The Pure Theory of Law. Hans Kelsen

PURE THEORY OF LAW bJ HANS KELSEN

_ .. _............. _-..........

MAX l\;NIGHT

Ttl" LA.'''''''" E",,,,,,,,g, LTl>, C,.... Now)",.,

-,

I,BJ>J 151\)logical purity of juri'prlldcn of pnncipJ_to the mult. of a den-lopmmt originating from Imd..,dco that arf thc cemcnlO of pooitive legal ord.... in· creasing, a general ,heory 01 law i, in dangtf of mi..ing 10m. Icpl phenomena among I" fundamental leg.1 concCfl'1: tom. of .h"",, concepu may ,urn Out \.0 be too narrow. othcn '00 wide. K.IKn U much aW1l.r , re,.,_

• ,•

,

• ottn ,

e

j_

".,.

,,"< ,n

.uv<

0

"

"mg. """'" ,or; ej Nonn ,nd 1I,IUi" Ib, SOC,,[ Oiikt

'I

o Sod,] OrdCTI pr""

~i

$OO0,,", A. Soci,I No"'" S_ Monl. A> 1l< Oid" IQ I,,, A. 0 P.... 01 MOl1!li 1I. lltlotivity of Mor>1 VIllU< n. Sepon,;"n 01 Leg'] .nd MOl1!! OtdCTI

6. 00

0,

•

•

's. IUI.-Guo" t Lilt ,hTOiijib Moral>

Ill.

LAW AND SCIENCE

.::

l'

' •. !.n Tho s..,>ronn ol N.tion.1 .nd Im""";"",,l 1..0" b Th< 0:>n bu, Condi,io" 01

'I

~u.

.8. Lq;,j Obllg"ion (D",y) aoo illblll'J Log.1 Oblip'ion and s.."",lon b Lq.1 Obllll',ion .nd ''(Iugll'"

'I

w '0 /Ie Appll"" 1J • F"'me e) The Snll wbjttt

maneT.

•

• •. Til. Acr ....... ITlI ~ "lEAS'S" If we dilI "'ia'e b juri.u) belW.... !.he procesJ f legiolalioo and iu pTfXlu.n ....nding before him; lflally !.his UtenW hoppm;ng meanl: a judicial dccWon was ""wd A men:hant writn a I 01. a ~trUin COIlttnt to .nod~,. moerchant. .. 1>0, in lUm i!.h • ltt,tr; thi> ....,.... m.-, hoyt rnDdudotd a lqall,. biDdiQ,g 0DCIuxt. .sc-.bod, CU.lfO tht d... th nllpptn t(l Ioi< tor. lortcinfs wbtn ht dits. Tht ..,bjoniv........ni"ll of lhil KI is a L Objecti"""" how....... it is DOt, Iota..... _ lqpl formaIiti... wft.. 00l obltrvtd. Supplt a otCttt organiat;"" In. t ding to rid lh.. 1Iaiion of ... bYtni,.., tl......... ts, condtm ... to d th a man IlMIught 10 be a traitor. and has a nwmhtr tlttCU... what " wbj«tl""ly he'li..... to be and all, ". d..ath ptnally"; oJo. jtc.iv..ly and legally. how.."... not a dealh ptnalty but' ftmt murd... wo, "arrinl out, alillough th... x,....n.1 d1'CUm"~n" ... of a F.mt murder at"CUlio.richavior of mhe". Th.y arc 50 dirce cxp ,on: "an it oonfomu 10 an ough," i, no< ~tirclr conK" b«auoe it is Dot the it that coafonns '0 the BUgbt, but Ihe "IOmC1hing' 'hal one tilDe ;1 and Ihe other time ought '0 ""-it i. ,he "_thing" ",hich figuutivtly cao be dnignotod as .he can'en, of ,he is (>I" "" the colllent of the nughL I'u. in dillerelll woro., one ca" .1", ...y: a ecruin IOmc'hing_ lp«i6c.Uy • certain baDi.ni ot an an of will ;,; aloo .'l iJ brha.~ in a r.ly CDIllnlTf to it: a nona that w... ~.o proaibr ''''''1 lOClICIh'ng ough. to ~ done 01 which ~~ t . - l ~ba"" tIw i.e cctllSl bappen ..... .....ruy ac· carding to lhoe laWl 01 alwa)" and tftJ)'Wbn~ would ~ all ~ ... a AOrlIl which _ to preKribe tha' lOnlfthing ""gbt 10 bet»tly in· ...ro E.I«tiftt>ft& it a -.di.ioo 01 validi.y in eM lmSt Wt ckcti>'mnl Iw ... joia lhoe pooitina: 01 a Itp.l nottlI if nOllimi,ed '0 a .pedfic 'pace or a .~ific lime~ ill .patial and temporal .phere of "alidity;, unlimited. The .phere of validity of a norm i. an element of its eontent; and ,hi. content. a. "'. ..hall _, can to ",me ex,ent bl' prede,ermined by .n""her, higher norm.' A. for the ,emporal .phere of validity of • pmi,i"e nonn, it i. nec....ry 10 diS\inguWt betWUn ,he ,ime belore and aher ,he en· ,,,,olent of ,he norm. fn genenl, nom.. rder only to future be· It.1vior, but ,hey may abo refer '0 the p.st. For example. a legal norm which .ttach.. a ",nc,ion to a certain behavior may 1""" lCribe tlt.1t an individual ought to be puni.hed e,'en for bclt.1vior ,ha, had occurred before the legal nonn was enac,ed whe",by ,he behavior i. qualified as a delict.' In this """" we "'y Ih>! ,he norm i. ret"""'tive. Bu'. legal norm may rder to the past no' only with =peet '0 the d.lic, bUI abo wi,h re.peet to tf> obligation. H"man biOll to execute a certain punishment, 'he enforcement offi, or doe. not, behave .. he i. commanded, authorized, or per. mitted by a nOrtO. In the broadest ..,0.." any human behavinr de"'nnined by a n"'mative order a. conditinn nr consequeoce, .d." expreaoes the idea ,ha, ,hi, behavior conform, with an objec,h'ely valid norm: that the behavior oUgh' to be the way it i,; or ,hat it doe, no, conform wi,h the objectively valid oorm: that the behavior oUgh' not '0 be ,h. way it i" Th.n ,h. ,'alue u an "ought" i, placed in jux,aposi,ion to ,ht ttali,y as the "i,"-,'alue and reali,y belonging to 'wo differtn, .phe,,,,, a, ,h. "ough'" and the "k" If the sta'.ment tha, a behavior- conform1 or doe, not conform with an objectiv.l)' valid nonn i< de,ignOled as ....Iu. judgmtm," then thi, valu. judgmUlt mu" be di"ingui,hed lrom ,h. norm tha, com,i,u,e, ,h. valu., Th. , ..Iue judgment can be ,rue or un· ,rue. becauoe i. refe... '0 a norm of a valid orde., For example. the judgment ,hat .ccording '0 Chr;"ian mo",lity it i, "good" to lov. on.', friend, and to hale one', enemi.. ;. umru' benu.. a norm of the valid Cnri"ian mo...lily command, to lovt not onJ)' one', friends but also one', enemi.., The judgment ,ha, it is logal '0 in. flic. upon a thitl the ~n.hy 01 death i, unITu. if 'he valid law in qu..tion comm.nd. '0 puni,h a thief by deprivation of l=dam hu< no, by depriva,ion of life, A nonn, how.ver, cannot be eith.r <

...... '"1.. ,It< l ,h..ero" king me'ely ,?"cilic judgmenu about rroli,y. Again" ,hi. di",nct;on i' i. objected 'hat the ronner value judgmon" Or< al.., judgment> a!>ou, .eali,y. bc, 'he lormer iJ. fact, 'he IaueT' me.ning. Th..efore 'he reladon ktween an actu.l khavio' and. norm; .nd 'he .el.,ioo k ....eon this khavi",. to 'he fac' wh. When a .pttific conduct i. judged to k motally good or bad (because conform,ng or nOt confonning to. moral norm regatdcd as v.lid). one i. u.u.lIy not aware of the cnstom cha, created 'he moral norm on which the judgment i.

"'W ASI> NATtIU

.,

baed. Alxn"e all. '-ever, the _ br which legal n""",, are ereIUd...."., into oomidera.;,;.. ... 01>;.0. ofln>dinl!" OIl the IlWIner in wh;d\ hUlD2>l :octI"'re con""...ndcd or forbidden. diff...... ' tyl"'" nuy be diJI.iDgu~ Ire ideol lypeI. "'" Ivtngc lypeI. The lIOCi.o.l order nuy comnund I ttrt.\;" humIn behavior withOut It ....chinl!" Iny COc WOTd. TI>c princ:;ple. to react upon ... e......in hum,n behavior with .~d or puni"""..", ;.. Ill. principle of I.,ribu·

., a.......-d and pwtil.hmn>t ..... y be cUled ....wI, only pm,"'_ ~ ;.'" alkd.. lioD.

.,anctions," b...

fI...J.IJ.aoocialordoor y-..da~oo-dtr'.. to'm'nda anaia bdlm... by j_ altaehiDc a disadYul~ to the oppooIlC behayior.!oI" c:umpl... dqlri•.,.t.ion of lif~. be>lt.h, heedom, ""-',ite bellaviorcommanded: The bchaviorwhich is "commanded" ;. not the behavior which "ough,".o be attuted. That a bcl..vior is ".OflumUlden is poooibJ... b\lt p:.IiLi i. mould be noot!qn. ,uo ''l'lo .IO!A"'lXJ. ""PUIUIlOO:> "l(l AjOo:>UO'ljOW" 'pUClUUlOJ 1] "O!A0'l>q "nm If "'pro I""om "'jUOjPu,,", JpnpU!'1 ppo.. J.:I'I'O:l'" "! 'lQ1.>J (J"ltl.J'>O ,ou qS""",[") AjU'''''''H '!"'pop"" AI....!' .u;> '00 '! OO!lnq[,,~, jO ,[dpopd ,,,, P'q>U"" ,.,,,8!,, JO "p'o [UOW "'" O! u;>A> ""oJ""'''' po. 'p'L"'" .1[0,.\0'" ,,,, 01 "",,, u'J ",J ·Al'U~plA3. ""m.. ,,,, 01' """»llo~ "., ,,,, 0>," 'OU O{l ,n"" '''0,/ P'''''''' '0,/'" 'noA 0,/'" "",/1 '''01 n"" JI .>0.'1 "Im.o> ,no, ·no" 0, A'" 1 '''II :Aw,u, ,no....." 1'''. "'" ,,,S!'U ,noA ~Mll II"'" no}., '1'1'" ••'" '! ,.", no}. . ·1!.....! 0,/"'00 "I''''' 10" oa ·no" 0' ..'" 1 ,ng :,,'00' • ,oJ "'001 .1'''. , .., U. 'OJ'l.> uY. '1'1"' ...'" 'I ,.", p.lS 'I" U[ '."ur 'JOp.lO [olbl ''Il wo;q P"ll'lnSU!"!p '! puo '...,p.lO lOP ..,.," 'PO"'1 0' P"""P!OUO"I "plO l1Uow'lJ1 Allon.o 'p"!lddo 'OU '! uo[,n'l!'''' JO 'ldpUIJd "'I' "! "plO u" 't[ '""~'Iooddo 111 'OJ ,u,m'l'!und '0 'I '01 p'L"'" .lIU!'!,.,," InO"'!'" :IO!'mj ">1["" "1'1" 'lJ1 U!) '00"""'" SUIQ!J:>t>,d JO!,-,o I"!""" " lllO.Ij '''''".!lIP "IPUp'la

''1'

:'"'1'

."'ll'''

,n",.

,.mo"'"

,,,,,,,r

,MI,

''1'

'''OJ

1".'" "."

"'I""''''

'P!"'"

1'''''!l'u"S /no¥"m "'P'D IOPOS 'U'I.L ',V ('I 'SU!""",U 'I",n., " IOu '~.'I,"mlOU. "'" ""O>'!l"JP JO ,d"uo, '!'1' U! p:ooO 'JO".,,>q Jl'''' JO "!IOW 'II' 01 p.l.lb, ,nolJ11'" 'tlu,wqt!und "'l' 10 tOO!'!I''''''''Il

''I' ...."

"

nn.LV.~

"I' """" prncribe OCt"'" and the «hen do noc. bu. that they prescribe dilf""mllypn of .. ntl;ons.

=

c) T"m,unlfcnlal and $od.Uy ImmGnent Sa..elio'"

b,

The unctions p,ncribo:d a oocial ord a.., citl>er ,nnocelllkn· ...1 or socially immanent. Tn.nl(cndcn l ..nCli..,," arc ,,,- ,hal xmrding to the fai'" of .he individuals sub~ '0 .he ordtt orillinau from • supnhu....n aull,onty. SI>Iart inlt~ IU.lUnl C",...u that alfcct hi. ialmmialC i n _ acmrdiDg to aYi.oO\1l" and are 'herefore basically not different from human !>olnv- CononJuemly ",o.I"'" ~"!q!.DIi,,,d "II ·(l"AOJdd..!p '0 l'AOJPJO >'l'J""'''' ......1...0 ]1¥lou1l!p ~~PJo [01:>05 ''1' ']'" "0 "1'0 >'1;>.100;> ~'Il 'PJo8:IJ [onp,,!pu! POl""llo "11 ''\[!JOU!PJO '''''!S ·""OI.d:o>:, "'.mOO JO ',," ""[1 '''11 ·..."["1. P"~ POOJ JO ~m':>q """'1 I!~( 01 O~ o. ,up'O "! .w", 0 Sl!WUlOO .poepm"" JO :I!"" ""'011 P'o8:IJ IOu ~ ,JOJ'J'ql p".... ~[ 'ql (0 .ll:Iw'ISlund ''11 ~]j", "l "'I'!'" "11''''''''11'41 q,nw OS UOll'O '!'l1,Jll>J "no 'W!",. p:on,wwoo'nj 0'1'" ,po ["'1"4d j" lll:1mAoldw, ''11 ';'1 II!" "!q .. ur.~. """" I""Pl"P'" 1"1"110 ''11 uod" p:osod 'W!'! '",m,:»" I! ''1'''1'''--'''''1"' "WOU"""' JO J~ .''11 '''I' '1 .,""[.. p.t0Nl ~'11 .q ~.u ·i!,~p .. ~p.to ]~!:>05 ]1" '" U""""O~ '''''I' 'OI1'U~I>I!J~q~ lS1lJ ''I.L

">t,.....,,

l!."

