The Fountainhead

The Fountainhead “Fountainhead” redirects here. Fountainhead (disambiguation).

For other uses, see tiates himself with senior partner Guy Francon. Roark and Cameron create inspired work, but rarely receive recognition, whereas Keating’s ability to flatter brings him The Fountainhead is a 1943 novel by Ayn Rand, and her quick success. To hasten his rise to power, Keating bends his skills in manipulation towards the removal of rivals first major literary success. More than 6.5 million copies within his firm. His actions culminate in the unintended of the book have been sold worldwide. manslaughter of Lucius Heyer, a senior partner, who dies The Fountainhead's protagonist, Howard Roark, is an of a stroke when threatened with blackmail by Keating. individualistic young architect who chooses to struggle Though he occasionally feels guilt for his unethical acin obscurity rather than compromise his artistic and per- tions that led to his partnership within the firm, Keating sonal vision. The book follows his battle to practice what demonstrates that he will always pursue his lust for presthe public sees as modern architecture, which he be- tige regardless of personal cost. lieves to be superior, despite an establishment centered on tradition-worship. How others in the novel relate to After Cameron retires, Keating hires Roark, who is soon Roark demonstrates Rand’s various archetypes of human fired for insubordination by Francon. Roark works briefly character, all of which are variants between Roark, the at another firm and then opens his own office. Howauthor’s ideal man of independence and integrity, and ever, he has trouble finding clients and eventually closes what she described as the “second-handers”. The com- it down. He takes a job at a granite quarry owned by plex relationships between Roark and the various kinds Francon. Meanwhile, Keating has developed an interof individuals who assist or hinder his progress, or both, est in Francon’s beautiful, temperamental and idealistic allow the novel to be at once a romantic drama and a daughter Dominique, who works as a columnist for The philosophical work. Roark is Rand’s embodiment of New York Banner, a yellow press-style newspaper. While Roark is working in the quarry, he meets Dominique, what she believes to be the ideal man, and his struggle reflects Rand’s personal belief that individualism trumps who has retreated to her family’s estate in the same town. There is an immediate attraction between them. Rather collectivism. than indulge in traditional flirtation, the two engage in a The manuscript was rejected by twelve publishers before battle of wills that culminates in a rough sexual encounter editor Archibald Ogden at the Bobbs-Merrill Company that Dominique later describes as a rape. Shortly after risked his job to get it published. Despite mixed reviews their encounter, Roark is notified that a client is ready to from the contemporary media, the book gained a follow- start a new building, and he returns to New York before ing by word of mouth and became a bestseller. The novel Dominique can learn his name. was made into a Hollywood film in 1949. Rand wrote the Ellsworth M. Toohey, author of a popular architecture screenplay, and Gary Cooper played Roark. column in the Banner, is an outspoken socialist who is covertly rising to power by shaping public opinion through his column and his circle of influential associates. Toohey sets out to destroy Roark through a smear cam1 Plot summary paign he spearheads. Toohey convinces a weak-minded businessman to hire Roark to design a temple dedicated In the spring of 1922, Howard Roark is expelled from his to the human spirit. Given full freedom to design it as architecture school for refusing to adhere to the school’s he sees fit, Roark includes a nude statue of Dominique, conventionalism. Despite an effort by some professors to which creates a public outcry. Toohey manipulates the defend Roark and a subsequent offer to continue, Roark client into suing Roark. At the trial, prominent architects chooses to leave the school. He believes buildings should (including Keating) testify that Roark’s style is unorthobe sculpted to fit their location, material and purpose el- dox and illegitimate. Dominique speaks in Roark’s deegantly and efficiently, while his critics insist that adher- fense, but he loses the case. ence to historical convention is essential. He goes to New York City to work for Henry Cameron, a disgraced archi- Dominique decides that since she cannot have the world tect whom Roark admires. Peter Keating, a popular but she wants, in which men like Roark are recognized for vacuous fellow student, has graduated with high honors. their greatness, she will live completely and entirely in He too moves to New York to take a job at the prestigious the world she has, which shuns Roark and praises Keatarchitectural firm of Francon & Heyer, where he ingra- ing. She offers Keating her hand in marriage. Keating 1

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2

BACKGROUND

accepts, breaking his previous engagement with Toohey’s niece Catherine. Dominique turns her entire spirit over to Keating, doing and saying whatever he wants. She fights Roark and persuades his potential clients to hire Keating instead. Despite this, Roark continues to attract a small but steady stream of clients who see the value in his work.

