The Position of Women in the Family and in Society in Ancient Egypt Vol I

THE POSITION OLP VICKEN IN THE /FAMILY AND Di SOCIETY IN ANCIENr EGYPT, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE

MIDDLE KIN.

ANNE MILLARD

Pb. D. Department University

of

Egyptology,

College,

Lorulon.

ABSTRACT Although women are acknowledged to have played an important role in affairs domestic, religious, and even political in ancient Egypt, very little work has been done to evaluate their actual rights, powers, and influence. The studies

which

have appeared tend to be either of a general nature,

spanning events from the First Dynasty down to the Roman Period, or specialise commentaries upon a single document or group of similar documents, dealing only with one aspect of the subject. There are many aspects of the lives of women in ancient Egypt

which

would reward detailed examination, but the evidence is voluminous and widely scattered, and ranges over a time span of three thousand years. This thesis investigates the role played by woman in their families and in the community as a whole during the Middle Kingdom, which for the purposes of this work is defined as Dynasties Eleven, Twelve and Thirteen. The world's great collections of Egyptian stelae have been relatively well published, and these fors the basis of the evidence utilised in the first two of the five sections. Section I examines the nature of the evidence to be ate:Du:citron stelae, discusses the multiplicity of meanings of Egyptian kin-terms, ani assembles all the examples of possible consanguineous marriages of various types. Section II is devoted to a detailed analysis of all individual stelae 4

of interest, and to the reconstruction of the family trees thus revealed. The third section, presents a comprehensive collection of the titles and professions of women of all classes, excluding the royal family, and their consequent standing in the community, as revealed by paintings, reliefss artefacts, and the comments of the Egyptians themselves in the writings of the sages and in other literary texts.

- ii The fourth section reviews the legal position of weeny and hare the paucity of evidence necessitated the inclusion of material from other periods of pharaonic history. The individual documents have been examined by many scholars, who were interested in Egyptian laws and legal practice, but I have attempted to re-analyse the documents to ascertain the extent at women's rights and duties, the degree to which they were dependent on their male relatives, and in what fields they could act on their own initiative. This review relies mainly upon secondary sources and doss not depend, as do the other sections, upon re-analysis of the original evidence. The final section deals with the costumes worn by women during the Middle Kingdon and examines how far they can be shown to reflect their age, status, wealth and nationality, because it has long been my belief that many or

our sources fail to convey a full and accurate picture of the variety of

colour and styles worn during life. The results show that, though still relatively rare during the Middle Kingdom, most degrees of consanguineous marriage were entered into by nonroyal personages, and that, while women awed Obedience to their husbands, they could still exert and have considerable authority in certain spheres. Rank and status among Egyptian VOMOn were well-defined by a variety of distincticor and usages, and this thesis shows the nature and extent of their legal status, what offices they might hold, and what powers they could exercise. Ihile none of the results Obtained are entirely novel, the examination and analysis, in part statistical, of this large body of evidence, have given them greater emphasis and definition. This treatmentogombined for the first tine with the various aspects of the social role of women, gives better historical perspective to the character of the Middle Kingdom.

- iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I should like to express my appreciation to the staff, past and present, of the Department of Egyptology of University College, Imam, for their patience and assistance, and, above all, I thank my supervisor, Professor H.S.Smith, for the interest he has taken in my work, and for his =failing kindness. I am indebted to Mr. TAX. James, Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Mus0 .--. 1 for allowing me to consult the manuscript of the Corpus of Biersg4yphic Inscriptions in the Brooklyn Museum, prior to publication; to Dr. Abdel Kafir Selig, the Director of the Cairo Museum and Mme. Samiya Abd-el-Aal, the Keeper, Who helped me to locate some unpublished stelae; to Miss J.D.Bourriau of the Fitswilliam Museum, Cambridge, who allowed me to consult the records of the excavations of the Metropolitan Museum at Art, New York, at Lisht, an which she is working, and to Mr. P. Johnson of University College, London, who is preparing a doctoral thesis on The Instruction Genre in Ancient Egyptian Idterature, and with whom I have had many interesting discussions on the interpretation of the wisdom texts. I am very grateful to the Keepers of the Egyptian collections or the Louvre, Geneva and Bolton Museums, to Mr. P.A.Clikyton, Managing Editor of the British Museum Publications, and to the late Mr. John Keane, who all generouslj helped ma to obtain photographs of Objects to assist my studies. Finally, I thank my parents for the encouragement, understanding and support that they have given me over the years.

r

CCOTENTS Volume I: Abstract

Page

Acknowledgements Contents

iv

List of abbreviations at journals

viii

List of abbreviations of stelae publications

ix

List of abbreviations of tomb publications List of abbreviations of other publications Kay



xi

to symbols used in the figures and in the family trees

Seotion I - Family Affiliations as revealed by the stelae

xii the

of

Middle Kingdom, Part 1 - The Nature and Limitations of the Evidence

6

Part 2 - Kinnhip terminology: a) Alternative translations of mwt andt I_

10

b) Alternative translations of sn(t) ,

&& ••

a) Alternative translations of s3(t)

18

d) hat and nbt pr, e) pinms(t), im(t)

19

and. 13m

20

Part 3 - Consanguineous Marriagps • ***

21

a) brother/sister

23

10 mother/son

31

c) father/daughter

d) aunt/nephew and unoleiniece



e) first cousins

f) in-laws





OO





33 36



38 • 39

',Section II - Analysis of the Family Trees recorded on the

Page

stelae of the Middle Kingdom

4.2

Volume II: 259

Section III - Rank and Office. Status and Employment ... Groups 1 and 2 - The aristocracy and the upper middle

261

classes:

A) Non-religious titles and epithets

262



B) Religious titles

279



C) Representations of women of Groups 1 and 2

290 ••••••• 294.

Group 3 - Concubines Group 4. - Wives of artisans, soldiers, eta

303

Group 5 - The higher household servants

309

Group

6 -



lesser household servants

•4... 319 329

Group 7 - Household servants for heavy work Group 8 - Field workers Group 9 - Children.

333



337

345

....

346

Section IV- The legal Position of Women Rights of inheritance The right to make a will

353

The appointment of a male guardiaa

355

Women's rights to administer their own and their children's property The right to cceduct business deals Women as witnesses: a) in court b) to contracts





359 369 375 375

••••• 376

- Ti -

Page

Women as principals in lawsuits a) as defendants



377



377 ..• 380

b) as plaintiffs Marriages

384-

a) Establishing the bond •

384

b) Financial position during marriage

386

c) Correct treatment and behaviour of a wife



39(

d) Polygamy

392

e) Widowhood

•.. 396

Divoroe •

397

g) Adoption

400

The rights of concubines and their children

402

Section V- Costume and its reflection of rank and occupation during the Middle Kingdom

405

Dresses, skirts and cloaks Hair styles

406



Crowns, fillets, lewellery and insignia •

439

Sandals •

448 468

Excursus A - The preference for the maternal line, as displayed on stelae of the Middle Kingdom

469

Excursus B - The re-use of names within the family during the Middle

Kingdom and

its bearing on

consanguineous marriages

473

Excursus 0 - Offering formulae on stelae of the Middle Kingdom

488

- vii -

Page

Excursus D - The location of lTrives on stelae at the Middle Kingdom

303

Volume III Notes: Section I

....

506

Section II

Section III

514-



522

Section IV

546

OOO •.

Section. V

570

Excursuses

579

Bibliography (a) Publications of Stelae

... 583

(b) Other Works consulted Index of stelae



589

612

Index of names Of important individuals



•

Charts: 1 2



618 620

•OOO•••621

3

4.

622 623

Plates

I The Royal Family of the Fourth Dynasty. II The family Of Sbi of Deir el Gebrawi,

III The family of

Hnm(w)-ttp II of

Beni Hasani.

IV The family of Pbwty-htp of el Bershelu

V The family of

11)1,-11tp VI

VI The families of

of Meir.

S3-Rnpwt II of Elephantine and 'nh-tify Of Motalla.

VII The family Of Sbk-nrkt at el Kab. VI10231111 Family trees from Middle Kingdom stelae. LIDXCV/CIII Middle Kingdom costumes. CIV/CIVI Middle Kingdom jewellery.

ABBREVIATIONS Journals: Ann. du Serv.

Annales du Service des Antiquite's de l'igypte.

B.I.F.A.O.

Bul.letin. de Institute frangais d' archirologie oriental.. Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Journal of the

American Oriental

Sooiety.

J.A.R.C.E.

Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt.

J.E.A,

Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.

J.N.E.S.

Journal of

Liverpool Annals

Near Eastern

Studies.

Annals of Archaeology and. Anthropology of the Institute of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. Mitteilungen des Deutsohen, Archaologschen Institute Abteilung Kairo. M6moires publiel par les nerabres de l'Institut frenais d'archgologie oriental. du Cairo. Proceedings of the Society of

Rec. de Tray.

Reoeuil de Travaux relatifs

Biblical Archaeology.

1. la

l'Archgologie igyptiennes et

Philologie et

I

Assyria:mos.

Zeitschrift ft:r Agyptische Sprache. Rev. d Igg.

ROVUO d'iigyptologie.

Stelae publications: Alnwiok Castle -

Birch, Catalogue

of the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities

at Alnwick Castle. Athens - P8rizier, Aegyptische Grabs tome und Denksteine aus Athen und Konstantinopel.

- ix -

xammuTioNs - STELAE PUBLICATIONS. Berlin - Aegyptiadhe Inschriften aus dem Oniglichen Musson ma

Bibliothaque Nationals - Legpain s Les Monuments Egyptians do la

BibJ.iothquo Nati anale• Bologna - Kminek-Szedlos Catalog° di AntichitilEgisie. Musao Civic° di Bologna. Bolton - DonOhue s The Egyptian

British

MUBOUM -

Collection. Bolton Museum and Art Gallery.

Halls Hieroglyphic Texts from Egyptian Stelae etc. In

the British Museums vas.I/IV. Cairo - Lange and Schafer, Grabe - undDenksteine des Mittleren &dohs, vols. I/IV. Carlsberg - Mogensen, La GlyptotEeque ny Carlsberg. La Collection igyptienne. Cinquantenaire - Gaparts Muses Royaux du Cinquantenaire Brussels.

Copenhagen- Mogensens Inscriptions Hieivglyphiques du Mus ge National de Copenhagus. Field - Allen, Egyptian Stele in Field Museum of Natural History. Florence - Bosticcos Le Stele Egizianes v01.1. Guimet - Morets Annales du Muse; Guimets Calorie igyptiennes Sieless

Bas-reliefss Monuments divers. Hanover - Crsmers lgyptische Denkmaler des Xestner Museums in Hanover,

1936 ,

ps.81/108.

Heidelberg - Cttos Werke der Rundst in Heidelberg. Leiden. 9 Boesers Beschreibung der AegyptischanSammlung des Niederlindiselum Reichsmuseums des altertdmer in Leiden. pie

swisdheadasialtentund Stelen.

EenkMLer der

Keit

mittleren reich und des mittleren reiches.

- -

Louvre - Ge,yet, Mus ge du Louvre. Stiles do la Mae dynastic,. St. Petersberg - Lieblein, Die Aegyptischen Denkmller in St. Petersberg, Helsingfors, Upsala und Copenhagen. Stockholm - Mogensent Steles ggyptiennes au Musfie Naticnal de Stockholm. Stiddeutschen Sammlungen - Aegyptische Grabsteine und Denksteine aus s'iddeutschen Sammlungen, vol.I by Spiegelberg and VOrtner, vol.11 by Dyroff and POrtaer.

Verschiedenen Sammlungen. - Wiedeman and POrtner, Aegyptiache Grabsteine und Denksteine aus versohiedenen Sammlungen. Vienna - Wreszinski, Aegyptische Inschrif ten sue dem K.K. Hofmuseum in Wien. Zagreb - Saleh,. lee Antiquites fg yptienne a de Zagreb.

Publications of tombs:

Antaeopolis - Petrie, Antaeopolis. The Tombs of Qau. Antefokar - de Garis Davies and. Gardiner, The Tomb of Antefokar, Vizier of Sesostris I,, and of his wife, Senet (no.60). Beni Hasen - Newberry, Beni Has an, vols.1/IV. el Bersheh - Newberry and. Griffith, el Bersheh, vols.1/12.

Deir el Gebrawi - de Gene Davies, The Rook Tombs of Deir el Gebriwi,

Elephantine - MkLler, Die Felsengraber

V011

Elephantine.

