The Importance of Engineering to Society

The Importance of Engineering to Society By Leah Siczkar  1A Environmental

The way I see it, engineers and their practices have been encouraged for one paramount reason:  benefiting humankind. In modern society, soc iety, we are constantly interacting with our environment. We harvest and extract all the resources that we need to sustain human life and culture human empires. It is the role of the engineer, however, to minimize the effects of damage da mage on the surrounding ecosystems, and design necessary infrastructures that are both efficient and safe. In the media today, people peo ple are lured into believing that t hat trinkets and stuff that sits on a shelf and collects dust will solve their woes. In reality, these things are not necessary and only serve to satisfy the selfish and competitive nature of humankind. E ngineering focuses on the development of infrastructure that serves a meaningful purpose for humankind. My observations suggest that the structures and pro cesses engineers implement fall into four  main categories: sustainability, safety, cleanliness, and connection. It is the role of the engineer to protect the environment and the t he people within it. Engineers aim to  benefit the people of the present prese nt by employing effective structures that are intended to improve transportation and living habits of earth¶s inhabitants. B y extension, engineering is planning for  the continual growth of the human population and ensuring there t here are sufficient resources for the  people of the future. Engineers must be efficient, taking into consideration construction costs, time, and the wellness of people. In this respect, they t hey are the role-model for multi-taskers everywhere! When designing a skyscraper or bridge, the team t eam of engineers must ensure the safety of its users. Collapses cause  panic and excessive stress. In a sense, adequate engineering ensures support and comfort, not only for the structures, but in the mind of the population. Engineering manages sewage, wastes, and purification. p urification. These points do affect sustainability, but they are also crucial in defining another ano ther aspect of engineering¶s importance. Cleanliness and  public health are largely defined by engineering. Without proper engineering and sewage systems, we would no doubt run out of fresh water (much sooner than we are scheduled to), and we could quite literally literally be living in our own fecal matter. Finally, a significant focus of engineering is that of connection and globalization. As technology and design progresses, it is important that we keep in contact with the rest of o f the world. The saying ³no man is an island´ quite literally comes into effect here. Every disaster, natural or not, that occurs in the world today toda y effects everyone. Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, terrorist attacks; the world is informed of such happenings. Without roads to get from point A to point B, or  helicopters, or jets, the world would seem a very distant place. Essentially, engineering encourages a sense of awareness and togetherness.

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Engineering serves as the calcium of society soc iety today. It continuously strengthens our pre-existing knowledge of design and, as calcium ensures healthy bones and teeth, engineering ensures a healthy and sustainable environment for humankind.

The Importance of Engineering By Guest Blogger | Blogger | Published: 29/03/2010

 Adam Symons is the Liberal Democrat PPC for Torridge and West Devon The question on many commentators¶ lips is how the UK can invest in much needed infrastructure for transport and energy, while at the same time deal with the debt fall-out from the credit crunch. The basic truth is that we cannot stand still. The challenges of climate change, greater demand on services due to demographic changes, and scarcity of funds must not allow the UK to stagnate. Already, many parts of Europe Euro pe are far ahead of us in terms ter ms of infrastructure. My belief is that by investing in this infrastructure, we will provide long-term stimulation to the economy, and actually actua lly provide a solid basis for future sustainable growth ± which should be seen as a shift away from consumerism and pollution. po llution. However, there are many barriers barr iers in our way currently. One of these is the lack of engineering skills in the UK economy. It is not to say that they are not there. However, with the scale of  o f  investment that is required, I fear that we may be short. Bodies such as the CBI have said that the lack of engineers graduating today threaten our future. Much as in teaching, engineers suffer from a lack of µkudos¶ or µsex-appeal¶. µsex-appeal¶. International research shows that the quali qua lity ty of o f education that children get is closely linked to how well regarded the teaching profession is. I think the same could be said about the quality of  engineering in this country. It is not valued. My cousin is a tunnel engineer in Europe, and it is seen as a prestigious job. However, here,  perhaps because of the overuse of the term µengineer¶, engineers do not have the same  professional  professional status statu s as other highly trained professionals such as Doctors and Lawyers. Perhaps we need to tighten up the trade description legislation to prevent the bogus use of the term engineer? The challenges I mentioned above, specifically relating to funding can also be tackled through greater use of production engineering. This being the natural home for lean systems thinking and value management, it is time we took a microscope to what we are spending where, and identify  better ways of delivering public services. Engineering is not just about building! Engineering can provide many so lutions, not just to the infrastructure issues we have, but also to the remodelling of public services. We need to t o embrace the need for science and engineering 2

