The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Herbalism
April 25, 2017 | Author: Raluca Dragomir | Category: N/A
Short Description
Encyclopedia...
Description
The Encyclopedia of
I
II
Edited by Malcolm Stuart
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In The Encyr' ^edia of Herbs and Herbalism, an enthusiastic
Malcolm
team
<
.
experts headed by
Dr
Stuart has produced a practical
detailed guide. Beginning with the origins development of herbalism, they give fall
and and
r;
account of the biology and chemistry of plants, moving on to present-day usage ranging from medicine, cooking and cosmetics, to dyes and animal food-stuffs. Practical aspects of herb cultivation, collection and pr-- ^1 vation are also examined. The alphabetical section describes 420 herbs in detail, with full botanical descriptions, their habitats
and methods of and
cultivation, their chemical constituents
their
many and varied uses.
The 350 superb photograph^ and over 1 go specially commissioned drawings and diagrams allow the reader to identify each species, and the notes on cultivation will c.iable anyone to start a personal herb garden. The possibilities provided by modern processes such
as electric drying,
and the age-old refinement
traditional herb cookery, are all elements in
comprehensive new work of reference on an increasingly popular subject.
this
Jacket photograph by
Mike Foster
Below : The Mandrake, thought for
centuries to
possess magical powers because of its resemblance the
human form. ( IGDA)
Back flap : Galanthus (Pat Brindley)
rac«>^v "
[°
ocfarirf lurvt cjirca tcciTttX*
li rtiu nlatt t^ uino
7mrr Umax
in
reacted instinctively in his rejection of
Cdrra niqia
ftbrr
and foods are only preserved
As a aiirf fbrtr«
m oUd rof*mo frgS
ltmino
nna
bucaf A,
luptu ponti-
survive to give an
ideal conditions, such as particularly dry
„w
i
commonly
•
(rbvrc fuf^
5*
>
boo
urnr cotara Tfunbar^
Tiiairolr*^^
mmjytnffmr^J dLumoftilZ*n^ ruf mdxzun lb ^ nwUifliinc aim riidcra) l
blindfolding us
and continued need
for
tei
herbs,
raw mate-rials or staye-s involved in the we cannol tell commodities we- buy whether the- d\e in blue- jeans is from Incline. e>r India, Efficiency had dictated the
thai
e>|
the-
200,000
spec ies of
plants, only 12 or 13 arc- widely
e
herbs.
clearly a very great misconcep-
is
tion if one thinks of the
massive quantities crude herbs used today >\ both public and professional
interest.
The
culed medic
al
professions
which
herbalism
ineffective
wi\es"
'old
Superstitious
nature
.is
tales'
so ridi-
are-
and
once
an attempt to methods and materials free horn discover tinundesirable side-effects frequently experienced with the modern 'chemically again turning
to
tailored' synthetic drug.
in
New methods
reappraisal are being used to judge
of
the
produced by centuries of practical experience. There ate- signs that the beliefs
revival
of interest
tremely profitable practices ol our i
1
ic
it
ol
in
to
herbs will be ex-
man and
ancestors
the-
herbal
are
being
reasingly vindicated. By careful studies
has been shown that a good proportion the beliefs of the old herb physicians
flowering
were right, and that, for example, plants do indeed posse-ss different properties if
ultivated.
harvested
at
herbs used separately. There has also been a revival
of popular Enthusiasm has been aroused for the charm and serenity of the old fashioned herb garden with its associated culinary and aromatic herbs which
interest
different times ol the da\ 01
in
herbs.
somehow suit the requirements of modern times. Herb gardens provide useful materand
ials
Alter a decline of about two years,
year and that certain combinations of more active than the individual
plants are
minimum
yet
require
not
remain attractive with a
of maintenance, for herbs do
horticultural
special skills.
soils or complex Herbs provide the
vitamins and minerals increasingly sought alter for a healthy diet. They provide an ideal starting-point for a range of home-
made products wines, dyes. use.
such as cosmetics, ales, pot-pourris and
scented sachets,
Not only are herbs cheap and easy but
those in general
advantage of being to
free
to
use have- the
from the dangers
health often contained in
man-made
commodities, be they drugs, food colourings or hair dyes.
Herbalism has become part of the new concern in our society for an ecological balance and an unpolluted 'natural' way of life. This late twentieth-century appreciation of herbs and their immense value in food and medicine truly represents the rediscovery of old wisdom indicating that the biblical expression as true-
today
as
it
'all
flesh
is
grass'
is
always has been. I
I
«
Sfet
Skri
The history #
of herbalism
&& ^*fcm.
a»
sa».
-
mn.
,
—
"-—
Who first used plants we do not know. But someone - more probably, many different
religious belief in a
people - in the earliest mists of history, long before the earliest records that now
the gods, receiving their powers of healing from them. This much is assumption. But it is valid assumption, given our understanding of human nature in general and our knowledge of the earliest communities that archaeologists have been able to trace. It also accords with the first medical records that we have, from India, China, Egypt
survive, discovered that
good
to eat
and
some plants are
that others have healing
i
properties. This
was the
first
step in a
lengthy process of trial and error by which early man in different communities slowly
up a corpus of knowledge about To this gradual process was added, no doubt, experience handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth and a measure of intuition. Why and how a plant should have been capable of curing sickness must have remained a mystery to those early communities, Indeed, only the development of built
plants.
f
sophisticated techniques of chemical an-
century or so has at last provide the solution. So those
alysis in the last
begun
who
to
took a special interest in the healing
qualities of plants
and became especially
gradually gained an honoured place in society. Their skills and knowledge singled them out from the mass as medicine men. Because there were no readily comprehensible explanations of how plants healed, primitive communities tended to attribute the process to a god or gods, as indeed they did any phenomenon that puzzled them. Thus the earliest medicine men became associated with the whole structure of skilled
in
their
application
were
priests
who
community.
Many
acted as instruments of
and Assyria. This very vagueness about the first herbalists points to an important dichotomy in our knowledge of herbs and those who used them. The story that follows inevitably recounts what might be termed the 'official' aspect of herbalism - the only one for which records remain. We can only suppose - but none the less with every confidence - the existence of an 'unofficial' side to herbalism, a succession of ordinary country men and women skilled and knowledgeable about the herbs of their area and their uses - medicinal, culinary and in the preparation of dyes, perfumes and cosmetics. Only rarely do these people emerge in the 'official' story. Finally, in the nineteenth-century industrial revolution in the western world, urbanization and the increasing division of labour gradually caused such rural
Mandrake. For centuries it was thought that if humans dug up the plant it meant certain
wisdom to die out. We know little of the origins of medicine in China and in India. It is thought that the Emperor Chin Nong composed a herbal in about 2700 b.c. and that some 60 years later another Emperor, Huang-
death.
ti,
Left:
A
1
dog uprooting the 'shrieking
wrote a
treatise
on medicine. In India. '3
HISTORY the Rig Yeda. one of the sacred books of
ledge
the Brahmins, mentions the use of medi-
spread
cinal plants.
The
scarcity of
knowledge
about ancient medical practice in these countries should not. however, lead us to assume that no developed system existed there, nor that ideas, beliefs and practices may not have passed across Asia, between these ancient civilizations, in a process of
which we now know nothing. Lack of evidence means that we can only point to China and India and cross-fertilization of
state that a tradition of medicine as old as
that of
Europe does
exist
there, perhaps
one that is even older, and that plants were undoubtedly used as remedies. As a result, an account of the history of herbalism is confined to describing the gradual development of medical know-
in
Egypt and Mesopotamia,
first
its
to the countries of the eastern
Mediterranean and Persia and Armenia, to ancient Greece and then throughout Europe and - two thousand years later to the New World. For many centuries botany and medicine were closely linked, and plants were central to medical practice. They provided the chief,
if
not the only, remedies
other than surgery, and theories
were
addition,
many
many medical
around
them. In ordinary people will have put their faith in the long line of herbalistwho sold their patent remedies made up from different herbs in towns and villages, successful because they were cheaper than doctors and physicians and perhaps also because they appealed to the always very built
potent traditions of folklore and magic.