Five Theban Tombs - de Garin Davies, Five Theban Tombs. el Kab - Tylor, The Tomb of Sebeknekht. Wall drawings and monuments of

el Bab. Meir - Blackmail, The Rook Tombs of Heir, lio v alla - Vandier, Mo'alla. La tombs d'InIchtifi et la tombs de Se‘bekhotep. Sit and Rifgh - Griffith, The Inscriptions of Stilt and air Rifgh.

ABBREVIATICR3 Other works

whose titles are abbreviated in the text:

Abydos - Petrie, Abydos, vols.I and II, and Currelly, Ayrtcw. and Weigalt Abydos,

volan.

el Arabah - Garstang, el Arabah: A cemetery of the Middle Kingdom;

Survey of the Old Kingdom Temenos; Graffiti from the Temple at Sety. Brooklyn. Museum - James, Corpus of Hieroglyphic Inscriptions in the

Brooklyn Museum:,

vol.I.

Brooklyn Papyrus - Hayes, A Papyrus of the late Middle Kingdom in the Brooklyn Museum (Papyrus

Brooklyn 35.1446).

The Eleventh Dynasty Temple - Saville, The Eleventh Dynasty Temple at

Deir el Bahari Kahun. Papyrus - Griffith, Hieratio Papyri from Kahun and Gurob,

principally of the Middle Kingdom. Koptos - Petrie, Koptos. Sarcophages - 141.08.U. Saraophages ant(rieurs au

Nouvel Empire, vols.I/II.

Scepter of Egypt - Hues, Me Scepter of Egypt, vols.]/II. Tombs of the Courtiers - Petrie, Tombs of the Courtiers and Ozgrb,ynkhos.

KEY TO Sin= USED IN THIS /FIGURES AND IN THIS FAMILY TRMS

Man 0 Wanan cm Insufficient data supplied to determine sex. Married

•n•

to.

The marriage symbol

crosses a line of affiliaticn t

and two lines

of affiliation moss.

A possible marriage. An unidentified spouse.

X

An alliance with_

a W011821 who is not an acknowledged

I Possible child of a

Descendan.ta of

marriage.

a marriage

Indication of the

• not listed individually.

location of

figures on a stela, and the

direction in which they are facing. Probably the

wife.

same person, who has been named twice.

15

There are also stelse, which are discussed indivicbmily

in

Seot'on II,

where the words an and snt are applied to the children of a sister of the owner 0 (15).

Either these children were barn of a father/daughter marriage

(sea fig.9), or it must be concluded that, in this context, sn(t) must be translated as nephew and niece in English.

=0

Fig4.9

snt.f()

sn.f

() snt..f

6,

Owner

To these already numerous alternative translations for

n(t)

must be

added at least two more. On Cairo stela 20245, the brother of the mother of the wife of the owner is referred to as

_a& sz

(see fig.*. To be the actual brother of the

owner, this man would have to have been born of an otherwise unrecorded marriage between the father of the owner and the maternal grandmother of the wife

or

the owner (see fig.11). C)

Fig .10

0

A an.f Fig al

=A Owner

and' LS

Owner I A === C)

this is not impossible, it is more reascnkble to accept that sn(t) could be used. of

an

uncle or aunt by marriage, a relative.

On Cairo stela

20457

and Florence

2546,

the foster-brot era of the

Sz t. can therefore also be respective owners are each said to be sajt ...1.Lj might used for foster-brothers and foster-sisters, but since a wet-nurse/also have

been

her

master's concubine, her children could actually be the half-

brothers and half-sisters of her nursling. There are stelae *(16) where three generations of men and women are all referred to as being the sn(t) ,

of

the owner. It might just be possible

16 to imagine a situation where enough consanguineous marriages had taken place

to produce blood

relationships of this complexity, but it is unlikely

sn(t) was being

in the extreme. The reasonable alternative is that

used to

express some of the differing degrees of kinship discussed above. Sister-in-law and brother-in-law are unlikely to be alternative translations for ant and an as it was

customary to

refer

to

the brother

l and entas, her brother and. her sister. The and sister of a wife as Ari wife of the brother of the owner was alwe,ya referred to by her relationship to her husband, not to the owner of the stela, so either she would be designated hmt sn.f.the wife of his brother, or her name would follow that of her husband, as in the following typical pattern: X born of Y. His wife A born of B. His brother Z born of Y. His wife C born of D. In order to identify the husband of his sister, the owner of the stela. would either sham the figure of his sister in close proximity

to that

of an otherwise unidentified man, *lose children were born of her, or would name his sister

twice, once

as his sister, and. once as the other man's wife,

as in the following example: X born of Y. His wife A born of B.

His sister Z born

of Y.

C born of D. His wife Z born of I. In conclusion, there is one meaning of an (t), involving the use of

multiple kin-terms, which deserves question of whether there is any

special consideration, and this is the

significant

difference of meaning

17 between s (t) mwt.f (or

ha!)

and sn(t) n(t) mwt.f (or

IIA)

an the one

hand, and sn(t).f mwt.f (or itAt) and snit/&ti Ls l_rwtf (or Lit) on the other, or whether they are variants of the same term. The terms sn(t) mwt.f clearly to

be understood

uncle of the owner,

(or IIJ1)

and

sntrwrtf LL_Itlii

(or

11A) are

as referring to the maternal or paternal aunt or

but it

is conceivable that sn(t).f mwt.f (or

ILI)

and

snft).f n(t) mwt.f (or lilt) were intended, to identify the belt-brother or half-sister of the owner, that is the child of the parent mentioned, another marriage. This would

be in

by

keepingwith the Egyptian preference for

mentioning a parent's second marriage by indirect mane. She conclusive evidence concerning the meaning of sn(t).f mwt.f (or

hut)

and sn(t).f n(t)

mwt.f

(or

1..61) is

to

be found am

only two stelae,

where details are given which favour the uncle/aunt interpretation. In the first case 41 (17), the man referred to as sn.f n to

be born

Litt

of the known paternal grandmother of the miner. Thus

must mean paternal uncle

(see below fig.12),

is said

sn.f

n

unless a mother/son union is

to be postulated.

0

Fig .12

sn.f n it.f

A

Owner

On the second stela *(18), set out in figure 13, the w an who is said to be nt f nt mwt f was born of the maternal great-grandmother of the owner. Unle s it is suggested that a woman had

a child

by the husband of her own

granddaughter, a highly unlikely coating ney, it must be accepted that snt f nt mwt f could be used of a

Fig•13

0

A Comer

maternal great-aunt. snt.f nt mwt.f

011 the basis of this evid noes it will be asaumed that n(t).f, (t) mwt.f, (or t.f1) and -LI° mwt.f (or itjf are van i ts of mwt

f (or

it,․)

Lo_ziti

and sr (t) mwt.f (or ha), and. they will be translated as

maternal or paternal, aunt cr uncle, as appropriate .1 (13) in the discussion of individual stelae in Section II. c) The Usual tion of s3(t). The Egyptian kin-terms di cussed so far have each had more than one meaning in English, but the words a and al appear never to have meant anything other than on and d ughter respectively. There is no evidence to show, for example, that th law

y

were ever used of a sal-in-law or a d ughter-in -

nor were they used of grandchildren. If the

or

of a stela wished to include the name of his daughter-in-

law, he would either e ploy the term

b.mt

s3.f, the wife of his son, or he

would. put her name directly after that of his on. For e mple: His son X born of Y. His wife A born of B. There are very few examples cf stel e where the son-in-law of the owner has be n specifically identified, and this was only a hieved by naming a girl twice, ctice as her

f

thee s daughter, then again as her husband's wife,

as in the following xampla: A born of B. • 3 wife C b rn fD. As on E born of C. iis

d ughter P born of C.

Xbornof

l.

His w-if F born of C.

19 There were three methods by which the owner of a stela could establish

the identity

of his grandchildren. The figure at his daughter might be

followed by those of gla and atilt her son and her daughter, or the granddhild night be said to be

his, meaning the

si(t) .3(t) f,

the son (or daughter) of

owner's son (or daughter). Finally a colibinatian of

kin-terms and. nothers' nanes might be used. For example: I:born of

r.

His wife Aborn of B. His son 0 born of A. C new becomes the subjeot of the inscriptions and the following kin-terms are given is relation to him.

His wife I born of N. His son D1 born of M. Mere are only two occasions (on

the tern

s3(t).f

Cairo stelae 23733 and 2074.9) when

is used of a child born of a woman who

is

herself the

chili of the owner of the stela, and these are so unusual that they say well represent oases of father/daughter 'marriages (see One stela $ (20)

was

dedicated by a man who

son (13) of the owner, and

s3 an.f n mwt.f„

is

below

ps.34/35 ).

said to be both the

the son of

his

maternal uncle.

It is clear that, as the first cousin (see below fig.14.), and probably nearest surviving male relative of the deceased, this man was dedicating

the stela in the purely priestly role of the *beloved son". consanguineous

Pig .14

marriage can possibly 0

be involved, here

A

Owner d) The translation ar MI and

A .3 an.f a art.! jibt vi.

NO

20 The word with Q t=1,

written in

hieroglyphs as

Id ez, 9,

and

not to be

ocnfused

whioh is also transliterated kel; but means a female servant or

slave, was regularly used on stelae for wife. A

discussion of the significanoe of the

title nbt pro the

lady of the

house, is presented below (see Section III, po.262A64 Here it should be noted

that,

for

a nbt pr will

the purposes

be considered

of reconstructing family trees in Section.

to be

the wife of the owner, if

she is said to

be the mother of his children, or is shown an the stela in a place normally reserved for the wife of the owner (see Excursus e)

The use

of ppas(t),

These terms

12E11 and

13a.

oocur so infrequently an the stelae under review, that they

play no significant role in the reconstruction of family trees. The usually accepted meaning of hnms(t) , is friend

*(21), but

there are

three stelae on which it was also applied to relatives of the owner. Che

example occurs

on Cairo stela 20027, but, unfortunately, as will be explained

in the discussion on this

stela

on

pa. 44/48, the

exact relationship between

the man in question and the owner of the stela cannot be asoertainad, though

he may have

been his nephew. Oh Cairo stela 20025, however, the mat can

positively be identified as the sister-in-law of the owner, and she is the mother of his second wife

as well (see

below ps .46/47). The

to!

on Cairo

stela 20713 is the brother-in-law of the owner. On the basis of these three examples, it cannot be assumed that Anms(t) had the seoondary meaning of a relatile or im-laws, for in each of the three oases quoted above, friend or companion would be an acceptable translation.

21 In regard to the words igaLti and LE, the prototypes for the Coptic words for in-laws, only three examples

In one case 0 (22), the figure of the

survive

wife

fro* the Middle bingdom.

of the owner of the stela is

followed by that of a waaan said to be jt. Since the two women are plaoee so close together the second say be the mother of the first, and she would thus be the aother-in-law of the owner. The second example secure on a. stela 0 (23) which bears an inscription but no figures. The name of i(a_.f /It is the last but one in the list, and as it comes after the Lane

of

one of

the sisters of the owner, Tti night have been her husband and consequently the brother-in-law of the owner. Finally there is a tomb in which the term

LIN appears in a banqueting scene $ (210. The owner and his wife face their guests, who are headed by a man and his wife. This couple are clearly iaportant members of the family and are probably the sou and daughter-in-law of

the owner and his wife. Behind then, drawn on a slightly smaller scale,

but sitting on chairs, whereas all the sumeeding couples are seated on mats, are another man and wife. The man

is

said to be

‘,13m.f,

but further details

are not supplied, so the exact relationship to the owner cannot be established

Part

3-

Consancruineous MouTiaxes.

The term consanguineous marriage is to be preferred to incestuous marriage

ill

the present context, because incest

is socially defined in

at a society's kiaship system' and religious beliefs. The

degrees

terms

of kin

forbidden sexual intercourse, and the savagery with which sometime are imposed, vary from society to society. The present study of consanguineous narriage in Egypt has been limited to the Middle lingdoa, and the evidence is drawn from the stelae of this

22 period, occasionally augmented by details of family relationships recorded in the tombs of the namarchs. The tendency for stelae to =it the name of the father of the owner's wife, and often the name

ce the

father of the owner as well (see Chart 1),

is a serious obstacle

to progress

incontrovertible proof

of a. consanguineous marriage, it is necessary to

in this natter because, in order to offer

know the names of the parents of both contracting parties. Absolute proof is therefore lacking, but it is hoped that strong inferential evidence can

be offered.