>1>1'' '

""0:1'

J~pJO ""1''''03 Y

"

''''''7

7lIlt.LVN oru, that;s, c:. limited

{,,=

on ...; and on... must di"inguiJl\ bt.wc"" a pefmillM an,l. prohibited ux of 101U. J I i. pe,mitted "' • TO,clion againlt a _iaUy un· ~sirablt b0_ mvior.... sanction.• ha, is, u an l ..,hori ,....TCa ooc 10 tbr III Ioen~ beha....... .and if tho fuDc· ...... 0( IUCb '"" aubliIl:I....... is 10 ponm. wc.b a beha....... fondiridlUl or seoer.U p"eYuuioa). Ibm IhiJ ac< bu Ko ..... y be 10m cIowrl by Ion:~ '0 p""""" ~r oolb""'" or dw: spond of a rnnlIagntion. Thor lqIJ otd.tt of ......Jiurian Ilates auu to ~ in OKKa!'ra,iotl (:II"'P' pe....... .m.- pin ~ligiotl. .. ,..,.. which have nOl 'he charac"" of ..nction. arc condi, reli, gion•. and rae... insofar .. 'hey arc in«toM in concen"...ion campo to prevent 'hem from a oocially und",ired behavior of which. righ'ly or wrongly. in 'he opinion 01 'he legal au,hority. ,hey are con.iderM capable, Apparently, ,hi. mo,i,,, i. Ute b..iJ lor 'he limi'atio'" of libtic of an c""rci"" action. commanded or aUlhori'ed by legal "" den. The concep' or ....netion," undcntood in ,hi. broa-d.., "'n.... tben. 'he fo,ce monopoly of .he l"l!"l communi'y. m.y be formu· to

-c"~.~,,

,

.... w Il/vior thatlfllolly i' not peing f 0ec.>u.. ,hi. normative meaning i. the objective meaning of th.... acu, do they have the chanc,er of lawllipulating, norm....., iadividual Ip. " .

"

;0

UW AN" >lAT1JU

,ion u legal nrders 2nd on, even American COurt. refusod to aclnowledge ""to of the revolu· .;onary Ru.1 ..n... However, lhe word, "legal fonn" :and "Iogal cont"m" ... unpreci>c and ...."" misleading in ,hi,reopctt; in order to be in'eJpre.ed as a ltpl ace it is not only u'luired tha< tk .... be o:m.b1iohed br a certain proccdur~. but Wo that tk an hI...., a cnu.in ....bjK1in meanilll_ n.c tnftni"l ckpmds 011 c.hc ddnition of law. prauppaord If>llClh.er wi.h .he baoic norm. If tk law .. 110I dt6~asa tTci\'t~. bu. only ... an oo-dcr .-bI.iWd aoxotdi"l to tk baoic DOnn (and if. ~ . c.hc basic l>OrIIl. is fonnubtftl ...: ....., oughl to behl."" ... tbe h;" lOrially Iirs! constitution preoaibeo). thm Yll!.e """rei.'e acu. Again, nO! all norm, that stipula,e a coercive ac, hut only those .hn ltipul..", the coercive 3eba.ior. Th4, ,,,.,.nore, is another TOuon" why tho 11w don not have ex· chui~ly a commanding or imp',.,";"e chanacr. Since a [egol . dtt. in the ........ jUit dnly to thi, individual; but indirectly to O1h.. merubet, of the community. For this behavior become' the objttt of a moral norm in tl" con",iou,n"", of d,e community, only beam", of its consequences 011 the community. Enn the so-called obligation, toward on"",]( are social obligation •. They would be meaningless for an individual Iiving in isolation. B. MoULl' AS RUU"'"rION OF IHTllNAL nEHAVIO~

A distinctioo bot",.en 010131, and law cannot relate 'n the behav_ ior to which the norm, of these two social orden obligate man. Suicid. may be forbidden not only by moral" but also by Jaw; courage and cltot.l,ity may be mnral as well a.logal obliga,ion'_ Nor is the frequently a.""",d opinion Correc' that law p••«rib.. oxta_ ml and moral, intemal behavior. The norm. of bo,h orders deta_ mine both lind. of behavior. The moral virtue of courage con,i". not merely in the intetn.l quality of feadeom""" but also in.n ox· ternal behavior cooditioned by this quality. And if, On the other hand, a legal order prohibits murder, it prohibits not only the btinging abou' a man', death by the e"temal behavior of ano,her, but aloo an intemal beha,-ior, namely ,he intention to bring about ouch a result_ The "imemal"' behovior_po"ulated morally a 01 the individ"ah whose beh.vior the oro...- re~_ ulates. It would he ,upern"o". to prescribe onl)' a belravior tha, c""form. '0 all inclinat'o,," and imerest. oJ 'host wbjrctrd 10 ,h. nonn. People follow their indination. or try '0 re.lite their in'.r· em even withoU! being oblig.d to do 10. A soci.l order i. mean· ingful onl}' if a .llil.,ion i. aimed., other ,h.n ,h. O11e ,h .. re.ult>

LAW ANn MOIt 01 monls cannot Ix limited to the nona: ~s..f'PI'ao your ioclinacientific cognition, bccau.. an ab",1 ute ,,,I u. can be a.."med only on ,he ba." of religio". faitb in 'be .hool"t. and ,ran"""nd.nt authorIty of a dei,y; if one m,," admit ,h.t. from th;. vi."'poin,. an ab",lu'e moral ord.r excluding ,h. po..ibili,y of the validity of .no,her motal OTdet too i>-relati'eJy-moral Or just. All moral orders have only one thing in common: namely, that they are social notm•. that i•. nOT"'" thot order a cppooi...... • b.ohll~ monl ........,. it it 10 dClWld dw eooy of pooiti..., la. &m.andJ. di"inction bttwem law and monol. in gene",I, and ~",ecn law and justice in panicul,., thm ,hi. d,~y i, di,,,,,,M .inot ,he ,,,,ditioml

"",It

view, rmonttl and cannot be cmpll..izct! cttough '" nndeT· .tand tha' no' only on. mor.1 order ....i.... but many diff"",n' and .von conflicting on..; that a po.itiv. logal order may on ,h. "'holo conform with the mo",1 ,·i.... of a certain group of th~ population (e.pecially the lUling ono}. yet may conflict with ,h~ moral vi.w. of an",h .. group: and th.., abov" all, ,ho judgrnctt' of wh .. i. monlly good OT ""ii, morally ju"iliahl" OT unju.tiliablo, i••ubjtet tocOll,;nuouo clt.n~. al i. tho I.w. and that. legal ord.. (or £OJO~ of iu normll} tha, at ,ho timo of iu validily may have conformed wilh lh" I"'''uht.. of th. moral or,u,T th.n preval.n'. may .. iIl be judged to be immoral loday. The lh.. i., "'Idoly acccptcd by .radi· lIonal.don.. 01 law but T"jcetcd by the Pu,.., Theory of Law. thaI the law by in natute mUll IN' mo",l aod ,ha' an immoral """ial oroor i. nOl • leg.1 ordor. 1""'''1']>0''' an absolute mornl order. th., ill, on. valid at all ,imo. and plac... Other",i.. i, would nOt be possible to evaluate a positlv~ """;al ordor by a 6xO!d ".odard of tight .nd wrong, indopend..., of tim~ .nd pia... Th. tll ..i. lh" law I. mo",1 by n"uro-in ,h" ..n.. ,hat only a mo",1 "",,;al ord.r i, J~w_i, T.jO:Cled by ,h. Pure Thoory of Law not only bo:c.t 1 dQnIl>). No jurist an e carried 0'" .ga.in" a pcrson wl,o d..... nOt ful~ll hi, maniaS" promise: .nd d..... no' . Odobtr.•,0,). """ .......). .... xn, 'OS (N , - ,•• il"'l).". _ _

y_, __........

-J.< conc~i"ed of., an .,bject diller.... t fmm th. cau",l.,rder of nature; only th.n < "Pf""'d to natural 5Ci.ngn;tion. Not does ,h. rul. of la", imply any approval of the d.""ribed legal norm. The juri.. who de> th. law scien,ifically docs n'>, id.ntify himself with the legal authnrity enacting the nTm. TI,e rul. of law remains objcctive dncription; i, doe> not beenme p''''''ription. Th. rule does no mnte than 'tate, like ,he law of nature, the link between two.lem.ntl. a lune,ional connection. Although tbe object of the science of law i. 1cribed by 'he legal law is analogo"" yet differ.nt, from th~ connection of cau.. and .ffect .xpr.......,j in a law of "",ure. Pteci>ely a. the law of natu,.., (th......nion d=riblttg natur~) I. DUl the d~scribed ohj~Ct, >0 th~ legal law (the a""Ttion de>cribing ,h~ law OT, in othtl word" the rul~ of law formulated by ,h~ ocienchowl that ,he same principl~ iJ :II the buis 01 thc in~tion of n~'''Te by prim,,;..., men." Primi.i,-~ mu> probobly did """ .... plain ....'un.l phen1 not"TO may k characterized a. oocionorm.th'. intrmed io tb. thinking of primiti.,. man. To him n.lUre "part of

.v.m ...

".

LAW AND SCI"-'ICE

his society .. a nor,nat;ve order whose clementi at. wnn«'..! with ooe another acwrding '0 'he p.in(ipk of imputation. Tlte duali'm of notu'e a, a '., order i, nnkoo"'" '0 him. ThaI outh a duali,m .xim in the thillkingof civilized man i, the result of an intellec,ual development during whkh hum3Jl and other being...., an' hert conarntd to that ol ... nmoI nality. ohm m- nJua an: ..".."..;,.. ted by pooi.i..., """"'; lhndtt. tht objta oJ. tbeoe I! ru,li,y. Such ooci.olockneel a«: cthia (the: otiencc 01 morol.) and jUTisprudl:ncc (the tciencc of law). If we def,ign.o'c lhem a. non'>alive

I(:imct.l,

thiJ does nOl mun du, ,hey

prncril>e norm, for hun»" behavior and the,..,by command, authori,., or pooitivcly permit a «'rui" conduct. but that ,hey dl:. oo;rlb. For "alidi,y and el£ecI;ven"" are no, identi,,!. A leg.1 norm i. valid -d.~...............1 r.- ,..,j ' ' ' ' ' , pp. 'OS •.

T'..".,..,

• -o«I'PM ·~"",d ~41 AI"'" m'! '"'''"110 lU~lUO:> ~1I1 .. ~U!w""p>Jd JOU ~41 :nn.~ p>l"p,,,d ~ AIPJ0'l U~ mUOll \U,n:>S >0'4' jO 11.... u:>S 'Il'

I.'",

Alu.w!m ""0 ''''("m,! '.unin Jill "'I

''1'

1"""'] "UO"" ••W.IOU

''1'

IO"P!_'il'''! JO uopru&., I. Iroo ,ou P''''''!P '1 'I "UO!'1"1' lmO' JlW)'!l)"d JO l'c, ''II ','"4'0U .....p "'"j JO ,'o,!'" "''''''IlU.lI'lOJd '!'I' ,,,und IOU p>'u 'M ·...,"".'>oH ""'In) ''II U! JI>aM' '4' '~"'Id ~OOl "P""I" 'U'A> ". JO UO!'''''''ldu uo .. "I1JOW!Jd mopJu,,! I! "',".'\OH 'lU''''' ""Ill) 0 JO UO!"!P ...ill '4' '! uo "''''-I 01 'I'l!"od.! '!!! r>J9!J>A.! "n,"u JO "'"l\~n"" V ·.,UJ,1J 'mmJ ,n""o ruolu!p"ill ,,. "UO",JO "nu,u JO Uo;> '4' po-. UllOU 1.8;>1 JO ,dOJuOJ uJ;>''''JIIVl-Of .t01 '!"!"""v,v4J '! 'P!4'" '".01 JO ,;>o'!'" puc 111011° ~u!l-8u!,o J1IL

'4' "'.J II". 'V

''1'

''1'

,J.

"''I'

''''''1'

"1'

'''j~no J '" Il(llno ,,,,wmOllo. PU" oo!"v U"wn4 JO ,uoJ '4' lnq '''~l 0'1' 0' UlJOjUO'/WW OJUO!'" l",nllm'q p"vlnw.oJ ""'VU 10 ""'1 >IlL ''''"110°1''' "4'O"V ''1 ."Vj '4' lImq"""p M"I)O 'I"' '4' ',vldo, 01 U"'V" 00 'w,OU j~l P;>,vIO!,' "l' P1lvAU! 'v PJollJJ 01 UJ 0" ,v4 "'"I JO 'JU,!", '4'-lu,,,b>.>.JU! "PA!I"lo. '! 'O"'"4"'l 4)U' ~'AO.d_uuo" 1~01 ''II 'Ill'" ',limoJ"oJ U! IOU '! .to!Av4Jq 'UlOS I! '''1l ·utl ''I' ']11'" .UUOJ""" '"11' '''[lO'''>qO.tO p:'!Idd. Jq lOU ••W '! ."., 10"P!A!P"! U! '"4'-J"!'''''JpU! llu!J'! Ul.OO ''I' JO '~T!'l!' -toI'

otioa win_is incompatible with the ida of au""li.." or, a, an.,. ta'e, with th.. ;,In of awalily as uprnoed In the laws of das&ic.ol pIIysia. Th. idn of a fin. cau.. which.... th. ive will of Cod or a••he frn: will of man. pial" a deci,i .. role in .. Iigiou. m.taphyoia, il likewi.. _ ".id". of prhni,i,>. thinking, in which the principle of cau..li,y i. no< ~e, emand. pated from that of imputation.

=..

I,. THE PJ.oou""

Of'

nu

FIlUDO.. Of' WILL

On the

fu~ta1 dille«nU

bttWttn imputation and caUAii.." namdy "'... imput>o.ion hao an md poin' wbern> a._li,y hao noI. rau 'M a>DtrIII K,wun the nca:ssity prnaili"l in Da'U'" and tbc freedom ctiIl.ill( ill -i«r and .. .,.."Iial foo' tbc .-...0. 11", ",lationl bel....... mm.. ThaI man, as pan ollUlUff, is ...... hee mnm tha, his bduorior. IooUd UP""' as a Ila.unol beehlvior in· terpreted ... merit, lin. or tklic,. To \>e tru •. it iI e"'tomary to oay that the merit. lin, and delic, a", impu'ed to the min ...pon.ibl. foe Ihi. \>ehavior. But the ..al mtaninll'of thi.l.. tem.nt is that Ih• .....n ought 10 \>e rewarded for hl1 meri, (more prce'"I.,.: that the

.'

