The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe - Gimbutas

The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe 6500-3500 BC

Marija Gimbutas

The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe 6500

-

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bc

Myths and Cult Images

N ew and updated edition with 2 5 2 illustrations 1 7 1 text fig u re s and 8 maps

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS B c rk c lc y , Los A n g clcs

To the inspiration o f Franklin D. Murphy Chancellor o f U C L A 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 8

Contents Preface to new edition

9

Introduction

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European prehistorians w ho w ere encouraged b y the recent disc o very in an E arly V inča context o f the Tartaria tablets, w hich they consider to be an im p o rt fro m M esopotam ia at about 3000 BC. This c h ro n o lo g y w as com pletely discredited by radiocarbon analysis, w h ich b y 1970 had supplied 300 dates for O ld European N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic samples, placing the beginnings o f the N eo lith ic in the seventh m illennium BC. T his called fo r not o n ly a readjustm ent in the absolute dating o f N eo lithic-C h alcolith ic cuiture but also an im portant rearrangem ent o f the relative chronologies o f E u rope and the N ea r East. H o w e v e r, b y the early 1960’s it becam e evident that radiocarbon dates w ere inaccurate. T h e accuracy o f the process was dependent upon the valid ity o f the assumption (am ong others) that the radio­ carbon content o f atm ospheric carbon-dioxide had rem ained constant during geo lo gically recent time. Discrepancies between radiocarbon and calendrical chron ologies w ere soon rem arked, fo llo w in g the radiocarbon analysis o f w o o d samples o f kn ow n age fro m historic E gyp tian and N ear Eastern sources; and it has since been dem onstrated through the m arriage o f dendrochronological research and radiocarbon analysis that there have been variations in the level o f atm ospheric radiocarbon through tim e, and that these are o f tw o sorts: localized fluctuations, and a lon g-term trend in w hich the divergen ce betw een the radiocarbon and true ages increases w ith increasing sam ple age du ring the m illennia b c . D e n d ro ch ro n o lo g y is the study o f the chronological sequence o f the annual g ro w th rings in trees. W ithin the confines o f a particular environm en t the ring patterns o f different tree specimens can be m atched and related one to another, a technique made possible b y the fact that annual rings vary in thickness due to varyin g local environm ental conditions from year to year. So a m aster-ch ron ology can be com piled incorporating both livin g trees o f great age and dead, prcscrvccl trunks w hich can be fitted into the ring-pattern sequence. The bristle-cone pine o f the W hite M ountains o f C a lifo rnia has p rovidcd an unbroken sequencc extending back into the sixth m illennium b c . R a d io ca rb o n analysis o f ring samples o f k n ow n age idcntified the inaccuracy o f the radiocarbon dates; and, w id i the accum ulation o f sufficient analyses, was able to supply curves and tables o f conversion which perm it corrcction o f radiocarbon dates to approxim ate true age. Dates falling between the third and fifth m illennia b c in ‘radiocarbon years’ require a corrective addition, incrcasingly large w ith increasing age, o f a few hundred to as m uch as a thousand years to align them with approxim ate true age. D irect com parison o f the radiocarbon content o f historically dated samples from ancient E gyp tian contexts w ith that o f bristle-cone pine samples o f equivalent true age has indcpcndently confirm ed the valid ity o f

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Cultural Background

T h e d e s i g n a t i o n ‘ C i v i l i z a t i o n o f O ld E u r o p e ’ a n d its SIGNiFICANCE

M a p I : O ld Bi trope: the area oj autochthonous European civiliza tion , c. 7 0 0 0 -15 0 0 b c in re lation to the rest oj Europe

Villages depending upon dom csticatcd plants and animals had appeared in southeastem Europe as carly as the seventh m illcnnium BC, and the spiritual forces accom panying this ehange in the economic and social organization are manifested in the em ergent artistic tradition o f the N eolithic. The developm ent o f a food-producing econom y and subsequent cultural innovations can no longer be sim ply cxplained as an introduetion o f vagu ely designated colonists from A natolia or the east M editerranean. D uring the seventh, sixth and fifth millennia b c the farmers o f southeastem Europe evolved a unique cultural pattern, contem porary with sim ilar developm ents in Anatolia, M esopotam ia, Syro-Palestine and E gyp t. It reached a clim ax in the fifth m illcnnium b c . A new designation, Civilization o j Old Europe, is introduced herc in recognition o f the collective identity and achievem ent o f the diffcrent cultural groups o f N eolithic-C h alcolith ic southeastem Europe. The area it occupied extends from the Acgcan and A driatic, ineluding the islands, as far north as C zechoslovakia, southem Poland and the vvestem Ukraine. Between c. 7000 and c, 3500 ne, the inhabitants o f this region developed a much m ore com plex social organization than their vvestem and northem neighbours, form ing scttlements which often amounted to small tovvnships, inevitably in vo lvin g eraft specialization and the creation o f religious and governm ental institutions. T h ey independently diseovered the possibility o f utilizing copper and gold for ornaments and cools, and even appear to have evolved a rudim entary script. If one defines civilization as the ability o f a given people to adjust to its environment and to develop adequate arts, technology, script, and social relationships it is evident that Old Europe achicved a m arked degrce o f success. 17

I

T he most eloquent vestiges o f this European N eolithic cuiture are the sculptures, w hich bear witness to facets o f life otherw ise inaccessible to the archaeologist: fashions in dress, religious cerem onialism and m yth ical im ages. T h e inhabitants o f southeastem Europe 7 0 0 0 years ago were not the p rim itive villagers o f the incipient N eolithic. D uring tw o m illennia o f agricultural stability their material w elfare had been persistently im proved by the increasingly efficient exploitation o f the fertile river valleys. W h e a t , barley, vetch, peas and other legum es w ere cultivated, and ali the dom esticated animals present in the B alkans today, except for the horse, w cre bred. Pottery tech nology and bone- a n d sto n e-w o rkin g techniques had advanced, and copper m e t a l l u r g v was i n t r o d u c e d into east Central Europe by 5 5 0 0 b c . Tr'ade and C o m m u n icatio n s, w hich had expanded th ro u g h the m illennia, must have provid ed a trem endous cross-fertilizing im petus to cultural g ro w th . T h e archaeologist can infer the existence o f far-ran g in g trade fro m the w id e dispersion o f obsidian, alabaster, m arb lea n d S p o n d y lu ssh c ll. T h eseasan d inland w aterw aysd oub tlcss served as p rim ary routes o f com m unication, and obsidian was being transported by sea as early as the seventh m illennium b c . T h e use o f sailing-boats is attested from the sixth m illennium onw ards b y their incised depiction on ceramics. T h e continued increase in prosperity and in the com p lexity o f social organization w o uld surely have produced in southeastern Europe ah urban civilization b ro ad ly analogous to those o f the N ea r East and C rctc o f the third and sccond m illennia b c . T h e increasing cultural m om entum o f ’fifth m illennium European societics was, hov/ever, cut short by the aggressive infiltration and settlem ent o f sem i-nom ad ic pastoralists, ancestors o f the IndoEuropeans, w h o d i s t u r b e d m ost o f C e n tra l and e a s te r n Europe during the fourth m illennium b c . T h e colourful pottery and sculptural art o f O ld E u ro p e ’s incipient civilization qu ickly vanished; only around the A egean and on the islands did its traditions su rvivc to the end o f the third m illennium b c , and on Crete to the m id-second m illen­ nium b C. T h e E arly H elladic cuiture o f Greece and the C yclad es and the M inoan civilization on C rete, w ith its wealth o f palače art, epitom ize the N eo lith ic and C halcolithic cuiture o f O ld Europe.

R e g i o n a l a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s o f O i .d E u r o p e

T h e d evclopm cn t o f the N eo lith ic was characterizcd by an increase in sedentary habits and rcliance upon dom esticated plants and anim als, larger d em ograph ic units, a continued grow th in artistic and technological sophistication, and a m arked regional diversity o f m aterial cuiture.

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B y 6000 BC, and increasingly through the ensuing m illennium , O ld European cuiture can be divided into five m ajor regional variants vvhich display w ell-d eveloped traditions in ceram ic art, arehiteeture and cult organization. T h e five variant traditions o f O ld European civilization are: 1) T h e A egean and central Balkan, 2) T h e A driatic, 3) T h e m iddle D anube, 4) The eastern B alk an , and 5) T h e M o ld avian -w est U kranian.

I THE AEGEAN AND CENTRAL BALKAN AREA

Neolithic, C. 7000-5500 BC. T h e beginnings o f N eo lith ic art in the A egean and central Balkan area can be dated to c. 7000-6500 BC, along w ith the em ergence o f a well-established village society. This earliest N eolithic is k n o w n b y a different nam e in each o f the m odern European countries o v er which it was distributed, the term inological distinetions refleeting m od em political boundaries rather than significant cultural variations. It is k n o w n as Proto-Sesklo in G reece, w here the Sesklo settlem ent near V o los in T hessaly was the source o f N eolithic te rm in o lo g y ; Starčevo in Y u g o sla v ia after the eponym ous site east o f B elgrad e; Koros in southeastern H u n gary and C ri§ - the R om anian nam e fo r the same R iv e r K o ro s - in w estern R om ania. This com p lex occupied the drainage area o f the V ard ar and M orava in M acedonia and Southern and central Y u go slav ia and the southeastern part o f the m iddle Danube basin, extending as far as M old avia in eastern R om ania. T o sim plify term in o logy, this cultural bloc w ill be referred to as ‘the A egean and central B alk an N eolithic’ . T his N eo lith ic cuiture left rem arkably h om ogeneous artifacts: bone, Stone and ceram ic artifacts, ineluding distinetive painted bow ls and ring-based jars, ali closely resem bling each other. W heat, barley, lentils, vetch and peas w ere cultivated and am ong the dom esticated animals, sheep and goat w ere the m ost num erous, a characteristic feature o f the w arm er and drier conditions o f the A egean and east M editerranean. A lth o u gh the basic econom ic pattern was faithfully transferred from the south to the m iddle D anubian basin, N eolithic farm ers in northern Y u g o sla v ia , H u n gary and R o m a n ia had to adapt to a som ew hat dam per, m ore h eavily forested en viron m en t: consequently cattle and p ig w ere increasingly exploited b y m ore northerly settlers, and fishing and hunting usually playeđ a m uch m ore im portant role. T h e cli.mate was slightly vvarm er and w etter than it is today. ‘T e lls’, created by the accum ulation o f cultural debris, attest the perm anence o f these farm ing com m unities on extensive Coastal and inland plains in the A egean area and B ulgaria south o f the Balkan M ountains. Further north, they occur less conspicuously, especially in the upper river valleys o f central Y ugoslavia,

