The Evolution & Classification of the Dragon

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The Evolution & Classification of the Dragon © 2008 - 2010 Laura “Tamara” Henson Disclaimer This document is contains a revised version of the text “The Evolution & Classification of the Dragon” originally published online as a free download in 2008. It has been fully updated to include several new taxa and to correct nomaclature. All references have been confirmed as REAL, there are no fictional sources given in this book. All taxonomic information and Latin names may be used in any source they are not under copyright. Indeed I encourage people to use the conclusions in this paper, dragon genera and species have enough junior synonyms as it is. You are encouraged to make copies and print-outs as needed. This PDF has been published as a free download – if you are asked to pay for it you have been a victim of fraud.

Illustrations The art used in this book comes from a variety of sources. Most of the illustrations are from Simply Software’s Sci-Fi & Fantasy Clipart 3 and Witches and Wizards Clipart both edited by Jon Gustafson and © 1997-2008, No Hassle Home. Some are copyright free Clipart from various web sites. Other art is from (or modified from) various books on science or dragons and their use is not a challenge to their copyright status. Printing Instructions: Print the front page and this page single sided, print the remainder of the document double sided. The last page should printed single sided and used as the back cover.

Table of Contents Introduction

3

Coelurosauravis

4

Dragon Genera and Species Compendium

10

List of Draconic Species

20

Draconic Taxonomy

32

Bibliography

37

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Introduction A few years ago I wrote a discussion and summary of all the known scientific names given to dragons. This book is an updated version of that paper. This project was sparked as I was doing research on the wildlife of Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar novels. As I read up on the series, I realized that there were dragons in Pellucidar. Dragons? Sure thing, disregarding the wyvern-like Thripdars and the Mahars, two of Burroughs' beasts, should be frightfully familiar to draconologists. In Tarzan at the Earth’s Core the characters meet a dyrodor. The dyrodor is usually described as a Stegosaurus despite its sixty foot length, carnivorous habits, and ability to use its back plates to fly. Because of its bulk some fans have wondered if the dyrodor had a body filled with lighter than air gas, a theory first proposed for dragons. Then in the book Life-Size Dragons by John Grant, Fred Gambino painted the following picture:

Fred Gambino’s Varanus undraconis

One thing for sure this animal, described as an ancestral dragon, is no monitor lizard (the genus Varanus is only for these lizards) but it is a good match for Burroughs’ dyrodor. Burroughs’ second dragon appeared in the novel Savage Pellucidar and was called the trodon (not to be confused with the dinosaur Troodon). This beast had a pterodactylian head, four limbs, two wings, a poisonous tongue, and a pouch in which it carried victims paralyzed by its poison back to its cave where its hatchlings devoured them alive. After hatching it presumably carried its young in the pouch for Burroughs called it a marsupial reptile. Just compare this picture from the 2003 bestseller Dr. Ernest Drake’s Dragonology with both the description and two illustrations of a trodon.

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Dragons at the Earth’s Core: The Marsupial Dragon from Dragonology and two images of Burroughs’ Trodon

This made me think of what kind of prehistoric creature a dragon could have evolved from. Most authors make dragons the descendants of dinosaurs, but no true dinosaur had the features that could have created the dragon under natural conditions. However there was a creature from the Permian period that would fit the bill. This was Coelurosauravus. What is a Coelurosauravius? Good question, scientists are still trying to figure out where these critters fit on the tree of life.

Coelurosauravis Until the late 1990s, the coelurosauravids (hollow-lizard-birds) were classified as “pseudosuchian thecodonts”, a mixed bag of primitive archosaurs that included ancestral crocodilians, dinosaurs, and many others. When the pseudosuchians were dismissed as an unnatural group, the majority of the old species became placed in the protorosauria. As protorosaurs, coelurosauravians were considered to be either the sister group of the pterosaurs (according to Dave Peters) or to the lizards. Larry Martin however viewed them as basal crocodylomorphs, Alan Feduccia saw them as non-dinosaurian basal birds, and George Olshvsky insisted that they were very primitive theropod dinosaurs ancestral to birds. In 2004, Phil Senter claimed that Drepanosaurus, Coelurosauravus and Longisquama all formed a natural group which he named Avicephala meaning “Bird-heads”. Senter’s analysis also indicated that Avecephalans are stem group diapsids, not related to prolacertiformes, lizards, dinosaurs, or birds. Instead Avicephala was considered a sister taxon to the Sauria (Lepidosauromorpha + Archosauromorpha). More recent analysis has refuted Senter’s idea. These scientists place the drepanosaurs back in the protorosauria but retain coelurosauravids as basal diapsids. The main reason there is such confusion over the classification of these animals is that the group has a mixture of primitive and advanced characters that obscure their relationships. Some of these features are: 1. The animals have acrodont dentition. Acrodont teeth are found in lots of primitive diapsids (and lizards) but not in archosauromorphs (which have subthecodont or thecodont teeth).

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2. Archosauromorphs have at least 8 cervical vertebrae but coelurosauravians have the primitive six found in most other diapsids. 3. It has been claimed that Longisquama had a preorbital opening as in Archosauriformes, However others think this opening may be damage to the fossil, only new remains will tell us for sure. 4. Coelurosauravians have a furcula (wishbone) as do many dinosaurs including, of course, birds. Even more amazingly, they also have a clear glenoid-form articulation on them (a flattened surface on each ramus) as in birds. 5. Coelurosauravians have integumentary elements as in dinosaurs and birds. Coelurosauravian scales always show a continuous margin with regularly spaced wrinkles. This indicates that these were continuous sheets of keratinous material with a central shaft down the middle. This is different from the construction of feathers (a shaft with branches with branches with branches), but as John C. McLoughlin pointed out in his 1979 book Archosauria: a New Look at the Old Dinosaur: It seems reasonable to suppose that early endothermic thecodonts evolved some mechanism for trapping “dead air” next to the skin for prevention of heat loss, a mechanism which would also permit air circulation should the animal overheat. Although such a mechanism would be composed of soft tissue and thus unlikely to survive in fossils, we are graced by fate in having a delicately preserved little thecodont, Longisquamata (“long scales”) of mid-Triassic Russia showing evidence of having possessed scales modified to insulate the body’s surface. These keeled and elongated scales overlapped one another, trapping air pockets between themselves and the skin; to cool the animal they might be erected to allow dissipation of excess heat. 1 While some have argued otherwise, the integument of Coelurosauravians could be protofeathers without challenging the hypothesis that dinosaurs evolved into birds. It simply indicates that feathers evolved far earlier than suspected. Interestingly experiments have shown that the scutes of crocodiles are actually modified feathers instead of vice versa. On the other hand the “feathers” may be unrelated and merely look similar as in the “hair” on pterosaurs and the fur on mammals. · 6. This clade is also characterized by the (1) loss of lower temporal bar: osteological correlates for the existence of a birdlike prepatagial membrane; (2) elbow joints that, similar to many birds, "locked" at about 165 degrees extension (i.e., about 25 degree short of full extension); (3) fusion of dorsal vertebrae into a somewhat birdlike/pterosaur-like notarium; (4) lightened, externally "hollowed-out" long bones; (5) extremely long forelimbs, and possibly other flight or gliding adaptations. What has all of this to do with dragons? Well we know that Class Coelerosauravia used ossified modifications of this integument as wings. When first discovered in 1910 Coelurosauravis was thought to have elongated ribs that supported a gliding membrane as in the agamid lizard Draco volens. More complete fossil remains described in 1997 showed that the fan-like wings were not supported by the ribs as the new skeleton had a complete and normally proportioned ribcage. Instead the wings were supported by independent bony rods extending outwards and back from either side of the backbone. In other words

1

And by the way McLouglin was not describing the long scales on the back that make up what are now known to be the wings of Longisquamata in the quote above as he thought these scales to be display devices “used much as is the tail on a tom turkey”.

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Coelurosauravis (and possibly Longisquma as well) had four legs and two fan-like wings on their backs just like the mythical dragon. There are two known orders of Coelurosauravia: Order WEIGELTISAURIA Weigeltisaurs are the best-known extinct coelurosauravians with three known genera and at least four specimens all placed in family Coelurosauravidae. In this group, the wings are laterally oriented rib-like rods that support a membrane used to glide from branch to branch much like the living Draco lizard. Weigeltisaurs are also characterized by having average lengths of about 12 inches and skulls that are notable for having a broad back with a serrated crest that superficially resembles those of ceratopsian dinosaurs. This now extinct order lived during the Permian period and contains the short-necked genera Weigeltisaurus and Coelurosauravus (= Daedalosaurus) Of Europe and possibly the long necked Mechistotrachelos of the eastern United States.

Order LONGISQUAMATA Longisquama insignis of family Longisquamidae is the only known species in this extinct order, which comes from the early Triassic of Kyrgyzstan in Russia. Longisquama appeared to have feather-shaped structures attached to its back. Despite opinions that these structures were a crest along the back or fern fronds preserved with the animal most paleontologists are of the opinion that these structures are long, modified scales attached in pairs to the lateral walls of the body and used as paired gliding membranes. As many of these wings have been found without accompanying animal skeletons they may have been grown only during the breeding season and shed once that season was over much like the antlers of deer or the display feathers of some birds.

