solicitude tow ard His creatures. T h e Sabbath is to be clearly distinguished from all w orking days, as well as from o th er free periods. It is not m erely one o f the free days but a holy day dedicated to the resto ratio n o f fellowship with G od an d fellow m an, and thus particularly designed to build an d stren g th en the ch aracter o f the believer. It is a constant 303

THF. S A B B A TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS T OR Y re m in d e r o f o u rc re a tu re lin e s sa n d o f o u r existence in time. Because H e lays claim to th e whole o f m an, G od calls for m en to keep the Sabbath day: It is a sign o f grace; it is tim e that God has given us in His love, and which we fill with the celebration o f the advent o f that etern al freedom that, in p art, is already ours, a freed o m th at com es from the living God Him self.

NOTES I R olan d d c V a u x . A ncient Israel (L o n d o n . 1961). p. 4 7 9 . S ec a lso I. J. S tam m . "D reizig J a h re D ek a lo g fo rsch u n g ," Theologische R undschau N F 27 ( 1 9 6 1): 18 9 - 2 * 7 .2 8 1 -3 0 5 ; F.rncst fe n n i, D ie theologische B e g rü n d u n g des Sabbatgebotes im A lten Testam ent, T h e o lo g is c h e S tu d ien 4 6 (Z ü rich. 1956). pp. 10*13; H. H . R ow ley, M en o f Goa (L o n d o n . 1963). p p. I -36; J . J. S tam m a n d M. E. A n d rew . The Ten C om mandm ents in R ecent R ese a u h ( N a p p e r u lle . Hl., 1 9 67), p p . 22*35; J. G u illen , “N u e v a i a p o n a c io n c s al e stu d io d el säbado,** Estudios Bibhcas 2 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ):/7 -8 9 . * F or u se fu l su rv ey s, see D e V a u x . op. cit.. pp. 4 7 5 -4 7 9 ; N .-E . A . A n d re a se n . The O ld Testam ent Sabbath. S B L Diss. S er. 7 (M issou la. M o m ., 1972), p p . l - l o . 5 G e n . 1 :1-2:3. 4 "Je m eh r m an sich in d ie U te r a tu r ü b er d e n U r s p r u n g d e s Sabbats v e r lie ft, d e s to eind rü ck Jicher w ird e in e m d ie E in zigartigk eit d e r israelitisch en In stitu tion d es Sabbats." rem arks J e n m in Die thettlogisrhe B eg rü n d u n g , p. 10. S ee also E. G. K raeling, “T h e P resen t S tatus o f th e S abbath Q u estio n ." Am erican J o u r n a l o f Semitic L anguages a n d Literatures. 4 9 ( 1 9 3 2 -19 3 3 ):2 1 8 -228. 5 It occu rs ab out 5 0 tim es, a cc o rd in g to E rnest Je n m , Theologisches H andw örterbuch iuiw Allen Testam ent (M u n ich . 1971), 1:710. "Das W ort 'Sabbat.'" p recises J c n n i. ‘b e g e g n e t im A lten T esta m en t k n a p p ü ber h u n d ertm a l." — Die theologische B eg rü n d u n g , p. 4. " T h e B ib le is m o re c o n c e r n e d w ith tim e th an w ith sp a ce. It p ays m o re a tten tio n to g en er a tio n s, ev en ts, c o u n trie s, th in g s, an d h istory th an it d o e s to g eo g r a p h y . In th e B ib le, tim e has a sig n ifica n ce o f its o w n . at least eq u al to that o f space. 7 G en . 2 :2 , 3. 8 Ex. 2 0 :1 1 ; 3 1 :1 7 . 9 For th e B iblical d o ctrin e o f C rea tio n , see Ps. 3 3 :6 -9 ; 8 9 :1 1 , 12; 9 0 :1 , 2 ; 146:5*7; 148:1-6: Isa. 4 0 :2 6 -3 1 ; 4 4 :2 4 -2 6 ; J o h n 1:1-12; A its 1 4 :1 5 -1 7 ; 17:22-31; R om . 1:18-23; C ol. 1:16-20. 10 For a b road er c o n sid era tio n o f th e issu e, see L an gd on G ilk e s . M aker of H e a ir n a n d Earth (G a rd en C ity, N .Y ., 1959), esp . ch ap s. 1 a n d 2. II A s ad m irab ly b rou gh t ou t by Karl Barth. C.huuh Dogmatics (E d in b u rg h , 1 956), esp . 111/1, 111/4, I /I , 11/1, IV /1. 1 am in d eb ted to Barth's p r o fo u n d stu d ) o f th e Sabbath lo r several oasic c o n c e p ts p re se n te d h ere . For an in tro d u ctio n to B a rth ’s view s o n th e sub ject, see J a m es B ro w n . "Karl Barth's D o ctrin e o f th e Sabbath." Scottish J o u r n a l of Theology 19 (1 9 6 6 ). p p . 4 0 9 -4 2 5 . 11 G en . 1:31. S criptu ral q u o ta tio n s in th is ch a p ter a re fro m th e R evised S ta n d a rd V ersio n . 15 G e n . 2 :1 -3 . 14 Ex. 2 0 : 8 - 1 1. T h e th e m e o f G od 's rest is m e n tio n e d ag a in in E x o d u s 3 1 :1 7 . 15 I hat th e C reator sh o u ld w eary a n d n e e d rest is p r e p o ste r o u s to th e Biblical w riters. S ee, fo r in sta n ce. Isa 4 0 :2 8 . " H e rested , n ot as o n e w eary, but as w ell p leased w ith th e fru its o f Hi* w isd o m an d g o o d n e ss and th e m a n ifesta tio n s o f H is Klorv." rem ark s E llen G. W h ite in Patriarchs a n d Prophets (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif., 1 9 1 3 ),p . 47. 16 T h e term s fin ish ed an d done a re u sed fou r tim es in co n n e c tio n w ith th e Sabbath day in G e n e sis 2 :2 , 3. 17 M. L. A n d r e a se n . The Sabbath: Which Day a n d W hy? (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 942). p p. 4 3 -4 5 . 1,1 D e V a u x . op. a t., p . 481. 19 C o m m e n tin g o n tn e G e n e sis statem en t that “G o d b lessed th e sev en th dav a n d h a llo w ed it" (G en . 2 :3 ), J en m p oin ts ou t that "on accou n t o f this b lessin g G od p u ts livin g fo rce s in th is day. This is in d e e d th e clay w h en G o d w ants to en ter in to fe llo w sh ip w ith h is cr ea tu r es, an d c o m m u n io n w ith (.kid m ea n s life. O n a cco u n t o l its b e in g b lessed , th e d av itse lf b eco m es in tu rn a b lessin g." — Die theologische B e g rü n d u n g , p. 2 9 . C f W alth er Z im m erli, D ie i rgeschichte, I . Mose 1 11. 1 9 43. p 102 20 G. C . B er k o u w er. The Proxtdence o f G od ((»rand R apids. 1952). p. 62. 21 Mark 2 :2 7 . 22 (krrhard vo n R ad. Genesis: A Com mentary (P h ila d elp h ia . 196 1 ). p. 60. » le r . 2 7 :5 . * C h ap . 3 1 :3 5 -3 7 . 24 Isaiah 5 6 : 4 .6 . associates th e Sabbath rest w ith th e h o ld in g fast o f th e co v e n a n t, a n d E zekiel 2 0 : 1 2 .2 0 p o in ts it o u t as a "sign" b etw een G od an d H is p eo p le. In E x o d u s 3 1 : 12-1 / th e Sabbath rest is d e sig n a te d as th e "sign" to Israel that th e Lord is h er Sanctifier. O n e w h o rejects th is sign by viola tin g th e Sabbath has a lso rejected G o d (v erses 1 4 .1 5). 26 Ex. 16:29. 27 Lev. 23 :3 ; Ex. 16:23, 2 5 ; 3 5 :2 . 28 Lev. 2 3 :3 8 . 29 Ex 3 1 1 5 50 W h ite. op. rii.. p. 48. 51 It is w ith regard to th e S abbath day that th e C rea tio n n arrative u ses th e term holy fo r th e first tim e. T h e ea rth an d th e h ea v en s w ere d ecla red "good" (G en. 1:12, 18, 2 1 , 2 4 ). m a n "very go o d " (v erse 3 1 ). but th e sev en th -d a v Sabbath w as ca lled "hallow ed." i.e. "holy" (ch ap . 2:3). 52 Ex. 20:8-11 M T h e p ro p h e ts’ w ord s sp e a k in g o u t again st b u sin ess o n th e Sabbath co n tra d ict n atural m an's in clin a tio n s to m ak e his life secu re o r to a d d to life ’s a o u n d a tice bv a n o n sto p , u n in terru p ted w ork. S ee Ex. 3 3 :1 4 ; Isa. 5 8 :1 3 . 14; |c r . 17:19-27; N e h . 1 3 :15-22. . . . . . M T o W illy R o rd o rf, th e o rig in a l Sabbath w as a social-eth ical in stitu tio n p ro v id in g rest a n d re fr esh in g . H e

304

REFLECTIONS ON A THEOLOGY OF T HE SABBATH considers ihc religious dim ension as a later addition. See his Sunday (Philadelphia. 1968), pp. 15-18, 45-54. v‘ “Had the Sabbath always been kepi, man's thoughts and affections would have been led to his Maker as the object of reverence and worship, and there would never have been an idolater, an atheist, or an infidel," rem arks Ellen G. White (The Story of Redemption [Washington. D.C.. 1947]. pp. 382. 383). 54 Pointing out that in the case o f tne Sabbath rest the last ratner than the first is consecrated to God. A. M Dubarle remarks: “T h e offering of time, accomplished on the last day of the week, and not on the first as was the • ase in the offering o f the material good*, had the effect of consecrating the whole time, in as much as it tended toward the day of meeting with G od.“— signification religieuse du sabbath dans la Bible." in Le Dimanche, Ixx O randi 39 (Paris. 1965). p. 52. See also M atitiahu Tsevat. T he Basic Meaning of the Biblical Sabbath." Zeitschnft fikr die Alttestomenthche W iuew chaft 84 (1972) 454. 97 Je an Daniélou. The Bible and the Liturgy (South Bend. Ind.. 1956). p. 223. M Ex. 20:1! . w See on this point H K. LaRondelle. Perfection and Prrfecttonum (Berrien Springs. Mich., 1975). pp. 69-72. 40 Deut. 5:12. 41 Verse 15. 4* In the Deuteronomy rendering of the Sabbath com m andm ent, the rest of Israel's slaves and domestic animals (verse 14) seems to be the essential purpose of the Sabbath rest T h ere are. to be sure, other instances m Deuteronomv where slaves are invited to rejoice with the Israelites in their worship of the true (iod (cf. Deut. 1212. 18; 16:11. l2, 14) in an attem pt to underline man's intrinsic dignity. But in this instance G ods concern is much m ore a salvation-history m otif. T h e Israelite will grant his slave this day of rest because (iod delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt and led her to the rest of the Promised Land See Jenni. th e theologiich Brgrundung, pp 16-19 45 Notice the rem inder, in this passage, of the already existing com m andm ent, as indicated in verse 12: “ ' “Observe the sabbath day. to keep it holy, a\ the t.ord your God (ommanded ?ou."'~ 44 “T h e Doctrine o f the Sabbatn in the Old and New Testam ents," Grace Journal 6 (Spring, 1965): 10. ' • I .(us 2:14 I |.h I ( ol i 14; H eb 9 IM S . 46 Jo h n 16:11; Heb. 2:14-18. 47 2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15. 4" Eph 4:24 49 See esp verses 1-5, 8-10. It is true that Christian devotion and thought concern themselves most with (iod's redeem ing activity as revealed in Jesus Christ. This is at the foundation of our knowledge of God as a loving father, of ou r hope to r salvation. But who is that God who is supremely righteous and loving, who judges and redeem s us. if not the Creator of heaven and earth ? T h e gospel promises of salvation are rooted in tne Biblical doctrine of Creation, for Creation is the activity o f God bv m eans of which we define what we mean by the word “God." Without this transcendent aspect of God that describes Him to our faith as the source of all existence. His judgm ent and love would ultimately be unim portant to us. and the redem ption promise impossible to perform . His promise to redeem is "gt>od" only if God is the C reator of the powers that rule our lives. T he ( Jinstian faith requires that the God who sa\es be also the God who brought us into existence. It is only as we believe that (iod is Creator that we can believe that He has power to re-create us. that is, to redeem us, for redem ption is essentially a creative act This has been brought out admitahU in ( .ilk e y ,* a t . pp. 79-82. SSI. 254 w “Given to the world as the sign of God as the Creator," the Sabbath "is also the sign of Him as the Sanctifier, rem arks Ellen G. While in Testimontet to the Church, 9 vols. (Mountain View. C alif, 1948), 6:350. T his unity between Creation and redem ption decisively sets the Biblical message of salvation apart from all dualistic religions that regard salvation as release from the treated world rallier than tne restoration of the world. Jl Jo h n 1:1-18, Hebrews 1:1,2, and Colossians 1:15-17 identify in their different ways creative wisdom and the word of the C reator with Jesus Christ. T here is also an unmistakable reference to the role of Christ in Creation when the words “through" Jesus Christ are added to the “from God" of I Corinthians 8:6. ** T he Sabbath rest reminds man that the world and hum an life are essentially ginxl. that they are God's creation, endowed with many beautiful things. T hus the Sabbath is an invitation to rejoice in God's creation. H T he seventh-day Sabbath is the day of, to, or unto the Lord. Ouite often, however, in the Scriptures the term “day of the Lord" carries a clear eschatological connotation. See Isa. 13:9; Eze. 13:5; Joel 2:31; Amos 5:18; 1 Cor. 1:8; 5:5; Phil l h. 2 10; I T h m ■ 2. I 2 rfm I 12. M Rom 8:20-22. As in ihe past (iod did His mighty works and overcame His enemies through His initial creatne act and the delixerance of His people from Egypt, so He also acts now in the final decisive struggle that is to usher in the eschatoiogical age. H Barth, o t cU . 111/1, d 214. * Heb. 4 1 -1 3 With Oscar Cullm ann. Seventh-day Adventists make a clear distinction between the New Testam ent concept o f eternity as e\erlasung time and the familiar philosophical concept of eternity as the opposite of time, as timelessness See Oscar Cullm ann. C h m ta n d Time (Philadelphia, 1950), pp. 61-80. In the New T estam ent the eschatologual rest is described not as a rest of negation but. on the man ward side, as a time of worship and praise See Rev 22:3*5 i7 See particularly Barth, op n t.. I ll 1. pp. 213-228; 111/4. pp. 47-72. See, for instance, Barth, op. cU.. N i l . pp. 2181. ** Barth, op. c it . IV /1, p. 508: “T h e biblical saga tells us that world-historv began with the pride and fall of man . T h ere never was a golden age. T h ere is no point in looking back to one. T h e first man was immediately the first sinner " By the same token Barth denies the historicity of Adam's fall as a transition from the statu.* integnlnlu to the itatus corruptionu.

*° For a m ore detailed Adventist critique of B arths views, see LaRondelle. op. cit., pp. 69-86. Rev 1:17; 2:8; 22:13; 21:5. 6. w As unequivocally indicated in Col. 1:15-20; Eph. 1:3-14. M Hans Walter Wolff, “T h e Day of Rest in the Old Testam ent." Lexington Theological Quarterly 7 (July, 1972):65 M W orship is a hum an act that, like all o ther hum an actions, can be diverted from its true object. thus losing its meaning O ne can hardlv forget the prophets' warnings to that effect or Amos' denunciation of Israel’s assemblies (Amos 5:21-24). M T he tru e ground of worship—not just on the seventh day, but o f all worship—is found in the distinction between ihe C reator and His creatures. As a memorial o f Creadon, the Sabbath, which keeps this distinction ever present to man's m ind, lies at the very foundation of tru e worship. See J. N. Andrews and L. R Conradi. Hutory of the TS1SAH-20

o AK

T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

Sabbath a n d F in t Day of the Week, 2 d e d . (B a ltic C reek . M ich .. 1 873), p p. 5 0 9 -5 1 2 .

66 “Nothing is as nard to suppress as the will to be a slave to one's own pettiness." observes Abraham Joshua Hcschel. "Gallantly, ceaselessly, auietlv, man must light for inner liberty. Inner liberty depends upon being exempt from dom ination of things as well as from dom ination of people. T h ere are many who have acquired a high degree of political and social liberty, but only very few are not enslaved to things. This is our constant problem—how to live with people and remain free, how to live with things and remain independent."— T he Sabbath: its M e a n in g f o r M o d e m M a n (New York. 1951), p. 89. 67 In s p ile o f th eir d ram atic e ffo r ts , th e attem p ts o f th o se w h o o b se rv e Sun d ay to g iv e th e first d ay o f th e week Sabbatic q u alities h ave u tterly failed . S e e H erb ert E. S a u n d ers. T he Sabbath (P lain field. N .I.. 197 0 ), p p . 12-17. Hcschel, op. n t., p. 21.

M Gen. 2:3. "God had previously blessed the fish of the sea [1:22] and man (verse 28]. This blessing provided them with the power to be fruitful and to multiply." T hen the seventh day was blessed, “provided with lifc-rcstonng powers, so that from it m an’s time might be made new and fruitful.”—Wolff, op. n t.. p. 70. 70 T he Saobath com m andm ent is the only one to take “a step in the direction of nuking all men equal before God."—Ibid., p. 71. 71 Eph. 2:6. 72 By its very nature the Sabbath com m andm ent underlines all the other com m andm ents and provides for their keeping. It is the one com m andm ent that grants time for worship, for the reception of the Word and the Spirit of Goa. It is a lime set aside for the purpose of reflecting on and responding to life in relation to (iod, nature, self, and humanity. 73 E frons to relate the origin of the seventh-day Sabbath with phases of the moon, agricultural seasons, or any other natural phenom enon have utterly failed. See De Vaux. op. n t.. p. 480, Waller Harrelson, From Fertility C u lt to Worship (Garden City, N.Y., 1969), pp. 30-32; Tsevat. op. n t.. pp. 456-458; Jcnni, Die theologiuhe H egrundung. pp. 11, 12; G uillln. op. n t., p. 78. 79; Felix Mathys, "Sabbatruhe und Sabbaifcst.” Theologisrhe Z n ts c h n /t 28 ( 1972):245. 246. 74 While the greatest rewards are associated with the keeping of the Sabbath (Deut. 28:1-14; Isa. 56:2-7; 58:13. 14; Jer. 17:24-26; Eac. 20:12. 20), continued violation o f the fourth com m andm ent stood for years as a spiritual therm om eter revealing Israel’s plight of having broken God's covenant (Ex. 31:15; 35:3; Num. l5:32-3o, Nch. 13:15-22; Jer. 17:27; Eze. 20:13, 16. 21. 24; 22:8. 26). 75 For a pertinent analysis of the current forces in Western culture and their threat to the traditional Christian day o f rest, see Christopher Kicsling. The F uture oj the Christian Su n d a y (New York. 1970). pp. 3-15. 76 A rthur W. Spalding. The Sabbath a n d the Saboath Day (Mountain view. Calif., 1937), p. a. In the first chapter of his book Spalding discusses several categories o f negative Sabbathkecpers: the Sabbath-burdened," the "Sabbath-bound." and the “Sabbath addicts. ’ 77 See, for instance, the Mark 2:23-28 episode. 7S Mark 2:27. 79 Verse 28.

APPENDIXES

A P P E N D IX A

The Planetary Week in the Roman West

S. Douglas Waterhouse S a sep ten ary tim e u n it the seven-day week is peculiar, for it is entirely in d ep en d e n t o f the m onth an d u n re la ted to an event in n atu re , such as the m ovem ents o f the sun, m oon, o r stars. In the w hole o f the pre-H ellenistic, ancient O rient it can now here be clearly perceived, except am ong th e H ebrew s .1 T h e ancient Etruscans o f N o rth e rn Italy, an d th eir cultural descendants, the Rom ans, are said to have possessed an “eight-day m arket week.” Such an assertion is not technically correct. N eith er the R om ans n o r th eir predecessors possessed a w ord to d en o te this space o f time. T h e country people w ere accustom ed to com ing to an u rb an center, such as Rom e, fo r th eir m arket days, called nundinae, o r “ninth days." By o u r m ode o f reckoning, which is not inclusive like the R om ans’, the “n ine days" actually co u n t out to m ean “eight days.” * Since the classics never placed nundinum by itself to indicate a tim e unit, it cannot be claim ed that this was an eight-day weekly cycle .5 T h e Jew ish historian Flavius Jo sep h u s correctly noted tow ard the en d o f the first century a . d . that the week introduced into the R om an E m pire was in im itauon o f the Jew ish septenary tim e observance. As he put it: “T h e re is not o ne city, G reek o r b arbarian, n o r a single nation, to which o u r [Jewish] custom o f abstaining from work on the seventh day has not sp re a d .”4 In d e ed , o u r m o d ern week, observed w orldw ide, which em ploys the Jew ish system o f en u m eratio n , cou n tin g th e days u p to the Sabbath, goes back to the authority o f the H ebrew S cripture and Jew ish practice .5

A

T h e A strological W eek a n d the R om an W orld W hile it w as the H ebrew s who b ro u g h t the weekly cycle to the a tten tio n o f the w orld, it is the planetary w'eek, arising in Hellenistic times, th at popularized the weekly cycle, until it finally gained a w idespread acceptance th ro u g h o u t the R om an E m pire. T h a t the n a tu re o f o u r present week has a secondary d ep e n d en ce upon th e astrological week o f the Rom an Im perial Age, is m ade obvious w h en the 308

I HE PLANETARY WEEK IN T H E ROMAN WEST

distinguishing featu res o f the planetary week are listed: 1. Instead o f beginning th e day in th e evening (Lev. 23:32: C en. 1:5), the astrological day began at m idnight.* 2. Instead o f startin g the first day o f the week as that which follows the seventh-day Sabbath (M att. 2 8 :1), the first day o f the planetary week is S atu rd ay .7 3. Instead o f h o n o rin g the scriptural Sabbath (Ex. 20:8-11), S unday is honored." 4. F u rth e r, each day is given a nam e, not sim ply en u m erated , as was the H ebrew custom ." 5. Finally, an d most im p o rtan t, each hour, as well as each day, is given a planetary ru ler, co n sidered a god. whose qualities influence its ruling h o u r, o r the day to which it is assigned .10 T h e Rom an E m pire thus cam e to prom ulgate a seven-day week whose sequence a n d nam es are: Satum i dies, ru le d by S atu rn ; Solis dies, ruled by the Sun; Lunatdies, ru led by th e M oon; Mortis dies, governed by Mars; M ercurii dies, lo rd ed by M ercury ; Jo vis dies, ru led by Ju p ite r; and Veneris dies, ruled by Venus. T h ese astrological nam es for weekdays a re still c u rre n t in present-day E u ro p ean languages derived from Latin. T ra n sla ted into G erm anic nam es o f the equivalent gods, these nam es survive in present-day English." T h e evidence for the arrival o f the astrological week into the West, that is, to Rome an d to E u ro p ean peoples u n d e r h er control, dates from 27 B . C . , th e first regnal year o f the first e m p ero r, A ugustus. For it was soon afte r the triu m p h o f Messala in th at year that Albius T ibullus published what he had m ournfully w ritten p rio r to Messala's d e p a rtu re : "W ithout me will ye go, Messala, across the A egean w a v e.. . . 1 . . . s o u g h t. . . fo r reasons to linger and delay. E ither birds or w ords o f evil o m en were my p retexts, o r th e re was the holy-day o f S aturn to detain m e." '* Since S atu rn and M ars w ere considered m alevolent planets, S aturday (Satum i dies) a n d T u esday (Mortis dies) w ere unlucky days, im propitious for the start o f a new en terp rise, especially th at o f an overseas jo u rn e y .15 T h e e n ra p tu re m e n t o f T ibullus with the concept o f planetary control over time p erio d s is m ade evident fu rth e r on in the sam e passage, when he refers to the planets as g u id in g p atro n s o f successive ages in Rom an history.w A com plete listing o f lucky and unlucky days is provided by a type o f early Rom an farm ca le n d ar (term ed menologia)," a frag m en t o f which dates to the first cen tu ry a . d . Possessing a n astrological character, each o f the twelve m onths is in tro d u ced bv its ow n zodiacal sign. O f interest h ere is the fact that along with the nundinae, th e m ark in g o f f o f the Rom an eighth-day m arket holidays, is the em ploym ent also o f th e seven-day planetary week, with each day having tw enty-four h o u rs a n d each h o u r containing sixty m inutes.1" E rasing all question o f th e w idespread existence o f th e astrological week in Italy b efo re a . d . 79 a re the contents o f wall inscriptions and graffiti uncovered from pre-V esuvius Pom peii. A G reek inscription p refaced with th e title “Days of the Gods" lists the gods o f the seven planetary days in o rd e r, beginning with S atu rn and e n d in g with V en u s .17 A Latin graf fito, explicitly d ated to a . d . 60. states: “ In the C onsulship o f N ero C aesar A ugustus an d Cossus Lentulus, 8 days before the Ides o f M arch, on S unday, on the Ifith o f the M oon. M arketdav at C um ae. 5 days before the M arketday at P om peii."1* T h e biography o f A pollonius T yanaeus. while not alto g eth er trustw orthy, 309