Only
have and medical scienthe same time medical
since the eighteenth century
the paths of botanists
tists divided: at treatment has become available for everyone, and the old herbal remedies have died out.
EGYPT The Egyptian civilization is the first of which we have any extensive medical knowledge. Much of that is somewhat imprecise, as
is
illustrated in the case of
Imhotep. the first Egyptian physician whose name survives. He served Zoser. a 3rd Dynasty Pharaoh, in about 2980 B.C. and was renowned as an astrologer and magician as well as for his healing powers. His reputation lived on after he died: legends grew up about his work and he was eventually transformed into a god of healing. For the Egyptians some two millennia later, whether Imhotep had actually lived or not would have been unimportant; in fact, his reality would not have been questioned in such terms. Just as a contemporary healer would have been regarded as a priest and instrument of the gods because of his healing
Imhotep.
skills.
who had been the subject of down for many centurie-.
legends handed
would have been regarded as a god. The ground becomes rather firmer by about 2000 b.c. Various medical papyri most important among them being the famous Ebers Papyrus - discovered by archaeologists in the last 100 years
list
a
of medical prescriptions in use after about 1800 B.C. Mineral substances and series
animal products were included, but about five-sixths of the ingredients were of vegetable origin. Each prescription dessymptoms of the disease and
cribes the
gives instructions
on how the cure
One
is
to
be
administered and prepared. prescription, intended "to empty the belly and clear out all impurities from the body typical
of a sick person", required field herbs, honey, dates and uah grain to be mixed together and chewed by the patient for one day. These same papyri demonstrate the central role of the gods in Egyptian medicine - and. of course, in the entire life of Egyptian society. Osiris was worshipped as a god of vegetation. Isis. his twin sister Left: Imhotep (c.2g8o B.C.). the first
known Egyptian physician. A celebrated sage among his contemporaries, he was worshipped as a god after his death. Imhotep was the patron of the sciences and of doctors. For ordinary people he was regarded as the god of healing.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
and mother, was one of the most ancient goddesses of Egypt. She held it in her power to renew life and was reputed to have transmitted the secrets of healing to mankind. As such a powerful magician and healer, it was to her that the Egyptians prayed for deliverance from disease. Thoth was believed to have formulated each healing prescription. He is represented as holding in his left hand the symbol of life and in his right a staff
around which a serpent is coiling itself - a symbol of the physician to this day. So the picture that comes down to us from Egyptian sources is of increasing medical skill confined as it were within a framework of magic. A herbalist carried with him both a casket of medicines and a magician's wonder-working rod; before treatment could begin, the gods had t be called on to cast out the devil which
We
shall find this
association between medic
me and magic How much
possessed the patient.
continuing in ancient Greece. both there and in Egypt it was
,i
resull ol a
genuine belief in the power of the L, ods, how much because of a desire on the herbalist's part to keep his skills secrel through a pio< ess ol mystification we anr
i
uot
now
distinguish. But before
Greece objectiveat
turn to l
we must look Mesopotamia and
medical science
the civilizations of
their
we
also saw the beginnings
which
approach
to
medic
inc.
or vice versa ly,
is
not known. Quite probab-
they both borrowed from a
Asian source
common
in a process of cultural
con-
which is now lost. The earliest Sumerian herbal dates from some time after 2500 b.c. and has come down to us in the form of a copy tact all trace of
dating from the seventh century b.c. Later Assyrian inscribed tablets are
much more
informative. Tablets from the library of
Ashurbanipal. King of Assyria between 668 and 626 B.C.. reveal that knowledge of herbs and their medicinal properties must have been considerable. Some 250 vegetable drugs are mentioned, as well as 120 mineral drugs and some 180 that remain unidentified. This wealth of information makes it reasonable to assume that gardens where medicinally useful plants wen cultivated must have been established. Whether physic gardens in the sense th.it the term came to be used in the Middle Ayes ever existed is uncertain. But we do know that gardens and parks
were
laid out
that in
one
round the royal palaces and herbs were grown.
at least
Language is and spread of ideas, and it is significant that a number of the names \>\ which plants are known today are derived an obvious indicator of the
Above: Tablet depicting Ashurbanipal.
King of Assyria, at work on his herbal. Ashurbanipal was very interested in herbs and their medicinal properties, and large numbers were grown in the royal gardens for his
use.
Aesculapius Like the Sumerians and Egyptians, the Greeks believed that the gods were the first herbalists and physicians and that they had taught the art of healing to man.
Aesculapius was the first, and probably greatest, of them. Historians now
the
believe that he actually lived, but
whether
he did or not is of little importance. Aesculapius must have been a healer whose skills and successes brought him
renown and about
whom
after his
death
legends gradually grew up. His signifi-
cance lies in those legends. They tell that Aesculapius was the son of Apollo and Coronis. Born in Epidaurus in about 1250 B.C., he was slain by Zeus, who was jealous of his success in healing the sick
and
daughter was Another closer link with
raising the dead. His
Hygieia, the goddess of health.
provides
origin
tradition
from the Sumerians, having passed through the Greek and Arabic languages.
Egypt by claiming that Aesculapius was born in the Egyptian city of Memphis and emigrated to Greece, bringing with him Egyptian medical techniques and know-
These include Apricot, Saffron, Cumin, Turmeric, Myrrh, Mandrake, Almond, Poppv. Mulberry and Sesame.
MESOPOTAMIA
a
ledge.
The root-gatherers The
link
with the Egyptian association of
ANCIENT GREECE
healing with magic and mystery
that
The civilization of classical Greece took much from the Egyptian world and from
physicians.
Mesopotamia, including, of course, its knowledge of the practice of medicine. It took much, but it added even more-. It also
demonstrated by the rhizotomists is root-gatherers who wandered from place to place gathering roots and herbs used in medical prescriptions For the most part, they were uneducated and would follow a complex ritual as they went about their work complex in all likelihood, again, to
I
he
Sumerians believed
that sickness
the manifestation of devils
and
was
evil spirits
had attacked the human body. Magic and medicine went hand in hand, and many of the- gods were believed to be
The
similarity of these
beliefs
Egyptians is cleat. Whether the Egyptians influenced die Sumerians
io
diose
ol
began, perhaps most important of basis lor medic
establish a scientific
all.
inc.
to
is
clear.
It
also
'"»
HISTORY He earns
protect their trade from inquisitive out-
known
Certain prayers and chants had to be spoken as the plants were gathered, and specific times were appointed for the task.
this
person to establish and
The
to
learning he took from Egyptian sources.
pharmacopolists, who prepared drugs and other healing remedies for sale in village markets. The rhizotomists and
But he dropped the elements of mystery and magic and, recognizing disease as a natural phenomenon, established for the first time a system of diagnosis and prognosis. Hippocrates used about 400 drugs,
siders.
rhizotomists
sold
their
plants
pharmacopolists of ancient Greece together form the start of a long tradition of what might best be described as dealers in herbs, usually itinerant and always re-
magic and mystery to justify Such people could still be the markets and fairs of Europe in
ferring to
their products.
seen in
the early part of this century.