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The four known vertebrate wing configurations

Clearly if dragons were descended from real animals than those animals would have to be the Coelurosauravids as nothing else on Earth had four limbs and wings. Curious I decided to see if I could modify a series of well known dragon images (from Dungeons & Dragons) to see if I could get a typical dragon wing from a coelurosauravid wing. The result exceeded my hopes as it actually made sense of a feature constantly found in dragon depictions, a bony rod extending from the “elbow” of the wing. There is nothing like this in a bat’s wing but it makes sense here as the natural result of the fusion and reduction of the bony rods that make up the wing.

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So I had the ancestry of dragons, but what scientific name should they have? As I began researching it soon became obvious that the dragon had, by far, the most proposed scientific names of any legendary beast. It was a taxonomic wastebasket. But which one had priority? Before I could choose one I had to remember the three basic rules of giving an animal a scientific name. 1. One animal cannot have a scientific name that has already been used for another species. This means that the most commonly proposed generic name given to the dragon, Draco, is invalid. It cannot be used because it is already the generic name of a small Indonesian lizard. 2. The first named title has priority. This means that some names that are more properly descriptive or better known must be replaced with an older but less well known moniker. For example, Brontosaurus was named by Marsh in 1879 but decades later it was found that the dinosaur Apatosaurus (named by Marsh in 1877) was a juvenile of the same animal. As a result Brontosaurus became “sunk” into Apatosaurus and the animal is now called by its latter name.

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3. A genus cannot exist without containing at least one species. This means that the several genera proposed by Dickinson in his famous book The Flight of Dragons are invalid. To find out which names have priority I decided to list all proposed names by publication date. In the process of collecting this data I deliberately ignored several animals that are not usually thought of as dragons but are clearly related, such as gargoyles, pegasi, chimeras and griffins, and concentrated only on the animals that are commonly called dragons. The creatures I decided to use are the Guivres (four-legged winged dragons), Knuckers (four-legged wingless dragons), Wyverns (two-legged winged dragons), Lindwyrms (two-legged wingless dragons), Orms (limbless snake-like dragons), and Amphipteres (winged snake-like dragons). A full list of the resulting data is found in the next chapter.

The only image I could find of a dragon’s flight stroke in which the wings were of the Coelurosauravis type © 2007, Wizards of the Coast

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Dragon Genera & Species Compendium Below is a complete list of every scientific name I could find for dragons placed in order of publication. Some are from books on mythology, some from novels, and many were published in Role Playing Games. 2 Gary Gygax & Jeff Perren Common Name Great Red

Chainmail Genus Draco

1975 Species conflagrato or horribilis

This is the earliest published Latin name I have yet found for the dragon. It was found in the Chainmail Wargame rules and deals “with the great Red Dragon (Draco Confligrato or Draco Horribilis).” Other species (in particular the blue and green) are mentioned but not named.

Gary Gygax Common Name

Monster Manual Genus

Black Dragon Blue Dragon Brass Dragon Bronze Dragon Copper Dragon Gold Green Red Silver White

Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco

1977 Species causticus sputem electrus impudentus gallus gerus bronzo comes stabuli orientalus sino dux chlorinus nauseous respiratorus conflagrato horribilis nobilis argentus rigidus frigidus

The earliest Latin names for more than a single species of dragon was published in the original Monster Manual for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Game. The named dragons were divided into two subgenera in the 1990 Draconomicon by Nigel Findley. These subgenera were Inficedraco (black, blue, green, red, and white) and Ferrodraco (brass, copper, bronze, silver, and gold). The two groups can also be divided by wing structure into three types: bat winged dragons (black, blue, bronze, green, red, silver and white), fan winged dragons (brass and copper), and a wingless oriental dragon (the gold). However these wing structures are not consistent and other Ad&d products have shown brass, copper, and gold dragons with bat wings. In other words wing structure varies with artist and game edition and, with the exception of the gold dragon, has no bearing on taxonomy. The wingless/winged gold dragon is an exception for, as its Latin name indicates, it was originally a subspecies of the oriental dragon and Chinese myth claimed that dragons only became winged after living for several centuries. Thus, wingless golds are young and winged ones ancient. 3

2

Would these be a nomen ludum?

3

This differs from Wizard of the Coast/Hasbro’s (3rd & 4th) edition d&d where all golds are fan winged, but those versions of the game differ in many respects, including changes in the breath weapons, from the original. They also lack Latin names (or, in fact, any description at all) so are useless for taxonomic purposes. The information above is all from the original 1st and 2nd editions by TSR Inc.

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Sandy Peterson & Steve Perrin Common Name

Runequest Creatures 4 Genus

Basilisk Dragon Sea Serpent

Viperigallo Draco Megaserpentes

Stoorworm Wyrm Wyvern

Dracovermis Virmidraco Dracopterus

1978 Species necatrix pyrofer maritimus insidens tarbus pelorus

The dragon of Runequest is the western dragon; the sea serpent is a wingless aquatic dragon. The stoorworm is a typical orm, the wyrm is actually a typical amphiptere, and the wyvern and basilisk (cockatrice) are the same creatures that go by those names in legend.

Peter Dickinson Common Name

The Flight of Dragons Genus

Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Plestocene Dragon Mythical Dragon

1979 Species

Eodracon Pterodracon Pseudodracon Mythodracon

none given none given none given none given

Dickinson believed that dragons had died off in the latest Plestiocene. He placed both ancestral dragons in the early Cenozoic, but as he also placed Archaeopteryx during this time, this timing should be taken with a grain of salt. In any case, Dickinson did not give any of his animals a species name so all of his names are invalid.

Paul & Karin Johnsguard Common Name Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Flying Dragon American Mist Breathing Dragon European Fire Breathing Dragon Oriental Mist Breathing Dragon

Dragons & Unicorns: A Natural History

Genus Protodraco Mesodraco Pterodraco Neodraco Neodraco Neodraco

1982 Species none given none given volens americana pyrogena pluvialis

The Johnsguards traced dragons back to the hypsilophodont dinosaurs, and the ancestral forms were not given a species name which invalidates the name. Of the forms that were given names the flying dragon is a typical wyvern and the other three species are knuckers, with the male European fire-breathing dragon having tiny wing-like fore limbs.

4

Runequest Creatures was reprinted as booklet 4 in the 3RD Edition Game Master’s boxed set published by Avalon Hills, 1984.

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Gary Gygax Common Name Cloud Dragon Mist Dragon

Monster Manual 2 Genus Draco Draco

1983 Species cumulus welkin nebulus obscura

Of the four dragons in this sequel to the Monster Manual only two were given Latin names, the four-clawed Cloud and three clawed Mist. Both were dragons of the oriental type with no wings and extensive manes.

Michael Page Common Name European Dragon Occidental Dragon British Dragon Wyvern Worm Levantine Dragon Oriental Dragon Hydra

The Encyclopedia of Things that Never Were

Genus Draconis Draconis Draconis Draconis Draconis Draconis Draconis Draconis

1987

Species teutonica gallii albionensis bipedes nematoda cappadociae sinoensis ladonii

The European is the typical dragon of Germany and Scandinavia. The occidental is identical but lives in France, Italy, and Spain. The British dragon is actually the Firedrake. The worm is the legless orm of northern myth. The Levantine dragon is the dragon of Greece, Russia, and Africa. The oriental dragon, hydra, and wyvern are the creatures normally known by those names.

Jordan Weisman, et al. Common Name Basilisk Cockatrice Eastern Dragon Feathered Serpent Western Dragon Great Dragon

Shadowrun Genus Varanus Aveterror Draco Alatuserpens Draco Draco

1989 Species lapidis lapidaris orientalis quetzalcoatlus occidentalis sapiens

Dozens of authors were involved in this game including Jordan Weisman, Bob Charrette, and Paul Hume. Note that scientific names are found only in the older editions of the game. The basilisk of Shadowrun is described as a mutated varanid lizard but the cockatrice is the typical draconian chicken of legend. The eastern dragon is the typical oriental wingless dragon and the western is a typical guivre. The feathered serpent is an amphiptere, though it has two short legs like a wyvern. The great dragons are not a separate species but are simply eastern, western, and feathered dragons who can speak.

Nigel D. Findley

Paranormal Animals of North America

1990

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Common Name Chimera Fire drake Ice drake Sea Drake Lake Serpent Saltwater Serpent Wyvern

Genus Draco Draco Draco Neotylosaurus Pleuracanthus Pleuracanthus Alatuserpens

Species chimaera minimalis algoris pacificus laci oceani pili

The Chimera of Shadowrun is not the chimera of legend but is a large, wingless, dragon (or crocodile) with long horns and a skin frill around its neck. The fire drake and ice drake are miniature dragons only 5-6 feet long. The sea drake is a pliosaur-like beast while the lake and saltwater serpents resemble plestiosaurs. The wyvern resembles the feathered serpent of the above book but has no feathers and longer limbs.