TH E S ABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY may indicate th at by the m id-first century a . d . th e planetary week was observ ed as far east as In d ia ! 19 A pollonius, born at T y an a in C appadocia about fo u r years before th e C hristian Era, built u p a re p u tatio n as one know ledgeable in ancient lore an d possessing su p ern atu ral powers. Between his fortieth an d fiftieth year A pollonius set out from a P ythagorean “re treat" in Aegae, in Cilicia, on a five-year jo u rn e y tow ard E astern lands. At N ineveh he m et Damis, th e fu tu re chronicler o f his actions. From th ere he p ro ceeded to Babylon and on to India. At Taxilia. in the U p p er Panjdb, he m et Iarchas, th e chief o f the B rahm ans. As a gift, Iarchas presen ted his visitor with seven rings, each nam ed after “the seven stars.” It is stated th at A pollonius wore each o f these in tu rn on the day o f the week th at bore its nam e.* W hile this account is supposedly based on the m em oirs o f Damis, it actually is preserved for posterity by Philostratus, who w rote betw een a . d . 210 a n d 220. H ence, the tale o f a B rah m an ’s gift com m em orating the days o f the planetary week is op en to question, especially since Philostratus’ account abounds with incongruities an d fables. T h e fact that A pollonius was a Pythagorean philosopher and studied in Cilicia, how ever, is o f great interest. Both factors are intim ately connected with the spread o f the planetary week. In the first century a . d . it was being said that Pythagoras (who flourished in the sixth century B .C .) had discovered th e G reek planetary sequence,*' an assertion that indicates (along with o th er evidence) that the Pythagorean philosophers o f Cilicia and elsew here were interested in planetary theology'. T h e region o f Cilicia, as will later be noted, was steeped in Eastern astrological lore. H ere w ere to be found the a d h e ren ts o f the god M ithras an d his rites— a cult that hailed S unday as the p reem in en t day o f the week.” At this point it w ould be well to divert o u r attention to look at the historic rise o f astrology', particularly its introduction into the West. F or not only is the planetary week the p ro d u c t o f E astern astrology but it never could have becom e so p o p u lar w ere it not for astrology’s captivating influence in W estern lands, which by A ugustus' reign (27 b . c . - a . d . 14) had perm eated religious speculations th ro u g h o u t th e M editerranean world. Astrology , containing the prim ary concept that the heavenly planets and zodiac signs are divine pow ers that exercise a m anifold patro n ag e on earth, originated in Babylonia.” G eographically it was C haldea (the region from Babylon to th e Persian Gulf) an d historically it was the Persian reign (538-331 B .C .) that m ark ed th e rise o f horoscopic astrology to p aram o u n t im portance in the ancient world. W hile the zodiac belt o f constellations had long been know n in Babylonia, not until the fifth century B .C . did a blend o f Persian and C haldean/B abylonian beliefs result in horoscopic predictions concerning individ­ uals, based on the configuration o f the heavens at the h o u r o f b irth .’* M eanwhile, the lack o f astrological know ledge in fifth-century G reece was illustrated by th e usually know ledgeable Plato (428-347 B .C .), who in his Republic (Book X) knew o f th e planets but not th eir nam es. Plato, who perh ap s h ad gained some o f his heavenly know ledge from the P ythagoreans, was at least ahead o f his co n tem poraries, fo r G reek literatu re o f the fifth century knew noth in g o f the distinction betw een planet an d fixed star. In th e generation following Plato, the situation dram atically changed. T h e G reeks not only had a concept o f the planets as deities but also had even learned to nam e them after th eir own O lym pian gods 310

T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN THE ROMAN WEST (Zeus, A p h ro d ite, et cetera).1' W hat caused the dram atic change? T h e contact o f G reek intellectuals o f Asia M inor with the learned C haldean astrologers. It was Eastern, Asian G reeks, m en such as Eudoxos from Knidus (390-340 B .C .)” and H ip p arch u s from Nicaea (190-126 B.c.),r w ho lent th eir prestige an d astronom i­ cal discoveries to the art o f C haldean astrology/astronom y. Through such interm ediaries in Asia M inor, the G reeks o f the m ainland cam e to possess the Since th e Babylonians w ere interested mainly in characteristic phenom ena, th eir planetary system began with the big, slow-moving planet J u p ite r (identified with M arduk, the p atro n deity o f Babylon). His size an d brightness suggested kingly power. Second in sequence cam e the lum inous queen star V enus (the Babylonian goddess Ishtar). First to ap p e ar in the night sky, while the lesser celestial lights still were eclipsed from view by the S un’s evening glow, V enus’ light (when nearest th e earth) was the most brilliant o f all the stars. H er warm radiance, which seem ed so n e a r in the evening sky, suggested love and desire.” T h ird was S aturn (the god N inurta). His dim light an d slow m ovem ent suggested th e old d eth ro n e d S un— the retirin g distant Sun o f the night sky.“ The subsequent fo u rth position was relegated to M ercury (the god Nabu), who was perceived as the scribe o f the gods. His quick m otion, because o f his nearness to the S un, gave him a nervous, m ercurial quality, as though he always was transm itting learn in g .51 Fifth in sequence was the fiery red planet Mars (the god N ergal), who was th o u g h t o f as the source o f plagues— the ru le r o f the realm o f the dead. T o this planetary sequence the M oon (Sin) an d the Sun (Sham ash) were ap p en d ed . T h e Babylonian hierarchy o f celestial gods, Jupiter-V enus-S aturn-M ercuryM ars-M oon-Sun (the seven bibbi o f M esopotam ian astrologers),5* was re arra n g ed by G reek m athem atical calculations, a rearra n g em en t that may have been m ade as early as 300 B .C . o r as late as the tim e o f H ipparchus (c. 150 B .C .). G reek spherical trigonom etry an d astronom ical observations established an o rd e r o f eight spheres, the criteria o f o rd e r being based on th eir respective distance from the earth . First was the sp h ere o f the fixed stars, m arking the bounds o f the cosmos. W ithin this o u term o st b o undary were the seven in n er spheres o f the planets, which in o rd e r (from distant to near) are: S atu rn , Ju p ite r, M ars, the Sun, V enus, M ercury, and the M oon. T his new G reek “spacial" sequence significantly perceived th at th e Sun was set in the m iddle. T h e th ree planets above this preem in en t ru le r w ere th o u g h t o f as m ale and less h u m id (except for S aturn); the th ree below w ere fem ale (except M ercury, who was considered herm aphroditic) T h e B abylonian zodiacal year was then m ade to conform to this new sequence .54T h e an n u a l rising o f the Sun, from the w inter to the sum m er solstice, began with th e zodiac sign o f A quarius and en ded with the sign o f Leo. T h e ancient winter-solstitial m onth o f A quarius (now dated Jan u ary 20-F ebruary 18)55 was given to S atu rn , the m ost distant o f the visible planets. T h e next m onth, Pisces (F ebruary 19-M arch 20), was assigned to Ju p ite r, the secondm ost rem ote planet; Aries (M arch 2 1-April 19), th e third, to Mars. Since the yearly cycle o f the Sun was conceived o f as a "great d ay,” the next in sequence, the Sun, was reserved for the year’s “noon," th e zenith position directly opposite its rising. H ence, the fo u rth m onth, T a u ru s (April 20-May 20), was given not to the Sun but to the following planet, th e “daw n-star" o f spring, Venus. G em ini (May 21-June 21), the fifth, was

I H E S ABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

assigned to M ercury; and C ancer (June 22-July 22), th e sixth, to the M oon .16 M arking th e seventh m onth in this sequence was Leo (July 23-A ugust 22), the m o n th that begins the an n u al descent o f light dow n to the short days o f w inter darkness. As ju st noted, this tu rn in g point was reserved for th e Sun itself. T h e rem ain in g m onths o f the solar setting then were given to the five planets in reverse o rd e r, so that V irgo (A ugust 23-S eptem ber 22) fell to M ercury; Libra (S eptem ber 23-O ctober 22), to V enus; Scorpio (O ctober 23-N ovem ber 22), to M ars; Sagittarius (N ovem ber 23-D ecem ber 21), to Ju p ite r. Finally, with the tw elfth m onth, C ap rico rnus (D ecem ber 22-January 19), S aturn once m ore is b ro u g h t to view as ru ler. In this m an n er S aturn em erged as the pivotal planet that both began and en d ed th e cycle o f the solar year (holding two consecutive m onths in a row). C onsequently, he becam e the Hellenistic god o f time, K ronos (Satum os-A ion), who not only controlled th e circle o f tim e but also ap p ears as the ancient fath er figure who presides over the birth o f Light at the m om ent o f w inter solstice (the shortest day o f the year).” O f co n tin u ed im portance is the Sun's influential position. A sjust seen, it is the solar rising an d setting that p re d eterm in ed which two m onths each respective planet was to ru le (only one m onth each l>eing assigned to th e M oon a n d Sun). B eginning at “m idnight,” that is, the w inter solstice, the astrological year followed the course o f the Sun as it rose, "daw ning" at spring and reaching a high "noontim e" d u rin g the height o f th e su m m er season. With this observation in m ind, o n e could erroneously assum e that the beginning (New Year's Day) o f the astrological year w ould be assigned to deepest w inter, starting with th e Sun's nativity.“ Actually, how ever, the twelve zodiacal m onths begin th eir e n u m erated succession with th e “d aw ning" o f spring, at th e m om ent o f the Sun's “exaltation” (at th e vernal equinox).’“ T h is twofold beginning is o f interest, because the sam e analogy holds tru e fo r the astronom ical day o f the Hellenistic age. Again, as with the yearly solar rising, it was m idnight that m arked the start o f co m puting the h o u rs o f the day. But following the longstanding Persian custom , th e Magi astrologers co n tin u ed to reckon the natu ral day from su n rise .*0 T h e connection betw een the intellectual m athem atical advances being m ade by th e G reeks in Asia M inor an d what was taking place in Hellenistic Egypt is illustrated by th e position o f H ip p arch u s (190-126 B .C .), the greatest astro n o m er o f his time. W hile he m ade his celestial observations and calculations in Asia M inor, an d tow ard the en d o f his life on the island o f R hodes (just o ff the southw est coast o f Asia M ¡nor).,, his discoveries, including his defense o f astrology, m ade the greatest im pact upon the G reek thinkers o f A lexandria, Egypt (the m ost im p o rtan t ce n te r o f Hellenistic learning o f that age). The m easure o f this im pact can be noted in the works o f Ptolemy (C laudius Ptolem aeus) o f A lexandria (died c. a . d . 150). It is Ptolemy who created the Almagest, which served as the astronom ical bible until the seventeenth century. It was this sam e savant who a u th o re d the Tetrabiblos, the m ain astrological treatise to the presen t day. B ut what should be noted is that the basis o f Ptolemy's works, which re p resen t the culm ination o f G reek astrology, was largely derived from that o f th e Asian G reek, H ip p arch u s.“ In d eed , it was in H ip p arch u s' own lifetim e, a ro u n d 150 B .C ., that o n e o f the earliest m anuals o f astrological techniques was draw n u p in A lexandria. T h e work was given th e nam e o f a sixth-century P haraoh, N echepso, an d his scribe, 312

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THE PLANETARY WEEK IN THE ROMAN WEST

Petosiris. A p ro d u c t o f Hellenistic scholarship, it becam e the m ost qu o ted h andbook o f astrology at Rome d u rin g the late second cen tu ry B .C .4’ At about the sam e tim e a synthesis o f Babylonian, G reek, an d Egyptian m ethods o f m easuring tim e units took place. This was a most significant event for both the developm ent o f what presently is u n d ersto o d as astrology an d the origin o f the planetary week. For it was at A lexandria that astronom ers first designated the equinoctial “hours" as th e parts o f th e day. Babylonian priests long had divided day an d n ight into twelve equal p arts each, a n d the G reeks had ad o p ted this system.** H ow ever, the Egyptian priests traditionally w ere in u red to dividing the com plete night-day cycle into tw enty-four constant units. T h e a u ra o f ancient Egyptian practice eventually m ade its m ark on the G reek-speaking astronom ers o f A lexandria, causing them to ad o p t the Egyptian division o f th e calendar day. H ow ever, still being u n d e r th e aegis o f C haldean astrological th o u g h t, the astronom ers applied the B abylonian sexagesim al cou n tin g system to the Egyptian h o u r so th at each h o u r fell into sixty equal parts, creating sixty m inutes to the h o u r.“ Thus it cam e about th a t the ingredients for th e planetary week w ere b ro u g h t to g eth er; the concept o f planetary gods being taken from the Babylonians, the m athem atics having been supplied by th e G reeks, an d the dekans, o r h o u rs ,*6 ad o p ted from th e th e Egyptians. A lexandria, possessing a large, indigenous, and influential Jew ish p o p u latio n ,*7 was well suited for bringing in a final ingredient, that o f th e H ebrew weekly cycle. A postate H ebrew th ought had long associated the highest sp h ere o f the heavens, ruled by S aturn, as the sp h ere o f the A ncient o f Days.** T h e antiquity o f this association can be d ated centuries back to the tim e o f the O ld T estam en t p ro p h e t Am os. R ebuking idolatry, the H ebrew p ro p h e t singled o u t fo r special co n dem nation Israel’s chief star-god Kaiwan (kyum), the C h ald ean a n d Persian designation for S aturn (Amos 5:26).*‘J T h e two basic co m ponents that form the foun d atio n for the astrological week thus were present within th e com m unity o f A lexandrian Jews. N ot only did they possess a unique sep tenary tim e cycle, but even m ore interesting to the Hellenistic astrologers was th e fact th at they long had associated th eir "high" day (cf. Jo h n 19:41) as a day ru led over by th e planet S aturn. It is th e scholarly Rom an historian Dio Cassius, in a passage d ating between a . d . 210 an d 220 , who tells posterity about the origin o f the astrological week. A ccording to Dio, th e planetary week, “now found am ong all m an k in d ,” was instituted in Egypt. H e fu rth e r asserted that it was a com paratively recent innovation, an institution unknow n to th e ancient G reeks. As Dio tells it, the concept o f days ru led by planets o riginated with the recognition th at the planets ruled the tw enty-four h o u rs o f the day. B eginning with the highest planet and the highest day of th e H ebrew week, S atu rn an d Sabbath, it followed that the initial h o u r an d initial day both were to be allotted to S aturn. As each o f the seven planets (assigned in sequence according to th eir distance from the earth) took its respective tu rn as ru le r over an h o u r, the first, the eighth, the fifteenth, a n d the tw enty-second h o u r o f S a tu rn ’s day fell to S a tu rn ’s special jurisdiction. As S aturday drew to a close, the tw enty-third h o u r w ent to Ju p ite r, the tw enty-fourth to Mars. T h e first h o u r o f the next day w ent to th e fo u rth in sequence, th e Sun, which th en w as given S unday to rule. In this m an n er, as the hourly rulers ro tate d th eir respective positions, every day o f the week was nam ed afte r the lord o f its first h o u r.“ 313

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In terest in the advanced, A lexandrian m athem atical-astrology reached Rome in the first century B .C . Its reception by the Rom an u p p e r classes is illustrated by th e astrologic diagram that was found on the d ead body o f the consul Octavius in 87 B .C . 51 By the tim e the planetary' week began to spread westward into Italy, the E m p ero r A ugustus him self was placing the zodiacal sign o f his birth, C apricorn, on his coins (by 24 B .C .).” U ndoubtedly it was the E m p ero r Septim ius Severus ( a . d . 193-211) who set the stage for the final diffusion o f the planetary week. B orn in the N orth A frican town o f Leptis M agna, he had been a fervent believer in astrology from his childhood.” H ence, it is not surprising that it was d u rin g his reign tfiat the R om ans officially began to m ark the most im portant dates according to the weekdays as well as according to the year. T h e earliest extant evidence o f this custom com es from May 23, a . d . 205.54 Sunday O b serv an ce in the Pagan W orld In a relatively b rief essay such as this, the full com plexity o f how Solis dies, the day o f the Sun, rose to p aram o u n t im portance in the pagan Rom an world can only be touched u p o n .55T h e ancient sources, however, d o pinpoint one religion as the vehicle that p ro m ulgated Sunday religious observance. W hile the prestigious A lexandrian cen ter o f learning fostered astrology an d its offspring, the planetary week, it was th e so-called “Persian" religion o f the god M ithra that extolled Sunday as the m ost im p o rtan t day o f th e week.“ Replying to the taunt that he h o n o red the day o f th e Sun, T ertu llian , th e C hristian C hurch F ather from N orth Africa (c. a . d . 150-230), m akes the illum inating adm ission that a day o f festivity to the Sun was in his tim e popularly th ought o f as a "Persian" institution: “O th e r s . . . believe that the sun is o u r god. YVe shall be counted Persians perhaps, though we d o not w orship th e o rb o f day painted on a piece o f linen cloth." *’ In a book attacking C hristianity, the E picurean C elsusfr. a . d . 14 0 -180) speaks o f th e "reasoning o f the Persians and the initiation rite o f M ithra" as postulating a figurative “road" that led th ro u g h the planets. T h is path, for those who would escape earthly m atter, was perceived as a ladder o f seven gates, each associated with o n e o f the seven planets. At the to p was an eighth gateway, re p resen tin g the final sp h ere o f the fixed stars.5*T h is otherw orldly sequence o f an ascent th ro u g h planetary incarnations seem s to have been in im itation o f the grow th a n d rise o f M ithra, the deified Sun-Light, to his zenith position in the astrological solar year. For like the ascendant light o f the Sun, which moves from its birth position (the shortest day o f the year) th ro u g h planetary "spheres" an d zodiacal signs, so too the planetary lad d er o f Celsus begins with distant S aturn, ru le r o f th e w in ter solstice, and en d s with th e d om inating Sun, ru le r o f the su m m er solstice (the longest day o f the year). But in addition, this grow th o f deified light now is m ade to conform to the planetary week. From S aturn the lad d er moves th ro u g h the sequence o f the gods o f the week in a reverse direction, enabling the Sun to attain a significant seventh position (Saturn-V enus-Jupiter-M ercury-M ars-M oon-S un).w I he im p o rtance o f the Sun for the followers o f M ithra is illustrated also by archeological w ork do n e at Ostia, a coastal port city o f Rom an Italy. In the M ithraeum o f the Seven Portals, seven gates are rep resen ted in mosaic, covering the floor o f th e sanctuary’s entrancew ay. A ttention is im m ediately draw n to the large cen ter gate, which is flanked o n e ith e r side by th ree sm aller portals. W ithin the in n er sanctuary itself, the seven planets are in attendance, depicted on the 314

T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN T H E ROMAN WESI

faces o f th e side benches. As with the seven gates m entioned by Celsus, seem ingly these gates are to be associated with the planets. T h e pictorial presentation at the very th resh o ld o f th e sanctuary, with its large m iddle gate, very likely reflects the G reek "spatial" sequence o f the planets, with the Sun holding the ex p a n d ed cen ter portal. It presum ably is the Sun's “do o r" that brings the initiate into the sanctuary. A m o re startling sim ilarity to the gateways o f Celsus is found in the nearby M ithraeum o f th e Seven Spheres. O nce again seven gales are depicted in mosaic. T his tim e, however, the seven portals fill the whole central floor o f the in n er sanctuary. H ere it becomes obvious that the gates are connected with initiation rites, th at is, th e seven spheres th ro u g h which the mystes m ust pass. T h a t each gateway was th o u g h t o f as a transition point, m arking d eath an d re b irth , is suggested by th e p ictu re o f a death-inducing dag g er in the pavem ent at the en trance. Again in evidence are the celestial patrons, the seven planets presen ted on th e front o f th e reclining benches th at su rro u n d the central aisle. Above, on the su rro u n d in g walls, are placed the signs o f the zodiac. O nce m ore the idea is conveyed that h ere is a star-stu d d ed planetary ascent th ro u g h seven “heavens ."*0 T h a t the veneration paid to the day o f the Sun was linked to what T ertu llian and Celsus term ed “Persian" theology needs clarification. W hile M ithra indeed was a very ancient Persian deity, the late, Hellenistic form o f M ithraism that spread far an d wide in the Rom an E m pire actually was unknow n in Persia, T h e astral m ystery religion of w estern M ithra had its roots in an u n o rth o d o x dannc cult o f th e god as practiced in C haldea a n d A natolia, an d not in th e cult o f the Z oroastrianized M ithra o f Iran.*' T h e historic antecedents to this apostate “d em on" offshoot o f o rth o d o x , Iran ian religion trace back to events that w ere to find th eir d en o u em en t in Asia M inor, w here w estern M ithraism was first fo rm ulated as the result o f the intercourse betw een Magi an d C haldeans. T h e first o f these events cam e in 539 B .C ., with the fall o f Babylon to the M edo-Persian E m pire. T h e rustic and nonliterate Persian Magi im m ediately w ere subjected to th e sophisticated influence o f C haldean astrologers, whose im pressive literatu re and urb an tem ples abo u n d ed in mystic em blem s o f the elem ents, signs o f the zodiac, an d symbols o f th e planets. An even m ore m om entous event u n folded in 521 B .C . when Darius I o f Persia decreed a d eath penalty, th e so-called Magophunia, o r “killing o f the Magi," which aim ed at ex term in atin g th e whole caste o f daei’ic (apostate) Magi in one day.6’ T h e M agian p riesthood against whom Darius bitterly fought w ere Iranian polytheists who h ad blended th eir w orship with C haldean astral beliefs .65 In sh arp contrast w ere th e tru e Magi o f the p ro p h e t Z oroaster (the M azdayasnians), who insisted that th ere was only one good god, A hura-M azda. A dored as a suprem e deity, tran scen d en t and w ithout equal, A hura-M azda was held by the o rth o d o x to be too great a n d spiritual to have images m ade to contain him.** T h e divergent polytheists received a fu rth e r blow in 482 B .C . when X erxes I, who had succeeded Darius on the Persian th ro n e, prohibited the w orship o f daevas, o r dem ons. By im perial decrees, all the tem ples o f C haldea were d ism anded. T h e im posing tem ple o f Babylon, Esagila, was leveled, a n d its eighteen-foot, e ig h t-h u n d re d -p o u n d gold statue o f the god M arduk was m elted into bullion." T h ese catastrophic blows directed against Babylonian religious influence abated som ew hat with the rise to pow er o f the Persian m onarch A rtaxerxes II 315

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(404-359 b . c . ) - Because o f his conflicts with his h alf b ro th er, C yrus the lesser, A rtaxerxes felt a need to claim a legitim ate place in the Persian (A chaem enid) royal line. T h e traditions o f the past th e re fo re becam e im p o rtan t. Ancient pre-Z oroastrian idolatry was everyw here elevated. A hura-M azda, who h ad ru led u n in te rru p te d as su p re m e god since the reign o f Darius I, now (c. 400 b . c . ) was forced to share his once-suprem e position with the goddess A nahita an d the god M ithra. Polytheistic tem ples, com plem ented with the presence o f idols, w ere erected th ro u g h o u t the em p ire.“ By this tim e, how ever, the ad h e ren ts o f C haldean astral theology had been scattered to A natolia an d to th e M editerranean littoral. Illum inating the g u lf o f d ifferen ce that rem ained to separate the daeinc Magi, who had been driven from th eir h o m eland, from that o f th e o rth o d o x M azdayasnian Magi, who still w ere to be fo u n d in th e East, is the new T estam en t witness. O n the o n e h an d are th e Magi whose M azdayasnian background sh u n n ed the w orship o f idols, who com e from th e rem o te East to ad o re the C hrist child (Matt. 2:1). O n the o th e r h an d are the Magi who live in the n e a r W est, th e au th o rs o f dem onic magic (Acts 8:9-24; 13:6-11), th e “black m agic” o f m edieval times."’ T h e em erg ence o f the m ost spectacular Hellenistic city-state in Asia M inor, the kingdom o f P ergam um (263-133 B . C . ) , provided the a re n a for the final am algam ation o f C haldean an d daei'ic Persian beliefs that resulted in the birth o f Hellenistic M ithraism . T h e glorious days o f P ergam um began u n d e r A ttalus I (241-197 B . C . ) . R en d erin g im p o rtan t services to the Rom ans, Attalus am assed such wealth th at his nam e becam e proverbial for riches. Becom ing a p atro n o f arts an d eastern C h aldean learning, he invited from Babylonia the fam ed astrologer S udines (Babylonian Suiddtna). As co u rt adviser. Sudines m ade predictions based on divinations, particularly d u rin g th e king's w ar against the G alatians (c. 240 B . C . ) . T h e im p o rtance o f this C haldean as a learned in stru cto r to G reek-speaking stu dents is fo u n d in the fact that his lu n ar tablets w ere still quoted som e fo u r h u n d re d years later ( a . d . 154-174) by the "m athem atician" V ettius Valeris.1" U n d e r such cultural p atronage, which rem ained a dynastic tradition at P ergam um . a great library was established d u rin g the reign o f the next m onarch, E um enes II (197-159 B . C . ) . Its size was su p ersed ed only by the n u m b er of volum es found in A lexandria. D uring th e sam e reign o f Eum enes, P ergam um was able to ex p an d from th at o f a m ere enclave on the A egean Sea to include the whole o f Asia M inor west o f the T a u ru s M ountains .69 W hile th e details o f how w estern M ithraism was first form ulated rem ain unknow n, the facts speak fo r them selves as to the tim e a n d place. T h e p o st-H ipparchian, Hellenistic astrology, which form s an integral part o f the m ysteries o f this syncretistic religion, m akes it certain that daei’ic M ithraism , which the R om ans first en c o u n tered in 67 B . C . , 7“ was form ulated within the last two centuries B .C . Lactantius Placidus (c. a . d . 300) states that the cult passed from the Persians to the Phrygians (the natives o f Asia M inor) an d from the Phry gians to the R om ans .71 E verything known about Hellenistic M ithraism bears out this assertion. T h e Phrygian dress that continually garbs the god M ithra an d his com panions, w herever in th e Rom an E m pire they are en c o u n tered , m akes it obvious that th e place of the god's origin is Asia M inor. Fortifying this conclusion is th e type o f artificial cave in which the arcane M ithra was w orshiped, for artistically it is derived from w estern Asia M inor.7* T h e place an d tim e thus are 316