rewrote the story, transforming the rivals into architects. One of them, Howard Kane, was an idealist dedicated to his mission and erecting the skyscraper despite enormous obstacles. The film would have ended with Kane’s throwing back his head in victory, standing atop the completed skyscraper. In the end DeMille rejected Rand’s script, To win Keating a prestigious commission offered by and the actual film followed Murphy’s original idea, but elements she would later use in Gail Wynand, the owner and editor-in-chief of the Ban- Rand’s version contained The Fountainhead.[1] ner, Dominique agrees to sleep with Wynand. Wynand then buys Keating’s silence and his divorce from Do- David Harriman, who in 1999 edited the posthumous minique, after which Wynand and Dominique are mar- “Journals of Ayn Rand”[2] also noted some elements of ried. Wynand subsequently discovers that every building “The Fountainhead” already present in the notes for an he likes was designed by Roark, so he enlists Roark to earlier novel which Rand worked on and never completed. build a home for himself and Dominique. The home is Its protagonist is shown as goaded beyond endurance by built, and Roark and Wynand become close friends, al- a pastor, finally killing him and getting executed. The though Wynand does not know about Roark’s past rela- pastor—considered a paragon of virtue by society but actionship with Dominique. tually a monster—is in many ways similar to Ellsworth Now washed up and out of the public eye, Keating realizes Toohey, and the pastor’s assassination is reminiscent of he is a failure. He pleads with Toohey for his influence Steven Mallory’s attempt to kill Toohey. to get the commission for the much-sought-after Cortlandt housing project. Keating knows his most successful projects were aided by Roark, so he asks for Roark’s help in designing Cortlandt. Roark agrees to design it in exchange for complete anonymity and Keating’s promise that it will be built exactly as designed. When Roark returns from a long trip with Wynand, he finds that the Cortlandt design has been changed despite his agreement with Keating. Roark dynamites the building to prevent the subversion of his vision.

Rand began The Fountainhead (originally titled SecondHand Lives) following the completion in 1934 of her first novel, We the Living. While that earlier novel had been based partly on people and events from Rand’s experiences, the new novel was to focus on the less-familiar world of architecture. Therefore, she did extensive research to develop plot and character ideas. This included reading numerous biographies and books about architecture,[3] and working as an unpaid typist in the office of architect Ely Jacques Kahn.[4]

The entire country condemns Roark, but Wynand finally finds the courage to follow his convictions and orders his newspapers to defend him. The Banner's circulation drops and the workers go on strike, but Wynand keeps printing with Dominique’s help. Wynand is eventually faced with the choice of closing the paper or reversing his stance. He gives in; the newspaper publishes a denunciation of Roark over Wynand’s signature. At the trial, Roark seems doomed, but he rouses the courtroom with a speech about the value of ego and the need to remain true to oneself. The jury finds him not guilty and Roark wins Dominique. Wynand, who has finally grasped the nature of the “power” he thought he held, shuts down the Banner and asks Roark to design one last building for him, a skyscraper that will testify to the supremacy of man. Eighteen months later, the Wynand Building is under construction and Dominique, now Roark’s wife, enters the site to meet him atop its steel framework.

Rand’s intention was to write a novel that was less overtly political than We the Living, to avoid being “considered a 'one-theme' author”.[5] As she developed the story, she began to see more political meaning in the novel’s ideas about individualism.[6] Rand also initially planned to introduce each of the four sections with a quote from philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, whose ideas had influenced her own intellectual development. However, she eventually decided that Nietzsche’s ideas were too different from her own. She did not place the quotes in the published novel, and she edited the final manuscript to remove other allusions to him.[7]

2

Background

In 1928, Cecil B. DeMille charged Rand with writing a script for what would become the film Skyscraper. The original story, by Dudley Murphy, was about two construction workers involved in building a New York skyscraper who are rivals for a woman’s love. Rand

Rand’s work on The Fountainhead was repeatedly interrupted. In 1937, she took a break from it to write a novella called Anthem. She also completed a stage adaptation of We the Living that ran briefly in early 1940.[8] That same year, she also became actively involved in politics, first working as a volunteer in Wendell Willkie's presidential campaign, then attempting to form a group for conservative intellectuals.[9] As her royalties from earlier projects ran out, she began doing freelance work as a script reader for movie studios. When Rand finally found a publisher, the novel was only one-third complete.[10]

4.2

Peter Keating

3

Publication history

Although she was a previously published novelist and had a successful Broadway play, Rand had difficulty finding a publisher for The Fountainhead. Macmillan Publishing, which had published We the Living, rejected the book after Rand insisted that they must provide more publicity for her new novel than they did for the first one.[11] Rand’s agent began submitting the book to other publishers. In 1938, Knopf signed a contract to publish the book, but when Rand was only a quarter done with manuscript by October 1940, Knopf canceled her contract.[12] Several other publishers rejected the book, and Rand’s agent began to criticize the novel. Rand fired her agent and decided to handle submissions herself.[13]

3 mover” to achieve pure art, not mitigated by others, as opposed to councils or committees of individuals which lead to compromise and mediocrity and a “watering down” of a prime mover’s completed vision. He represents the triumph of individualism over the slow stagnation of collectivism. He is eventually arrested for dynamiting a building he designed, the design of which was compromised by other architects brought in to negate his vision of the project. During his trial, Roark delivers a speech condemning “second-handers” and declaring the superiority of prime movers; he prevails and is vindicated by the jury. The character of Roark was at least partly inspired by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Rand described the inspiration as limited to “some of his architectural ideas [and] the pattern of his career”.[19] She denied that Wright had anything to do with the philosophy expressed by Roark or the events of the plot.[20][21] Rand’s denials have not stopped other commentators from claiming stronger connections between Wright and Roark.[21][22] Wright himself equivocated about whether he thought Roark was based on him, sometimes implying that he was, at other times denying it.[23] Wright biographer Ada Louise Huxtable described the “yawning gap” between Wright’s philosophy and Rand’s, and quoted him declaring, “I deny the paternity and refuse to marry the mother.”[24]