LAW AND

""~~'C~

rn """ance for hi> .in (more pTtc~ly: ,hat ti" .in of ,hi. man ought to h,,'. its penance): that the oiminal ought '0 be pun'''",d (mOTe p,«;.. ly: that hi. crime ought to get ,he pnui,hme", it d..",•••). Il j. nol behavior defined a. merit, ,in, or crime th.. i. imputed to the man_mch an impntaton would i>< mptT8u",,', .inee human behavior c.anllo' be "p"rated from the bchaving human !>ting. If the qu."ion of imputaMU j. ",i.. er 01 a society and

,ha, command. tertain !>ehavior into pos>ible motiv.. determining m.n', will '0 behave >c. cording '0 .h. norm., lIu, thi, m.a", ,ha, ,h. idea of a norm commanding a certain behavior become, the au.. of a norm· conforming beh"ior, Only becau.. the norma,iv. order (ao ,he Con'''''' of ,h. idea, of m'n who.. conduc' 'he order r.gul....) In.....1.1 i,oell in the causal proce.., In ,he chain of cau" and elf..:", does the oro.r lullill it.l >oMm. It norm that would prncri"" that man ""ght not to die "'0>1

""pet"

"""form'.,

orould bf n'!IlTO. The ide. of ,"ch • nOTm i, r f>Tusany not del.nnined will). j, n..,e.... it i, £re'ior pracriMd by. nann i. condition~ by &l>OI.h., human bd>avior; condition and """""'lut:nCc arc acu of human bellavior. Bu. the nonns of • ~l order r>r.,ior OI1Ie JOcial nornu «lItimand a certain behavior unconditionolly-under all drc"m... nce.........nd in 'h" Ittlll Q condi. tion and comcq_; .hen.he principle of imputa.i"" ......Id not be appliaohlc. But nen nonm pr""";bing rd:r.oinmmt cannot he atepic:al. A politi •• ac.;"". obYioud,. Clnnot he pr....... ibld un-conditioo:t.all" hecaux an loCIion is ~bk only unda- ecruin condi,iom.. But nen rd:r.oinn>ct. cannot he uncondi......... lIy pre. ICribed; otho of act< of will. And 'he Pure Theory is concernM with facto only 110 faT" they .re determined by leg:t1 nmm. which ar. the meanings of act. of will; and th= "".nings and 'heir mutual relations arC 'he .ubj"", of ,he Pure Thfflry of Law. If the con""p' of the "ought" i. rejected as ",,,..I,,,,. 'hen the law-< perceived a, the mean, of Ininging about a crT,.in l>, conti". (Jr i' ."i'li at all) I:>o,w..n cottain economic or political laCll Ind 'he ilw· cr.a,ing "CII on the OU' hand Ind I:>o'w..n th.", ac" Ind ,h. human I:>ohovior i"'.nd to bring lbout on 'he ...h.... I" 'he la"n cue. the au",i eonnK'ion ""i... only il'hl< I:>ohavior i. actually moti""'td by men', id.... bou, the i"..",ion of Ia.... noting actS, • motiva'ion which by no ......... is .i.... l.. the cue bea"'" obedience co ,Ite law i. &e ..,....;.u.ct the «JI!NOIon DIlled ~impuwioa~ -if aU _inK is dcD.iod to Uw: ~.....p.M-tbco it .......1 poy $',000 to B:' and quite anoth ' "There i. a c.......In chana:: ""', if .dll pay $,,000 W n.n Ev ybody ur>d.nund. th31 i, it one thing 10 Ny' "11,l/. bcltavior it a d.licI acrordi"ll' to Ihe law .nd ought 10 be puni,hcd according to the law"; and 'I"ite a dill.....n. thing W "'y: "He who Ita. done Ihi. will probably be p"nithcd," The imlIl.1nem meanings of Ihe aeu direcled by Ihe leaitlator to the la..... ppl'ing orpn, by thit organ-in Ih. judie"'l d«ioion or the .dmini.,.:nh... acr-w the ."bj long a. a religion exiOl>, 'here mwt be a dogmatic theology that Cannot be roplaced by religiolU poyo Ieienee in the 10lal 'f.lem of ,heleienee. i' a subordinate qu.. tion, Whal i. important i. nOt: to give up thi' Ieien< ""j~tcd ... "idrological" (in the >«.oM meaning of ,h.. worn). In ,hi, ",n,. the Pure Theory has an outopoken anti· ideological u.ndellcy. The Pmc Theory .~hibiu thi, tendency by presenting pool,;,". law {tom any admix'u« with any "ideal" or "right" law. The Pu,e Theory d..i,es to pr... nt ,he law a. it i•• no' a. it ought to be; it seekslo Imow Ihe ,..,.1 and posoible. not ,he "ideal:' ,he "tight" law. 1n ,hi, """c, the Puro Theory is a radical realistic 'h.."y of law, th.t i., a theory of legal po,idvi,m. The Pure Theory ,du",. mtion or wilhout iL In this rupo:t ~ it nO mcntW dilt:ermce bonwfa! puniohmtn. and ci,il b«:a_ the lat~r. felt u an nil by !he dectftl individu.ll, ""'7 h.t~ a prn'en,i,..,..Rect '00.10 thai in ohio ax'M compmsa'ory and pr........ lll.;vC dftt.. may boe combined. 80th kinnJlerll meaning of 1M kpl ord.... I 01 tht delict. II 3 anaUl. twh>.rioo- has btm ~ the condi.ion of a WKlion. ile. 'heo the e""nti.l lac,. are e"hau"ively described by a conditional "alnn""t that ..yo; "JI a cerrain behaviot i. present. lhen a cer· tain sanction ought to be ex""utrd:' In this 'ta'emenl. the delict appeana. 3 condi,ion. oot a' a negation 01 the law; and ,hi. show. that the delict i> not a fact ...nding oUIOide, much 1... in oppo>i. lion '0, the law. but a fac, in.ide Ihehw and determinrd by it_it shOW1 that the law, ,""cording to iu nature. relen .pecifically to thi. fact. Like everything ebe. SO the delict (in German: Unreting a ",nc,ion. However, a legal obligation i. nothing dot but the po;eWnd case of lulfillmon, of an obligalion. Th. indi,idnal whn lulfill. lh. obligation lmpo>OtipulalOA>l"'l'" UO"""!ldwI l"-'oW ou '"'I puo J'pro [l!&>[ ~A!l!'od 0 01 l!'AI,np", ""J>.! un!, ,oll!lqo Il!&>[ 0 JO ld"uo.> ''1.1. 'op 0' "ISon ~'[ lOll'" op 01 ,,[1l00"1 ''''"''0 '1'1'[_" '''pro lUOW ",!.".]PJ ~'1,lq ~J>]l.1O 'J '"'1'" op 01 l'Illno uow '"'1' fiolO1n., ''1' O"uonw~ Plno." 'l'1dOllOllqd [...OW JO 'If>'1' j1l-l'u>:> ''1' '! 'PI'1'" "jd!)u),d P,oo!,u.m ''fl 'ro!A"'l~ '.u01'!P"'lDO' 'lD'''lI'P "'ll").,,d 4"q.... ·•..,p.lo [O.lOW '.uoPIP~'''IO' pu. 'IU'J'lI!P lUq '''!'''' 10U.,.,P ·IlH"'OW 'jSD!IO[OIIq. '"'II ~do.>.!d 1I'u~PI!'" ·'UO!l.~!Iqo JO oo\,.S '11']0 '!'1 1I91nJ "0"'1" Plnoq' uow ,oql 'ld"uud a'lL ',nlu I&OOW ~loIOlOiI'l~ 'I-lmp '0 UO!l0~Il'lO :4"j~U3-..lq'!Ud.. p.lO." U.lW~'41 'Il!.~\

'0 _I'.

','0"')1

' "[01 'Iq"-'''''''''I "1"1'1'" '01'~'1~ 0 JO lU'W'P [ouou,.] '[IlO_["OP).uPU! U" )0 JO)A.q~ D'",'" • 11 uo Inq 'DOp"ll'lqo loll,[ 'ql 10 llU!q!I:>O:>P D'qM p"u,~,uo~ OJ. ,." mo'l'" q,,'" ll. Ir 'lon, ,r Irllp!.'IP"1 '4' '0" 'I 'I 'n"''''!'1 UlOlI "'''''':!lIP ~tl!'ll'lUOII'" uop.llnq" ~'1' 'Ploq _0 '"'I 0'1'" lp()'p'UJOII'ou '! 1"0 _P!A)P") '!'1' 'Oil ·oo".~,[qo JO J>fIl04 .10 ''''('Ins '41 '~p"I~U '~)"P '! oq." 'DOprll![qo ''I' JO m>luo.> "'[1 ",m]l'uo;> '''!AO'pq ""''I'" I~OP)A!PU! ''1' '! " 'l!l~[[llON ".1"0 Ioll:>[ ''1' ,('1 p"'~rnd)"

''1'

''''l'

''1'

''1'

"""J ''I'

''1'

,..

"'..,

~o

.L:»:d$"V C>UVU ~,,-'-

''1'

n'

THE STATIC ..... P~ OF .... w

pose obligatiom, and that the .pecific function of Lb. law_in con· uadistinction .cd ,hat the obligation to beh.c: oulho";xed only to do some,hing. How_ evet. one may be l~any obligatw to make usc of one'l authoriza· ,ion; an ac'ion to which an ittdividU.tion to cxoc"" ,hi. act if the noneJlocn,;on i. ,he condition of anod,.. eMrei"" act a. a ""oe1ion; the....,.. the ex"",ut..ion of ,h.. eot'ei,-. act .. only aUlhOT,>ed or positively pennitted. Legal oblig..iotl i. nOlo or no, immedia'ely. ,he behavior th", ought to be." Only ,he eoere;'-. 0 the civil execution has.o he dir«w:J is the propcny of .he individual agail", whom the coercive ac, i. dirccttd; and (b) that the l'rope. In the former case the in· dividual i, liable witb hi, pnlOfl and hi, proper'Y: in ,he latter c:ue t,,·o individuah ha"e to be con,ideretllor liability_the one who has the authority to di.pooc over the prop which constitute the prople individual belo"g '0 lhe ""ne collec,ive group, Such a relation i. u.ually ptnupposed whe" the legal order stipulate> liability for Someone else', delict. In ,hi• ..n... liability fOT a delict committed by another may be characterized a' collective liability. But one om ''' of a "ate wh_ m-gan hal committed. violation of inUrn.lional law.

".

'tHJ: srAnc

ASp~

0' ...... w

CoIIe iDt~nded or lo,..,....,n by the individual whose khavior i, being consid~~ and the,""" in which the ev.nt happ.gnting '" posit;'.., 1.1... ""","tT. 1M: usuilly on an>i he oblip.ion '0 do ,nm....,. iCrvice--onc is $l,i,fion and his property. Only by abUTaction waS the concept of a legal ordrr gr-adu.lJy d.rived from ,he exi'e law is unhistorical .nd etroneoo.."" If ,h. a..umption of the ."i"ence of n",ural right< i. rejected, and if .ubjective rightS are r.cognized only wh.n e".bli,1Ied bl' • positive legal

• """,iI .. 't rWlI; il is lhQ/ltd iIU M ,not bu. auy also "" proml in .IK cue of claim> or i";" pmo....... rOO" elWl>p1e. if a dcbcof it oblipled to rmdtt a s~fie thing.o tht crtditor. let w ... y. if _body is obligated by a con'ne 0( ... It to Inns(... lht _"t>ttSh'p of a ope. d6c pi«e of mM... blt ~ y OO".tal =ate ". oont~bod)' tb~. In thi. alit ,h~ .igh, of tht crtditor is dirralip...... not'o JlU'~1 him ........ his disposition of a aTtain thing had brm. r;ola,td.

how.""•.

c) Tu

~Rigltr

A• •

~IJ

P>oI.t.led r"lC'TUt

TIlt' ddinitiort 0( lbc law in a ath;..ru"" ....- "" a l~l1y prot«ltd int......... rnq....ul, prnnlltd by tnditionol Kim« oflaw, rtf.... to thot rip. as 1M .tft... of a legal obliption. This defini. lion dtatly di>piays 'ht dualism •.hal'3Citri"ic for lndi.i"""l Kitnu of law; I"" rigttl. ,h •• is, lhe law in a .ubj«·en in a ".ub· jective ..n ..··---- not seem to be possible if the act to which one i. ohligated toward the oth.... romists in inRlcting an evil on him, Thio io the Ca" if the act h.. the character 01 a ",ncti,m prescribed by ,he legal order, and if the commanding and executing of the "'nction in concrete .imation. hal bee" made the Content of the offici.1 obligation of the la"··applying org.n•. Norm.lly, nobody i, imeteSted in the 'ulfeting of an evil. If.n interest i' protected by the obligation in question. it c.nnot be.n iot......t of the individual againot whom the ..nction i. dilj«.i,·c rdln righ.; in on languav one dlT"'Cific individual; and in ,his KIt .... the low i, ind.t0". by ala i. the aKu.;on 01 a oon fulfillment of the obli. gation haa no .pecific leg.l effect; the aCt is logally irrelevant, except for not being logally prohibited. Therolore, • "claim" as logally elfeclive acl exi... only when a oo-called law In a ,objeclive oen" exi,", ....hich me"", thot an individual ho. lhe just chancLer· ized legal power. Neither this so-called law ill a 'ubjective ..noe not the legal obligation i. dilfe~nt from. and independent 01. ,he I..... in an objecliye "'"... The fonn.,., like lhe leg.l obligalion, i•• leg.1 norm: the logal norm which conEen a .pedfic leg.l power upon a

"

."

TlU1ftnm. that an indiridual Ius the right 10 btha"" in a anuin , ('f ific:olly; to C3lTJ .... a :octirity is lq:olly ..... pn>hibited 10 this iDdividuaJ Of WI Olhcn are obliplal not to prcvml thio an;'",.,. or tha. u.. l2rt ~ pr "ll"Ie;.] permi"'on is prohibi'td, ,h., is, .ubj«t 10 ...."C.lon. This p".mission doe> no( coruin in the mere ''''galive ,,,' of no< being prohibittd, but in the pooi,;"" "'" of a commllni!y org:on. I< plaJ'l an imJlOlUnt role in modern amdmt .... Ii· CftlII: orcooc ion o~ from tlM:autharitid.