Hippocrates Despite
the
traditional
framework of ancient Greece
was in that scientific medicine fas we now understand the term) was first developed. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), who was born and practised on the island of Cos, is religious belief,
it
tific
as the father of medicine.
description because he was the set
system of medicine.
down
Much
first
a scien-
of his
mostly of vegetable origin, but he never wrote a herbal. The Hippocratic Oath, to which all doctors until very recently had to swear before they could practise, is of course named after Hippocrates. Its opening words - 'I swear by Apollo, the Physician, by Aesculapius, by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the Gods and Goddesses that to the best of
my power and judgment
BED(pPAI"F5
MEAANTA
.' .
.
demonstrate a close and fascinating link between modern medical practice and the beliefs of the earliest medical
EPE2I DS
scientists.
'
/IlfW'i
/**
m^^mr
W
5
&
I
,'
K
V
——
.
,
L
,
with low osmotic pressures called flavonoids, which happen to be red. A pink colour thus develops in the leaves. After some time when the plant has grown and so needs and can accommodate more sugar, the red substances are removed by reconversion into useful sugars so that the pink hue gradually disappears.
The main types of metabolites The 'active constituents' of plants may categorized according
to
their
be chemical
structure: Alkaloids are distinguished chemically
by
the fact that they contain a basic nitrogen
atom. An alkaloid-containing plant almost never contains just one alkaloid but rather a whole range of closely related chemical components. Thousands of alkaloids are known and they are very widespread in the plant world being present even in certain fungi.
the
Some
Solanaceous
of the best
group
shows
more may serve a protective function. Some compounds are extremely toxic (even in very low concentrations) and a
section through a holly leaf
the 'open' structure
of leaves with good circulation
large air-spaces to promote
bird, for example, which cats a bcrrv which contains these substances and as a result becomes ill soon learns to avoid the fruit from that particular species: the
of gases. Holly, an evergreen, possesses a modification to enable it to withstand drought conditions in winter by having a thick outer cuticle.
merely to exist and these are often ofver) complicated structure. They can sometimes be unique to a single species or a
group of very closely related species. Despite their wide diversity of character and distribution they all have one thing in common and that is that their function in the plant, if they have one at all, is very poorly understood. It is these secondary metabolites, sometimes present in an extremely minute concentration, which exert
the
physiological
logical effects
on
man and
or
pharmaco-
are responsible
and odours of some obvious that it is on these substances that an account of the chemistry of herbs should concentrate. for the strong flavours
species
and
it is
Biosynthesis
The secondary
may
be
regarded as 'end-products' of metabolism have an extremely wide range of chemical structure but their functions are largely unknown. Some coloured compounds have an obvious reproductive role in that they are responsible for the colour of
and the yellow carotenes of sunflowers are good examples and hence attract insects which pollinate and cross-fertilize. Others may have a role in growth regulation the hormones already mentioned while still flowers (the red flavonoids of roses
42
among other
Deadly Nightshade and Thorn Apple. Another much more complex group which includes morphine is found in certain species of poppy. Glycosides are compounds which consist of two parts: a sugar portion attached via a species,
special
linkage to a non-sugar residue.
chances of survival of the plant are thus
They may be
increased.
action of dilute acid. Probably the most
Some
evidence that
these secondary
substances are concerned, however indirectly, with vital processes is given In the fact that not
all
parts of those plants
by enzymes or by the
split
important group are those which exert a powerful physiological effect on heart muscle the cardio-active glycosides
which are special
steroids found,
among
which contain these materials have the same concentration of them. They may.
other plants, in the Foxglove and the-Valley. Second only to the cardiac
for
example, be concentrated in the bark Buckthorn) or the fruits (for example, Caraway). Their concentration, furthermore, varies with the season (and this has obvious important consequences regarding the collection of some medicinal plants and herbs which will be referred to later) and even with the time of day. The concentration of active principles in the
glycosides are those
(as in the
anthraquinone, the purgative substances of Cascara, Rhubarb, Buckthorn and Senna. Saponins are special glycosides which form stable froths or foams when shaken in water. Their physiological action depends on the fact that they break up red blood haemolysis). The Primula is one of cells
medicinally useful plants of the family Solanaceae (particularly the Deadly
the herbs containing saponins.
Nightshade) metabolites which
are
(atropine and
hyoscine, ibr example) from,
Above: This
known
for
instance
show marked
Lily-of-
compounds based on
i
mixtures of oils are complex quite small molecules which are volatile Essential
diurnal variation. Another example in which secondary metabolites may play a
and generally have a pronounced odour.
role in
fundamental metabolism is given by the so-called 'pink flush' of lettuces. When growth and photosynthesis is very active, in young seedlings for example,
many
high concentrations of sugars build up
including Dill, Caraway, Fennel and Anise and the leaves of certain species of Labiatae including Peppermint and Thyme). In addition,
increasing the osmotic pressure of the
some
cell
sap to dangerously high levels. If allowed to proceed the cells could literally explode at this point certain enzymes are activated which divert the metabolism to break
down
these sugars to aromatic
compounds
They
are responsible for the flavours of culinary herbs (for example, the
umbelliferous
fruits
have a therapeutic effect - for example, oil of Clove is antiseptic. Mucilages and gums consist of large molecules made up of several hundred individual sugar units linked together to form chains. They have the special propertv of oils
EXTRACTION being able to form gels with water and thus exert a soothing effect on inflamed
They may
tissue.
also act as laxatives
by
increasing the bulk of the contents of the intestines and hence induce peristalsis. A good example is Marshmallow root. Tannins are complex phenols which react
with protein. Just as a tannin solution is used to prevent putrefaction of animal hides by converting them to leather so may an extract of the Oak (which is high in tannin content) be used to promote wound healing by encouraging the formation of new tissue under the leathery layer formed on broken mucosal surface by the action of tannins. Because of their astrin-
gent
compounds
these
properties
also
have a marked effect on flavour - as in tea, for example. Bitten as the name implies have a strong bitter taste but do not belong to any one special chemical class. They are generally Gentian, used to stimulate the appetite for example, is included for this purpose in a
number of aperitifs.
can be seen that all these different of substances have very different chemical properties. Because of these It
classes
methods used in the preparation of extracts of plants also vary. The extraction procedures obviously dedifferences, the
pend on the types of constituent present and it is worthwhile examining the vari< ius procedures
in detail.
MAKING EXTRACTS OF PLANTS Although it is desirable for all purposes to have 2rmu nt
lvUxipApaucrcuoieocvttSi^montt mouctaf
omm cqvfn mxrc1bmmtme£roaO£>ucvr,
all
before
MEDICAL HISTORY him were
distilled into four
with the 600 best
known
books dealing -i^ ^•s.'
plants by the
greatest figure in the history of herbalism.
•
t;
v>,
^O
^A
Pedacius Dioscorides. Following the col146 B.C. Greek lapse of Corinth in
moved to Rome, and from an army surgeon under Nero
physicians there as
Dioscorides travelled widely and described the herbs he saw in use in what was the first 'materia medica' or
(54-68 a.d.
"pharmacopoeia". Without doubt he was the first real medical botanist, and his work was for 1500 years the standard reference for the medical application of plants.
Galen
a.d.
- whose name meaning had enormous in-
131-201
gave rise to the term galenical, botanical drug - also
fluence until the seventeenth century, but
Galen was a physician, and
his
major
therapy was the introduction of a system of 'polypharmacy' or mixing herbal preparations to treat specific conditions; some forms of
contribution
plant
to
herbalism still retain this type of therapy. Following Galen and Dioscorides. and
and fall of the Roman Empire. European medicine entered a stagnant period which was to last several hundred the decline
years.