While Rand was working as a script reader for Paramount Pictures, her boss there, Richard Mealand, offered to introduce her to his publishing contacts. He put her in touch with the Bobbs-Merrill Company. A recently hired editor, Archibald Ogden, liked the book, but two internal reviewers gave conflicting opinions about it. One said it was a great book that would never sell; the other said it was trash but would sell well. Ogden’s boss, BobbsMerrill president D.L. Chambers, decided to reject the book. Ogden responded by wiring to the head office, “If this is not the book for you, then I am not the editor for you.” His strong stand got a contract for Rand in December 1941. Twelve other publishers had rejected 4.2 the book.[14] Rand’s working title for the book was Second Hand Lives, but Ogden pointed out that this emphasized the story’s villains. Rand offered The Mainspring as an alternative, but this title had been recently used for another book, so she used a thesaurus and found 'fountainhead' as a synonym.[15] The Fountainhead was published in May 1943. Initial sales were slow, but as Mimi Reisel Gladstein described it, sales “grew by word-of-mouth, developing a popularity that asserted itself slowly on the best-seller lists.”[16] It reached number six on The New York Times bestseller list in August 1945, over two years after its initial publication.[17] A 25th anniversary edition was issued by New American Library in 1971, including a new introduction by Rand. In 1993, a 50th anniversary edition from Bobbs-Merrill added an afterword by Rand’s heir, Leonard Peikoff. By 2008 the novel had sold over 6.5 million copies in English, and it had been translated into several languages.[18]

4 4.1

Characters Howard Roark

As the protagonist of the book, Roark is an aspiring architect who firmly believes that a person must be a “prime

Peter Keating

Peter Keating is also an aspiring architect, but is everything that Roark is not. His original inclination was to become an artist, but his opportunistic mother pushes him toward architecture where he might have greater material success. Even by Roark’s own admission, Keating does possess some creative and intellectual abilities, but is stifled by his sycophantic pursuit of wealth over morals. His willingness to build what others wish leads him to temporary success. He attends architecture school with Roark, who helps him with some of his less inspired projects. He is subservient to the wills of others: Dominique Francon’s father, the architectural establishment, his mother, even Roark himself. Keating is “a man who never could be, but doesn't know it”. The one sincere thing in Keating’s life is his love for Catherine Halsey, Ellsworth Toohey’s niece. Though she offers to introduce Keating to Toohey, he initially refuses despite the fact that such an introduction would help his career. It is the only exception to his otherwise relentless and ruthless ambition, which includes bullying and threatening to blackmail a sick old man and unintentionally causing his death. Although Keating does have a conscience, and often does genuinely feel bad after doing certain things he knows are immoral, he only feels this way in hindsight, and doesn't allow his morals to influence current decision making. Keating’s offer to elope with Catherine is his one chance to act on what he believes is his own desire. But, Dominique arrives at that precise moment and offers to marry him for her own reasons,

4

4

and his acceptance of the offer and betrayal of Catherine ends the potential of romance between them. His acceptance of Dominique’s offer of marriage, which would help his career far more than a marriage with Catherine, is a quintessential example of his failure to stand up for his own convictions.

4.3

CHARACTERS

mately fails in his attempts to wield power, losing his newspaper, his wife, and his friendship with Roark.[33] The character has been interpreted as a representation of Nietzsche’s "master morality",[34] and his tragic nature illustrates Rand’s rejection of Nietzsche’s philosophy.[35] In Rand’s view, a person like Wynand, who seeks power over others, is just as much a “second-hander” as a conformist like Keating.[36]

Dominique Francon

Dominique Francon is the heroine of The Fountainhead, 4.5 described by Rand as “the woman for a man like Howard Roark.”[25] For most of the novel, the character operates from what Rand later described as “a very mistaken idea about life.”[26] Dominique is the daughter of Guy Francon, a highly successful but creatively inhibited architect. She is a thorn in the flesh of her father and causes him much distress for her works criticizing the architectural profession’s mediocrity. Peter Keating is employed by her father, and her intelligence, insight and observations are above his. It is only through Roark that her love of adversity and autonomy meets a worthy equal. These strengths are also what she initially lets stifle her growth and make her life miserable. She begins thinking that the world did not deserve her sincerity and intellect, because the people around her did not measure up to her standards. She starts out punishing the world and herself for all the things about man which she despises, through selfdefeating behavior. She initially believes that greatness, such as Roark’s, is doomed to fail and will be destroyed by the 'collectivist' masses around them. She eventually joins Roark romantically, but before she can do this, she must learn to join him in his perspective and purpose.

Ellsworth Toohey

The character has provoked varied reactions from commentators. Chris Matthew Sciabarra called her “one of the more bizarre characters in the novel.”[27] Mimi Reisel Gladstein called her “an interesting case study in perverseness”[28] Tore Boeckmann described her as a British socialist Harold Laski was one of Rand’s primary inspicharacter with “mixed premises”, some of which were rations for the character of Ellsworth Toohey. mistaken, and saw her actions as a logical representation Ellsworth Monkton Toohey, who writes a popular art critof how her conflicting ideas might play out.[29] icism column, is Roark’s antagonist. Toohey is Rand’s personification of evil, the most active and self-aware villain in any of her novels.[37] Toohey is a socialist, and rep4.4 Gail Wynand resents the spirit of collectivism more generally. He styles the masses, but his Gail Wynand is a wealthy newspaper mogul who rose himself as representative of the will of[38] He controls inactual desire is for power over others. from a destitute childhood in the ghettoes of New York dividual victims by destroying their sense of self-worth, City to control much of the city’s print media. While and seeks broader power (over “the world”, as he declares Wynand shares many of the character qualities of Roark, to Keating in a moment of candor) by promoting the idehis success is dependent upon his ability to pander to pubethical altruism and a rigorous egalitarianism that als of lic opinion, a flaw which eventually leads to his downtreats all people and achievements as equally valuable, refall. In her journals Rand described Wynand as “the man [39] As one reviewer described gardless of their true value. who could have been” a heroic individualist, contrasting him to Roark, “the man who can be and is”.[30] Some his approach: elements of Wynand’s character were inspired by reallife newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst,[31] including Hearst’s mixed success in attempts to gain political influence.[32] Wynand is a tragic figure who ulti-