1) TN PoIilic.J llitAU

The soalkd "polilial r¥>u~ reprncnl a spttW (:11"10'1. n...y .. ~ u.... UJ ion .... 101 than in Ihc general norm ol the lI1tule. Then arc Olhcr political righu !>n of the iDdivid.,al noon of tho: judim' oI'M f.. 161~1 oJ. another indi.id.... r. blip -ani the ,....... The atclllioo> of t.h.is lrpl POW'" _,. bu. n In tbe ,echnical len.." They an: prohibition. InlOlar a. tbey forbid the ,·iolalion by .tatut... o••"'tutory orden of the guar.ttttecd rights. th.. is, to limi, or reICind tJ,em; but th..., "prohibition," do not in ,he ma'n (on,I" in imposing the Tcpl obHgation upon the legi,latlY. organ '0 refrain from en.(ting .uch ,,"utts, they d~ ''1' 01 AIOO Inq 'lnl"" 1"""!'nl!"OO'''O "" jO 1";>"'S '0 I"np!~!p"! ,," 01 fn'Il 10" POI' lU;>Eu> '! ,oq """,,, lo"o!,nl!"uro"n ". 0" J'>''''lIOU '! 'p.>'.10!,' '! "O!lIl'!l'''O' .1'1 pa>l""--'u"," .1U>q!1 .Id:l. 1= .,,>1l" 'I'!'" p.>",>ooo, ""'4""'" '! ID '",., ",.,"", '"4' .Itl' JO ,.pi!." '! ''IS], (",u,m '''Pu''J POll"'""" ''1' 0''1' :ill.O" I""p],,!p"! "1' JO 1";>d>J ''1' '" S,,! -1'"'1 >J"po,,,,d" >lU!'!"! 0' ",""" 1"lJ>1 ''1' '"'I ""0" 1""p'A'p"! '!'1' .1'1 p.>1"1I" l"nP1~!p"! 'l(l A1UO Jl PO" :,"',,'" (""o!''''!''''o, ·"n U" JO '!''''l "\l UO p.>w>J, '! "uoo 1""p!A!pU! "u J! "pro,.. :C'11O "1-"0!'!"1' 1"!'!I'''!" -'" "0 ",!"c,,'1"!Wp. 0" Aq J'>'"IO!A,! mnp -;>;>') JO .'!I"nb, I'""1"""'''S .11I0001101[1'UOO ''1' JI ""O!""'" ='ll )0 "o,,""'"x' "11 01 'P"'I ''''I' :unp.>;>l! .q!'101d .11I"lJ>1 :>.to ,u-.&.o ='11 u''1.1. '''4ii!] I",,!l!!od JO 10 '''9]0 10 ""I '" 'pn, tl",m'l,!"nd 'UI""" ill''1' uodn "!11"! AO'" U"O' 1"1""" " 'I"U01111'I""lY.>Un '! 'IO'''l' '41 "''''' u, 'lu4' 'm~'ill '!'1L 'p.>ullllJ,mnoo 10 'p.>I"jj[nillD.ld 'l"'AOJddu 'A",! .1''1' ""n,o" ''11 I" 'l1IUUO!,nl!''''O' ''1' 'OJ 'lq!",OO= 'pOW >I. (,,... JO l""''1 ''1' JO tl,.. ''1' "S)':Cluno, 01 ','"'1 0'1"') »U!'1':> ~'I' )0 lJ>i ("'IU'[:»I''ll "1 1l(l!!. 'Al'''!

.I". " "''''-I_

.I,,"

''1'

''''''"If

''I'

''1'

",f'l'"

''1'

"'0'1"

"'.., AO ""'-dSV 'lLV...,

~11-L

H,

«

gena:oI rq>nl of a IU'''~ ,hat yiolata n «KIImit d~licB--nly they are enabled by .IX 1q>1 ordn '0 do to. flu, 'helxbll"ior ..... con.i,u'", t~ delia b

t""

H

H

""""ftl_ItUl,'"

na "'FAne

.uP£Cr I' lAW

14 i

prolIibiled by .vior ...... th~ he word ~aucd in a narrower ......, wbell it doQ i",p1y a~; in h.. ....., tndititlall oheohe legal order to bring about legal consequences by his heba"ior, thaI is, consequences .,hicl< >h~ legal ord.... attacl>n ".>h,. behavior. Til_legal consequmen ar~. how· eYt!', no, >he lIJ1C,iom which ••• CO/'''''Iuencc of • beMv;or arc dircacd aa:oin" the individu.1 ""h..ing in thi, w.y (Le., 'gain" the delinquent or hi. ,cl.,ivet). The capacity 10 bring lbou•• $OInt:tion by one', ""haYior il>h~ capacity to commi, I delict and II diainguilbed from the capacity to .ct. The legal t oI>h~ capKi,y to act ufen are, a.ccordi"l to ,radi.ioaallcience 011.0.., esKnti..llly obligatiooJ .nd rightl o .... ted by 1"&,,,1 ~ ~ opKi.y to act II pri ....rily the cap.city to oondualepl .... nRO'ioN (CacM/Ulilti«ieil); bu, capaci'y to ahe won!. But abo >he lcgal capacity 10 conduoJuo, .I.:IMOO ,do] ~4' '1 IDU :A,!UnUlUJ !oli,[ ~lll JO ..su1!&1o" P"II"" "'_ 'UO,,""'U"-'1 ]d.>( "npuoo 01 MOl {"tuopOU .\l!104'O! ,[O"P!AlpU, ~l]1 lOU 'UOl}JunJ '14' ~U"!""''''" U! '41 .I.:Itp!'U"A puV 'A'lunWllJOO ]OUO!,...1.I>1'" ~'11 U!'111M 'IOJ lUE'uoowl tI" Ao(d 'MO( \"""!'OU'" ·U! ,{q pa!lOtp"o "10" Aq p>popuro "~!I"~I Aq 'w'ou ["-,,,u,ll JO u0]10"" ''I' '"'II puo :"PlO [olio[,tp Aq ol~'lfl P"'lID4,no ..mOl .,:>ddo 10 "'lIOU 'Al11 "'lM 10) AI""l .:>woo ,.",olio 1m' MO( 0 lluuq 'mp>1[l.ld "lIU"lU!wpo ID ("P!P .n! 0 u, 04.... t:>IUro ''11 Jl W ',UOII"",,,,', ["S>[ ,m", "opuo, 0'1'" ']"OplA1PU! "1' II ·J.:IMOO [o'il>[ Jl"!d ·woo., '10 'lonpl'lP"! "" JO (tlqJl!. 1""'11100 .0 ~'OA!'d) UU'I ''II JO ]""!"'P" "p U! ",{.Il!, PU! ',UOp""'U.'1 ]d.>( "np '''OJ 01 A"JEd., ''I.L '.1.:11"0 loll,[ ''I' Aq P>ll'IuOO ""'00 10&>[ ~'I' JO "'p.,x:. ~tp til II,,,UO' 'I"'IM p:m.lJJuoJ '1 UOIPunJ ''I' 50 '"J to P>U'lOO! 10" '1 ~JlI,,:>dd. "!U' .,,"[ .\H'I"OJ ,>MOO [olio, 'q.L .:~J"'I:>q, louo)l'pu, "'op "MOO l',llJl 0 llu!'''lllO' JO ."., [[0 III

''''m''''

'"m.

''I'

'1"'"

JS""

''I' '"

;"

.......,

~O

J.:>:IdSV

"uns

XlU

.,.

TIt!: ....TIC ....PI:CT OP "'W

c) The Concept oj "OT8"4n"

"Organ" of a community i. an individual who ""donn. a function Lbat can Il th,

-cr

,..

ld...... ,

_ r",,~

,.

Till< STATIC ASPEC'< OF lAW

.,.

the brood." sen...) by iI, can be allribUlrd 10 lhe communi,y con· "i,u,rd by lhe norma.ive OTder, can be inlCTpre'rd a' function of .h. community; and .v..y individual wltmc behavior U d.lermined in l~. nonnal;". orocr-.\nd thi. mea", ev.ry m.mber 01 the community-ean be TI,ga.rd.d a. an OIgan of lhe community. An individual i. an organ 01 ,h. communi,y, if and '0 .h••,,"'n' thai, h. f.nd... a be~a.iOT ,ha, can be a'tribu'ed '0 the Cornmu· nity; and a bellavior can be .ttributed '0 .b. community if i, i. dctenninrd •• a condi,ion or • Cllfted., "0 ~ecu'c lepl .",n_.ion" why (I) wh..n lhe 1"1"1 p-roculu", h... '0 be ini.iatM by a opeci6c act din:.;,ed i...... speak in one ,

tmt-uoru

,,,,,,·.nt

'.tI,i...

,\I"')

'>1 at 1M iJItem"ion·1 a>IIUDuni'y in 1M;" lIw-acau"l

and law-

appI,in& f"na;"'.. Ilaide tho ooacept 01 ~orpnM ",'!10K criterioa-iJI addition .., cnu.ia a>c>d.i JUodl ... IU, • • nc..-is ""pun dn pu"" 'O4' jO"O!'lPU, 01 llu!p.loJJV '("o"",u,,",,d>J lim",,,,, 1"'11""""') '''''!'''"'U'''' ]dJl Aq 01'4' .oJ ..pnp pUt "411!. ~,">J' p"o '''P''P 1I!!I"l "'ljll!, "I"'x, JI"'IJq '1''1' U! 0'1'" ","'''l"~,: d,, 'Ao4 ""w'l"nplA!pu! =q' """I ll.l'pow 0' llUIPJ= '>J0J''''1~ 'II! An',"'Ul ~'I' pu. ""Pl'4' ',(d""u Jorll!.~ll!t{)IJU"J ''I~ 1I\Y1

~o

.L:>:l4SV OU.V,U

~IU

."

'"

punisMd, tbm lhe punislulblc «a1Ut '0 apply to dclicll whic;h a,.., Coo· lIi,u'cd by. finc or dvil execution. For these ..netion. in a lorc~ dcprivat;on of Ulpmy rights, an aloo be the ... bjcc< of .... obIiption to poy the ",open, tn. By .... I&mIII ~'1 "",n'!IIlll

",,",MPq

"! 1'"'11

..,~qn, IdbJ 1I»M1>

td>[ la,..cq R "'!'l: "1.... Ol.up.JO "! '»qIll OJ ""!1....,.•". '11O!'!l"'J :aQljA IID!ln...-.-b. Wln'nI 1" """" :>Ill OJ ""!1"U!lf!puIl1W "! 'uo!' -nIl!-'-". JOI lIOIUl OU '~ "'! >.I:>Il.1. -n",,", puc "",!,a"...., :>Ill o>,n»n oq", ~"" ~'" 0"'11 1:>1110 ~poq>wol JO "",E>J:>". "q!!-'puc IUO!ldn'i0 II"!"" 1'1 .110 '! "''1'0''0 S,,!,g~o:>q '0 SO!ld!!'!o U0fI"'CI"UI loll>j V 'lu-..:l "''110'''' S"tlY'U>q '0 ll",,IlIl! I'< 1,... II"" O! p>q!;l)UP :>Ill}! 'ljUO ,u;llJJd I! PJOM ~'11 JO,g!»dl ~'" Ul ""!1n""""u1'l1 '(lodp"IJd JIll 1'1 ~IUO p;If!:;IQJQ XI 'A!lnll:>l>JCbJ'Ill p". ·p;lI.....!A 10 p;lUYlnJ XI """ JA!I... UJDJd" >O!Id!lqo :>Ill I"", 01'1"" ""P!'"!J'lIl l"ll!JlMlln.:>Ill JOI I>OP 14>11»J!P 'MIll OJ !u!p.>O) ..". ""l 'UO!l"'!-'O"Pn. "" II' IJft'I ap 110 PJ'lIUOp>d '''''!P'''IlUl rd>1 ap """.. 1UJD.>d f! UO!l.......... xb.o l>OJ!U ""'!'l: 01 po.u;>JI'ftD ~ll""'" ~1. I.... 1""P!A!PO! ~n. :>Ill 01 ""''''lUI'. tit""!' "'!""J lOll .... UO!uam.q "'II ~ plOlOJ> tlqB!l ptII JlIO!ld!rqo :>Ill ptII '1""!'fA!P"! 1tu~n. ~'" .Iq _ "P""Ill !q p;IUUOp>d l~ I'< ~ f! ",,!1:>nUl "'U. ·I"'P!·"P'"

"!'"

,>U,

,m,,,

''1' ".1l""J

$!l'

.........

.13lt. . .

:>Uv.u :nu

.