within the political field, and recognise it as essential to the long-term well being of any economy.

Top Ten (10) Most Important Engineering Achievements of All Time By: admin Posted: August 17, 2007

Innovation and technology in engineering has made our lives more efficient and enjoyable. From electricity to the internet, some of these engineering achievements have taken countless hours to perfect and many years to implement. It is hard to imagine life without these Top Ten Engineering Achievements listed below:

1. Electricity

Scores of times each day, with the merest flick of a finger, each one o f us taps into vast sources of energy²deep veins of coal and great reservoirs of oil, sweeping winds and rushing waters, the hidden power of the atom and the radiance of the Sun itself²all transformed into electricity, the workhorse of the modern world. 2. Automobile

When Thomas Edison did some future gazing about transportation during a newspaper interview in 1895, he didn't hedge his bets. "The horseless carriage is the co ming wonder," said American's reigning inventor. "It is only a question o f a short time when the carriages and trucks in every large city will be run with motors." Just what kind of motors would remain unclear for a few more years. 3. Airplane

 Not a single human being had ever flown a powered aircraft when the 20th century began. By century's end, flying had become relatively common for millions of people, and some were even flying through space. The first piloted, powered, controlled flight lasted 12 seconds and carried one man 120 feet. Today, nonstop commercial flights lasting as long as 15 hours carry hundreds of passengers halfway around the world. 3

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Water Supply and Distribution

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the United States and in many other countries, water was  both greatly in demand and greatly feared. Cities across the nation were c lamoring for more of it as their populations grew, and much of the West saw it as the crucial missing ingredient for  development. At the same time, the condition of existing water supply systems was abysmal²  and a direct threat to public health. 5.

Electronics

Barely stifled yawns greeted the electronics novelty that was introduced to the public in mid1948. "A device called a transistor, which has several applications in radio where a vacu um tube ordinarily is employed, was demonstrated for the first time yesterday at Bell Telephone Laboratories," noted an obviously unimpressed New York Times reporter on page 46 of the day's issue. 6. Radio and Television

In the autumn of 1899 a new mode of communication wedged its way into the coverage of a hallowed sports event. Outside New York's harbor, two sleek sailboats²Columbia of the New York Yacht Club and Shamrock of the Ulster Yacht Club in Ireland²were about to compete for  the America's Cup, a coveted international trophy. In previous contests the public had no way of  knowing what happened on the water until spectators reached shore after the races. This time, however, reports would "come rushing through the air with the simplicity of light," as one newspaper reporter breathlessly put it. 7. Agricultural Mechanization

You often see them from the window of a cross-country jet: huge, perfect c ircles in varying shades of green, gold, or brown laid out in a vast checkerboard stretching to the horizon. Across much of the American Midwest and on farmland throughout the world, these genuine crop circles are the sure sign of an automated irrigation system²and an emblem of a revolution in agriculture, the most ancient of human occupations. At the heart of this transformation is a single concept: mechanization. 4

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Computers

You often see them from the window of a cross-country jet: huge, perfect c ircles in varying shades of green, gold, or brown laid out in a vast checkerboard stretching to the horizon. Across much of the American Midwest and on farmland throughout the world, these genuine crop circles are the sure sign of an automated irrigation system²and an emblem of a revolution in agriculture, the most ancient of human occupations. At the heart of this transformation is a single concept: mechanization. 9.