To a
large extent the moral ethics ol
physicians were replaced with greed, envy and quackery, and the old incantation and magic of previous ages resurrected. Folklore rose to the surface again, and individuals either treated themselves with
family
visited
recipes,
travelling
bone-
and herb women, or were helped by those in religious orders. Even tin medical work of monks, however, was stopped by the Papal decrees which were setters
issued regularly for a century,
from that
ol
Clermont council 130 to the council ol Le Mans 1247 In early Germany medicine fell largely into the hands ol 'wise women' or 'wild women who employed herbal remedies, magic and amulets, and to the lekeis who were the equivalent ol the Anglo-Saxon leech-men. In Russia the position was similar with the 'wolf-men' or volkhava employing herbs and spells, while the Celtic order ol Druids and Druidesses did likewise. The 1
.
Druids
favoured
seven
magic
herbs
of
which the Mistletoe held pride of place. In the dark ages, however, between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Arabic mechc
ine rose
on the tide of
Mohammedanism,
and physicians ol the standing ofRhazes, Haly ben Abbas and Avicenna. and the Jewish physician Avenzoar, combined the previous Greek work with their own observations and studies ol botanical drugs and pharmacology. Much ol this work was recorded in the thirteenth-
century compilation of Ibn Baitar whose materia medica described 1400 drugs. The proximity of Arabia to the- East led Arabian pharmacists (or sandalani) to the Stud) ol a wide- range of plants and plant products which became of immense importance to later European medicine: they developed the use of Cassia. Senna.
Rhubarb, Camphor. Myrrh. Cloves, and used
the-
flavouring ability
ol
rose-water,
orange and lemon peel and other aromatics
id
mask
unpleasant
medication. Before the advent of printing
tastes
in
the mid-
had already begun the internal wrangling in the medical profession to be exacerbated by the printed word which continued until the nineteenth
century.
Initially
concerned the relative status
in full judicial
The Druids had an
excellent
knowledge of the medicinal application of local herbs, and considered some to possess magical qualities.
Of all plants,
the
Mistletoe held pride of place.
and barbers; the
being increasingly persecuted by the surgeons who tried to pi event them from treating wounds. In latter
England in 1368 the Master Surgeons formed a separate guild, and in 1421 joined forces temporarily with the Physic-
in
fifteenth century there
late
Above: An Arch Druid costume.
ol
this
surgeons
ians,
although
even
these
two
bodies
treated each other with suspicion. This
move
forced
the
barbers
to
obtain" a
separate charter (1462) and led to the beginning of barber-surgery or surgery of the
common
place-
in
people. Similar events took
France and Germany. Under »'•
MEDICINAL USES Henry YIU's act of and surgeons
151
ians
licensed practitioners,
1
While herbal traditions based on
English physic-
became the only and all others were
lore continued, the effect of printing to
mark
folk-
was
the beginning of the Renaissance
excluded from practising medicine, but b\ 1542 the greed shown by the profession caused another act to be passed to allow those common people having knowledge of herbal and folk medicine to minister to
and the continuation of the
scientific
method
The
the poor.
its
started by Dioscorides.
teenth century was
marked by
six-
the emerg-
ence of both 'proto-botany' books and herbals, although the herbal did not reach
peak
in
England
until
1633 when enlarged
Thomas Johnson improved and Below
:
The sumptuous
interior
sixteenth-century apothecary.
of a
As some
apothecaries charged very high prices, people
sought the services of herbalists.
the herbal of
John Gerard,
itself
mostly
employed by apothecaries; the 'materia medicas', pharmacopoeias and dispensatories (the first edition of the
Pharmacopoeia,
for
London
example, appeared
1 6 1 8 Apothecaries were originally drug and herb traders, who managed to develop a special relationship with the medical fraternity. In England they had been associated from 1378 with the Grocers' Company who also sold herbs and drugs,
in
.
derived from a translation of Dodoens.
and who were the
This period also saw the beginning of printed works devoted to those substances
Both the grocers and apothecaries purchased herbs and roots collected from the
original
drug vendors.
HOMEOPATHY countryside, and they also imported drugs and spices from abroad. The apothecaries frequently established their own physic gardens and thus served as a link
between horticulture and medicine by growing their own medicinal herbs. The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London was incorporated in 1617 and the apothecaries soon began to diagnose and prescribe without associating with a physician. They continued to do so until 1886 when medical registration was finally only granted to those candidates qualifying by examination in surgery, medicine, and pharmacy. By the middle of the seventeenth century therefore, herbs were being used in many different ways by physicians, apothecaries, manufacturers of proprietary medicines and a host of traditional country herbalists and town quacks. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, although herbs continued to play an important role in medicine, their importance slowly declined.
The
botanic writers
who amassed
details of plant use included
information
from a host of sources - the Greeks, the Arabs, folklore, early botany, and information received by the grocers or apothecaries from foreign lands. In some cases
mentioned was unand while the real advances of medicine such as anatomy, physiology and clinical diagnosis were progressing, plant-lore became increasingly confused with an assortment of chemical compounds, mixtures, electrical and magnetic treatment, and blind faith in tradition. By the beginning of the nineteenth century scientific investigation was growing apace, and with it came the realization the identity of plants certain,
that specific effects could be demonstrated
when
or
isolated
particular,
purified
substances were applied to living systems.
known
as pharmacology, owes work and inspiration of 803-1 873 ), the father Justus von Liebig
This study,
much
to
the
1
of physiological
chemistry,
who
to
medical
therapeutics:
on
the
effect
specific cells,
Samuel Hahnemann (1 755-1843) and the work of American physicians of the early nineteenth century
medicalism,
a
Homeopathy
is
and
known as physio-
branch
herbalism.
of
a system of healing based
on the supposition that infinitesimally small quantities of a given substance, such as a medicinal plant, will cure a condition in which symptoms exist that would be identical to the symptoms produced in a healthy person who is given large quantities
of the same substance. doctors had an open
Many American
intro-
duced the concept of 'metabolism', and carried forward the development of organic chemistry which had already produced such important isolated substances as morphine ,1806; from the Opium Poppy, strychnine (181 8) from Strychnos nux-vomica and quinine (1820) from Cinchona bark. This approach is the modern rationale specific substances
orthodox practitioner was as eager as the research worker to move away from crude plants to the more 'exact', isolated chemical. Notable exceptions to this in the West were the introduction of homeopathy by
approach to medicine which was unfettered by the historical trappings of their colleagues in the Old World; certainly
them
the early settlers took with
when
traditional remedies
they
their
Eur-
left
ope, but they soon adapted to the rigours
of
new life by adopting some of the remedies of the North American Indians. All these remedies were in continuous use by an oral culture, rather than a culture
in
which
of their
upon
depended
written
(and,
and
the excitement of the nineteenth-century
therefore, often erroneous) records,
development of organic chemistry the
be reliable. This led to many reliable drugs being incorporated into the first American materia medicas and dispensatories.
were therefore found
One group
to
of physicians, led by
Thompson, decided
Samuel
not to interest them-
selves in the isolation of active ingredients
of plants, as was being done elsewhere in
America
and Europe, but simply to administer tinctures of the whole plant, a
system which became known as the physiomedical concept, and which was concerned with assisting the natural power of tissue regeneration which the body possesses. Schools specializing in pliysiomedicalism flourished for a while,
mainly
Chicago, but by the beginning
in
of the twentieth century their influence
declined and retained in
this
concept
now
is
only
some forms of unorthodox
herbalism.
Herbalism as a system of healing exists today in name only as there are various approaches which range from the use of all types of plant material to the use of non-poisonous herbs only. In the West the orthodox employment of medicinal plants is largely restricted to those with strong I.i
ft
:
rural
The less opulent interior of the Swiss pharmacy of Michael Schuppart, an
eighteenth-century apothecary.
examining
the urine
sitting in front
He
is
of the patient who
is
of him. ")'
MEDICINAL USES Right: The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum). The latex, which is obtained by excision of the immature capsules,
25
contains
-
is
of which modern medicine
different alkaloids
morphine - indispensable the strongest
pain
to
reliever (analgesic)
pharmacological action, such as Opium Poppy, Foxglove and their derivatives. The great dependence of Third World nations on traditional plant use has, however, recently stimulated the beginnings of a modern medical appraisal of
and
herbs,
scientific
possible
that
future
reassessment will
lead
to
it
is
the
orthodox utilization of ancient herbal remedies and the discovery of new
wider ones.