ASrttT ' • a ..,1lI,;"" bnWtt:ll ind"·id.... r., lhnIl.he traditional ddinitioa is _ ....IT_....... tho: lopl ordtt aablish and .notbn indi"iduaJ who i. au,'-ized to apply lbis : and aloo bn...,""" one iDdi"idual who is au,horillrd to emile or apply a .w~

nom> and an individual who ,. obIip\.ed or en';II~ by ,hi, """,,. Such legal ttLa,1on' oilo1 order, namely to du' norm. authori,ing their funCtion.. It i, to be noted th.. by pre. ",ming individuals '" "inferior" to the norm. of the legal order, and .h. norms", "superior" to the individuah. we employ a figure of speech which m.rely .xpr...... ,h.. the norms of th. legal order comnullld, au,horiZSilh'ely permit the behovior of indio vidu.h_that ,he norm. of the l.gal order h,,'e the beh.>vior of individual. '" ,hei. conlOnt>. If the figure 01 .pc«h is taken liter· ally. a relation bet"'een th. lJ I"s,r jH'Ind.. 0 'I P""'!P'! ""!"'O W0'l'" ''''!o~o lonp!A!pu! p;>,cll!rqo puo ,n. 0' I"s,( ''1' 'I'P" P'lAU! tOnp!A'PU! ''I' U~"\I'q UO" ·01>1 ''1' "''1'0 ''1' "" PA>l 'w.. ''1' " uOII,ulp.lOOJ pu. PU"'l'lIO 'q' uo UOI'O")p.1OqUS P"O tlO""U!P-IOJ>d,,. o=.\t'>II >J""'ll!P ''1' "0 "". '''01'"1''"' 1"s,1 ,,",,!,d puo "lNnd """""'1 >J"'''ll!P ''1' ,...J '" ,nil ..uo,q, rOUOl"plU,,(q "" ....,d .. '0 p>,.uS!t>p ""P"I" 1"8>1 I"J)d'(, ''II '! II 'uO[",u" ''II ,oJ '''O!I'PUO' •• "p.oo IVbI 'II' ill P>,"uJl!"P ''''"j 0"" "01'01'" ''l' '! '!'1l.. ·(U!I'P ,ql) p>1»J!p 'J 'Il' 1I"11'" "U'"~ .IO)A"4>,cll! Iqo PU" J,.\too l"s,r '1'f'" p>'A ·UI ,"np'A[p"! '4' "»"">>:>"!P >:>"" ''1' lIl1! ·"pID [[Uou r"lIp!A!PlI! uo unOJ 0 "q lIu!n,,! 01 ~U!P"'I 'JOp>xud o 'UO!''''' r"8>r" 1IU1~'" "'I '''~'!lI! 0' ""'00 r"s,1 .,UllOlll U!'" u, 'A"4>JOW 'JO--1I"np!"!p"! 0"" "»"\1>q '411" ""~" JO ,dOluo, ''1'-'"1''' 10 uopollHqo '41 'I'!'" 1""!"IOP! '! 'uO 10 11111!J ""U', '11' "1"0'" J>'I1O UJ '-"'U""W lI!mJ>J • ul 10'9 pJ"."OI ',''''l>q P"1cl![lqo 'Il' lIl1!]"" ~]d A'l P>"I.!-OI">P "llU'PIlJUi ,," "'0' ,u."~!" 1U.l!>t "1' "noJ .", Oil '! 'I'I~ ·.u.mou'4d IU"""I""' ,(1108>1 'IU>J'JI!P 0.", IIOP"I" . . . '11'!X' ''''!llJP' \08>, Ou ,.., '!II' U! 'rx!",d 'J,., ·.>l0H .''l~J x.u" ~u!puod,,,",],,, "! pur uo".lI!lqo r'~'r' -""I 110""1" .....u,,!'"p] rcll>1., jO UO,,!U9'1' '41 U! ,,,8>p 'woo

.,."lOd

''I'

''1'

"""'u,,

""""""1

•

'"4' ''1'

''1'

''1'

-="

p.l""''''

"!I''''''''

""u""

"''''I

''1'

''1'

''1'

''1' ''1'

11>'' ' >q 11>,"',

....Y>

'-0 .endS>'

'u.n, a,,-'-

",'

na ~

.UTI in Ih e 'pcttwun th~ concept of "mbj":l of a legal obligation" frm th.t of ".ubj..:t of a legal power." To the extent that in traditional legal languag~ Ihe fun lhal-1ik~ lh. concept 01 r.lfex right-facilitate ,h. dcocription. Th~ir use i. permi..ible only if one i••warc of thi•. lh.ir nature. To aw.k.n thi. aw.rene" i. 'he task. of 'he Pu,e Theory of Law. IIlh. Pure Theory .mploY;! ,h.,., conc~p",. il ;" done only in the SCn", here dcocribcd. Ju"," tr.dition.l ,heory plac~s "'ight" ahead 01 "obligation:' so i' regards the leg.l ,ubj""l primarily .. a .ubjea 01 righ" and only ",conduily., a ",bj""t of legal ohliga,ion•. In German legal lheory, which distingui,h.. !>ttween law and right .. belw",n ohj""tiv. law and subjen;>'e law. the con""pl of "legal ,ubj""t"in Germ.n Rcchl.."lJjekt (literally: ,ubjec' 01 Law}-is eJosdy ~N ....

_ . "'''

tho Vlolotift who ordl"",ed to it. Con and rigb" (that is, the unity 01 'be J~I nom.. thor coneen> u. here) which. i. p,..,,,,mM., ... plll'sic.] ~n, tion of log.dly 'denn' !.oct•. In trated by an analJ'' concern ill Klme way the in_ teres" 01 the individualo who form the corp"""ti()n, and >tin are not...-a. traditional theory a"umeo-their obligation. and rights. are thtot iutupreted ... obligatiOn> and right> of the corporation. and hence the lauer i. concei"ed arp''''''ion :act. a. a juris.ic ptnon. ond w1K>oc "". havior i, attribu,ed to Ih" colpor;l'ion. i, caIlrd th.. "organ" 0( Ih~ corpo""ion. Th" problem of ,h~ corporation 11 an acting pt1". ton i, ,h~ probl~m (alr~ady di"ulSe in the t«hnical ",n", of the word, ,ha' i., legal power, but also poOr.Itioo. mull. fullill (or viobtc) .1Ie oblqp· .ion> or .......dse n in ..·bicb tM natlon.l 1lW'1 ont..-_ opnk in .1mnI 01 rndi,ionaI ,..-minolofn'--obliga... or .unt"Ott in .. hich ons ..... rigblS of ,he WOponlion,!he ....'U'f dfI_iIIn bodI,hf rna.frial md J>f""D>1 flmlmu oIlhf bdYYior thai COWIilUtn own behavior. can bring about or: ••'oid the ... uct..ion-can wm. rnit the delict or rdrain from CQrruni"ing it; the potential delinquent. H lhi> = p ' of legal ohlig..;on is aettptcd, then an indio vidual may be ~ttkd .. eing obligato behavior. Therefore the behavior by ""bieb the individual fulfill. or violate, the oblij}ttion, :md o,iom stipnl"t"" by ,he naLion.llegal ord.... It j. &aid, for .""mple, the corporation ... a juri,'ic peTion failed '0 pay' tax and thereby committed a puni>habl. d~liCl; or ,bat tb~ corpontion lailcd upon him by the 'tatute a' " condition of a sanction dirtne up in judging political aim.. commiued by memben or o0 is 'he

,",

.ubjec, of ,h~ ,igb.. ",hlch com,i,,,,. ,be propeny i, liable with Lb. p which the u«u,ioll i. to> be direI. only wilh hi. pten committed by indio viduals who have bttn authorized by a public or oed thooe which. according to uadilion.. l theory. :are DOt a"ribu.... to .... COtPJIa.ion. n.r lalt unliu the former• ..rt DOt colloct.in obIip'J,ow and ripu 01. """ben, bu, .. rt i""Mdoaal obIiptioao aM rip... in cnlllin IIWI. or rip.. 10 be.....ned by a a human bcinJ. Th~ Orgall or th~ corponotion "repr.-..." 1M juriJtic penon of .h~ w'"",.I.ion. If il i. r.< comen< 0{ obligaliom and righ~ Legal ocimce "~prnoco ,hi. unity of oblip,ion. Ind ria;h.. by the «,neeI" of "phy.ic.oJ puoon;' diffc,m. hom ,n. concept of a human king. This conttpI of P"roi aDd iu rcsul" ~ auxiliary mtlttP'" 0( ~ juriKit ptnOD, a", a prodUCI. 0( lcpl";,....,. dncrihinc Ibt law, not 01 law ilWlf. This ,e-jllt ,roe n= l"""gII ~ 1~ln"" nuy II.., '"is conctpr. as any o"'~r crealtd by ltpl Kienc~. We ....,... II",ady aid WI any nonnative . joctivi"k .nd univenaJi"ic. f••im. at tho totality of l.w in its

."

THE nATIC ASPECT OF lAW

obj«.ive validity and ",.ks to """coh'. each individual phenomenon in it' 'j,.tema,;" comCXI with all .,.h"..-,o conceive in each pan of the I,ll' the function of lhe tOlall.w. In ,hi. >to", ,h. P"..., Th"",y i•• truly mpoic Jeg;ol ,heoTy. But if the I'll,." Throry con· ceiv~ the law as an "organism," it d"... not mean by 'hi' IIOme .upr• ..,mp;r;cal m.lJphl~ical emity (. conception behind which mu.lly hide some ethical'polil~1 f'O"tul.,,,,). but cxclmi"dy thi" 'he law i< an order, and therefore all legal problem. rnD", be set and 1I01ved a. o:m:Ier problem•. In thi. way lriot of a lou " bftn... ~qJid" mans that i. is bindins---tho. LII individual gtl< 10 behave in the dnnmined br l.Iw .......... " bas poin,ed oul in an earlin..,..""'l thai the quetiool wby a if; nJid, why an indio rid-w ouP' 10 ill oeouin -1. an.- b< lllUWttfd by _ftUiniDg:l bet. that is, by a ~. ~i ... is; th.IlI tbe tnoon for ,be validity 01. a nonD cannot be a Ext. FI'OIIl the dfCtllllilupJ'O'Cd norm that one ought to ol>-nat.ment," ... ,h. minor pttmi.le. is an ....nti.llink. The Major premi.. and lh. minor prem;", are both condition> of ,he .. oon for ,be val idity and lhe 100 n""",, in ,,-hirivn an· o,h... of hi, life by ""nginr, and now the '1un,ion i. a.ktd why thi. aet i. Icgal. namely ,he execution of a puniuunenl. and not murder. Thi...t can be imerp,..,'cd .. being legal only if it ...... p'cteribcd by an indi.idual legal norm, namely •• an ... ,hat "ough,·' '0 be performed. by • norm that pru,nu i,,,,lf •• a judi. ci.l Md.ion. Thi...i... 'he que"iono: Ond... wh., "",di.ionl .. ouch an inlerpreta,ion p*ible. why il a judic:ial decision pre,,"' in tlti. c;uc,. ,.-hy is lite individual norm ctnrtd ,he... by a legal

,he._

""'1II boelooging lO a valid 1fF'1 order aod thcftfon ....pI lO boo applitd1 'l"bor .......-er it.: &ca.... tified by Ih. Iacl lhal i, ..'a, crealed according 10 Ihe rules of an tarli.. c"""itutiOll by way of a com,i'u,ional amendmenl. In ,!Ii, way"" .vent....lly arriv~ '" a hi>torkally lim "on"i,u,iol\ 'ha' """not hav" be.n lid;.,. of a norm can boo anothn- norm, th.. prefUppt>li. 'ion ....... bc: an authori,y higher rhan God. And if ,he norm: "One ought to ol>c:y the command. of God" were preoumed '0 be posited by God, it could no, be ,he rca· oon for the validity of God-created norms, became i, would it",lf he a God-created nonn. Not can ,heological ethics in i"elf create .lIting authority. Theufou, ,h. notm: "One ought to obey the commanm of God;' ... the ba.i i, 50 interpreted hy the legal ocience i\>eIL" By offering thi, theory of the basic nonn, the Pure Theory uf Law doeo not in.ugum" a new meLhod of legal cogni,ion, It merell' makes conscion, whaL most legal scientim do. at ltast un· .Th< q_'.'" "Wbo p,,",up_ Ih< Iwl< .....r " .,....."" bl "'" P.I< 1'b}' .. roIw.., 11>< bul< """" " p_w-, ,hot I~ .. ""i"".-dy n'id '"',__ ..,." 10, rom'''ve '"""'on, not, ru""..., '" 'be v1U. SID« ,be Kka« of , ...1' , :>!qn. """I'" UO '" ". ou "'01 ""'1' put uopo"", W.IOlI 10 ",. ""llInm..", ".uq n.'1' .,... :""1 ,SD!lItaw SU!'Il>llIOS "" •••" JOl.I,!RaI "'P u''1' '.]q]nod "! UO!'''' ...,dJ>IU) JO\jlO ''1' JOU auO "'[' ....'I'!.u JI .....'I"!und "'l 0' lqSno 'U»1Jn0J JO ,1I0 ''11 ....ol"'l .uouad JO DOl,d."". ''ll 'Ill'" '''11 "p U!~, " pall!"'WO' "'" 0'1'" 'poq'JOA:'I .. ".I.. 1] :.. pa'l'!und "'l 0' 'OU l'1Sno u»"noJ JO :>lit ''1' "'0[>'1 ,UQS..L;>op 'jnJ SUI'l)n.'p-.... l.'I~ '''''110 ''11 JO "!P!l~"'ll SUll!U]![ ... 01 poolu>pUn "'l ux, nuou '110 ''1' D''1' '.uOl'!pt-I'U01 '[UO """ .w,ou 0"', ''ll "ldwox> "U'I;'" '']1 U) so 'JI ro :,Spn( ''I' '·S-. 'u.ll.to lIu!~ldd.·.,,~ ''l'''1 "!0Ij' X011,,"[qn. "'l 0, POOl< 'J>jlUn "'l un norou 0"'1 ''''l1'3 :"1'" l:>JUno"lfl JO UO!,nl'" roJ "'!'II!'1!l'SOd Su,,,,01\oJ "'l' ""'1~ ·'j'loq.!und 'OU 'R , j . 10 .. ~.,' U»l'1>OI '''''ll ""I JO ruouad I"'" 'j'loqOltmd 'I "!l'P mOl

''I'

''I'

''I'

''I'

'[l'""

''I'

''I'

..

,

"'V'1

.0 .J;T.IJn' "'I< arriy customary law. If elfe0 found in positive intan.· 'ionallaw. In that case, a positive notm is the rca""" for the valid·

...._

~Cl.l',.s

.p~",>< "'..""',....., q.J onIc-th., is, ,he RO"tlnm"nl' of lh" ot'll...-in ,h.ir mUlu.1 rda,ioru ough, to beb..,. in .uch a w.y"; or: "Coercion of .t"e agai"" .... t. ought to be exercised undor -< . do ...

"'*'"

"'i'oo..