Telephone

"The telephone," wrote Alexander Graham Bell in an 1877 prospectus drumming up support for  his new invention, "may be briefly described as an electrical contrivance for reproducing in distant places the tones and articulations of a speaker's voice." As for connecting one such contrivance to another, he suggested possibilities that admittedly sounded utopian: "It is conceivable that cables of telephone wires could be laid underground, or suspended overhead, communicating by branch wires with private dwe llings, country houses, shops, manufactories, etc." 10. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Which of the appliances in your ho me would be the hardest to live without? The most frequent answer to that question in a recent survey was the refrigerator. Over the course of the 20th century, this onetime luxury became an indispensable feature of the American home, a mainstay in more than 99.5 percent of the nation's family kitchens by centur y's end. Bonus

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Engineering Achievements

Highways

Sweeping visions were something of a specialty for William Durant, founder of General Motors, and he ran true to form in a 1922 interview. "Most of us," he said, "will live to see this whole country covered with a network of motor highways built from point to point as the bird flies, the

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hills cut down, the dales bridged over, the obstacles removed." Given the intensity of America's love affair with the automobile, his prediction wasn't so far-fetched. -

Spacecraft 

The event was so draped in secrecy that, despite its historic nature, no pictures were taken. But no one who was there²nor, for that matter, anyone else who heard of it²would ever forget the moment. With a blinding glare and a shuddering roar, the rocket lifted from its concrete pad and thundered into the early evening sky, soaring up and up and up until it was nothing more than a tiny glowing speck. On the plains of Kazakhstan, on October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union had just launched the first-ever spacecraft, its payload a 1 84-pound satellite called Sputnik. -

Internet 

The conference held at the Washington Hilton in October 1972 wasn't meant to jump-start a revolution. Staged for a technological elite, its purpose was to showcase a computer-linking scheme called ARPANET, a new kind of network that had been developed under military auspices to help computer scientists share information and enable them to harness the processing  power of distant machines. Traffic on the system was still very light, though, and many po tential users thought it was too complex to have much of a future. Why Study Engineering?

Engineers belong to the greatest profession in the world, responsible for almost everything that makes life worth living - from leisure activities to medical treatment, mobile communications to modern transport systems.

Within the wide boundaries of the engineer ing profession, there are thousands of challenging activities, in areas such a s research, development, design, manufacture and operation of products and services. Activities which provide stimulating intellectual challenges with diverse and varied tasks, inevitably involving d eadlines, and all added to the satisfaction of real output or delivery. Demand for good engineers is high, in practically every country in the world. In the IT and electronics sectors in particular, there are world shortages o f Chartered and Incorporated Engineers, and unemployment amongst professional engineers is lower than for almost any other   profession.

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Engineering degrees can lead to a vast number of career opportunities, with graduates in demand in almost every sector of the economy. The word used most often when referring to a career in engineering is variety; and electrical, civil, marine, chemical, software, systems, information and manufacturing engineering offer a host o f alternative job opportunities for new graduates. Specialisations range from Automation to Power Generation and from Communications to Manufacturing. Within each of these fields, there are opportunities in research, design, development and tests, as well as management, production, marketing and sales. A degree can also provide a passport into the world of education. Professional engineers also stand a better chance of becoming a chief  executive than any other professional, outnumbering accountants by three to one! The environment in which engineering professionals work has never been more dynamic. New materials, technologies and processes are being developed a ll the time. Increasing globalisation, new markets, and changing employment patterns also mean that an engineering career is now a truly international one.

How to Qualify

At school, students should take a board range of subjects covering both art and sciences. Mathematics and Physics are usually essential, but English is also important, and a foreign language desirable. Minimum qualifications for entry to an Engineering degree course are normally 'A' levels or equivalent in Mathematics and Physics, but a third subject in either the Arts or Sciences ensures a wider choice of degree options. Students without the relevant 'A' levels have the opportunity to 'convert' on one-year pre-entry courses at selected universities. With the exception of a few specialist courses, it is common for all students to take t he same subjects in the first year(s) of a degree, before going on to specialise in the final year(s), when they can choose from a number of options. For this reason, when selecting a course it is important to check what options are available, especially if undergraduates already have a specific career in mind. However, specialising in one area whilst at University does not preclude working in another field of the profession at a later date. What type of degree?