Montse Sant Common Name Worm of the Deep Earth Dragon Water Dragon Fire Dragon Little Fire dragon Sicilian Dragonet

The Book of the Dragon Genus Drago Draco Draco Draco Draco Pirofagus

1992 Species drago rex splendens flameus flamula estupidus

In the first edition the name of the author is Montse Sant and the artist is Ciruelo. However, in the 2nd edition Ciruelo is given as the only author though the text is identical, so is Montse Sant a pseudonym for Ciruelo? As for the proposed species all are familiar from earlier publications. The worm of the deep is described as an immense wingless lizard. The Earth, water, and fire dragons are varieties of the common European dragon adapted to forests, sea shores and mountains respectively. The Little Fire dragon is the same animal called the fire drake in Nigel D. Findley’s book. The Sicilian dragon (which is also given the scientific name of Estupidus catalanus) is a small knucker-like creature similar to both the salamander of myth and the “fire lizards” of Ad&d (not Pern), as a positive identification cannot be made I suggest abandoning this taxa.

Carl Sargent Common Name Aitvaras Gorgon Hydra Wyrm

Paranormal Animals of Europe Genus Alutuserpens Draco Pleuracanthus

1993 Species lithuanii odiosus polycaput

Aitvaris of this volume is the European amphiphere not the chicken sized guivre that held that name in actual myth. Oddly enough though described as a flying serpent it is illustrated as a normal limbless (if giant) snake! The Gorgon is an the European knucker illustrated in the typical ‘Drac’ form as found in French art (a serpentine water dragon with four legs and snaky, seaweed-like tentacles on it’s head) and has nothing to do with the Greek monster of the same name – something the book points out. The Hydra, on the other hand, is the multi-headed lizard of Greek legend.

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Joel Levy Common Name Salamander European Dragon Oriental Dragon Wyvern Drake Sea Serpent Basilisk Amphisbaena Couatl

A Natural History of the Unnatural World Genus Salamandra Draco Draco Pseudodraconis Ophidio Hydrophidius Ophidiogallus Amphisbaena Ophidiotrogon

1999 Species pyra magnificens sinensis none given draconis giganteus basiliscus janus quetzalcouatlis

This book is often reviled because it makes a mistake common to many books and websites written by nonscientists – it uses the word cryptozoology (the study of animals not yet accepted by science) for mythozoology (the study of mythical animals). It gives names for several familiar dragon species with the drake and salamander being the fire drake and salamanders of other works and the Amphisbaena being the two headed winged amphisien of Mongolian myth, though all three genera given are preoccupied. On a more positive note this book gives Latin names to dozens of mythical beasts of all kinds and is filled with good art and fun “mockumentary” type “field reports”.

Dougald A. Steer Common Name

Dr. Ernest Drake’s Dragonology Genus

Common Dragon Asian Lung Tibetan Lung Knucker Marsupial Lindworm American Amphiptere Wyvern

Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco

2003 Species occidentalis (2 subspecies) orientalis montana troglodytes marsupialis serpenalis americanus ( 3 subspecies) africanus

This bestselling book described eight species and five subspecies of dragon. The common dragon comes in two subspecies the European Dragon (Draco occidentalis magnus) and the polar dwelling frost dragon (D. o. maritimus). The Asian and Tibetan dragon are very similar wingless four limbed dragons that differ mainly in coloring. The knucker is a serpentine European beast with four legs and vestigial wings. The marsupial dragon of Australia is a dead ringer for the trodon of Pelucidar. The lindworm is a wingless dragon with two limbs that is known for its swiftness. The American amphiptere is identical to the feathered serpent of Shadowrun and comes in three subspecies: the North American (Draco americanus tex), the Mexican (D. a. mex), and the South American (D. a. incognito). The last to be described is the wyvern which, contrary to mythology, is described as the largest of dragons.

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John Grant Common Name Ancestral Dragon (dyrodor) Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Splendid Dragon Red Dragon Oriental Dragon Dragonet Lesser Dragon Hydra Purple Dragon Crested dragon Jungle Dragon Frost Dragon Desert Dragon

Life-size Dragons Genus Varanus Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Varanus Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco

2006 Species undraconis serpens escalensis extravagens effulgens rex sinensis minoris gambini triceps protruberans faseolo jangalae glacialis aridus

The many dragons named in this book fall into five groups, ancestral dragons, western dragons, oriental dragons, drakes, and hydras. The ancestral dragons are four extinct species identified only by their scientific names. The most interesting of these is “Varanus” undraconis (as the picture on page 1 shows this creature defiantly does not belong to genus Varanus and needs a new genus) which resembles the dyrodor of Pellucidar. The western dragon species are all very similar and differ mainly in color and habitat. Species include the Splendid dragon, Red dragon, Purple dragon, Crested dragon, Jungle dragon, Frost dragon, and Desert dragons. The oriental dragon is not illustrated but as described it also falls outside genus Varanus. The Dragonet and Lesser Dragon are both smaller than a large dog and fit the fire and ice drakes of earlier authors in all but color. The last is the hydra, a western dragon with multiple heads.

Dougald A. Steer Common Name Cockatrice Basilisk

The Dragonology Handbook

Genus Gallicus Draco

2005 Species halitosis basiliskos

This book includes scientific names for the Gargoyle (which it considers a subspecies of the western dragon), the cockatrice (as previously described), and the basilisk which is described as a shape shifter and depicted as a tiny western dragon.

Tony DiTerlizzi & Holly Black Common Name Salamander Cockatrice Sea Serpent

Arthur Spiderwick’s Field Guide to the Fantastical World Around You

Genus Salamander Basilicus Serpens

2005 Species flammulatucus europeanus marinus

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Old World Wyrm Wyvern

Draco Draco

antiquissimus alatus

The salamander is a small wingless dragon depicted with six legs, the sea serpent resembles the one in Runequest (though illustrated as a giant eel), the old world wyrm is very similar to the knucker of the previous books but has multiple limbs, and the wyvern is the typical dragon of that name.

Joseph Nigg Common Name Asian Dragon Cockatrice Dragon of India Drakon Joppa Dragon Hydra Mushussu Piasa Rainbow Serpent Salamander Sea dragon Western Dragon Tarasque Worm

How to Raise and Train a Dragon Genus Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco Draco

2006 Species asiaticus basileus indicus none given cetus hydrus babylonicus piasaurus arcus salamandra mare generis tarascus britannicus

This book is a spoof of horse and dog showing manuals in which over a dozen dragon species from mythology are described. The Asian dragon is the typical oriental dragon, the cockatrice is the same animal described in the earlier sources, the Dragon of India is the wyvern, the draco is a limbless serpent, the Joppa dragon is a huge walrus-like beast, and the hydra is multi-headed. The Mushussu is the knucker of the middle east which has longer limbs than the European knucker, an animal called the Worm in this book. The piasa is a North American guivre with a human-like face and oriental dragon-like horns. The rainbow serpent is depicted as a flying serpent and the salamander is similar to the above depictions. The western dragon is a typical guivre while the Tarasque has six legs and a turtle shell.

Dougald A. Steer Common Name Miniature Dragon

Genus

2007 Species

Draco

parvulus

Field Guide to Dragons

This species was illustrated in Steer’s earlier books but it was not named until this volume was published. It is the same animal that is called the Pukis or Puuk in European myth and faerie dragons or dragonettes in recent fiction. Several other new species were also depicted but as none were from actual myth they are irrelevant to this discussion.

Dougald A. Steer

Dr. Ernest Drake’s Monsterology

2008

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Common Name

Genus

Salamander Sea Serpent Lake Serpent Jaculus

Salamandra Serpens Serpens Serpens

Species ignis monstruos aquadulicus volucer

The salamander is the same as previous depictions and it is also shown with six legs. The sea serpent is snakelike, the lake serpents resemble plesiosaurs, while the jaculus is a nothing more than the European amphiptere (a typical winged serpent), yet they are all placed in the same genus. In addition the genus Serpens is preoccupied by a snake.

Zachary Miller Common Name

Draconian Systematics Genus

Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Ancestral Dragon Wingless Knucker Winged Knucker No Description No Description No Description No Description No Description No Description

Protodracos Ambulodracos Harenadracos Dracosparticus Protopaluso Tauropesa Argos Eudracos Feradracos Sinospondylus Megalodracos Chasmodracos Spinodracos

2008 Species rex franco none given none given none given none given argos none given none given none given none given none given none given

Zachary coins many new families in this blog paper (the Eudracocidae, Palusodraconidae, Argosidae, Taurodracocidae, Harenadracocidae, Rugodracocidae, Chasmodracocidae, Dracolympidae, Cryodracocidae, and Felimimidae) but as none are given a description (not even an illustration) they are invalid. Worse yet the sources claimed by Miller (such as Irwin & Jones, 1978) do not exist. Indeed the entire article is a hoax, a sort of late April fools joke. Nevertheless, ignoring the nonexistent sources and attributing all the information to Miller one can gain some insight from this paper. First the Clade Draconia is formally defined as "medium to large diapsid reptiles with three functional pairs of limbs, one of which has been modified into bat-like wings." He also gives valid genus and species names to a few extinct forms previously described such as Protodracos rex and Abulodracos franco which seem to be the same as Paul & Karin Johnsguard’s Protodraco and Mesodraco respectively. Unfortunately all other latin names given in this paper are invalid due to lack of description, no species name, or phony references. Thus all of these genera plus the families named from them must be ignored.