_"PI""< ..", • p''''..... '" "". oould dnly l that ",«nt can natural law lfiVe ,.. ethical'pli'ical ."'ndard and therefore .. a pooIible ethical'pliti""l j""i6"",ion of positi'" la"'. Thi. i' pred",ly th......nti.l fUnClion of natural law. If a legal theory that presem. it",lf .. natural.law doctrine formul.l.. Ih. norm or norm..h-e order which function• .. Ihe ,..,alOrt [or the validity of positive law in mch a way that a conlliel between the """",lied natural law and positi.·. law i. exc1udrd (for .xampl•. by '''e mana: il they ""'. c1uoU thc validi.y 01 nortnI which pr i. not the lure i...ll· evident," the theory or.... Thi.> a",""ion i.> unull3ble. No< only in general becau.e th",e can be no .df..,vident non", of human be· havior; but abo in particular, beeaule thi.> norm, much 1"" th.n any other. can be said to be ..U..,vident. From the point of view of science, n.tnre i. a '1",em of causally determined elemenu, Nature h•• no ",·ill .nd th",efore cannot en'ct nOrtll•. Norm. can be a.. umed .. intm.nem in n.tnte only if the will 01 God i....umeump,ion, which canno' be accepted by ..ience in general and by legal ..ience in porticular, because .lCienti6c cogni. ,ion cannot have .. its objecl' fact which i. aosumed '0 e"i" be· yond all posoible e,,~rience. ~~, T,,~ H'UUCHtCAI. $n.VCTUU OF

THE LECAL ORl>U

4\ The Comlitul,,,,,

The peculiarity of the law that it "gul.t'" iu own c"a,ion, h.. been pointed out before in Ihese ~., ThiJ c.n be done by a norm detormining merely the procedure by which another norm i. to be cre.ted. But it can be done al ... by a norm detormining. 1< applied in Concretc co>c•. We .h.1l dio, corulil... ion. bu. tJiru'l-J to lk.q..w ." 1O/iUri1i _We and .... Ia.... n:produad ""1qi~Uon'" cw.. tonL What has been Did apin.. ,he ........,.I.Ia.... docnine is applic. able 10 !hex o:wo theotiet. Ftoa'I the point 01 \iew oIa pooiu>Utic theory 01 Ia.... ....bich (UO nritbn" _me the ""iM.mce 01 an imat;ina..,. Y~Ut IlOr 01 an o:qualJy imagi.....,. IOli"'ril~ 0riole, the tOmAry law U no dilfe,ent from that toward 'tatlllory

1.w. For an organ who h.. to apply. nrm crealM by cu""'" "",erl.in, 'he fact of (u>lorn ( de· tennined by a general legal norm, has ;ucertaintd, in a pracedu," determined by a general l.gal nonn. that fact. afe pr...nt '0 which a g.ne....1 legal norm .,tach.. a "'rlain 53nction, then Ihi. org;>n ought to order a sancdon detrrmintd in Ihe earlier· men,ioned leg:sl n"nn. in a procedure d.termin.d by • g.nrnl leg.1 no:rm." Thio formulation of the rule "f law. ,hen, .how5----1lnd therein li.. the eo.sential func,ion '" Ihe rul. of law describing the I.w_he .yst.ma'ic conn..:,i"n betwren the SCK3.11ed formal and the SCK3.11ed material law (that i., be,ween ,h. d.termin.,ion of the delict and the ..nction on ,he one hand and ,he dctennination of lhe law-applying organ and hi, procedure on th. other). The r.la,ion be,ween the gene....llrgal nonus and their applica· ,ion by judicial Or admini>ttativ. organs i.....nlially the same., that r"i"ing between the Hllli,itntion and ,he cre.tioo of grnr....l legal no:rnu d.t.nnined by it. The creation of gmerallegal nonn. i. an application of the constitntion in the same ..-ay that the application of the gm....1 legal norm' by judicial o:r admin;"'.· ,i..e organ. i, the cr~ation of individual legal normS. Ju" .. the grnerallegal norm. created by legi.lation or cu.tom are lonnal1y,

.,. and ptthaps aloo matcrially, rletCTmin..J by ,h. "TOl' of ,h. ron_ "it"tlon (that is. by norms 01 a highCT le,-d) in ,h" "'me way a~ illdi.id"al norm. c.eated by judicial or admilli",..,h'. 0materially a' well a' lom1ally----iti legal norm 'ha' Tegulat.. ito cTeation. is called "source:' fn ,hi. "'noe. 'he comti'ution i. ,h. >ouTee of 'he generttllegal norms c,..,ated by legillation or cunom; a gen· enl legal norm is the ",uree of the judicial decision (i.•., of ,h. indi ... idual norm) hy which the g.ncnl nOTlO i. 'pplied; but the jndicial decision i''''lf may"" Tegarded .. the SOnrce of 'he obliga_ 'ion OT Tight of con ..nding parti.. eatablished by the decision. Or a' the !DUrcc of 'he a"thorintiot' of the organ who has '0 ""ecnte this deci,iOTt. Al_.....

Q,

W'Q,.

~ .......

'"

,

'.

I!~

~"-i

~II'"

w.:l~ ... 51 ..... g;;-"sEl

il,,~5'

~

II·.!, ~~-t-·

.W'i!lliil·

E ~~.~i~_.~~~ ~ ;~fl·§'~n~~~~'E~I~{ "··'··I-""~·· !:i Q; =.::"2. ",. c . 6 fa gill § &.~ ~~ ~ all -o:! IT

dO-

...

e.~I! II Q;

' . " " - = ' , '. • • , • lliir i"rli •• lr •• 'i.li •• i.l.!,!! !I!.!.~

."

TilE 'WNAMIC ASP(.Cr 0." .... w

cliff".", def:l'ees. Bm 'hi> determinali"" must "n'tt he 10 wuk that the." plic.,ion, and it can nJ>UO, ~q, U! p"[(dd. ~ OJ w.OU I.""u~ll ~q, u.q." AIUO ,u=.ld 'j ."1 JO ~ulPU9 .q-L ·"'u.., Arou"oF"P '['1' U[ ""I )0 ,u~w,""unouOJd ~q' .. 'olPjP.. -Up U01'1"P l"PlPll! V ""']1 P""ludp•• U!'l'!'" "! PP J~qlOn" llUjl.[ww11" ,ool'!pu",""n P""'pro Allollon '[ 'p"oq "''1'0 "0 ',u~w'l,!"nd "W!' U!"''''' 0 Ulql['" p""'pu.. lOU '! ~'U'W1Ojl"" '!'1' '0'1' ""!' -lpDO, 00 .lIDO "O["U"" ''1' "'f"" pur 'lIP,,!"!d ''1' 01 ,""UO.,110j _»I1'''''['!PUOJ 1"'''']110 Auo",n '1 UO[''''''' ~.,...,,,o, ",uuoJ ''II U[ ;UO['l"P 10U["'["" pur H"P' ~,,,,,:>q !"" ~J"'J>Jl!P U['u,"" o ,,""... '['1' Ul -'''O!'1''P r"p!pn! ~q, JO ,uOj,,,,,nJ l"['u"",,, ''1' , .. "'1'-'0 '1'1' p". tl,,~W"!"U~""=q.L 'O/JOJI'qo ul uuuu (""u,iI ''1' Aq P"Q.!l""..d "'01""''' ''1' ol>I:>"oJ "j "p'o o. '0'1 uno, ''1' '.p"", u~q '''''1 tlU'W"!.,~ 0"', ""'1' .>;l'jV '~pol "~Ir>o"b OJ 11nOJ Jq.L ',,,. ~q, ,. Ip." ......n! o.'.tJonb ''1' ~u1 ""'j ''1' 01 "O!I>"" • 0:>'1"''''" qJ!q'" Plro" '[ W'OD l"",u,iI • '"'I' ,"'WU!'U,,,,,, ~ql "1 "'1' 'PO[ldd":>q 01 wl011 r"-",,.iI ''II JO ~q' jO ,u'WU[O"'''" ''1' ':>puP"! '"~wUJ''''~''''' '[q.L ·O'.I:>"OJ '" 1u.... u1 OJ. uuou (""U>S'']l ul op",mq" W p;>Uj1O"" -'p UOl'Ju",. 10J ""0]l!P""" ~ql "'OJ !'w"lll • D! "''1'"4''' "IOU'''''" 1...,,1J' Aq "'''0'' r&ll"'uoil '41 Alddo o"no, puo :~UUOj'''''''' ,Dol""'u"--"

''1'

''I'

....

='\i""

"'I

'''''''''1''''

''I'

l~.

....Yl

~o

D:ld'V ""WNj... "(hI'" 'ho

,.t-ctlon

...,.ho ...

.. hrt bw·

na

DYot.UllC

.una- ...

\.4w

1!1l

""'" 01 iodjvidual IcpI ........ ob«w~ 1M boa thai ~ judjci.II dec....... iJ. COO....... tioa olIM laW.crn.CftI is loplly achille'!. This is 10 boa...., the lepI rule don not NY: ~lf aanaiD iDc!irl'hNI hu ~i'trd murder. Ibm a puDio!>menl ough' 10 Ite impooed upon him. ~ The Iepl rule ..,,: ~If lIM: au~ ~n in a JI"OUdure decnmin ohjec,ive meaning. If in ,hi, d"""'nn the p.trty-con'etted fact i. "see".ined ,h., a cou" proce· dute pTeceded the ordering of the ""reution of ,he sanction Or that the compe,ence of ,he earlier court, denied by ,he p.tr'i.,. canno' be denied or ,hot the faultine.. of ,he previous ~ouTt pro· cedure a.....ed by ,h. parti.. does not ""i,,_,hen any oth.. opin. ion i, legally excluded, Although ,h. coun procedure ,ha, ascemin, the laCt that i. ,h. condi,ion for II.... n~tion, i. no' a procedute of lI(ien"fic cogn;.

,ha,

...

Tn" DYNAMIC

""neT

O~

lAW

be,,..,,,,"

•jon. but of cru';"" of Jaw.• till. a cena;" p"ral1e1 ex;'" thi.< prottduu and the plttedu,.., by which IIdentific. cogniuoo o! natural fact. is an.ined, pl"Q\liMd that we .nume ,ha, ,he p,occ. dUTe of >cien,ifie cognition ho, • con"itu,ive eh ...""tet. In thi, p'",Hd ,h" organ of ,h" cnrn';lu';,". couTt pr the action or acquiu the =u~ on ,he ground, that, according to the cour", view. no ,'alid gen..al norm exisu which atr.alic p""""utor. It has been "", plained ..rlier" that the legal ord....gula,es human beha"ior not only positi"eJy by ordering a cortain behavior, but abo negatively by permitting a c.. tain bebavior by not prohibiting it, That which iI legally no' prohibited iI legally permitted. The 2 j!Ul'~>J' U! .I0'~ltfll;>1 '4' "'\OlI~ A[!,~U)p.lO uOlm,'l"'OJ '4' 4'14·1t uOl'''''!P '4"~ P"lIwl[ 'I"![ 01 U! "! UO!"""'lP '4' 4'!4'" U! , .I'UllOJ ~4' 11] ""4' P"ltWI[ >.lOUJ 4,nw '! unO. ~4' JO uOII> lP '4' ';>ll •.,!l!rod ~ JO »u..q. ''1' u!-"nw uno. ''I' 4'!'1'" ul .... pu~ ,,.rol'~'" ~ •• UO!punJ 0, P»!i0'lm~ '! unOJ ''1' '1'14·" ul ...., ''II J>.Jll.p ul ",u""Dlp ~ A,uo '! ='1L 'UJ.lOU I...... .u.>ll '~"]11sod 'ou. 4.n, JO UOI1",,![dd~ .. "[UO '1'l~!I!"n[" UJJOu ]""Pl'!PUI p",o~"'..uno' ''1L .,'""'" 0, P"ll"J .lO"j'!S,[ "I'lsod '4' 'l"!'1" ru.lOU "-"]'1"'l'~.Iu ,,''''[.......p!mo. unOJ ''1' '1J!'['" UJiOU ,~..u:>2 • SU!"ldd• .1'1 ""'Ou ""prA!pUl '1'1' uno. '41 lnll ·.. OJ lu.....d ,.\8u!, .l0J I"l"" ''''''00 ,.npIA!pul u. "0,.. 0' P"!.IO'I,no A[UO OJ unOJ ''1' .I0J. ·.UtlOU Icll:I, f'U,uol! JO uOl1"" ''1' lu"w " ,)lU!'OI'lll>[.. .1'1 Jl "lnb:wu " "'lL ·.I0'01,!8.[ • ,. uo!"unj 0' p''''''''41n~ " '.10m ''1' '"'I' p!"' "lion", '! 11 ....[ ..'u " ..... OJ unOJ ''ll _!""qlno UUOD "[' lnq "'.IOU [~j!,[. 'pn, A]dd. 'OU ,:>01' uno. '41"" '!'I' uJ ·mO"n. "" UOl'"I'lll>[ "'I 1'''''.0 uuou ,.ll>j (....,u.>ll •• q P"U!tw"'p>.Jd ••'" OU UI '! ,,,,,,1100 ""''I'" WlOU [.S.[ (on pIAlI'''' U OJ '!'ll U! " ..... 0, P"!J04m~ '! uno. 'lf1 "4' ,uO'UJ t1'lL ·1'"'n ''1' """"U'" OJ.lO DllU!o[d '4' .I0J pug OJ '''OJ''''J.p",un 's< '"'I' "['l",!nbJun .I" "'n[un .. W.l"U jOl.u.>$ 0 'I,m jO ~""[ '41 Sl.prsUO' lmOJ ''1' JI 'mq 'p>sn.", '411Inb.. 01 lou '0 u"l'" "/' "!W'lp O,,0U uno. '4' """"4,no 1Jp.lo [cll:I, "/' '''''''',''0'1 "]'ll'rod Oil" '! 'I ·.IOJnq ''''1 'J'I' 01 UO!lJU", 0 SU!4""'" ""0" 1 ""8. "'I p"1J"o.ld ,0u'1 'OlA"'!"'! '1'1 ,{q pl,"[Ol' ,,,,,,,,ul JI[1 "J 'I' pun p"llqlqs...d ....."[.,, """UOJ 'l'"S ",q"'!,""! 'J ,.nP"lp"! '''fIOUO JO .I0!"4"'! P",,!nu~ ''ll pu. [.nptAlpDl '00

''''J

''I'

""""''''1

m''''

''1'

'J>J..IO'

'"'I'

'"'I'

''I'

"'.....

~o .L'>"JdS">' J1"'V"~O

'">1.1

.h

DOII1Il, a un.aiD amouDt of dixr'ctt CD be imptllCd by Ibe court aI>ould btogin or cod; or ,he day wbeD a death ..... ~ .. 10 be a«ulCd. In thc proccduf'C in ..hich a gcnu.U norm i$ individual. ilCd .•he ~n applying the gcnrnol norm m.... a1wars de'ermine .be f~.. which arc: noo ye"'nd (JUtrtOl be. dconmincd by 'he .....cnlnonn. The I\"'"eral "",m .. ahny. only a frame ..I.hin ..hich 'he indh'idual no.m .. to be crc:.,ed. Bu' ,h" fr,une con be naT' TO""CT or wider. It I. wldut when 'he Jl'O'itiv. general no.m con· .. Illi only ,h. au,ho,;,.,lon for ,he ete.,ion of ,h, Individu.llcgal norlll, wlthou' predetermining its content. If ,h,con'en' of ""'h a (Ourt..:•••\.,.] individuallcg.1 norm i, ill no "'.y pr.,.]e'ermined by • gencrol norm, '001 ,he individ.....1 norm bas tetroani,.. r........ A lery in the sam. way

nu: ........""e

MI'«T OP .... w

."