There is a wide variety of undergraduate and postgraduate courses available worldwide, many of which are discussed in the articles listed on the left. However, in the end, the choice of which course to take must  be a personal one, dependent on the aims, circumstances and preferences of the individual student.

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After Graduation

A degree is only the beginning of the formation of a professional engineer. In order to qualify for  membership of a professional engineering institution, or to qualify for Chartered Engineering status, graduates will often have a minimum of two years industrial training, and two years career development in a responsible position. Embarking on a training programme in a major industry enables new graduates to develop experience of a wide range of jobs, and acquire a broad understanding of engineering activity outside their own branch. Students who were sponsored during their degree courses may already have spent time in industry, and will have started to give their academic stud ies an industrial  perspective. Postgraduate training also offers graduates the chance to keep their career options open, as the opportunity to experience the work of different sectors of an industry can open up new areas of interest not previously appreciated. The IEE accredits industrial training programmes, each year producing a list of companies that undertake to provide accredited t raining. A

Rewarding Future

There is little doubt that the world of engineering - and all that it encompasses -offers exciting opportunities for both men and wo men. The industrial and economic success of every nation is rooted firmly in its manufacturing and engineering base, and the skills and ingenuity of  its professional engineers. The ability to research, develop and ap ply new technologies is essential, particularly in today's global markets. In the UK alone, engineering-led industry contributes about 40% of its gross domestic product, and is the 'goose that lays the golden eggs' for its national economy. From space travel to household electrician, the role of the engineer is crucial. For anyone looking for a rewarding future with a wide variety of employment prospects, there has never been a more exciting time to embark on a career in engineering. ngineering is the discipline, art, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific,

mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of people. The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of  ABET)[1] has defined "engineering" as: [T]he creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior  under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.[2][3][4] 8

One who practices engineering is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur or European Engineer . The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of  more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of  application and particular areas of techno logy. Contents [hide] y

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1 History o 1.1 Ancient era 1.2 Renaissance era o 1.3 Modern era o 2 Main branches of engineering 3 Methodology 3.1 Problem solving o 3.2 Computer use o 4 Social context 5 Relationships with other disciplines 5.1 Science o 5.2 Medicine and biolog y o 5.3 Art o 5.4 Other fields o 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

History Look up engineering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects. The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, der iving from the word engineer , which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine¶er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to ³a constructor of military engines.´[5] In this context, now obsolete, an ³engine´ referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable exceptions of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 9

The word ³engine´ itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning ³innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.´[6] Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a t echnical discipline, the term civil engineering[4] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and tho se involved in the older  discipline of military engineering.  Ancient era

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[4] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC.[7] He may also have been responsible for  the first known use of columns in architecture[citation needed ]. Ancient Greece developed machines in both the civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer ,[8][9] and the mechanical inventions of  Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or  epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution, and are still widely used today in d iverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[10] Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,[11] the trireme, the  ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the Trebuchet was developed. Renaissance era

The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who was the originator of the term "electricity".[12] The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery.[13] The development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts  became incorporated into engineering. 10

Modern era

The International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.

Electrical engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave r ise to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further  accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty.[4] The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its  birthplace Britain and abroad.[4] Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution.[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and pro cesses.[4] Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design.[14] Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as  being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[15] The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering ) awarded in the United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[16] Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1920s saw extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of World War I military aircraft.

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Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer  engineer Alan Emtage. Main branches of engineering Main article: List of engineering branches

Engineering, much like other science, is a broad discipline which is often broken d own into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will usually b e trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:[17][18] y

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Chemical engineering  The exploitation of chemical principles in order to carr y out large scale chemical process, as well as designing new specialty materials and fuels. Civil engineering  The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges and buildings. Electrical engineering  a very broad area that may encompass the design and study of various electrical & electronic s ystems, such as electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications and electronics. Mechanical engineering  The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation equipment.