It is

regretted that it has been necessary to snit any detailed exaain-

ation of the complexities of consanguineous marriage within the royal family, but these require a separate study of their own, and. anyway, it would be unwise

to Lail:are

royal marriage practices as evidence of the occurrence

at consanguineous unions in any other level of society, since the habits and customs of a divine royal family may differ from the rules binding their subjects *(1). The classical authors and the Graeco/Ronan papyri attest the existence of consanguineous unions at that late period, but the evidence for non-. royal consanguineous unions in earlier periods has never been fully analysed; though the existence

of

such marriages has often been accepted without

question. Some attention has been paid te the problem. The late Profossor .6erni, for example, published an article cm the subject 0 (2), and

reference will be made was limited,

to his

findings, but the number of stelae he examined

and he was only considering brother/sister unions. Dr.

Margaret Murray also did research into the problem and made several publiehei references to her conclusions '0(3).

23 It is proposed to consider the following types of consanguineous marriages: (a) brother/Sister. (b) mother/son. (a) father/daughter. (d) auat/nephew and uncle/niece. (2) first cousins. (f) (a) Brother/sister marriages.

This is the type of consanguineous sarriage west commonly

assooiated

with ancient Egypt. The Egyptians had good mythological justification for such unions in the marriages of Shu and. Tefnut, Gob and Nut, Osiris and Isis, and Seth as'! Nephthym. The Pasraohs had imitated this divine example, at least free: the reign of Huni *(4.), and. possibly fro* a such earlier period. Although

it

is the

stated policy of this work to avoid entanglements with the royal family and its probably atypical customs, a family tree for the Pourth

Dynasty has

been included (see pl.I), in order to give some indioation of the regularity with which consanguineous marriages could and did occur, with noipparent ill effects 41 (3). ocncentrates only

Complex as this tree is, it is by no mans complete, and

on the

kings' immediate relations.

Unfortunately, there is far less

ing the exact relationships

detailed informatics:

available concern-

of umbers af the royal families of the

Eleventh,

Twelth, and Thirteenth Dynasties, though the.re can be no doubt that the

practice of consanguineous marriage ocatinued. liebhepetre Mentuhotep of the Eleventh Dynasty, for example, is known to have married his sister, • (6),

rpm

while Senusret I of the Teel* Dynasty serried his sister, another

atm (7) and Senusret II married his sister, MEI '0(8). 0

The evidence concerning consanguineous marriage outside the royal family has a ilely been drawn frank stelae, but it is augmented by information frog g

toabs, offering tables and statues. • full discussion of eaoh stela of interest is presented in Section II, so only ihe basic minima of detail wil.1 be supplied here. Examples* 1) British Muse= stela, ol.III, y

y1.7.

The owner and his wife are both said to be born of 1131-k3. If it is accepted that

111311k-k3

represents one woman, rather than two, then the owner

married, his sister, or at least half-sister. This is one of the stelae enseined by &nil and aooepted by him as a probable brother/sister marriage. 2) British Muse= stela, vol.I17, p1.15 The owner of this stela was born of a wonan called Ex. Facing his, in the area where one would normally find the wife, is the nbt Dr 'la mat n nbt Kr. There are also five girls * all born of

3) British Museum stela, vol.IV, ple.36/37. Both the owner and his wife are said to be barn of Ix. 4) Berlin stela, vol.I,

no.13675.

The issue to be decided here is

vg ther

the phrase n s3t.f n snt.f Bb

is to 'be translated "to his daughter and to his sister Bb" or to his daughter of his sister Bb". If the first alternative is preferred, then it is very strange that the inane of the daughter is omitted. It might be argued that !It& was here being used for niece, but such a reading is not employed anywhere else. Admittedly* if the second translation is to be preferred, the phrase ought to have read n s3t.f nt snt.f, but the omission

25 of the feainine on stelae is too frequent an 000urrenoe to attach 'such signifioanoe to it. 6erni was prepared to consider the posaibilitor the implied consanguineous sarriage. 5) Louvre stela 0.3s pla.r7/7.

The owner of this stela

is

said to have a son, but no wife

is named.

However, the owner does have a sister and she is shown standing ia the place normally reserved for the wife. This cannot be regarded as proof or a brother/sister marriage but it oertqln.1,y suggets the possibility. 6) Louvre stela 0.16/18, pls.14/1a-1.

The owner of these three stelae is shown on all three before a table of offerings. Opposite his a wceuur called Dtt $ (9) is shown. On 0.16 she is

called hat.f nbt pr. , on 0.17 she is nbt pr onV, while on C.18 she

snt.f nbt r,

is

demi examined these stelae and concluded that "Since we have

founds on overwhelming evidences that wives were not called 'aisters'before the New Kingdom, we are left with two alternatives: either we accept 'his sister'

on 0.18 as a simple aistalce for 'his wife% whioh is talikely, or

we are compelled to admit that Deto was Serevosret i s wife as well as his sister*. •(10). 7) Louvre stela 0.179, This stela is divided into two horizontally. In the upper half at the

owner and his wife are shown together with their son Mr.gal. and their daughter tpt. In the lower half of the stela a man called Ptb-a r nb, appears

together with his wife Htpt and their children. Ifs as

is

very likely, the

-Malab, and Htpt of the first register are the same two people who appear ia the second, than this is another case of a brother and sister aarryings and in this instance they are full brother and sister.

26 8) Louvre stela C.44. This unpublished stela was quoted by 6ern36*(11) as a possible brother/ sister naming , an the grounds that both spouses were said to be born of S3t0Hthr. Corny acknowledged, however, that S3t-FIt1r was so common a MSS that its re-appearance could be a simple coincidence. 9) Florence stela 2521, photograph 33. linw-htp, the owner of the stela, had a sister called

who appears

to have born children to a. man galled Blpy, iltpy is probably to be identified as the half-brother of linw-htp and. nhti (see below p.170 ). (10) Florence stela 2512, photograph 45. A. man and his wife, the parents of the owner, are both said to have been born ofld, so they may have been brother and sister, as well as husband and wife. II) Bee. de Tray ., 1882, vtl.III, p.122:27/911.. The parents of one man are desoribed as mwt.f Shtp-ib irt n S3t-Htbr and it.f Shtp-ib ir n S3t4thr. The repitian of the name 33teHthr is not conclusive, but, taken in conjunction with the fact that the budband and vire also have the same name, there is a strong a priori case for a brother/sister marriage. For comments an the re-use of names within the Egyptian family, see Excursus B. 12) Bea. de Tray ., 1887, vol., p.33:5423. The parents of the owner appear to have been a brother and sister, both being born of 83t-Snfrw. 13) Cairo steli20025. The owner of this stela is a man called 13s1, and he had children by his wife, ibt. However, he is also said to have a daughter called Ni3ti

27 born of Mit The only Nhti named on the stela appears to have also been his half-sister, so W3d must have married,

Sr

at least had a child by, his

halt-sister.

14) Cairo stela 20138. Two couples are/represented at the top of this stela. The owner and. his wife, and DALE, are on the left, facing and Rhwt-twt.

0:12

analogy

with other stelae, the people most likely to appear on the right hand side of such a stela are either the parents of the owner, or his son and daughter-in-law.

and Ripvt-twt cannot be the parents at

because

elsewhere his mother is named as Htp, bAt it is known that 1Ikr had a son and daughter named Hnw and. Rirwt-twt. It is therefore possible that the brother and sister mentioned in cos place are the married couple shown in another. It is also perfectly possible that i to

in some other Inky but,

Si12130 this

....and Rhwt-twt were related

is a stela where kinship terms are

carefully recorded, it would be somewhat perplexing that no reference was made to the relationship been tkr and

unless it was the stated one

of father and son.

13) Cairo stela 20161. This is a large stela, recording several generations of one family by inscription with no accompanying figures. Among those listed are a man and his wife, both said. to be born of Ipi, thus providing a peasible example of a brother/sister marriage. Further down, the stela records the "Lanes of the family of He had a sister called of his son. have been

Hzuew-nt;t

II.

la

Hnsw-nht.

and a wife galled linmw-'3, who was the mother

also had two daughters, but their mother is said to

Since sn(t). not

s3(t)

were the wards used for a man's nephew

28 and niece (see above p.15 ), it would appear that Ennw-nrkt had two wives and that one of then was his own sister. 16)Cairo stela 20265. Since all the wenn on this stela are called either

gm or 'Ircow-bto

it is inpossible to arrive at a satisfactory family twee. The proliferatic of these two names nay well conceal several consanguineous marriages of varying degrees, but there is no way of proving

this.

17) Cairo stela 20317. The owner of this stela had children, but did not mention his wife. His sister, however, stands at his side in the place usually reserved for the wife. 18) Cairo stela 20341. The wife of the Ginner

is

said to be ttnt.f s3t n(t) 'wt.! Nbt, his

wife, the daughter at his nether, Nbt (see below, Section II, p. 87 ). The owner would therefore appear to have married his sister, or perhaps his

half-sister.

19) Cairo stela 20398. This stela

is

divided horistnatally into three registers. In the top

register the owner appears with

his

wife Snt-it.s„ her daughter St, and

his sonta y, In the third register there is a nen called

born of

Snt-It .s and his wife St. Thus ft would appear to have nan-ied his sister or half-sister. 20) Cairo stelae 20429/30. These two stelae 'belong to the sane nano who was the father of six children. Neither stele names his wife, but on both the owner's sister is

shown in those areas usually reserved for

the

wife, and sore aver, she

29 is the only woman on the stela to be entiticdpbt 21) Cairo stela 20482. The inscriptions an this

some of them are destreyed„

stela are divided Into several groups, and

but from what remains,

construct a plausible !mil,

tree.

A. full

it

is possible to re-

discussion appears Section II

(ps.103/104), so it is sufficient here

to note

there was only on woman named 'Id than

a consanguineous marriage

that if, as seems likely, took

place, because It married. Waimea% 'Iti and S3t-R', and the son of 'Iti married

the daughter

of

22) Cairo stela 20518.

The owner of this stela is linmw-inht born of Ma and his wife is named as =born of M. The variations in spelling are this may

negligible 10 (12)

and

he a brother/sister marriage.

23) Cairo stela 20535. The owner of this stela had a sister called ma and a euneclarife of the same name. Sinoe 12:is a common name, this may be a coincidence, or he may have taken bis sister as his seoondwife. The name of the mother of the secandwife

is not recorded.

24) Cairo stela 20636. This stela lists the members at the figures

of

any of them.

who was barn at gd'w and

of the mother

of

the family of the owner without showing

The first person on the

list

is ant.f

Nfr-'w

also the mother .f his children. The name

the owner is known to hale been Sh,3t-4r, so, since ant

is not used to mean

'wife" during the Middle Kingdom,

married his half-sister. 25) At Elephantine (see p1.1I).

this man

must shave

30 83-11nrwt the first of Elephantine was born of a woman called 83t-Tn

and

married a wean of the sane name. Since names were cosacely re-used within faaili•s he may well have been related to his wife by blood, but slaw her parents are not named there is no way of proving this. 26) At Heir (see pl.V). A.M.Blackman '0 (13) suggests that 1J-lytp, the fifth of his name, may have married his sister, since the name of his mite is llny-hry-ho and it is known that his parents, Mrs i and

"VittAttp the

third, did have a child of that name

However, since the parents of Irny-hr7-ib are not

named, this must remain

speculation. Blackman does not mention the possibility of a second brother/sister marriage

in the same generation. 14irlittp the

plprty-titp who is said to also the son of

Mi

be the daughter of

fourth married a girl called

WhAttp. Sinoe/%1‘IPourth was

and 1141-4tp , the third, and since

also called Biatrla., there is a good chance that

the mother

the second

of Erni is

Tjtrort7-11tp

was

related to her husband, and may have been his sister. 27) J.Z.A., 1938, vol.EnV,

The arguments the stela

of

sac.

plan.

ooncerning the complex family relationships recorded on are set out in full on pa. 230/

234.

and there are two

marriages of particular interest to be considered.

The owner of akItt was

married to a woman called

is also said. to have a sister at the same name. Thus

83t-Anti-kty, and he §k12.

may have married

his sister, or at least a near relative.

The brother of 33-10 ,, called

Sbk-btp, married

a woman called 83t-Sn-mri

• (14), who appears to have been the daughter of the *other of

9,3-11.

and

Sbk-ktp by her second narriage. In this oar*, therefore, Sbk-kttp married his half-sister.

31

b) Evidence for nother/scn merriest's. tm..M.A.Murrey has argued for the occurrence of Bother/son marriages in the various royal families aa the basis or the existence of the title "King's Infos King's Mother" assuning that the king referred to is the same in

both instances. This jean unacceptable bypothosis because several queens

bore tbe titles "Iines Daughter, King's Sister, King's Wife, King's Mother", and

lawman

could stand in all these degrees of relaticoship to one man.