William O’Connor

Dracopedia

Clade Class Dragonia Order Draconia? Family Dracorexidae

Common Name

Great Welsh Red

2009 Genus

Dracorexus

Species

idraigoxus

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Family Volucrisidae Family Dracomexidae

Order Terradracia Family Cathaidae Family Nimbiaquidae

Family Drakidae

Family Lapisoculidae Order Hydracoformes Family Hydridae

Order Pennadracoformes Family Wyvernidae Family Amphipteridae

Family Quetzalcoatylidae Order Orcadraciformes Family Ouroboridae

Family Cetusidae Family Dracangullidae

Great Norwegian Blue Great Icelandic White Great Chinese Gold American Acadian Green American Dragonette Monarch Feydragon Jabberwocky (Leafwing) Swallowtail Feydragon Asian Temple Dragon Cloud Dragon Storm Dragon Kilin (dragon horse) Common (European) Drake Racing Drake War drake St. Cuthbert’s Drake Pit Drake Sonora Basilisk Kilauea Salamander European Hydra Cerebrus Hydra Naga (Indian Hydra) Lernaen Hydra Medusian Hydra

Dracorexus Dracorexus Dracorexus Dracorexus Volucrisus Dracomexus Dracomexus Dracomexus Cathaidaus Nimbiaquidus Nimbiaquidus Nimbiaquidus Drakus Drakus Drakus Drakus Drakus Lapisoculidus Vulcanilacertidus Hydrus Hydrus Hydrus Hydrus Hydrus

sognefjordus reykjavikus cathidaeus acadius cheyennus monarchus pennafoliumus furcaudus dracotemplum nebulus tempestus dracocaperus plebeius propertus bellumus eruous barathrumus incustambulus incendiambulus rhonus cerebrus gangus lernaeus medusus

American Wyvern Striped Amphiptere Firewing Amphiptere Vulcan Amphiptere Garden Amphiptere Starburst Amphiptere Golden Amphiptere Rock Amphiptere Mothwing Amphiptere Swallowtail Amphiptere South American Coatyl

Wyvernus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Amphiptererus Quetzalcoatylus

morcaudus viperasignus viperapennignus viperavolcanus viperahortus viperacometus viperaurulentus viperapetrus viperablattus viperacaudiduplexus aztecus

European Lindwyrm American Banyan Wyrm Indian Drakon Scottish Sea Dragon Sea lion Faeroe Sea Orc Striped Sea Orc

Ouroboridus Ouroboridus Ouroboridus Cetusidus Cetusidus Dracanguillidus Dracanguillidus

pedeviperus americanus marikeshus orcadius leodracus faeroeus marivenatorus

This is a book on drawing dragons that uses the premise that dragons are real animals in an alternate universe where they have been known and bred by man for centuries. All dragons in this world belong to the single class Dragonia. Most of his families (in which the author adds the word Draco as an unnecessary

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prefix) fall within the typical draconian groups. No cladogram is given but in the chart above I have organized his clades in a logical fashion for ease of use. The four legged winged guivres are the only group not given an order by O’Connor but it is likely, considering his choice of species that he considered them to belong to Naomi Novik’s Draconia (2006). This clade consist of the Dracorexidae (Great dragons), the Volucrisidae (dragonels, riding dragons and dragonets), and the Dracimexidae (faerie dragons). The great dragons are the typical d&d type dragons. The Volucrisids are similar but bipedal and smaller (cat to horse sized) and while five species are depicted only the American appaloosa species is given a Latin name. The faerie dragons are similar to the dragonets except that the fore limbs have become incorporated into the wing to create a superficially insect-like wing structure, an anatomical distinction unique to this author’s art and not in mythology. The next clade would be order Terradracia. This is a very variable group that incorporates all dragons with four legs but no wings. The most basal would probably be the Cathaidae (oriental temple and spirit dragons) as they still have vestigial frill-like wings. Several species are mentioned (including the spirit and jade dragon) but only the Pan Lung is given a Latin name. Closely related to the Cathaidids but lacking wings entirely are the fur covered oriental dragons of family Nimbiaquidae. This group includes the cloud dragon (aka the frost drake, fu-dog or luck dragon), the storm (or mist) dragon and the qilin or dragon horse. The dog-like drakes and gargoyles of family Drakidae are next. Several species are named but the few given Latin names are more properly breeds (as they were bred by man from the common drake in this alternate universe) instead of species. The basilisks and salamanders (Lapisoculidae) are very similar to the drakes, differing only in having multiple limbs and the ability to shoot a paralyzing fluid from glands near its eyes. The Hydras of order Hydracoformes resemble wingless dragons with multiple heads. Most have four legs but some are limbless. All members of this order are placed in a single genus and family. The European is the common four legged 6-8 headed dragon, the Cerberus is dog-like and three headed, the Naga is a multiheaded oriental dragon, the lernaen is a 12 headed snake, and the medusian is a fat multi-headed worm-like beast. The Pennadracoformes are the winged dragons with no forelimbs. There are three families with a single genus each: Wyvernidae, (wyverns), Amphipteridae (bat-winged serpents) and Quetzalcoatldae (feathered serpents). Amphipterus includes nine named species that differ mainly in color and size. Quetzalcoatlus (this name is invalid as it is already in use for a pterosaur) has three species (the American, Egyptian, and the phoenix) of which only one is given a scientific name. Wyvernus are the typical wyverns and include the European, American (the only one given a Latin name), and the feathered Asian dragon bird. The cockatrice is claimed to be a hybrid between members of this order and domestic chickens. The Orcadraciformes are serpentine wingless dragons. They are divided into three families. The Ouroboridae are land living python-like dragons that include the lindworms (which have only a single pair of limbs) as well as the legless orms of Europe and the Pa-snakes of the Orient. The aquatic species are placed in two families: the Dracanguillidae and Cetusidae with a single genus each. The Dracanguillidus are true sea serpents with small fin-like limbs on a serpentine body. The two species put in the Cetusidae are so different however that their inclusion in the same genus is doubtful. The Scottish Sea Orc is a pleasiosaur or turtle-like animal with a long neck, tiny fin-like wings, and four webbed feet. In contrast the sea lion is a serpentine beast with a short neck and a single pair of clawed yet webbed forefeet much like the lindwyrm.

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Complete List of Draconic Species This chapter is a listing of all the dragon species of legend. Most of these species (with two exceptions) can be found somewhere in mythology and the animals will be presumed to be real species. The names given below are the results of the listing above, if I could not find an appropriate name than the clade is marked new and first published in this paper (thus it is Henson, 2008). For cladograms and a definition of family names see the next chapter.

Family Dracorexidae (O’Conner, 2009) This is the stereotypical dragon family containing the true dragons, those that have four limbs and two wings. It includes the great dragons, knuckers, and dragon turtles. It may or may not include the limbless orms, see the cladograms in the next chapter for this debate. Most, if not all the dragons in this family have a breath weapon.

Genus Draconis (Page, 1987) This genus includes all of the guivres also known as “heraldic dragons”. Dragons of this type are found in European, Asian and North American art. They have two wings, four legs, acidic blood, and usually breathe fire. In my opinion, all the western dragon types are similar enough to belong to one species. I originally thought that Draco causticus had priority but I latter learned that this was a mistake and that the name Draco conflagrato was published two years previously. As Draco is an invalid scientific name (it is preoccupied by a lizard) we need a new genus. The next available name is Draconus (Page, 1987), so the type species is Draconus conflagrato. This group also includes the puks (also known as drakes, pseudodragons, and fairy dragons) a group that is nothing but miniature guivres.

Western Dragon Draconis conflagrato (Gygax, 1975) Synonyms: Draco causticus, Draco pyrofer, Draconis teutonica, Draconis galli, Draconis cappadociae, Draco occidentalis, Draco sapiens, Draco rex, Draco splendens, Draco flameus, Draco magnificens, Draco effulgens, Draco protruberans, Draco faselo, Draco jangalae, Draco glacialis, Draco aridus, Draco generis, Dracorexus idraigoxus, Dracoreus sognefijordus, Dracorexus reykjavikus, Dracorex acadius. The typical dragon depicted in the art of Britain, Europe, North Africa, and Russia. It is a huge animal with a stocky body, long neck, long beaky snout, leathern wings, a tail that usually ends in an arrow-shaped fin, and heavy scales. The horns are not branched and are somewhat goat like. When born dragons of this

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species are miniature copies of their parents with no larval stage. Western dragons come in many subspecies and colors including white polar types, black swamp dwellers, green forest dragons, and red mountain species. In most myths dragons of this type are vicious and evil but exceptions are fairly common in older myths. Most western dragons are said to breathe fire, acid, lightning, or poisonous fumes.

Earthquake Dragon Draconis piasaurus (Nigg, 2006) Synonyms: Draco piasaurus These dragons are from Iranian, Chinese, and American myth. In the orient they are called Li-lung or Dilung while in the Americas they are called Piasa. Like western dragons the earthquake dragon has a stocky body and no larval stage but, like common eastern dragon, it has the branched horns of a deer. Other characteristics of this species include a head and heavy mane similar to that of a lion (though some illustrations give it a human face), elongated feather-like scales on the wings, and a tail ending in a fish-like fin. The coloring of these dragons is said to be a mixture of blue-green, red, white, and black. Earthquake dragons are said to create earthquakes with their roars and to guard streams and rivers. They are fierce and may be kindly or deadly man-eaters depending on the legend.