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Schematism o rth and

In the earliest level o f the Vinča m ound, representing the N eo lith ic Starčevo com plex, a ceram ic figurine usually described as a ‘seated goddess w ith large buttocks and cylindrical neck’ was found. For a fem ale representation it has an extrem ely reduced form , w ith no distinetion between head and torso, and on ly a cylindrical neck . adjoining the buttocks. Its general shape suggests a bird but there is no indication o f w ings, beak or bird-legs. Even as a hybrid, perhaps h alf-w om an and half-bird, it needlessly lacks naturalistic detail. This means that w e are confronted w ith the problem o fd ete rm in ing the artist’s ultim atc intention. In the first place w e m ust decide w hat the sculpture presents, its subject m atter; beyond this, w e must also try to understand its sym bolic content, for on ly in this w a y can w e hope to com prehend the psycho-social dynam ic that inspired its produetion. Stratigraphical evidence shows that this figurine dates from ro u gh ly 6000 b c , and there are m any like it in sites o f the same period. Som e figurines are even m ore reduced, rendering the m erest outline o f hum an or bird form . E xcavation o f N eolithic sites has yielded num erous ‘ b u m p y’ figurines, often little m ore than tw o ccntim etrcs long, w hich archaeologists classify only as indeterm inate or am biguous objeets. Exam in ed as isolated, individual pieces they rem ain enigm atic, their role unknovvn; but once w e identify these m iniatures as belon ging to a single hom ogencous grotip o f figures, thev can be recognized as vastly reduced versions o f the larger ‘steatop y g o u s’ figurine-type w hich w ill be fully described in later ehapters. W ith these and m any larger figures lacking in detail, it is evident that the sculptor was not striving for aesthetic effects; he w as producing sculptural ‘shorthand’ , an abstract sym bolic conceptual art, im ages that were em blem atic o ft h e divine regardless o f the cxtent o f their sehematization. T h e true m eaning o f the figures can best be 1 S c h c m a t i i ' c d l e m a l e t i j j u r c . I l.iir i n d i c a t e d b y i n c i s i o n . V i n c a m o u m l . H a r l v s ixth m ille n n iu m

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sought in the m ore detailed, less abstracted figurines w h ich reveal the naturalistic detail that betrays subject m atter and so brings us closer to understanding the content o f the w o rk . Sculptural ‘shorthand’, unthinking and repetitive, illustrates the conservative nature o f the tradition w ith in w h ich the sculptor w o rk e d ; each culture translates its basic explanatory assum ptions into equivalent fo rm structures and creativity is on ly expressed in subtle variations fro m the socially prescribed norm s. For the sociocultural historian it is m ore im portant to exam ine the conventional than the fe w and slight deviations from it, since his w o rk is to com prehend the inherited and collective - rather than the individual - psyche.

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B o th figurine subject m atter and the form al repetition o f the collectiv e ly approved style g iv e an insight into the content and purpose o f figu rin e art. A rt reveals m an ’s m ental response to his environm ent, fo r w ith it he attem pts to interpret and subdue reality, to rationalize nature and give visual expression to his m yth olo gizin g explan ato ry concepts. T h e chaotic form s o f nature, including the hum an fo rm , are disciplined. W h ile the C y cla d ic figurines o f the third m illenniiim BC are the m ost e xtrem ely geom etricized, rigid constraint o f this kind, though less m arked, characterizes m ost o f the groups o f O ld European N eolithic and C halcolithic figures. T h e artist’s reality is not a physical reality, though he endow s the concept w ith a physical form , w h ich is tw o-dim ensional, constrained and repetitive. Su pernatural pow ers w ere conceived as an explanatory device to induce an ordered experience o f natu re’s irregularities. These p ow ers w ere given fo rm as masks, h yb rid figures and animals, prod u cing a sym b olic, conceptual art not given to physical naturalism . T h e p rim ary purpose w as to transform and spiritualize the b o d y and to surpass the elem entary and corporeal. It follo w s, then, that form al reduction should not be ascribed to the technical inability o f the N eo lith ic artist to m odel in the round but to requircm ents dictated b y deeply im planted concepts and beliefs. N evertheless, since w e are dealing w ith an art that has often been term ed ‘p rim itive’ in a partially pejorative scnse, it is necessary to digress briefly in defence o f the N eolithic sculptor’s ability and to stress that he w as not lim ited to unnaturalistic form s b y the inadequacy o f his m anual skills, the nature o f his raw m aterials o r the lack o f neccssary tcchniqucs. In short, old European figurine art was the ou teom e o f skilled craftsm anship, con form in g to m atured traditions. T h e . beginnings o f p ottery m anufacture are blurred in the

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archaeological record, fo r the earliest clay vessels and artifacts w ere unbaked and have not survived. T h e earliest fired ceram ics, includ­ ing fine burnished and painted w ares from the late seventh m illennium B C, are articulately m odelled and reveal a com plete m astery o f ceramic tech nology. Stone and bone was fm ely carved and g ro u n d : Proto-Sesklo and Starčevo villagers in the A egean area and centra! Balkans fashioned beautiful spoons o f bone and painstakingly ground miniature stone ornam ents such as perforated pendants and buttons. T he serpentine toad from the site o f N ea N ikom edeia in M acedonia is an outstanding w o rk o f art o f the seventh m illennium b c . Stone and bone sculptures are fe w com pared to those o f clay, but they sh ow a like degree o fstylization , though one m igh t expect them to be, i f anyth in g, m ore schem atic still. T w o sculptures have been seleeted to dem onstrate this: a typical Early Vinča clay figu rin e w ith a triangular masked head, bum p fo r a nose, slanting incised eyes, stum p-arm s, projeeting buttocksandnaturalistically m odelledbreasts and n avel; and the m arble figurine from Gradac, also o f the E a rly Vinča period. T h e different raw materials do dictate a differing expression but the figures are alike in style and detail. B o th com prise masked heads, arm stum ps and inarticuiate Iegs. O th er m arble sculptures are still m ore reduced, lacking ali facial features. D urin g the fifth m illennium , carvin g in m arble became m ore self-conscious and em ancipated itself fro m the influence o f clay-m od ellin g. B on e figures w ere entirely schematic. A fifth-m illennium exam ple o f a stylized hum an figu re carved out o f bone from a g ra v e in the cem etery o f C ernica near Bucharest is a case in point. Its head is broken. T h e tw o rounded protuberances apparently p ortray folded arms. T h e abdom inal and pubic area is emphasized. A lth o u gh drastically reduced, this little sculpture is probably a p ortrayal o f a Great Goddess in a rigid position, standing in the nude w ith folded arms, a type encountered in graves throughout the O ld European period and in the C yclad es o f the third m illennium b c . A lm o st ali o f the knovvn figurines o f copper and gold are schem atic, tw o dim ensional silhouettes o f the human body, cut from a flat piece o f material. T h ro u gh o u t the seventh and sixth millennia b c figurine art was clearly dom inated b y abstract form s such as cylindrical p illar-like neeks and a hybrid torso o f fem ale buttocks and a b ird ’s b o d y, but at the same time other quite different form s were produced, som e o f them strikingly naturalistic. A n exceptional fem ale figurine assigned to the Sesklo period in Thessaly sits in a relaxcd position w ith her legs to one side, her hands resting on her thighs. In profile the nose is exaggerated and beaked but the head and body are naturalistically proportioned, dispensing with the pillar-like neck o f earlier sculptures.

39

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T h e gradual trend tow ard m ore naturalistic sculpture can be traced in the V inča statuary. The Vinča m ound and other Vinča settlements p rovid e a large group o f figurines com bining sehematization o f the upper part o f the b o d y w ith alm ost naturalistic m odelling b elow . A sculpture fro m Selevac in centra! Y u go slav ia provides a classic exam ple in this series: the figure has exquisitely m odelled abdom en and hips, the legs m erging to provid e a stable base. T h e head is schem atized, pentagonal, w ith sem i-globular plastic eyes; the arms are represented b y perforated stumps. O ne o f the most exquisite sculptures fro m the Vinča site is a perfectly proportioned squatting w o m an , u nfortunately headless. A nother rem arkable Vinča sculp­ ture, also headless, from the site o f Fafos, depiets a man w ith knees d raw n tigh tly to his chest, his hands placed on them and his back bent slightly forvvard. His life-like posture, w ith the excep tionally accurate m odelling o f the arms and the hands tightly grasping the knees, is unique in European art o f c. 5000 b c . A n exquisite rendering o f the rounded parts o f a fem ale body, especially abdom en and buttocks, occurs occasionally in ali parts o f O ld Europe. A n extraordinary series o f m ale sculptures, each ind ivid u ally seated 011 a stool, is distinguished for perfeetion in portrayal o f the m ale body, particularly the slightly curving back. T h e excavation o f the B u tm ir site yielded several finely executed heads, rem arkable for their realism ; the conventional m asked features are here replaced b y a w ell-m odelled forehead, eye-b ro w s, nose, lips, ehin and ears. U nm asked hum an heads m odelled in the round occasionally occur in other cultural gro u p s; even in the Cucuteni area, in w hich figurine art reached an extrem e o f schem atic sym bolism , a fe w naturalistically rendered hum an heads w ere discovered, w ith eyes, nostrils and m outh show n b y impressed holes. Figurines w ith unm asked heads and hum an facial features com prise the rarest category o f N eolithic and Chalcolithic sculptures. T h e finest sculpture was certainly the produet o f exceptionally gifted m em bers o f society, though the varyin g intensity o f individual m otivation w ould also bc refleeted in the quality o f the artifact. N evertheless the eruder figurines which w ere the norm w ere no less rich in sym b olic content.

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CO STU M E A N D

M ost captivating are the hip-belts, which have a large button resting on either hip and a third in fro n t o f the pubis. T h e belts w ere p rob ab ly fashioned in leather, although som e w ere apparently m ade o f large beads or clay dises. T h e large buttons m ay have been m anufactured o f bone, w o o d , clay or stone. M ushroom -shaped buttons o f w hite, green o r y e llo w m arble, alabaster and calcite, diseovered in Vinča settlements, m ay have served as studs for belts, jackets or other garm ents o f h eavy fabric. Figurines vvearing large buttons on the hips have been diseovered in the deepest layer o f the Vinča m ound, belon gin g to the N eo lith ic Starčevo period, and they continued to be represented in sculpture until the final phase o f occupation at the V inča site. H ip-belts are also portrayed on East Balkan figurines. Fem ale figurines vvearing hip-belts appear to be otherw ise naked, except fo r the usual facial masks.

O RNAM ENTS

i Figurine irearing a h ipV/f made o f large and m a li ’ises. V in i a mound. c. }o o o

D ecorative m otifs frequently occur on figurines to indicate costum e, refleeting the stylistic conventions and characteristics o f dress w ithin the sculptor’s society. Late V inča figurines teli us m ost about costum e design since they are less abstract than earlier N eolithic figurines and less conventionalized than those o f the East Balkan and Cucuteni civilizations. T h e ir careful detail, reinforced b y less substantial evidence from East Balkan (Gumelni^a) sculpture, enables us to reconstruct O ld European dress style c. 4000 b c . T h e usual decorative technique was deep incision, often enerusted w ith a w h ite paste m ade o f erushed shells, or filled w ith red ochre, or black, w hite or red paint. Alternating dark and light bands, set either d iagonally or vertically, w ere som etim es produced b y this m ethod, p robably to depict a garm ent m ade o f several broad, different coloured panels o f material sewn together. Plastic relief decoration was also em p loyed . A pplied ‘buttons’ arranged in one, tw o or three row s indicatc belts, m edallions and necklaces. B oth m en and w o m cn w o re a circular pendant hanging in the m iddle o f the chest or at the nape o f the neck. It m ay have been an em blem sign ifyin g particular status, or m ore spccifically sym bolic o f go d ­ desses or gods. T h e first indications o f necklaces on fem ale figurines are to be traced on the prim itive cylindrical Starčevo figurines. A ctu al shell, clay, stonc and bone hcads have been frequently fou n d : in the N eolithic settlem ent o f Vrsnik, near Štip, Y u go slavia, hundreds o f shell beads w ere deposited in a small globular black polished vasc. N u m erou s beads o f shell, alabaster, m arble, copper and clay w ere recovered from the sites o f C h alcolithic V inča, B u tm ir, L en gyel, East B alkan, C ucuteni and other cultural groups. Several strings o f beads frcquently appear on Cucuteni figurines.