It is clear that these royal ladies simply added one title to another as time passed and their status changed. Taus a

110111021 would

begin life as a

"King's Daughter; become !King's Sister" and *King's Wife' at the accession of her brother, ands if she were lucky, would end her days during the reign of her son as "King's Mother". This in not to deny the possibility of mother/son marriages, but merely to deny the validity of this particular argument. Though there is no convincing evidence available to show that any of the Egyptian Pharaohs married their mothers, some religious justification for such unions might have been drawn from the concept of Kamutef, the !Bull of his mother". Attention has already been drawn (see above p.14) to the fact that some ma are said to have a "brother" or "sister", born of one of their grand... nothers. The stelae involved are: .n(t). born or the paternal grandmother - Cairo stelae 20153 and 20549. anal born of the maternal grandmother - Cairo stelae 20043, 20141, 20156, 20271, 20338 and 20431; Louvre, C187, pl.XXXIX; Guinet, 0 6, p1.14 Stockhola, p. .3/5, Mo.14; Verschiedenen Sammltmgen, p1.I, no.1; el Arabah, E295.

ails not denying that these could be examples of men marrying and having children, by their *others or nothers-in-law, it is nore likely that,

32 in such cases, an(t) should be tavaslated into English as xmcle or aunt. The only inoontravertable proof that could be offered for a mother/scn marriage would be the existence Of a child of the owner of a stela, designated s3(t).f and born of his 'other, who would have to be identified by the inclusion of the name or her own mother, and such evidence is not forthcoming. The Egyptians sometines employed as names oombinatices of kin terms, such as Ent-it.s "(15). If this none, which means "The sister of hentather", and others of the same type, were to be interpreted literaLly, they would imply that the bearer was the offspring at a ocesanguineous unian. In the case quoted, that at the name Ent-N.', the

WOMIL/1

would have been the

daughter of a nother/son marriage, but there is no indication of this en the stelae '0 (16) on which this

/1111156

000urs. Such tenuous evidence is in-

suffioient to substantiate the existence of non-royal consanguineous marriages. An Egyptian child was named at birth, and. names of this type may reflect no Rare than a pious hope on the part of the mother that the infant would grow up to be a beloved ompanion of its progenitor. There are a certain number of examples of families where a man's wife and mother both had the same name, but, especially where the name concerned is a comma one such as az, tt, Bat or Ent, this is probably no more than a Bina" ooincidence. This is illustrated by Cairo stelae 20109 and 20374., where the names of the wives and mothers of the respective owners are the same, but the names of the mothers of all four of these women are known and. they are different, thus showing that neither man married his mother. Examples of stelae on which the wife and. nether of the owner both have of the sane name may be found in Excursus B, but/these, only one deserves ocusideration as possible example of a nother/scn marriage.

33

In, the *mewl at Avignat there are three stelae belaiging to the same man 0 (17). of

thallIO

The name of the owner's mother is given as Nt-wi. Qs the third

stelae the owner is again said to be born of Ntwi but no figure ar

her is shown. Mere is, however, a figure representing hatt.f Ntwi ,. On Iwo of these stelae the nbt r Nry is named and, ware it not for the presence of bmt.f Nati, •

would have been accepted as the wife ar the owner without

questice, and indeed, she probably vas his wife toe. However, Ntwi. is such a. rare name 4 (18) that it is possible that the owner married his mother, ani if not, at least a close relative.

Allowing for the fact that Egyptian girls probably married at a relatively early age, there is no inherent difficulty in. the idea of a woman having a child. by her own son, but, at the present time, there is so little evidence to support such unions that either they did not take place at all, or they were extremely rare events. o) Evidence of father/daughter marriages. There are no known examples of father/daughter marriages in the royal families of the Old and. Middle Kingdom, but there is a reasonable amount of evidence to suggest that, in the New Kingdom, Pharaohs such as Amenhotep Akhenaten, and. Harnesses II each married one or sore of their daughters 41(19). E.Ioung has also drawn attention to a non-royal father/daughter marriage during the Ptolemaic Period *(20), and though evidence for earlier nal-royal unicas of this type is difficult to find, a few possible oases may have occurred in the Middle Kingdom. It has already been noted that a man may have a sn(t), born of a woman known to be his sister, and that such oases may represent examples of father/ daughter marriages (see above p. 15 and. fig.9), but it is equally possible that, in these instances, Init./ was simply being used of nieces and nephews,

and that the words should be translated as such. This is the explanation that has been adopted throughout this study. %ere are, however, some stelae wh(oh do not belong to this category and deserve further consideration 1)

Cairo stela

20453.

'Imns, the owner of this stela, names his two wives as

limn born

of Snt and

Nbt-sht-nt-R' born of nwt. Three of his daughters by Hnwt are said to have been named Nbt-sht-nt-R e but, ihnfortunately, there is no indication as to which was the first wife of

If he married Nbt-sht-nt-r , first, then,

for some reason, he chose to name the daughters of his second marriage after her, even though he had children by her, but there is also a strong possibility that

yrt was ..L..

the first

wife and that, after her death,

married. one of their daughters, and she named one of her own daughters Jzii, after her mother. 2)

Cairo stela

20733.

'Intro the son of the owner itintw-'3, does not name his wife, but he gives a list of his children. The first simply name his three sons

and a

four entries are quite straightforward

daughter, omitting the name of their mother,

though there is room for it. The last entry, concerned with the

?Litt

reads - s3t.f Hat, ( and)

and

LILL tt

born of

53(t) .f' alone was not the normal method

fetidly cd

The use of the words

of identifying the grandchildren of

the owner or a. stela (see above I,. 18). Unless this, and Cairo stela 2074.9, are the only two exceptions where either be assumed that

LIU

gati: was

was written in

and. P3wnt, the owners of Cairo stelae

respective daughters. 3) Cairo stela 2074-9. their

used of granddaughters , it must

error for

20733 and

s3t.s, or that 'Intf

2074.9, both had children by

35

P3vnt„ the owner of this stela,

is

said to have a son and two daughters,

named Pp-nfr, K3-ns and ilat respectively, all born of his wife, Snbtisy. Ile had another daughter called "lw.s-n., and although the name of her "'other has been destroyed, she too was probably born of Snbtisy, for the hieroglyphs of

this

name would fit the space available. There are two more women, also

said to be his daughters, but the names

at

their &others are given as 13-ns,

and 'Br.s-n.i, respeotively. The possible explanations far the use of at& here have already been examined in connection with Cairo stela 20733. 24.) Rec. de Tray ., 1910, vol.73302, p.144 Avignon. no.31. The owner of this monument has several brothers, one of whoa is called Nfr-i}tp The figure after that of Nfr-4tp is hat.f Ntrw irt n Ner-htp m3'-hrw, so it would appear that Nfr-btp married his daughter, born of an unnamed mother. 5) British Museum stela, vol.1,

.s.J#6/s.7

and Cairo stela 20534. The British Muse= stela gives

These two steles belong to a man called the nese of his wife as

and their daughter

is called iffr-tw, but the

Cairo stela says his wife was Ntr-tw and their daughter was 'Id,. It is perfectly possible that the scribe who wrote out the inscriptions, or the sculptors who carved them, made a mistalos, reversing the names of mother and daughter of one stela, but it two marriages of surprising if the

is

also possible that these stelae record the

are of which was to his own daughter. It would not be

daughter/wife *hose to name

her own child after

her mother.

6) Abydos, vol.111, pl.XIII.

It has already been observed that names like Snt-it s cannot be taken as evident,e of a consanguineous marriage (se* above p. 32 ), but a nese of the same type, Mwt.i-sntsi, *( 2l), which wows on this stela, deserves some consideration. The details concerning the relationehips within this family

36 'rialto discussed later (see below pa. 253/ 2 57), but there is reason to think that the owner, the King's Mother twht-lb, may have been married twine, and on

the basis of

his study of the sonusents of

this

family, M.P.Laming

MacAdan *(22) is prepared to concede the possibility that Iihtpab married

her own father, Sbk-ddw and that Mwt I-snt I was the child of this union. d) Evidence of aunt/ImmOhew and uncle/niece marriages. One of the best documented oases of a marriage between an uncle and a niece occurred in the royal family during the Fourth Dynasty when Khafre, the son of Khufu, married

Mr.i-i nhe the

third, the granddaughter of

Khufu *(23). The New Kingdom produced some well-documented marriages between non-royal uncles and. niemes *(24), but examples have not hitherto been quoted for the Middle Kingdom, though a study of the stelae has revealed seven possible oases which deserve serious consideration as examples of uncle/niece and aunt/nephew marriages.

They

are:

1) Cairo stelae 20043 and 20681. Cairo stela 20681 belongs to a man called ,born of ya!z., and his sister is named as T3-mtt-n/ born of

yam. Aaxing the members

of

the immediate

family also named on the stelae are snt.f Rn.s-'nhi born of got. and 630, 131./-k Rn.s-'nlr cannot be the aunt cram:and T3-ntt-nl because neither of their

grandnothers is called Sdb. Nor can she be their niece or cousin, since they have no sisters or aunts called Snb. The only reasonable alternative is, therefore, that she was their half-sister. The other stela, 20043, belongs to 1311-k3, the won of En.s-'41. and the name of his wife is given as

T3-ntt-$

born of yam, who, an the evidence

St the other stela, was most probably his aunt.

mother-in-law St the 2) Cairo stela 20079. The paternal grandaother and the

37 owner are both said to be named

ks, so he say have married

his aunt. However,

)1t is a not unoamson name, so this could be a simple coincidence. 3) Cairo stela. 20092. Both the maternal grandsother and the mother-in-law of the owner of this stela are nansd Da=hit, so he say have serried his aunt. 4) Cairo stela 20153. The paternal grandsother and the mother-in-law of the owner or this stela are both named as S3t-julit-kiar. The spelling of this nese varies from place to place on this stela 10 (25), but it is possible that they refer to the same woman, and that the owner married his aunt. 5) Cairo stela 20535. The owner of this stela was married twice. Clio wife, S3t-Wsrt, is portrayed seated with her husband, while the other wife, tz, is shown standing behind them. The owner also had several sisters, and Cie of these had a daughter named

ysz. Since Ez. is a common name, the re-appearance sigb.t be a coincidesoes or the girl may have been specially named after the wife of her mole, but it is also possible that there was only one Rez and that she became her uncle's seoond wife. 6) Heidelberg stela, inv.no .560, p1.12. The miner Rd.t.s *(26), and his wife, 33t-rd.t.e, had two children - a girl called Ib(w)-ddt and a boy called Ikusw-ddw, The wife of liamw-ddw is nsmed as 83t-rdia born of Naw)-ddt, so he was undoubtedly serried to his niece. 7) Florence stela 2521, photograph 33. linw-btp,

the nephew of the miser, who was also called linw-1;ttp, married and

had children by a woman called j. Sims Deli would appear to have heini

38 ha.lf•sister of the elder Enw-4tp (see below p. 171), Enw-Iltp, the yoUnger married his aunt. e) Evidence of First Cousin Earriaael. 1) Cair. stela 20051 - a cross cousin marriage. The paternal grandfather aux1 maternal grandmother

se

the coiner were both

born of EL-33..', thus the owner's parents were cross cousins. There is also a strcng possibility that the owner and. his wife were related in some way since his paternal grandnother and his wife's maternal grandaother were coaled tic!. the Elder and'Ild respeotively. This is strengthened by the fact that the mother of

"na the

Elder, and the daughter

and grandaother of tic.1 all share the same name. Thus the owner and his wife would be second cousins. 2) Cairo stela 20161 - a parallel cousin marriage. The aother and nother-in-law of Dunv-ntt were sisters, thus libbl married his cousin. 3) Cairo stela 20518 - a cross cousin marriage. The parents of 32i and Nfry were brother and sister, so this man and his wife were first cousins. ie.) Florence stela 2564, photograph 37 - a parallel cousin marriage. The naternal and paternal grandaothers of the onier were both born of a woman called E-s3., thus his parents were first cousins. 5) JJ1.1. 1 1938, vol.XXIV, P1.111 - a parallel cousin marriage. The discussion here is United to one register of this interesting stela. Ch the left, facing inwards, are figures of S3-r, his wife, and son. Seated opposite and facing his is #.&, known to be the brother at 83-r, and the wife and daughter of

a.

The dedication to the group on the left is made by

39

s3 53.f s3-R', that is by

.3...111

the grandson of 33-Rt., while the dedication

on the right is made by s3 53t.f S3-R', that is by 83-R' , the grandson of

ga.