Beyond these four, sources vary on other main branches. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Modern fields sometimes included as major branches include aerospace, architectural, biomedical,[19] industrial and nuclear engineering.[citation needed ]  New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches. A new or  emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of  existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or   prominent enough to warrant classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field. For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas o f the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.

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Methodology

Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system is subject to mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as the steam cycle all need to be carefull y designed and optimised.

Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects, as a result, they keep on learning new material throughout their career. If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design cho ices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further  requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or t echnical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be  produced and operated. Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test  potential solutions. 13

Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate t he different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller , after gathering statistics on a large number of  patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem. Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications  prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected. Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be. The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer  in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or  causes of the failure. Computer use

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry. Solutions to the flow require modelling of the combined effects of the fluid flow and heat equations.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (Computer-aided technologies) specifically for  engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods. One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method 14

analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of Product Data Management software.[20] There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for production engineering; EDA for  printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering. In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development o f goods has collectively come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).[21] Social context  This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verif ying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (July 2010)

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering. By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or  construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of Sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies. Engineering is a key driver of human development.[22] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many o f the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[23] 15

All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A nu mber of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind: y y y y

Engineers Without Borders Engineers Against Poverty Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief  Engineers for a Sustainable World

Relationships with other disciplines Science Scientists st udy the world as it is; engineer s cr eate the world that has never been.

Theodore von Kármán

Bioreactors for producing proteins, NRC Biotechnology Research Institute, Montréal, Canada

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and  phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for   practical action based on those interpretations[citation needed ]. Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new  phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists. In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It ,[24] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

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Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation. As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics: "Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics,  physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."[25] Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, re liability and constructibility or ease of fabrication, as well as legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution. Medicine and biology

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Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as t he epitome of the artist/engineer.[26] He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiognomy

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different p urposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of  technology. Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function o f the human body through art ificial devices such as, for  example, brain implants and pacemakers.[27][28] The fields of Bionics and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[29][30] Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before  phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods.[31] The heart for example functions much like a pump,[32] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[33] the brain produces electrical signals etc.[34] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of  biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.  Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling a nd computational analysis, to the description of biological systems. [31]  Art 

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.

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There are connections between engineering and art;[35] they are direct in some fields, for  example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a University's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others.[35][36][37][38] The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of  NASA's aerospace design.[39] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by so me to have been deliberately artistic.[40] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the  National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[36][41] Among famous historical figures Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[26][42] Other

fields

In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of  Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term.

Engineer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Engineer (disambiguation). Engineer

C onfer ence

o f E ngineer s at the Menai St raits Pr eparat ory t o

Floating one o f the Tubes o f the Br it anni a Br id    ge, by John

Seymour Lucas, 1868 Occupation

Names Type Activity sectors

Engineer Profession Applied sciences Description

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Competencies

Education

Mathematics, scientific knowledge, management skills

required Engineering education

Fields of 

Research and development, industry,

employment

business

Related jobs

Scientist, architect, project manager

An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific knowledge, mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by  practicality, safety and cost. [1][2] The word engineer is derived from the Latin root ingenium, meaning "cleverness".[3] Engineers are grounded in applied sciences, and their work in research and development is distinct from the basic research focus of scientists.[2] The work of engineers forms the link   between scientific discoveries and the applications that meet the needs of society.[1]

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Contents [hide] y

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1 Roles and expertise 1.1 Design o 1.2 Analysis o 1.3 Specialization o 2 Ethics 3 Education 4 Regulation 5 Controversy 5.1 Canada o 5.2 United Kingdom o 5.3 Europe and Latin America o 5.4 United States o 5.5 International professional bodies o 6 Perception 7 References 8 See also

Roles and expertise Design

Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information.[4] Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.  Analysis

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Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954

Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in facto ries and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or  entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the app lication of scientific analytic principles and  processes to reveal the properties and state o f the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of  operation or failure, analysing or estimating each co mponent of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and re-combining the components. They may analyse risk .[5][6][7][8] Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes. Specialization

Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines.[1] Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each o f the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and t ransportation engineering, and materials engineering includes cera mic, metallurgical, and polymer  engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.[1] Ethics Main article: Engineering ethics

The C hall enger disaster is held as a case study of engineering ethics.

Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, 22

engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of  business ethics.[9][10][11] Some graduates of engineering pro grams in North America may be recognized by theIron Ring or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer , where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations for the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer . Education Main article: Engineering education

École centrale Paris, one of the oldest and most prestigious engineering schools in France

Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering. A design course, sometimes accompanied by a computer or  laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions and some research and development programs, but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many experienced engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology and broaden their education. Numerous high-level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. Accreditation is the process by which engineering program are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States,  post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for  Engineering and Technology. In much of Europe and the Commonwealth professional 23

accreditation is provided by Engineering Institutions, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers or  the Institution of Mechanical Engineers from the United Kingdom. Regulation Main article: Professional Engineer

In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed engineer. Most commonly titled as Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer, the status of professional licensing is often indicated with the use of  post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng is common in North America, Eur Ing in Europe, while CEng and IEng is used in the United Kingdom and CEng in much of the Commonwealth. In the United States, licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, preexamination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (Professional Engineering Exam),[12] and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses Professional Engineers. Currently most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional  judgement regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the  professional societies. Despite this, however, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In Canada, the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For  instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years o f   post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) [13] in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of  P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering. In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and t he use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited to people who both hold an engineering degree and have passed a professional qualification examination ( Esame di Stato). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros. In the Czech Republic, the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of  "Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after complet ion of the four-year course of  engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI). Controversy Controversies over the term "engineer" stem from the traditional uses in design and analysis, as compared to newer uses of the term. Several nations are currently dealing with the definition of  the term in both the legal arena and between professional bodies. 24

Canada

In Canada, it is considered illegal to practice engineering, or use the title "Engineer", without a  professional engineer's license P.Eng. The use of the term "engineer" was an issue between  professional bodies, the I.T. industry, and thesecurity industry, where companies or associations may issue certifications or titles with the word "engineer" as part o f that title (such as security engineer or Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer ). Microsoft have since changed the title to "Microsoft Certified Professional". Several licensing bodies for professional engineering contend that only licensed professional engineers are legally a llowed to use the title "Engineer". The I.T. industry, on the other hand, counters that: 1. These title holders never presented themselves as "Professional Engineers"; 2. Provincial laws, other than in Quebec and Ontario, regulate only the use of term "Professional Engineer", and not any title with the word "Engineer" in it; in Quebec and Ontario, the term "Engineer" is protected by both the E ngineer s Act [14] and by section 32 of the Professional Code[15]); and, 3. The I.T. industr y has used the term "engineer" since t he dawn of the computing industry in the [16] 60s.

Court rulings regarding the usage of the term "engineer" have been mixed. For example, after  complaints from the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers, a court in Quebec fined Microsoft Canada $1,000 for misusing the "engineer" title by referring to MCSE graduates as "engineers".[17] Conversely, an Albertacourt dismissed the lawsuit filed by The Association of  Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta (APEGGA) against Raymond Merhej for using the title "System Engineer", claiming that "The Respondent's situation is such that it cannot be contended that the public is likely to be deceived, confused or jeopardized by his use of the term«"[18] APEGGA also lost the appeal to this decision.[19] The Canadian Information Processing Society[20]and in particular CIPS Ontario[21] have attempted to strike a balance between the professional engineering licensing bodies and the I T industry over the use of the t erm "engineer" in the software industry, but so far no major  agreements or decisions have been announced. Additional confusion has taken place over similarly named occupations. One such example would be power engineers or stationary engineers. Graduates of a two-year (in Nova S cotia) college level Power Engineering Technology program may use the title "Power Engineer" or  "Stationary Engineer". This is conflicting with the title often used in the electrical industry for   professional engineers designing related equipment. The incorporation of the word "engineer" in "Power Engineer" or "Stationary Engineer" can itself cause confusion. United