44

D

r esses

T h e incised decoration o f som e figurines indicates long, elegant go w n s. T h e y m ust have been w ell-fitted to the fem ale b o d y, narrovvin g at the waist and at the bottom . Breasts, buttocks and legs are w elldefined in m ost sculptures, as i f the dress w ere o f light fabric. C o m m onest are tw o-piece dresses, consisting o f skirt and blouse. The m ajority o f the ‘ clothed’ figurines have incised m arkings suggesting a blouse o f six o r m ore equal panels o f m aterial sew n together. It has a sim ple ‘V ’ neck at front and back and m ay be sleeveless, shortsleeved or lon g-sleeved. T h e blouse or bolero norm ally extends ju st b e lo w the vvaist, but seated figurines w ear blouses or jerk in s extending d ow n to the stool or throne. A suggestion o f decorated sleeves appears on som e o f the m ost im pressive figurines, perhaps im p ly in g the portrayal o f richly clad goddesses. A b o vc the shoulders a spiral m o tif is usually encountered, and below it three or m ore parallel incisions. T h e B arilje vo seated goddess has a shoulder and sleeve decoration o f spirals and tvvo groups o f lines. The constricting lincs across the m iddle o f the arm s and at the wrists o f this figure m ay represent arm -rings and bracelets. A similar constriction appears on the arm o f the sculpturc from Ć uprija, but this figure is uniquc for another reason: it bears upon its back w hat appears to be a bag, perhaps a leather pouch for carrying a baby. The bag is suspended o v er the shoulders and neck b y a massive belt or ropc vvhich is clearly indicated b y an incised applied ridge. Dress fashions show considerable divcrsity, and various fabrics and perhaps em broidcry can be inferrcd from the differin g zigzag, ladder and net patterns w hich adom the blouses. T h e skirt, discernible on alm ost ali standing and seated figurines in w hich the

45

2 Classical Vinča figurin e with wliite-eucnisted incisions indicaling closefitting full-length dress. Potporanj site at Vršac, northeastern Yugoslaviq

16 U p p c r part o f large figu rine w ea rin g a m ask m arked vvith triple lincs under cycs and m canders on top and a m ed allion . Fafos II at K osovska M itro v ic a . V in ča culture, c. 4500 BC

1 7 ‘ T h e m asked la d y o f B a r ilje v o ; n e a r Priština, So u th ern Y u g o s la v ia , w e a rin g elaborate dress w ith constricted sleeves and a m ed allion . O rig in a lly seated 011 a throne. c. 4500 4000 BC 18, 19 Late V in ča figu rin e fro m C rn o k a la ć k a B a ra near N iš, Y u g o s la v ia , vvcaring tight skirt o f cross-hatched design vvith 'fo ld s ’ at b o tto m . R c c ta n g u la r panel at back o f the shoulders suggests a s c a rf o r is purely sym b o lic

13 , 14 Late C u cu ten i fig u rin e sh o w n vvearing fiv c n ccklaces and a broad belt w ith frin g e at front. Sipintsi (Sch ip cn itz), w estcrn U k ra in e . E a rly fou rth m illcn n iu m b c

i

5 Late C u c u te n i fig u rin e w c a rin g tw o n ccklaces and a h ip -b elt a b o v e the c x a g g c ra tc d and d ccoratcd p u bie area. B ilczo Z lo t c . w estem U k rain e. E a rlv fou rth m illenn iu m Rt:

6 Vinca fig u rin e wearing tight skirt which hugs the hips and leaves the belly exposed. Gradac site, Southern Yugoslavia

3 L oiver h a lf o f fem ale figure ivearing a hip-belt m th a large disc on the pubis and upon each hip. Vinča mound. c. $ 3 0 0 - 3 1 0 0 b c

4 Seated l 'inča fig urin e ivearing tu’o-piece dress and perhaps a bolero. H er legs inerge with the stool. M iddle part o f blouse painted black at fron t and back. Banjica site ticar Belgrade. Barly fifth millennium bc:

7 V inča fig u ri ne ivearing checkerboard skirt. W hiteenerusted dots and incisions. Vinča mound. c. 5006 BC

$ Miid - Vinča figu rine iccaring broad hip-belt unth fritige in fro n t, back and sides, supported hy straps over shoulders. Vinča mound. Early fifth millennium b c

s l'orso 01 figurine. H hiteenc.rustcd incisions indicatc blouse or tunic o f fabric with fiet and ladder motifs. I 'inča mound. c. early fifih millennium B C

? I ? 3cm

have curving diagonal incisions o ver the legs suggesdng folds at the hem o f the skirt, o r ribbons securing and folđ ing up the hem beneath the skirt.

M en ’s c o st u m e

g L o w er h a lf o f a Vinča fig u rin e slioivn ivearing a spiral-decorated narroiviiig skirt tvliich a u li in folds. Dottcd pattern in fro m may represent an apron. Bcletinci at O brež, district o f Srem ska M itrovica, northern Yugoslavia

.5, 7

9

S

20

21

lo w e r torso is preserved, is the m ost elaborate form o f attire. T h e belly is almost alw ays exp o sed ; the skirt, not necessarily sew n or attached to the blouse, generally begins b elow the w aist-line, h uggin g the hips. T h e w h ite enerusted incisions reveal net patterning, horizontal lines divided into sections, checker-boards, dots, spirals and meanders. T h e skirt usually narrovvs b elow the knees, w here ornam ent either term inates or ehanges into parallel lines. A n apron w as som etim es w o rn o ver the skirt, w ith a fringe or tassels indicated around the apron sides and at the back. As a rule, V inča, Gumclni^a and C ucu teni figurines w ear hip-belts, som etim es supported by shoulder straps and frin ged at the front, back and sides. T h e long skirt usually reaches to the tocs but in a num ber o f figurines legs and fcet are visiblc, either naturalistically portrayed or vvith indications o f cloth covcrin g. C lear definition o f breast and navel suggests that the seated figure from Čaršija wcars no clothing ab ove the v^aist. B e lo w the belly, a dottcd apron vvith tassels or skirt fringe on each side covcrs her lap. T h e figu rc’s fat legs scem to be bound, perhaps w ith thongs or w o ven bands, but are p robably otherw ise bare. O th er figurines clearly reveal draped cloth and vvrappings around the legs and the skirt was possibly slit b elow the knees and fastened w ith w o ven bands, ribbons or thongs. O n a fine exam ple from C rn ok alaćk a Bara a skirt is incised w ith vertical lines, its hem indicatcd by a horizontal linč. B e lo w the hem are tw o double lines passing around the front o f each leg, presum ably representing binders o f w o ve n m aterial. T h e costum e this figure w ears givcs an im pression o f constraint and rcstricted m ovem ent. M an y figurines

50

Male sculptures are usually portrayed nude in a standing or sitting position, but som e w ear em blem s, pendants or collars. Late C ucuteni figures w ear a hip-belt and a band or strap passing d iago n ally over one o f the shoulders and across the chest and back. One category o f Vinča m ale figurines appears fu lly dressed in ‘sailor blouse’ and knickers. A broad V-shaped collar m ay depict a blouse or som ething w o m over a blouse. T w o or three incisions above the shoulders are either a decorative m o tif or an em blem . A grotesque standing masked man from the Vinča site o f Fafos at Kosovska M itrovica is o f considerable interest: he vvears padded knickers, and his belly is exposed and his hands, n o w broken, probably w ere on his hips.

0J 1» 2i

31 c m

it Late Vinča seated m ale? fig u rin e from Valač, Southern Yugoslavia, shown in blouse and knickers. I Vh ite-i nfi Iled incisions indicate dress. Broad V-shaped collar painted in red, probah! y oj symholic nature 1 2 A decorated shoe, probah!)' leather. East Balkan Gum elnifa complex. Vidra, lower D anube, Romania. c. 4 5 0 0 b c

10 Cucuteni man portrayed u'itli a liip-belt, dagger and chest-hand. Bercfti site near Bujor, eastem Romtmia. c. 4000 11c:

Fo o tw ear

Figurines produccd during this period in the Balkan Fcninsula do not reveal details o f foo tw ear. Som e sculptures cleariy sh o w bare fect with toes indicatcd, but in on ly exccptional cascs w erc shocs portraycd b y incision or b y m odelling.

24, 25 G ro tcsq u e m asked fig u rin e w ith 'padded k n ickers’ and expo sed belly fro m Fafos I at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o sln v ia . First h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m b c

2 0 Seated V in ča fig u r e fro m Č aršija, central Y u g o s la v ia , vvearing h ip -b elt, d ottcd apron in fron t and side frin ges. L e g -b in d in g s ju s t b c !o w knees and calvcs. T op lcss except fo r goddess em blem o r V-shaped collar

23 U p p e r pa rt o f a Late V in ča fig u rin e fr o m P ločn ik, So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . w earin g broad, red, V-shaped collar. Sleeves c o n stric te d b e lo w shoulders and three incisions 011 ea ch shoulder. T h e mask is m arked w ith V signs and parallel lin es. c. late fifth m ille n iu m b c

2 1 Late V in ča fig u rin e w c a rin g tight skirt. T w o d o u b lc lines passing arou n d legs indicatc leg-b in d in gs. L ig h t b ro w n fabric w ith w h itc encrtisted incisions. C rn o k a la čk a B ara, southeastem Y u g o s la v ia 22 Legs c o v ered b y skirt folds characterizc this large V in ča figure. R ed paint on bare toes. V ilica m oun d. M id -fifth m illennium b c

e la b o r a te coiffures consisting o f double-spiral coils round the head.