MYTHS AND TRADITIONS Many
magical and religious ideas associ-
ated with plants have survived almost unaltered to the present day. In Crete the fat
onion-like bulbs of the Sea Squill maritima) are
(
i'rginea
hung up by farmers
at tin-
entrances to their vineyards to protect the
ripening grapes from harmful influences, a superstition which seems pointless but
which is explained by tracing the Squill back to the days when it was sacred to the god Pan who protected mortals from evil spirits. Similarly, in some parts of central Europe villagers still plant the succulent Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) on the roof tiles to prevent their houses from being struck by lightning. The Romans called
Iovis
it
caulis
or Jupiter's
plant
ancient times, and even todav in
plants were thought not only to protect
are tannins, malic acid and mucilages, and while they may have some minor effect in treating superficial burns and
man from the dangers of the outside world,
diarrhoea they are completely ineffective
but also to preserve him from disease and
in shingles,
In
some
health, so
ill
properties
wielded.
protect plants were carried on the person
for the benefit of their protective qualities.
A
leaf of
Betony
{Stachys officinalis) carried
pocket or purse was said to offer protection from witchcraft. A sprig of in the
Mugwort
[Artemisia vulgaris)
worn
inside
the shoe was thought to prevent a traveller from becoming tired, an old practice which, surprisingly, persisted in East Anglia until the beginning of this century. In southern Europe walking-sticks cut from the boughs of the Chaste tree Vitex agnus-castus) were carried by pilgrims because they believed they were magical and could protect them from both robbers (
and the bites of venomous creatures. These primitive beliefs in the talismanic qualities of plants are, however, by no means confined to the ancient cultures of the world; they abound today in Third World countries, and you can still be stopped in the heart of London by gypsies hawking sprigs of 'lucky heather'. 52
was considered
it
wear a magical plant
because they believed Zeus or Jupiter had given it to man to protect his property from the destructive bolt of lightning he
Some
many
parts of the world,
infusion of
or
better
with
still
of these
The
protective
balism
is
this
partly due to the fact that early
drink
to
an
believed to
thatched roofs of medieval fire from the sky, was also considered to be effective against fire in the body - medicine in the Middle Ages the
houses from
classified diseases into hot
and
cold,
wet and dry. So William Salmon, writing on the medicinal virtues of the Houseleek as late as the end of the seventeenth century was able to say - 'Herba iova is Glutinative and Segnotick; it quenches thirst, allays heat, stops fluxes
and abates
the violence of cholerick Fevers, being
given in a spoonful or two of Wine, or the juice mixt with Sugar.
Balsam
it
is
on the subject received their information by hearsay or accepted without criticism what they read in the works
Outwardly
in a
cures burns, scalds, shingles,
of other authors. This early attitude led to the publication of a large number of
accounts of plants which did not even exist, such as the 'Scythian Lambe' described by John Parkinson, and the 'Fountain tree of water' which Lewis Jackson maintained grew on the CanaryIslands. There was even thought to be a 'Barnacle tree' that bore fruit which eventually hatched into live geese. Of the plants which did actually exist, many were attributed with medicinal properties because of their association in previous a
inflammations.'
examples
these
therapeutic indications are
concerned with other,
and
vividly
how
the
plant
the
in some form or example demonstrates
'heat'
the magical 'primary' use of
dictated
its
'secondary'
or
medical use. We now know that the Houseleek's principal active constituents
who governed One of the best common Myrtle Myrtus
ages with a god or goddess
pains of the gout, creeping ulcers and hot All
of myths and false ideas, and
full
writers
it.
The Houseleek. which was
still
gout and fevers. history of medical botany or her-
logical to
particular
communis
is
disease.
the
.
Myrtle was known
to
the Greeks as
and was sacred to the goddess Aphrodite ^who was also known as 'myrsini'
Myrsini), the goddess of fertility, simply because the pointed elliptical leaves of this plant closely resembled the shape of
METABOLISM As a result of this was chiefly employed in Greek medicine as a herb for treating female complaints - a practice the female genitalia.
association the Myrtle
which was not discredited
until the nine-
teenth century.
Another medicinal plant which earned reputation by association with the Greek gods was the Black Hellebore its
a plant sacred to the
iHelleborus niger |,
'kthonoi' or gods of the underworld. deities, spirits
deified
These
whose number included cave and the souls of the dead and physicians, belonged to an older
and darker
than the
cult
celestial
Olym-
was believed that they possessed the power to inflict enormous suffering on mankind in the form of disease and madness. Black Hellebore, which became linked with their worship, was considered to be the specific remedy for the diseases for which they were held responsible, and the root was. used for pian
deities.
It
treating epilepsy,
and
melancholia, hysteria disorders. In
neurological
other
Shakespeare's time and beyond it continued to be used for 'the falling sicknesses' fepilepsyi,
melancholicke
'all
diseases'
and 'convulsions', besides being employed as a poison, an abortive and a local anaesthetic. Modern examination, how-
Animals,
including
man,
are
very
ever, has suggested that Black Hellebore
similar to plants in this respect, the funda-
neurological
mental difference between the two groups being in the way in which they obtain
does
the general
in
assist
conditions for which the Greeks employed
homeopathic tincture is prepared from the rhizome and used to treat epilepsy, certain psychoses, eclamp-
and today
it,
sia
a
(convulsion
with
associated
preg-
nancy), meningitis and encephalitis. After a period in which herbal medicine
was regarded with the greatest suspicion by the medical profession, many of the
now being
claims of herbalism are
by
stantiated
scientific
sub-
observation and
reinstated.
up their own food from small molecules whereas animals take in large molecules and break them down. All materials ingested by the animal are treated in exactly the same general way: the food is digested in the their food. Plants build
Above: The evergreen Myrtle fMyrtus
communis ) it
was
is
now of little
importance, but
once sacred to the Greek goddess
Aphrodite. In the Middle Ages Myrtle berries It
was
were used as a condiment, also used in the treatment
like pepper.
of
female complaints.
Below : The Christmas Rose or Black Hellebore fHelleborus niger,) contains
gastro-intestinal tract, the small molecules
powerful substances which act on the heart
formed are absorbed through the gut wall and transported via the blood to other parts of the body where they are used to build up new enzymes or cell
rather like Digitalis. These
so
much
too strong for
make
modern herbal
the plant use.
material or act as essential catalysts in
THE INTAKE AND ACTIONS OF
these reactions. Certain foodstuffs contain
MEDICINAL PLANTS
ingredients such as minerals and vitamins
Plants
are
very complicated
composed of millions of
cells
structures
many
per-
forming extremely specialized functions and each contributing to the existence of the organism as a whole. Organisms are 'alive' because of the many chemical reactions which are carried out in each of these cells; thus life is essentially a series of highly controlled chemical changes which consist of building up (anabolismj or breaking down (catabolism processes
known
which are
essential
process to occur.
our diet in
for
some enzymic
deficiency of these in
likely to lead to
some of our
just as
to
is
A
an impairment
basic metabolic functions,
mineral deficiencies
visible
in plants lead
abnormal symptoms such
as
and yellowing. digestive and transportation proesses described above are not capable of discriminating between materials which spots
The
i
way Thus
find their
into the gut from different
metabolism these changes are initiated by chemical catalysts. All these reactions are under the
sources.
direct
because they contain substances which after absorption enter certain biochemical
(collectively
found
as
;
influence of the genetic material in
the nucleus of each
cell.
certain plants are
'good'
foodstuffs because they are rich in starch
or
protein and
some plants are
'toxic'
53
MEDICINAL USES Right
A
:
magnified section through the wall
of the small intestine showing the folded mucous membrane (top, pink) through which food and drugs are absorbed. The rate
of absorption depends on the nature of drug molecule and on the other
the food or
substances present in the tract.
and disrupt them. Similarly the which are medicinally useful contain materials which act in some beneficial way on the fundamental processes in animal cells, either by promoting processes
plants
certain reactions or inhibiting other pro-
may
which
cesses
abnormal.
be
The
practice of medicine with herbal products
no fundamental chemical way different from treatment with synthetic drugs. Both act by the introduction of a foreign molecule into the body (sometimes at a more or less in
this
respect
specific site) so that
The concept
in
is
it
may
exert
its effect.
of herbalism does, of course,
differ theoretically
from the orthodox
in
that herbal medicine attempts to treat the
patient
as
whole,
a
rather
than
the
condition in isolation.
Pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of the manner in which the functions of living organisms can be modified by chemical substances. Since living cells are very complex, many of the factors which control their activities are completely unknown. For this reason a
new
been
science,
pharmacokinetics,
developed
to
study
the
has
factors
hence on the body. This goes to
a long
wa\
explaining the highly specific nature of
some drug actions, as well as why some compounds possess powerful, often dangerous, side-effects, since some drugs may by chance interact with more than one
which would decompose in the acid stomach juices. Other routes which invoke passage of active materials through a mucosal layer are those via the vagina or urethra. Drugs may also be administered by slowly dissolving a lozenge under the orally, or
affecting the absorption, distribution and eventual elimination of drugs from the
type
body and
Routes of drug administration The oral route is the one most frequently
nasal
cheap, easy and convenient and the patient can administer himself tablets which can be manu-
cation
it
largely employs mathematical
models. A theory which has been advanced from simple experimental evidence and has found considerable success in explain-
why
drugs exert their effects is the It was proposed originally by Paul Ehrlich who believed that mammalian cells possessed side chains ing
receptor theory.
which contained receptors (reactive chemical groupings) which combine with another active group on the drug molecule (in a more or less reversible way) to cause the drug effect. This proposal was a great advance and much modern research is based on a modified form of the theory. Simply,
drugs
can
be
considered
as
and the receptors on which may be opened
of
tongue (sublingually) or as snuffs (whereby absorption is effected through the
receptor.
used because
it
is
factured to contain an exact dose. ever,
if
the medicine
liquid or powder,
is
in the
and most herbal pre-
parations are, the dosage inaccurate.
How-
form of a
The drug
is
likely to
be
will also be diluted
by the contents of the stomach and intestine. Since the stomach juices are strongly acid and those in the intestine alkaline this may lead to decomposition of Absorption the active ingredients. through the gastro-intestinal tract may be slow or irregular due to the presence of
precisely cut keys,
the partly digested or undigested food,
the cells as locks
thus delaying the effect.
only by the appropriate keys.
When
the
key turns the lock (that is when the drug reaches and combines with the receptor on the cell) processes are initiated which cause chemical changes and so induce the
drug 54
to exert
its
effect
on the
cell,
and
Some
materials are given as suppositor-
ies and the active ingredients are absorbed through the delicate lining (mucous membrane) of the rectum. This may be
particularly useful for giving substances
which would cause vomiting
if
given
mucosa
When is
i.
a local effect
made
is
required appli-
to the surface
of the skin in
the form of a cream, paste, ointment, lo-
In these cases some occur by penetration through to the subcutaneous tissues. Sterile solutions may, of course, be injected directly into the bloodstream which removes the initial absorption step. The rate and efficiency of absorption of tion
or liniment.
absorption
may
is largely dependchemical nature but also on the method of formulation ^how it is presented for administration). The most obvious factor is the solubility of the substance in
a material from the gut
ent on
its
the gastro-intestinal contents. No substances can be absorbed from the fluid in the gut unless they are soluble in the first place.
Secondly,
the
passage of drugs (that
is
barriers
to
the
the intestinal cell
walls) consist largely of fatty substances,
hence drugs which dissolve well in fats are absorbed more rapidly and completely than those which do not. There are some
DRUG ADMINISTRATION exceptions to this and these depend on the existence of a specific transport mechan-
ism for a particular type of chemical. In addition, some drug molecules contain acidic or basic groupings
which
may
be
ionized (electrically charged) in aqueous solution. Since only non-ionized or elec-
molecules are fat-soluble, governed to some extent
trically neutral
absorption
by
also
is
this factor.
Finally, the presence of substances in
whole plants other than the active ingredients may considerably modify not only the physiological effect of the active substances themselves but also their solu-
and hence absorption.
bility
The
It will
sweat and milk. that when one medicine many-
now be apparent
takes a dose of herbal
the blood
meate
and
drug exerts
its
effect.
but
ingredients
the
also
sub-
'ballast'
body via compounds that perthrough cell membranes
freely
evenly distributed in all parts of the body. Some, however, tend to concentrate at particular sites. Compounds are often bound to carrier molecules - for example, proteins in the blood plasma - or become strongly attached to specific
binding
less
sites
in
tissues.
such active transport processes
Where
exist, the
ordinary physico-chemical principles no longer apply. One particularly effective
mechanism is known as barriei which prevents
the blood-brain
passage of most molecules from the bloodstream into the central nervous system and the the
cerebro-spinal fluid.
Metabolism a drug enters the body,
it
is
acted
upon by enzymes which usually change its chemical structure into substances which have less effect (pharmacological activity on the body. This is why the effects of drugs wear off gradually. These enzymatic reactions
which may exert a modifying on the 'active' substances have first to be made soluble, then absorbed and distributed (perhaps via an active binding process throughout the whole body, to stances effect
reach their active site (receptor) before they can produce an action. Later they are usually metabolized to inactive sub-
and then excreted.
are
known
as
detoxification
and the most important organ concerned is the liver. This does not always happen, however. Pharmacologically active metabolites (products that have been produced l>\ the breakdown of the drug; may be formed from an inactive substance a precursor or or sometimes the metabolites 'pro-drug' may have a type of activity which differs from that of the 'active ingredient in the drug originally administered. The principal route of excretion of drugs and theii detoxified metabolites is the urine. This may be facilitated by metabolic changes
Biological variation
,
measurements
Repeated
of
same
the
quantity do not always give identical results. While this may be due to variations in accuracy, with living systems it is
more
be the result of biological its very nature biological variable. This produces prob-
likely to
variation - by
material is lems in the quantitative biological evaluation of all medicines, and these difficulties are particularly severe in the case of medicinal plants and their extracts. Medicinal plants are usually administered
as tinctures of the
whole plant, which
many different chemical substances, only some of which are active pharmacologically. Not only may the presence of the so-called inactive substances modify the absorption of the active ones (mixtures are in general more soluble than pure compounds), but they may actually modify the pharmacological activity of the active ingredients, either in a potentiating
way
or
former
is
oppositely
known
as
The
retardants.
The modifying substances need come from the same plant.
sometimes found that the particular plant extract
as the detoxification rea< lions
generally produce
than
compounds which
are
soluble in water (hence in urine in fat.
Alternatively, drugs
may
be
excreted into the intestinal trad via the bile and so eliminated in the fae< es. Minor
One
of the problems of this
is that haphazard administration of different plant extracts can produce undesired effects. For this reason orthodox medical authorities sometimes consider such herbal prac-
tices as unscientific
and inexact.
the-
presence
In recent attempts at the scientific evalu-
of one
effect
considerably of greater or
is
therapy, often quite complex,
is
the rule
the
exception.