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n arrow ed; th e finger o f evidence unm istakenly points tow ard the Hellenistic kingdom that encom passed Asia M inor, that is, P ergam um , p atro n o f the arts and Eastern learning. T h e n a tu re o f th e w estern M ithra is o f interest. W hile the god M ithra is, o f course, Persian, th e liturgy o f the em erg en t astral religion rem ained C haldean (Aram aic). T h e teach er o f the m ysteries was called a Magus, that is, a Persian priest, but he tau g h t from a scroll called “a Babylonian book."7’ W hile a n u m b er o f the classics speak o f this syncretism betw een Persian Magi and C haldean astrologers, a late Latin inscription from Rome, which dates from a . d . 377, beautifully sum s u p th e n a tu re o f the fusion by speaking o f the m ystery teacher as a "B abylonian priest o f M ithra’s Persian tem ple.”’* Tw o factors have usually been pointed out as especially im p o rtan t in facilitating the rap id spread o f M ithraism : first, the bankruptcy o f indigenous au th o ritarian religions, an d second, R om e’s peculiar religious d ep e n d en ce upon Asia M inor. T h ese a re beyond th e scope o f o u r discussion here, but it is im p o rtan t to ask: W hen was M ithraism in tro d u ced into Rome, an d what im pact did it have after its arrival? Plutarch rep o rts that w hen the Rom an general Pom pey co n q u ered the pirates on th e coast o f Cilicia (the southeastern shore o f Asia M inor) in 67 B .C ., he carried back with him to Rom e som e prisoners who w ere devotees o f M ithra. It was these Cilician pirates, the re p o rt states, who in troduced the m ysteries into Italy.” T w o archeological finds ten d to substantiate the report. T h e first is a series o f rock reliefs a u th o re d by A ntiochus I Epiphanes in 62 B .C ., giving evidence o f the m ajor im p o rtan ce o f astrological. H ellenized M ithraism in the region lying im m ediately to th e east o f Cilicia in the very tim e o f Pompey. F ound on the sum m it o f N im ru d Dagh, at C om m agene, the rock inscriptions an d reliefs not only contain a referen ce to w hat seem s to be the M ithraic m ystery-grade o f the “L ion” but, m o re im p o rtan t, depict th e god M ithra shaking h ands with A ntiochus.7‘ T h e o th er archeological find com es from Italy, about a century later. A graffito from Pompeii, d atin g from before a . d . 62, sketches out the M ithraic magic em blem , the so-called ROTAS-SA I'OR square. Using the Latin alphabet, the m ystery square significantly was fo u n d in the area o f the luvenes, that is, the region set aside for young m en to p erfo rm m ilitary exercises.” H ere, then, is confirm ative evidence that M ithraism h ad becom e ro o ted in m id-first-century Italy, its devotees being draw n especially from Rom an soldiers. Because o f its “m phasis on fighting against evil an d th e forces o f darkness (in terp reted to include Rom e's enem ies), M ithraism was to gain an ascendant position as the religion o f the Rom an troops. B eginning with th e reign o f T ra ja n ( a . d . 98-117), m aterial evidence shows that w herever the R om an legions planted th eir standards, M ithra an d his cult w ere in p ro m in en t atten d an ce.7“ T h e stren g th o f M ithra’s im pact on first-century-A.D. Rom e also can be gauged by Statius, who m entions (c. a . d . 90) seeing the Tauroctonous Mithra (the depiction o f th e god M ithra in the m ystery rite o f slaying the bull) in Italy .7' N ero, the first Rom an e m p e ro r to listen form ally to the judicial m erits o f the C hristian gospel (Acts 25:12 with 2 T im . 4 : 16)."" also is the first em p e ro r to acknow ledge the appeal o f M ithra. W hen, in a . d . 66 , T irid ates 1, king o f A rm enia an d a M ithraic priest, cam e with his a tte n d a n t Magi to reverence the em p ero r, N ero was addressed by the E astern p o ten tate with these words: “ I have com e to thee, my 317

T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY god, to w orship thee as I do M ithras .”"1 T irid ates went so far as to initiate N ero into the M ithra cu lt .1,2 In re tu rn , the grateful N ero confirm ed T irid ates’ position as ru le r over A rm enia. C hristian an d M ithraic influences again w ere b ro u g h t to bear on the person o f an o th e r em p ero r, C onstantine the G reat ( a . d . 306-337). By this time, M ithra, the deified light, had becom e popularly identified with the unconquerable Sun-god (Helios, Sol Invictus) o f the Rom an state .religion .83 O f im port fo r the fu tu re o f th e p lanetary week was M ithra’s position as the titulary divinity o f the reigning e m p e ro r’s family. T h is explains why Ju lian the A postate, the nephew o f C onstantine, would later m ake m uch o f the fact that he was u n d e r the gu ard ian sh ip o f M ithra. In a . d . 312, C onstantine proclaim ed that he would h en cefo rth be a follower o f C hrist. N evertheless, the m onarch continued to perceive the C hristian faith th ro u g h the externals o f M ithra w orship. An illustration o f th e e m p e ro r’s failure to detach him self from pagan theology' is obtained from the com m ent o f his contem porary, the C hurch F ather Eusebius, who o f the supposedly C hristianized C onstantine said: "H e taught all arm ies zealously to h o n o r the L o rd ’s Day [Sunday], which also is called the day o f light and o f the s u n ." ,MHow significant the ph rase “day o f light and o f the sun"! Was it not the arm ies o f Rom e who held M ithra to be Light deified, the o ffsp rin g o f Sol, the Sun? W hile each planet was held to be “lo rd ” o f a particular day, who but M ithra him self was lord o f the “day o f light an d o f the su n "?“ O n the seventh o f M arch, a . d . 321, C onstantine issued his fam ed "Sunday law” edict, com m anding that: “All ju d g es, city people an d craftsm en shall rest on the venerable day o f th e sun. B ut country-m en may without h inderance atten d to ag ricu ltu re.” “ W ith the issuance o f that decree, the day o f the sun, in its paganized dim ension as a civil day o f the astrological week, officially was accepted by those who ruled C hristendom . H enceforth, the wreek o f the planetary deities was to be the "sanctified" septenary tim e unit th at the W estern world was to inherit."’ NO TES 1 The seven-day-unit was well known in the ancient Near East, Inn it was not employed an a weeklv cycle. The seventh day of seven dav-units within the lunar m onth (the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eighth days of the month) appear now and then as unlucky davs in Bab\Ionian texts. In ancient Creek, Sumero-Akkadian, and L'gantic epu literature, the seven-dav-unit is utilized as a schematic device: an ac tion continues for six days but is completed on the seventh day. It is the lunar month, however, that formed the basis for lime reckoning in the ancient Orient. In Assyria and Babylonia the word Sabbath (ia p a itu . originally fabdttum ) may have designated, at an earlv period, a division o f the m onth; later it was applied in cuneiform texts o f Babylonian origin to the Fifteenth day o f the month, evcntuallv coming to mean “full m oon.” It follows that there is no real basis lor the popular hypothesis that Hebrew iabbdt meant “full moon" and not "week." See S. E. Loewenstamm, " The Seven-Day-Unit in (Jgaritic Epic Literature,*' Israel E xploration J o u r n a l 15 (1965): 121-133; Arvid S. Kapelm d, "T he Num ber Seven in l'g an tic Texts," I T 18 ( 196#):494-499: Roland de Yaux, A n a m i Isra eli London, 1961). pp. 476-479; Niels-Erik A. A ndreasen, The O ld Testament Sabbath. SBL Diss Ser. 7 (Missoula. Mont.. 1972). pp. 1-7. p 9 7 , n. 5 William Foxwell Albright, review of Julius Lewy and Hildegard Lewy, “T h e Origin of the Week and the Oldest West Astatic Calendar," H ebrew U nion College A n n u a l 17 ( 1942 1943): 1-152, in J H l. 64 ( I945):288-291. * Inclusive reckoning was used by ancient peoples generally, including Bible writers. According to this system of reckoning, any parts o f the first and last units of time are reckoned as whole units. Van L. Johnson. “T he Primitive Basis of O ur C a le n d a r . Archaeology 21 (1968): 15. * Following the com ments ofA lexander Adam. R om an Antiquities (Philadelphia. 1872), p. 218. T h e fact that a market day of one city fell on a different day than the market day of a n e a rb \. neighboring city also militates against the assumption that the n u n d tn u m was genet ally held as an eight-dav week. Like tne later seven-da\ week, however, the n u n d in u m days frequently were identifiable in writing an a conversation. Market day was called “the X u n d tn a e"; there was “the day before the X u n d tn a e .' "two davs before the X u n d tn a e ," and so on. See J P. V. D. Balsdon. L ife a n d Leisure in A n c ien t Rom e (New York. 1969), pp. 60. 61 A Josephus Contra Aptonem (LCL) 2. .i9. T he statement o f Josephus is well borne out by the evidence. Two examples from the first centurv a . d . may suffice. Em peror Augustus wrote to T ibenus that he had kept his fast on the Sabbath more strictly than a Jew (Suetonius D tvtu Augustus . 354 ( Chronica M inora I: M onum rn ta C erm am ae H ist., auctores antufuissim i. cd. byC Frick [Leipzig. 1892], 9. 120) shows that night hours were reckoned to be under the control of the same planet as that of the succeeding dav, some have assum ed that the planetary week was reckoned from evening to evening. See Willv Rordorf. Sunday (Philadelphia. 1968). p. 34. T he data supplied by the chronographer. however, does not conflict with the fact that Chaldean astrologers began their computations from the hour of midnight, the planetary ruler of the first hour being considered the lord of the succeeding dav. Significantly, the astrological year also was com puted from what was considered the winter ‘‘midnight'* of tne annual rising and setting of the sun. O n the astronomical cuneiform texts from the seleucid period snowing that advanced astronomical reasons were used in com puting the dav from midnight. soeO. N eugebauer. “T he Survival of Babylonian Methods m the Exact Sciences of Antiquity and Middle Ages.'' Proceedings o f the Am erican Philosophical Society l()7 ( 1963):529; Bic ker man. op a t., p. 14. Coincidentally, the ancient Romans began their civil day at midnight, l^ o n h a rd Schmitz. “Dies." Dictionary o f Creek a n d Ronuin Antiquities, ed. by William Smith (Boston. 1870); Plutarch Qwiestiones Rom ans 84. 7 Dio Cassius R om an H istory 37. 18 (LCL). See Bickerman. op. a t., p. 61. landsay. op cit.. p. 233; Johnson, op a /., p. 20. MGaston H. Halsberghe, The C u lt o f Sol I nine tus (Leiden. 1972), p. 120; Rordorf, op. a t., p. 36;C .C . Richardson. “Lord’s Day," ID B , 3:152. 9 Johnson, op. cit., p. 20; Ixihse, loc. cit. 10 Bickerman, op. cit., p. 61; O. N eugebauer. The E xact Sciences in A n tiq u ift. 2d ed. (New York, 1957). p. 169. 11 T h e first day o f the week presents an exceptional case. While N orthern Europe perpetuates the pagan name “Sunday." the Romance languages term that day: dimartche, domenica, dom ingo, the “Lord s Day." See F. H. Colson. The Week (Cambridge, 1926). pp. 117-120. 12 Tibullus Elegiac 1.3. 1, 15-19 (LCL). 13 While both Mars and Saturn were reputed to be unlucky, Saturn was considered the m ore dangerous o f the two. In the Zodiac. Saturn had as houses the two winter m onths of Capricorn and Aquarius, cold, wet signs Traversing his houses, he supposedly begot not onlv winter rains but also within the body cold humors, intestinal fluxes, anci soon. See Lindsay, op. cit., p. 127. In the Greek world Hesiod is the first to mention lucky and unluckv days (W orks a n d Days 765-825). Possibly the medieval ban on the “seventh“ lone in church music as the “interval of the devil" was because o f the association with the unlucky planet Saturn, to which the seventh day was consecrated; for anciently it was held that as the planets followed their orbits they produced sounds whose pitch depended on the speed o f the planets and that together form ed the “music o f the spheres." For a disc ussion, see Martin A. Beek. Atlas o f M esopotamia (New York. 1962).p . 150; Charles Peter Mason. “Pythagoras," Dictionary of Creek a n d Rom an Biography a n d M ythology. 3 vols., ed. by William Smith (Boston. 1849), 3:624. li Elegiac 1, 3. 35-50. ** T he menologia were cut in stone or laid out in mosaic, and were more for public display than use* (see Balsdon, op. a t., p. 59; T heodor Mommsen, Corpus In scn p tio n u m L atinarum . 2d ed [Berlin. 18931, 1:280-282; and more recently Atlilio Degrassi. In sm p tio n es Italiae [Rome. 1963). 13. fascicle II: 284-298). Also displaying the seven-day week in Roman Italy is a Sabine calendar that dates between 19 B . C . and a . d . 14. CUmiisting of three columns, the first column marks the days of the seven-day week, the second the eight days of the n u n d tn u m , and the third records whether the day is fastus (the praetor was allowed to adm inister justice in the public courts), nefastus (neither courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held) or comitialis (the comma could be held) M odern scholars take differing opinion» as to the type of week found m the Sabine calendar Rordorf is of the opinion that the ‘fa s ti S a h im " is “probably the Jewish week" (op. n t.. p. 10. n. 1); Johnson would see the calendar as evidence for the spread o f the planetary week in the first century after Christ (op. a t., p. 19). "T here are two other very fragmentary caJendars. one of the time of Augustus, the other from the early Empire, on which also the seven-day week is m arked "—Balsdon. op. a t., pp. 62, 63. See Samuele Bacchiocchi, From Sabbath to Sunday (Rome. 1977), p. 245, n. 35: Balsdon. op. a t., p. 59. 17 Colson, op. a t., p. 32. IM L in d say, op. a t., p. 23 4 .

19 It is known that Hellenistic astronomy penetrated into India at least as early as 150 B . C . See Neugebauer* "Baby lonian Methods." p. 532. and the literature cited there. On Apollonius of Tvana, com pare Colson, op a t., pp 22-24; Benjamin Jowett. “Apollonius Tyanaeus." in Smith. Biography a n d Mythology. 1:242-3. 20 Philostratus The L ife o f Apollonius o f T yana 3. 41. 21 Pliny N a tu ra l H istory 2. 22. 22 While the Neo-Pvthagorcans of the first century B . C . had a predilection for astral theology, m odern scholarship has dem onstrated that the founder. Pythagoras of Samos (whose career in southern Italy flourished between 540 and 510 B . C . ) . had nothing whatever to do with the invention or establishment of the Greek "spatial" sequence o f the planets; Neugebauer. "Babylonian Methods," p. 530. It was Mithraic ("Persian") theology that “contributed largely to the adoption of the week throughout the Roman Empire.” Franz Cum ont. Astrology a n d Religion A m ong the Creeks a n d Rom ans (New York. 1960), p. 90; com pare Bickerman, ob. cit., p. 61. 25 Astrology , which operates with the use o f mathematical astronom y, is an extremely ancient art. dating back to Old Babvloman and Sum erian times. See Willy H artner. “T h e Earliest History of the Constellations in the Near East and the Motif o f the Lion-Bull C om tnC JffiirM / o f N ear E astern Studies 24 (1965): 1-16. 24 B. L van d er W aerden. “History of the Zodiac." A rchir jQ r O nentforschung 16 ( 1952/1953):224. While equinoctial hours of constant length were unknown until Hellenistic times, the ancient Babylonians did possess twelve dav-hours and twelve m ght-hours (Lindsay, op a t., pp 35, 69. 153). T he earliest horoscope, written in cuneiform by a Chaldean scribe, dates to April 30, 409 B . C . (ibid .. p. 49). A systematic list of the twelve zodiacal constellations (their names extremely old. going back to Sum erian times) appears for the first time in a Babylonian text from year 6 o f D anus 11 (419 B . C . ) . See landsav. op a t., pp. 57, 58; Neugebauer. The Exact Sciences, p. 140; Van d er W aerden. op. a t., pp. 217, 220. 25 T h e earliest Greek horoscope is that o f Antiochus I of Commagene. dating from July 6 or 7, 62 B . C . T he earliest known horoscopes in which Olympian Greek names are given to tne planets are from Egy ptian papyri dating from a . d . 4 and 14 (Lindsay. op. a t . pp. 126. 137). In a dialogue called Epinom is. probably bv one of Plato’s pupils, the

319

T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY planets arc rum cd after ( ¿reek god*, ¿bowing the increase in planetary knowledge in the generation following Pialo. V t the due ussion by Jean Rhss Hr am. trans.. Ancient Astrology: Theory atid Practice (Matheseos Lihn V III by Firmicus Matcrnus) (Park Ridge, N.J.. 1975). p. 306. n. 24. ** Van dcr W aerdcn. op. a t . p. 225. r Brum, op a t . p. 324. and ine literature cited ihere. *• T he reason (¿reek science (including astronomical knowledge) was born in Asia Minor is to be found in the traumatic events that transpired in (he Persian hm pirc, events that drove out the Chaldean scholars from their temple schools in t ’ruk and Babylon. T he problem o f how the transmission of astronomical knowledge from Babylonia to (»recce took place remains unsolved. "Even if we completely disregard the very serious practical difficulty of utilizing cuneiform material, we must assume a careful and extended training by com petent Bans Ionian scribes and com puters in o rd er to account for the profitable use of any o f the Babylonian ephem eridcs.”—Neugebaucr. “Babylonian Methods." p. 534. Pliny claims that the (¿reek zodiac with its twelve signs was introduced all at once by Clcostratus. 548-545 i . e . (S a tu ra i History 2. 31). In 432 B .C . Meton publicls displayed in Greece a “stellar calendar whic h. using the zodiac al division, indicated the daily progress of the sun” (ftickcrman. op. a t., p. 57). “T h e light of history begins to shine only about 400 B . c . Zodiacal schemes were then used by F.uctemon and Eudoxus in their calendars" (van der W aerdcn, ttp a t., p. 225). 19 Even though the ancient Semites realized that the evening and m orning star were different manifestations of the same entity, they looked upon the plancl as male in the m orning and female m the evening. Sec W. F. Albright. Yahweh and the (¡odi o f Canaan (London. 1968), p. 117. Mence the Romans spoke o f the m orningstar as l.uafer. the light bearer," who became the fem inine Venus of the evening sky (cf W Robertson Smith. The Religion o f the Semites (Ncs* York. 1956). p. 57, n. 3). T he glow of dawn's early light was personified, in antiquity, as a goddess (the manifestation of lshtar- Venus in the m orning) who vic toriously gave birth to the wonderous male child, the m orning star, who in turn became transform ed into the ruling Sun. Cf. Isa. 14:12-15; J. W. McKay. “H eld and the Dawn-Goddcss," V T 20 (l970):45l-464. 30 Luis I. J. Stadclm ann, The Hebrew Conception of the World IAnalecta Biblica 39; Rome. 1970). p. 70. T he slow, steady movement of Saturn's revolution around the sun took 29V* years, Jupiter's period o f rotation was 12 scars: while the fluctuating period of Venus lasted only 225 days. Sec (¿corgc Sarton. ~< naldacan Astronoms of the Last T hree Centuries b .c ., 'JA O S 75 ( 1955): lf»8, n. 4 Saturn (in the Hrllcmstic period) came to be called “the winter or hidden sun." See Ptolemy Tetrabihlo\ 2. 3. t>4. I .eros A Campbell. M ithrau Iconography and Ideologi (Leiden. 1968). p. 70. 51 Cf. W. F. Albright. "Some Notes on the Nahatacan (*oddess 'Al-Kutba' and Related Matters.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research No. 156 (December. I959):37 12 T he sky. in the eyes of the first observers. was a great revolving vault, set mghtls. attached with tins flecks of fire (the fixed stars). Inside this cclcstial vault were the erratic planets, or “slanderers“ (which is the meaning of the Greek word blanetai> T h e Chaldean astrologers figuratiselv spoke «if the fixed stars as a Hcnk of sheep Among the ordered ranks of these ordinary sheep were the *s»ild sheep (Akkadian bibbi). that is. the sesen “travelers " T he sequential order of the five planets in Babs Ionian thought begins with the two hencficcnt deities Jupiter and Venus, moves on to malign Saturn and the doubtful inHuenccol Mereurv, and ends *ith the underw orld ruler Mars See the discussion by Stadelmann. op a t., pp 91, 92 (It should be noted that the later Seleucid texts provide a different sequence of planets.) While the reason for the standard order of the seven bibbi ts not known, possibls the order's structure was of an “envelope" type. Jupiter (A) s%as paired uith the Sun (A). Venus horoscopes, the stan of enum erating an individual's "houses" is the sign of the zodiac that was asc ending in the East at the exact ume and place o f birth. O n the exaltation of nativitv. see Lindsay. op. a t., p *126 N a tu r a lH x s to n 2. 188 When Plins states that the Babslomans rec to n ed their day from sunrise, presumabls he was referring to the aChaldean~ Magi o f the Hellenistic Age. for the ancient Babylonians, like the Hebrews, reckimed the start o f tne day from sunset, (if. Bickerman. o t. a t.. pp 13. I-I. Neugebauer. "Babylonian M ethods." p. 5.11 On the Magi cu sto m of reckoning the complete da\ from dawn, see landsas. o t a t . p. 96. Traditional fo lk societies. in th eir persom ficalM m o f the phenom ena of n atu re, would anthropom orphize celestial events. Possibly Hellenistic astrologers thought of the vernal equinox (fertility season)asthe moment of conception: nine m onths later came the birth of deified Light at the winter solstice. 41 Augustus de Morgan. "Hipparchus." in William Smith. Biography a m i Mythology. 2:476. 477. Cf. above, n. 27 George Sarton. A ru ie n t Science a n d M o d em C ivilization (New York. 1954). pp. 47-49. and idem, "Chaldaean Astronomv of the l.ast T h ree Centuries i . e . " J o u r n a l o f the A m eru a n O riental Soaety 75 (1955): 172. 41 B rain, op. a t., p p. 5 . 3 0 3 . n. 7.

44 H erodotus Persian Wars 2. 109. 45 Bickerman. op a t., p. 16; Lindsas. op. a t., pp 35. 153. 156. 157. About 135 a.c... Ctesibius. a celebrated m athematician of Alexandria, m ade an ingenious invention in which water was made to d ro p upon wheels in such a way as to turn them, flic regular movement of these wheels was com m unicated to a small statue, which, gradualh rising, pointed with a little stick to the hours m arked on a pillar that was attached to the mechanism (Leonhard Schmitz. “Horologium.** in William Smith. Greek a n d R om an Antiquities, pp. 615.616). In 1901 divers working off the isle of Antikylhera found the rem ains of a clocklike mechanism dating from 80 b . c . The mec hanism indicated the annual motion of ihe Sun in the zodiac, an amazmgls complex astronomical clock thal happened also to indicate the time. For details, see Derek J. de Solla Price, “An Ancient Greek C om puter.“ Scientific Am erican, Ju n e . 1959. pp 60-67 46 T he ie k a n s, “or Calendar Stars, which were supposed to m e and set at intervals of 10 davs throughout the year, and to culminate at intervals of 1 hour throughout the night" represent the onls Egyptian contribution to the ( ’»reek planetary theors Bui even the F.gvptian dextrine of the dehorn «»as m olded into Hellenistic astrology in such a wav as to conform to BabyIonian thcologv ; it was the Babvlonian elem ents that presailed (N an der W aerden. op. a t . p 229. 230). 47 In Jerem iah 24. the Jews who did not go into Babvlonian exile, who rem ained in the homeland or who fled to Egypt to dwell, were labeled “bad figs." unfit to eat. E. Badian speaks of the lews in Alexandria as “the largest o f the foreign com m unities,“ who were stronglv organized and “form ed a citv wit inn the cits’*(Studies in Greek a n d R om an H u to n (Oxford. 1964). p 186) 4 T a citu s H istonae 5. 4.

4MStadelmann. op a t., p. 88 Mi Roman History 37. 18. 19 T he custom of naming the days after the planets also mav have ansen. Dio savs. bs regarding the gods asonginalls presiding over separate davs assigned In the “principle of the tetrac hord" (which was believed lo constitute the basis of music) 51 Lindsay, op. a t., p. 217; see also the rem arks o f Bram. op n t., p. 5 M Johnson, op. a t., p. 21. u Halsberghe. op. a t., pp. 49. 50. 44 Bickerman. o f. cit., p. 61. "Juvenal suggests thal bv the earls second century schools were following a seven-day tim etable’ (Juv. 7. 160, 161. in Lindsas. op. a t ., p. 234) “F urther we mas note that an inscription belonging lo a . d . 205 has been found in Kat Isburg in Transvlvania. where the date i s gisen not only bs the sear and ihe month, but also by the weekday, in (his case Monday.“—Cens in ihe East (running counierc loc kwise) with Monday (L u n a ), followed by Tuesday (Mars), and soon, closing with Sundas (Sol) as the seventh dav. Here, too, the sequence mas have been thought o f as a ladder, from the Moon (A pogenesu. souls ascending) to Saturn and the Sun (a new Genesis, lo an ethereal world o f pure light). In the Bngetio relief the or del liegins with Saturn (running c lockw ise) and ends Miih Venus, which is the normal sequence of ihe planetary week. See Campbell, op. a t., p. 392. n. 3. and Plates XVII. XXXI11. When the planets act as the protectors of the seven grades in the Mithraic cull, the weekls order is not kept; then the sequence is (flUfttag with ihe top B id e ) SttUltl, Sun, Moon. |u m iei, Mais. Venus, and Men u i\ “ I here was probably as little agreem ent am ong Mithraists about the details ol eschatologv as am ong the earls C hnstians.”—Campbell, op. a t ., p. 392. Campbell, op. a t . pp 300-302. figs. 19.20; M .J. Verm asercn, Mithras, the S ta r t God ( S c * York. 1963). p. 157 1 he concept of an otherworldls ladder, each siep marking a transition poini. is vers ancient T he S um enans and Babslomans held that the goddess Ishtar traversecl downward through seven gales before reac hing ihe Netherworld, home of the dead As she desc ended through each gate. Ishtar was m ade to surrender those parts of her clothing that svmbolized her office and rank (.W E T . pp. 106-109). In the earlier Sum erian version, ihe goddess had to ahandon seven cities on her jour ties of descent a b u t. p. 53). In order lo ascend upward lo llie place of eternal life. Cilgamesh. the legendarv king o f L’ruk. acquired fame, raising up a “name" for himself, as he climbed up seven m ountain peaks

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T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY n b td . p. 4 7 -5 0 ). T h e uqqurat tem p le tow er» o f an cien t M esop otam ia ea ch p ossessed a stairw ay ra m p that sup p o sed ly i r r \ « l as a link b etw een h ea v en a n d earth . In g o in g u p th e step s to th e to p m o st sh r in e, th e priest figuratively was clim b in g to th e h o m e o f th e g o d s in th e u p p er m o st h ea v en s S ee M irtea E lu d e , Im age\ a n d Symbols (N ew Y ork . 1969), p p. 4 2 . 43. T h e step -p vram id o f th e E gyp tian T h ird D ynasty p ossibly was d e s ig n e d as a g ig a n iic stairw ay. T h e d ece a sed Pharaoh's a scen t w ou ld tra n sfo rm h im in to a star or a co m p a n io n to th e S u n g o d . ( ” . th e rem arks o f Kurt M e n d elsso h n . The H uldle o f the Pyramids (N ew Y ork, 1974), p p. 2 8 . 47. Ja co b , too, saw in a d rea m a lad d er that w as **set u p o n th e ea r th , an d th e to p o f it reach ed to h eaven : an d b eh old th e a n g els o f ( k x i a scen d in g an d d e s c e n d in g o n it“ (Lien. 2 8 :1 2 ). H e re a g a in , th e lad d er c o m m u n ica tes a tran sform a tio n p rocess. T h is is em p h a sized by J esu s, w h o claim ed that H e w as tn c la d d er that lin k ed h ea v en a n d earth (Joh n 1:51). O n Jacob'* la d d e r . see th e o b serv a tio n s In Harry A. H o ffn e r . Jr.. "Second M illen n iu m A n te c e d e n ts to th e H eb rew O J B I. 8 6 (1 9 6 7 ):3 9 7 a n d n. 30. 61 R ichard N . Frye, The H eritage oj Persia (N ew Y ork. 1963), p 1HT; I. (¿ ersh ev itch . The Ai'estan H ym n to M ithra (L o n d o n . 1959), p p. 6 6 et passim. R icnard T . H allock's review o i Frve's h ook in J o u rn a l o f S e a r Eastern Studies 25 S D A B l . 7 :4 2 0 4 I b ti , p. 4 2 3 T h is m as lie seen as a m idw av p oin t b etw een th o se a d v o ca tes o l th e tra d itio n a l view as m en tio n ed ab ove an d th o se w h o w ou ld w ish to use H ebrew » 4 :9 to p ro v e that th e seven th -d av S a b lu th is «till to be o b se rv ed in th e C hristian d isp en sa tio n . C f. D avid L ou is Lin. “A n Investigation In to th e M ea n in g o l th e S abhatism os o f H eb . 4:9" (M A th esis. A n d rew s I 'n iv e r s io , M ay. 1946). Ian c o n c e d e s that it mav m ean S a b b a th k eep in g now a n d h a v e a fu tu r e ap p lication but d e n ie s that th e a u th or o f H eb rew s w ou ld h ave th e tw o sep a ra te id ea s in m in d * S D A B C . 7 :9 2 8 . C f. E llen C . W h ite. T hought» From the M o u n t of Hlewtng (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. 1 956). p. I. 6 S a m u e le B a c ih io c c h i. From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977). p p. 6 3 -6 9 .