Common Eastern Dragon Draconis orientalus (Gygax, 1977) Synonyms: Draco pyrofer, Draconis sinoensis, Draco sapiens, Draco sinensis, Varanus sinensis, Draco asiaticus, Dracorex cathidaeus. The common eastern dragon is found only in southern and eastern Asia, including Iran, China, Japan, Korea, and Indonesia. It has an elongated body with small wings and short legs. The young resemble small snakes and, as they age they eventually grow limbs, branched (deer-like) horns, and, after several centuries of growth, wings. The head has a shaggy mane around the ears and the broad crocodilian jaws have spikes on the chin. Eastern dragons have a tattered tail fin that resembles a tuft of flowing fur. There are always four or five claws on each foot. In color these dragons may be any shade but the most powerful are said to have azure blue or golden scales. Oriental dragons are said to breathe forth clouds of mist, lightning, or, more rarely, fire. Most dragons of this type are benevolent but evil ones are known from Japanese and Korean myth.

Trodon Draconis marsupialis (Steer, 2003) Synonyms: None This dragon appears in no myths that I know of but originally appeared in a Pellucidar novel by Edgar Rice Burroughs. Later it was said to live in the Australian desert. It resembles a western dragon but has extremely elongated hind legs and tiny forelimbs. It has a pouch like a kangaroo and either a poisonous tongue or poison gas breath. It is included here due to its common occurrence in recent artwork.

Dragonell Draconis cheyennus (Steer, 2003) Synonyms: Volucrisisus cheyennus This dragon appears in no myths but originally appeared in Dungeons & Dragons to represent the fellbeasts of Lord of the rings fame. It is a winged, herbivorous, kangaroo or ostrich like dragon described as a cross between a true dragon and a pterosaur. Fierce but easy to tame it was supposed to be the “drake”

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ridden into battle by dragon riders. Oddly enough in the 3rd edition of the game it was depicted as a batwinged reptilian cow with the horns of a ram. This is another fictional species common in art.

Fire Drake Draconis minimalis (Findley, 1977) Synonyms: Draconis albionensis, Draco flamula, Ophidio draconis, Draco minoris The fire-drake resembles a western dragon in every respect but size. A full grown dragon of this species being no larger than a pony. The scale color is orange to reddish brown and the snout is very beak-like. It was said to have flammable blood and a vicious temper. It inhabited volcanic mountains in Europe.

Ice Drake Draconis algoris (Findley, 1977) Synonyms: None This dragon is similar to the fire drake but it has light grey to white scales and inhabits caves or polar regions. It was said to breathe out a stream of poison or icy frost. The ice drake is found mainly in modern fantasy novels and games but in folklore it is rare outside of Russian mythology.

Puki Draconis parvulus (Steer, 2007) Synonyms: Draco parvulus, Volucrisus sp., Dracomexus monarchus, Dracomexus pennafolum, Dracomexus furcaudus Pukis, also known as aitvaras, tulihands, puuks, pseudodragons, and fairy dragons are tiny cat-sized dragons. In shape the puki resembles a miniature western dragon (or a Pernese fire lizard) with bright scales and multicolored wings like those of a butterfly. Some European myths say they can turn into cats or chickens. No myths say that they breathe fire but many have them flying among flames or having flame dripping from the tip of the tail. Dragons of this type are found in the myths of eastern Europe, Greece (where they were said to fly about fires), and South America.

Genus Hydrus (O’Connor, 2009) These dragons have multiple heads but otherwise resemble western or eastern dragons. Instead of a genus hydras may simply be a freak individuals of other dragon types in some myths hydras are fully winged, others are wingless, and some have four legs, two legs, or no legs at all. Oddly enough hydras are vicious monsters in every non Indian myth I know of that features them.

Common Hydra Hydrus ladonii (Page, 1987) Synonyms: Draco triceps, Draco hydrus, Hydrus rhonus, Hydrus cerebrus The typical four legged hydra, with or without wings. Usually depicted as a forest dwelling brownish creature with three to eight heads.

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Indian Naga Hydrus gangus (O’Conner, 2009) Synonyms: none, This hydra is sometimes depicted as having limbs but in most Indian art it is a limbless serpent with three to nine crested heads. Unlike most hydras it was considered a beast of good fortune as it represented the rains. Sometimes depicted as a shape changing cobra or even as a single headed orm instead of a hydra.

Lernaen Hydra Hydrus lernaeus (Page, 1987) Synonyms: Hydrus medusus, Pleurocanthus polycaput A multiple headed snake from Greek myth, usually with a limbless heavy bag-like body and 8-12 heads, in reality it was probably based on octopi and squid. Unlike other hydras the heads would regenerate when cut off.

Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982) Dragons of this genus are flightless and have four legs with reduced wings. In some species only the male has a pair of tiny wings (presumably for display) while the females are wingless. In other species the wings are completely absent. Knuckers are often called drakes, but as that name is also used for small guivers, male dragons, and male ducks, I prefer the more precise knucker.

British Knucker Neodraco pyrogena (Johnsguard, 1982) Synonyms: Drago drago, Draco troglodytes, Draco antiquissimus, Draco britanicus, Draco osiosus, Drakus plebeius, Drakus propertus, Drakus bellumus, Drakus eruous, Drakus barathrumus, Argos argos This is the most common dragon in British mythology, it is an elongated, serpentine beast, with four spindly legs and slimy-looking scales. Wings are present only on the male and are little more than fin like flaps. European knuckers were said to breathe fire or spit poison. They preferred to live in swampy areas, near rivers or by rocky tarns. More recent artistic renderings make them very doglike in anatomy but the beast of legend was an elongated serpentine lizard.

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American Knucker Neodraco americana (Johnsguard, 1982) Synonyms: Draco chimaera This is the common wingless dragon that is often mistaken for a dinosaur in Native American art. It has a serpentine body, fairly long neck, mule-like ears, and a long tail. The scales are usually depicted as being green. Both sexes are wingless but males have horns. It is said to spit water at its enemies. American knuckers were water dwellers and could be found in seas, lakes, or rivers.

Common Oriental Knucker Neodraco pluvialis (Johnsguard, 1982) Synonyms:, Draco orientalis , Draco Montana, Cathaidaus dracotemplum The common oriental knucker with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and frills instead of wings. It differs from the oriental guivre (Draconis orientalus) in having only three toes on each paw instead of four or five. Oriental knuckers were said to have soft flesh, large tusks, and pale brownish green to white coloring. They were said to breathe out mist.

Mist Knucker Neodraco nebulus (Gygax, 1983) Synonyms: Draco nebulus, Nimbiaquidus nebulus An oriental dragon with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and a covering of thick blue-grey to snow white fur. They are most common in polar or mountainous areas and represented luck and clouds. They were said to breathe out clouds of mist.

Storm Knucker Neodraco cumulus (Gygax, 1983) Synonyms: Draco cumulus, Nimbiaquidus tempestrus An oriental dragon with a serpentine body, four short limbs, and a covering of thick shaggy golden brown to reddish fur. They are most common in jungle areas and represented disaster and typhoons. They were said to breathe out tornado strong winds.

Qilin Neodraco dracocaperus (O’Connor, 2009) Synonyms: Nimbiaquidus dracocaperus This horse-sized dragon is often mistaken for the zhi or ki-rin (oriental unicorn from China and Japan respectively) but in actuality the qilin (also spelled kilin or ri-rin) is the dragon horse of oriental art. It has a golden or blue-grey scaled body with long equine limbs and a shaggy gold or white mane upon its neck and fringes of thick fur upon the limbs. The tail ends in a shaggy tuft and two moose-like horns crown the skull.

Mushussu Neodraco babylonicus (Nigg, 2006) Synonyms: Draco babylonicus

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This Middle Eastern dragon resembles a monitor lizard with two straight horns on the head, a bumpy neck ridge on a long neck, and no wings. The forelegs are surprisingly cat-like while the hind limbs are the usual birdlike dragon talons. Most depictions give it a snake-like head but a few drawings give it a head like a lioness. It was said to inhabit areas of vegetation along coastlines, rivers and oases. A good depiction of this species can be found on the Ishtar gate in Babylon. It was also said to be the sacred animal of the god Marduk. If the biblical leviathan is the same animal (as many believe) then it breathed fire.

Genus Pleuracanthus (Findley, 1990) This genus is for the common Dragon Turtle or Long necked water dragon. It is a plesiosaur-like species common in Oriental and Celtic myth. Modern reports stress its resemblance to an Elasmosaurus (though at a mere 6-8 feet in length, the neck is much shorter than in that animal) but ancient reports tend to compare it to a giant sea horse or to a turtle. It is very similar to genus Neodraco and may belong to that clade.