Aiming at a society that shall be “an average drawn upon zeroes,” he knows exactly why he corrupts Peter Keating, and explains

5.2

Architecture his methods to the ruined young man in a passage that is a pyrotechnical display of the fascist mind at its best and its worst; the use of the ideal of altruism to destroy personal integrity, the use of humor and tolerance to destroy all standards, the use of sacrifice to enslave.[40]

His biggest threat is the strength of the individual spirit embodied by Roark.[41]

5 Fountainhead hardly mentions politics or economics, despite the fact that it was born in the 1930s. Nor does it deal with world affairs, although it was written during World War II. It is about one man against the system, and it does not permit other matters to intrude.”[44]

5.2 Architecture

Rand used her memory of the British democratic socialist Harold Laski to help her imagine what Toohey would do in a given situation. New York intellectuals Lewis Mumford and Clifton Fadiman also contributed inspirations for the character.[42]

4.6

Minor characters

• Henry Cameron: Roark’s architect mentor and employer • The Dean: The dean of the Stanton Institute of Technology architecture school • Guy Francon: Dominique’s father and Keating’s employer and business partner • Catherine Halsey: Keating’s fiancee and Toohey’s niece • Austen Heller: An individualistic thinker who hires Roark and becomes one of his biggest allies. • Lucius Heyer: The business partner of Guy Francon, who is indirectly killed by Keating’s attempts at manipulation. • Mrs. Keating: Keating’s overbearing and Rand’s descriptions of Roark’s buildings were inspired by the manipulative mother

work of Frank Lloyd Wright, such as Fallingwater, a residence he designed in the 1930s.

5

• Steven Mallory: A disillusioned sculptor who tries to kill Toohey but later regains his confidence with Rand dedicated The Fountainhead to her husband, Frank the help of Roark O'Connor, and to architecture. She chose architecture • Alvah Scarret: Wynand’s editor-in-chief for the analogy it offered to her ideas, especially in the context of the ascent of modern architecture. It pro• John Erik Snyte: An employer of Roark’s who uses vided an appropriate vehicle to solidify her beliefs that a group of five designers to create a final sketch the individual is of supreme value, the “fountainhead” of creativity, and that selfishness, properly understood as ethical egoism, is a virtue.

5.1

Main themes Individualism

Rand indicated that the primary theme of The Fountainhead was “individualism versus collectivism, not in politics but within a man’s soul.”[43] Apart from scenes such as Roark’s courtroom defense of the American concept of individual rights, she avoided direct discussion of political issues. As historian James Baker described it, "The

Peter Keating and Howard Roark are character foils. Keating practices in the historical eclectic and neo-classic mold, even when the building’s typology is a skyscraper. He follows and pays respect to old traditions. He accommodates the changes suggested by others, mirroring the eclectic directions, and willingness to adapt, current at the turn of the twentieth century. Roark searches for truth and honesty and expresses them in his work. He is uncompromising when changes are suggested, mirroring modern architecture’s trajectory from dissatisfaction

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6

RECEPTION AND LEGACY

with earlier design trends to emphasizing individual cre- 6.2 Responses to the rape scene ativity. Roark’s individuality eulogizes modern architects One of the most controversial elements of the book as uncompromising and heroic. is the rape scene between Roark and Dominique.[53] The Fountainhead has been cited by numerous archiFeminist critics have attacked the scene as representative tects as an inspiration for their work. Architect Fred of an anti-feminist viewpoint in Rand’s works that makes Stitt, founder of the San Francisco Institute of Archiwomen subservient to men.[54] Susan Brownmiller, in her tecture, dedicated a book to his “first architectural men1975 work Against Our Will, denounced what she called tor, Howard Roark”.[45] Nader Vossoughian has written “Rand’s philosophy of rape”, for portraying women as that "The Fountainhead... has shaped the public’s perwanting “humiliation at the hands of a superior man”. ception of the architectural profession more than perhaps She called Rand “a traitor to her own sex”.[55] Susan [46] any other text over this last half-century.” According Love Brown said the scene presents Rand’s view of sex to renowned architectural photographer Julius Shulman, as “an act of sadomasochism and of feminine subordiit was Rand’s work that “brought architecture into the nation and passivity”.[56] Barbara Grizzuti Harrison sugpublic’s focus for the first time,” and he believes that The gested women who enjoy such “masochistic fantasies” Fountainhead was not only influential among 20th cenare “damaged” and have low self-esteem.[57] While Rand tury architects, it “was one, first, front and center in the scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein found elements to admire life of every architect who was a modern architect.”[47] in Rand’s female protagonists, she said that readers who have “a raised consciousness about the nature of rape” would disapprove of Rand’s “romanticized rapes”.[58]