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A N O T E ON HEBREW S 4:4-9 7 Hcb. 3:1. R.S.V. * lo h n s so n , op. cti.. p . ISO. 9 ln th e S ep tu a g in t. katapauo 1« u sed * it h re fe ren ce to th r Sabbath in G en esis 2 :2 , 3; E x o d u s 3 4 :2 1 ; 3 1 :1 7 . 10 C f. a m ore recen t w r ite r s ap p roach : “tio d 's sev en th -d a y has n o clo sin g refrain as d o o th er davs. ‘E v en in g ca m e a n d m o rn in g ca m e.' H is rest is ev e rla stin g a n d it is h o ly . a n d in th e w orld o f m an th e Sabbath is th e *a> p r o \id e d to 'en ter in to his r e s t.'’*— G e o r g e T . M o n ta g u e. T he H ot} S p tn t Growth o f a Biblical Tradition (N ew Y ork. 197 6 ). p. 64.

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APPENDIX F

The “Lord’s D ay” in the Second Century

Kenneth A. Strand

B

Y the th ird C hristian cen tu ry "L o rd ’s day” had becom e a com m on designation am ong C hristians for the weekly Sunday, on which a special religious service was held.' A lthough certain early-second-century references (to be discussed below) have o ften been set fo rth as Sunday “L o rd ’s day” statem ents, the first clear patristic evidence in this m atter ap p ears tow ard the end o f the second century. We will first notice this evidence a n d then move back th ro u g h the second century until we com e to th re e so-called “L ord's day” statem ents that are th o u g h t to have been p en n ed befo re a . d . 120 (two definitely before 120 an d the th ird probably so). C lem ent o f A lex a n d ria an d Iren aeu s T h e first C h u rch F ather whose extant w ritings use the term “L o rd ’s day” to apply to th e weekly C hristian S unday was C lem ent o f A lexandria n ea r the close o f the second century, probably about a . d . 190. C lem ent, who allegorized extensively in his theological discussions, th ought that the G reek p h ilosopher Plato som e five a n d o n e-h alf centuries earlier had m ade a prophetic referen ce to Sunday: “T h e L o rd ’s day Plato prophetically speaks o f in the ten th book o f the Republic, in these w ords: ’A nd when seven days have passed to each o f them in the m eadow, on th e eighth they are to set ou t and arrive in four days.’” * Obviously, a fu tu re C hristian S unday (or even a fu tu re C hristianity) was totally foreign to Plato’s m ind, but the point o f interest h ere is that C lem ent designates the C hristian weekly S unday as the "L ord's day." A slightly earlier “L o rd ’s day" reference (about a . d . 180 o r 185) was m ade by Bishop Iren aeu s o f Gaul, but Iren aeu s ap p ears to have been speaking o f Easter Sunday ra th e r than a weekly Sunday: "T his [custom], o f not bending th e knee upon Sunday, is a symbol o f the resurrection, th ro u g h which we have been set free, by the grace o f C hrist, from sins, and from death, which has been p u t to death u n d e r H im . Now this custom took its rise from apostolic tim es, as the blessed Irenaeus, th e m arty r an d bishop o f Lyons, declares in his treatise On Easter, in 346

T H E “LORD’S DAY" IN T H E SECOND C EN TU R Y which he m akes m ention o f Pentecost also; upon which [feast] we d o not ben d the knee, because it is o f equal significance with the L ord's day, for th e reason already alleged con cern in g it." ’ As th e ed ito rs o f the Ante-Sicene Fathers have observed, this referen ce m ust be to E aster .4 It seem s clear that two annual events are intended; for Pentecost, an annual event, is placed in com parison with “L ord's day." Some Apocryphal Sources C ertain apocryphal sources that w ere p erhaps w ritten about the m iddle o f the second cen tu ry also use th e designation “L o rd ’s day," but not in clear referen ce to a weekly Sunday. T h e Gospel o f Peter, fo r exam ple, twice applies th e term to the very day on which C hrist's resu rrectio n took place .'1 A nd the Epistle o f the Apostles m akes a curious referen ce to th e " L o rd ’s d ay ” as the “O g d o a d .” ® In th e Arts o f John th e re is a referen ce to " L o rd ’s day" th at seems to have Saturday in view.: But on the o th e r h an d , the very fanciful Acts o f Peter would ap p e a r to m ean th e weekly C hristian S unday in its use o f the te rm .’ T h e d atin g o f the Acts of Peter, as well as o f the section o f the Acts of John that m entions "L ord's day," is especially difficult, however, an d it is possible that both o f these references may be later th an from the second century.* Barnabas o f A lexandria and Justin Martyr in Rome W h eth er B arnabas o f A lexandria (c. a . d . 130) an d Ju stin M artyr in Rom e (c. 150), whose m ain S unday references have been called to attention above in ch a p te r 7 an d ap p en d ix B, w ere acquainted with the term "L o rd ’s day" fo r the weekly S unday has been raised in recent discussions."' T h e fact is that n eith er o f these C h u rch F athers in th eir extant w ritings uses the term , but they use instead the designations “e ighth day" an d "Sunday" for th e first day o f the week." Obviously, this silence precludes calling upon these two C h u rch F athers for evidence th at S unday was term ed "L o rd ’s day" in th eir tim e a n d locale. O n the o th er h an d , th e sam e silence should not be utilized as p ro o f that B arnabas and Ju stin were totally u nfam iliar with the term “L o rd ’s day" as a nam e for S unday, inasm uch as th eir specific S unday statem ents are in contexts th at would preclude th eir use o f this term even if they w ere acquainted with it. B arnabas m ade his “eighth day" statem ent in the context o f a highly allegorical a n d eschatological discussion, an d Ju stin used the term "Sunday" in his apology addressed to the Rom an e m p e ro r an d Senate ("L ord's d ay ” would surely have been m isunderstood in this setting) an d the term “eighth day” when disputing with a Jew ish rabbi (again, th e reason for his choice o f term inology is clear ).11 In sh o rt, we may say, th ere fo re , that any d eb ate re g ard in g w hether o r not B arnabas a n d Ju stin knew o f S unday as the “L o rd ’s day” is m eaningless. T h e re simply is no evidence o n e way o r the other. We now tu rn to th re e earlier soufces that have often been set fo rth as evidence o f a S unday “Lord's day": The Didache, Ignatius' letter to the M agnesians, a n d Pliny's letter to T rajan . a

.d .

Didache, Chapter 14 T h e Didache, a sort o f baptism al, organizational, o r instructional m anual, has been d ated anyw here from the late first century to the late second century, but 347

T H E SA B B A TH IN SC R IP T U R E AND HISTO R Y

scholarly opinion now favors a fairly early date, at least for a good deal o f the m aterial com piled in the Didache. T h e docum ent seems to have o riginated in T h e statem ent in c h a p te r 14 o f interest h ere reads as follows: Kata kuriaken de kuriou sunaxthentes hlasate arton kai euxanstesate—“O n the L ord’s o f the L ord [or. “A ccording to th e L o rd ’s o f the Lord"] assem ble, break b read, a n d hold E ucharist.” H T h e w ord "day” (G reek hemeran, in th e accusative case) does not actually a p p e a r in the text, but most translators have ad ded it in th eir English translation, m aking the text read as follows: “O n the L ord’s day. . . Som e stu d en ts o f th e text would, however, suggest th e rendition “A ccording to the L o rd ’s co m m an dm ent . . — also a possible translation o f the original G re ek .'5 Sam uele Bacchiocchi, following a rendition o f Jo h n Baptiste T h ib au t an d su p p o rtin g it with a ra th e r im pressive line o f evidence, gives a sim ilar translation: ‘“ “A ccording to the sovereign d octrine o f the L o rd .” ”’ 16 Som e years ago a noted British scholar, C. \V. D ugm ore, set forth arg u m en ts that th e Didache term inology, which he refers to as " L o rd ’s day,” really m eant an annual Easter Sunday. In fact, D ugm ore also noted th e paucity o f referen ce to a weekly C hristian S unday in New T estam e n t and subapostolic literatu re and felt it stran g e that if this day w ere indeed the most im p o rtan t day o f the week for C hristians th ere w ould not have been m ore m ention o f it until Ju stin M artyr at the Law rence T . G eraty has followed up on this possible m eaning for the Didache statem ent, com m enting as follows: “U ndoub tedly o n e o f the earliest [hints that the Pascha was celebrated as an annual L o rd ’s day festival] is the phrase ‘L ord's Day' in the Didache, an ancient baptism al o r organizational m anual. A lthough this ren d itio n from xugiaxfyv 6 e x d q i o v o w a /S ^ v re s has been disputed, it is nevertheless the p re fe rre d translation. If so. the context would indicate that this could be an an n u al day fo r baptism an d the celebration o f the E ucharist ." 18 G eraty has fu rth e r called attention to the fact th at "a recognition o f this possibility existed in the n in eteen th century w hen J. Rendel H arris tried to show from the te n o r o f the Didache an d its context, that it m ust have had referen ce to som e great an n u al festival, perh ap s sim ilar to the day o f ato n em e n t.” G eraty goes o n to point o u t with referen ce to D ugm ore's work that this scholar, "after an analysis o f sim ilar passages in the Didache and Apostolic Constitutions, has a rg u e d convincingly that 'th e use o f xi>Qiaxr| as a technical term for Easier Day thus seems to be reasonably attested. Its use as a norm al description o f the first dav o f every week would only have been possible afte r Sunday had becom e a re g u iar day o f w orship am ong C hristians and had to be tho u g h t o f as a weekly com m em oration Ignatius to the M agnesians, Chapter 9 A bout a . d . 115 Ignatius. Bishop o f Antioch, traveled th ro u g h the R om an province o f Asia on his way to m artyrdom in Rome. O n this jo u rn e y he p en n ed letters to various o f the Asian churches, giving them counsel in view o f Ju d aizin g an d Gnostic tendencies th at a p p e are d to be creeping in .20 Ignatius' so-called “L o rd ’s day” statem ent occurs in ch a p te r 9 o f his letter to the M agnesians, a n d reads as follows from a com m only accepted edition o f the G reek text: meketisabbatiiontes alia kata kunaken zontes— “No longer sabbatizing, but

T H E "LO R D ’S DAY" IN T H E SECOND CENTUR Y

living according to th e L o rd ’s .’’ 21 It should be noted that the G reek w ord for “day" (hemeran, in th e accusative case) is not in the text. T h e m an uscript evidence favors, however, a longer version o f the G reek—a version th at contains the w ord zden, “life.” T his w ord has been o m itted by m o d ern editors in th e com m only accepted G reek w ording given above. T h e actual text as fo u n d in th e earliest ex tan t m anuscript reads as follows: meketi sabbatizontes alia kata kuriaken zoen zdntes.rt T h e norm al re n d erin g o f this expression (unless a cognate accusative was in te n d e d 2') w ould be: “no longer sabbatizing, but living according to th e L o rd ’s life.” Probably th e strongest evidence that not days bu t ways of life a re in view in this passage com es from a consideration o f the en tire context. T h e persons to w hom Ignatius re fers as "no longer sabbatizing, but living according to the Lord's" are the Old Testament prophets. In c h a p te r 8:1, 2 he h ad declared th at “if we are still living according to Judaism we adm it th at we have not received grace; for the m ost divine p ro p h e ts lived in accord with Jesus C hrist." In ch a p te r 9 : 1. 2 he goes on to declare, "If, th erefo re, those who lived in ancient ways cam e to new ho p e, no longer sabbatizing, but living according to the L o rd ’s [life], in which also o u r life arose th ro u g h him an d his d e a th ,. . . how shall we be able to live w ithout him o f whom even th e p ro p h e ts w ere disciples in the Spirit— looking forw ard to him as th eir teacher?” It is also w orth noting th at the fo u rth -cen tu ry in terp o later o f Ignatius did not see in this passage a conflict betw een two d iffe ren t days, for he ap p ro v ed the observance o f both days. In his version o f this passage in M agnesians 9 (quoted at length in ap p en d ix B) he prescribes that the Sabbath should be kept in a “spiritual m an n er," afte r which the “L ord's day” should also be observed." A distinguished patristic scholar, R obert A. K raft, has provided the following translation o f th e original Ignatius o f the early second century: "If, then, those who walked in the ancient custom s [i.e., the aforem entioned p rophets] cam e to have a new' hope, no lo n g er ‘sabbatizing’ but living in accord with the L ord's life— in which life th ere sp ra n g u p also o u r life th ro u g h him an d th ro u g h his d e a th .” Ji Pliny’s Letter to Trajan A bout a . d . 112 Pliny the Y ounger, g o vernor o f the province o f B ithynia in n o rth e rn Asia M inor, w rote a letter to Rom an E m p ero r T ra ja n re g ard in g the situation he m et in d ealing with C hristians in his province. H e indicates th at he in terro g ated som e fo rm e r C hristians who, u n d e r this questioning, indicated "the w'hole o f th eir guilt o r th eir e rro r" w hen they w ere C hristians to have been that “they w ere in th e habit o f m eeting on a certain fixed day [stato die] before it was light, w hen they sang in altern ate verses a hym n to C hrist, as to a god, an d b o u n d them selves by a solem n oath, not to any wicked deeds, but never to com m it any frau d , th eft o r adultery, never to falsify their w ord," et cetera.2* T h e statem ent, it is clear, is not really a "Lord's day” reference, fo r it does not use this term inology (indeed, the term “L o rd ’s day” w ould have h ad quite a n o th e r m eaning fo r a Rom an g o vernor th an w hat we know it later cam e to have for C hristians). T h e reason fo r noting Pliny’s statem ent here is that various m o d ern w riters have dealt with it as if it were a Sunday “L o rd ’s day" p ro o f text. In discussing this passage, G eraty points out that until the Jew ish-R om an war 349

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o f a . d . 132-135 the observance o f a weekly day o f w orship w ould not, in Rom an eyes, “necessarily have involved guilt, but an annual vigil service in h o n o r o f the L ord's re su rrec tio n ” m ight have d o n e so. “T h e Rom ans w ere used to, and p erm itted , th e weekly religious rites o f the Jews on th eir Sabbath, an d possibly o f pagan sun w orshippers on th eir Sunday. How ever, now they had on th eir h ands a new sect, th e C hristians, m eeting on a statu die ante lucem an d attrib u tin g divine honors to som e p erson o th e r than the Rom an em p ero r; and this could certainly be looked u p o n as a d a n g e r to the Rom an peace. T h u s the reaction o f the Rom ans, the lim e o f m eeting, an d to a lesser d eg ree the co n ten t o f the service, would seem to indicate an Easter vigil celebration—if indeed earlier exam ples o f this celebration w ere anything like what they later cam e to be.” ” S um m ary o f the S econd-C entury Evidence In sum total, th e evidence from the second century' for application o f the term “L o rd ’s day” to a weekly C hristian S unday is nonexistent in patristic literatu re until n ear th e e n d o f th at century, the first such reference by a C h u rch F ather com ing from C lem ent o f A lexandria. Possibly "L o rd ’s day" was used earlier in som e q u arte rs to designate an annual E aster Sunday. T his could not have been tru e in th e Rom an province o f Asia, how ever, for that province rem ained Q uarto d ecim an until the e n d o f the second ce n tu ry /" O n e curious reference in an apocryphal work from th ere, the Acts of John, seem s to apply the term inology to Saturday. B arnabas o f A lexandria an d Ju stin M artyr o f Rome in th eir respective writings o f about a . d . 130 an d a .d . 150 should not be adduced as evidence o f w heth er o r not in th eir day the weekly Sunday had com e to be known as the "L o rd ’s day." In th eir ex tan t works, n eith er o f these fathers used the term , nor could they be expected to have used it. Finally, n o n e o f the th re e earliest so-called “L o rd ’s day" references from the second cen tu ry — in the Didache, Ignatius, and Pliny— actually uses the term . In fact, th e weight o f evidence in each case favors a m eaning o th e r than a weekly C hristian Sunday. NO TES 1 T h e earliest e v id e n c e fo r th e u sa g e c o m e t fro m la te -sec o n d -ce n tu ry A lex a n d ria , as will he n o ted b e lo w ; but b e g in n in g a s early a s T e r tu llia n o f C a rth a g e, w h o se w ritings sp a n n e d th e p erio d f rom a b o u t a . d . 197 to 2 2 2 . v ariou s p a tn siic so u r ces fro m e lse w h e r e th an A lex a n d ria aJso u se tn e term “ L o rd ’s d a y ” as a d esig n a tio n for th e w eekly C hristian S un d ay E specially n otew o rth y are th e fo u rth - an d fifth -cen tu ry so u rces called to a tten tio n in a p p e n d ix B. a b o ve, as m e n tio n in g b oth th e Sabbath an d “Lord's d a y ’* (Apostolic Constitutions. J o h n C assian a n d o th er so u rces) 2 C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria Miscellanies v. 14 (A S F 2 :469). 5“F ragm en ts fro m th e Lost W ritin gs o f Ir e n a e u s.” 7 (A S F 1:569, 570). 4 A S F 1:569. n o te 9. ' Gospel of Peter, 9 . 12 (A S F 8:8). 6Epistle o f the Apoytlei (E n glish trans. in M. R. J a m es. The Apocryphal S e w Testament, cor. e d . (O x fo r d . 1 953), p. 4 9 1 ). Precisely w hat "O p doad ’ m ea n s in th is co n tex t is not clear. 1 Acts o f John (A S F 8 :5 6 0 , 5 6 1 ). T h e p assage reads as follow s: “A n d th e so ld iers, h avin g tak en th e public c o n v ey a n ce s, travelled fast, h avin g seated h im (Jon n l in th e m idst o f th em . A n d w h en they ca m e to th e first c h a n g e , it b ein g th e h o u r o f b reak fast, they en trea te d him to tie o f gcxxJ c o u r a g e , a n d to tak e b rea d , a n d ea t w ith th em . A nd J o h n said: I rejoice in so u l in d e e d , but in th e m ea n tim e I n o not w ish to take an v fo o d . . A n d o n th e sev en th d a y , it b e in g th e L o rd ’s d ay, h e said to th em : N o w it is tim e for m e also to p artak e of food ." T h e “s ev en th d a s " h ere m ay refer specifically to th e sev en th -d a y Sabb ath , o r it may re fe r to th e sev en th d ay o f t h e j o u m e s I f th e latter, th e d as w ould ev id e n tly still b e S atu rd ay. T h is is so b eca u se fastin g o n Saturday was not allo w ed in th e re g io n to w hich th e d o cu m en t p ertains— th e R om an p ro v in ce of A sia, in th e Eastern C h ristian w o rld , w hich d id not a d o p t th e S abbath fast. O n the p ro b lem o f d ate, see n o te 9. 8 T h e Acts o f Peter c o n ta in s a stra n g e m ix tu re of p ossib le fact a n d o b v io u s fiction (in th e latter ca teg o r y , for e x a m p le , a talk in g d o g carries m essages b etw een S im o n Peter an d S im o n M agus!). T h e “ L ord's d a y ” r e fe r e n c e s o f

350

T H E “LORD'S DAY" IN T H E SECO ND C EN TU R Y

prim ary- in terest a re fro m p aragrap h s ‘2 9 , 3 0 (Jam es, op. cit., pp. 3 2 9 . 330 ). 9 In a d d itio n to in trod u ctory m aterials in A N F an d J a m es (op. cit.) cited in th e fo r e g o in g n o tes, see Edgar H e n n e c k e ’s N e w Testam ent Apocrypha (P h ila d e lp h ia . 1963) (i.e ., Eng. ira n s. o f W ilhelm S c h n e e m e lc h e r ’s ed itio n o f H e n n c c k e ’s N eu' Testam ent Apocrypha); csp . 2 :1 9 5 . 196 fo r d iscu ssion r e g a rd in g th e in tro d u cto ry se v e n te e n ch a p ters o f th e Acts o f John, w h e re th e m aterial o n ‘T-ord's d a y ” occu rs (see n o te 7). T h e “ Lord's d a y ” r e fe r e n c e itse lf re ceiv e s n o m e n tio n , h ow ever. A lso g iv in g b rie f a tten tio n to so m e a p o cry p h a w e h a v e m e n tio n e d a b o v e is Jacques H e r v ie u x . The N ew Testam ent Abocrypha (N e w Y ork. I960). 10 S ec, e.g .. W alter E. Straw , O n p n o f Sunday O bsen’unce in the Christian Church (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1 939), p. 35. A lso. R obert L. O d o m . Sabbath a n d Sunday in E arly Christianity (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1 977), p. 130, m en tio n s )u stin as “n ot on ce" sp e a k in g “o f th e first d a y o f th e w eek eith e r as ‘th e Sabbatn or as ‘th e L ord s d a y .’ ” 11 “ E igh th day' in B arn ab as, ch ap . 15. a n d in Ju stin 's D ialogue with Trypho. ch a p . 4 1 (A N F 1:147. 2 1 5 ); “Sunday '' in Ju stin 's I Apology 6 7 (A N F 1:186). ,2 S ce n o te 1 1. 15 S ec. e .g ., J ea n -P a u l A u d e l, La didache: instructions des apdtres (Paris. 1958); and R obert M. G rant, The Apostolic Fathers, vol. 1. A n Introduction (N ew Y ork. 1964), p. 75. H o w ev e r, cf. also R obert A. K raft. T he Apostolic Fathers, vol. 3. Barnabas a n d the D idache (N e w Y ork. 1965), p . 76; “T h e D id a ch e co n ta in s a g rea t d ea l o f m aterial w hich d eriv es from very early (i.e .. firsl-ccn tu ry an d early sc c o n d < c n tu r y ) fo rm s o f (Jew ish-) C hristianity; but it w o u ld b e d iffic u lt to a rg u e co n v in cin g ly that th e present fo r m of th e Didache is earlier m a n m id -seco n d centu ry." 14 LCL. Apostohc Fathers, 1:330 (G reek ), 331 (E n glish ), LCL; o th er E n glish ren d itio n s available in v ariou s ed itio n s o f Apostolic Fathers, su ch as K raft, op. cit.. p. 173 (see n o te 13); C yril C. R ich a rd so n , trans. & c d .. Early Christian Fathers. L C £ (P h ila d elp h ia . 1953). p. 178; E d gar I. G o o d s p e e d . T he Apostolic Fathers (N ew Y ork. 195 0 ). p. 17. 15 S ee, e .g .. Frank H . Y ost. The Early C hristian Sabbath (M ou n tain V iew , C a lif.. 194 7 ). p. 32: "A n u m b er o f w ord s, a p p r o p r ia te b oth gram m atically an d in m ea n in g , co u ld be su p p lied . . . an d m ak e as g o o d o r b etter s e n se th an 'day*; for in stan ce, th e w ord 'c o m m a n d m en t.'" ,6 S a m u e le B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977), p. 114. n o te 73. H e a d d s to T h ib a u l’s lingu istic arg u m en t so m e six fu r th e r a rg u m en ts, m ostly relatin g to co n tex tu a l co n ce rn s. 17 C . W. D u g m o r e, "Lortl s D ay a n d Easter." in A eotestamentica et P atn stica (festsch rift for O scar C u llm a n n ), s u p p le m e n ts to N o v u m Tcstam entum 6 (L eid e n , l9 6 2 ) : 2 7 2 - 2 8 1. 18 L aw ren ce T . G eratv. “T h e Pascha a n d th e O r ig in o f S un d ay O b servan ce." ,4Lr5 5 3 (1 9 6 5 ):8 7 , 88. 19 Ibid., p. 8 8 , n o te 15. T h e r e fe r e n c e to H arris is The Teaching c f the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1 887). p a g es 105. 106. T h e re fe r e n c e to D u g m o r e is to p ages 2 7 6 -2 7 9 in D u g m o re's w ork ci.e d in n o te 17. 20 S ee, e.g ., th e brief treatm en t in R ich ard son , op. a t., p a g es 7 4 -8 6 . 9 4 . a n d G o o d sp e e d . op. cit., p a g es 2 0 3 -2 0 5 (see n o te 14). A n ex c e lle n t g en er a l a cco u n t o f Ignatius' trip to R om e and o f his letters is g iv en in Philip C a rrin g to n , The First C hristian Century, vol. I o f The Early Christian Ctiurch, (Cambridge*. E n g., 1957), p a g es 4 4 5 -4 5 9 . E nglish tran slation o f th e letters is fo u n d , e .g .. m A X F 1:4 9 -1 2 6 (in clu d in g a n u m b er o f sp u rio u s ep istle s .is w ell); Apostidu Fathers. 1 :1 7 3 -2 7 7 . LCL; C toodsp eed . op. cit., p a g e s 2 0 7 -2 3 5 ; R ich ard so n , op. cit.. p a g es 8 7 -1 3 7 ; R obert M. G rant, trails.. Ignatius o f Antioch, vol. 4 o f T he Apostohc Fathers, (N ew Y ork. 1966), p a g es 2 9 -1 3 7 . 21 T h e tran sliteration g iven h ere is fro m G reek tex t as g iven in Apostolic Fathers. 1:20 4 . LCL. 22S ee th e facsim ile re p r o d u ctio n in F rit/ G u y. “ T h e L ord s Day' in th e L etter o f Ig n a tiu s to th e M agnesians," A U S S 2 (1 9 6 4 ), p late fa cin g p. 8. T h e tex t clearly read s. ", . . x a it t x v p ia x f)v tyovTEg." 23 For d iscu ssion o f th e possibility o f a c o g n a te accusative, se e G u y . op. a t., p a g es 10. 11. 16. In th is ca se the tran slation could be: “N o lo n g e r sab b atizin g, but livin g a life a cc o rd in g to th e L ord s (day].'' T h e specific G reek w ord for “day" is still lack in g fro m th e tex t, o f co u rse. 24A N F 1:62, 63. R obert A . Kraft, “S o m e N o te s o n Sabbath O b serv a n ce in Early C hristianity." A U S S 3 (1 9 6 5 ):2 7 . 86 Pliny. U tte rs x . 9 6 . LCL. 27 G eratv, op. cit., p a g es 8 8 , 89. 28 For a b r ie f d iscu ssio n o f th is m atter, se e K en n eth A . S tran d , T h e Early Christian Sabbath (WTo r th in g to n , O h io , 1979), p a g es 4 7 -5 0 , 5 2 , 5 3 . T h e Q u a rto d ec im a n C on troversy o f th e late s eco n d centu ry is trea ted in s o m e d eta il in E u sebiu s Ecclesiastical H istory v. 2 3 -2 5 (N P N F fit 1 :2 41-244).