Dragon Turtle Pleuracanthus laci (Findley, 1990) Synonyms: Pleuracanthus oceani, Draco mare, Serpens monstruos, Serpens aquadulicus, Cetusidus orcadius The dragon turtle is a compact creature with four webbed feet (some say flippers) and a long neck. The back is very broad and has a ridge along the spine so that the animal somewhat resembles a Plesiosaurus or giant turtle with a horned head reminiscent of a camel or giraffe. The animal is either has tiny fin-like wings on the shoulders or is wingless, as in the true knuckers this may be a sex-linked trait with only the male being winged. The coloring of the animal is usually silver, blue-grey, elephant grey, or golden brown. Occasionally the wings are mistaken for a dorsal fin. Dragon turtles are common in fresh water (especially in Loch Ness) but may also be seen in the sea. This type of dragon is said to breathe hot steam instead of fire.

Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009) 25

This genus is completely wingless but unlike derived members of Neodraco this clade has at least three pairs of legs. How a vertebrate can develop such a unique feature has not been explained – perhaps the extra limbs are actually false limbs derived from the wing struts.

Pal-rai-yuk Lapisoculidus antiquissimus (DiTerlizzi & Black, 2005) Synonyms: Draco antiquissimus, Draco tarascus Dragons of this type are mainly confined to the far north. Most reports are from Alaska and Canada (the native name is given above) but the Scottish Behir and Italian Tarasque seem to be the same species. The pal-rai-yuk is a snakelike, wingless beast with six (or more) pairs of legs. In has shaggy mane and large spikes (though the tarasque legend exaggerates these into a turtle-like shell) on the back. It is said to be a ravenous killer that hunts by lunging out of the water like a crocodile. Most legends said it had a poisonous bite but the Tarasque breathed fire, and the Behir breathed lightning. Coloring is usually blue, grey, or white.

Salamander Lapisoculidus pyra (Findley, 1990) Synonyms: Salamander pyra, Salamander flammulatucus, Draco salamandra, Salamandra ignis, Vulcanilacertidus incendiambulus This is the smallest of all wingless dragons, being only a few inches long. It resembles the common fire salamander or Europe (Salamandra salamandra) but has hard scales, six legs and a wooly fringe of fur along the sides. The back was said to be marked with blue star-shaped markings. Salamanders did not breathe fire but produced a poisonous liquid so cold it extinguished any fire it touched.

Common Basilisk Lapisoculidus lapidis (Weisman, 1989) Synonyms: Varanus lapidis, Draco basiliskos, Lapisoculidus incustambulus This dragon is an armored creature like a horned toad (or miniature tarasque) with six to eight legs. O’Connor states that the animal produces a venomous secretion that is produced out of glands near the eyes. This liquid can be sprayed out at prey in which it then paralyses those it squirts on thus creating the rumor that the animals gaze turns one to stone.

Family Dracangullidae (O’Connor, 2009) 26

This family of dragons is characterized by an almost complete absence of legs and wings. In fact, at first glance, they look much like large pythons or anacondas. Dracangullids differ from true snakes in having movable eyelids, a crocodilian jaw, horns, and a selection of flexible tendrils growing from the jaw that is often compared to a beard. They also differ from snakes in undulating vertically instead of horizontally. Dracangullids lack breath weapons or venom, instead they constrict their prey in their coils. Prey is not swallowed whole but is torn into chunks. Many stories tell of the slimy skin of these dragons, no doubt an oily lubricant similar to that possessed by seals rather than true slime. While originally classified as their own suborder it is more likely that these animals are simply knuckers who have taken the trait of reducing the limbs and wings to an extreme.

Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) This is the most primitive genus of dracanguillid as they still have limbs. The body is hyper-elongated and serpentine with a relatively short neck and four flippers. It is completely aquatic and crawls slowly on its belly, like a caterpillar when on land.

Classic Sea Serpent Megaserpentes maritimus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Synonyms: Neotylosaurus pacificus, Hydrophidius giganteus, Serpens marinus, Draco cetus, Cadborosaurus wissli, Dracanguillidus faeroeus, Dracoguillidus marivenatorus, Cetusidus leodracus (juvenile?) The classic sea serpent is a much more elongated animal than is the dragon turtle and its thicker neck, smaller fins, and habit of either swimming level with the surface or looping its coils into multiple humps give it a much more snake-like profile. Other characteristic features include a fluked tail and noticeable scales. It is an almost exclusively marine animal and any lakes it inhabited are invariably connected to the sea. In coloring it is a pale greenish grey or silvery blue, often with a reddish crest. Ancient tales tell of sea serpents constricting boats but modern sightings are much more mundane. The best area to see this species in modern times seems to be the San Francisco Bay area of California, USA.

Genus Dracovermis (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) This genus of snake-like dragon is found only on land, though they do tend to prefer swampy bogs or jungle. Dracovermis completely lacks any trace of limbs and resembles a monstrous anaconda or python with a horned head and draconian tail. Dragons of this type appear in English, South European (especially in Greece), central African, South American, and Oriental (as the Pa-lung) mythology. It is difficult to tell if these are all the same species or not as the reports are very similar. Pending further information I am lumping them all into one species.

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Orm Dracovermis insidens (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Synonyms: Draconis nematoda, Draco draco, Ourobooridus americanus, Ouroboridus marikeshus The common wyrm or orm is a huge (at least 50 foot) python-like beast with bull-like horns, glowing eyes, crocodilian jaws, and a bearded chin. Coloring is a slimy blackish green or grey, though some Greek tales mention yellow wyrms. All myths agree that it is a voracious and unintelligent predator that prefers the flesh of the largest prey, elephants in the old world and cattle in the new.

Family Wyvernidae (O’Conner, 2009) The Wyvernids are a family of winged dragons that have lost the forelimbs. In addition many species also sport feather-like scales on the wings and body. Many are brightly colored and have brilliant coloration, presumably as a warning to predators.

Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) This genus is characterized by having two powerful hind legs and two wings. It differs from the other genera in the family by having an unusual tail structure. Members of this genus is often depicted as having a second head at the end of its tail. However during the middle ages scorpions were also drawn in this fashion and it seems to have been an artistic convention used to indicate that the tail ended in a poisonous sting. Indeed myths stress that these dragons had no breath weapon but instead depended on a venomous sting or bite. This genus is only rarely depicted as having feathers.

Wyvern Dracopterus pelorus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Synonyms: Pterodraco volens, Draconis bipeds, Alatuserpens pili, Pseudodraconis sp, Draco africanus, Draco alatus, Draco indicus, Wyvernus morcaudus The common wyvern is the classic wyvernid, a pterosaur-like beast with two strong hind legs, two wings, and a long tail tipped with a stinger. Some modern books claim it is the largest of dragons but ancient depictions show it as only the size of a small pony. The coloring is a brownish green or grey with a red underside.

Amphisien

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Dracopterus janus (Levy, 1999) Synonyms: Amphisbaena janus This Mongolian species of dragon is often confused with the amphisbaena. The former is a species of wyvern with a scaled head and tail, bird-like claws and two wings. The latter is a limbless lizard whose eyeless head looks exactly like its tail. The confusion is caused because ancient authors believed that both species had two heads, one in the usual place and one at the end of the tail. As previously explained this was a common way for ancient artists to indicate a venomous sting. Unlike the wyvern, the amphisen was also said to have a venomous bite so perhaps the tail had markings on it to resemble the eyes and mouth of the actual head. This species is also unusual in that is depicted as having a naked head and tail but with feathery scales on the body and wings similar to that of the genus Virmidraco.

Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) This genus is better known the amphipteres or winged serpents. They are very elongated wyvernids with enlarged scales on the body and fully feathered wings. They differ from the other members of this family in having a snake-like head and tiny, often unnoticeable, rear legs. All myths agree that winged serpents have a deadly poisonous bite but cultures differ on how they are perceived. For example, the old world amphiptere is universally considered to be an animal of bad luck while the American and Pacific species were considered to be avatars of the gods.

Eurasian Amphiptere Virmidraco tarbus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Synonyms: Alutuserpens lithuanni, Serpens volucer, Amphipterus viperasignus, Amphipterus viperapennignus, Amphipterus viperavolcanus, Amphipterus viperahortus, Amphipterus viperacometus, Amphipterus viperaurulentus, Amphipterus viperapetrus, Amphipterus viperablattus, Amphipterus viperacaudiduplexus This amphiptere is found in Europe, west Africa, and India. It was said to prefer dense forests or jungles but migrated across the deserts from India through Egypt and into the Congo (and visa versa) during the spring and fall in huge flocks. During biblical times it was regarded as poisonous but was also a symbol of healing. It received a darker reputation during the Middle Ages when legends began to claim that it would dive down and pierce victims with its horny tail. It was also said to kill chickens and poison crops (it injected its venom into fruit then sucked out the pulp) but was not considered as dangerous as other dragon species. The last known population, in Wales, was exterminated during the early 20th century by chicken ranchers. Reports say it was a beautiful animal, with feathers colored like a peacock and a scaled serpentine tail and body of a deep emerald green color. Unfortunately no specimen was saved for science.