Kingdom

In general, there is no restriction on the right to practice as an engineer in the UK or to call oneself an engineer or professional engineer. There are a few fields of practice, generally safety related, which are reserved by statute to licensed persons.[22] In the UK, the term "engineer" is often applied to non-degreed vocations such as technologists, technicians, draftsmen, machinists, 25

mechanics, plumbers, electricians, repair people, and semi-skilled occupat ions. Many of these occupations adopt the term "engineer", "professional engineer", "registered engineer", "gas engineer", "heating engineer", "drainage engineer", "automobile engineer", "aircraft engineer" and many hundreds of derivatives. British Gas describe their installation and maintenance mechanics as registered professional engineers. The U.K. has other "professional" engineering titles registered via the Engineering Council UK  (ECUK): Incorporated Engineer (IEng) and Chartered Engineer (CEng).[23] Incorporated Engineer is a first-cycle qualification for Bachelor of Engineering or Bachelor of  Science degree holders(Sydney Accord, equivalent to Technologist). Chartered Engineer is a second-cycle qualification usually reserved for holders o f integrated Master of  Engineeringdegrees or Bachelor of Engineering/Bachelor of Science degrees. Both IEng and CEng require substantial professional experience (4±8 years post graduate), a professional review and interview. It is illegal in the U.K. to hold that one is a Chartered or Incorporated Engineer unless so registered with Engineering Council. The title of "Eng ineer" by itself is not regulated in the U.K. [24]

While Engineering Council is the primary body registering Engineers in U.K., there are other   professional societies that register engineers as well. Under its Royal Charter, Engineering Council grants licences to engineering institutions allowing them to assess candidates for  inclusion on its Register of Professional Engineers and Technicians, and t o accredit academic  programmes and professional development schemes. There are o ver 30 institutions licensed to register professional engineers with Engineering Council. Europe and Latin America y

y

y

Engineers in Europe table showing all countries in which this profession is regulated, with the name of the profession as used in the country. In Germany and some other European and Latin American countries, the term Diploma Engineer implies that the person has completed typically one more year of academic work beyond the basic engineering bachelor's degree. The Diploma Engineer is therefore a university degree, and not a professional registration or license. However, in Germany and most other countries where the Diploma Engineer degree exist, there is no professional registration or licence in engineering (with a very limited number of exceptions, such as civil engineering in Germany). This is the reason why graduates of these degrees are generally allowed to use the legally-protected title of "Engineer" within these countries. In France, engineer title can be used prett y liberally, and is often attributed based on professional position rather than initial qualification, however the title Ingénieur d iplomé (Diploma Engineer) is reserved to people having followed one of the trainings listed by   mmissi on d es tit r es d' ingénieur] (Commission for Engineer Titles). It corresponds to a highly[[ Co selective Master degree level, as three selections occurs: in high school, after two years of  classes pr eparat oi re   s, and for the diploma delivering. This highly-selective process and the 26

French undervaluing of Ph.D.s (with exception to those in the industries of medicine and veterinary science) makes the Ingénieur title very prestigious. y

y

y

In Chile, the Ingeniero (engineer) title is regulated by law, which distinguishes at least three different kinds of professional engineering titles. First, the Ingeniería d e Ej ecución, which only requires a degree in applied science and a technical degree, from a university or a technical institute (usually four years of formation); Ingeniería, which requires a major degree in basic sciences plus a technical degree, both from a university (usually five years of formation); and Ingeniería C ivi l , which requires an academic major degree in basic sciences, a minor degree i n applied sciences and a technical degree, all from a university (usually six or six and a half years). In all cases, the term refers to a professional degree conceded by an educational institution, yet it can only be given by certain institutions when all legal requirements are met. In Brazil, the title of E ngenhei ro (engineer) and in Argentina[25] the title of Ingeniero can only be legally used by someone with a five or six-year engineering degree. In Argentina most universities have a five or six-year engineering degree (Around 3500 4000 hours of classes or aprox 240-250 credits, one credit = 16 contact hours). Both countries conced the degree through universities (most common) and certain institutions (most rarely). In Puerto Rico, use of the title Ingeniero (engineer) is restricted to those holding an engineer's license registered by the College of Engineers and Land Surveyors of Puerto Rico. These people have the right to add the letters "Ing." before their names on resumes, business cards, and other communication.