351

A P P E N D IX G

Joseph Bates and Seventh-day Adventist Sabbath Theology*

C. M ervyn M axw ell

S

EV EN TH -D A Y A D V E N T IST S constitute by far th e most nu m ero u s g ro u p o f C hristians observing Friday night an d S aturday as the Sabbath. G eneral aspects o f the b ackground an d developm ent o f th eir Sabbath theology have been surveyed in c h a p te r 13. T h e pio n eer contributions o f Jo sep h Bates to this d ev elopm ent deserve closer analysis. A lthough, as has been noted in ch a p te r 13, th e Sabbath theology o f Seventh-day A dventists owes m uch to the views held by Seventh Day Baptists in the early n in eteen th century. Seventh-day Adventists have constructed a unique Sabbath theology' by taking w hat they learned from the Seventh Day Baptists and u n itin g it to a com plex Biblical eschatology. Jo sep h Bates, along with o th er Seventh-day A dventist 1 pioneers, was guided into this eschatological Sabbath theology partly as a consequence o f his experience as a leading p ro p o n e n t o f M illerite A dventism . His step-by-step contributions to Seventh-day Adventism will be b etter u n d ersto o d a fte r a b rie f look at som e o f th e beliefs o f the M illerite A dventists .2 M illerite Adventism T h e M illerite A dvent m ovem ent, u n d e r the leadership o f William Miller, o f Low H am p to n , New York, was the N o rth A m erican aspect o f a m ore-or-less w orldw ide p h en o m en o n o f the early n in etee n th century that is som etim es re fe rre d to as th e G reat Second A dvent Awakening. T h re e them es that especially identified M illerism w ere (1) th at the “2300 days" o f Daniel 8:14 would term inate with th e second com ing o f C hrist a ro u n d 1843 o r 1844; (2) that the cleansing o f the sanctuary m entioned in the sam e verse was to be equated with the Second

* T h is a p p e n d ix e n la r g e s on o n e sign ifican t aspect o f th e trea tm e n t g iv en in ch a p ter 13. T h o u g h d u p lica tio n o f m aterial has b een a v o id ed as m u ch as p ossib le, th ere m ay be so m e re p e tiiio n h e r e for tn e sak e o f clarity. For th e b road historical b a ck g ro u n d s, se e ch a p ter 13.

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C om ing and with th e ju d g m e n t scene of Daniel 7:9-14; a n d (3) that th e re fo re the lime had arriv ed fo r the proclam ation o f the first angel’s m essage o f Revelation 14:6, 7: “T h e h o u r o f his [God's] ju d g m e n t is com e." W hen Miller reluctantly began to preach in 1831, he discovered to his su rp rise a warm a n d enthusiastic reception am ong P rotestant pastors. Besides som e 50,000 to 150,000 lay persons, several h u n d re d m inisters in various d en om inations a p p e a r to have accepted his views. But d u rin g the sum m er o f 1843 and especially in 1844, while the M illerites were concentrating on their final spiritual p re p ara tio n for the ju d g m e n t and the Second C om ing, a change o f feeling cam e about, and large n u m bers o f M illerites w ere disfellow shiped from th eir P resbyterian. M ethodist, C ongregationalist, Baptist, a n d o th er Protestant churches. R eexam ination o f Revelation 14 led the Millerites to the u n d ersta n d in g that before th e second com ing o f C hrist could take place, the first angel m ust be followed by a second one (verse 8 ), who declares that "Babylon is fallen, is fallen.” M illerites concluded that Babylon w as a symbol o f the churches that had rejected the ju d g m e n t-h o u r m essage o f the first angel an d that the tim e had com e to preach the second angel’s m essage and to call the tru e people o f God (chap. 18:4) out o f th eir fallen churches. T his, briefly, was the core o f the characteristic doctrines held by the M illerites—Jo sep h Bates am ong them — w hen Bates received his first ex posure to the seventh-day Sabbath. Joseph Bates’s Initial Sabbath T heology T h e story o f Jo sep h Bates’s acceptance o f the Sabbath th ro u g h re ad in g T . M. P reble’s publications in M arch, 1845, has been told in c h a p te r 13. As was also noted in th at ch ap ter, in A ugust, 1846, Bates cam e o u t with the first edition o f his influential pam p h let The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, From the Beginning, to the Entering Into the Gates of the Holy City, According to the Commandment.* T h is initial publication on the Sabbath question by a pio n eer o f the Seventh-day A dventist m ovem ent contained m any elem ents likely to have been fam iliar to its M illerite readers; b u t as we shall see in a m om ent, it also contained a germ o f th e fu tu re , unique. Seventh-day Adventist position. T . M. Preble h ad reflected Seventh Day B apust theology in his publications; it is not su rp rising, th ere fo re , th at Bates’s tract also was essentially Seventh Day Baptist in content. But it should be rem em bered that th e Seventh Day Baptist position was itself a m odification o f P uritan Sabbatarian theology' (see ch a p te r 12). C ongregationalists, Presbyterians, an d Baptists (who in A m erica stem m ed directly fom Puritanism ), an d M ethodists (who in A m erica were m uch influenced by it), could ag ree with m any o f Bates's argum ents. T hey could acknow ledge, for exam ple, th at th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t is m oral an d binding, th at the Sabbath is holy an d is to be kept strictly, a n d that the “handw riting o f ordinances" spoken o f in Colossians 2:14-17 as having been nailed to the cross was the cerem onial law, not th e Decalogue. Even th e re fere n ce to a “p erp etu al" Sabbath in Bales’s title was as P uritan as Nicholas Bownde him self, for he, in 1595, had contrasted the an n u al Jew ish Sabbaths “o f weekes an d yeares" with the “perpetu all Sabbath o f daies"— in te n d ­ ing S unday, o f c o u rse .'Jo n a th a n E dw ards in the early eighteenth century also had 1SISA H -2J

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def en d e d th e "perpetuity" o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent in a serm on titled "T he P erpetuity a n d C hange o f the Sabbath."* Even m ore to the point, William Miller had go n e on re co rd as d e fen d in g the Sabbath as a "p erp etu al sign,” once again with application to S unday .6 As a m atter o f fact, early Seventh-day Adventist Sabbatarianism owed a twofold debt to Puritanism . As noted in ch a p te r 12, early English Puritanism , with its em phasis on the fo u rth com m andm ent, led the fou n d ers o f the Seventh Day Baptists to discover the “seventh-day” orientation o f the Sabbath, a discover)' which they later passed on to Seventh-day Adventists. In addition, the em igration o f early P uritan ideals provided a cu ltu re in m id-nineteenth-century A m erica that was fam iliar with the concept o f a weekly holy day and which thus facilitated p ro p agation o f Seventh-day Adventism . F or that m atter, it ap p ears that the seventh-day Sabbath itself was fairly widely agitated am ong the M illerites d u rin g the su m m er o f 1844, to the consternation o f th eir chief leaders.’ T h u s w hen people read Bates’s first edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign— a n d most o f its read ers w ere M illerite Adventists— a good many found them selves in harm ony with m uch o f what it said, m ost being startled mainly by its insistence that the Sabbath should be kept holy on S aturday ra th e r than on Sunday. But in ad d ition to its fam iliar em phases an d its presentation o f the Seventh Day B aptist Sabbath, Bates's pam phlet also contained a totally new idea. A fter Bates h ad begun to keep the Sabbath in M arch, 1845, he noticed som ething that most M illerites h ad overlooked, nam ely, that before the second com ing o f C hrist, th e first and second angels o f Revelation 14 w ere to be followed by a th ird angel with a w arning against the m ark o f the beast. Bates also noticed that Revelation 14:12 describes tbe last-day saints as a people who “keep the com m andm ents o f God, a n d [have] th e faith o f Jesus.” T h is reference to com m andm ent keeping helped confirm Bates in his new conviction about th e Sabbath. It seem ed to him that in a special sense the tim e had com e fo r the people who had proclaim ed the first an d second m essages to recognize th e th ird angel’s m essage an d to keep the Sabbath o f the T en C om m andm ents— an d he m entioned this briefly in his book." Bates’s Correlation o f the Sabbath and the H eavenly Sanctuary By th e tim e Bates was ready to p re p are th e second edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, he had ad d ed to his thinking two additional concepts which also w ere to becom e uniquely characteristic o f the developing Seventh-day Adventist position. In o rd e r to u n d erstan d them , it will be helpful to lake yet a n o th e r look at M illerite Adventism . We have indicated th at the Millerites assum ed that a parallel exists between the cleansing o f the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 (King Jam es Version), the ju d g m e n t scene o f Daniel 7:9-14, an d the second com ing o f C hrist. In d eed , Miller took C h rist’s com ing on clouds to the ju d g m e n t (Dan. 7:13) to be the sam e event as His com ing on clouds to the ea rth at the en d o f th e present a g e .9T h u s, he seem s to have given in ad equate attention to the fact that in Daniel 7 the Son o f m an comes for ju d g m e n t “to th e A ncient o f days" ra th e r than to the earth. But on th e day following the disappointm ent o f O ctober 22, 1844, the sem inal d ifference h ere was caught by H iram Edson, a M ethodist M illerite laym an 354

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an d later a Seventh-day A dventist m inister. A ccording to his personal account, Edson cam e suddenly to u n d ersta n d “distinctly, an d clearly, that instead o f o u r H igh Priest com ing out o f the Most Holy o f the heavenly sanctuary to com e to this ea rth on [O ctober 22. 1 8 4 4 ]. . . that he for the first lim e en tered on that day the second a p a rtm en t o f that sanctuary---- T h a t he cam e to the m arriage at th at time; in o th e r words, to the Ancient o f days to receive a kingdom , a dom inion, and glory ." 10 T h u s E dson observed thal the Son o f m an goes to the A ncient o f days, no i to the ea rth , at th e tim e o f the ju d g m e n t in Daniel 7, and that His m arriage to His kingdom takes place in heaven, not on the earth. Edson says that he also found himself taking a new interest in Revelation 11:15-19: “T h e seventh angel sounded . . . and, the tem ple o f God was o p en ed in heaven, and th ere was seen in his tem ple th e ark o f his testam ent ." 11 W hen o n e o f T . M. P reble’s publications about th e Sabbath reached Edson's hom e in Port Gibson, New York, som etim e later, Edson associated the Sabbath o f th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t with the ark o f the testam ent [that is, the ark containing th e T e n C om m andm ents] in the heavenly tem ple o r sanctuary. H e began to w onder w h ether C h rist’s en try into heaven’s Most Holy Place in 1844 would result in a new em phasis on S ab b athkeeping .13 O ver th e en suing m onths Edson studied the Bible with O. R. L. C rosier, a teacher, and F. B. H ahn, a physician. T h e ir conclusions were published by C rosier on F ebruary 7, 1846, in the form o f an “Extra" edition o f the Day-Star, a M illerite periodical ed ited by Enoch Jacobs, o f C incinnati, O hio.” In this extra. C rosier arg u ed from S crip ture that the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is indeed the o n e in heaven, and that in O ctober, 1844, Jesus en tered its Most Holy Place to com m ence a work o f ato n em en t analogous to the cleansing o f Israel on the ancient Day o f A tonem ent (see Leviticus 16). W ithout any m ention o f a ju d g m e n t concept, C rosier p o rtray ed C hrist's contem porary m inistry as the blotting out o f sins (Acts 3:19) in p re p ara tio n for the Second C om ing (verses 20, 21). As already m entioned, Jo sep h Bates accepted the Seventh Day Baptist teaching on the seventh-day S abbath from reading T . M. Preble in M arch, 1845. In February o r M arch, 1846— that is, about as soon as it a p p e are d — he also read C rosier's article in the Day-Star extra. C onvinced by C rosier’s arg u m en t that the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is the o n e in heaven, Bates soon com posed a thirty-nine-page tract. The Opening Heavens," in which he en dorsed the concept with observations from the Bible an d from astronom y. (This was still som e five m onths before he published his first full tract on the Sabbath re fe rre d to above.) N ear th e e n d o f The Opening Heavens Bates inserted a short section on the Sabbath question, relating the seventh-day Sabbath to the ark o f the testam ent in the sanctuary described in the O ld T estam en t. But even though this little work as a whole dealt with th e heavenly sanctuary an d contained a reference to the Sabbath, Bates ap p aren tly d id not at this tim e see any connection betw een the Sabbath and the ark o f th e testam ent in the sanctuary in heaven. It appears that on the Sabbath issue Bales was still an a d h e re n t o f the Seventh Day Baptist position, not advancing beyond that theology until several m onths later, w hen, in his Sei'enth Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign (A ugust. 1846), he linked the Sabbath to the third angel’s message. History an d theology cannot m eaningfully be separated in the developm ent 355

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o f Seventh-day A dventist theology. T h e m arriage o f Jam es W hite an d Ellen H arm o n in th e sam e m o n th (A ugust, 1846) th at this tract a p p e are d , and their soo n -after ad o p tion o f the seventh-day Sabbath, provided a congenial foundation for fu rth e r interaction betw een the W hites an d Bates in the ongoing developm ent o f Seventh-day A dventism . A second historically significant event was th e visit Bates m ade about N ovem ber, 1846, to Edson. H ahn, a n d C rosier in C anandaigua an d Port G ibson, New Y ork .13 It was evidently while in conversation with these creators o f the Day-Star ex tra, th e p ap e r which had influenced Bates so effectively earlier in the year, th at Bates first began to sense a connection betw een the Sabbath an d the en try o f C hrist in 1844 into the Most Holy Place o f the heavenly sanctuary. In Jan u a ry , 1847, a fte r his re tu rn hom e to Fairhaven, M assachusetts, Bates issued a second, en larged e d itio n “ o f his Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, the first edition having been exhausted. He m ade use o f th e o p p o rtu n ity to ex p an d his exposition o f th e th ird an g el’s m essage by o fferin g an identification for the m ark o f th e beast re fe rre d to in that m essage and in Revelation 13:16, 17. “ Is it not clear,” he asked, “that [keeping] the first day o f the week for the Sabbath o r holy day is a m ark o f the beast ?” 17 In this second edition Bales also developed, for th e first tim e in print, E dson’s suggestion, m entioned above, about th e fulfillm ent o f Revelation 11:15-19. Specifically, Bates noted that m any persons (Preble? J. B. Cook? him self? others?) h ad recently published m aterial in favor o f the seventh-day S abbath." As a possible reason for this u p su rg e o f interest in the Sabbath, he proposed that when th e seventh angel (Rev. 11:15) sou n d ed his tru m p e t and the tem ple o f G od was o p en ed in heaven and the ark o f the testam ent was spiritually revealed, G o d ’s spirit “m ade an indelible im pression” on people’s m inds to “search the scriptures for th e T estim ony o f G od." He ad d ed cautiously, “ I d o not say that this view o f the A rk in Revelation is positive, but I think the in feren ce is strong. I cannot see w hat else it refers to .” '* T h is was in Jan u a ry , 1847. Bates’s hesitancy was quickly rem oved. O n M arch 6 , in F airhaven, M assachusetts (probably in B ales’s ho m e ),*0 and on April 3, in T o p sh am . M aine (in the hom e o f a n o th e r S abbatarian A dventist ),*1 Ellen W hite, in a visionary state, saw Jesu s in the Most Holy Place o f the heavenly sanctuary calling atten tio n to the tables o f the law in the ark a n d to a halo of glory a ro u n d the fo u rth co m m andm ent. T h ese w ere Ellen W hite’s first visions concerning the Sabbath, both o f them seen som e m onths a fte r she becam e a Sabbath k eep er.1* T h ey convinced Bates th at his Bible study had been divinely led. Soon he published an account o f th e April 3 vision in volum e 1, N u m b er I, o f A Vision, d ated April 7, 1847. Bates, th e W hites, a n d perh ap s a few dozen o r so o th e r persons w ere now convinced th at the seventh-day Sabbath was the m essage o f the hour. But they fo u n d it difficult to p ersu ad e ihe o th e r disappointed A dventists to adopt th eir view. T o th eir dism ay, they realized that alm ost all o f them had ab an d o n ed the idea th at O ctober. 1844, h ad any significance at all. T o resto re confidence in th e A dvent experience and, by doing so, to establish a basis for his S abbatarian em phasis. Bates p ro d u ced in May, 1847, an eighty-page booklet entitled Second Advent Way Marks and H tgh Heaps, or a Connected View, of the Fulfillment o f Prophecy, by God’s Peculiar People, From the Year 1840 to 1847.*' From 356

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S cripture, th e a p p a re n t fulfillm ent o f prophecy, the M illerite experience in g eneral, and th e publications o f M illerite leaders. Bates a rg u ed that G od had most certainly led th e A dventists to focus on the 2300 days o f Daniel 8:14, an d that the real significance o f the A dvent A w akening lay in its witness to C h rist’s entry in O ctober, 1844, into the Most Holy Place in heaven. (This publication was a review o f th e M illerite A dvent experience; thus, to anticipate a later Seventh-day A dventist term , it constituted an "A dvent review.”) O n this basis Bates proceeded to arg u e for the tim eliness o f th e Sabbath in relation to th e th re e angels' messages an d to the o p en e d tem ple in heaven. H e stated th at "the first m essage [of the th ree angels in Rev. 14:6-11] th at issued on the com m andm ents cam e from the p resen tatio n o f th e a r k .. . . T h is was the point o f tim e th at this m essage was urg ed on G o d ’s people, to lest th e ir sincerity an d honesty in the whole w ord of G o d .” 14 Bates’s various publications stim ulated a vigorous debate on the Sabbath question within th e A dventist com m unity, articles on the subject ap p earin g in the Advent Harbinger o f R ochester, New York, and in the Bible Advocate, o f H a rtfo rd . C onnecticut. C. Stowe, J. C ro ffu t, J. B. Cook, a n d A. C arp e n te r w ere am ong those who d efen d ed th e seventh-day Sabbath. T im othy Cole, ed ito r o f the Bible Advocate, Jo sep h M arsh, editor o f the Advent Harbinger, Jo sep h T u rn e r, G. N eedham , a n d “B arnabas" (possibly Jacob W eston) opposed it.“ In th e context o f this d eb ate Jo sep h Bates sat dow n late in the au tu m n o f 1847 to com pose A Vindication of the Seventh-day Sabbath, and the Commandments of God: With a Further History of God's Peculiar People, from 1847 to 1848*' His own com m itm ent to th e p ro p ag atio n of Sabbatarianism is attested by the reduction of his cash resources at this tim e to a York shilling .17 Bates’s m ost significant theological innovation in A Vindication o f the Sei’enth-day Sabbath was the identification o f the sealing process o f Revelation 7 with th e dev elo p m ent o f character. In this docum ent he also associated the Sabbath m ore intim ately than ever with C hrist’s new m inistry in heaven’s Most Holy Place. The sealing process. Bates said, had been going on over the previous eight years, ever since M iller's m ovem ent first attracted wide attention in 1840, an d it would be com pleted in the upcom ing “tim e o f trouble" o f Daniel 12:1, 2. Specifically, he believed th at the seal o f God applied to the experience o f the 144.000 saints— people who would show such a clear developm ent “o f C hristian ch aracter in th eir lives an d shining foreheads (or faces), that it will be clearly u n d ersto o d that Jesus has red eem ed them from all iniquity, by purifying 'u n to himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works.""" Bates fu rth e r taught that as Jesus com pletes the w ork o f ato n em en t in heaven— th at is, "in this day o f ato n em en t, while o u r G reat H igh Priest is cleansing the sanctuary, (blotting out his people's sins,) p re p a rin g his jew els (Mai. iii: 17)" ” —C hrist's people “e n te r in to . . . rest by keeping for th e first tim e the right Sabbath o f the L ord o u r God in th eir patient waiting, or trying time; resting from th eir labors, in these messages, from the w orld: . . . waiting for th eir great high priest to finish th e cleansing o f th e sanctuary, which blots o u t th eir sins, and purifies them to e n te r into th e holy city .”50 For Jo sep h Bates the concept that C hrist e n tered th e Most Holy Place in 1844 was not an exercise in m etaphysics. Bates believed that C hrist’s new m inistry im p arted a vital new aw areness o f the privileges a n d responsibilities o f Sabbath 357

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observance. F or him , C h rist’s cleansing o f the sanctuary connoted m ore than rem oving sins from records in a heavenly tem ple; it involved purification o f th e characters o f th e 144,000 saints on ea rth as the Sabbath m essage, voluntarily accepted, served to sanctify them an d re n d e r them zealous o f good works in essential p re p ara tio n for th e second com ing o f C hrist. Ellen W hite later m ade several references to this sam e concept o f spiritual developm ent in connection with the Sabbath an d with C hrist’s m inistry in the heavenly sanctuary. For exam ple, in The Great Controversy, published in 1888, she w rote that “the people [that is, the M illerite A dventists o f 1844) were not yet ready to m eet th eir L ord. T h e re was still a work o f p re p ara tio n to be accom plished fo r them . Light was to be given, directing th eir m inds to the tem ple o f G od in H eaven; and as they should by faith follow their H igh Priest in his m inistration th ere , new duties [including Sabbath keeping] would be revealed. A n o th er m essage o f w arning and instruction [the th ird angel’s message] was to be given to the church. . . . T h o se who are living u p o n the ea rth w hen the intercession o f C hrist shall cease in the sanctuary above, are to stand in the sight o f a holy God w ithout a m ediator. T h e ir robes m ust be spotless, th eir characters m ust be purified from sin by the blood o f sprinkling. T h ro u g h the grace o f God and th eir own diligent effort, they m ust be co n q u erors in the battle with evil. . . . W hen this work shall have been accom plished, th e followers o f C hrist will be ready fo r his a p p e a rin g .”51 Group Study and Confirmation We have seen en o u g h to know that Bates did not develop his Sabbath theology in isolation. H e served, ra th e r, as the ex p o n en t o f views developed by a ban d o f Sabbatarian Adventists that included besides him self Jam es an d Ellen W hite, H iram Edson, S tephen Pierce, an d som e others. T h is small g ro u p , in the w ords o f o ne o f them w ritten m uch later, "searched for the tru th " —som etim es all n ight—"as for h id d en tre a su re .” ” H istorical developm ents in 1848, following the Ja n u a ry ap p e ara n ce o f A Vindication o f the Seventh-day Sabbath, acted to en co u rag e Bates an d his associates in th eir S abbatarian convictions. T hey also led Bates by the en d o f the year to a fu rth e r significant in terp retatio n . A long with the W hites, Bates atten d ed a series o f seven “conferences" in 1848 th at w ere organized for the benefit o f those Adventists who were interested in the Sabbath. T h ese occasions w ere atten d ed by anyw here from a han d fu l to a ro u n d fifty persons. T h ey convened in private hom es o r in farm buildings in Rocky Hill, C onnecticut, in A pril and S eptem ber; in Bristol, C onnecticut, in J u n e ; in Volney an d in Port G ibson, New York, in A ugust; in T o p sh am , M aine, in O ctober; an d in D orchester, M assachusetts, in N ovem ber.” T h e prim ary function o f the conference series was to unify an d confirm the laity in th e sanctuary-Sabbath concept. Jam es W hile reviewed the evidence o f G od’s leadership in the A dvent M ovem ent. Bates traced the relation betw een the sanctuary' an d th e Sabbath. A nd Ellen W hite ex h o rted to a quality o f life h arm o n io u s with such ideas. (T h e im pressive ag enda som etim es conceived o f fo r th e series is speculative.) u V arying am ounts of opposition w ere voiced at the first th re e gatherings. At the th ird an d largest m eeting (in Volney). Bates and the W hites stated firmly that they had not com e to listen but to teach. T hey u rg e d the people to co n centrate on th e "great tru th s" before th em .” 358