American Amphiptere 29

Virmidraco quetzalcoatlus (Weisman et al. , 1989) Synonyms: Alatuserpens quetzalcoatlus, Draco sapiens, Draco americanus, Ophidiotrogon Quetzalcoatlus, Quetzalcoatylus aztecus The American amphiptere or coatl is a close relative of the Common species and like that species it is said to be a jungle dweller with emerald green scales, a feathery crest, and colorful wings compared to those of a macaw. Known from the American south from Florida to Mexico and south to Patagonia, it is best known as the symbol of the god Quetzalcoatl . Unlike its European cousin the American Amphiptere is considered a symbol of good luck whose migration across the desert from Florida to Brazil was said to bring life giving rain to the western tribes, indeed its association with storms caused it to be dubbed the “lightning snake” in Hopi art.

Pacific Amphiptere Virmidraco arcus (Steer, 1977) Synonyms: Draco arcus The Pacific Amphiptere is the most widespread of all amphipteres, being found in Japan, eastern China, Indonesia, east Africa, and the Pacific Islands including Hawaii and Australia. In most countries it is known as the Rainbow serpent but it is called the singing snake (or P’eng-Niao in China) and the bird dragon (Hai Riyo or Tobi Tatsu) in Japan. In appearance it has a multicolored body (most images show it as a rosy pink striped with light blue, green and gold. The feathers of the wings are distinct, with the tertiary feathers (the feathers nearest the body) being as long as the primary flight feathers. This has caused this amphiptere to be depicted with four wings in the art of places as diverse as China, Egypt, and the Pacific Islands. The coloring of the wings is depicted as being similar to that of a bird of paradise, with feathers of red, orange, and violet. Like the American species most native cultures venerated it as the avatar of a god or had it help the gods in creating the world. Most pictures show it as a winged snake with a long tail tipped with a fan of feathers but Japanese art depicts it as having the horned head of an Asian dragon and a body like a mandarin duck.

Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Viperigallo is a single species of wyvernid characterized by having scraggy feathering on the head and body but leathery wings, a chicken-like head, and a deadly breath. The beak contains sharp teeth and a forked tongue while rooster-like wattles and a comb decorate the skull. The tail is long and scaly throughout much of its length but ends in a tuft of feathers. Called the king of serpents some myths claim its gaze causes one to turn to stone while others say its breath causes instant death, all agree that its bite is extremely poisonous. It is often confused with the basilisk.

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Viperigallo necatrix (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Synonyms: Aveterror lapidaris, Gallicus halitosis, Basilicus europeanus, Draco basileus, Ophidiogallus basiliscus, The cockatrice or basilisk is a desert dweller found from Spain to Mongolia. It looks much like a mangy rooster with bat-like wings and a long, reptilian tail. Later myths gave a lengthily and bizarre origin for this beast, claiming that it was born from the egg of a male chicken that had been incubated on a dung heap by a toad or snake under the dog star. Earlier myths said it simply laid eggs. Most descriptions claim that the cockatrice is a colorful beast, chartreuse and gold with red wattles, blue-grey wings, and black feathers. This coloration is no doubt to warn other animals of its venomous nature for it was believed that the cockatrice was the most poisonous of animals. The only cure was the leaf of the rue plant and its only natural enemy was the mongoose (changed into a weasel in Europe where mongooses were unknown).

Genus Ouroboridus (O’Connor, 2009) This genus appears to be a close relative of the wyverns (genus Dracopterus) but lack wings. The names Lindorm or Lindworm are commonly used for dragons of this type. This species is occasionally shown with a mane around the neck indicating that only one sex (presumably the male as a mane-less individual depicted in a painting is seemingly menstruating) was maned. This feature and the two eagle clawed feet apparently reminded the writers of the Bestiaries of a lion and chicken respectively, thus it was also given the name Leongalli. The Lindworm is occasionally shown as having a second head or a sting on the tail like a wyvern. This tail sting indicates that lindorms are wingless wyverns and not derived knuckers.

Lindworm Ouroboridus serpenalis (Steer, 1977) Synonyms: Draco serpenalis, Ouroboridus pedeviperus This dragon was said to be found in the cold deserts of the Mongolian highlands. It is bulky beast with a long tail, strong hind limbs and no forelimbs. Some descriptions say it had only forelegs (like some skinks) but pictures usually show it with back legs. It was said to be the fastest runner of all the dragons and a few legends say it had venomous jaws or even a wyvern-like tail sting. Coloring is usually said to be a greenish or reddish brown.

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Draconic Taxonomy To my knowledge there have been four attempts to classify dragons above the genus level. The first was by Naomi Novik in her 2006 novel Temeraire (AKA: His Majesty’s Dragon in the USA). Novik put dragons in the order Draconia. No other rank/clades were given. Several months later (11/14/06) Jonas Inanga published a picture on www.deviantart.com in which he illustrated the future evolution of Permian flying lizards (presumably Coelurosauravis) to dragons of two orders: Ophidomorpha (gradual loss of wings and limbs to create orms) and Eudraconia (winged dragons including wyverns) which he placed in a super order called Dracomorphidae. Zachary Miller, in his blog When Pigs Fly, then wrote an article entitled Draconian Systematics , however both the authors he quotes and the journals they published in are fictional, thus making the entire article a hoax. Worse most of his genera (and thus the clades given) are invalid due to a lack of description or species designation. On the other hand he independently confirmed a Avecephalian origin for the Draconia suggesting a sister-group relationship between dragons and the Drepanosauridae , then thought to be a sister clade to the Coelurosauravians. The last attempt was in 2009 when the artist William O’Connor published his massive Dracopedia. In the paper below I am going to assume that all the dragons are both real and are a monophyletic group belonging to clade Coelurosauravia. As I have placed the Archosauria, Lepidosauria, and Mammalia as classes I am going to do the same to Coelurosauravia. That would make Coelurosauravia a Class. Both Longisquamata and Weigeltisauria have been defined as orders. No super orders have been named to unite these groups and I am loath to do so pending further discoveries. As a result I am reducing Dracomorphidae to ordial rank. The order Dracomorpidae can easily be divided into two semiorders which I am naming Stegodraconia and Eudracomorphidae. Stegodraconia includes Burroughs’s dyrodor, Stegodraco undraconus (Grant 2006)5. The dyrodor is an example of what the most basal Dracomorphs would have looked like. Stegodraco shares with the Eudracomorphs a series of air sacks connected with the gut which is filled with methane and other stomach gasses to help reduce the animal’s weight. It differs from the more advanced clade in that it lacks true wings but instead has dermal protrusions resembling the plates on the back of the dinosaur Stegosaurus with which it glides. The second semiorder is the Eudracomorphae. This includes the suborders Alatustheria6 (new) and Draconia (Novik, 2006). These two clades share the feature of having the muscles that folded the original rods of the coelurosauravid wing enlarged and modified for a flapping stroke. As a result the bony rods of 5

Stegodraco (“roofed dragon”) is a name created by me for this species, it celebrates the stegosaurus –like appearance of the beast.

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Suborder Alatustheria contains three main superfamilies which will be described in a second article: Superfamily: Opinicoidea (herbivorous griffin-like species with a draconian heads) Family Opinicidae (the opinicus) Superfamily: Alatusleonoidea (clawed alatustheres) Family: Alatusleonidae (griffins) Family: Dracoprileonidae (chimeras) Family: Saenidae (winged canines like the simurgh) Family: Sphinxidae (sphinxs & mantacores) Superfamily: Equovolatoidea (hoofed alatustheres) Family: Gryphoequidae (hippogriffs) Family: Equovolatidae (winged horses, deer, cattle, etc) Family: Homocephalidae (shedu and kin)

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the wing have merged and fused to form a sort of false arm to allow true flight. Alatustheres include the mammal-like griffins, pegasi, sphinx, and manticores. The Draconia are the true dragons who can expel their flight bladder gas to create a breath weapon. Because it is possible that some of the species given below are not true dragons (in particular one can make a good case for wyverns being derived rhamphorynchid pterosaurs and for the wyrms being derived knuckers) I am going to define all these names as stem based clades so the classification will remain stable.

. Dracomorphidae ( Inangua, 2006):

all species closer related to Draconis conflagrato than to Coelurosauravis jaekeli or Longisquamata insignis.

. Stegodraconia (Henson, 2009): Stegodraco undraconus and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to Draconis conflagrato or Gryphus gryphus7.

. Dragonia (O’Connor, 2009): Draconis conflagrato and Gryphus gryphus and all animals more closely related to these two taxa than to Stegodraco undraconus.

. Alatustheria (Henson, 2009): Gryphus gryphus and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to Draconis conflagrato.

. Draconia (Novik, 2006): Draconis conflagrato and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to Gryphus gryphus.

. Eudraconia (Inanga, 2006): Draconis conflagrato and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to Dracovermis insidens.

. Ophidomorpha (Inanga, 2006): Dracovermis insidens and all animals more closely related to that taxa than to Draconis conflagrato.

Cladogram One: Higher Systamatics Amniota (animals that possess an amniotic egg) | |__ Synapsida (Mammals and their closest relatives) | |__ Sauropsids (Birds and their closest relatives) | | __ Mesosauria (extinct Mesosaurus) | |__ Reptilia (Advanced Sauropsids) | |__ Anapsida (Parareptiles and possibly turtles) | |__ Romeriida = Eureptilia (Advanced reptiles) | | __ Captorhinia (extinct Captorhynus, Bolosaurus, Protorothyridus, etc.) 7

Gryphus gryphus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) is oldest name I know of for the Griffin.