6 6.1

Reception and legacy Contemporary reception

The Fountainhead polarized critics and received mixed reviews upon its release.[48] The New York Times' review of the novel named Rand “a writer of great power” who writes “brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly,” and it stated that she had “written a hymn in praise of the individual... you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time.”[40] Benjamin DeCasseres, a columnist for the New York Journal-American, wrote of Roark as “an uncompromising individualist” and “one of the most inspiring characters in modern American literature.” Rand sent DeCasseres a letter thanking him for explaining the book’s individualistic themes when many other reviewers did not.[49] There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed many of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications.[48] A number of negative reviews focused on the length of the novel,[50] such as one that called it “a whale of a book” and another that said “anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing.” Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand’s style “offensively pedestrian.”[48] The year 1943 also saw the publication of The God of the Machine by Isabel Paterson and The Discovery of Freedom by Rose Wilder Lane. Rand, Lane and Paterson have been referred to as the founding mothers of the American libertarian movement with the publication of these works.[51] Journalist John Chamberlain, for example, credits these works with his final “conversion” from socialism to what he called “an older American philosophy” of libertarian and conservative ideas.[52]

Rand denied that what happened in the scene was actually rape, referring to it as “rape by engraved invitation”[53] because Dominique wanted and “all but invited” the act, citing among other things the conversation after Dominique scratches the marble slab in her bedroom in order to invite Roark to repair it.[59] A true rape, Rand said, would be “a dreadful crime”.[60] Defenders of the novel have agreed with this interpretation. In an essay specifically explaining this scene, Andrew Bernstein wrote that although there is much “confusion” about it, the descriptions in the novel provide “conclusive” evidence that “Dominique feels an overwhelming attraction to Roark” and “desires desperately to sleep with” him.[61] Individualist feminist Wendy McElroy said that while Dominique is “thoroughly taken,” there is nonetheless “clear indication that Dominique not only consented,” but also enjoyed the experience.[62] Both Bernstein and McElroy saw the interpretations of feminists such as Brownmiller as being based in a false understanding of sexuality.[63] Rand’s posthumously published working notes for the novel, which were not known at the time of her debate with feminists, indicate that when she started working on the book in 1936 she conceived of Roark’s character that “were it necessary, he could rape her and feel justified.”[64]

6.3 Cultural influence The Fountainhead has continued to have strong sales throughout the last century into the current one, and has been referenced in a variety of popular entertainment, including movies, television series and other novels.[66] Despite its popularity, it has received relatively little ongoing critical attention.[67][68] Assessing the novel’s legacy, philosopher Douglas Den Uyl described The Fountainhead as relatively neglected compared to her later novel, Atlas Shrugged, and said, “our problem is to find those

6.4

Pop culture references

7

6.4 Pop culture references In the film Dirty Dancing (1987) Baby confronts Robbie to pay for Penny’s abortion. Robbie refuses to take responsibility and says “Some people count and some people don't” and then hands Baby a used paperback copy of The Fountainhead saying, “Read it. I think it’s a book you'll enjoy, but make sure you return it; I have notes in the margin.”[77][78] In Episode 7.7 "Mazel Tov, Dummies!" of 30 Rock, Jack reads a passage from The Fountainhead instead of the Bible. In the film A Scanner Darkly (2006) the character Charles Freck unsuccessfully attempts suicide while wishing to be found dead in his apartment with his body gripping a copy of The Fountainhead. Due to drug-induced incoherence, he illogically believes that such an action will “indict the system and allow his death to achieve something”.

The name and motto of the Fountainhead Café, a New York City coffeehouse, were influenced by the novel.[65]

In Episode 20.20 "Four Great Women and a Manicure" of The Simpsons, Marge takes Lisa to a salon for her first manicure, prompting a debate as to whether a woman can simultaneously be smart, powerful and beautiful by telling tales to one another. In the final tale, Maggie is depicted as “Maggie Roark,” representing Howard Roark from The Fountainhead.