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U nity an d confirm ation having been achieved well before the series en d ed , the com pany th at g ath ered in T o p sh am in O ctober looked to Bates to produce yet an o th e r publication on the Sabbath theology. W hile Bales hesitated, he a n d the W hites m et in D orchester in N ovem ber. T h e re , as the discussion focused on the seal o f God in Revelation 7, Ellen W hite in vision saw that the seal was the Sabbath and that Revelation 7:1-3 im plied that the Sabbath m essage would increase in pro m inence until, like the sun, it shone aro u n d the w orld.“ A fter the vision, Ellen W hile indicated that she believed G od w anted h er husband to launch a periodical and Bates to p re p are a fu rth e r publication (as som e h ad suggested at the T o p sh am gathering). A fter the g ro u p satisfied itself that the Bible su p p o rts the view that the seal o f Revelation 7 is the Sabbath, Bates, in Jan u a ry , 1849, cam e ou t with a booklet entitled A Seal of the Living God. A Hundred Forty-four Thousand, o f the S en ’ants of God being Sealed, in 1849.'' In this work he explicitly linked the seventh-day Sabbath to the eschatological seal o f Revelation 7. H e also associated this new u n d ersta n d in g o f the seal with his earlier view th at it re p resen ted ch a rac te r developm ent. H e said th at as Jesu s cleanses the heavenly sanctuary, H e seals a n d blots ou t the sins o f only those persons who d em o n strate stren g th o f conviction by stalwart Sabbath observance.” H e also tau g h t that the 144,000 who will be sealed by the Sabbath are the saints, an d the only saints, who will be alive at the Second Coming.'* T h e prospect that the Sabbath m essage w ould be spread from a few A m erican towns to the entire C hristianized w orld and that the n u m b er o f its ad h e ren ts would increase from a few dozen to 144,000 did n o thing to lessen Bates’s confidence in the significance o f his theology! Jam es W hite, in July, 1849, in augurated The Present Truth, an d in A ugust, 1850, The Advent Review. In N ovem ber, 1850, W hite m erged the th ru st o f both pap ers into the e n d u rin g Second Advent Review, and Sabbath Herald. T h e title o f the m agazine had n o th ing to do with the fu tu re second com ing o f C hrist. Instead, it prom ised th e re a d e r th at the p a p e r intended to keep reviewing the evidence that God had been in th e A dvent A w akening that had clim axed in O ctober, 1844, and that th ere fo re C h rist’s new function in the heavenly sanctuary since that date provided salient significance to the theology an d practice o f the Sabbath. The Second Advent Review, and Sabbath Herald was the direct successor to Bates’s own series o f publications. Its m asthead carried the nam es o f Jam es W hite an d J. N. A ndrew s. W ith com m unication now en tru sted to his y ounger colleagues, Jo sep h Bates closed his service as the principal publisher o f S abbatarian Adventist theology. Other Important Concepts in Joseph Bates’s Sabbath Theology B efore m oving to a short survey o f the relationship o f Bates's Sabbath theology to later Seventh-day A dventism , we should pause to summarize what we have d o n e so far and to note a few additional concepts and developm ents that deserve at least passing reference. We have seen how Bates, a fte r ad o p tin g the Seventh Day B aptist theology o f the Sabbath, ad d ed to it o n e eschatological concept a fte r an o th er. T his eschatological grow th was ro o ted in his M illerite A dventist background. Successively Bates related the Sabbath to (a) the th ird angel o f Revelation 14, (b) C hrist's new m inistry beside th e ark in the heavenly sanctuary, conceived to have 359

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begun in 1844 in fulfillm ent o f Revelation 11, (c) the "m ark o f the beast” o f Revelation 14:9-11, (d) th e “seal o f G od” o f Revelation 7, an d (e) the 144,000. In addition to these concepts, it can be said that Bates was also interested in a th em e o f T . M. Preble's to th e effect th at S abbathkeepers are the “tru e Israel” o f the last days. In the first edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, Bates concluded that, as the tru e Israel, S abbathkeepers are heirs o f the prom ises an d obligations o f Isaiah 5 8 :13, 14: " If thou tu rn away thy foot from the s a b b a th ,. . . th en shalt thou . . . ride u p o n the high places o f the earth ." et ce te ra .40 Bates also related th e Sabbath to th e “restitution o f all things” prom ised in Acts 3:21, com m enting, “ I u n d ersta n d th at the seventh day Sabbath is not the least one, am o n g the all things that a re to be restored before the second advent o f Jesus C h rist ."41 In th e second edition o f The Seventh Dux Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, Bates developed logically from th e concept o f restitution in Acts 3 an d the Sabbath prom ises in Isaiah 58 to th e restitution prophecy’ o f Isaiah 58:12. In doing this he presaged an em phasis that was to become characteristic o f Seventh-day Adventism for m any decades: “ ‘T h ey that shall be o f T H E E shall build the old waste places— thou shalt raise up the foundation of many generations, and thou shalt be called the R E PA IR E R »/ the breach, the RESTORER of paths to dwell in.’"*1 Bates observed that in view o f verses 13 and 14, which im m ediately follow this prophecy, "rep airin g th e breach" refers to the restoration o f the Sabbath. In A Seal o f the Living God, in Jan u a ry , 1849, an d in an 1850 tract called An Explanation o f the Typical and Anti-Typical Sanctuary, by the Scriptures. With a Chart, Bates revived from earlier A dventist literatu re the concept o f a pre-A dvent ju d g m e n t based on Daniel 7 a n d 8 a n d com m encing in 1844.45 N o t to be overlooked is the use Bates m ade o f ch u rch history in su p p o rt o f his S abbatarian theology. In both editions o f The Sei’enth Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign he devoted several pages to the history o f the so-called change o f the Sabbath from th e seventh to the first day o f the week. In doing this, he followed the Seventh Day Baptists, who, in tu rn , had evidently taken th eir cue from the early S abbatarian Puritans. Nicholas Bownde had shored up his theology o f Sunday Sabbatarianism by attem p tin g to d educe from history that the change from S aturday to S unday o ccu rred within the apostolic era and hence was Biblically approved. T h e Seventh Day Baptists— an d Bates— used history to prove that the change occu rred m uch later th an th e apostolic era an d hence was not Biblically sanctioned. It was, in fact, o n the basis th at the ch ange was m ade by the ch u rch in the age o f apostasy that Bates d em o n strate d that S unday was the characteristic, o r “m ark," o f the beast. In m id -n in eteen th -century A m erica, the first beast o f Revelation 13 was widely re g ard e d , as it h ad been in R eform ation E urope, as a symbol o f historic apostate C hristianity. As lo r Bates’s u n d ersta n d in g o f the th ird angel o f Revelation 14, it u n d erw en t a significant shift d u rin g th e years u n d e r observation here. W hen Bates com m ented on the th ird angel’s m essage in the first edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, he lim ited it to Revelation 14:9-11 (om itting verse 12 ), an d he assum ed that, like the m essages o f the first two angels, it had m et its fulfillm ent within the M illerite m ovem ent. O n this point Jam es W hite disagreed with him . T h e m atter not yet having been resolved, the identity o f the th ird an g el’s m essage ap p ears not to have been discussed at the 1848 conferences. H iram 360

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Edson leaned at first to Bates's view, but he changed to W hite’s while w riting on the subject in 1849. By 1850 Bates, too, had accepted W hite's posiuon, and all th ree ag reed that w hereas the first two angels' m essages were fulfilled in the M illerite m ovem ent, th e th ird (including verse 12 ) did not com m ence its fulfillm ent until after 1844." T he Course o f Bates’s Legacy Bates's co n tribution to subsequent Seventh-day A dventist Sabbath theology was im m ense a n d has rem ained largely ef fective. Inevitably, o f course, th ere have been d evelopm ents an d d ep a rtu res. T h e th ree angels were very soon reg ard e d , for practical purposes, as all flying cu rren tly with th eir messages, th e first two no longer confined to the M illerite period. As new people ad o p ted the Sabbath who had not participated in M illerism, they h ad to be tau g h t the first two m essages in o rd e r to u n d ersta n d the th ird .4’ In 1857 Jam es W hite gave to the pre-A dvent ju d g m e n t the nam e “investigative ju d g m e n t,” by which it is still popularly d esig n ated .46 B ates’s identification o f th e m ark o f the beast with S unday observance u n d erw en t significant m odification. T heoretical theology notw ithstanding, it m ade little sense to say that all S undaykeepers have the m ark w hen so m any are obviously devout. Ellen W hite ef fectively urg ed th at no S undaykeepers should be th o u g h t o f as having the m ark o f the beast until they have chosen to reject clear evidence th at S unday stem s from apostate C h risten d o m .47 The quest fo r ever clearer evidence that, in fact, the C hristian observance o f S unday does have a non-Biblical origin continued to stim ulate interest in Sabbath-Sunday history. J . N. A ndrew s far surpassed Bates's treatm en t o f the subject with his scholarly History of the Sabbath and First Day of the Week, which ap p eared in th ree editions d u rin g his lifetim e. L. R. C onradi did n o t im prove on A ndrew s’ work in his fo u rth edition (1912), w hen, unwisely, he followed A dolf H arnack an d cited G nosticism as a m ajor factor in the change o f the day.4" N or did C. M. S orenson help m uch w hen, following F ra n / C um ont, he cited M ithraism as a m ajor cause .49 Ellen W hite sim ply—an d defensibly—attrib u ted the change to incipient worldliness, m isu n d erstan d in g o f the gospel, distaste for Jew ish legalism, an d the attractiveness o f Sunday in view o f C h rist’s re su rrectio n .“ T h e relationship that Bates stressed betw een the Sabbath an d C hrist's High Priestly m inistry in developing ch aracter and blotting o u t sins has not been lost sight o f but has been som ew hat obscured. C o n tem p o rary N o rth A m erican A dventist writers seem som ew hat m ore interested in A braham H eschel’s “cath ed ral in tim e" concept th an in Bates’s sanctuary in h eaven .'1 As early as 1853 Jam es W hite eagerly accepted a Seventh Day B aptist tract, Ehhu on the Sabbath, and tu rn e d it into a so rt o f instant Seventh-day A dventist classic. It was still being d istrib u ted at least as late as 1903, by which tim e h alf a m illion copies m ust have been in p rin t, even though it omits all o f the C hrist-centered sanctuary eschatologv that characterized Bates’s Sabbath w orks .58 O bf uscation o f the sanctuary C hrist, re p resen te d by the popularity o f Elihu and the Sabbath, was paralleled betw een 1850 a n d 1890 by a partial bu t serious eclipse o f th e crucified C hrist in the presentation o f the Sabbath. Ellen W hite p leaded with the A dventist m inistry to m ake the “b u rd e n ” o f its m essage “the mission an d life o f Jesu s C h rist." ” A change was at last in au g u ra ted by the 361

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C h rist-centered presentations o f Ellen W hite a n d Ellet J. W aggoner at the G eneral C o n ference session held in M inneapolis in 1888. By O ctober, 1893, 166,000 copies w ere in p rin t o f W. W. Prescott's Christ and the Sabbath,M&work that em ploys th e nam e o f C hrist m eaningfully som e 260 tim es in its thirty-nine pages. Its central b u rd e n is that no one can keep th e Sabbath holy w ithout a personal involvem ent with Jesu s C hrist, the L ord o f the Sabbath. Summary In 1845 Jo sep h Bates ad o p ted the Sabbath theology o f the Seventh Day Baptists and, in a series o f publications over the succeeding five years, w edded it to a systematic Biblical eschatology that was influenced by his fo rm er experience in M illerite A dventism . In d o in g this he was associated with H iram Edson, S tephen Pierce, an d oth ers, an d especially with Jam es a n d Ellen W hite. His spiritual successors, th e Seventh-day Adventists o f today, still seriously, but not slavishly, advocate and p ro p ag ate his views. NOTES 1 T h e n a m e “S ev en th -d a y A d ven tist" w as n o t a d o p te d officially u n til O c to b e r, 1860. For c o n v e n ie n c e , h o w e v er, it is u sed in th is a p p e n d ix for a p p r o p r ia te p erso n s. e \e n t s . an d id ea s p rio r to that d ate. 2 T h e best stu a v o f W illiam Miller an d th e M iUerites is Francis I). N ic h o i’s T he M id n ig h t Cry (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1944). S ee also C. M ervyn M axw ell. T ell I t to the W orld (M ou n ta in V iew , C a lif.. 1 976), ch ap s. 1-16. 5 N ew B ed fo rd [M a ss.I 4 T he D octrine o f the Sabbath, b la tn eh laycie forth, a n d soundly proved try testimonies both o f H o b Scripture, a n d also of olde a n d neu ecclesiastical writers. 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1595), 1:21. S ee th e d iscu ssio n o f this w ork in ch a p ter 12. p. 4 9 3 . 'J o n a th a n E d w ards. Twenty Serm ons on Various Subjects (E d in b u rg h . 1789). p. 208. u W illiam M iller. “L ectu re on th e G reat Sabbath«" L ife a n d Views, p. 1 5 7 . in T . M. P reb le. A Tract, Show ing T h a t the Seventh Day Should Be O b se n rd as the Sabbath. Instead o f the First D ay. "According to the C om m andm ent" (N a sh u a ' (N H.?] 1845K p p . 3 . 5. ' >ec ed ito ria ls in The M id n ig h t Cry, A u g . 2 2 . S ep t. 5 . an d S ep t. 15. 1844 * The Seventh Day Sabbath, a P erpetual S ign. p. 24 9 S ec. e .g .. W illiam M iller, Exndence From Scripture a n d H is to n of the Second C om ing o f Christ, About the Year IN 4 3 , S eco n d A d v en t Library. N o . 2 (B o s to n . 1840). esp . p p. 4 5 * 4 7 ,55-i>7. in his th ird serm o n . 'T h e T w o T h o u sa n d T h ree H u n d red Days.** 10 H iram E d son . m an u scrip t fr a g m e n t, d e p o site d in th e H erita g e R oom , J a m es W'hite Library. A n d re w s U n iversity, B errien S p r in g s. M ich igan 11 Ibid. P

12 Ibid. IS Hi* article w as en title d “T h e Law o f Moses." 14 The O pening H eavens, or A Connected View of the Testimony o f the Prophets arui Apostles, (.o n cem in g the O pening H eavens. C om paredW ith Astronom ical O bservations, and o f the Present arui F u tu re Location of the S e w Jerusalem , the Paradise o f G od (N ew B e d fo r d [M ass ). 1846), esp . p. 25. 15 T h is visit is re fe rre d to in E d so n , op. cit. 16 N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.). 17 2 d ed . p p . 5 8 , 59. ** Ibid.. p p . iii. iv. 19 Ibid 20 In 1860, Ellen W'hite located th is first sanctuary-Sab b ath vision in N ew B e d fo r d , th e city ac ross th e river fro m F airh avcn . S e e E llen G . W'hite. S p iritu a l G ifts. 4 vols. (B attle C reek . M ic h . 1 8 5 8 -1 8 6 4 ), 2 :8 2 . H o w ev e r, in th e “ R em arks" J o s e p h B ales attach ed to his p u b lication o f th e sim ilar A p ril 3 vision , h e said that "at a m e e tin g in F airh aven . 6 th o f last m o n th . I saw h e r h ave a sim ilar v isio n .” T h e co n te m p o r a n e o u s n e ss of B ates's sta tem en t, n o t to m en tio n that h e lived in th e area, ju stifies a ssig n in g p r e fe r e n c e to his d ata T h e first vision a p p e a rs to Ix* th e o n e d escrib e d in Spiritual G ifts. 2 :8 2 , an d in Ellen G. W h ite .L ife Sketches o f F.llen G . W hite (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. 1 9 1 5 ). p p 9 5 . 96. 21 S ee A Vision, A pril 7. 1847; r e p r in te d , w ith ed ito ria l c h a n g e s, in E llen W h ile. L ife Sketches, p p. 1 0 0 -1 0 3 . 22 C f. E llen G . W h ite letter 2. 1874: “It w as m o n th s a fter 1 had c o m m c n c c d k eep in g th e Sabbath b e fo r e I was sh ow n [in vision ] its im p o rta n ce a n d its p lacc in th e th ird an gel's m essage." 2* N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.). T h e p u b lic a tio n d a te o f May is in fer red , in p a rt, fro m p age 7 3 . w hich re fe rs to a co p y o f th e Voice o f T ruth for A p ril 2 8 . 1 8 47. as h avin g ju st c o m e to h a n d . J a m e s W h ite, in a letter d a ted May 2 1 . f t 4 7 . r e p o r te d m at “B ro th er B a te s is o u t w ith a Ix >«>k on o u r past ex p er ien ce.'' 24 B ates. W ay M arks, p p. 7 2 . 73. 25 A rticles o n th e Sabbath q u e stio n a p p e a red in th e A difent H arbinger, June* 2 9 , 1847. a n d th e Bible Advocate, A u g 2 6 , Sept 2 , 16, 2 8 . O ct. 2 1 . N ov. 4. 1 1, a n d D ec 2, 9 . 16, 2 3 . 3 0 . 184 7 . a n d )an 13. 1848. 26 N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.). G o d fre y T . A n d er so n d isco v er ed a copy in 1 976. in th e B o sto n C ity Library. 27 J a m es W h ite. L ife Incidents in Connection W ith the G reat A d i'en t M ovem ent, as Illustrated by the Three A ngels o f

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R n v U a u m X I I (Bank* C reek . M ich . 1868). p 2 6 9 " B a in , Vindication. p 9 6 . " I M . p p 7 3 . 74. ^ I b id . p 108 11 Ibid.. p p 4 2 4 . 4 2 5 %1 E llen ( . W h ile. Selected M enage* From the H’n t a n o f E llen C . W hite. 2 v o b (W a sh in g to n . D .C .: 1 958). 1:206. M ( .on tem p orary a n d r r m im v c n i d ata cm th e 1848 co n fe r e n c e s bs p r r m n i w h o a tten d ed th e m ca n b e fo u n d in lam e« W hite letters. July 2 . A u g 2 6 . an d O ct. 2 . 1848. a n d in fcllen C . W h ite letter. Mav 2 9 . 1848. A lso in lam e» W h ite. L ife I undent*. p p 2 7 0 . 2 7 1 . 2 7 4 . 2 7 5 . a n d in E lk » W h ite. Spiritu a l G ifts. 2:91 108; U e Skeithe*. p p 1 0 7 -1 1 5 . a n d J o s e p h Bate». A Seal the L in n * G od A H u n d re d Forty-Four Thousand, o f the Ser\ that E llen W h ite u rg ed th e p e o p le to u n ite o n th e “th ird a n g el %m essa g e " T h is is certa in ls an in terp reta tio n , 1«Miking I w k fro m th e tim e w h e n u n its h ad b e e n reach ed , that th e “third a n g el's m essa g e“ d id in fact m c o n p M i whM B a t t i m d th e Whin . - roH M w’ B ates. A Seal of the t .n i n g (,od. p p. 2 4 -2 6 ” S ee n o tes 3 3 . *6 w Ibid , p p . 2 0 . 37. 10 Ibid . p 54. 40 Idem . P erpetual Vir*. 1st e d . p. 44. " I b i d . p. 2 4< Ibid., 2 d e d . . p . 6 0 . ** Idem , Seal. p. 39; idem. A n explanation of the T xpual an d Anti Typical S a n e tu a n , b\ the S erttturex W ith a < hart ( N rn B ed fo rd (M ass |. 1850). p. 10. (a im p are J a m es W h ite. “T h e D as o f J u d g m en t." The A d ven t R e x ie u . S ep tem b er. 1850.

p IB 44 S ee B ales. Way M arks (1 8 4 7 ). p p 19. 2 7 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 6 8 . 7 2 . J a m e s W h ite. “T h o u g h ts o n R ev ela tio n 14.“ in Ja m es W h ite. E llen ('• W h ite, an d J o sep h B ates. A W ord to the "Little Flock" (B ru n sw ick (M e I. 1 847). p p 10. I I ; B ates. Seal (1 8 4 9 ). p p. 3 3 -3 7 . 6 1 . H iram Faison. The Tim e o f the E n d . I h B eginning. P r o g m itv e E vents. a n d F in a l Term ination A Ihscourxe (A u b u rn [N Y .J . 1849). p 20. 45 S ee. for e x a m p le . E llen G. W h ite m an u scrip t 11. 1850. an d |a m e * W h ite. “B a in Io n .“ Rexteu a n d H erald. J u n e 10. 185 2 . p. 2 0 . 46 J a m es W h ite. “T h e J u d g m e n t.” R exteu a n d H erald. Jan 29. 185 7 . p p 1 0 0 -1 0 2 4T E llen W h ite. The G reat Controirrsy (M ou n tain V iew , ( a l l ! 1888 ). p 4 4 9 4* J . N . A n d rew s an d U R C on rad i. H utory of the Sabbath a n d First Day o f the Week. 4th e d . res a n d e n l (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 1912). p p 2 3 2 -2 3 7 49 L n p u b lish c d p r o c e e d in g s o f th e S ev en th -d a s A d ven tist B ib le C a in leren ce, T a k o m a Park. W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1919. 40 S e e e s p E llen W h ite. The (,reat C ontroveny. p p 52. 53. C f tb*d . p p 4 3 .6 2 . 3 8 4 . 4 4 4 . 5 7 7 . a n d idem. The Aft* of the Apostles (M ou n tain V iew . C alif : 1 9 1 1), p p. ¿ 5 3 . 587 A b raham )o sh u a H e sc h e l. The Sabbath, e x p a n d e d e d (C levela n d . O h io . 1951. 1952). ( X r e fe r e n c e s m a so p h istica ted A dventist p u b lica tio n . Jack W P rovon sh a. God 11 W ith U i (W a sh in g to n . D C .. 1 9 7 4 ). p. 3 4 . a n d in a tren d s s o u th ra d io p r o d u c tio n . T h e S ab b ath .“ H ts W ay. ca ssette 13 (C h a rlo tte. V C .. 1975). S ee R. F C ottrell. "A Visit to B roth er E lih u ." R exteu a n d H erald. A p r il I. 188 0 . p. 2 1 0 ; idem. E h h u on the Sabbath. B ib le S tu d en ts la b r a r s. N o 42 (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. ( k t . 15. 1889). in tro d u ctio n , a n d a cop y o f th e tract p rin ted bs th e Review a n d H erald P u b lish in g A ssociation s o m etim e a fter its 1 9 0 3 m o v e to T a k o m a Park. W a sh in g to n . D C ., o n h ie in th e H e rita g e R oom . A n d rew s I'n iversits M E llen G . W h ile. T h e W ork o f th e M inister.' Rex%eu a n d H erald. S ep i 11. I# 8 8 . p. 5 78. 14 Rev e d . T h e R elig io u s la b er ts U b r a r s . N o. 14 (B attle C reek . M ien , 1893).

A PPEN D IX H

The Sabbath on a Round World

Raym ond F. Cottrell and Lawrence T. Geraty* S U N S E T -T O -SU N SE T Sabbath on a ro u n d w orld is d eterm in ed by the natu ral p h en o m en o n o f a spherical planet rotating on its axis in relation to the sun. T h is process o f n a tu re results in the night-day sequence, which is m arked o ff by altern atin g sunset an d sunrise.