Som e figures, m ale and fem ale, w ear peculiar conical caps, hoods or coifs, vvhich are decoratcd w ith r a d ia l incisions and extend o v e r the mask. T h e most celebrated o f such figurines, w earing a tiered conical cap, is the little man (or w om an) from the site o f V inča. P o in t e d c a p s . m ust have been w id cly in fashion during the sixth and fifth m ille n n iu m b c throughout southeastern Europe. E la b o r a t e c o i f f u r e and cro w n or turban appears on ly on B ird and Snake Goddess p o in te d

3 C jlin d rica l head with mg hair neatly combed and ounđ at the end. Starčevo iyer o f the Pavlovac site, outhern Yugoslavia. E arly ir iK u iu .uh! to p p e d h y .1 ram ’s

and .1 h u ll’ s head paim ed 111 red. Vadastra Ii. so u th u estern Romania Ka\t B alkan đ v iliz a iio m C-li;*Icolithic 4 >00 » c

43 Stylized rcp lica o f a san ctu ary, p ro b a b ly used as an altar d ecoration , fro m T r u je jti, n ortheastern R o m a n ia . C lassical C u cu ten i. En d o f fifth m illen n iu m b c 44 A ltarp iece in the shape o f a bird vvith p lu m age indicatcd. T r u je jt i. C lassical C u c u ten i. End o f fifth m illen n iu m b c 4 1 C !ia y m o d e l o f a s.m e ru a rv \vitha h o le o n to p fo r in se rtio n o f goddess1 im a g e (vee P i. 3 4 ). 1 le r n ee k lac o is s lio u ri in r e l i e f a r o u n d th e hole. In v e r te d T -s h a p e d e n tra n e e s o n ali sidev. P o r o d im so u th e r n Y u i'o sla v ia . h a r lv s i s t li u iille n n iu m iu

4 : ( "3-i\ model 1>! .111 i/d liu e lr*«H) ( 'an'ioardi Ii»\\er I ).inubc ivi* u »n. portraym-j: .t l.ir^ e subs ir u e u ir e M ipportim j; tour l e m p le v l'.ast H ajka 11 eiviliza1ro.11. (. h alco In Ih , , I .ili'

fifth

1111 1U n ni um 11C

45 A ltarp iec e in the shape o f t h e goddess w ith upraised arm s. T r u je jt i. C lassical C u cu ten i

j i D esign on the painted larger pillar at the entrance to the Cascioarele shrine. I:arly fifth ntillenninni b c

had a ccntral socket w hich was m eant to receive the shaft o f the d oub lc-axc. O n either side o f the horns stood terracotta figurines com prising three bell-shaped idols, and tw o v o ta ry figures, one male and one fem ale. T h e fem ale figurine p robably portrays the main goddess o fth e shrine (N ilsson 19 50 : 80). T he doub le-axe m ost likely represents the epiphany o f the G reat Goddess since she assumed the shape o f a buttorfly rising from the horns o f a buli (sce ehapter 8). O b v io u slv the G reat Goddess w as \vorshipped in this little shrine. T h e tw o-pillared sanctuary o f Cascioarele has m an y parallels in C retan towns and palaces as w ell as in M ycenaean Greece. A pillar or tw o in a shrine vvas the m ost frequent attribute o f a M inoan sanctuary. A t Koum asa, for instance, the sanctuary was com posed o f several room s, one o f which had a w ooden colum n in the m iddle; a cylindrical idol and a table for offerings stood iu.situ (A rch. Anzeiger 1 9 0 7 : 1 0 8 ; N ilsson 1 9 5 0 : 1 0 2 ) . Pillar room s are kn ow n from virtually ali C retan palaces. A t Knossos they are present in ali phases o f the site. T h e oldest pillar room was found in the building w hich belongs to the initial stage o f M iddle M inoan I. In it tw o rectangular pillars w ere found, each about tvvo metres high, and carvcd from a single slab o f lim estone. N ear the Southern w all opposite the space between the tw o pillars was a circular pit. I11 the hillside west o f the palače at Knossos is situated the ‘ little palače’, the foundation o f w hich belongs to the beginning o f Late M inoan. It has three pillar room s. The vvestern room has tw o pillars, one o f vvhich is com plctely preserved and consists o f a base and tvvo gypsum blocks. Bctvvcen the pillars a shallovv stone vat vvith a smaller sunken square in the m iddle had been let into the ground. At the ‘ royal villa ’ o f Knossos. in a building o f Late M inoan II date, north o f the main room there is a pillar room , 4 .15 • 4 ni., paved vvith gyp su m slabs. I11 the centre stands a pillar com posed o f tvvo gvpsum blocks. A sunken channel form s a rcc-

tangle around the central pillar, about m id w a y betvveen it and the vvalls. T h e house near the southeastern angle o f the palače at Knossos contains a m ost interesting pillar room from M id d le M inoan III. In the m iddle o f the rectangular room stands a pillar, consisting o f six blocks vvith a doub le-axe engraved on one o f the upper blocks. A truncated pyram idal gyp sum block vvas found close to the foo t o fth e pillar vvhich p rob ab ly served as the base fo r a double axe. F ro m this side o f the pillar to the vvall runs a foundation vvith m an y flat stone bases vvhich m ay have served as stands fo r vessels. O n the other side o f this vvall an iv o ry knot vvas found, and in the an te-roo m stood a six-legged o fferin g table (Evans, Palače o f M inos, I, I46ff., 4 4 1 ; II, 396, 407, 5 1 5 ; N ilsson 19 5 0 : 237-40). Pillar room s vvere revealed in the palaces at Phaistos, H agia Triadha, M allia and Z a k ro . In the palače at H agia T riadh a a square pillar stood in the m iddle o f a rectangular room . A quadrangular channel surrounded the pillar as in the ‘royal v illa ’ at Knossos. In the peighbouring ro om m an y v o tive figures vvere found. T o the northvv^st o f the palače tvvo pillars stood in one o f the room s used for burials in the Late M in o an III period. An ou tdoor C retan pillar shrine is reported from P h ylako p i on the island o f M elos, a M iddle M inoan III tovvn. (N ilsson 19 50 : 241, 242.) O n the m ainland, an interesting pillar ro om čam e to light at Asine, in a room com plex knovvn as the ‘ M ycenaean palače’ . Standing in the centre o f a fairly large room , 7 X 5 m ., tvvo colum n bases vvere found. In one corner there vvas a bench or ledge m ade o f undressed stone slabs. O n this ledge a quantity o f m ale and fem ale figurines, vessels and a stone axc oncc stood, som e o f vvhich had fallen to the floor, (Persson and Frodin, A sin e : 298, 30 8 ; N ilsson 1950: 1 1 1 , 112 ) . The vvorship ofstalagm ites in caves from the N eo lith ic period to M inoan C rete and A ncient Greece vvas ve ry likely related to that o f pillars. In G rotta Scaloria, in the G argano Peninsula o f Southern Italy, a beautiful painted pot dating from about 6000 b c vvas standing by a stalagm ite (A rchaeological M useum o f Fo ggia). A cave east o f H eraklion dedicated to Eileithyia, goddess o f childbirth, contained a stalagmite and a relatively smaller one next to it. In m an y other caves on C rete, at Psychro, Kam ares, A rk alo k h o ri and elsevvhere, the artifacts and sym bols attest the vvorship o f the G reat Goddess (Alexiou 19 69: 79). From the large n u m b e ro f pillar shrines, the engravings o f doubleaxes on lim estone pillars in M inoan palaces, and the presence o f stepped or conical supports vvith holes for inserting the shaft o f a double-axe, an em blem o f the Great Goddess, it is apparent that the pillar cult vvas associatcd vvith the vvorship o f this d ivin ity. Pictorial representations on ■M inoan-M yccnacan gold rings, in which a trec grovvs out o f the shrine enclosing a pillar, indicate that

79

3 2 G o ld ring from M ycende. O n the right: a small shrine with an cncloscd pillar from ii'hich grotvs a plant. O n the h ft : a plant grotvs out from the hody o fa w ild goat

>39

pillar and plant are sym b olically interrelated, both sym bolizing the p o w e r o f life or the povver o f the goddess. This sym b olic notion is strengthened b y other representations on M in oan -M ycenaean gold rings in w hich the colum n is flanked by m ale anim als, usually lions or griffms (replacing the dogs that flank the tree in C h alcolithic O ld Europe). T h e same anim als flank the goddess in her epiphany as a butterfly, i.e., a w o m an vvith a head o f a butterfly associated w ith bu ll’s horns and a double-axe sym b ol. A pillar shrine p o rtrayin g a sim ilar grou p o f sym bols can be recognized in a fresco in the palače at K nossos; here the raised central colum n is fitted into a Socket o f bu ll’s horns, b elo w w hich is the ideogram o f the G reat G oddess: the ‘split e g g ’, tw o sem icircular rosettes d ivided in the m iddle (A lexiou 1969: 82, Fig. 30). O ther colum ns o f the same fresco also had bullhorn sockets. T he M inoan and O ld European pillar was not an axis o f the ’universe, not the axis mundi o f the A ltaic and northern E u ro­ pean cosm ologies, but an incarnation o f the G reat Goddess in her aspect as the source o f life-po w er. M ost students o f M inoan cuiture are bevvildered b y the abundance o f cult practices. Shrines o f one kind or another are so num erous that there is reason to believe that not on ly every palače but every private house vvas put to som e such tise. Characteristic o f these dom estic cults are the horns o f consecration and the tables for offerings vvhich occu r alm ost everyvvhere (N ilsson 19 50 : 110 ). T o ju d g e b y the frequency o f shrines, horns o f consecration and the sym b ol o f the dou ble-axe, the vvhole palače o f Knossos must have resem bled a sanctuary. W h erever you turn, pillars and sym bols rem ind one o f the presence o f the Great Goddess or the Snake G o d ­ dess. T his situation is related to that found in N eolithic and C h alco ­ lithic E u ro p e : in houses there vvere sacred corners vvith ovens, altars (benches) and offering places, and there vvere separate shrines dedicatcd to certain goddesses.

S

■) M iniature terracotta hrones jro m Ruse. East ’ ilkan civilization. 'aranovo V I). M id-fifth llennium b c

h r in e

e q u ip m e n t

an d

o b je c t s

related

to

cu lt

p r a c t ic e s

E xcavations in O ld Europe are continually brin gin g to light altarpieces, bucrania, libation vases, partitioned bovvls, ladles, peculiar zoom orphic or ornithom orp h ic vases, and other elaborate artifacts that could have found useful Service on ly in tem ples or dom estic shrines. Life-size bucrania, real or m odelled in clay, vvere raised high on w ooden posts and m ounted on altars or attached to the gable o f a house or tem ple. A t Vinča itself and at Ja k o v o -K o rm a d in vvest o f B elgrade, life-size and h igh ly stylized bucrania have been unearthed. I11 C ucuteni settlements a series o f life-size altars or altar ‘screens’ have been found. O ne o f the m ost spectacular, from the settlement o f Tru$c§ti in M o ld avia, appears to bc a stylizcd rcplica o f the fasade o f

Sd

34 Reconstructioti o fa cult talile supportiug a series o f vases; fo u n d at tlie classical Petrcjti settlement at P ianul de Jo s , Transylt’ dnia. M id fifth inillennium 11 c

a sanctuary, vvith a vvide-arched central entrance and side entrances indicated b y oval holes. A b o v e are tvvo sym bols shaped like an M , differing in siže but each capped vvith a basin-shaped lid vvhich m ay represent sacrificial vessels. O ther large altarpieces from Tru§e§ti take the shape o f a B ird Goddess or a goddess vvith upraised arms. N u m erou s m iniature tables, thrones, ehairs and stools vvere m odelled in clay. T h e y seem to have been m anufactured in conjunction vvith figurines, to provide dom estic com forts for divinities. In exceptional circumstances the remains o f full-sized furniture have been diseovered. In the Petre$ti settlement o f Pianul de Jo s at Hunedoara, a fire, vvhich possibly occurred vvithin a strueture housing a shrine, preserved parts o f a rough ly triangular table vvhich vvas plastered vvith clay and displayed a decoratcd pancl in relief. C areful excavation shovved that richly decorated pedestalled vases, dishes, a ja r and several lids must have been standing on this table and a large storage ja r under it, before the fire broke out. A t M ed vednjak, a Vinča settlement in central Y u go slavia, in a rectangular shrine 5 m. long, tvvo large groups o f ritual vases vvere uncovered next to the burnt remains o f a vvooden strueture, probably an altar table (1970 excavation by R . G alovic, unpublished). O n c o f the large pots vvas packed vvith smaller vases o f various sizcs and shapes and was covered vvith a lid. A nother house o f the same settlement yieldcd 81