In Season 2 Episode 13 “A-Tisket A-Tasket” of Gilmore topics that arise clearly with The Fountainhead and yet Girls, Rory encourages Jess to read The Fountainhead do not force us to read it simply through the eyes of Atlas once more, saying that it is classic and that no one could Shrugged.”[67] write a forty page monologue the way she (Ayn Rand) Among critics who have addressed it, some consider The could. Fountainhead to be Rand’s best novel,[69][70][71] such as In Woody Allen’s To Rome with Love, Monica (Ellen philosopher Mark Kingwell, who described The Foun- Page) talks about her desire to sleep with Howard Roark tainhead as “Rand’s best work—which is not to say it is to impress her friend’s boyfriend. good.”[72] A Village Voice columnist has called it “blatantly tendentious” and described it as containing “heavy- In Season 2, Episode 3 of Elementary, the book was found misplaced at the crime scene where Detective Marcus breathing hero worship.”[73] Bell remarks that “half the college kids in New York have The book has a particular appeal to young people, an ap- that book”. Sherlock Holmes then describes Ayn Rand as peal that led historian James Baker to describe it as “more “The philosopher-in-chief to the intellectually bankrupt”. important than its detractors think, although not as important as Rand fans imagine.”[70] Allan Bloom has re- In the Frasier episode Frasier’s Edge, Dr. Frasier Crane ferred to the novel as being “hardly literature,” one having says to his mentor that his interest in psychiatry was a “sub-Nietzschean assertiveness [that] excites somewhat sparked the day an older boy threw his copy of The Foun[79] eccentric youngsters to a new way of life.” However, he tainhead under a bus. also writes that when he asks his students which books In the film Identity Thief (2013), Sandy Patterson’s boss matter to them, there is always someone influenced by Harold Cornish says to him: “I'll get you a copy of The The Fountainhead.[74] Journalist Nora Ephron wrote that Fountainhead. Then you’ll see why this is good for everyshe had loved the novel when she was 18 but admitted body.” after questioning the hefty bonuses the higher-ups that she “missed the point,” which she suggested is largely will be receiving. subliminal sexual metaphor. Ephron wrote that she decided upon re-reading that “it is better read when one is In Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda, planet Fountainhead young enough to miss the point. Otherwise, one cannot is the historical homeworld of the Nietzschean people, help thinking it is a very silly book.”[75] Architect David orbited by Ayn Rand station. In the episode The Banks Rockwell said that the film adaptation influenced his in- of the Lethe, Tyr throws a copy of The Fountainhead to terest in architecture and design, and that many architec- Captain Hunt. ture students at his university named their dogs Roark as In the Lost episode Par Avion, James “Sawyer” Ford is shown reading a copy of The Fountainhead.[80] a tribute to the protagonist of the novel and film.[76]

8

9

REFERENCES

In Season 6, Episode 20 of Barney Miller, titled “The Ar- Barcelona in early July 2014,[89] and then at the Festival chitect,” a man is arrested for vandalizing a newly con- d'Avignon later that month.[90] structed building that he claims is an unaesthetic modification of his original design. When the arrestee derisively refers to the structure as “that Cortlandt,” Diet- 8 See also rich deduces that he is a Roark copycat who has likely planted a time-bomb. Dietrich explains: “Cortland was • Objectivism (Ayn Rand) the name of the building in The Fountainhead, a novel by Ayn Rand.” “The Architect”. • Ethical egoism • Rational egoism

7 7.1

Adaptations Illustrated version

• Romantic realism • Individualism • Libertarianism

In 1945, Rand was approached by King Features Syndicate about having a condensed, illustrated version of the novel published for syndication in newspapers. Rand 9 References agreed, provided that she could oversee the editing and approve the proposed illustrations of her characters, 9.1 Citations which were provided by Frank Godwin. The 30-part series began on December 24, 1945, and ran in over 35 [1] Heller 2009, pp. 65, 441; Eyman, Scott (2010). Empire newspapers.[81] of Dreams: The Epic Life of Cecil B. DeMille. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-7432-8955-9. OCLC 464593099.

7.2

Film version

Main article: The Fountainhead (film)

[2] “Journals of Ayn Rand”, edited by David Harriman, Penguin, 1999, Ch. 3 [3] Burns 2009, p. 41

In 1949, Warner Brothers released a film based on the book, starring Gary Cooper as Howard Roark, Patricia Neal as Dominique Francon, Raymond Massey as Gail Wynand, and Kent Smith as Peter Keating. The film was directed by King Vidor. The Fountainhead grossed $2.1 million, $400,000 less than its production budget.[82] However, sales of the novel increased as a result of interest spurred by the film.[83] In letters written at the time, the author’s reaction to the film was positive, saying “The picture is more faithful to the novel than any other adaptation of a novel that Hollywood has ever produced”[84] and “It was a real triumph.”[85] However, she displayed a more negative attitude towards it later, saying that she “disliked the movie from beginning to end”, and complaining about its editing, acting and other elements.[86] As a result of this film, Rand said that she would never sell any of her novels to a film company that did not allow her the right to pick the director and screenwriter as well as edit the film, as she did not want to encounter the same production problems that occurred on this film.[87]

7.3

Theatrical version

[4] Gladstein 1999, p. 11 [5] Burns 2009, p. 43 [6] Burns 2009, p. 69 [7] Burns 2009, p. 87; Milgram, Shoshana. "The Fountainhead from Notebook to Novel”. in Mayhew 2006, pp. 13–17 [8] Britting 2004, pp. 54–56 [9] Burns 2009, pp. 54–66 [10] Branden 1986, p. 171 [11] Branden 1986, p. 155 [12] Burns 2009, p. 52 [13] Burns 2009, p. 68 [14] Burns 2009, p. 80; Branden 1986, pp. 170–171; Heller 2009, p. 186. Heller notes that the rejections included Macmillan and Knopf, who had expressed some interest in publishing the book but eventually rejected it over contractual issues. [15] Burns 2009, p. 80

In June 2014, an adaptation for the stage (in Dutch) [16] Gladstein 1999, p. 12 was presented at the Holland Festival, directed by Ivo [88] van Hove, with Ramsey Nasr as Howard Roark. [17] “Timeline of Ayn Rand’s Life and Career”. Ayn Rand The production subsequently went on tour, appearing in Institute. Retrieved April 23, 2011.

9.1

Citations

9

[18] Gladstein 2009, p. 122

[45] Branden 1986, p. 420

[19] Rand 2005, p. 190

[46] Vossoughian, Nader. “Ayn Rand’s 'Heroic' Modernism: Interview with Art and Architectural Historian Merrill Schleier”. agglutinations.com/. Retrieved November 23, 2010.