This particuxlar arrangement of figures, and the la.ck of a named spouse for the son of

one man and the daughter

of the other, suggets that the two cousins

married each other and were the parents of the younger 83-R', who then made dedications to both groups

of grandparents.

6) British Museum stelae, vol.', p1.56 and vo1.11, pla.41/43 - a parallel cousin marriage. The many problems connected with the tree of

SE are

disousaed at

elucidation of the

very

extensive family

length on ps.139/142 0 and the details con-

usin nazriageirill be found there. If the inforsaticn cerning/rar:IMPoned has been interpreted correct17, then the moths= of Ikr the Elder and his wife,

nsw-b.tp, were

sisters, so the couple

were first cousins.

7) At Moir - a parallel cousin marriage. If the deductions of Blaclaaan are correct the first, then

141 and.lkk-htp

*(27), and Sal was

a son of Snb

the second were brothers. Mrs! the daughter

of Wir4tp the second married Mh-kttp

the third, the son of Sal, who was thus

her first cousin.

8) B.10.1.0., 1937 vol =Mt , P.98fr

a parallel cousin marriage. The

Rather and. mother-in-law of the owner were sisters, so he married his first soma*.

9) Abydos, vol.III, p1.11.1 1 -

a parallel cousin marriage.

If the informative given by this complex stela has been interpretted

carrect4 (see

below, p•255), the parents of the MAT were first cousins,

born of two sisters. f) Evidence for marriage among in-laws. Though not strictly in the same category as the types of marriage discussed

40 so far, there are four well-documented cases

of men marrying women related

to them by *amine, whioh deserve cctisideration here. 1) Louvre stela C.173 9 platlX. The owner of linkr-'n4.

owner,

this stela. had three nephews, one of whom married 'I born of

Since

-t ng was also the mother-in-law of the brother of the

lint_w _

is clear that the uncle and

it

see below,

nephew in question married

two slaters,

fig.13. 0

Fig .13

1 Otcv ana

tdw 0

1 o

a1 The owner.

A 2) Cairo

stela 20023.

The caner of this stein, FM,

appears

to have been married more than owe.

The first wife was Snbt born of W. Her sister, referred to by the unusual designation of bruast.f /wt.! (see above pa. 20 / 21), was Sbk-nht born of /1.Va. The seoond wife of M is named as rbbt born of Sbk-nht, thus W3d married his niece 3) Cairo

by marriage.

stela 20270.

The owner of this stela, Skttp-ib-le was married to 'nkt-rn born of Dhnt 41(28). The next name to appear on the stela is that of s3t.f Prow born of Dhnt. From the evidence as it stands, it would appear that S4tp-1b-R' had a daughter by his mother-in-law *(29). is.) Boo. de Tray ., 1903, vol.XIV, ps434/135, Toulouse 643(b).

The owner of this stela "Iy-snb, was the am of a woman called iiht-'n) and was married to Tt. Tt had a brother called lintw-l}tp and he had a sal and two daughters, all born or Pht- s nb,. Of course, this might be a coincidence and and two women called 2713t-'34 sky be Involved, but it not, then lintw-l)tp was

married to his sister's mother-in-law. The

evidence presented in Excursus B shows

that

the Egyptians made

regular pra.otioe of re-using names within their families. I am therefore inclined to believe that, if a sans s wife beers the same name

as

one of his

female relatives, particularly if it is one at his grandmothers, then provide naturally, it is not a very popular name like

'krt, there is a good chance

that there was some kinship tie between them,

other

of natriscav than the bond

though, in most oases, lack of information about the wife's this

is

parentage means

impossible to prove. Than several consanguineous marriages, par-

ticularly between first cousins, may have been unavoidably passed over in the preoeeding

survey.

The evidence as it has been accuaulated would suggest that, with the exception of mother/son unions, all forms of permitted outside the royal family by

the

0011$01141112100US

marriage were

Middle Kingdom, though it can

hardly be said that they were common, for, am the present evidence, they probably amounted for no more than 5% of the total.

42 MOTION II - ANAISSIS OFHPAMILYTEES MOE= CuN THE STELAE OP THE MIDDLE KINGDOM According to the amount of data they supply ccacerning the families of the owners, Egyptian stelae of this period may be said to fall into six main categories:(1) Stelseihich record only the MAIM and titles of the owner, together

with the etamiardOp di new formula and prayers, and perhaps some added details cancerninghis public career. (2) Stelae which, while preserving the form and content of the first group, record in addition the name of the owner % wife, or parents, or both. (3) Stelae which name several men and women, but omit any kinship terminology ar references to mothers' name, thus rendering them useless for

the purposes of this study. (4) Stelae owned by women. These hardly ever record sore than the names of the owner's mother and Children, and, apart from aae or two exceptional cases, the existence of husbands is totally ignored. rae dedicatory prayers from these stelae appear in transliteration and translation in Excursus 0, pagea488/502 (5) Stelae which record the names of the owner and his immediate family. Cr

these, some tend to concentrate on the parents and siblings, while others

prefer the wife and children. The most interesting stelae are those which combine the two groups. (6) Stelae which record the names of an extended family

group.

Some 1.500 stelae were examiaxlduring the course of this study and any relevant information they yielded was notai and included in the text and on

the charts (see pa. 620/627), where appropriate. Some stelae are of little

interest and require no detailed explanations or discussion concerning contents, but there are others, particularly those from the fifth and sixth groups listed 'love, which are very informative and more difficult to interpret so these will now be discussed in detail, and the conclusions incorporate' into

the charts.

To avoid the necessity of

the readmr having to consult the original

publications of the more difficult organisation of at

the beginning

their content, of

stelae in order

to appreciate

a stylised sketch of

these stelae

the will appear

each separate discussion where require'. In the interests

of clarity, each figure, or group of figures, will be represented by numbers

only, with arrows to

indicate

the direction in

which the figures are facing.

Throughout the text and on the plates, all names appear in transliteration, except those of pharaohs, which

are no familiar

in Anglicised forma that

rendering them in transliteration would. be to no advantage. If the name of any member of a family is not germane to

the nain discussion,

it will be

omitted, and that person will be represented on the family tree only by a symbol appropriate to their sax. A list of the symbols used on the plates appears on Transliterated kinship terms

are employed throughout

the text, though,

with the exception of servants, titles have been omitted., unless

they

contribute to the identification of the bearer. When interesting family trees can be reconstructed from the data thus Obtained, they have been

set out

on plates VIII/LICOCIII, where the name of

the owner cnlywill be underlined. Besides the stelae, imecriptioans from shrines, offering tables, statues and graffit i have oocesicna.Uy been included, if they happen to provide

44. valuable information coneernin,g a particularly interesting fanny tree.

Cairo stelae

Owner:

20016/17.

Both these stelae belamg to the same woman, and. they were dedioated to her by her a

son. Though the

servant are

nases of her

nother, an unidentified

woman, and

given, no reference is nada to her husband or father.

It is especially regrettable, in view of her interesting nano *(1), that so little information is given about her family connections. The prayers engraved on the two stelae are translated on ps.489 /490 Cairo stela 20018. This stela, which comes fron North Abydos, was Jointly owned by a group of servants and their children. Twenty people are named altogether, but there is no indication as to the name and. rank of their employer, or as to whether any of the servants named were married to each ether

—.) I.

(--

/.

. -÷ a. 8.

6.

7.

—0

Owner:

3.

8•

---). --,, 7. C. 9.

Cairo stela. 20681.

and that

50 1) The owner, prey born of Htpwy.

T3-ntt-nt is later

2) sn.f Sbk-htp born of

shown to be the

sister of Drory, so anal here was apparently being used of a nephew. This is though it

a perfectly acceptable tranalatias for an (see above pc. 15 ) 9 is

very unusual for an uncle and nephew to appear as virtual co-re of a

stela.

3) lta 'lbw born of Mr-rwil. 4.)

-t.f litpwy born of

The owner's father and maternal grandmother

both bear the name -lbw but it is a popular name with both sexes and it does net necessarily mean they were related in some way which is not specified here, though they may have been.

5) /pita Ihrt-titp born of

- i.e. the wife of Drwy.

6 and 7) snt.f T3-ntt-n3. born of gam and s3t.s Twt. It is thus established that grey and T3-ntt-n1 were brother and sister, and that T3-ntt-nl. had two children, Sbk-l}tp and Twt. It will be observed that whereas So-btp was given a kin-term relating to Drwy, Twt was given one relating to her mother alone. This was probably because Sbk-littp was the virtual co-owner of the

stela and was shown with his uncle in the first register, while Twt named until the third. register, where her figure follows that

8) Nn.1 born of

at

is not

her mother.

MIrt-htp. liwt-tytp has already been named as the wife of privy,

so Nn.l. was presumably their daughter, though she is not actually said to be daughter of Prwy and might therefore have been his step-daughter only. 9)

ant.f Itn.s-'nhborn of Alb, together with a3.8 113h-k3. 111311-k3 and. his

mother litn.s- t 43 are already known from stela 2004.3, where the name of the &other of Itn.s-'42, was written out in full as 113/1-k3-tw.f-anb. Sat here cannot mean the aunt, niece, or cousin of Drwy, because he had. neither a

51 grandmother, sister, nor an aunt called 11311-k3-1w.f-snb„ se it Itn.s-°414 was the half-sister of

ity."

is likely

and of T3-ntt-n.t as well. 1V311--k3

thus married his aunt, and. was presumably the father

of her two children,

Sbk-)$p and Twt. Cairo stela 20045.

rs

p1.11.

Only two figures are shown on this stela. Ckz the left is Nhri born of E..qe and

on the right is

-sub *(4.) born of Hnwt. Under then is an

inscription naming nine people. 1, 2 and. 14.) Three men, all said to be &IA.

3)

snt.f Kft born of Mar/. If Kft was the daughter of MA, it is

reascnable to assume that the three nen whose names surround hers were also the children of Npr, and that the kin terns refer back to some of the brothers and. sisters of fathers'

-saf. As

-snbf are identified. by their

nano, while others are identified by the mother's, one parent may

have been serried twice. 5) A man born of 6) aart.f Enirt born of Mr-Irti-s7.

7) Bbi born of Nbt. This establishes that If t was the husband of Bbl

8) e3 .f born of

9) An unidentified man.

Cairo stela 20051. Owner 83-113 d-h3 t

7. C.. S. 4

p1.1 14. /5. 16 . 17.

-, ---). G. '7.

.

Cairo stela 20123. Owner:

4-S. ,

---

II.

-÷ --> 4— 4—

4.

5•

--> 10. 9.

4-- 7.

er•• 41fr•

t

—— 13.

a.

...go

17.

Louvre stela C.40s rak.xxin.

4.—...----.....

nn)

"•

Omer: Snb.

4.

9.

'10.

4,...

It-.

14.

I. lb.

4.. 4- 4-.. I S. II. 16,

II .

4J .

'

1) Snb. 2/6) The first figure is that of a child, probably a girls then there are three adult males and one small boy. Since the last two are both said to be

63.1 it is

reasonable to assume that these were all his children. At the

very top or the stela there is an inscription naming 63.f

born of

LEL.

is mentioned nowhere else an the stela, nor is she anywhere named. as the owner's eife.

She

may have

been a wife or a concubine.

7) hmt.f snb.s-rd. born of S3tffttr.

8) iot.f ly-ib born of Snb.6-ni. 9) An unidentified. man. Howeversly-abis later shown to have had a sons sos frau his position on the stela* figure 9 may be the huaband 10) S3t-lithr born ofto. 11) A man born of

117:122, the writing of the mother's

name being

abbreviated.

12) A man born of '1k. 13 and 14) Two men born

of)Izt.

of S3t-Vthrs and an inscription naming a man born

159 15) A woman born of 85t-athr.

16) en unidentified woman. 17) A man born of (ma _n) 85t-Hthr and engendered by (1r n) Satp-ib-R'-enb. S5te-Hthr ham been established previously as the mother-in-law of the owners

so 8111tp-3b-le-snb must be

his father-in-law.

18) An unidentified man. 19)

born of ir

Stitp-ib-370-mrib

somehow be

related to the

To judge by the nam e s this woman must

father-in-law of the owner.

20) An unidentified woman,

21) ak born of tic.

louvre stela

--> Er7.

Osner: 85-itnhr.

V. A.

---> 4-4. 10•

D.

0.173,

pl. LI.

C.

3.