43

44 45

jj

14

239

2 4 0 - 2 4 2 ; 17 0

a ritual grou p consisting o f three bull-legged vessels and a figurine. Beside the w all, about i m. from this grou p, vvas a bieonical pot filled w ith grains. T o w a rd s the m iddle o f the ro om , near the oven, lay a heap o f 15 0 clay balls w ith a bull-legged vessel and a pot on to p ; another pot, full o f grain, stood close by. A particular type o f vessel seems to have been used in sacrificial cerem onies. It consists o f a shallovv b o w l sunk into a flat slab w hich m ay be triangular, standing on three legs, or rectangular and fou rlegged. Such vessels are decorated by incision, encrustation and p ain tin g; they som etim es have anim al-head protom es projecting fro m the corners and legs, and m ay take a hum an shape. Som e o f the m ost im pressive are supported by m assive bull-legs or rest on stand­ ing or crouching anim als. T h e buli or deer m odels from the East B alkan civilization are outstanding illustrations o f this type o f vessel. Libation vases m ake up another series o f cult vessels; these m ay be ju g-sh ap ed , spouted, zoom orphic, bird-shaped or anthropom orphic, and are o f fine fabric. T h e y are variously ornam ented, according to local styles, being either incised or decorated w ith red, graphite, or p olych rom e painting in com plex curvilinear and m eandroid designs. C la y ladles, exquisitely shaped and decorated, occur in great num bers in ali parts o f O ld Europe. Those found at the Classical Cucuteni sites are beautifully painted. In the East Balkans som e have anthropo­ m orp h ic handles p o rtrayin g m asked faces. T h e abundant production o f small zoom orphic containers or lam ps w ith projecting anim al heads usually o f rams, snakes or bulls and vvith various engraved ideogram s suggests that they served as v o tive offerings to particular deities, ju st as sim ilar objeets vvere sacrificed during the M inoan and H elladic B ron ze A g e and in the later Eleusinian M ysteries. Literary records m ention incense burners and oil lamps am o n g the objeets sacrificed to D em eter o f Despoina in Lykosu ra (Nilsson 19 57). T rad itio n ally, incense burners and lamps vvere used as far back as pottery in E u ro pe: on close observation the painted N eolithic ring-based and footed vessels exhibit loss o f slip on the interior surfaces o w in g to som e unusual use to vvhich these vessels vvere put, possibly burning (cf. study o f ceram ic tech n ology o f Anza pottery o f c. 6000 b c b y Elizabcth Gardner). In C ucuteni and East Balkan ceram ic art sophisticated anthropo­ m orph ic vase supports are found. T h c y take the form o f either a single hum an figure (headless, or clse vvith one o r tvvo faces) or a gro u p o f interconnected bo w ed figures. T h e hum an body, particularly the shoulders and arm s, provided an appropriate sculptural m o tif for m onum ental stand-supports m odelled b y Cucutcni artists. A notable ex:amplc from Frum u$ica ineorporates five vvell-proportioned hum an figures standing erect on a single base, the upper part o f their bodies connectcd b y their em bracing arms. T h e raising o f a

vessel is a com m on practice in ritual celebrations, usually associated vvith fertility m agic and pleas for future prosperity. T h e Bulgarians have retained a N evv Y e a r ’s custom in vvhich the three eldest w o m en o f the fam ily thrice raise the trough containing the sacred Nevv Y e a r’s bread-dou gh ( R y bako v 1965). T h ere are statuettes p o rtrayin g vvomen seated on a stool and holding conical containers fo r vvater. A rem arkably w ell-preserved exam ple from B o rd još in the lovver Tisza valley shows a naked vvoman sitting stiffly, both hands firm ly holding a dish on her lap. A n o th er exam ple, a seated figu re holding a bow l and a dish w ith a ladle, comes from a Cucuteni site at N ezv isk o in the vvestern U k rain e (R y b a k o v 19 6 5: Fig. 3). T h e E arly V inča settlement o f Fafos yieldeđ a sculpture o f a seated, m asked vvoman perform ing a m agical rite o v er the vessel vvhich she is holding. A v e ry distinctive sculpture o f a male figure vvas diseovered during the excavation o f the Tisza settlement at Szegvar in southeastern H u n gary. H e vvears a flat mask and in his right hand holds a sickle extending o ver his shoulder. O n both arms brac^lets are indicated in relief, five on the right and one on the left. A broad, decorated belt is incised round the vvaist o fh is stout body. T his figure has attracted m uch attention, and recently K alicz (1970) term ed the period o f the Tisza culture ‘L ’e'poque du Dieu a la faucille’ , the epoch o fth e Sickle G od, a dom inant m ale deity. M a k k a y (1964) considers this figure an ancestor o f the G reek god Kronos. His dignified posture, and his mask, sickle and festive attire, proelaim his im portant status; his authoritative possession o f the sickle im plies that he, as central figure o f the cult, is presiding over its rites. In ancient G reek festivals devoted to A rtem is and D em eter the sickle vvas still displayed, sym b olizing victo ry (N ilsson 1957). A curved stick o f copper or gold knovvn from the third m illennium in the N ear East and the Caucasus vvas an insignia o f povver, a sym bolic value inherited from an early agricultural era, vvhen the sickle vvas regarded as a sacred cult instrument. T h ere is archaeological evidence o f com posite sickles, flint blades set in vvood or bone, and o f their utilization for reaping from earliest N eo lith ic tim e s.T h a t they vvere used as cult or orna­ menta! objeets in ritual festivities is revealed b y sickle im itations vvhich vvere produced in copper in east central Europe about 5000 b c . T h e Szegvžr figure vvould seem to be e x em p lifyin g the novel and valuable produets o f a copper technology still in its infancy. Bracelets m ade o f round copper vvire are knovvn from both the Tisza and Vinča cultural com plexes, and an enorm ous copper sickle, 54 cm. long, has been diseovered in H u n gary at Zaerszentm ihaly. The sickle vvas an isolated find but its shape is v e ry m uch the same as that b elonging to the statuette, suggesting that thcy are contem poraneous. T he S ze g v ar male sculpture is unique, the other Tisza figurines being fem ale.

Flutes and triton shells appear in N eolithic and C h alcolithic

47

settlem en ts; on ly in exceptional circumstances are other m usical Instrum ents such as citherns or lyres preserved. Fragm ents o f bone

46, Seated m asked m an h o ld in g a sickle. A r m -r in g s 011 bo th arm s. S z e g v a r-T iiz k o v e s , T isza cuiture. c. 5000

flutes or pipes w ere diseovered in the auth or’s o w n excavation at Anza, M acedonia, belonging to the period p rior to 6000 b c (Gimbutas, 1972). T riton shells were found in L en gyel settlements. The above exam ples are but rem inders o f the use o f musical instruments in cult cerem onies as in M inoan C rete and in the C yclad es (Zervos, C rete: 39 1, 445, 704). A priestess holding a triton shell is depieted on a M inoan seal from the Idaean C a v e standing at an altar topped vvith the horns o f consecration vvith the tree o flife representing the goddess’ epiphany in the m iddle. Flute-playin g is constantly mentioned or pictorially depieted in m ythical scenes o f A ncient Greece. T h e tradition must stem from a very early period. T h e role o f music and dance in the religious cerem onies o f O ld Europe cannot be fu lly assessed until marble sculptures like C yclad ic lyre- or fluteplayers, vvooden frames o f lyres or citherns or their portrayais on frescoes or elsevvhere are diseovered.

b c ; detail o f the u p per part o f the sculpture (46)

3 5 M inoan seal from the Idaean C a ve. Priestess . (? ) holding a triton shell. On the right, an altar topped with horns o f consecration and a tree in the middle

V O T IV E O F F E R IN G S: IN SC R IB ED FIG U R IN E S, V E SSE L S, SP IN D LF.-W H O R LS A N D O TH ER O B JE C T S

.(N { u p p e r M ckle Ir o n i / . . k t a 'H ! m i haly, u r s u iti i I m i g . i r v K u l . i n - d tm d. prr'.tum 'd m l v ol v.im r iui .t* lipurin* 'slioun im l ’ K. ,|fi. .(•;

M an had to persuade the divinity he vvorshipped to be propitious to him. H oards o f vo tive figurines, m iniature vessels and other objeets are constantly being recovered in N eolithic, Chalcolithic, M inoan, M ycenaean and Greek caves and sanctuaries, as vvell as those o f O ld Europe. T h e m aker’s name, the name o f the goddess, or a sort o f contract or prom ise, vvas sometimes inscribed on a figurine, plaque, spindle-vvhorl or m iniature vessel. A pp ro xim ately one out o f every hundred figurines vvas incised vvith the signs o f the Lincar O ld European script (not religious sym bols and not ideogram s). Since other objeets, such as spindle-vvhorls, m iniature vessels, plaques and dishes or bovvls, vvere sim ilarly inscribed, they too must have been votive offerings. V ariou s signs are found 011 the front, back and sides o f O ld European figurines. M inoan figurines vvere sinnlarly inscribed, and an idol from the M iddle M inoan palače o f Tylissos bearing Linear A signs is reproduced herc for com parison. Som e characters o f the script, notably a triangular sign in conjunction vvith vertical lin.es, are repeated quite often 011 figurines and other objeets. O n the Vinča figurine herc illustratcd, other signs - a m eander and chevrons - are also en graved ; these are not script signs, but ideogram s o fth e Snake and B ird Goddess, as w c shall sec from the discussion in the ehapters that follovv. Inscribed spindle-vvhorls are know n from m any Vinča and East Balkan sites. spindles having been am ong the vo tive offer-

3 6 Late Vinca figurin e with inscription on one side. c. late fifth millennium b c

57 (top lift) M iddle M inoan fig u rin e fro m Tylissos, eastern C rete, bearing inscriptions in Linear A . E arly second m illennium b c S (above) Schematic fig urin e incised u/ith a meander or snake over fro n t and chevrons over upper part oj back. O n low er part o f back, a triangle with vertical lines. Vinča mound. c. 4500 - 4000 ne: .