[20] Berliner, Michael S. “Howard Roark and Frank Lloyd Wright”. In Mayhew 2006, pp. 48–50 [21] Reidy, Peter. “Frank Lloyd Wright And Ayn Rand”. The Atlas Society. Retrieved October 31, 2010. [22] Berliner, Michael S. “Howard Roark and Frank Lloyd Wright”. In Mayhew 2006, pp. 42–44 [23] Berliner, Michael S. “Howard Roark and Frank Lloyd Wright”. In Mayhew 2006, pp. 47–48 [24] Huxtable, Ada Louise (2008) [2004]. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Life. New York: Penguin. p. 226. ISBN 9780-14-311429-1. OCLC 191929123. [25] Rand 1997, p. 89 [26] Rand 1995, p. 341 [27] Sciabarra 1995, p. 107 [28] Gladstein 1999, p. 41 [29] Boeckmann, Tore. “Aristotle’s Poetics and The Fountainhead. In Mayhew 2006, pp. 158, 164 [30] Burns 2009, p. 44; Heller 2009, pp. 117–118 [31] Burns 2009, p. 44; Johnson 2005, p. 44; Berliner, Michael S. “Howard Roark and Frank Lloyd Wright”. In Mayhew 2006, p. 57 [32] Burns 2009, pp. 44–45 [33] Gladstein 1999, pp. 52–53 [34] Hicks 2009, p. 267 [35] Gotthelf 2000, p. 14; Heller 2009, p. 117; Merrill 1991, pp. 47–50 [36] Smith, Tara. “Unborrowed Vision: Independence and Egoism in The Fountainhead". In Mayhew 2006, pp. 291–293; Baker 1987, pp. 102–103; Den Uyl 1999, pp. 58–59 [37] Gladstein 1999, p. 62; Den Uyl 1999, pp. 54–55; Minsaas, Kirsti. “The Stylization of Mind in Ayn Rand’s Fiction”. In Thomas 2005, p. 187

[47] McConnell 2010, pp. 84–85 [48] Berliner, Michael S. "The Fountainhead Reviews”, in Mayhew 2006, pp. 77–82 [49] Rand 1995, p. 75 [50] Gladstein 1999, pp. 117–119 [51] Powell, Jim (May 1996). “Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement”. The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty 46 (5): 322. Retrieved April 15, 2011. [52] John Chamberlain, A Life with the Printed Word, Regnery, 1982, p.136. [53] Burns 2009, p. 86; Den Uyl 1999, p. 22 [54] Den Uyl 1999, p. 22 [55] Brownmiller, Susan (1975). Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22062-4.. Reprinted in Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, pp. 63–65 [56] Brown, Susan Love. “Ayn Rand: The Woman Who Would Not Be President”. In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 289 [57] Harrison, Barbara Grizzuti. “Psyching Out Ayn Rand”. In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, pp. 74–75 [58] Gladstein 1999, pp. 27–28 [59] Rand 1995, p. 631 [60] Rand 1995, p. 282 [61] Bernstein, Andrew. “Understanding the 'Rape' Scene in The Fountainhead". In Mayhew 2006, pp. 201–203 [62] McElroy, Wendy. “Looking Through a Paradigm Darkly”. In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, pp. 163–164

[39] Den Uyl 1999, pp. 54–56; Sciabarra 1995, pp. 109–110

[63] Bernstein, Andrew. “Understanding the 'Rape' Scene in The Fountainhead". In Mayhew 2006, p. 207; McElroy, Wendy. “Looking Through a Paradigm Darkly”. In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, pp. 162–163

[40] Pruette 1943

[64] "Journals of Ayn Rand", entry for February 9, 1936.

[41] Merrill 1991, p. 52

[65] Cohen, Arianne (May 21, 2006). “The Soda Fountainhead”. New York.

[42] Berliner, Michael. “Howard Roark and Frank Lloyd Wright”. In Mayhew 2006, p. 57; Johnson 2005, pp. 44– 45

[66] Sciabarra 2004, pp. 3–5; Burns 2009, pp. 282–283

[38] Baker 1987, p. 52; Gladstein 1999, p. 62

[43] Rand 1997, p. 223 [44] Baker 1987, p. 51

[67] Den Uyl 1999, p. 21 [68] Hornstein, Alan D. (1999). “The Trials of Howard Roark”. Legal Studies Forum 23 (4): 431.

10

[69] Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn (2000). Encyclopedia of Women’s History in America (2nd ed.). New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 211. ISBN 0-8160-4100-8. [70] Baker 1987, p. 57 [71] Merrill 1991, p. 45 [72] Kingwell, Mark (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-300-10622-0. [73] Hoberman, J. (February 17, 1998). “Crazy for You”. The Village Voice 43 (7). p. 111. [74] Bloom, Allan (1987). The Closing of the American Mind. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 62. ISBN 0-67165715-1. OCLC 17820784. [75] Ephron, Nora (1970). "The Fountainhead Revisited”. Wallflower at the Orgy. New York: Viking. p. 47.