1) S54.1Wir born ofKprrt. 2) hmt.f W3h-X3 born

of

j)

tuat.f S5t-antlr *(39)

4)

83.f

barn of

a2;

lik5-lb born of S5tfix4r,

5) s3.f S t n12, born 6)

Mt.

of 1,311.43,

85.1flimm-m-h5t born of W3h-k3 *(40).

7) and 8) it.f li1c3-3b 9 and. 10)

barn of

7=n1..t born of

S3-In1r amil;mt.f

Kprrts

that

is

Kprrt born of

the brother of the owners

16 0 together with bmt.f tkw born of lintsi-tnt. The rest of the information is provided by three blocks of inscriptions, but, due to damage, particularly of the bottom of the stela, some vital details have been lost. Thus there are three family groups formed, which

must originallykmme been connected, but which now cannot be re-united. Column A: S3t2I.C4r born of Eial. Winhr born of Kprrt.

ItE:mry. born of Kprrt. A woman born of Kprrt,

1.dw born of

The name of her mother has been omitted,

but, since she appears in the middle of a list of the children of Kprrt, it is likely that she too was her child.

A. woman born of Kprrt. mn't.f - i.e. the nurse of the owner 2!Iborn °flint. Name missing, but born of EEL.

fiaihr-mry born of 85t-?Inh.r. This could be &child of one of the owner's wives, but their offspring appear at the top of the stela, so this is probably the child of his sister.

Winhr born of Sjtfi.nhr - another nephew of the lamer.

/aE:2w:

born aflim- i.e. the owner's brother-lc-law.

An unidentified man. 71z3hr-nht born of 83t2Inbr. An unidentified man. Column B should logically be readmit, but in fact, it makes more sense if column 0 and D are taken first. Column C: mwt.f S3t2T.C4r born of Kprrt. This has to refer back to the man

161 already accepted as one of the nephews of the owner, because his is the onl,y name in the vicinity to be followed by the words "born

of

S3t-'Inhr*.

hmt.flior born or Mntw-'nh. It has already been established that MnIw- I nhoss 'Imtri-nkt

the mother of figure

10 2

the owner's sister-in-law. The young

therefore married the sister of his aunt by marriage. The family

under consideration here is such a laege one that there need have been very

little difference in the ages of this couple, even though they officially belonged to different generations. Their sons, two men born aftdw. The subject than changes with the introduction of Maw born of Art-10. sj.f S32In1r

born of Mntw- t nh.

Mnlw

is thus shown to have been the

husband of Mnty- t rN so he was the father-in-law of both the brother and one of the nephews of the owner.

An unidentified. man said to be sn.f. Amen and woman said to be

alt his

sna

and snt.f, both born of 1st. Sinoe

been named as the nurse of the owner, these two were his foster-

brother and foster-sister, unless, of course, 221 had been the concubine of the owner's father,

in

which case her children would also be the half-

brother and half-sister of the owner. s t.f Mrt-itf.s born of

lat.

This woman was the sister of the owner's

nurse, so the term "sister" is here being used of a very remote conn ction.

O 0 and sjt.s. • .r born of

i.e. the brother of the owner's nurse.

162 Tie next six lines are 'badly damaged, but they contain references to at least two servants. Column 1% bort,: S3t-TrAlr born of Row - i.e. the second. of the wives of the owners shown at the top of the stela. 53.f Pc3-ib born of 83t-In12r. 83.f S'nh born of 1113h-4c3. 133.f tron-m-h3t, known to be born of W3-k3, see above figure 6. ant 33-tr12r the younger. 71nlir-ttp

born of Kprrt - i.e. another brother of the owner.

An unidentified man. sn.f Inhr-nht. The name of his mother is not givens but he is presumably the brother of the owners see above figure 9. Iln1lr-mr7

born of 711CW • 31101 is known to have been the wife of the

owner's brother'In4r-kh,t, so this is the owner's nephew. t.f S3t-tritt.r b rn of law. sn.f Hic.3-113 b rn of n.f

Mits.; born of It.

-tit, The only person n ed Sn -'n,h4 on this

t.f 'It born of

stela is later shown to be a mans so this is pre umably his daughter. An unidentified man. .rihr-mry born of' Hpw - i.e. the brother-in-law of the owner. sn.f Snw-'nt, born and apparently

of

Hpw - i.e. another brother-in-law of the owners

thS father and grandfather of

ant.! 33t2Ian

born of

ant born of Em.

Hpw.

some of the people named above.

163 mwt.sn Fow born of 83t 1Imn - i.e. the mother of the four preceding A

people.

man born of Snic-'n11.

Illegible.

Column B: Twenty

lines of inscriptions and prayers. Some at least of

those named were servants and related to each others but

the rests

though they must have been connected to the family in some ways cannot be identified.

.....31.

/4...

2.

I.

4.

3.

---)P 6.

4--5.

'

01n•n•)pl

10.

Louvre stela, 0.179, p1..XECL-7. Owner: 'Imny. pl. LII.

n.n #11C

9. B.

1 and 2) limy and

7. hint.f

Htp„

3 and 4) e3..f Pth-enla and s3t.f tpt. 5 and 6) Pth-s'nh and hmt.f Btpt. Either

this couple are close relatives

of the owners after whom he named his two children, or the son and daughter of the owner married each other. If the couple are someone other than the

owner's children, it is surprising that kin-terms have been omitted, for they are applied to everyone else on the stela. 7) s3ta - i.e. the daughter of Pth-ent,. 8/10)

Three men, all said. to

Louvre stela, 0.187, plaXXIX.

be 834.

Owner: Wsr-htp.

pl.LII.

The only figures shown are of Wsr-htp born or It and Tnnt born oftt. The rest at the family are named in an inscription.

sn.f born of 33t-Pth. Later identified as the cousin of the owner. en.f born of It. 3.t.f tinny born of gpst.

mwt.f 'It born of Oft. ant i: 33t-Pth born of Gft - i.e. the aunt of the owner. sn.f. mwt nt mwt.f (ft born of flr

0 (41)

- i.e. the maternal grandmother of the

owner, aut.f born of S3t-Pth - i.e. the cousin of the owner. sn.f born of aft - i.e. the maternal uncle of the owner.

Guimet stela, C.5 $ p1.17.

The first part

of

Omer: tmny.

the inscription

pl .1.111

names tinny born of S3t-tmn $ together

with s3 .f Sn-Wart born of Mryt$ though she is not said. to be his wife. The name of Sn-Wart is followed by the words mi34).z,the justified. If this is an indication that ft-Wart pre-decease& his fathers it would. explain why the dedication of the stela was not made by him $ buts

q

mPAA

(E3'

4C::7 th ^^^A^

III

C=7.3 KZ:7 ,

r-1 mega till

-lcli ea ali

In s3.f lora' e3 an.f n mwt.f imy-r pr I tntir-neht m3' t-13rw -

nbt

n Nbt-wnt

im3137t.

by his beloved sons t h ii. son of his brother of his mothers the Overseer

of the Treasury, 'Inhr-nht born of Nbt-Iwnt $ the justified, the blessed. If the son of the owner were already dead, then $ as the surviving wale relative, his

cousin would assume the

nearest

role of the

165 "Beloved Saa" for the funeral cult.

Guimet stela,

Ms pl.V.

Owners Sn-Wsrt-"nh.

1) Sn-Wart-'1414 born of K3w. 2) K3w born of Mggi.

3) mvrt nt mwta Mggi born of taw. 4)

an .f.

5)

Dn.f born

6)

anal and ant.f.

or Mggi - i.e. his maternal uncle.

7) =tot' Sbk-nfrw born of Iry and ant.f troy - i.e. the niece of the owner and her mother. 8)

itsf Nfr-lw born of int-lb. The father is thus relegated to an un-.

important role on the stela, compared with the maternal relations.

Guimet stela, 0.8 s pl.VII.

Owner: Sbk-htp. pl Jain.

At some time in the pasts this stela has been smashed into many pieces, and s although it has been mendeds only a small number of the inscriptions are now legible. This is particularly unfortunate because this stela makes extensive use of multiple kin-terms. Still legible are: Sbk-hto born of Rn.s-rs.

33 an n it n mwt.fs the son of the brother of the father of his mother - i.e. the cousin at the owner's mother.

mwt nt mwt nt wt.! 'ntti - i.e. the great-grandmother of the owner. ant mwta - i.e. the owner's maternal aunt.

ts3t.s.

166 Guimet stela, C.11, p1.1.

Owner: Hr-m4(?)-rhw *(42).

Among the members of his family the owner names hmt.f Hr-m-hb and s3t.f, who was/torn of iitr-mhb. He also claims to

have had a son (s3.f) *

born of a woman called Rn.s-snb, Who is not mentioned elsewhere on the stela, and who is not called either the wife of the owner, or entitled nbt pr. It is possible that she hwiimmvicmsly been his wife, but there is also the possibilty that she was his concubine. Florence stela 2504,

photograph

23, supplemented by Cairo stela 20064.

Owner: 'Intr.

S. Ib. q .

E--

4--

3.

2.

.

.6'.

7.

Florence stela 2504.

4.

1) 'Intf born of Hnwt.sn. 2) hmt.f S3t-Fli born of Mini. 3)

834'Intt

born of S3t-Hi.

there is a line of

In front of the figure of the owner's sons

inscription naming 53-Um born of lab while behind

him IA the name of 'n born of Rna- 141. is

located under the chair

of

A

third line of

inscription

83t-His where the name of Rbt-itf born of

.I...V. appears. The relationship of

Rn.f- t nk

and her descendants to the

owner is not given here, but they will be identified on the second stela. 4) 83.f born arlamv. Innwis not said to be the wife of the owner, nor is she entitled nbt

167

5/7) Three

men, all said to be

8/10) Three women, all said

sj,f •

and all,

to be s3t.f

&Mi.

born at' 85t-Ig. all born of

Cairo stela 20064.. At the top of the stela, the receiving Florence

offerings from

stela.

owner 'Intf born of Anwt.an

is shown

.ntt', evidently the son who made the offering on

An inscription

beneath the

of Mm(i), who is to be identified, as

table names a man

the brother of the

Behind the son is an unidentified Underneath this scene are

offering

born

wife of the owner,

man.

9 vertical lines of

inscriptions naming:

S3t4P2r•

Rri.f..°1313 born of S3t4thr - i.e. the woman named on the Florence stela. s3.11 (erroneously written sjt.f) 85-ittnw born of Rn.f-•41.

s3t.f Peri born of Etna- e nh.

This stela was erected for the elder

Intf and his is the dominant figure. There is little doubt that

these kin-

terms reel, to him, and this means that he was the father of ten children,

born of three

different

wife, S3t-}11,

is credited

women. The

only

one to

with four sons and

whose family takes precedence

on

be actually called his

three daughters. Rn.f-'nh

this stela., though

she is not said to be

his wife, had a son and a daughter, &nein:1w is named on the Florence stela ally, as the

mother of a son, but does

not appear in person. All three

women may have been his wives at various times, in probably the however,

third wife,

a possibility.

to whom he was married

which oases

83t-H.? was

the longest. There

is,

that 'innw at least, whose existence is only mentioned

168 in connection with her sons may have been a concubine. Mayt born of 53t-tr.

The last four lines name a woman called EIcl and her three sons. The possibility must be considered that, as she appears with lin.f- e nla and her ohildren s /al too

may have

These two stelae, whose

born children to the elder tntf.

inscriptions

complement sachet:hers illustrate

clearly the importance of re-uniting stelae, statues ani offering tables, which were intended to be together in a family tomb or oenotarh, or group

of such mcmuments, but Which

have become separated subsequent to discovery.

Without this, valuable information concerning family groure and affiliations can never be recovered.

Florence stela

2553, photograph 27. Owner: Alt.

This stela belongs to a woman. The inscriptions, which were painted on, are now illegible, except for her name.

Florence stela 2521s photogrart 33.

Owner: Mnw-htr. pl. Vir.

1) Mnw-htp born of NIlt. Under his chair 2) mwt.f %tr.. is

in

the name of the '3mtW3h-1c3,

is simply an expanded writing of

II.

UndeAer their

the name of s3t.s Snt s who may have been her child by another marriage

as all the other siblings of Muw-htp are recorded as an(t).f born of Itt.

169

3) it.f B1c3y born of Nfrt. 11.) ant.f Snt-'142, born of light. 5) ent.f Nfryt *(i0) born of

6) sn it May born of at. Behind him is the names but no figure of 12mt.f Sbk-titp - i.e. thy wife of

- i.e. the nephew of Mnw-12tp.

7) an.f born of

8) ma' born of

LtA.