"*10 tbr aot ill which ~ Ir.illo his inalrably ill law.. upon lbe la,tt't'. ttqlllion a>ot tbc r""'fOl'Sibili" lor Cfeo..... _ la.... wm '"'" ....... 1M aiOlmu of :a fOP ooly '""'T .-ardy and Ihndore o,d, rudy mab ..... of hil :aulhoriu• • 10 talc thr pb« of tho Iqio-

b_. tbt toallcd mw: ppo. .......umel "uclmical~ ppo :a~ dittiDJuisbcd wbich ue coru.idoercd pooiibIe eYaI by lhoK .... ho fronI thrir poo.i.i.. ithed by denion but t au,ho.i,cd t C.ea'e by ill judgonen. PO' only an individual norm binding for the p._1It ca>oo. bu•• I .... e.... l nor.... Tbi. happeJU wb.....1Ie jud'cil-l decisioa !>calmes a IOalied preced.... '. ,hat is. when ,he deci. ,ion of a DOC is living diue.ion '0 ,he derision of similar cases. A judicial dec""'" .... y ha,'c obo ,haraaa- of a prccednl' when me, inrtiridtW norm crn,ed by d"" d«dioo is ...... in iu coo,.... t, pmic1mDincd by. gonttal norm of: ..... u""1 .. ' ..n........, law .. is ambil;uowIy worded acf..e penniu~. io~ tioru.. In tM f........... cue w cou.t', pnadmtial d«ihon o:reo.... MW law; in "'" >C'CODd a . tbo int~ implicit in "'" dccilion -'mcs tbc chancu1" of: • Imnal DDn:Il. I" both ~ "'" coun ...... 0,,"_ tbo pocccdm. f.."",ion> in """ manner 01.. "'Ii.. 1.>tOII poocioclylik "'" DIp" .lUhori«d by on.o!fl, iolate. The jtdicial do:ioion 01 • COI"ICTCl.e ~ pya dil'«tion tbc deci.ion is goncn.liud. This I""cn.li.llnion•• ha. it, the f"",,ubtion of the SCncnl nonn.....,. l>t done by the COUrt crn,ed the precede..,,: bu. it can aloo he lef. to OOM couTU bound by .he p'cccdential deci';on. In ,hit case i, t. not ~xc1uded that differ....' cou"' .....y l""eraU"" ,he precedentLol dedl;on. in different way>: which don not help tb~ pu.pose of the inld"'tion. namely. to achieve a uniform judicature. Si,see the prccmcmial dccWon can gi... direction only to ,he de"',;"" of ,im'la. C:UCO. the qUCltion wlscohct a ~ u Ji",ilar to the precedemLoI coos< is of deA COUr!.

'0

.ha.

.,. (ui.... imponance. Sma 110 OM: is simibr It> antIIn in "tty ,..,. 'flOC'" the "oimibrity" of tM twO ..... in question ~ can consist onlJ in WI tbty connpoad 10 mch Ol.her in enu,n ...... tial pain... j.... as two OCU of betl wtueh «IDSlituOC w ..- delia _ nat Jimilar;n all poilu.. 001 only in cftU.in nomlia1 poinu.. But the 'I_ion in whim. pain" tlwy hi.., Ul ed by law. h ;. ~,iallr lhc principle of ltpllo.It$. m.ylcad '0 \lOOn, .. bl" ,n.,l... Thi. is .he .JSIeTI> of the Kl-Clliled 'rei. RcdIJ(z,.duQg {frtt juritdk,ionj, i, i< a 'f"nn 'hn Pla,o J"'O" poocd for his idnl ..... ~. Btouse 01 ito ~iC>1 d«~nlr.t1ilJlion 01 la.. creo,ion.•bi rnis.,..ly ,brousl' oM d«iJion in wbich lMy U~ p"nilJtod or aoquiutd, in which WitKt;on i< dismi....,.j or dccidod in ,h~i. favor. Frtt juriwliction gwtnon'ttl Raibili,y olrn~ law is 01,.... dtmllndod in "'" n.om~ of jw,"'_a justice pr..... f'PO' be absof",e. "1".... in ,hi. ontte ;.... id be rn~ decision of. from tbe PToceu of law e..ation. If th. ora.n, who i, aboot to deeide a cone.." cose, i, 10 make a "ju>!." deci.ion, be can do thi, only by applying a gen ...1 norm he coruid.... as jn". If .ueh a g.n.",1 norm i, not already created by legislation or euHom. the OTg3n mmt procud in ,be same way as a legi,lator who i, guid.d in for· mula,ing Ih. general nornu by • certain ideal of jmtice. Since dilfe..", Icgi,lato," may be guid.d by very diffctl .bove -individual nor"", ouuide thi> framework; and (b) that .),.tem in which the court> are authorized to create general legal norm. in ti,e form of pr«;edemial ded.io".. These differeot .y"em. repre..,nt differen, drgrcc. of c""",.lization or d=mraliLation of the I.w-cre.ting Junction and 'hereb)' differ-ent degreCl of the re.li",· ,ion of the principle 01 Oexibility of law, which i. in inve.... reI.· lion to the principle of leg.l ..curity, A ,y"Cffi of a .peei.l kind u that in which general norm> are, in ,h. main, not crea,ed hy. central IcgUlative organ, hut by cu"om, and .pplied hy the cour... Since in t the application of • gen· er.l leg.l norm created by cullom i. di1tinguiohed from th. appli· .. tion of a general norm .reated by legi,J .. ion ;n that the aliCer· ",inm."t of the validity of a norm of CU!!om.ry law '0 be applied --that U. ,he ."""","Inm.", tlut a I.w.creating .",tOm i, pTCICnt_ plal'" much more prominent .nd dear role in the judge'. con· leience than the "",.".tainm.nt olthe ....lidity of a norm created by

,i,

.'

'"

nit DVNAMIC A'''''CT OF U.w

legi.dation and publiJhins why the view i, 'OlOJUlitul· mg lhe obligation 10 refrain from committing ,he criminal delict. In relation to ,hi, obligalion, the obliga,ion 'e act o( the civil sanction i, nOt directed again.. the individu.1 who ha. p'riormed • legal ,nmu«ion, hu, .gain" thc individual who, .fter h. hao p'rIoroled • legal tr.nsaction, behav.. in oppooition ac,ion••te distinguiohed. By far the moo, importon, legal ,ran>action of modern 1."1 is ,h. hil.teral (or multilater.l) log.l'ransaction of ,h. cont13ct, In • contract two Or more individuals decl.re theit agre.me"'. ,h., i. to say, they make concord.nt led by that other partj'. The con,nct, 'h....cfore, oon.i.!$, a. i, i...id, 01 olf.... and .ccepl. •nCe. By lhe .cceptance of lhe offe,-•• norm becom.. legally valid that regulate. lhe mu,ual behavior of the contracting patrie•. If this norm stipulate. an obEg",ion of lhe offering party, then the offer h•• ,he character of • promi.... The differenliation t...'ween off.... ond acceptance praupp""'" tha, the two declaration. do nO, occur .imuhaneou,ly. The orr.... must pre.,.de th.. acceptance. The quatio", therefore arise, Doeo lhe olfering party h"'e to m.i"'ain ,he will ""p......ed in lhe offer unlillhe momen' of ac~eptance, so that at the moment of ~«eptan~e both wilb mull .gree and that, if this i, not the ca... (l:>cc:o"... the olfering party h., meanwhile ch.nged hi. mind .nd hou expresr'i.. wanl the .. me thing. Tllcrcby. norm is ....ca,¢ (JOIItnUn....perlorrn.ncc. bllt to ron"'" an undctcrrninf'd numhcr of pcrformonca or pcrfo'm.nc.... nd'-;Oulllcrpuform.nea; .uch 'he cMtraCt in which .n in,uran,c COnlp>"y bind. ;••c lreaty. In ,... biter c:uc W aown..... is DOl. in aa:ord wi.b lbis. L.cpl norllll ....elled by CullOOl .". legal tnruaetion. Ire not chlncte'riud ... Ilw Cl"elced by che OllCC, although lbnc norrw belong to the nlcionll (or .... c.) Icpl cm:le ",...ed 'hat this activity, interpre'ed as sta'e administration, is ,h. content ~C"

! '0, .. '-ctioa ·'Co.,ri... . or fauhy exerci>e of ollki>.l func,;ons. Accord· ing to the ".ual terrninolgy, only ,he function pe evn· tnI. 01. I","tt ....., .,., the IqW.aWO" must .no UIIO COllU;kntioll 1M poaibili'J!hal the ncrms of the «lWI.ituw.applying otga'" are not autho-rized to examine whether 'hOI which i, publied '0 decide wh.th.r ,h. ".lU'e pas>ed hy i, ;, constitutional; ,h.n ,he flOSilj". deci.ion of ,hi. que>tion i. im_ plied in ,he legi.lative .et. This m••ns ,h3l "'erything which ,he legi.I.'i"e OTgan is'u•• a. a "a'u'e ha. '0 be consid..ed .. sta'lIte within ,he m..oingof the consti'ution: and ,hat ,he norm. which a,." the subject,ve me.ning 01 a legi,lativ. act have the ohjecti"e m•• ning oIleg.l norm. even if ,he statute-o:ording to somebody .lse', view_i. not in eonfoTmity with the nomu of the Cl,""itu,ion regulating ,he legi.Ia,i.. procedure and ,h. COlU""'. of statllt.., Th. legi,l"i,'e organ is ,hen in a si"""on an.logon,.o th., oIa coun of la" ;nstance whose decision has att.ined lorre of • final judgment. The meaning of ,he com,ittnion reguh,ing legi,b,ion i, no' that valid 'Utute. may COme in,o being only in ,lte "'ay direc,ly stIpulated by ,he consl"""on, hu, also in a way d.· '..mined by ,he legi.l.'i"e organ i...lf. The provi.ion, of the constitution which TOgul",e legislation ha>'e an ahema,i," .har.u:'cr. The con"i,u';on indud.. a diTOct alld all indirect Tegula,ion or Icgiilation, and ,he leg-isla,i'" orgall ha. '0 (hoo"ve organ ,he power '0 exam'lIe ,he conuittt,ionali,y 01 ... tut.. and authori... ,hi> organ '0 repeal a statu'e considered as "unconsti,utional." Thi. function ",ay be conferred upon a .peei.l court or upon ,h. 'u· preme that do nOt conlorm to the.. norm, ought to be con,id.rei as valid until and '0 the extent that ,hey arc not TO' ",inded in the manMr prcocril>cd by the con,,-itution, The .... called unlalUtco are comti"nional 'tatutco which, howeveT, may be r..einded in a .pecial procedure. In ,h.,.. ca!C5 too, provi.ion. of the constitution 'CglJlating l"lli.lotioo have th. mentioned aherna,iv. charactet. The legiilative organ h•• th. choice between two p;>th" the one prcscrilJcd explicitly hy the constitntion and d,. one to he decided by ,he legi.lativ. organ i,· oelf. The difference. however, con.i.ts in du., the .tatute. crca.,ed try the latter method may be repealed itt .peeial procedure. even though they .re. until then. nlid. TI,i, taue.. general legal nontU in .he fonn of ominane... which do nOl CJt. H.1t 0' apply ,hent, can be rffiricted only in lOme dWtt but no, emiuly eltCluded; th.,.., organ. h",. to d""id.", I.,,, the qu."ion ...·heth•• that which pre",n.. i..oIf .ubi.vc usurped ,hi. pible to de..ribe it in noncon,radictory rul.. of law.

""no.

'0

"""'ed

"",ut.

l) Nullity dnd AnnuUabilily It follow. from wbat ha.o been,..id that "nullity'· cannot exi" in a legal order_,hat :rlegal nonn belonging ,n • legal oroer cannOt b. n"n. but only "ann"nable." 8u, the .nnull.bili,y provided fOT by the legal ",der may have different degr.... As a rule, a legal n"rm

THE IlYNA.UC

M~l thi, meaning and i, ,herefore binding. If Ihe deci.ion i, decClltralir.cd in .uch a manner---for example, il ,he legal order. as in gencral intcn, diJcloscs that we arc confn>nled Ioere wi,h a dillCTmtia.ion bccwcm law'o a ....,. I. lIot:l. P'yeho. logical bu,:I. legal question. The uni,y of individuals COll.!,ilUling a"'...'. popula,ion can only be seen in the fact that the same legal order;" valid for ,h... individuals, ,h.. ,hei, behavior i, regula'ed by the lame leg.1 order. The state population i, 'he pe"",nal .ph..e of vo1idity of 'he national legal order. Th. £tate ,erri,ory i,. certain delimi,ed 'pace. I, i. nO! a delim· i,ed pi",e of ,h. earth'. ,urface, b", a three-dimensional .p.ce which includ... the .pace below ,he ground and ,he 'pace al:>o"e ,he 'eHi'ory enclosed by ,he so-ca.lled fTOntie... of ,he ,tate. It i, obvious ,h.. the unity of thi> 'pace i, nO, • natural, geowaphi Ute aislence ooIlh~ ltate in Of>&« it tht ...... i.Ll ~ of ""Iidity. 01) the mte', a ~ in Ii"'" is Ute mnponl 'f'bn'c of ."tidily 00I1hc nalioaal J.epI OI'dtr, And ju.Sl a> the 'I...-ion of the ~ bordtto of tbe SIIlte... the q_ion of ito temponJ borden, dial is. the quntioD wtwa ~ ....te bqins and when i. ttaXS III aist. is a!cpl 'luation and IOlio'" and .. x.. rci,ing legal rig)'u-i. a problem of Ittributioll. it i. nend 'he llICUling ollhe problem. Thcqu........ whelher a 01 a quuti"" directed ,....... td the UiM' cnce of I flC' like thc qu",'ion ..·heth..... cemin hum.n being h.. performed I certa;" ""ion. II 'he qu""i"" did h.ve lhi. m... "ing. it cooold n........ be an•.......m .Illnnatively_ For in fan il i, """"" the .....1( bul a1wap a unain individual who is acting. Only if tile lUte u .... acling J"'"OI\ u ttp!~'" pIO ]&1 ''I' "q ]»q)IlSOJd ,mp -,;>J')j!P »U1!1'Qm 0 ,r "ou>rI'

"""''11

uvu

o_~v

",y,

t brough, about by the ,hr••, of. sanction. and if ,he intention of ,he l"!lal order i, repreoented "" the purpose of the 'lale-jn,' as ,he l.lidi,y of ,he na,ithavior .ltribmrd to the ,tate which comll,o'" ,he coo,"" .. of ,h. Irg:o.l oblig'lioTU. The func.ion aurlbmed '0 the Slate i. not a law...,

............ STAn

197

anteo:d by dUciplinMy pttUollia. I.... to ~ n.ou:d. tha, Ihe Xli.il}' thai p of the cwrcift an. the politt funoion and the cor>ducr of ..... by 'M ClUbliolunent of a .undi"ll army and ,he 'ppoin~nt of utroccn. HI" n« IltIXhin~ry of ofIiciob i. ou,ed it ligattd '0 puni,h ,h. eG>u.. ,he non infliction of ,he punUhment i, not mode ,he '00' di,ion of" ..n!>abl. d!ion bu' .100 violat. ,t, th.n th••ub]""t of the obliga,ion attribu,ed '0 the "at. is ,h. individual who-as. Jtate organ_has to fulfill this obligle with IlIc 0llaCCpt: of IcpI obliptioa ......, dCldopcd i. ilDma'eria!.·.. In be••• he violation 01 an obligation ..i""la.""- by .he national legal order-and hence aloo .hi. obligation_i. auri~"ted to .h~ .tat~ OIIly when it> ctllH""" "a financial performance...hen i. i. '0 be fulfill""- from tM lUre propcny, and when the """ution (if s.ucll applico) ill to be directed into the properly of 1M "ate. n.c Iepl nnkr may prcoaibc: if it Iw bttn ucmaincd in a judicial procedure that an ""-ent individual was punilbcd. not 0111, .he amtmee ....... ld boo annulled and thcrrlore .he forrible dcpri"". "a, 1""."'- ~ , _ ... d.. lalo of ........,c. 01 'he delkt lh>' com"'" in the "00£uI611"",,,, ...... obIig;otion u ...,..;bl", becau.., the bell COfUlituting tho: dtlict al~ dotlttmin00, 0 ..:Iminislen lbis property. Iflb;, propeny io ..uribtlted to

.ion.

te·.

t.·.