A

R eck o n in g T im e on a R o u n d W orld As th e ea rth tu rn s on its axis from west to east, the sun ap p ears to rise in th e east an d set in the west, m aking one com plete revolution a ro u n d the ea rth in approxim ately tw enty-four h o u rs (m ore precisely, about tw enty-three hours, fifty-six m inutes, an d fo u r seconds o f m ean solar o r clock time). W hereas clock tim e is calculated according to tim e zones that have been established and that are based on longitude, the precise moments of sunrise and sumet vary not only with lo n g itu d e but also with latitude n o rth o r south o f the eq u ato r, with altitude, and with th e season o f the year. T h e se m om ents o f sunrise and sunset are constantly m oving along the “day-night line" that divides light from darkness. T his “day-night line" encircles the earth at right angles to the sun an d is known as the “term in ato r." In o rd e r to reckon tim e on o u r spherical rotating planet, it is obviously necessary to th in k o f each tw enty-four-hour day as m oving continuously w estward as the earth tu rn s eastw ard on its axis. In term s o f clock time, with days reckoned m idnight to m idnight, the place w here any day (Sunday, M onday, T uesday, et cetera) first begins (at m idnight) an d term inates tw enty-four h ours later (at m idnight) is know n as the “international d ate line.” T h e In tern atio n al Prim e M eridian C onference o f 1884 in W ashington, D.C., designated th e m eridian o f G reenw ich as the w orld's prim e m eridian, o r 0° longitude. Halfway a ro u n d the w orld, the 180th m eridian is the “d ate line." W hen it is noon along the prim e m eridian, it is m idnight along the d ate line. U seful as the date line is for d eterm in in g days on a m idnight-to-m idnight basis, th e inclination o f th e earth 's axis 23° 2 7 ’ p erp en d icu lar to the ecliptic, o r • Q n tr c ll is ih c prin iarv au th or; G eraiv a u th o r ed m ost o f th e last sectio n (“ In th e I-and o l th e M id n igh t Sun")

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plane o f the ea rth 's orbit about the sun, m akes it im possible to use the 180th, o r any o th e r, m eridian as a basis fo r d eterm in in g the beginning an d en d in g o f days m easured sunset to sunset. At the sum m er solstice (June 21), fo r instance, w hen the sun sets at th e intersection o f a given m eridian with the eq u a to r at 6:00 p . m ., it will set approxim ately five an d a h a lf hours later at the sam e m eridian ju s t south o f the Arctic Circle and five and a h a lf ho u rs earlier on the sam e m eridian ju st n o rth o f the A ntarctic Circle, a d ifferen ce o f about eleven hours. Only at the sp rin g and au tu m n equinoxes are day a n d night o f equal length everyw here .1 T h u s, to d eterm in e th e arrival o f a day on the basis o f m idnight, it is necessary simply to note th e m om ent o f m idnight in the particular tim e zone within which a person lives. But to d eterm in e the anticipated arrival o f the sundow n-to-sundow n Sabbath, it is necessary to ascertain in advance the m om ent o f sunset at each p articu lar location. For this inform ation Seventh-day Adventists and various o th e r observers o f the seventh-day Sabbath re fe r to sunset tim e given in m eterological tables fo r any given location, o r the tim e is co m puted specifically for this p u rp o se an d published in ch u rch periodicals. T o attem p t to synchronize observance o f eith er the Sabbath o r S unday the w orld a ro u n d w ould be. fo r all practical purposes, impossible. N or is th e re any Biblical basis for do ing so. W hen the apostle Paul was in Jeru salem , for instance, he obviously observed th e Sabbath from sunset to sunset Jerusalem tim e, and when he was in C o rinth he evidently did so w hen the sun set at C o rin th —a d ifferen ce o f ab out twenty-five m inutes.’ For early C hristians, w herever they were, sunset local time d eterm in ed the com m encem ent o f the Sabbath. Function o f the International Date Line T h e facts o f geography, th e m igrations o f peoples east an d west, tran s-Pacific voyages o f discovery an d com m erce, acceptance in 1884 o f th e m eridian o f G reenw ich as th e p rim e m eridian, and international usage w ere all involved in the eventual acceptance by all nations o f the international d ate line, generally coinciding with th e 180th m eridian, as the place w here each calen d ar day first begins. G eographically, the 180th m eridian is the logical location for the d ate line because it passes th ro u g h few er habitable land areas (the far eastern tip o f Sibera an d th e n o rth e rn island o f New Zealand) than any o th e r direct line that m ight be draw n betw een th e N orth and S outh Poles. In o rd e r to avoid inconveniencing the people o f Siberia, th e A leutian Islands, and New Zealand, the date line deviates locally at those places a short distance east o r west from the m eridian. Every d eg ree o f longitude east o r west (a distance o f about fifty miles in m id tem p erate latitudes) translates into a d ifference o f fo u r m inutes o f clock time. W hen o n e travels eastw ard, th e sun rises an d sets fo u r m inutes earlier with every d eg ree o f longitude. O n the o th e r han d , w hen one travels westward, the sun rises and sets fo u r m inutes later for each d eg ree o f longitude. People traveling from a point in E urope o r Asia eastw ard to the Pacific O cean an d people traveling westward from the same point o f origin until they reach the longitude o f San Francisco, C alifornia, in the U.S.A. w ould, by resetting th eir watches, have accum ulated a d ifference o f som e sixteen clock hours (two th ird s o f a calendar day). Expressed in a n o th er way, the sun looks directly dow n on San Francisco 365

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sixteen h o urs a fte r it has d o n e so above Shanghai, C hina, o n the opposite side o f th e Pacific, a n d eight h ours before it will do so again. T h u s, w hen it is high noon in San Francisco, it is already 4:00 a . m . the following calendar day in S hanghai. A ccordingly, a person in San Francisco is two th ird s o f a calendar day behind a person in Shanghai, figured a ro u n d the w orld from east to west as the sun travels. If th e p erson in San Francisco w ere to cross th e Pacific w ithout om itting a calendar day from his reckoning, to com pensate for th e calendar tim e lost, he w ould be a full calen d ar day behind S hanghai w hen he arrived there. F o r this reason a person m oving across the date line in a westerly direction m ust om it one calen d ar day from his reckoning, while a person going in the opposite direction m ust insert an additional calendar day by rep eatin g o n e day. It becam e custom arv fo r ships traversing the Pacific O cean to m ake this adjustm ent in th eir calen d ar reckoning in m idocean, originally at noon but eventually at m idnight, im m ediately afte r crossing the 180th m erid ian .’ T h e first travelers to becom e aw are o f the loss o f a calen d ar day in circum navigating th e globe from east to west w ere those who sailed with M agellan on his fam ous voyage, 1519 to 1522. H aving kept an accurate record o f th e days en ro ute, they arrived at the C ape V erde Islands on what was, to them , W ednesday, July 9, 1522. Im agine th eir consternation u p o n discovering that it was T h u rsd ay , July 10, local tim e, in the islands! W hen they m ade port at Seville, Spain, on what they th o u g h t was S aturday, S eptem ber 6 , it was actually already Sunday, S ep tem b er 7, in Seville.’ T hey had lost an en tire calendar day from th eir reckoning w ithout know ing it, th o u g h the actual elapsed tim e was the sam e for them as for those who had rem ained in Spain.* Similarly, w hen Sir Francis D rake re tu rn e d to Plym outh, E ngland, afte r sailing aro u n d the w orld in 1580, again east to west, it was S unday. S ep tem b er 26, ab o ard his ship but M onday, S eptem ber 27, in Plymouth." If these p io n eer globetrotters had jo u rn ey e d in the opposite direction— from west to east— they would have gained a day o f calendar time. D uring th e n in eteen th century most m issionaries and colonists from E urope to the islands o f the Pacific sailed eastw ard a ro u n d the C ape o f G ood H ope. M any o f them located on islands east o f the 180th m eridian w ithout realizing th e need to add a day into th eir reckoning by repeating o n e day. T his was tru e o f those w ho located on Pitcairn Island anti o f m issionaries to the Society, Sam oan. Cook, and F riendly islands, fo r instance .7 It was also tru e o f the Russian colonists w ho settled Alaska." As a result, C hristians on these islands and in Alaska w ere actually observing S atu rday, thinking the day to be S unday (as it actually was, ju st across th e d ate line a n d in Europe)." Decades later, Alaska and all o f these islands except T o n g a m ade th e official change in o rd e r to coordinate th eir calen d ar days with th eir geographical location east o f the 180th m eridian.'" In contrast, th e Philippine Islands were colonized by S paniards who sailed w estw ard across th e Atlantic a n d the Pacific. T h u s their S unday actually fell on M onday, until the p ro p e r adjustm ent was m ade." I n th e U nited States the general public becam e aw are o f the reality o f a “d ate line" with th e p urchase o f Alaska from Russia in 1867. As m entioned earlier, the location o f this d ate line was stabilized as the 180th m eridian by the International Prim e M eridian C o n feren ce o f 1884. In th e closing decades o f the n in eteen th en tu ry , b u rg eo n in g travel and 366

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com m erce betw een the west coast o f N orth A m erica and the O rient intensified an aw areness o f th e existence o f a date line, a n d ill-inform ed critics o f the seventh-day Sabbath latched o n to the date-line enigm a, then in the public eye, as a convenient ruse fo r confusing the Sabbath issue, th o u g h at least som e o f them were evidently honestly confused in th eir own m inds as well.12 It is interesting to note that w hereas p rio r to 1867 th ere had been only fo u r articles about th e Sabbath on a ro u n d world in The Advent Review and Sabhath Herald,15 in th at o n e year th e re w ere th re e .14T h e climax cam e fo u r years later, in 1871, with tw enty-one articles o n the subject I'* T h e p u rp o se o f this spate o f articles was to clarify the fact that d ro p p in g o r inserting a calendar day in crossing the Pacific has no effect on real time, despite the fact th at those m aking the jo u rn e y have one week with only six calendar days if th eir direction o f travel is east to west, o r a week with eight calen d ar days if they are going in the opposite direction. T h e solution to the problem , according to the articles, was th at th e Bible re q u irem en t o f a seventh-day Sabbath can be kept on a ro u n d world w hen it is observed from sunset to sunset, local time, wherever a person may chance to be. Especially notew orthy is th e pro tracted series o f eight lengthy front-page articles on the subject by J. N. A ndrew s, from May 30 to A ugust 22, 1871.16 He, as well as o th e r w riters, repeatedly pointed out that critics o f the S aturday Sabbath who substituted th e m ore general seventh-part-of-tim e concept for the m ore specific, G od-ap p o in ted seventh day o f each week faced the very sam e dilem m a o f having o n e week with only six days if going west, o r a week with eight days going east. In the Land o f the M idnight Sun Above the Arctic Circle (66° 33' n o rth latitude) o r below the A ntarctic Circle (66° 33' south latitude), observance o f the Sabbath is com plicated by the fact that for a period o f tim e each su m m er the sun rem ains above the horizon continuously without setting, while for a com parable period o f tim e each w inter it rem ains below th e horizon w ithout rising, for several days, weeks, o r m onths (depending upon latitude). Most Seventh-day Adventists residing in the Arctic begin the Sabbath d u rin g these periods o f p erp etu al light o r darkness at the tim e th e sun reaches its lowest point (i.e., its nadir)— always above the horizon in the su m m er an d below the horizon in the w in ter .17 Since th e sun is never seen d u rin g the w inter, these times are calculated an d p rinted in "sunset tables” for th eir respective locales. O th ers begin th eir Sabbath at the sam e h o u r as the last visible sunset (which is identical with th e first visible sunset at th e close o f these periods).1" In so doing they apply the Biblical evening-to-evening requirem ent to the actual earth-sun relationship. D epending on latitude, th e last visible w inter sunset occurs about Friday noon, and th e last visible su m m er sunset about Friday m id n ig h t.1” Still others, d u rin g the w inter w hen the su n is not visible, em ploy the "twilight theory." A ccording to this practice, th e Sabbath is b o rd e red by the tim e betw een twilight (the dim inishing o f light) an d th e arrival o f full darkness.” I n recent years a 6:00 p.M.-to-6:00 p . m . view fo r the observance o f Sabbath has been su ggested .21 In o rd e r to b rin g about g re ater unity o f practice, the N o rth e rn E u ro p e an Division o f Seventh-day A dventists ap p o in ted a study com m ittee to 367

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review th e history o f practice, to research th e Biblical an d theological data thai have a bearing on the borderlines o f the Sabbath, an d to m ake recom m endations with re g ard to its findings. A fter a February 28 to M arch I, 1980, m eeting at Skodsborg, D enm ark, the com m ittee concluded lhat from a study o f the Biblical m aterial th e following points becom e evident: “Evening” (H ebrew 'ereb) m arks the b eg inning an d th e en d in g o f the tw enty-four-hour day. “ Evening” is the transitional period (not point) betw een light an d darkness. W ithin "evening," sunset is th e most specific point m arking this transition. Thus th e cycle o f the tw en ty -fo u r-h o u r day (including the seventh-day Sabbath) is governed by natural phen o m en a. Since Ellen G. W hite, by both statem ents an d practice, d em o n strated h er su p p o rt a fte r 1855 fo r sunset as the point o f tim e that m arks the beginning an d e n d in g o f th e S abbath, a n d since this has been th e traditional teaching an d practice o f Seventh-day Adventists, even in Arctic regions, the com m ittee reaffirm ed sunset to be the tim e for the beginning an d en d in g of Sabbath. H owever, it was recognized that the Biblical d ata d o o ffer som e flexibility in defining “evening," m aking it cover the period of dim inishing light p rio r to actual darkness. C onsequently, fo r areas w here this dim inishing o f light, ra th e r th an a visible setting o f th e sun, provides the observable natural p h en o m en o n that indicates th e e n d o f the tw enty-four-hour day, it was recognized that use o f this sort o f S abbath-evening “b o rd e r line" m eets the spirit o f the Biblical injunction given in Leviticus 23:32. T h e com m ittee th e re fo re recom m ended that in those regions this p erio d o f dim inishing light be used as a guideline for beginning and en din g th e S abbath, ra th e r than fixing upon an arbitrary, rigid rule. F u rth e r­ m ore, it u rg ed m inisterial w orkers an d lay m em bers to respect one an o th er's conscience, looking with g en u in e C hristian love upon those who conscientiously d iffer in re g a rd to the tim e fo r beginning and en d in g the Sabbath, particularly d u rin g th e w inter period o f darkness.“ T h is a rra n g e m e n t may seem stran g e to people unaccustom ed to life in the Arctic, but it is an entirely logical application of the Bible req u irem en t “even to even" to reality in th e land o f the m idnight sun. F u rth erm o re , it provides for continuity in Sabbath observance based on natural ph en o m en a, w ithout resort to eith er artificial astronom ical tables o r clocks. This arran g e m e n t occasions no m ore difficulty for persons accustom ed to it than the m ore conventional p ro c e d u re does in the rest o f th e w orld.” T h e principle has been aptly stated by a Seventh-dav Adventist authority: “God m ad e His Sabbath for a ro u n d w orld; and w hen the seventh day com es to us in lhat ro u n d w orld, controlled by the sun that rules the day, it is the tim e, in all co u n tries an d lands, to observe the S ab b ath ."*• NO TES 1 W hat is k n ow n at th e e q u a tio n o f lim e— ih e (ac t that th e tu n m as a itu a lh b e. at tim e t, a t m u ch a t alio u t se v e n te e n m inute* fa lte r th an m ean su n tim e , an d at oth er tim es that m u ch d o w n , b eca u se o f th e a cc eler a tio n o l Planet Earth as it a p p r o a ch es p er ih e lio n a n d c o r r e s p o n d in g d e ce lera tio n as it a p p r o a ch es a p h e lio n — in tro d u ces still fu rth er m in or variation s in s u n n s e a n d su n set tim e. 1 A favorite p lo t o n c e u sed bv critics o f th e s c \e n th -d a s Sabbath h eld that it had to b e o b s c n e d s sn c h r o n o u sls a ro u n d th e w orld , w ith su n set in P alestin e. Laris articles in The A d ven t Rexiexi a n d Sabbath H erald (h erea fte r. RexneuJ o fte n p o in ted ou t th e fallacs o l this p lo s S ee. for e x a m p le . I riah S m ith . “ H ow C an th e Sabbath B e K ept at th e N o rth Pole?’ Feb. 2 8 . 1 8 56. p . I ? 2 . F J B u le le r . “ ‘T u r n in g th e W orld I 'p s id e D o w n ,” * M arch 2 1 . 1871. p. 111. I riah S m ith , " U n ca lled -for S o lic itu d e . A u g 9 . 18 8 7 . p. 50d. * D iscu ssed by I 'r u h S m ith , " l im e o n a R ou n d W orld.' Rexte u \ O c t. 15. 1889, p. 6 4 8 * R o b e n I x o O d o m . T he Ijrrd 'i t k n an a R o u n d W orld (N a sh v ille. T e n n , 1970). p 7 0

1Hnd

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6 Ibid . p . 73. I I h d . pp. 105, 118, 139. 145. 164. HIbid., p. 128. F ollow in g ih c p u r ch a se o l A laska by th e U n iic d S tates in 1 867, th e n u m e r o u s a rticles in th e Revieu d ea lin g with th e S ab b ath -S u n d av p rob lem in c lu d e d , e .g .. J. M A ld rich . “Winy.**J u ly 2 . 1 867. p. 4 4 ; U ria h S m ith , “A V ers P oor Jok e." J a n . 17. 1871, p. 36; uiem, “T h e Facts in th e Case.** Feb. 2 1 . 187 1 . p. 76; I. N . A n d re w s. “T h e A d v a n ta g es o f th e S u n d ay-S ab b ath in B ein g EasiK K ept A ll C h e r th e G lo b e /’ A u g . 2 2 . 1 871. p p. 7 3 , 74. 9 S ee n o te 8. 10 (W n m .op. ctl., p p . 105, 128, 164; K. H. W o o d ,“From th e E d itor s M ailb ag.“ R eview , M ay 16, 196 8 . p. 13; L. A. S m ith . "It M akes a D iffere n c e," Rexnew. N ov. 18, 1902, p. 6 II S e e "Date B ou n d ary Line." R eview . Feb. 10. 1891. p. 8 7 , from Scientific Am erican For a m a p s h o w in g th e d a te lin e cu rv in g w est o f th e P h ilip p in e Islan d s, s e e U riah S m iu i. " T im e o n a R o u n d W orld." Rexnew, O ct. 1. 1 8 8 9 . p. 6 1 6 . 12 N u m e r o u s articles in th e R e view s o u g h t to ab ate th e co n fu se d a n d c o n fu sin g a r g u m e n ts a d v a n ced by critics o f th e sev en th -d a y Sabb ath . For e x a m p le : U riah S m ith . " T h e Sabbath in th e A rctic R egion s," S ep t. 9 . 186 2 . p p. 1 17, 1 18; " D e fen se o f th e T r u th in Syaginaw agin aw C o.. M ich.." ich .. Jlu u lv 16. 1867. p. 7 4 ; J. I. H . W aggoi a g g o n er. “A D a \ A ll A r o u n d th e W orld." Feb. 2 8 . 1 8 71, p. 85; F .J B id eler. T u r n in g th e W orld U p s id e D o w n . M arch 2 1 . 1 *71. .p. 11 I l l ; J . N. A n d rew s. "Solution o f P rob lem s R elatin g to th e D a \ L ine." J u lv 4 , 1 8 7 1 .p p. 17. 1 8 ;C . W. S to n e . " ‘Ai C u rio r io u s F a c t/ “ May 10. 1877. p . 148; U riah S m ith . “ Im p o te n t O p p o sitio n ." A pril 4 . 187 8 , p. 108; idem, “U *...................... n c a lle d -fo r -S “ o licitu “ d e," A ug. 9 . 1887. p. 505; G .B . T h o m p so n . " T h e 1 4 4 .0 0 0 o f R evelation 14." O ct. 8 ., I1889, pp. 6 2 7 ,6 2 8 ; L. A. S m ith , “T h e Sabbath and th e C alen d ar." A pril 2 6 , 1906. p 5. 15 A. H . H u tch in s. “T h e Sabbath." Rexneu. Jan. 6 . 1 8 53. p. 134; U riah S m ith . " T h e Sabbath in th e Arctic R egions." Review . S ep t. 9 . 1862. p p 117. 118; J N . L o iu g *h *b o r o u g h * . “T h e Sabbath o n a R oun d W orld," Reinew , O ct. 1 1 , 1 8 6 4 ,p n . 1 5 7 .1 5 8 ; U riah S m itn , “H o w C an th e Sabbath B e Kept at th e N o rth Pole?" Rexnew, Feb. 2 8 .1 8 5 6 , p. 172. 14 J. M. A ld rich. “W itty," R eview . J u lv 2 . 1867, p. 44; " D e fen se of th e T r u th in Saginaw C o ., M ic h ./'/t m e u ’, July 16, 1867. p. 74; U riah S m ith . "W here d o e s th e D ay B egin?" R eview . A pril 2 . 1867. p. 2 0 1 . 15 T w e lv e by J. N . A n d re w s, in c lu d in g a special s e n e s o f e ig h t articles, and n in e by o th er a u thors. 16 Each article in th is s e n e s b o re a sep arate title. N o e x p la n a tio n acc o m p a n ie s th e series, but th e le n g th o f the articles a n d th e p o sitio n o f p r o m in e n c e a cc o rd ed th em reflects co n sid era b le agitation o v er th e subject. 17 O ral c o m m u n ica tio n fro m Finn H. O p sa h l. secretary-treasu rer. West N o r d ic U n io n C o n fe r e n c e o f S ev en th -d a y A dventists. Feb. 2 8 . 1980. T h is tim e can be as early as 10:30 a .m . on Friday b ecau se o f th e attem p t in N orw ay to k e e p th e en tir e co u n try o n o n e tim e zo n e e v e n th o u g h it stretch es th ro u g h th r e e fro m B e r g e n in th e west (lo n g itu d e 5°) to K irk en es in th e east (lo n g itu d e 30*). O d o m . op. cit.. p. 2 0 1 . 19 Ibid 2(1 T h is view , ev e r y w h e r e ap p licab le, was ad v o ca ted by th e N o rth ern E u rop ean D ivision c o m m itte e o n Mav 18. 1955. a fter h avin g b een p r o p o se d as early as 1951 by local c o n fe r e n c e a n d u n io n c o m m itte e s in N orw ay. 21 Especially an article by H . N o r d n e s in A dvent-inform . N o v em b er. 1979. 22 T h is p aragrap h fo llo w s closely th e w o rd in g o f th e co m m itte e m in u tes that w ere su b seq u en tly a cc ep te d by th e G e n e ra l C o n fe r e n c e C o m m ittee. 23 •

1901. p. 3 4 4 . H askell an d Sm ith both report e d co n v er sa tio n s with p erm a n en t residents n orth o f th e A rctic C ircle w ho told h ow th ey kept a cc o u n t o f "sunrise a n d “sunset" a n d th e b e g in n in g and e n d in g o f th e d a y . a n d w h o e x p r e sse d surprise that a n v o n c sh o u ld b eliev e it d iffic u lt to d o so. 24 Ellen G. W hite le tter 167. 1900

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GLOSSARY

Glossary

\o tr . D efinitions given below a re n ot in te n d e d to include th e full range o f dictionary d efinitions o f th e term s listed, but ra th e r reflect the specific o r special m eanings o f those term s as used in the ch ap ters a n d a p p en d ix es o f the presen t volum e.

Aggadah An A ram aic fo rm of Haggadah (see rtaggadak). Akkadian An extinct Semitic language o f the M esopotam ian region, used by the Assyrians and Babylonians. Anagogica) H aving a spiritual m ean in g o r a sense re fe rrin g to th e heavenly life. M edieval in te rp re ta tio n also saw in S c rip tu re th re e o th e r m eanings: literal, allegorical, a n d tropological (the last p ertain s to m orality o r m oral life). A n thropom orphism A ttr ib u tio n o f h u m a n sh ap e o r characteristics to (>od. A n tin o m ian s O p p o n e n ts o f (G od's) law, usually in th e sense that faith alone brings salvation a n d that obedience to the D ecalogue is u n n e c ­ essary. Apocryphal U ncanonical: o f d o u b tfu l a u th e n ­ ticity o r auth o rity . O fte n re fe re n ce is m ade to a c o rp u s o f m aterial know n as "O ld T esta m en t A p o cry p h a” o r “New T estam en t A p o cry p h a.” d e p e n d in g on tim e w hen w ritten a n d fram e o f reference. T h e "O ld T esta m en t A pocrypha" (often simply called "A pocrypha" a n d includ­ ing 1 a n d 2 fcsdras. T obit. I a n d 2 Maccabees, an d o th e r works) norm ally no lo n g er a p p e a r in P ro testan t Bible translations, th o u g h th e King Ja m es V ersion originally inclu d ed them . A podictic T h e form o f legal statem ent that expresses general tru th o r obligation but does not detail specific causes o r indicate (usually) sanctions (see also Casuistic). Astral P ertaining to th e planets a n d stars or "starry heavens." In ancient tim es th e sun and m oon w ere also tre a te d as p a rt o f th e astral family. Bruchae M onstrous legendary anim als. Casuistic T h e form o f legal statem ent (i.e..

statem ent o f laws) th a t d eals with specific cases a n d th e ir special o r individual sanctions. Casuists Persons e x p e rt in, o r inclined to resort to, casuistry . In both Ju d a ism a n d C hristianity, casuists w ere e x p erts in law who refin ed a n d redefined legal re q u ire m e n ts to m eet the situations c u rre n t in th e ir tim e a n d place. Catechumens Persons, especially adults, receiv­ ing instruction in th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f C hristi­ anity be fo re baptism . Codices Plural o f codrx. a m anuscript in book form (as c o n trasted with a scroll). T h e te rm is used especially o f those copies o f S c rip tu re o r o f classical texts th at a p p e a re d in this form . Coptic P ertaining to the Clopts (natives o f Egy pt, d e scen d ed from th e ancient in h ab itan ts o f that country), th e ir language, c u ltu re, et cetera. Coracle A sh o rt, wide boat m ade o f a w a terp ro o f m aterial stretch ed o ver a w icker o r w ooden fram e. Crypto Jews Jew s who practiced th eir religion secretly a n d not by public avowal. Cubits (2,000) A n ancient m easu re of length, about 18 to 2 2 inches; originally, the len g th o f the a rm from th e e n d o f th e m iddle fin g er to the elbow. T h e "S abbath-dav's jo u m e v " o f 2.000 cubits w ould th e re fo re b e a b o u t threefifths o f a mile. Cushitic D esignating o r p e rta in in g to a g ro u p of languages spoken in E thiopia a n d East A frica, constituting a subfam ily o f th e A fro-A siatic family o f languages. Decretalists D ecretal—relating to o r co n tain in g a d ecree; hence, specialists in th e study o f d ecretals, particularly papal decrees. Diaspora Jews A term to indicate the w idespread settlem ent o f |ew s outside Palestine.

372

GLOSSARY E n th u sia sts R eligious fanatics o r zealots, o ften believing them selves to be in sp ired o r pos­ sessed by a divine pow er o r spirit. In C hristtanitv these have a p p e a re d th ro u g h o u t th e history o f th e c h u rch . M ainstream R eform ers o f the sixteenth c en tu ry (e.g.. L u th er) co n sid ered various radical re fo rm e rs, in cluding A n ab ap ­ tists. as "enthusiasts." E q u in o c tia l R elating to e ith e r o f the equinoxes (spring o r a u tu m n ), w hen n ig h t a n d day are equal in length. E rastian A dvocating th e su p re m e au th o rity o f th e state in c h u rc h m atters. E so teric In te n d e d fo r o r u n d e rsto o d by only a chosen few, as an in n e r g ro u p o f disciples o r initiates; said o f ideas, d octrines, lite ratu re, et cetera. “ E tiological m y th ” T h e concept th at a story is created a n d told to assign o r seek to assign a cause for som e m o n u m e n t, lan d m a rk , stru c ­ tu re , b o u n d ary , e t cetera. F am ilists M em bers o f a mystical a n d som ew hat a n tin o m ia n sect o f s ix te e n th - a n d sc v e n teen tli-cen tu ry E u ro p e who believed that law was som ehow restricting to o n e ’s personal relationship with G od. Form c ritic ism A m eth o d o f Biblical criticism th at seeks to classify units o f S c rip tu re into literary p a tte rn s (as love poem s, parables, sayings, elegies, legends) anil that a tte m p ts to trace each type to its p e rio d o f oral transm is­ sion in an eff o rt to d e te rm in e the original form and th e relationship o f the life a n d tn o u g h t o f th e p e rio d to the d evelopm ent o f th e literary tradition. Haggadah N onlegal lore o f Ju d a ism , including anecdotes, historical accounts, a n d o th e r illus­ trations o f legal principles. H alakah (H alachah) T h e a u th o rize d a n d n o rm ­ ative law o f Jew ish religious life, based p rin ci­ pally u p o n the Mosaic law to g eth e r with the post-Biblical Rabbinic codes a n d in te rp re ta ­ tions. H a sid ism A belief th at em phasizes joyful w or­ ship o f a n im m an en t G od by m em bers o f a sect o f Jew ish mystics th at o rig in ated in Poland in th e e ig h te en th century. Imago Dei T h e im age o f G od (Gen. 1:26, 27). ¡m itatio Dei Im itation o f God. In te rd ic tio n A n official prohibition o r restraint. In terte sta m e n ta l O f. relating to, o r being the p eriod o f several c en tu rie s betw een th e co m p o ­ sition o f th e last canonical book o f the O ld T esta m en t a n d th e w riting o f th e books o f the New T esta m en t. K enites A nom adic o r sem inom adic tribe o f sm iths, who in th e la tte r h a lf o f th e second m illennium b .c . a p p e a r to have m ad e th e ir livelihood as m etal craftsm en a n d lived in the n o rth e rn p art o f th e Sinai Peninsula. K id d u sh c u p In Ju d a ism , used d u rin g a b e n e ­ diction recited o ver w ine o r b re ad o n th e eve o f th e Sabbath o r a festival. L ev irate A custom o f th e Jew s in Biblical tim es by w hich a d e a d m an's b ro th e r was obligated to m arry the widow if th e re w ere n o sons.