The following inscription identifies this man as a

nephew of the owner. 9) ant.f 141t-'nAti. Mere are three men an this stela who are said to be

born of Lstis but there is no figure of a woman of this name. However,

Ltii may be

an abbreviated writing of Itt-'nhtis which would explain why

figure 8 was said to be en.f, because, if 1113t- I n13t/ was the owner's sister, then her son would be his nephew. Moreover, his figure appears with that of another of the owner's nephews. The inscription naming itt- i nht/ is cramped in front of the figure of the woman, and it is conoeivable that, in fact, it was a mis-writing of Nht (irt m) i nhti

*OM. Although

it is not beyond disputes I have aocepted

Niat- Inhti as a sister of the owner and have tentatively included her as such

an the family tree on pl.LV. 10) In front of this female figure is an inscription naming srit.f Ddi born

of Snts while behind her is the name of ant.f Bbi-'nh born of Ma. Since Snt-°414 has already been named as the sisters or half-sister of the owner,

Dd.i. is probably her daughter and thus the niece of the

owner.

11) A series of inscriptions naming:

Sbk-ddw born of Mwt-Otp *(4.5) who was born of Bbi- , 11/3 . The owner

170 of the stela was thus

the great-uncle of Sbk-ddw.

Sbk-ddw bora of Nht, who was presumably another brother of the owner. =.11L Men come

the names Of two women

and three Rene One of the men is

said to be born of 'nhti, but lack of information prevents the integration of the others into the family. 12) A list of names inscribed from behind the down to the base of the

figure of the

owner's mother,

stela.

sn..f Htpy born of Mt. The relationship

of this men to

the owner is not

clear, though he might have been a half-brother. ant.f Snt-'nhti. In her case too, the degree of relationship is uncertain. snt.f Mvrt-htp. This may be the niece of the owner, already referred to above. 33.f Btw born of I nhti. This kin-term must refer back to

ITV.,

since there

is no other plausible oandidate, except the owner himself and it is not likely that his only named son would be relegated to so obscure a role. Thus

Ea

and. 1 i:ha must have been man

and wife,

besides probably being

half-brother and half-sister. Since this kin term refers two women named in

thes column

back to

ljtpy the

may have been his sisters.

13) Another column of inscriptions, this one stretching from behinl the figure of Mrrepp to the bottom of the stela: mita' Ddi born of Ddt. This establishes that there were

two women

called Ddi, the other being the child

of SEA. The actual identification of Ddi born of Ddt is uncertain, though her name appears so close to that of the owner that she may have been his half-sister, their respective mothers being different. Mnw-htp born of Nfryt - i.e. another nephew cd the owner. 53.f Sbk-ddw - i.e. the son of

Mnir-htp born

of Nfryt. Since the names at

171 Fnw-4tp and Dill are listed together they may have been man and wife. If linw-htp and Dili were not married, then the name of the mother of

his

sons

has been omitted. 153.f Atpi. Evidently Dill named one of her aces after her brother,

111xmenoe stelae 2561 9

photograph 32 (36 in

and Cairo stela 20520. The first of

the stela

second stela

in

2559, photograph 35,

Cener in Florence bears a simple insoriptica naming

Eby born of W I-ivor-W -snb and the The

text) and

!ME.

'Florence

'ntt

nt dwt

*(46) Rn.s-snb.

was erected by]al: far several members of

his family. ---> 1.

3. ---> 5.



S.

7.

1) Entpr-R'-anb. 2) 83.f

1+477 -

i.e. the owner of the

previous stela.

3) The '41;t nt niwt Rn.s-snb.

4) 13.8 NJy. This might be the same man as figure 2 9 or a brother IMMO 41•81MR•

5) Mkt(.1)-hr-bb.

6) ajitanz. 7) s3.f Shb the

younger and

two unidentified men.

of

the

172 8) m.41' 33t-tntl and three women named Mkt(.1)-hr-hb, Rn.s-anb, and tat.

ON•31)11

drk•nn=1M11•n

ct .

.1.

I.

4---__---

S. 7.

.0.nnn.1)p

D.

3.

L. Cairo stela 20520,

iikrnma

12..

1) Nhy. Behind him there is

an inscription naming the nbt pr Nfr-3w.

Though she only plays an unimportant role an this one stela, this may be the otherwise unnamed mother of his 2 and 5) An unidentified woman and man.

4)

Mkt(.)-Sr-411

the ycvngers probably a sister of the owner.

5) Srib.f the younger. This maybe the son of the owner who was named Sub

on the previous stela.

6)

'I-hpr-R'-snb.

7) The i nbt nt niwt Rno-snb. 8)

An

unidentified man.

9) Mkt(4)-hr-hb. A line of inscription names a man born of In!,

10) fri-htr-r-snb. 11)

an and

woman born or Brio-

Mere then follow three me

b - i.e. a brother d sister of the owner.

an three women, all unidentified.

12) Nhy. 13)

Four

n and thre women, none of whom can be identified.

Although a onsiderable number of mbers of his family are named., a few kin-terms are given, and the mothers' names are so fregamtly omitted, that little of interest may be learnt from them.

173

Florence stela 2564, Photograph 37.

Owner Dati-hty. pl.L7I.

This rectangular stela has a series of inscriptions, arranged in two columns. Column 1: Enti-hty born of Milt. Sabtlej born of Titi. s3t.f /int born of Sabtisy. a3.f born of Shbtisy. ajt.f Mnt the younger barn of Snbtisy. s3t.f lki born of Snbtisy. 83.f born at Snbtimy. 133.f born of Snbtisy. it B3-'n13.f born of tki *(47). mwt.f Mnt born of S3t-tp.

entx nct born of Mnt. it ittf

tti

born of S3t-a". The next five insoriptions relate

to It'. hmt.f rid, born of M-s3.s. 03.f born of Tki. s3,f born of 11/ and Safrwo o cannot be id ntified, as his other's

name has been omitted. .P born at t-ELI „ who was orn of Tti-m-e3. • Tti-m- 3.5

should not be confused with 11-83.s, ass name is writ n consistently throughout, and who belongs t a youmger gereratioa. en.f born

of S3t-W.

it =tot' Unti-hty-ttp born of Mdhw• This kin-term relates

174 to the owner and is foLlowed by six inscriptions which are related to ;ntl-_ty-4tp. hmt.f Sjtjtp born of M-s3.s. S3tJlp had already been named as the owner's maternal grandmother. This inscription shows that she and tido thw owner's paternal grandmother, were sisters, so the parents of the owner were first cousins. 83t.f born of S3tjtp. Column 2: 83t.f born of S3tTp. FOX born of 83t.Zp. s3t.f enbtsy born of 83tjTp. s3to born of ,tnhtsy. sntX mwt.f S3t4Tp the younger torn of Wa3.s. It has been suggested by some commentators, that sn(t).f mwUf should be translated as "his brother (or sister, born of) his mother", implying perhaps a man's half-brother ak half-sister, with whom the owner shared a common mother. However, this inscription shows that particular interpretation to be erroneous. If the kin-terms refer to Untt-hty-ttp, this woman is undoubtedly his sister-in-law, not his half-sister, and the names

of

their mothers are known and are different. The kin-term must, therefore, refer back to the owner, and S3tti, the younger can be shown conclusively to be his great-aunt, so sn(t).f nwt.f (or it.f) does not refer to halfbrothers and Half-sisters, but to the brothers and sisters, or even uncles and aunts, or the defined parent. (see above, Section I, pe.17/8), sn.f 83-athr born of foithr42.tP. hmt.f Tit born of Mnt. Titi has already been named as the mother of the wife of the owner, so her husband, S3-qtr is the

175 father-in-law of the owners yet the term sn.f was applied to him, clearly demonstrating that this one kin-term may be applied to many and various degrees of kinship. The mother of the owner and the grandmother at his wife are both °ailed Mnts so the two families say have been related prior to the marriage of

Unti-tity &Di

Stibtlay.

s5t.f born of Titi.

Oa

born of Titl.

s5t.f born of Tit/. sn.f ' g3 born of Mrti. Ilmta Mnt ,

grandmother of

born of

S5t-mrtAr.

Stibtieys so '1'13 must

This Mnt must be

the maternal

be her maternal grandfathers and sna

is once more used. of a relative by marriage of the owners and in this cases a remote connection. an.f. The name of

his mother has been destroyed, so he cannot be

integrated into the family tree. sn i t'

Mkt the elder.

lpatwf 1!b-pw,

born of S5t-Rnawtt.

met 55t-Rnnwtt

born of Art-4,5. This woman is presumably the

of the owner on the nurse of the owners thus Mkt is referred to as the an wawa strength of having married the

foster-sister of the

owner.

s5t.s and 85.s. The family of 53t-Etnnwtt appear on

Florence stela

7600s photograph 4.2. Omer: Nb(w)-hr-hnyt.

This stela belongs to a 'man. The dedicatory prayers appear on p.mg

176

Florence stela 2512, photograph /1.5.

Owner: 'Ibi.

pl.LIV.

l'bi born of Kikw. ita Ksw born of SA. mwt.! Kikw born of lg. parents The of the owner were thus

brother and

sister, or half-brother and half-sister. ana Ra.f-enb.

=tab. snt.f. 03 ant.!

Rn.f-snb.

Berlin stela, 7. i. 5.4. 3 .2 . 4n1111)

1

4.13 012 . 11 . 16 .

1) K3y born of

R .1.

vol.', p.166, no.1183.

Owner: IC3y.

pl. INTL

Mkt-B3stt.

2 and 3) i.t.f linw-anb and wt.! Mkt-B3stt. ii.)

an.! n mort.f - i.e. the maternal uncle of the owner.

5) s3t

a Mkt-B3att i.e. the daughter of K3y. K3y has two children, but

does not name their mother. 6) s3t.f 33t-m3y„ 7) 153. 11 NIA.

8/12) :Int./. S3t-htpi, followed by 53.s

and Otos Mkt-B3stt.

p 83

t.s Mkt-B3stt 83t.s S3(t)-htp,

177 13) s3t snt.f nt mwt.f S3t-Sn-mrl- i.e. the first cousin of tae

owner.

14) s3t.s Mkt-B3stt.

Berlin stela, vol.I, p.178,No.72803. Owner: Nfrt. pl. LVIII.

1)

Nfrt born of Ddt.

S3t-tfthr.

2) Ddt born of

3) S3t-Ut1ir born of

4) lay born

of Nbt-itf. As the only man named on the stela,'Idy is

likely to be either the husband or the father of Nfrt.

Berlin stela, volas p.181, no.1188, and. Louvre stela

0.174, pl..XXX.

Owner: Sn-Wart. The stela in the Louvre names only

Sn-Wart himself,

but on the Berlin

stela he appears with his wife, parents, five brothers, five sisters, and sixteen retainers and

servants of

both sexes.

The interesting feature of the Berlin stela is the unusual role assigned to one of his left

hand side

sisters. The

owner and. his

wife are shown an the

of this rectangular monument, and all the other members

of the family face them across the offering table, but, whereas everyone else is drawn on a much smaller scale than

sister,

Sn-Wart and his wife, one

ent.f mrt.f Rn.f- I nb,„ is represented by a figure drawn at almost

179

7 and 8) Two men, both born of Nbt cne cr whom is named 83-14. 9 and 10) Two unidentified men. 11 and 12) Wr-mb-kmwy born of Ity_t and a woman born of litpt. 13) ly born of 83t-F& and Nbt born of litpt. 14) 83t-Hi born of Nbt. 15/17) Inscriptions partially illegible.

Cairo stelae 20089 and 20703 belong to the swag man but add nothing to our knowledge about his family because 20089 names only Wr-nb-kmwy and his mother, and 20703 is broken so badly that on3,y the name of the owner survives.

Berlin stela, vol.I, p.192, no.7282. Owner :

Maatw-htp.

p1 .LII.

1) iintw-tIto and the nbt pr Htpti born of Wnt *(49).

2) A man born of St-ddt and Rwl (born of) 813mt-ddt *(50). 3) mw-t

a

The name is illegible, but she was born of Ririe Ale o

named are a man born of Rvri. $ and two other men, both said to be anal born born of Writ, so they are brothers-in-law of the owner. This is one of the rare ocaasictis when an is used of a brother-in-law. There are two more men said to be sn.f, but born of Tly and. they cannot be identified. 4) Five men, all born of Tijr. Tl y must have been a near relative of

the

owner.Perhaps she was the mother of /kit-w-htp, though the degree of kinshiI

180 is

never given. They are followed by: the

nbt pr T x:Litt-Mt

born of Rw/ i.e

maternal aunt of the owner. sn.f born or trat-clit - i.e. the cousin of the owner. Btpt/ barn of inkt-cIdt. An unidentified man and woman.

aft pr

The

Rwl

born of Shmt-ddt and a man born of RA. This

could be the same RA, who appears in the second register, or a sister

at

the same name.