j

3 9 (U ft) Schematic fig u rin e inscribcd on the back u/ith signs composed o f a V or triangle and a roir oj vertical lines. Vinča mound. Late sixth millennium b c

f

ings in C h a lc o lith ic .O id Europe as they vvere in later periods. In G reek times their association vvith the cult o f A rtem is is evident and the notion o f ‘spinning the thread o f life’ is very lik ely to have originated when spinning vvas still in its infancy and was regarded as im bued vvith a m agic povver. Inscribed m iniature vessels are abund an t; in the Vinča m ound no less than 368 vvere found and m an y bore inscriptions o f various kinds. Such vessels bear the same type o f linear sign as do the spindle-vvhorls and figurines. T h e y are not decorative m otifs and not sym b ols. T h e m iniature vessels, usually ve ry small and cru d elv m ade, vvere m eant to im itate large vases and vvere dedicated as gifts to goddcsses. O n the rims and vvalls o f larger bovvls and dishes inscriptions also occur. T h e y cannot bc interpreted as p o ttcr’s m arks, since. they are not single geom etric signs, but a sequence o f linear signs. O ne o f the best exam ples o f O ld European script com es from the C h alcolith ic site o f Gradešnica near Vratsa in vvestern B u lgaria, vvhich is contcm poran cous vvith the E arly Vinča period o f the same culture in R om an ia. O n a shallovv dish from this site, signs o f vvriting appear on 40 M iniature vessels bearing inscriptions (dedications?), from the Vinča mound, found 7 -6 .5 111. deep. Early fifth millcnnium BC

both sides. O n the inner surface there are four ro w s d ivided b y horizontal lines, and on the outside is a schematized anthropom orphic figure, around vvhich the fam iliar script signs are grouped. A nalogous grouping o f signs is knovvn on an object from an Early Vinča site o f Sukoro at Szekesfehervar in vvestern H ungary. O n a round plaque f r o m K aran o vo V I in central B ulgaria, signs consisting ofstraigh t lines were incised betvveen the cross arm s o f the quartered disc (V . I. Georgiev, 1969). A lth ough script signs on figurines, spindle-vvhorls and m iniature vessels vvere knovvn and collected from the beginning o f the tvventieth 4 1 Inscribed spirtdle-u/horl century (Schm idt 19 0 3 ; Vasić 19 10 , 19 36 ; R o sk a 19 4 1), discussions from D ikilitash near P h ilip i, northeastern Greece, East concerning the possible existence o f a N eolithic-C h alcolith ic script Balkan civilization. c. only began after the three Tartaria plaques or pendants had been 4500 - 4000 BC diseovered in the Mure§ rive r valley o f vvestern R o m an ia and vvere published by Vlassa in 1963. These plaques, o f vvhich tvvo are perforated, vvere found in association vvith seorehed human bones, tw enty-six schem atic E arly Vinča clay figurines, tvvo alabaster figurines, a clay ‘anehor’ (possibly a fragm ent o f a figurine o r horns o f consecration vvith a figure in the m iddle), and a Spondylus-shell bracelet in an ash-filled, sacrificial pit located in the lovvest layer o f the site. The pit vvas covered by tvvo occupation horizons: im m ed iately above vvas a lcvel o f the Petre?ti group and above this vvas a Cojofeni habitation level o f the fourth m illcnnium b c . B y an alogy vvith calibrated radiocarbon dates fo r Early Vinča layers at other sites, the d a te 'o f the lovvest occupation level cannot be later than the early fifth m illennium . T h e Tartaria inscribed objeets are genuine Vinča artifacts, produced tvvo thousand years earlier than the development o f Sum erian civilization and about three thousand years before the appearance o f M inoan Palače culture. O ne o f the Tartaria tablets shovvs the outlincs o f tvvo anim als and a tree. O ne o f the animals in this sy m bolic scene is clearly a goat. T h e association o f goat and tree suggcsts that the Tartaria ritual burial may have been perform ed as part o f the rite o f annual dcath and resurrection. I11 M inoan C rete and in the N ear East, the goat vvas 42 Shallou> vessel from prominent as a sacrificial victim in the festival and the tree sym bolized Gradešnica near Vraća, a nevv life. T h is also im plies the fact that O ld European vvriting vvas u’cstern Bulgaria, bearing associatcd vvith religious funetions. inscriptions on both sides. (a ), outer side with signs Inscribcd vo tive objeets clcarlv prove the existence o f O ld around the symbolic fig u r e ; European Linear signs and, in general, the very early incidence o f (b ), inner side u'itli fo u r vvriting. From the available m atcrial at the present tim e it is seen lines o f signs. c. 5000 b c Vinča culture that the bcginnings lic in the period o f transition from the N eolithic to Chalcolithic (Late S ta rč c v o -E a rly Vinča in central Balkans), c. 5500-5000 b c :. M ore vvork on the script still avvaits the dedicated seholar (but sce M ilton W inn. Dissertation, U C L A 1973 for analysis o f signs; to appear in book form 111 19S2).

4 J Objeets fo u n d in a sacrificial burial pit at Tdrtaria, ivestern Rom ania. a, inscribed plaques, the upper one shoiving two animals (goats?) and a tree, suggesting a sacrifice in celebration o f the return o f new life ; b, alabaster figurin es, a p illa r (phallic sym lwl or fragm ent oj a clay fig urin e) and a Spotidylus hracelet. c. end oj sixlli m illennium to c. 5 3 0 0 -5 0 0 0

6

BC

44 Inscribed clay objeets, perhaps tveights, from Su kori-T o radiili) east o f Szekesfehervar, 1vestern Hungary. 5000 li c

SUMMING UP

C la y m odels o f temples, kn ow n from ali parts o f O ld Europe, p rob ab ly represent com m unal sanctuaries, dedicated to certain goddesses. These inelude rectangular struetures vvith portals and vvide entrances and fou r interconnected temples raised high on a stereobate or an earthen terrace. Shrines vvhose actual remains have bccn found take the fo rm o f rectangular houses divided into tvvo room s one o f vvhich vvas furnished vvith an oven, an altar (dais), and som etim es a separate sacrificial area. These seem to be dom estic shrines. T h e pillar shrine at Cascioarele, located in the m iddle o f the village, vvas probably a com m unal sanctuary. T he cerem onial accoutrem ents ineluded lifesize bucrania, altar screens, large askoi, pithoi and other beautifully decorated vases. Figurines are found on altars, sim ple platform s like benehes, usually built o f clay and covered vvith planks, arrangcd at the end or corner o f the dom estic shrine, not far from the oven. This fmds close an alogy vvith the M inoan dom estic shrines in vvhich figurines are found standing on a dais. Figurines, ostensibly p erfo rm in g some ritual, are cncountered also in other placcs, near the oven, b y the entrance, beside grindstones and elsevvhere. Figurines also served as vo tive offerings; thcy are found in sacrificial burials and, vvhere used as gifts to certain divinities, vvere inscribed.

88

Cosm ogonical apd Cosm ological Images

H A striking developm ent in art at the inception o f the agricultural era vvas its persistent representation o f a num ber o f conventionalized I graphic designs sym bolizing abstract ideas. These ideogram s, recurring on figurines, stamp seals, dishes, cult vessels, and as part o f pictorial decoration o f vases and house vvalls, vvere used for thcuisands ofyears throughout O ld European civilization, and help to expand our understanding o f its cosm ogo n y and co sm o lo gy, and o f the funetions o f the deities it sustained. The sym bols fali into tvvo basic categories: those related to vvater or rain, the snake and the bird ; and those associated vvith the m oon, the vegetal life-cycle, the rotation o f seasons, the birth and grovvth essential to the perpetuation o f life. The first category consists o f symbols vvith sim ple parallel lines, V ’s, zigzags, chevrons and meanders, and spirals. T h e second group ineludes the cross, the encircled cross and m ore com plex derivations o f this basic m o tif vvhich sym b olically connects the four corners o f the vvorld, the crescent, horn, Caterpillar, egg and fish.

T h e fo u r c o r n e r s o f t h e vvo r ld , t h e m o o n a n d t h e b u l l

The cross, vvith its arms direeted to the four corners o ft h e eosm os, is a universa] sym bol created or adopted by farm ing com m unitics in the N eolithic and extending into present day folk art. It is based on the b e lie f that the year is a jo u rn e y em bracing the four C a rd in a l direetions. Its purpose is to prom ote and assure the contm uance o f the cosm ic cycle, to help the vvorld through ali phases o f the m oon and the ehanging seasons. Graphite-painted East Balkan dishes have cross and cosm ic snake designs vvhich recurrently present identical com positions o f ‘ the universc’ . The hooks or branehing lines attached to the four arm s o f the cross reinforce its d ynam icexp ression. These vital signs are cncountered on the bases, the insides o f dishes, on figurines and stam p seals.

47 Schem atizedfigurine having crou/n engraved u/ith quartered design, fo u n d in a clay silo fille d with wheat grain. M edvedn jak, Vinča site near Smederevska P alanka, Central Yugoslavia. c. 5000 b c. Note chevrons above eyes

•'.V

45 Craphite-painted dishes with cross and snake motifs in the centre o f the cosmos. Tangira mound, Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. M id-Jifth millennium b c

The cross and its various derivative sym bols are frequently Jičountered in the incised or painted ceram ic decorations o f each *f§)lithic and C h alcolithic grou p . T h eir consistent appearance on $ishes, bow ls, vases, stamp seals and the crow ns o f figurines strongly ||g ests that they are ideogram s necessary to prom ote the recurrent irthand g ro w th o f plant, anim al, and hum an life. T h e y are sym bols ilt h e continuum o f life w hich had to be ensured. Painted or engraved ! h the bases or insides o f dishes they must have served as go od -lu ck sjm bols as they still do in the European peasant culture. Life is 'resent on ly w here there is no stagnation and the regularity o f nature not obstructed b y the forces o f death. In E gyp tian hieroglyphics the cross stands for life or liv in g and form s part o f such w ords as fp!health’ and ‘happiness’ . A related concept could have dom inated S lh e minds o f early European farmers. A sm ooth transition from one ||)hase to another spelled happiness. T h e fourfold com positions, K | ir c h e t y p a l o f perpetual renewal or wholeness and the m oon in the Ms' symbolism o f O ld Europe, are associated vvith the Great Goddess o f Life and Death, and the Goddess o f V egetation, m oon goddesses Par excellence. The sym bols o f ‘b ecom in g’ - crescents, caterpillars and horns ■ P lc c o m p a n y fou rfold designs. T h e y do not depict the end result o f s m rwholeness but rather the continuous strivin g tovvards it, the active a p .p r o c e s s o f creation. A painting on a Cucuteni dish from Valea f* Lupului shovvs stylized horns o f four bulls, each quartered b y crossed om lines, with a crescent o r a Caterpillar in each section, a sym bol related S ' to the idea o f periodic regeneration. There is a m orphological relationship betvveen the buli, on.account o f its fast-grow in g horns, and the w a x in g aspect o f the m oon, vvhich is further evidence o f the bull’s sym b olic funetion as invigorator. T h e w orship o f the m oon and horns is the w o r s h i p o f the C re a tiv e and fecund p o v v e rs o f nature. In W estern Asia o f the fourth to second m illennia, the cross was usually associated vvith the lunar crescent and was an alternative symbol o f the m oon (Briffault 1 9 6 3 : 3 4 3 , Figs. 8 - 1 2 ) . Painted on a Classical C u cuten i vase from Tru$e§ti are quartered d is c d e s ig n s having a cross inside vvith knobbed extrem ities, p robably sym bolizing four phases o f the m oon, hooked to a horn. A portrayal o f the head o f a buli vvith the lunar disc betvveen its horns occurs in relief on a vase from a Late Cucuteni site o f Podei. T h e disc is quartcred by Crossing lines possibly indicating the four phases o f the m oon. In the low er section o f the vase, the bu ll’s horns are shovvn upside dovvn, perhaps to sym b olize the dcad buli. In this and m any sim ilar portrayals w e m ay recognize the sacrificial aspect o f the act o f creation. The G reat G oddess, as w e shall s c e later, em erges from the dead buli in the shape o f a bee o r a butterfly. T h e life process o f creation and destruetion is the basis fo r im m ortality.