L.\W AND OTA'U:

''''

proptrty for ,h" d"lict attributed to ··him." bu, ,h" .n al POW""o be

"xon;isep ,,, ,h. fu;,itiuus ""no" of lh. ,tate. The notionalil..!ion of property is alway. undc""ood as sociali..,ion, communi.... tion of propeny. In thi, """,e, "ate propert~ i. col· lec,i.-e property of the m"",hen of the ting .. a social reality independe", of law, ere.... ,he law and ,hen .nbjec" itulf to it, ,-oluotarily a, it were. Only then i. it a .tate governed by law. a Ruhlwo.I. A Itate not gov.rned by law i. n",hinbble; for ,he "a,. only exis" in .Ctl of "ate, and ,h... are ..,,, perfonoed by individuah and attributed to the Ita'e a, a jn_ rink penon. Such attribntiott i, """ible only ott the b..i, of l.gal nono. whkh .pecifically determine th.... acto. That the .tate ereatet the law merely means 'hit individual., whooc acu, OIl ,he ba,i. of law, are attributed to ,he "a,e, cre.te ,he l,w. Bu' ,hi. me,,,,

'"

mat 1M law rquLotos ill OWl! crea...... It doco not luppnIl.i.U1ms: lilt lqal eo &"'" bT thal.....,..1 kpI cornmunitia, ~l lqal ordtn wimdml (Ilprate) Irrritorial ophera of n1idilf. were to aisI lide bflide. witboullht P'*ibililf thaI ...... wbdi. ,........ could be: IooUd upon &I paru 01 a r.oull.tnitOO'f. tbm Iht limit of """,,"bit d«mtnliatioa ........ II> be 0VC'I1Icpptd. A Mulutude 01 IcgaI COUIm.,n;lia or lqal order anding oide bJ ,ilk withoul ~ total order Ux:ludi.., and mutually delimi.i... thCIc Ic:plllt'den,. ~Dd OOI'lMiIUUns a totalltpl community iI u,, who differ ",'ith ' ..pee' to their language, ,eligion, race, ""', or prof.... ,ion. If, in tlti. ca.., w. 'peak of a "divi,ion" of tlte ,tate, i, i, a

" , "divi,ion" according to the penonaHty principle, not according 10 UW AND . n,ade whether th.. nonm. valid for ,h.. entire territory or par.. thor..,f, arr crr· ated by a .ingl. organ or a plurality of organs. And although. cen,nlized .nd a decen'ralized legal commuoity (in the ILllic sense) i. possible wbether tho norm. are cre"ed by one organ or a number of organs. ye, One oormally a>soc;at•• Wilh "conttaliza. tion" th.. concepl of norm. (v.lid for th.. "",ire are.) created by a .ingl.. organ. constituting a. it were ,he c..n'", of tho community and somehow phl"i.v· JOT, i. a relatively ccntnlizcd roerci,.., o.dt of law here accept.. say, a ON of Donn, fn'udi.,,,inetion to legal nOT"" -may ~called "rul"'of law." I' wil[ ~ demonstrated below that imernational Law regulat•• th. ~havior of human ~ings, eVOn wheTe it n:gulu.. the ~havior of sta,eL A, the momen, we wan, to anower the qucs"O" whe'her intemati""al law rcgub,.. ,h. ~h.vior of .tat.. in .ueh a ""'y tha' it reacts against a certain ~haviot a. a delict by providing for " ..nction u tbe conoequ.nce of ,h. delict. The ded.iv. qu..';on, wen, i" d",. interna,io.».! law e.tabli.h coercive aeU .... nedon., The .pedfic ..nct;oru of internat;onal law are rcpt;..I. and wor.

'00

IITATE AND tNTEJt."'AT10NAL l.AW

'"

It i. ea.)' 10 d.moo...",,,, thaI lhis a..umptioo i. cOlTttl Wilh TO'pre' '0 TOpri••.!>. For it is a plla. has alfftdy """"pkled. Gmcn.l lIonnalU created .,..,. t;ull0In or nury. which mc:mJ: by tbt .... mMn of ,h. lcpl community IMmaclva, not by •• peei.llcgi.l••;•• ""P". And lhe ..me i. truc lOT ,he Ipplial.ion of the gene",l nomll in a concrete cu... It iI the '1lI1e il· KIf. believing iu righu h.ve b«n vioJatrd, which ha. to decide whether the bet of a delict auu lor which Inolher "ate i. .ible. And illhi. Oilier Itat. drni .. lhc ;werleoriud OnIffT~ otiocu, don Dot have scncnJ. but oalr panicuJar charxlcr; ito DOnI.. arc Dot nlid for aU Ka bu. _Ir Cor 'WO or a Iarzcr or >mallei" JfOUP of - . : tber a i....., ,..Ir pa.tiaI COI:IU:DUDI.ict. I. u to be DOled w. Sincc thi.5ttOnd I.vel, ,h.t is, tl.. im.motion.1 law .va as I delia and prclCribcs ito ~tI.. Dolit.. arl Dtll con· IlCCtId with the anctiorII by IYUoa: cmaizl ddicllto the one lind of sanctions and otha ddiaJ to the: other lind of lalK'tioou: th""," whool righ.. 11",," '-n infringed hat I cboitt bnWttrl thl two. Besidco. .hl wrons~ te is nor obligated. but only IUthoril.cd, acwrding '0 gmcn.1 int lonal law, 10 onet with a ..nc.ion 19aitut In infringcmettt. TIM: right of the on., sta'e ",hkh i••h. rcllcx 01 doc obligation of the o,her state is "'luippod wi,h thllU,hOTi.. ti"" to .xccU tot dam or ... , ....p.t f>OI I(> !w dOlW. b,,, DOl .."" (wllidl hWDan !willI) ha$ 10 pnfonD the praaibfd aaioa .....~rn r.:..bQranu. Hil il!m.ifi",,,ion is Irit .". in,,·ma.iaa..aI law 10 tho: national l~l ortkT. TM bd>a...... of this indiridual commanded (10" prollibiud. .". intC'f1l.ll.ional \.aw c_iltllina the luUiUmmt or riob.ioa 01 tIM: obligation ~blished .". intphut ,he M "", ""Iy >plnoo ~~ tblAL LAW

cording to whkh "only .lat", are obligated and authoci,",," and according to which "only .late' aTe ,ubjects 01 international law." i, completdy ""pr",,~ in the .laternen" international law delegat.. to the national legal orden th. ta.k of identifying the indio viduals by "·h,,.., behavior the oblig"t;"'" .....bli"'"" by inter· nation.llaw ace fullill"" or violal"". and th. right.< ",,,,hU,h",, hI" international law ate execd.ro. By this ,t.lement nothing d .. i. exp~ but the indil"ebl.. unly in portk"l.r i", ..notional communities. Thi, cen'....li""tion .pplie., in the finl place. 10 j"riodiet;on; i'

"",.nt

,..

STATE ANI>

1~"Tn"'ATIONAI.

lAW

aim> at the formation of 'n'ern";onal ".lopmem directed toward incrilb ..l.i no pr!;'~ ~ ;;. .. ..!o

.r'i~;~,!:.;l U. "$;;",,,. .. ~g. :t... "l"'~H!,.pJ & .. ~.5,,_;;'_ ";;l t ~.~ ~ ~ ;;·~~if=:i'"!.fs.;:· [~s.~~ii·,,;;o:! l~. ~: .. "_ 1-' a... -lie-~. 5" 5: s,:ICI i';, " l;6 S' 5' ;..Ii ..2. ~ I 0 ~ ~ ;; -a ;;- D. •r"> - •. """ :!."a t --i r: i ";:I_ -::r~ l'l 2.-

• •

_

.

~

>:T, _ .. 0. . . . . . - _ ""

::..

·rnH 11'l~"i~ , ~

I ,H q ,

lIiHr~~!

tP I" '!.~ iH ~·hi!l! ·1, ih, i'tl

.... ' i'_.. ;." !!d.1l

lT~ !l~"'':; ~

-"ile.."' t~lil ~--a:1;. ... !l~c. ..

,.I,·'·l'· -._n_.'I

,,;:1; l'~

•.

gii5~.~I~~s~~T.:.Jr~rl·~~~~~~f ~=~.

~_.

~

~

o· " .

-~,,_.~

i" ;0

11~B.i~i ~§.p~aa. ~ • .... '·i ll , lI i · HlI ,.j , ;·F!.,

r.

pin,l lhWJ.

uim ouch a provWon. ~ m;t!piUon of intnnaUonaI law by Ihc i...uvidualltate iI ..... a oondi.ioa of i.. ,-al.idity foe thillta'c Kipulato;!. by in..,.....a'ioo.1 law i...1f. A nlid DOrm of international Law QIIDOt .....blisb oudt a condicioa. beg",,", the Yalitli.y of ohio ........ iurif anooc dcpmd 01:> oucb a condition- Bu, JOOthi.., ""'_ •..".. law courts and oobcr Iaw"'pp1rini orpw.o reprd. intnna· UonaIlaw ... nlitl for their OWII .... te oaJy if thal .... te bas 'CClJIni.rctl it ... biodirtg. ~ mull of IIICh a Yicw iI thaI in,erna,ional Law iI not binding for a ....te which bas.- rewgniud. it. Tbc vicw thaI imcmationJlJwcring.be q ;"" I.,.. ..... rca>Ort of lbc valid· I,yof inlCrrUtional law, OPe from the validity of nne'. OWII na'iowollcp.l ord...._if one tub .. hy in.........tionallaw i. valid I.,.. .he lUte already conccjvcd of:as a Icpf order, the only pwoiblc ...· .w.... is: InternationaJ bw h:u to be ~ by this ltate in onlcr to be valid I.,.. it. The fonnula'ion of the qUol:llion contain. already the assumption ""'. the rc:utlIlI fO< the nlidi.,. of in........ •ioDal bw mUll be found in the lWioDallcp.l onIcr. ""'. io, the iIIIIlmption of.he primacy of the na,ional legal ...scr. its ~_cr· cip'y;' or_wha' to the ~ ....'crrif;n'y of the ....te for "'hich thor validi,y nf inlCmatinrtal law iI in qucotion. The ...."ttrigD,y of the ..... te iI thc dneilive bctor lor "'''nling .he primacy of ,be na.ional ll I~I «deT. nor as """ ind ill I\OrlTlI an: ineluded in a univer..' world legal order; ,h. coe"i".n.. of ,h. national legal ord.... in ....c.. and ,h.ir auce...ion in lime i, ,hen mad. legally po>sible by imernational law. Thi, primacy of international law i. eompat· ibl. wi,h ,he fact that ,h. COn"i'Ulion of a ,tale contain•• pm· vi.ion to ,b. effec, that g.n.,,1 international law ia valid ~. a pan of national law. If we .UrI from the validity of int.rna,ion~1 Jaw which doe. no, rtqnir. recognition by ,he .tale. lhen 110. men. tioned comti'Ulional provi.ion does not mean ,loa, it pu .. into lorce in'.rnationallaw foe the atate concorned, bUl m.tely ,hal in· lemationallaw_by. ~n.ral dauoe----i. ,,,,nsfonned inlo n.tional

"at"

-Cf.§lC'Odm. if IribwWs, are oaly (by the C.) to apply ... tiooW taw; tI>ty an, lhn-c:lott. apply m...... 1ioP.I1 b. oal1 if il> aICI'tn' haI.......m w fonD. of lWional taw (OUI,"1e, ordi.n.mcc) that ... if i. has bem lnDOfonz>ed into n.a.jon.l law. II in ddlult of In-lUl...-;on, a DOflIl of intnn.>.UonaI b .. cannot ~ applied in a COIICf«C Clal'. lllm (if we.an from lom preval.nt .mong .... t... Tbi, objeetion, how.ver, i, based on tbe lad:. 01 diflI law. so in the Copernican view Ih. 'un i. the center around which our earth turn._ However, ,hi, con, t be',.·..,n ,wo a"ronomic view. of the uni,..... i. only a coo, t betw..n two diff..,.... Bu' ,he,e al", ."i.a an in· ''''Prr who h.ve '0 obe)' ,he law by behoving in a way ,ha, avoid ne,ion., mn>l undersullld the legal norm. and ,he..fo.. mill' t.in their meaning. And finally ,he sci· function. For the erution of an individu.l norm. within ,he frame of a general norm in ,h. prO(. eM 01 applying the law. i. a fun«ion of ,he "'ilL So l.r a. in apply. ing ,he law a cognitive aelivity of the law..applying organ can tale place, beyond ,he nec....ry ucertainm.n' of ihe frame, within which the act to be performed i, to be lep'. it i. not cogni,ion of positi,-. law, but of o,her norm. that may Aow hore in,o th. prnc' 'M of l...·..r•• tlon_____