Berlin stela, vol.; p.20, no.7287. Owner: Kas.

This stela is dedicated to hkrt

nsws

King's Favourite, trs. "Ira is not mentioned elsewhere on the

stela, nor is she said to be

Berlin

Kas by his son, Bmbw, who was born of the

the wife

Kam.

stelae, vol.', ps.205/206, n os.7731 and 7732. and 33-Tma.

Owners: 83-Man

Stela 7731 shows S3-ma receiving offerings from opposite him stands the

Stela 7732 shows

nbt

prMrl, who is

83-Tan, born of S3-Mmn

II.

I.

‹_-____-__-3 -- 5-.

to. q.

I.

while

presumably his wife.

and Mrwr, which must be a mistaken

writing of Mr, receiving offerings from hmt.f

2..

s3.f S3jimn,

Nfrw

and sntwf

Hanover stela 2928.

1936, wolanns Owners M-23.f. pl.LIX.

13.84)

181 1 and 2) M-s3.f born of Htpt and Htp born of 53t-Nht. The names of the mother and the wife of the owner are spelt consistently throughout. 3

and 11.) Two men born of Htp, shown making offerings to their parents.

5) 83t-Nht born of tnl. 6) An unidentified woman. 7) An unidentified boy. 8 and 9) Two women born or s3t-Nht.

10) IVA born of Bow. 11) An unidentified woman.

Hanover stela 2930.

4— 4.

3.

it.

1.

(Z.i.S., 1936 9 vol.LMI, p.86).

(---10.

Owner: Upr-k3-R'.

q .1. 7. S..

pl.LX. .

I5.14.

II —.13.

1) ljpr-k,3-1/ t born of S3t-Wsrt. 2)

83t-?fsrt born of 83-b-1thr.

3)

71w.s-°3.3

14.)

A woman born of 83t-lithr.

5 and

born

at

33t-trttir - i.e. the maternal aunt or the owner.

6) filmy born of Sbk-nht and

hmt.f

Nbt-nbs born

ar)lw.s-t3.11.

trpr-.k3-R' appears to have died without wife or children, cin the evidence as it is presented here, and the rest of the stela is devoted to his cousin, Nbt-nbs, and her family.

182

7/10) Four men * all said to be 83.f and. born of Nbt-nbs - i.e. the

8 OM

of 'limy. Chia of them is named gpr-k3-R's the younger. 11)

born of Mk-I:ht.

12) A woman born of S3t-Vt4.r. 13) An unidentified woman. 14. and 15) Two men born of

- i.e. the nephews of tinny.

16) A man born of Sbk-nbt.

Hanover offering table 1926.191 (Z.X.S., 1936, vol.LMI, p.88). Owner: 33-Mntw. This offering table has been included because it is inscribed with the names of several members of a large family. Round the outside rim are the names oft 83-Mntw barn of 'I

it.f Mntw-m-123t s34'

Name illegible.

born of Mrt.

Sni-Wart

In the centre block of inscriptiaas are the names of: s3t.f Nb(w)-ddt. snt.f Mrt and 83.s. snt.f Nb(w)-Mt. s3t 83t.f. s3 4 811 rf •

33-1Intw,

183

it nit.: Sn-Wert. it.flmn-re413t. Up to this point, it has been easy to identify all the people named, but the identification of Imn-m-13t is more complex. Be cannot be the father or paternal grandfather of the owner, sinoe these are both known. Be might be the maternal grandfather, but this is unlikely, as no maternal grandmother is named, and it is most unusual for a line to be traced tack to a male alone. The same Objeotion must be raised against the identification of Imn-m4:13t as the paternal great-grandfather of the owner, so tmn-m-h3t may have been his step-father, and has been tentatively entered as such in the family tree.

On the raised ha -vase an the offering table

is

the nano of hmta Habra,

This must be the wife of the owner, and the mother of his five children. sn.f

S34intw.

Vienna stela, p.13, no.16.

Owner: Keki.

plan.

The first register oantains the htp di nsw formula, made out for ...11Dr,.k3-R1 born of Rats and then refers to him again, but this time by his *pet name", Enki *(51). The mother of the owner was also known by two names, Mnt and M3 i thtp, both of which are used an the stela. Second register: K*ki born of 113't-htp - i.e. the owner again. Shbtisy

s3t 83.f

born of B3stt *(52).

Sn-Wart

lint

born of B3stt - i.e. the granddaughter of the owner.

113.f Hri born of Snbtiay. As his name is &lawn with that of be may be her father.

SnATirt

14 Nano illegible, born of t 3mt. If this is the wife of

luata

and the mother of Sn-Wart Vint, then her name has already been given as

B3att. As

the mother-in-law

called B3stt, they may be

and

daughter-in-law at the owner are both

related by

blood as well a by

marriage.

Third register: it.f Sn-W rt born of g3yt. mwt.f Mnt

born of 'al.

sn.f barn of Mnt. Three men, all said to be 83.f and all born of Snbtisf.

Fourth reg'ster: an it.f Upr-k3-R' born of 63yt. mwt nt ravrt.f tti. ant it.f Mryt born of

3it.

Four =identified men. Pitt re istert Snbtify

born of 13'

t- tp.

it n 4mt.f Mrrw born of Sbk-m-t3t. As Snbtify has o amed wife, is presumably the father-in-law of Maki. Since

all the other

traced back to women, Sbk-m43t is likely to have been a

this

lines are

woman too, but

there is no positive confirmation. A man, name illegible. M3 s t-i?tp born of 133w *(53). The

nbt pr 7133w.

tti born of 1.33w, and

a3t.s i nttsy.

Che of the men, otherwise

unidentified, is said to be born of tnh...., so he wa,1 be the 5 On of this woman.

185 Sdeutschen Sammlungens vol.1, pl.Is no.2 and J.E.A" 1939, vol.XXV. pl.XXI: 3, (Queen's College, Word, stela 1110). CWners En-snb,

1) Rrp.snb. 2) hmt.flimborn of the nbt pr Wnmi,*(54). 3 and 4)

Rdi-s'nh *(55)

and T3-ntt. It will be observed that the Queen's

College stela names these two as the parents of Rn-enb. 5) A line of inscription naming the nbt pr Snb-m-.... *(56). The Queen's College stela awards this woman the title of wife.

1) Rn-snb barn of the nbt pr T3-qitt.

2) lt.x Pal- 'nh. 3) The owner ra ki ng an offering t has father. 4-)

An untrl ntfled man and his wife.

5 and 6) tmt.f n t pr Snb-m.... andluat.fYin born f thtf. Intf must be th- f th r of

Nn, as

h r mother has already been named

as

Whml.

1,36

7) mwt.f T3-ntt. 8 and 9) Th figures of 3.f d 3t.f T3-ntt together with an inscriptioi naming another son. There is o indication whic of the two wives was the ther of these children. Nn appears to have been more i portant, sinoe both of her parents are named, but this may be because she was the wife

at the time of the commissioning of the stela. 10) Several lines of inscription, most of the people awed are umiolmatifim but they include two men, both said to be sn n mwt.f.

Stiddeutschen Sammlunge vo1.I,

p1.111 no.3 and

J.E.A., 1939, vol.30C7,

plaX:2 (Queen's College, Oxford, stela, no.1111). Owner

(-- 4-

---,-

3.

I.

a.

---0 15.

4— I.

JO.

IS,

El Arabah, p1.91. Two stelae, both numbered E.295. Owner: )1.mn-m-b3t-nbwy. p1 .LVII.

/6.

1) 'Imn-m-.43t-nbwy. 2) mwt.f Nfrt born of

3) The nbt pr Snb born of Immy - i.e. the wife of the

owner.

4.) sn.f S t ntl, born of Ntsrt. 5 and 6) ant.f and sn.f. 7 and 8) Two male servants. 9) The owner again. 10) sn.f 33-Rnntvrt born of Lata. They have different mothers, so the owner

and S3-Rnntwt must be half-brothers. 11) sn.f. 12) an.f Rn.f-snb born of

- i.e. the maternal uncle of the Owner.

13 and 15) Two male servants. 14_ and. 16) Two men, both said to be an.f.

235

-4 -4 Er3. 5. 4

1) S'nh

born of Pfrt - i.e. the brother at Vas owner.

2) Ny born of Nfrt - i.e. the owner, his name being written in a very abbreviated form. The figure of a small boy is shown standing facing Nbwy but his name has either been omitted or has been totally destroyed. 3) it.f Sn-Wart born of Nbt=lwnt. 4) mwt.f Nfrt. 5) sn.f S3-linntwt born of Msyt. Iaml-m-3t-nbwytaa chosen to include his half-brother an this stela, even though be has omitted the names of four of his full brothers and his sister. On both stelae S3-Runtwt is shown on a smaller scale than the others, perhaps an indication that he was much younger than the rest.

,

.-2, I.

--> -.).

4--• 2.

3.E.-•

-+ E4-.

44-•

.. -+4-

5. -41. 4--

7.

4. -..-1›

El Arabah, pl.XII, no.3.312 Goner: Snbw. pl.IXXVII.

4-

S.

1 and 2) Sabw and 4mt.f S3t-Sbk.

3) The nbt pr Rn-snb and the nbt pr Sdbw-rs. Clearly these are important members of the family, but in the absence of kin-terms and

236

the names of their mothers, they cannot be identified. 10

Two women, both said to be ant.f nt mwt.f - i.e. the maternal aunts of

the owner. 5) A man called 1f-anb and his wife. Their relationship to Snbw is unknown. 6) s3t.f S3t-Inhr and mwt.f

- i.e. the daughter and mother of the

owner. 7) The hmt Rn.s-rs and s3.8 Sn'bw. The inclusion of this woman and her son on a family stela from which all other servants have been excluded, combined with the fact that the boy is named after the owner, suggests the possibility that Rn.s-rs was the concubine of the owner and that she

bore him

a

sm. The wife of Snbw does not appear to have produced a son,

which may have induced him to pay particular attention to the offspring of a servant (see below, p.299). 8)

and ant.f tnir-d4iw. This might be the sister of the owner and

her husband, or she may be the sister of 3.1.1, in which case, their relation to the owner is unknown.

Tombs of the Courtiers, pl.IIVII.

A

(University College, Undo:a,

143314.)

Owner: &nw. p1.141=1„

A) A htp di nsw formula made out to the k3 of Linw by s3t.f fi.mn,y„ and she then lists the names of her children, her sister, and her sister's

23 7 children: a3t.a Mrrt s3t.s, 83.s, 83.9 ;Tmny,

63.3, 83.8 2

83.s, a3t.a rt, s3t.s,

ant.s ret, 830 and a3t.s.

1 and 2) gnnw and hmt.f Rdrt. 3)

s3t.f

4)

it.f

woman

-

i.e.

Nit. The figure

calleerbl, will)

-fizorky

the woman who dedicated the stela. of

is

must surely

followed by an

be

inscription

naming

a

his wife and the mother of gnnw.

does not name her husband, or her sister's husband, presumably

feeling that it was unnecessary to include them an her father's stela. It probably

is unusual, but not unique, for a woman to dedicate a stela. had no surviving brothers, so undertook the maintenance

of

her parents'

funeral cult. As the mother of nine children, she was a mature woman when she commissioned the stela.

Kemi, 1928,

vol.', pl.VII.

Owner: Rn(.4-snb, p1 .LXXVIII.

1) Rn(4-anb born &In/. 2)

till

born of Tt.

A) Rn.f-anb born of Rn.s-'n13. Rn.f-snb could be the father

of

the owner,

but it could also be the owner himself, his name written in an expanded version. Rn.s-'42, looks like

a

woman's

name, but it can be used of

men

too *(75), and, in this case, Rn.s-'x4 probably is a man, because the

238 determinative

after the name is

Itn.s-ints, is probably to be

identified as the father of Rn(X)-snbs the owner. 'kw bora of In3. - i.e. the sister

of the owner.

Ppw born of INA. The rest of the inisoriptions concern the family of Ppws so it is reasonable to assume that she was the wife of lin(,:f)-anb, otherwise the two families cannot be

linked.

Two men born at B)

born of

An unidentified man ani. woman. born of Tnt. An unidentified man.

Muse; Ourtius de LiOgs. —- .) I. __:),

(Annuaire de l'Institute de