L ib e rtin e s F reeth in k ers, especially in religious m atters. Logia M axims a ttrib u te d to a religious leader: especially sayings a ttrib u te d to Jesus. M enology A c alen d a r o f the m onths, with th eir events. M onotheism B elief that th e re is only o n e God. Mysles O n e initiated in to the m ysteries. N im bus A bright cloud supposedly s u rro u n d in g gods o r goddesses a p p e a rin g o n e a rth ; o r. an a u ra o f sp le n d o r a bout any person o r thing. O g d o ad T h e n u m b e r eig h t; o r any g ro u p o r series o f eight. In the early C hristian cen tu ries, c e r t a i n G n o s tic h e r e t ic s r e f e r r e d to th e "O gdoad" in th e ir a n tim a tte r m ythology (the V alentinians. e.g., had a n O g d o ad , a D ecad. and a D odecad m th e ir system o f aeons). O straca Pottery frag m e n ts co n tain in g w riting. P a ra en e sis An ex h o rta to ry com position P e n tec o n tad Based o n fifty; specifically, an ancient system o f calendation su p p o sed to have been stru c tu re d u p o n fiftv-day periods. P h ilo Hellenistic Jew ish p h ilo so p h er o f A lexan­ d ria . who lived f. 20 b . c . - a . d . 50. P h y la cte ry E ith e r o f two sm all lea th er cases holding slips inscripted with S c rip tu re pas­ sages: o n e is fastened with lea th er th o n g s to the fo reh e a d a n d o n e to th e left arm by O rth o d o x o r C onservative Jew ish m en d u rin g m o rn in g p ra y er o n weekdays (see D eut. 6:4-9). Piel (p i'el) A H ebrew verbal form th at intensifies the m eaning o f th e w ord. P ro le p tic O f. relating to, o r exem plifying prolepsis, i.e., an ticipation o f an event. Especially, prolepsis can be the describing o f a n ev en t as taking place before it could have d o n e so. or the tre a tin g o f a fu tu re event as if it h a d already h ap p en e d . Pseudepierapha A g ro u p o f early w ritings not included in th e Biblical canon o r th e A pocry­ pha, som e o f which w ere falsely ascribed to Biblical characters. (See also A pocryphal.) P u n ic T h e N o rth w e s t S e m itic la n g u a g e o f ancien t C a rth a g e, a dialect o f P hoenician. It survived until c. a . d . 500. Q u a d rig a In ancient Rom e, a tw o-w heeled c h a r­ iot draw n by fo u r horses abreast. Q u a rto d e c im a n P ertaining to observance o f the Passover celebration o n the basis o f the fo u r­ teenth o f N isan as th e day w hen the Paschal lam b was killed. In early C hristian history, the C hristians w ho celebrated th e ir an n u al com ­ m em oration o f C h rist’s d e a th a n d resu rrectio n o n th e basis o f this sort o f reckoning w ere called Q u a rto d ec im a n s ("F o u rteen th ers"). Q u o tid ia n Daily; re c u rrin g every day; usual o r o rdinary. Rebbes In Ju d a ism . H asidic rabbis (singular, Rebbr). R e d ac to rs E ditors— those w ho a rra n g e in p ro p e r form fo r publication. S arc o p h ag u s A m ong th e ancient G reeks and Rom ans, a lim estone coffin o r tom b, often inscribed a n d elaborately o rn a m e n te d . S atrap T h e g o v ern o r o f a province in ancient Persia.

373

T H E SA B BA TH IN S C R IP T l'R E AND HISTORY Septuagint T h e l ir a venacular translation ol the

Teleological H aving the n a tu re o f o r relating to,

O ld T estam ent. T h e translation was m ade tn th e G re ek language in the th ird a n d second cen tu ries B.C. Sola Scriptura T h e fam ous P rotestant principle e n u n ciate d by L u th e r o f "T h e Bible a n d the Bible alone." Soteriology P ertaining to. o r the stud> of. salvation—especially th e salvation believed m C hristian theology to have been accom plished th ro u g h Je su s C hrist. Spinoza D utch Jew ish ph ilo so p h er (1632-1677) w ho tau g h t th at th e re is out o n e infinite substance. C o d (or N ature), having infinite a ttrib u te s o f which only th o u g h t a n d extension a re knowable. S yncretistic C om bining o r reconciling d ifferin g beliefs o r practices in religion, philosophy, et cetera, o r an a tte m p t to effect such com pro-

design, p u rp o se, final in ten tio n , o r cause. TuuUlik In Ju d a ism , a H asidic saint o r holy m an. Ugaritlc P ertaining to U garit, an ancient citystate n e ar the M e d ite rran e a n coast in n o rth e rn Syria (n e ar the m o d ern Ras Sham ra), w here vastly im p o rta n t C an aan ite m aterials were fo u n d . Frequently th e term "U garitic" is used fo r th e ancient Semitic language know n from U garit. Uncial D esignating o r p e rta in in g to a form o f large, ro u n d e d I n t e r used in th e script o f G reek a n d L atin m anuscripts betw een a . d 300 a n d 900 ("capital letters"). Vernal equinox O ccurs a bout M arch 21. O n e o f the two tim es w hen th e sun crosses th e e q u ato r, m aking night a n d day o f equal length in all p arts o f th e e a rth

SCRIPTURE INDEX

Scripture Index

G E N E SIS 1:1 ....

......................................

1

...........................................

1 3 1 .. 2 1 .. 2 :1 -3 . 2:2 2*2*4 2 :3 .... 2:4 .... 9 :1 3 . 9 :1 3 . 117 9 :1 5 . 17:11

23 24 ....................................... 23 ...................................... 23 ..................................2 4 . 35 ...................................... 23 ..................................2 3 . 24 .. 2 4 . 2 5 . 4 9 . 2 3 5 . 2 8 2 ..................................... 23 ....................................... 36 ....................................... 36 ....................................... 35 ....................................... 36

EXOD US ....................................... 2 6 16:5 . 2 9 ............................... 27 16:5. 16:13. 14, 2 6 . 2 7 .................... 102 ....................................... 2 6 16:22 27 16-22 ‘»3 ................2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 34 16:23 16:23. 25 ............................... 2 9 . 33 16:23. 2 5 . 2 6 . 2 9 .................... 27 27 16:23. » , 3 0 ............................ .................................2 6 . 27 16:25 16:25. 26 ...................................... 2 6 ....................................... 27 16:26 16:26. 27, 2 9 . 3 0 .................... 27 ........................ 2 6 . 2 7 . 30 16:28 .............................. 2 6 . 102 16:29 ....................................... 2 6 16:30 ...................................... 234 2 0 :2 . 2 0 :8 ........................ 2 5 . 2 9 . SO. S2 ...................... .... S S. 4 9 . 7 2 85 ... 2 8 2 20 : 8-10 .......................................... 20:8. 10. II ......................... ... 49 .... 29 20:8. II .......... ................. .... 2 9 2 0 :9 .................................................. 2 4 . 49 2 0 :9 . 10 20:10 2 4 . 2 9 . S 2. SS. 127. 2 3 5 2 0 :11 .....................2 2 . 2S . 2 4 . 29 S2. 3 5 . 282 ...... 35 2 0 :1 6 ...... 33 2 3 :1 2

3 1 :1 3 .................. ... 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 . 51 ........................... 30 3 1 :1 3 -1 7 . .. ............. 3 4 . 3 6 3 1 :1 3 , 14. 16 . 31:14 .................. ..................... 2 4 . 25 3 1 :1 4 . 15 ......... ..................... 2 4 . 25 3 1 :1 5 .................. ............ 2 9 . 3 3 . 34 3 1 :1 6 .................. ......... 3 4 . 36. 2 8 3 *)*) 04 3 1 :1 7 .................. ................3 5 . 3 6 . ....... .................... 3 4:21 .................. ..................... 3 3 . 3 4 :2 8 .................. ........................... 3 5 :2 ..................... ... 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 9 .

87 33 95 33 33

16:10 2 3 :2 5 2 9 :1 . Í1

1 SA M UEL

NU M BERS 83 46

DEUTERONOM Y

376

95

2 K IN G S

5I

4 :23 ..

2 C H R O N IC L E S 36:21

52

N E H E M IA H

___ 7 7 18:4 ...... 4 6 2 3 :1 -3 . ___ S3 2 3 :2 ... ..... 102 23:2-4 . ....... 2 9 2 3 :3 .... 2 3 :4 -1 5 ....... 4 6 ...... 3 2 6 23:11 .. 2 3 :1 5 . 16 ...................................... 3 2 6 46 2 3 :1 5 -2 2 . 46 2 3 :2 3 -2 5 2 3 :2 6 -3 2 46 46 2 3 :3 3 -4 3 . 2 6 :4 2 . 4 5 47

5 :12 .......................... 2 5 . 3 0 , 31 ____ 3 3 . 34 5 :12. 14. 15 5 :12. 15 ........ 5:13 5 :13. II 5:14 2 4 . 31 ........ 33 5:14 15 5 :1 5 S I. 32, 5:15 ie 7:8. 9 . 12 9 :9 . I I . 15 .............................

.......................... 33

2 1 : 1-6

L EV ITIC U S

1 5 :3 2 -3 6 ..... 2 8 :2 6 ............

46 76 95

20 :20

, .32 , 49 49 34

IS 32 , 32 , 49

31

298 73

33 33

52

9 :1 4 .......... 1 3 :1 7 . 18

E CCLESIA STES

11 2

143

ISA IA H 1:10-20 1:13 .... 6:3 3 0 :1 5 4 3 :1 2 5 6 :2 . 56:4 . 5 6 :6 . 5 8 :1 2 ______ ________________ 5 8 : IS ...................................... 48, 5 8 :1 3 , 14 ................... 4 7 . 48. 6 6 :2 3 _________ _____ 15, 19,

47 16 74 72 72 47 47 47 360 127 360 216

JE R E M IA H 7 :1 -8 . 3 0 ............................. ..........■ 4 9 17:2 2 . 2 4 .................. ............ ...... 4 9 17:27 .............................................49 74 2 7 :2 1 . 2 2 . 2 4 ............................. 4 9 31:31 ..... !...................................... 156

L A M E N T A T IO N S

S C R IPTU R E INDEX

377

GENERAL

INDEX

Ge ner a l Index

A A b e lard , P eter, 203 A cra, 62 A d d re ss to the C h ristia n N obility o f the G erm an N ation (L uther), 216 A dom nan (b io g rap h er o f C olum ba). 194 A dvent A w akening ( 19th re n t ): in A m erica. Srt M illerites A dvent H a rb in g er: Bale's Sabbath articles in. 357 A dvent R eview , T h e: its beginning. 359 its role, 251 A dvent R eview a n d Sabbath H e ra ld , T h e, 367 A dv en tist R eview , 251 A gainst th e Je w s (Dionysius), 156 A gainst the Jew s, C o n c ern in g th e Sabbath i |o h n of Dam ascus). 156 A g ric u ltu ra l w ork: fo rb id d en o n Sabbath, 95 perm itted on S abbath, 328 A g rip p a II, 65 A haz, 52 A him elech gave T em p le bread to David. 95 A hura-M azda, 315, 316 A kiba: his rule. 75. 76, 83 m arty red , 73 on circum cision. 75 A ksum : C hristianity in. 174 fo re ru n n e r o f E thiopia. 174 Sabbath a n d Sunday observance in, 185 A lan o f L ille: verbal attack against W aldenses. 208 A lcu in , 191 A le x an d e r o f H ales, 205 A le x a n d e r III, 204 A llen, W. C., 102 A lm agest (Ptolcm v): as earl» astronom ical bible. 312 A lopen: arrival in C hina. 159 A lt, A., 28 A lvarez, F rancisco: mission to E thiopia, 180 A m abili ecclesiae c o n co rd ia, De (E rasm us). 209 A m brose, 138, 238 A m erican H ebrew (Jewish jo u rn a l), 267 A m os: Sabbath in. 44-45 A nabaptists: a n d the Sabbath. 220-222

A nahita, 316 A nastasius: anti-Sabbath position, 156 A n d rew s. J o h n N evins: articles in Ä n w , 255 in T ransylvania. 224 investigation o f beginning o f Sabbath. 252 o n Sabbath conferences. 250 publisher. 359 rep resen tativ e to Seventh Da\ Baptist G eneral C o n feren ce. 253 Sabbath history classic, 251. 361 w ritings o n Sabbath. 367 A nglicans: position o n S abbath. 229 A n n a eu s, 63 A n n als (T acitus). 333 A nselm o f A lessan d ria: on sandal w earing o f W aldenses. 208 A nte-N icene F ath ers, 347 A nthology (Valens): sequence o f stars in relation to days o f week. 140 A n tin o m ia n s, 239 A ntio ch u s E p ip h a n es: a n d Sam aritans. 67 Jew s o p p re sse d by. 62. 6-1 A ntio ch u s I E p ip h a n es: a u th o r o f M ithraic rock reliefs. 3 17 A ntio ch u s V II S idetes, ti3 A n to n in u s, 86 A p h ra h at, 154-155 A pion: e x p lan atio n for S abbath. 67 A pocalypse: "th e L ord's day" in, 125. 126 A po cry p h al books (N T ): Acts o f Jo h n , 347. 350 Acts o f P eter, 347 Epistle o f th e Apostles, 347 G ospel o f P eter, 347 A pollo: in sy nag o g u e for w orship, 134 A pollonios, 62 A postolic C a n o n s, 153, 176. 179 A p o s to lic C o n s t i tu t i o n s ( p r e s c r ip tio n s l o r •Sabbath a n d S unday), 153. 155. 179, 194, 324-325, 329, 330. 348 A postolic T ra d itio n (IliutioU tus). 173, 179.335 A quinas, T h o m a s. 205-206 developed Sunday observance fo r C atholic Churc h. 284 A ram aic p a p y ri, 57 A rm enia: C hristianity in, 162-163 A rm en ian U n iates: establishm ent of. 162 A rm stro n g , G a rn e r T ed , 254

380

GEN E R A L INDEX A rm stro n g , H e rb e rt W., 254 A rndt, W. F„ 99 A rta x e rx e s II. 315-316 A sinaeus, 65 A slak Bolt, B ishop, 209 A sochia (G alilee): attacked on S abbath, 63 A ste riu s o f A m asea. B ishop, 152, 325 A strological w eek: in Rom an E m pire, 308-309 A strology: in H ellenistic age, 312 influence in W estern lands, 310-314 A th an asiu s, B ishop, 142, 174 A th a n asiu s A n a p h o ra (E thiopia text). 180 A tonem ent, Dav of: o fferin g s o n , 75 on Sabbath, 84 A ttalus I, 316 A u g sb u rg er, D aniel, 218. 219, 220 A u g u stin e , 137, 138 an d S u n d av k eep in g , 190, 191. 192 flexibility o f w orship re q u ire m e n ts, 194 resu rrec tio n reason for Sunday keeping. 142 A u g u stin e o f H ip p o , 330 A u g ustus, E m p e ro r o f R om e, 309. 310. 314

B Baal Shem T ov, 273 B abylon: Fall o f to M edo-Persia, 315 s y m b o liz in g c h u r c h e s re je c tin g ju d g m e n th o u r m essage. 353 B abylonian: planetary system , 3 1 1 sexagesim al c o u n tin g svstem (hour). 313 zodiacal year, 311. 312. B acchides: Sabbath-day attack o n Jo n a th a n , 63 B acchiocchi, S am uele, 343, 348 B aeck, Leo. 270, 271. 274 B all, B ryan W., 239 B am pfield, T h o m as, 238 Bang, B ishop: o n S abbathkeeping revival in N orw ay. 2 0 9 -2 10 B arabas, Steven, 124 B arkokeba w ar: Jew ish persecutions, 136 B arley h a rv est, 326 B arnabas, 6 8 . 133, 142. 143 B arnabas: and Paul at |eru sa!em C o n fe ren c e,

I 10

B arnabas o f A le x an d ria, 330, 350 Joy o f keeping the e ig h th day, 323 S u n d a \ references. 347 B arnes. A lbert, 340 B arth. K arl: n e o -o rth o d o x theology on Sabbath, 280-284, 292. 300 B artholom ew , B ishop, 177 Bates, Jo s e p h , 250, 252 conversion to A dventism , 248 co rrelatio n ol Sabbath a n d heavenly sanctuary , 354-355 identifies "m ark ol th e beast," 356 o ffers ad ditional concepts, 352, 354. 357-360, 362 Sabbath theology, 352-355 sp eak er at Sabbath conferences, 249 B au m g a rten , 67 B avarian Laws: o n Sunday keeping, 199 B avinck, 287

Carlstadt

B axter, R ic h a rd , 236 Bede, 191 Berea: Sabbath in, 109 B erechiah, 82. 87 B erenice (sister o f H e ro d the Y ounger), 137 B erm udez, Jo a o , 180, 181, 185 B ern ard , Ja c q u e s, 218, 219 B ern ard , R ich a rd : advocates Sunday Sabba­ tarianism , 236-237 B eth ha-M id rash , 86 B ethel, 58 Bezae, C od ex , 97, 103 B ible A dvocate: B ate's Sabbath articles in. 357 B ie te n h a rd t: g a v e cosm ic a n d m e ta p h y sica l m eaning to S abbath. 59 differences betw een Z adokite D ocum ent and Book o f Jub ilees, 61 B lum enkranz, B.: o n lu d aiz in g c u rre n ts, 196 B obiensis, C o d e x , I 15 B oethusians, 326 B ond, A hva J . C .. 259, 290 Book o f S p o rts (Janies 1): cond em n atio n o | S abbatarianism . 232-233 B orow itz, E ug en e B., 276 B ow nd. N icholas, 230. 231, 237, 353. 360 prop ag atio n o f tra n s fe r th eo ry . 235-236 B rab o u rn e, T h c o p h ilu s, 234 defense o f seventh-day Sabbath. 237 asked to recan t, 238 B reaking o f b read : at T ro as, 123-124 B row n, D avid, 340 B ruce, F. F., 98. 122, 123, 335 B uber, M artin: w ritings on Sabbath, 270-271. 272-273, 274 B ucer, M artin : on strict Sunday observance. 217-218, 2 2 0 , 226 B udge, E. A. W allis, 176 B u ltm an n , R u d o lf, 279 B u rn t o fferin g (s): o n Sabbath. 53. 341

c C ad b u ry , 123 Calendar(s): o f Jub ilees, 336 Rom an farm . 309 liturgical o f th e Essenes. 336 d e te rm in a tio n o f dates, 76 Mitecontad. 2 2 u m rän . 67 istu s. B ishop, 137 d ecree for Sabbath fast, 138 C alvin, J o h n : a n d B arth in ag reem en t on S abbath, 280-282 and Jew ett in disag reem en t on Sabbath. 288­ 289 Sabbath-Sunday theology. 215, 218, 2 2 0 Cam D om naig (Law o f Sunday). 200 C annon, W. W ., 30 C anones P o e n ite n tia les (A rchbishop P eter o f A lexandria). 169 C anons, C ollection of. See t'ethn Sagast C a p itu la (R udolf o f B ourges), 202 C ap itu la (T h eo d u lf o f O rleans). 202 C arlstad t, A n d reas: treatise on Sabbath com-

381

S

Caroli

GENERAL INDEX

m an d m en t, 217 C a ro li, P ie rre : C atholic-P rotestant d cb ale (1535), 219 C assian, J o h n . 1 3 7 ,3 3 0 custom s o f m onks, 170-171, 194. 195 C atech ism u s R om anus: theological position of Sundav w orship in C atholic C h u rc h , 284 C elsus: his p lanetary lad d e r. 314 his seven gates. 315 C eltic C h u rc h : Sabbath in. 194-195 C erem o n ial law , 339 nailed to cross. 353 C erem o n ial Sabbaths, Je w ish . See Sabbaths. C erem onial C e ru la riu s , M ichael, 197 C h a fer, L. S., 289 C h a p p iu s, J e a n , 219 C h a rle m ag n e : a tte m p t to e n fo rc e Sunday rest. 201-202. 203 C h a rle s, 59 C h arles I, 237 C h arles II, 238 ejection o f P u ritan s from A nglican C h u rch , 233 C h arles V, 222 C h elin i, 197, 198 C h ild e b e rt II: law p ro h ib itin g Sunday w ork, 198 C h rist. See Je su s C hrist C h rist a n d the Sabbath (Prescott), 362 C h ristia n P ascha. See E aster (Sunday) C h ristia n ity T o d ay (m agazine), 286 C h ristologv o f th e New T esta m en t, T h e (Cull­ m an). 288 C h ro n icle s, I a n d II: Sabbath in, 52 C h ry so sto m , J o h n , 144, 154, 238. 329 hom ilies, 196 C h u rc h C o u n cils: C halcedon, 162 C lerm ont, 207 D abra M itm aq. 177 Frioul, 196 Laodicea. 175. 196. 329 Les E stinnes, 201 Macon. Second, 198 M anazkert. 162 N arb o n n e, 198 Nicea, 175 O rleans. 192. 193 Q uinisext. 154, 162 C h u rc h D ogm atics, B arth, 280 C h u rc h H isto ry o f B rita in (Fuller), 237 C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h rist o f L atter-day S aints, 291 C irc u m c isio n , 110, 157, 170, 173, 221, 329 custom co n d em n ed , 137 exem p tio n o f G entiles becom e C hristian. 134 no value fo r salvation, 339 observed by W aldenses. 209 on S abbath, 75, 101 C ity o f G od (A ugustine), 191 C larke, A dam : on Sabbath, 340 C la u d iu s, 181 “C onfession o f Faith," 181 death of. 182 C lem ent V III, 182 C lem ent o f A le x an d ria, 346, 350 C lem e n tin e R eco g n itio n s, 155 C liffo rd , Sir L ew is, 209

C occejus, J o h a n n e s, 287 C ohen, G ary, 299 C ohen, H e rm an n : set fo u n d a tio n fo r Reform Ju d a ism thinking. 269, 271. 274 C ole, T im o th y , 357 C olossians 2:16; bibliography on, 341-342 C olum ba, 194-195 C o n fe ren c es (Cassian): on m onks a n d sacra­ m ents. 171 “C o n fe re n c e s" o f 1848: sanctuary-S abbath con­ cepts. 358, 360 C o n g re g atio n alisis, 353 C o n ra d i, L. R., 224. 251. 361 C o n stan tin e: c o n stitu tio n s o f, 140 C o n sta n tin e I, 153 C o n sta n tin e th e G reat. 330 his “Sunday law" edict, 152, 318, 328 C o n stitu tio n o f the H oly A postles (Syria). 151 C o n tan s II, E m p ero r, 162 C o n tra Ju d a e o s (Isidore), 191 C onybeare, F. C., 123. 162 C oom bs, K. F., 291 C optic C h ristia n s. E g y p tia n , 173 C optic C h u rc h . 185 in A lexandria, 176 C o rin th , Sabbath in, 109 C osm ic w eek, 73, 143 See also C reatio n week C ottrell, R osw ell F., 247 an d Seventh Da» B aptist G eneral C onference m eeting. 252 articles in Review, 255 C o u n cils. See C h u rc h Councils C raig, 125 C ranfield, C. E. B., 98. 1 14. 1 15 C ra n m e r, T h o m a s, A rc h b ish o p : influence o n ch an g e o f S abbath, 234-235 C ra u tw ald , V alentine: response to Fischer doctrin e, 221-222 C reatio n , 283, 34 1 an d Sabbath, 279, 289, 295, 296 covenant betw een G od a n d m an. 2 9 7 .299,300, 343 early theology of, 142-143 relationship to Sabbath. 271-272 C re atio n w eek: in Jewish a n d Jew ish C hristian circles. 143 o f Genesis. 280 C ro sie r, O . R. L., 257, 355, 356 C ross, F rank, 58 C rypto-Jew s: first Jew ish settlers in W estern H em isp h ere. 2+1 C u llm a n n , O scar: theology of, 287-288, 292 C ult o f Sol In v ictu s, T h e (H alsbergher), 139 C u m o n t, Franz, 3 6 1 C yril, A rc h b ish o p o f A le x a n d ria , 172, 185 C y ril II, 175 C y rill I II, 175-176

D D am is, 310 D arius I, K ing: his Megophotua. 315. 316 Dawit, K ing. 177

382

Farei Day o f A tonem ent. Srf A tonem ent. Dav of Day o f S a tu rn . S et S a tu rn . Day o f Day o f the L ord. Srr L ord's dav Day o f th e Sun. Srr S un. Dav of Day-Star iM illerite periodical), 355. 356 Dead Sea sc ro lls, 74 D ecalogue: Sabbath dav o f, 278. 282. 296, 301. 335, 338. 539 a n d A ugustine. 328 not nailed to cross, 353 D efence o f th a t m ost A n cien t a n d S acred O rd in a n c e o f G ods, the Sabbath Dav. A (B rab o u rn e), 237 D eH aan, R ic h a rd W ., 290 D eissm ann, 125, 127 D ellon, C.: o n Inquisition im p riso n m e n t. 161 D em etriu s, 63 D engel, S artsa. 182 D eutero nom ic D ecalogue, 279, 282, 28S D eu tero n o m ic law , 103 D ew in (T evin), S ynod of, 162 D ialogue w ith T ry p h o ( | list in), 141, N 3 D iam per, S ynod of, I (>(). 161 D iaspora, 335 lews in E gypt. 61 D idache (m anual), I0S fasting, 336 L ord's dav. 547-348. 350 D idascalla, 175, 179. 182 D idascalia A p o sto lo ru m (m anuscripts), 162-165 D ilthev, W ilhelm . 272 D im i,