United States

In the United States, use of the title Professional Engineer is restricted to those holding a Professional Engineer's license. These people have the right to add the letters "P.E." after their  names on resumes, business cards, and other communication. However, each state has its own licensing procedure, and the license is valid only in the state that granted it. Other uses of the term "engineer" are legally controlled and protected to varying degrees, dependent on the state and the enforcement of its engineering certification board. The term is frequently applied to fields where practitioners may have no engineering background, or the work has no basis in the physical engineering disciplines; for example sanitation engineer . However, in many jurisdictions, the usage of this term is limited to internal use by a company, rather than in a professional or marketing aspect, if said company is not licensed to perform engineering work. This is because what is legally recognized as engineering work (and thus requiring licensure to be practiced) is held to strict criminal liability.[26] With regard to the term "software engineer ", many states, such as Texas and Florida, have license requirements for such a title that are in line with the requirements for more traditional engineering fields. Jurisdictions such as these tend to refer to the position of network engineer as a technician.[27] See also: Debates within software engineering

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International professional bodies

The AACE, a professional body for Cost Engineers, explains why a technical engineering   background is not required for their profession with the following statement:[28]



The skills and knowledge required to deal with costs (e.g., cost estimating, planning and scheduling, etc.) are quite different from those required to deal with the physical design dimension. From that difference, the field of cost engineering was born. Cost engineering practitioners work alongside of and are peers with engineers, software analysts, play producers, architects, and other creative career fields to handle the cost dimension, but they do not necessarily have the same background. Whether they have technical, operations, finance and accounting, or other backgrounds, cost engineering practitioners need to share a common understanding, based on scientific principles and tec hniques, with the engineering or other creative career functions.



Perception

Statue of engineer Robert Fulton at the United States Capitol

The perception of engineering varies acro ss countries and continents. In continental western Europe, eastern Europe, Asian, Middle East, Latin American and Canada engineering and engineers are held in very high esteem. The perception and definition of engineering in some English speaking countries is confused. The contemporary British public perceive engineers as skilled or semi skilled maintenance workers but this is a recent development. British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief  amongst whom were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries but now 28

British people often incorrectly use the term 'Engineer' to describe Plumbers and Mechanics. British Gas refer to their gas repair mechanics as reg istered "professional engineers". In Canada, a 2002 study by the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers revealed that engineers are the third most respected professionals behind doctors and pharmacists.[29] In the Indian subcontinent, Russia and China, engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting thousands of applicants to show their ability in high ly competitive entrance examinations. In Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities require extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (Arabic:   al-Thnawiyyah al-`mmah)²on the order of 97 or 98%²and are thus considered (with colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" (      kullyt alqimmah). The definition of what engineering is varies across countries. In the UK "engineering" is defined as an industry sector consisting of employers and emp loyees loosely termed as "engineers" who range from semi skilled trades to chartered engineers. In the US and Canada, engineering is defined as a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. In some English speaking countries engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in popular culture and has also been thought to be the domain of nerds.[30] For  example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. In science fiction, engineers are often  portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. Several Star Trek characters are engineers. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of t he profession is that average people, in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the chartered accountant at tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer. In companies and other organizations in some English-speaking countries (UK) there is a tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers and managers. In his book The Mythical Man Month,[31] Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior peo ple as "too valuable" for  technical tasks, and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some labo ratories, such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a "member of the technical staff." IBM maintain a d ual ladder of advancement; the corresponding managerial and technical rungs are equ ivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping his managers and his technical  people as interchangeable as their t alents allow.

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