6 F-ourjold signs inciscd on ■titra! European Linear ottery dishes. B ylany and her sur.' in Bohemia. Umi xth—early fifth millenniuni

91

0

1

1

f

2 3 CM



perforations, p robably for the attachm ent o f vvings. A n outstanding ornithom orphic vase unearthed in G rivac in central Y u g o sla v ia , has nearly life-like characteristics o f a bird vvith p lum age indicated b y engraved parallel lines along the w h ole length o f the b o d y, but the stout legs are shaped like those o f a vvoman (K ragu jevac M useum ). T he m issing lid p robably bore the masked head o f the goddess. T h e eyes and arehed b ro w -rid ges o f the goddess persistently recur on neeks and lids o f East Balkan and Cucuteni vases. T h e num inous nature o f the dom inating eyes, vvhich together vvith the arch o f the eyebrow s and beak o r nose (usually connected vvith the brovv-ridges in the shape o f an anehor o r letter T) contribute to the bird-like character, persist throughout several millennia in the archaeological record. T h e y are fam iliar th roughout the fourth and third m illennia b c and are vvell knovvn from the early settlements o f T ro y . The ow lish features m ay stem origin ally from the representation o f the horned head o f a snake. A type o f late Vinča figurine o f the B ird Goddess depiets a vvoman vvearing an elaborate dress and a bird ’s mask. W here the mask represents the head o fd u c k or other vvater bird, these becam e masterpieces o f detail during this period. The chic coiffure o f one East Balkan B ird Goddess consists o f a pony-tail or a peaked cap, others vvear a double spiral or snake coil. A spiralling snake rnay also be engraved on the neck or the upper part o f the b o d y o f a figurine, as fo r exam ple on the m asterful little sculpture o f a masked goddess from Vadastra in R o m an ia. A m eander vvas excised on the back o f her neck and filled vvith vvhite paste. Snake spirals, meanders, dotted bands or parallel horizonta! painted bands often decorate the costum e o f the standing or seated L ad y Snake. A t ali periods and in ali regions o f O ld Europe one, three or six holes or notehes vvere frequently cut into the throat o f the Snake or Bird Goddess. O ne, three or six holes or notehes (and som etim es seven, perhaps by mistake) also occur on vases decorated vvith meanders or parallel lines sym b olizin g vvater (sce Pls. 77, 10 4 - 10 7 ; Fig. 84). T h ree lines or a vertical line in the m iddle o f the V sign are associated vvith the figurines o f the B ird Goddess on ly (see Pls. 9 3 ,9 5 , 10 5 - 10 7 , 1 2 1 ; Figs. 7 5 -7 7 . 82, 88). T h e Snake and B ird Goddess usually vvcars three or six necklaces (see Pls. 124 , 1 3 1 ; Figs. 85, 9 1) and three arm rings (see Pl. 12 1) . S ix chevrons cover the upper part o f the gracile Lady o f C ucuteni. The num ber ‘three’ and its duplication apparently possessed a certain sym bolic significancc vvhere the goddess vvas concerned. The M inoan bell-shapeđ idols vvith snake hands on breasts are decorated vvith painted horizonta] bands in groups o f three (Evans, Palače o f Minos, IV , 1, Fig. 12 0 : 7) and, in M inoan and Greek art, three colum ns are associated vvith birds, and vvith Athena. T h ree figures, three lines and three dots

119

12 0 , 12 1

124 12 7

126, 128

129,130

f .

-• ii' ••

6, 1 1 7 C u lt vase in fo rm o f a d u c k , w ith a hum an askcd head and vvearing a c ro w n . C h an n cl-d eco rate d id painted in black bands. T h e V in č a site. M id -V in č a , ■st h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m bc

>

5

-

i i s Stan d in g B ird G oddess in the fo rm o f a vessel. C h an n el led surface. o ran gc c o lo u r. T h e V in ca site. M id -V in ć a . first h a l f o f fifch m illenn iu in bc

120 ‘L a d y B ir d ’ fro m V in ča. Late V in ča

i 2 i Late V in ca B ird G od d ess vvearing d u c k ’s m ask. V sign vvith a vertical line on the ehest. Su p ska at Ć u p rija , central Y u g o s la v u

12 2 , 12 3 B ird Goddess* mask in the fo rm o f a d u e k ’s head. Late V in ča. V in ća m ound

i i a id the foreparts o f tu/o spectivelf. Kašteli a, southept o f

140

17 9

The ancients gave the name o f Melissae (‘bees’) to the priestesses o f Demeter who were initiates ofthe chthonian goddess; the name Melitodes to Kore herself: the moon (Artemis) too, whose province it was to bring to the birth, they called Melissa, because the moon being a buli and its ascension the buli, bees are begotten ofbulls. And souls thatpass to the earth are bull-begotten. [M y italics] (Porphyry, De ant. nym. : 18; quoted by Ransome 1937: 107). From this passage w e learn that A rtem is is a bee, M elissa, and that both she and the buli belong to the m oon. Hence both are connected vvith the idea o f a periodic regeneration. W e also learn that souls are bees and that M elissa dravvs souls dovvn to be born. T h e idea o f a ‘life in death’ in this sin gu larly interesting concept is expressed b y the belief that the life o f the buli passed into that o f the bees. H ere w e have the v e ry essence o f the m eaning o f sacrifice vvhich is also applicable to N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic Europe as vvell as to the M inoan civilization. The im age o f the Great Goddess in the shape o f a bee appears on the head o f a buli carved out o f bone from the Late Cucuteni site o f B ilcze Z lo te in the vvestern U kraine. H er upraised and bifurcated arms are defm itely those o f a bee. H er head is a dot and the conical lovver b o d y (vvithout indication o f legs) is clearly an im itation o f a bee’s b o d y. Sim ilar representations, though less schem atized, are knovvn fro m M in oan, M ycenaean, G eom etric and A rch aic Greek art. M an y go ld rings o f M inoan vvorkmanship from C rete and Greece p ortray the bee-headed goddess or the same goddess h old in g bu ll’s horns above her head. A steatite bead-seal from Kašteli Pedeada, southeast o f Knossos, shovvs the goddess vvith legs parted and a long conical projection vvhich o b vio u sly is the lovver part o f the b o d y o f a bee. H er arm s are upraised and the head is hum an. T h e other side o f this seal portrays a bu ll’s head. Greek jevvelry o f the seventh to fifth centuries b c fro m R h o d e s and Thera includes gold plaques o f the ‘ B ee-G o d d ess’ . She has a pair o f ‘hands’ in addition to her vvings, and there is a rosette on either side o f her ridged abdom en. T h e fam ous painted B oeotian am phora dating from c. 700 b c portrays the ‘ Lady o f the W ild T h in g s’ , or the ‘ Mistress o f A n im als’ , as she is usually called, flanked by tvvo lions, a (decapitated) bu ll’s head, a bottleshapcd object (a uterus?), birds and svvastikas. It is significant that she has the arm s o f an insect. Z ig z a g g in g hair and a serrated line around the lovver part o f the body suggest the hairy b o d y o f a bee. In this casc the titles ‘ M istress o f A n im als’ or the ‘L ady o f the W ild T h in g s’ are

182

m isleading. She is here the ‘Goddess o f Periodic R e g e n eratio n ’ . She is shovvn vvith a fish inside her, a sym b ol o f fecundity related to vvater. T h e loose bull’s head is that o f a sacrificed buli. T h e buli is dead and the nevv life begins. T h e svvastikas (vvheels, concentric circles, rosettes) turn, the snakes era w l, the beasts hovvl (by the m iddle o f the third m illennium b c lions had replaced the m ore ancient dogs). T h e epiph an y o f the goddess is inseparable from the noise o f hovvling and clashing, and the vvhirling dances. Kuretes, the male devotees o f the goddess, dance vigo ro u sly, ‘rattling their arm s’ as C allim achus, the G reek poet o f c. 260 b c , says in his Hymn to Jo v e : 32. V erg il, describing the noise made to attract svvarm ing bees, says ‘they clash the cym bals o f the G reat-M o th er’ (V e rg il’s fourth Georgic: 63). A t Ephesus, A rtem is vvas associated vvith the bee as her cult anim al. In fact, the vvhole organization o f the sanctuary in classical tim es seems to have rested on the sym b olic analogy o f a beehive, vvith svvarms o f priestesses called bees, melissai, and num erous eunuch priests called ‘drones’ , essertes (Barnett 19 56 : 218). W h y vvas the bee ehosen for the sym bol o f regeneration? W e m ay ask the same question vvhere the Egyptian beetle or scarab is conccrn ed; it too sym bolizes the m oon and eternal renevval. The reason p robably is because both have antennae like buli horns and vvings in the form o f a lunar crescent. T h e periodic svvarm ing and buzzing o f bees, vvhen a nevv generation is born, and the Creative activity associated vvith the produetion o f honey must h ave greatly im pressed our forefathers vvho regarded it as the food o f the gods. This is suggestcd by the fam ous gold pendant from a tom b at M allia in C rete dating from the early sccond m illcnnium b c , a superb piccc o f M inoan goldvvork, in vvhich tvvo bees hold a h on eycom b in the shape o f a disc. T h ree other discs are suspended 011 the vvings and at the point vvhere the bodies o f the tvvo b eesjoin (M atz 19 6 2 : 126). Knovvn portrayals o f bees from antiquity are m ade o f metal, usually g o ld , or take the form o f engravings, reliefs and paintings. H itherto. probable representations o f bees painted o r indicatcd in re lie f on vases from the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods o f O ld Europe have been either com pIet®!y overlopkcd or confused vvith the

F rieze (partiy strueted) o f Bee Goddess inted on Proto-Sesklo Dtzaki, Thessaly. o - 6200 BC

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3.ee Goddess, a 'ry relief from Trufefti. sical Cucuteni. Second ffifth millennium BC

jCfiii dressed iti bee < h old ju g s over horns u’hich a plant groivs. naean geni

portrayals o f schematized toads or ‘dancing figu res’. T h e im age o f the goddess in the shape o f a bee or som e other kind o f insect has a v e rv lo n g h is to ry : earlicst representations occur in the N eolithic P roto-Sesklo and Starčevo com plexes. A creature vvith w in g-lik e arm s and a protruding cone betvveen the parted legs painted in cherry red on a w h ite background on a ja r from O tzaki, a P ro to -Sesk lo site in Thessaly, m ay be one o f the earliest representations o f a ‘Lady B e e ’ . Schem atic figures vvith upraised arms and bifurcated heads have long been k n ow n in the Starčevo com plex o f H u n gary. W hat m ay be a headless bee appears in re lie f on a large vessel fro m the same site o f Kopancs. Headless bees portrayed on rosettes are knovvn from the A rtem isium o f Ephesus (m ore than 5000 years later) w here they vvere p robably used as eharms. In R o m a n times, headless bees to­ gether w ith headless toads also occur on rosettes used as talismans to avert the evil eye (R an som e 19 3 7 : 110 ). A figure o f a goddess in the shape o f a bee (?) is painted in red on a Tisza dish from Ilonapart at Szentes. H er bee-like attributes are a bifurcated insect-type head, legs and a sting (‘a tail’). Schem atized figures o f bees, h aving the characteristic ridged b o d y, are quite frequent on Linear pottery. A n alogo u s representations often appear in relief on C ucuteni vases. O n a M ycenaean gem o f M inoan vvorkm anship tvvo lion-headed genii clad in bee skins hold ju g s o ver horns from w hich a new life springs in the shape o fa plant. W hat do these ju g s c o n ta in ? -p ro b a b ly ‘foo d o f the gods’ produced by the bee. T h at mead vvas used as a libation is w cll knovvn from Classical G reek w riters. Sacrificial honcy vvas am ong the ‘sober o fferin gs’, the nephalia, but it was also knovvn as an intoxicant. H oney w as alw ays considered to be a food that conduces to a long and healthy life. Pythagoras, vvhosc life spanned the grcater part o f the sixth century b c attributed his lo n gevity to a constant use o f h oney in his dict. H on ey was a healing substance. Glaucus, the son o f M inos and Pasiphae, vvas restored to life when buried in a h oncy ja r. T h e apiculture o f the M inoans is docum cntcd b y hieroglyphs, representations o factu al beehives, engraved im ages, and m yths. The Greeks, w h o like the rest o f the Indo-Europeans k n ew on ly o f w ild honey, inherited bee-kecping from the M inoans. T h e y borrovved i«4