This
is
the
fundamental difference between herbal and orthodox medicine. Whereas the latter is often symptomatic in approach, the former essentially treats the patient as
whole rather than
isolated
effect.
ation of this approach
amounts of extracts of other plants. This is of paramount importance in herbal medicine where combination
a
bined
herbal combination therapy
not
1
much
helps digestion.
It is
smaller
rather than
Above: Magnification of secretory cells of the stomach, which secrete the fluid which
Evaluating herbal medicines
necessarily
by
*r.flL
as the s\ net gistic effect or
synergism.
altered
J*£
will
consist of solutions in dilute alcohol of
processes,
more
**
r/m&L
and after the Not only the active
processes intervene before
stances
the
become more or
in as
4.
active materials, once absorbed,
are transported throughout the
When
routes of elimination include the lungs, saliva, tears,
conditions.
as a collection of Hence- preparations
containing several different plant extracts are administered with the intention that each component will exert its own specific effect which will produce an overall com-
that
some of
the
it
has been realized
compounds preset
minute concentration
in plants
in
often so
low as to be undetectable by standard techniques may themselves by extremely potent pharmacological agents. This
phenomenon
is
often referred to as the
effect of ballast material.
must be emphasized that everything body can be considered as a drug. This is an easy concept to accept when an active material exerts a pronounced, readily observable pharmacologic al effect on the body such as producing anaesthesia, but some compounds may act in a more subtle way, for example, by promoting efficient working of certain enzymes or by encouraging the development ol a good immunological defence It
ingested by the
55
MEDICINAL USES Plants
system.
belong
the
to
currently
know
producing these effects group about which we least:
traditionally they
were the panaceas or tonics - Ginseng being the best-known example. Today
DISEASES OF THE
HEART AND
blood vessels
The cardiovascular system
is
concerned
difficulties
with the circulation of blood. It consists essentially of a pump, the heart, and a system of tubes, the arteries, veins and capillaries - comprising the blood vessels. Circulation involves two joined systems one in which blood passes from the heart to the lungs where it is oxygenated, and then back to the heart; and another in which this oxygen-rich blood is pumped to the furthest parts of the body, gives up
ticism will
some of its oxygen
they are
known
All these difficulty
in
as
adaptogens.
problems have led deciding
how
to great
herbal pre-
parations should be examined, tested and
standardized and this has contributed to the current scepticism about the efficacy of the herbal approach. When these
have been overcome this scepundoubtedly decline and some aspects of plant medication will assume an even more important role in medicine. Having described briefly the uptake and actions of herbs, four groups of diseases, including their physiology and their treatment with medicinal plants, are
now examined. The
mentioned orthodox and
plants
have found use both in herbal methods and no distinction is made the examples simply between them emphasize the importance of plan's in medicine as a whole.
The commonest
vessels.
CIRCULATION
to the tissue's cells,
and
then returns to the heart. Besides oxygen, which
all tissues need biochemical reactions, the blood carries foodstuffs absorbed from the alimentary tract, and is also responsible for carrying the waste products of metabolism to sites of excretion, such as
for certain of their
the kidneys.
is
disorder of the
arteriosclerosis 'resulting in
narrowing of the arteries), the commonest site being the blood vessels supplying the heart (coronary arteries). This leads to a reduced oxygen supply for the action of the heart, especially during exercise, resulting in chest pain (angina pectoris The coronary blood supply is sometimes so |
.
drastically obstructed that a portion of
and this is known as Another common disorder is in which the blood pressure is
the heart wall dies, heart attack. hypertension,
abnormally raised, causing excessive strain on the heart, rupture of cerebral brain blood vessels causing a stroke, and
damage
to the kidneys.
Both coronary artery disease of which arteriosclerosis is one and hypertension
may
cause heart failure : this action of the heart
pumping
cope with the work load:
is
when
is
unable
the to
this results in
and retenand water (causing ankle swelling, for example) due to a reduced blood-flow to the kidneys. Other causes of
shortness of breath, tiredness,
The treatment of disorders Cardiovascular diseases are concerned with disorders of the heart and blood
of
tion
heart
salt
rheumatic
include
failure
fever,
congenital defects, diseases of the valves
which separate the chambers of the heart, infections and chronic respiratory disease.
The treatment of heart failure includes oxygen, cardiotonic substances (which improve the function of the heart and (substances which cause an increased excretion of salt and water by the kidneys The leaf of the Foxglove Digitalis purpurea is an effective cardiotonic for the treatment of heart failure and millions of people throughout the world diuretics
i.
|
are
still
(or
its
of the
treated with this material today
derivatives
The
|.
active principles
Foxglove are complex steroidal
substances
known
as cardiotonic glycos-
Many
ides or cardenolides.
very closely
Left: Diagrammatic representation of the cardiovascular system
A
Superior vena cava
B
Aorta
D
Right
F
Blood exchange
G
Blood supply within the
C
Right atrium
E
ventricle
Inferior vena cava
in the liver
H
of Pulmonary
vein
I
Pulmonary
arteries
J
Left atrium
K
M A"
the upper part
body especially the brain
Left ventricle
L
Blood exchange
Portal vein in the intestine
Blood exchange within the kidneys and
within the lower parts of the body. Areas of blood exchange consist of arterioles and venules which meet at the smallest subdivisions or capillaries.
v>
DIGITALIS THERAPY compounds of this type are present plant and some of these have a pro-
related in the
nounced strengthening ing heart.
They bind
effect
to heart
on the
fail-
muscle and
increase the force of contraction of the
heart at each beat without increasing
its
for
efficiently.
The need
is
enormous and much modern research
is
for cardiotonic
concerned with the chemical modification of these active molecules in order to produce better drugs. The major glycosides digitoxin and of digoxin are often isolated from
of Digitalis purpurea |
the dried leaves by complex and costly chemical procedures to enable administration to the patient in the form of tablets, but better results, however, are sometimes obtained by treatment with the whole powdered leaf. It is found that the
combined
effect
of
the
highly
active
glycosides together with the less potent
compounds found in the crude drug may provide therapy which is less harsh, more easily controlled, and therefore safer than the
use
minute
A major problem with Foxglove therapy
of isolated
active
compounds
lanata,) which contains steroidal glycosides.
63 different The most important of
these substances is digoxin, often used in
modern medicine
to treat
heart failure.
and diosphenol, Wild Carrot
volatile oil
(Daucus carota) which contains both volatile oil and an alkaloid, daucine, or
which
Dandelion
dangerous side-effects occur). This may be overcome to some extent by the use of the whole dried leaf, as mentioned above. Similar cardiotonic activity is found in the closely related D. lanata and the Yellow Foxglove. D.lutea. Hedge Hyssop
advantage of containing large quantities of potassium salts - substances which are often lost from the body during the process of diuresis, and which need replacing. Several medicinal plants may be used
which belongs
to the
as the Foxgloves, the
Scrop-
(Gratiola officinalis)
same family
hulariaceae, has also been
cardiotonic action, but
shown
it is
to possess
considered too
Almost identical compounds are present in certain Apocytoxic to use medically.
including members of the genera Strophanthus. .Xenum. and Acokanthera),
naceae
which
possesses
cardiac
more genera containing any
than
glycosides
other
so
compounds have been identified in members of the Ranunculaceae, the Nymphaeaceae, the Celastraceae and the Bignoniaceae. Similar
studied.
far
Below: The Woolly Foxglove ^Digitalis
Juniper, however, is too powerful to be used when the kidneys are inflamed, and it can in this case be replaced with Buchu leaves {Agathosma betulina) which contains
that the therapeutic dose (the dose required to produce the desired effect) is almost as high as the toxic dose (the dose which undesirable and sometimes at is
substances
D. lanata
compounds
present in the leaf in concentration may completely alter the physiological effect of the glycosides - this is a good example of synergism. certain
oxygen; the heart thus pumps
need
more
Another explanation may be that
alone.