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REFERENCES

9.2 Works cited • Baker, James T. (1987). Ayn Rand. Boston, Massachusetts: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-80577497-1. OCLC 14933003. • Branden, Barbara (1986). The Passion of Ayn Rand. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-19171-5. OCLC 12614728. • Britting, Jeff (2004). Ayn Rand. Overlook Illustrated Lives. New York: Overlook Duckworth. ISBN 1-58567-406-0. OCLC 56413971. • Burns, Jennifer (2009). Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532487-7. OCLC 313665028.

[76] Hofler, Robert (2009). “The Show People”. Variety’s “the movie that changed my life": 120 celebrities pick the films that made a difference (for better or worse). Da Capo Press. p. 163.

• Den Uyl, Douglas J. (1999). The Fountainhead: An American Novel. Twayne’s Masterwork Studies. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-80577932-9.

[77] Tom Geoghega (17 August 2012). “Ayn Rand: Why is she so popular?". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved August 17, 2012.

• Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (1999). The New Ayn Rand Companion. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30321-5. OCLC 40359365.

[78] “IMDB: Memorable quotes for Dirty Dancing”. [79] “Frasier’s Edge”. The Frasier Archives. KACL780.net. Retrieved August 6, 2014. [80] “Sawyer reading The Fountaihead”. Imgur. Imgur. Retrieved January 8, 2016. [81] Sciabarra 2004, p. 6 [82] Hoberman, J (2011). “The ministry of truth, justice and the American way, 1948–50”. An Army of Phantoms: American Movies and the Making of the Cold War. The New Press. pp. 96–98. ISBN 1-59558-005-0. [83] Gladstein 2009, p. 95

• Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (2009). Ayn Rand. Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-4513-1. OCLC 319595162. • Gladstein, Mimi Reisel & Sciabarra, Chris Matthew, eds. (1999). Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand. Re-reading the Canon. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-01830-5. • Gotthelf, Allan (2000). On Ayn Rand. Wadsworth Philosophers Series. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-57625-7. OCLC 43668181.

[84] Rand 1995, p. 445 [85] Rand 1995, p. 419 [86] Britting 2004, p. 71 [87] McConnell 2010, p. 262 [88] "The Fountainhead: World Premier”. Holland Festival. Retrieved August 19, 2014. [89] "The Fountainhead in Barcelona”. Toneelgroep Amsterdam. Retrieved August 19, 2014. [90] Candoni, Christopher (July 16, 2014). "The Fountainhead: Ivo Van Hove Architecte d’un Grand Spectacle” [The Fountainhead: Ivo Van Hove Architect of a Great Show] (in French). Toute la Culture. Retrieved August 19, 2014.

• Heller, Anne C. (2009). Ayn Rand and the World She Made. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385-51399-9. OCLC 229027437. • Hicks, Stephen R.C. (Spring 2009). “Egoism in Nietzsche and Rand”. The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 10 (2): 249–291. • Johnson, Donald Leslie (2005). The Fountainheads: Wright, Rand, the FBI and Hollywood. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. ISBN 07864-1958-X. • Mayhew, Robert, ed. (2006). Essays on Ayn Rand’s The Fountainhead. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-1577-4. OCLC 70707828.

11 • McConnell, Scott (2010). 100 Voices: An Oral History of Ayn Rand. New York: New American Library. ISBN 978-0-451-23130-7. OCLC 555642813. • Merrill, Ronald E. (1991). The Ideas of Ayn Rand. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing. ISBN 08126-9157-1. OCLC 23254190. • Pruette, Lorine (May 16, 1943). “Battle Against Evil”. The New York Times. p. BR7. Reprinted in McGrath, Charles, ed. (1998). Books of the Century. New York: Times Books. pp. 135–136. ISBN 0-8129-2965-9. • Rand, Ayn (1995). Berliner, Michael S, ed. Letters of Ayn Rand. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-52593946-6. OCLC 31412028. • Rand, Ayn (1997). Harriman, David, ed. Journals of Ayn Rand. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-52594370-6. OCLC 36566117. • Rand, Ayn (2005). Mayhew, Robert, ed. Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-21665-2. OCLC 59148253. • Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (1995). Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-27101440-7. OCLC 31133644. • Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (Fall 2004). “The Illustrated Rand” (PDF). The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 6 (1): 1–20. • Thomas, William, ed. (2005). The Literary Art of Ayn Rand. Poughkeepsie, New York: The Objectivist Center. ISBN 1-57724-070-7.

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Further reading

• McGann, Kevin (1978). “Ayn Rand in the Stockyard of the Spirit”. In Peary, Gerald & Shatzkin, Roger (eds). The Modern American Novel and the Movies. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing. ISBN 0-8044-2682-1. • Cox, Stephen (2005). “The Literary Achievement of The Fountainhead". In Thomas, William. The Literary Art of Ayn Rand. Poughkeepsie, New York: The Objectivist Center. ISBN 1-57724-070-7.

10.1

Foreign language translations

• Czech: Zdroj, published by Berlet, 2000. • French: La Source vive, by Jane Fillion, published by Jeheber.

• German: Der ewige Quell, published by Morgarten Verlag. • Marathi: by Prof. Mugdha Karnik, University of Mumbai. Diamond Publications, 2013. • Spanish: El manantial, published by Barcelona, Ed. Planeta. • Vietnamese: Suối nguồn, by Lan Anh Vũ, published by TP HCM, 2007.

11 External links • Annual The Fountainhead essay contest (Ayn Rand Institute) • CliffsNotes for The Fountainhead • SparkNotes study guide for The Fountainhead

12

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses Text

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