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|__ | |__ Diapsida (reptiles with two temporial fenestrae | | __ Araeoscelidia (extinct Petrolacosaurus) |__ | |__ Neodiapsida (advanced diapsids) | | __ Sauria (Lizards, snakes, crocodiles, drepanosaurs, dinosaurs, and birds) |__| |__ Coelurosauravia (Rod winged flyers) | |__ Longisquamata (extinct Longisquama) | |__ Weigeltisauria (extinct Coelurosauravis) | |__ Dracomorphidae (Dragons and their relatives

Cladogram Two: Inangua, 2006 This is the classification proposed by Inangua in 2006. It assumes that the limbless dragons and the winged dragons evolved independently since the Triassic. Clade Terradracia was proposed by O’Connor in 2009. Dracomorphidae (dragons and their closest relatives) | |__ Stegodraconia (dyrodors) | |__ Dragonia (advanced winged dracomorphids) | | __ Alatustheria (griffins, pegasi, sphinxes, chimaeras, and lammasu) | |__ Draconia (dragons) | |__ Eudraconia (winged dragons) | | | |__ Dracorexidae (True Dragons) | | | | | | __ Draconis (Guivres) | | | | | | __ Terradracia (wingless dragons) | | | | | | __ Neodraco (Knuckers) | | | | | | | __ | __ Pleurocanthus (Dragon Turtles) | | | | | |__ Lapisoculidus (multi-limbed dragons) | | | | | |__ Wyvernidae (Bird-Dragons) | | | | __ Dracopterus (wyvern) | |__ |

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| | |__ Ouroborus (Lindwurm) | | | | | | __ Virmidraco (Amphipteres) | |__ | | |__ Viperigallo (Cockatrice) | | __ Ophidomorpha (Legless dragons) | | __ Megaserpentes (Sea serpents) |__ | |__ Dracovermis (Land orms)

Cladogram Three: My Preferred Classification I suspect that the “Ophidiomorpha” are simply derived knuckers and prefer the following cladogram in which the dracangullids are reduced to a tribe belonging to the subfamily Nimbiaquinae (O’Connor, 2009) Draconia = Eudraconia = Ophidomorpha (dragons) | |__ Dracorexidae (true dragons) | | | | __ Dracorexinae (“6 limbed” Dragons) | | | | | |__ Draconis (Guivres) | | | | __ Nimibiaquinae = Terradracia (dragons with reduced wings) | | | | __ Nimibiaquini (Flightless dragons with limbs) | | | | | |__ Nimibiaquina (knuckers & dragon turtles) | | | | | | | | __ Neodraco (Knuckers) | | | | __ | | | | |__ Pleurocanthus (Dragon Turtles) | | | | | |__ Lapisoculidina (multi-limbed wingless dragons) | | | | | |__ Lapisoculidus (basilisks & behirs) | | | |__ Dracangullini (Legless dragons) | | | | | | __ Megaserpentes (Sea serpents) | | | __| | | |__ Dracovermis (Land orms) | | | |__ Hydrinae ? (Hydras) | |__ Wyvernidae (Bird Dragons) | | __ Dracopterus (Wyvern) |__ | | |__ Ouroborus (Lindwurm)

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| | __ Virmidraco (Amphipteres) |__ | |__ Viperigallo (Cockatrice)

Inangua’s Linnaean Classification Class Coelurosauravia (Senter, 2004) Rod winged flyers Order Dracomorphidae (Inanga, 2006) Dracomorphs Semiorder Dragonia (O’Connor, 2009) Dracomorphs with flapping flight Suborder Draconia (Novik, 2006) Dragons Infraorder Eudraconia (Inanga, 2006) Winged Dragons Family Dracorexidae (O’Connor, 2009) Guivres and knuckers Genus Draconis (Page, 1989) Guivres Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982) Knuckers Genus Pleurocanthus (Findley, 1990) Dragon Turtles Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009) Family Wyvernidae (O’Connor, 2009) Wyverns and kin Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) True wyverns Genus Ouroborus (O’Connor, 2009) Lindorms Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Cockatrice Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Amphipteres Infraorder Ophidomorpha (Inanga, 2006) Limbless dragons Family Dracoguillidae (O’Connor, 2009) orms and sea serpents Genus Dracovermis (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Orms Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Sea Serpents Incertae Sedis Genus Hydrus

My Linnaean Classification Class Coelurosauravia (Senter, 2004) Rod winged flyers Order Dracomorphidae (Inanga, 2006) Dracomorphs Semiorder Dragonia (O’Connor) Dracomorphs with flapping flight Suborder Draconia (Novik, 2006) Dragons Family Dracorexidae (O’Connor) Guivres and knuckers Subfamily Dracorexinae (O’Connor, 2009) Genus Draconis (Page, 1989) Guivres Subfamily Nimibiaquinae = Terradracia (O’Connor, 2009) Tribe Nimibiaquini (O’Connor, 2009) Subtribe Nimibiaquina (O’Connor, 2009) Genus Neodraco (Johnsguard, 1982) Knuckers Genus Pleurocanthus (Findley, 1990) Dragon Turtles Subtribe Lapisoculidina (O’Connor, 2009) Genus Lapisoculidus (O’Connor, 2009) Multi-leggers Tribe Dracanguillini (O’Connor, 2009) Genus Dracovermis (Peterson/Perrin, 1978) Orms Genus Megaserpentes (Peterson/Perrin, 1978) Sea Orms Incertae Sedis Genus Hydrus (O’Connor, 2009) multiheaded dragons Family Wyverndae (O’Connor, 2009) Wyverns and kin

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Genus Dracopterus (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) wyverns Genus Ouroborous (O’Connor, 2009) Lindorms Genus Viperigallo (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Cockatrice Genus Virmidraco (Peterson & Perrin, 1978) Amphipteres Here I come to the end of this discussion on dragon taxonomy, if such an animal is ever actually discovered we are now prepared to name it. If I have missed any draconic Latin names from sources not listed here please leave a commit on Scribid.com with the name and reference so I can place them in future updates to this paper.

Bibliography Blanpied, Pamela Wharton, Dragons: an Introduction to the Modern Infestation, (Warner Books, 1980) D.Lambert, D.Naish and E.Wyse, Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Life, (Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2001). Dickinson, Peter, the Flight of Dragons, (Pierrot Publishing, 1979) DiTerlizzi, Tony and Holly Black, Arthur Spiderwick’s Field Guide to the Fantastical World Around You, (Simon & Schuster Inc. 2005) Eberhard Frey, Hans-Dieter Sues, Wolfgang Munk (1997). Gliding Mechanism in the Late Permian Reptile Coelurosauravus. Science Vol. 275. no. 5305 Findley, Nigel D., Paranormal Animals of North America, (FASA Corporation, 1990) Findley, Nigel et al, Draconomicon, (TSR Inc, 1990) Freeman, Richard, Dragons: More than a Myth? (Center for Fortean Zoology Press, 2006) Grant, John, Life-Size Dragons, (Sterling Publishing Co, 2006) Gygax, Gary & Jeff Perren, Chainmail: Rules for Medieval Miniatures, (TSR Inc, 1975) Gygax, Gary, Monster Manual, (TSR Inc.1977) __, Monster Manual 2, (TSR Inc, 1983)

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Inanga, Jonas, Draconian_Evolution_by_Zippo4k, (2006, www.deviantart.com ) Johnsguard, Paul and Karin, Dragons & Unicorns: A Natural History, (St. Martin’s Press, 1982) Levy, Joel, A Natural History of the Unnatural World, (Carroll and Brown, 1999) Miller, Zschary, Draconian Systematics , blog posted on: May 4, 2008, http://whenpigsflyreturns.blogspot.com/2008/05/draconian-systematics.html Nigg, Joseph, How to Raise and Train a Dragon, (Quarto Inc. 2006) Naish, Darren, the 'Birds Come First' Hypothesis of Dinosaur Evolution, Blog Entry Posted on: June 8, 2009, www.scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology __, Birds Come First - oh no they don't!, Blog Entry Posted on: June 10, 2009, www.scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology Novik, Naomi, His Majesty’s Dragon, (Temeraire LLC, 2006) O’Connor, William, Dracopedia: A Guide to Drawing the Dragons of the World, (IMPACT Books, F+W Media Inc, 2009) Page, Michael, The Encyclopedia of Things That Never Were, (Viking Press, 1987) Peterson, Sandy and Steve Perrin, Runequest Creatures, (Chaosium Games, 1978, reprinted in 1984 by Avalon Hill) Sant, Montse, The Book of the Dragon, (Paper Tiger Ltd, 1992) Sargent, Carl., Paranormal Animals of Europe, (FASA Corporation, 1993) Steer, Dougald A., Dr. Ernest Drake’s Dragonology, (the Templar Co. 2003) __, The Dragonology Handbook, (the Templar Co. 2005) __, Field Guide to Dragons, (the Templar Co. 2007) __, Dr. Earnest Drake’s Monsterology, (the Templar Co. 2008) Weisman et al, Shadowrun, (FASA Corporation, 1989) Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon and Ash “LeopardDancer” Dekirk, A Wizard’s Bestiary, (Book-mart Press, 2007)

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