even the m ost im portant nam es: sphex (‘bee’), simblos (‘h iv e ’) and propolis (‘kerinthos’) (R ansom e 19 3 7 : 64). T h e y also inherited the m ythical im age o f the G reat Goddess as a bee, the Goddess o f R egen eratio n , the im age o f her virgin priestesses or nym phs as bees, and m an y other m yths and beliefs connected w ith the bee and honey. T h e Cretans on the other hand, must have held bees in high esteem from the beginning o f the N eolithic era. T h e fact that w e have been considering the bee rather than the butterfly does not im p ly that in ancient m y th o lo g y the bee vvas the m ore im portant o fth e t w o ; both vvere equally ancient and essential in the sym b olism associated w ith the goddess. The difficulty is that in schem atic prehistoric reliefs or paintings o f the goddess vve can recognize little m ore than an insect head or insect hands. W hether she is ‘L a d y B e e ’ or ‘L ad y B u tterfly’ cannot be determ ined. In most N eolithic reliefs, such as that from K otacpart, the im age o f the goddess can be interpreted as representing either a bee or a butterfly. The scene on the gold ring from the grave o f Isopata near Knossos, dating from c. 1500 b c , ineludes four fem ale figures in festival attire, perhaps p o rtrayin g the goddess and her devotees, usually assumcd to be melissae, or bees. T h eir heads and hands are certainly those o f an insect, but vve cannot be sure o f vvhat kind.

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Scal inipression from '0, eastern Crete, aying gbddess ivith the s o f an iy e d butter(1y. ilc M inoan III

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151

T h e m otifs o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and ‘d ou ble-axes’ are vvell knovvn to the student o f M inoan-M ycenaean art. It vvas indeed Sir A rth u r Evans vvho published a series o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and goddesses related to chrysalises or vvith butterfly vvings (Evans 1925). H e interpreted the chrysalis as an em blem o f a nevv life after death. C o m m o n vvhite and other species vvith eyed, indented vvings occur repeatedly in M in o an and M ycenaean art. In a cham ber tom b at M ycen ae a detailed exam ple in the form o f a gold chrysalis bead vvas found b y A . J . B . W ace. It has eyes, and the vving cases and articulation o f the abdom en are indicated. In Sh aft-grave III at M ycenae, Schliem ann diseovered go ld pendants in the shape o f chrysalises associated vvith golden butterflies, as w ell as butterflies em bossed on the plates o f vvhat had been scales (Evans 19 2 5 : 56, Fig. 48a and b : 59, Fig. 52). T h e M ycen aean butterflies are an inheritance fro m M inoan C rete, vvhere they are knovvn from the M iddle M inoan III and later periods. A seal from Z a k ro in eastern C rete reveals the goddess vvith a hum an head, large vvings o f an ‘eyed ’ butterfly, and anim al or bird legs. T h e epiphany o f the goddess in the shape o f a butterfly in M in o an-M ycenaean religion cannot be doubted. W e m ay ask novv hovv far back she can be traced. A n upper torso o f a fem ale figurine vvith schem atized butterflies incised beneath the breasts vvas found at Passo di C o rv o , a neolithic settlem ent o f the sixth m illennium b c north o f F o ggia, southeast Italy (T in e 19 7 2 : 330). T h e figurine probably belongs to the late ‘ Im presso’ period, M asceria de la Q uercia com plcx. A n oth er em blem o f regeneration o r b irth -g ivin g resembles the letter M . It vvas inciscd ran d o m ly on the back and front o f the torso. T h e phallic top o f the figu rin e’ s head vvas encirclcd b y a spiral, p robably a snake. T h e uplifted face o f the figurine vvas masked and impressed dots around the neck suggcst a bead necklace. T h e accum ulation o f sym bols allovvs one to regard this figurine as a G reat Goddess in her funetion as the Goddess o f R egen eratio n . T h e shape o f a butterfly em erges 011 C^atal H iiyu k frescoes (M ellaart 19 6 7: Pl. 40) and is incised on European N eo lith ic pots. T h e butterflies 011 D anubian Linear Pottcry jars even have dots on them, possibly to represent the ‘com m a’-typ e butterfly. These schem atic buttcrflics are the prototypes o f the M inoan ‘doub le-axes’ vvhich vve find p ortraycd betvveen the horns o f a buli. T h e em blem o f the G reat Goddess in its origin has nothing to do vvith the a x e ; it antedates the appearance o f metal axes by several thousand years. In the second m illcnnium bc ; , because o f their incrcasing im portance axes vvere m ade in im itation o fa butterfly (therefore double-bladed). W hen fm ally the buttcrfly becam e a double-axe, the im age o f the goddess as a buttcrfly continued to be engraved on doublc-axcs. 186

149 M inoan goddess holding butterflies (double axes)

1 5 1 Bucrania and ritual liorns surmounted by a ‘double a xe’ (butterfly). Painting on a M ycenaen k ra ter from Salam is, C yp ru s

15 0 Engravings o f butterjiie. on N eolithic vases from the Linear Pottery culture in C zechoslovakia. Fifth millennium BC

1 5 2 Painted representation o f goddess with ivings in the shape o f a double a xe on a M iddle M inoan I t I vase from Knossos

M o reo ve r, on painted M inoan vases there is frequently an anth ropo­ m orph ic im age o f the goddess having vvings in the shape o f a doubleaxe, an eeho o f the goddess’ epiphany in the shape o fa buttcrfly. T h e T o m b o f the D o u b le-A x cs at Knossos vvas, in fact, a shrine o f the goddess (Evans 19 2 5 : 6 1). T h e proccss o f transform ation from a butterfly to a d ou b lc-axe m ust have been influenccd by the sim ilarity o f shape betvveen the tvvo or b y the influence o f the n carby IndoEuropeans (M ycenaeans), to vvhom the axc o f the T h u n d er-g od vvas sacred since it vvas inbued vvith his potency. W hcrcas the IndoEuropean axc vvas the vveapon o f a male god, the M inoan d oublcaxe vvas n ever shovvn in such a context. It appears as an em blem held by the goddess in each hand in frescoes and on sehist plaques. C aterpillars appear on Cucuteni vases, both in a proccssion o f the goddess’ animals (see Fig. 12 1) and in association vvith her dogs (see Pl. 164). Short zigzaggin g creatures vvith round heads at both ends above the belt o fsp ira llin g snakes probably vvere meant to represent

187

0 1 5 .i Painted representation o f goddess u'ith u>ings in sliapc o fa double axe (resanbting a btntcrfly) on a flora! stem. Late M inoan /, island of M oclilos, C.ri’tc

|Gold p laau c o f B e c G oddess i C am iro s, R h o d c s . Seventh |ury bc "Bee G od d ess. R e l i e f on a Jie r d ; K o p an cs, southeastern &gairy. C en tra l B alkan Jithic. S ix th m illen n iu m bc IRem'ains o f a b o w l sh o w in g poddess painted in red on te b a ck gro u n d . Szentes, eastern H u n g a ry . A lfo ld jithic

fU te C u c u tcn i vase fro m |i» northcastern R o m a n ia . T h e rpillar in the band arou n d the S is significant

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caterpillars. Cresccnts vvith dots around them, in association w ith b u ll’s horns vvithin the sections o f crossed lines, such as w e have seen painted on a Cucutcni dish (see Pl. 49), could also be caterpillars. T he m oon crescent, the Caterpillar and bu ll’s horns are closely connected. Since caterpillars and butterflies appeared in O ld European sym b olism , it is reasonable to assume that there w ere chrysalises too. T h e chrysalis, i f inarticulately presented, can be easily overlooked . S o m e horizontally ridged grcenstone pendants from E arly N eolithic settlem cnts (such as vvere unearthed in the earliest site o f Anza, M acedon ia, dating from the end o f the seventh m illennium b c ), as vvell as certain form s o f shells used as beads, could be interpreted as representing chrysalises. T h e shape o f a chrysalis does not necessarily have to appear in lifelike representations. T he figurines o f the chthonic goddess o f the C h alcolithic period seem to have the chrysalis as an u n d erlyin g idea. These figurines are usually schem atic and groups o f horizontal lines are inciscd on the narro w in g lovver b o d y (cf. Fig. 103). T h e narrovv skirts o f the V inča ladics, vvhich usually end in horizontal lines or bands (sce Fig. 8), m ay likew ise bc related to the idea o ft h e chrysalis. A 11 odd painting 011 one o f the shrines o f Qatal H u y iik o f the seventh m illennium b c seems to represent a h oneycom b with chrysalises, bees or butterflies (M ellaart 1964: 129). E ven to the scientific observer today, the transform ation o f an u g ly Caterpillar into a beautiful vvinged creature seems like a miraele. B u t even m ore astonishing is the fact that m an, equipped vvith only the patience to observe, recognized ali the stages o f the dram a and ineorporated it in his sym bolism at least seven or eight thousand years ago.

188

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184, 1X5

6 The bear: the goddess as mother and nurse A strange anim al-headed figurine vvith tvvo turban-shaped ears, fem ale breasts, and its single unbroken arm resting across the abdo­ men vvas found at the Starčevo settlement o f Porodin. In V inča sites a num ber o f bear-headed figurines vvere found, representing either cpiphanies o f the goddess in anim al form or her vvorshippers. Som e are seated on a throne and decorated vvith crescents. T h e fam ous sculpture knovvn as the 'L a d y o f V in ča’ , broken from a throne or scat vvhich vvas not recovcrcd, is p robably a refmcd portrayal o f the goddess vvearing an anim al mask. Painted in alternating black and red bands and vvearing a pentagonal stylizcd mask vvith huge black eyes, she has her right arm held diago n ally across the front o f her b o d y, the hand touching her left breast. H er shoulders are broad and 011 the upper arm are four incisions vvhich m ay sym b olically asscrt her status. A V inča figurine, representing the bear m other or nurse, from Fafos in Southern Y u go s!av ia shovvs a seated vvoman holding a cub, iyo

18 3 G od d ess vvith an im al (bear?) m ask seated on a th ro n e fro m the V in ča site. c. m id -fifth m illcn n iu m BC

184, 185 T h e ‘ L a d y o f V in č a ’. T erracotta o f a m asked goddess o rigin a lly seated 011 a throne. Late V in ča, 4500 - 4000 bc

1 86, 1 8 7 B ear cub (?) fro m P av lo va c , Sout her n Y u g o sla v ia . V in ča, c. ° ° ~ ° o ° K