Digitalis glycoside-like active principles
possesses
make
Taraxacum
(
several
officinale)
substances that
active
one of the most effective of
it
treatment of hypertension, some of which have been shown to be remarkably effective. Hypertension has long been treated in Asia by the root of a shrub, Rauvolfia serpentina, but it was not until
in the
the 1930s that the agent largely responsi-
was isolated. This comon the central nervous system
reserpine,
ble,
pound
acts
by depleting the stores of a vital transmitting substance called noradrenaline (or norepinephrine as it is known in the United States) without this material nerve impulses cannot travel and the resultant loss of smooth muscle tone in the walls of the blood vessels causes their relaxation and so reduces blood pressure, ;
are also found in the morphologically far
thus acting as a hypotensive.
removed monocotyledonous Liliaceae and Cactaceae.
with
Rauvolfia
families, the
Convallaria
all
plant diuretics. Dandelion also has the
alkaloids
synergistically
act
such
hypotensives
other
as
the
and
this
majalis, of the Liliaceae
alkaloids from
the most powerful of
potentiation of the combined effect (syner-
Family, is in fact the cardiac glycoside-containing plants growing in temperate zones, and has an important place in both the folk and orthodox medical treatment of arrhythmia flack ofa regular heart brat especially in eastern Europe. all
.
the
exactly
In
same way
that
gism)
Veratrum species,
very useful since
is
it
enables rela-
low doses of both materials to be used - an important fact since both sub-
tively
stances
may
cause side-effects
when used
on their own.
the
Foxglove glycosides promote regular beatan ing of the heart so does quinidinc
New Treatments
alkaloid isomeric with quinine, the anti-
that only recently has detailed investi-
malarial substance from the same source,
gation of their activity been started. This
the bark of the
Cinchona
tree.
This
dis-
covery was made quite by chance when it was noticed that patients being treated with Cinchona bark for malaria were tree from arrhythmias. As well as cardiotonic agents, diuretics are
essential
failure
and
in
cinal plants possess
Although there
arc-
certain effective
treatment of heart number of medi-
the
a very large
this
is
some
diuretic action.
often not very powerful
Many other
herbs have similar histories in
has shown the presence of other chemical groups in plants which have a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system. The plants under current investigation include the is
Hawthorn
widely used
{Crataegus monogyna), in the
which
treatment of angina
arteriosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension and coronary thrombosis.
pectoris,
Its
major constituents are flavonoids. Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum) (
also
several herbs, notably those with
contains substances beneficially affecting
contents,
which are
The
fruit
cardiovascular system, as well as vitamin P. Hawthorn and Buckwheat are often combined in the treatment of hyper-
volatile in
oil
diuresis.
ripe
of
Juniper Juniperui communis), for example, contains up to two per cent ofa volatile oil plus resins and a bitter principle which, together, act directly on the kidneys.
the
tension they are frequently also ;
with Yiscum
I ilia
x
album
europaea
(Lime
(Mistletoe-
1.
combined tree
Main
and herbs 57
MEDICINAL USES with cardio-active properties contain kaloids.
The hypotensive
tains several, of which the
are protoveratrin
A
and
is
blood pressure
Motherwort
most important B.
Broom
(Saro-
possesses
the alkaloid
employed
to raise the
thamnus scoparius) sparteine
and
al-
Veratrum con-
in
cardiac insufficiency.
(Leonurus cardiaca), however,
Below : A schematic representation of the human digestive system which consists principally of a hollow tube about
g
produced initially by the liver, not only facilitates digestion but is also an important route for the elimination of certain waste products in the faeces. The pancreas, in addition to producing a Bile,
metres
(jo feet) long from the mouth to the anus. Each part, with its specialized structural or cellular form, plays one or
more
digestive juice
roles in the
which
is
discharged into the
gut, also releases directly into the blood-
processes of mastication, maceration,
lowering the blood pressure, and help in angina
processes which all contribute to the
stream a hormone, insulin, which regulates the blood-sugar level. The condition
eventual elimination of unwanted waste
where
insufficient insulin
pectoris.
matter from the body.
known
as diabetes.
contains alkaloids which
assist in
With further detailed study of itional remedies,
it
is
digestion
and absorption offoodstuffs,
is
produced
trad-
possible that new-
groups of compounds will be discovered or certain plant combinations will prove to be useful in cardiovascular disease. cavity of the
DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND LIVER The
mouth vestibule
tongue
digestive system consists of the ali-
pharynx
mentary canal and the accessory digestive organs. Food passing along the tract is broken down by enzymes into small units which are then absorbed into the blood stream by passage across the gut cell-wall. Some substances in the diet need no digesfor example, tion before absorption water, certain vitamins and minerals - but the most important foodstuffs - fats, proall require teins and carbohydrates extensive degradation before they may be
trachea
absorbed.
Some
dietary
constituents,
however,
such as the cellulose of plant cell-walls are not digested at all by man because the appropriate enzymes are lacking, and so these pass through the gut to be expelled
unchanged in the diet
in the faeces; their inclusion is
none the
less
important be-
cause they add bulk to the intestinal con-
and improve peristalsis - the rhythmic contractions which propel the contents from one end of the gastro-intestinal tract
liver
spleen
tents
all
bladder
pancreas
to the other. pyloric orifice
duodenum
The
digestive system alimentary canal comprises the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Although digestion begins in the mouth while the food is being chewed,
The
since saliva contains the
enzyme
ascending colon
descending "colon
ptyalin
which breaks down starch into sugars, by far the most important digestive organs are the stomach and small intestine. The stomach produces a secretion which provides the optimal degree of acidity for the operation of the
enzyme The
pepsin, also secreted in the stomach.
sigmoid colon
appendix
rectum
partly digested food passes to the small
where it meets an alkaline secrecomposed of juices provided by two
intestine tion
glands - the bile from the gall-bladder
and the digestive juices from the pancreas. 58
small intestine
(jejunum and ileum)
is
DIGESTION is thus completed in the small and most of the small molecules so produced - amino-acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol - are absorbed by the time the mass of food (bolus) has reached the far end of the small intestine.
Digestion
(Iceland Moss)
Overactive acid-producing cells in the stomach initially produce heartburn and indigestion. If the excessive secretion of gastric hydrochloric acid is prolonged, peptic ulcer of the wall of the stomach or the
duodenum may
Here a small mucosal lining is
result.
portion of the delicate
digested away, exposing the lower layers
together with their associated nerve-endings,
which are
irritated
by the acidic
produce pain. Ulcers have long been treated with Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and a semisynthetic derivative of its major constituent, glycyrrhizin, has been introducgastric contents to
ed with useful results.
Hops
which was the traditional remedy of North American Indians, and Carlina acaulis (Stemless Thistle). In Europe a favourite is Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) which is often combined with Althaea officinalis (Marshmallowj. The latter contains up to 20 per cent mucilage, which protects the stomach lining, acting in a similar way to the natural mucus. For the same reason (Humulus
the
lupulus)
mucilage-rich
it
Cetraria
islandica
similarly employed.
may
be
desirable
in the elderly
stimulate
to
the
appetite. Usually the agents used for this
ipecacuanha). Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Other plants have been used in this respect but their effect was due mostly to their toxicity - the body simply reacts to the
purpose are bitter tonics containing bitter principles, which increase glandular secretions. Many plants have a history of this use and the most popular come from the family Gentianaceae (which characteris-
presence of a noxious substance in the
contain bitter principles), for ex-
by inhibiting the overactivity of the vomiting centre in the brain. Some of these are found in the family Solanaceae. Their action is drastic however, and often
tically
known and
ample, Gentiana lutea, the best most widely used bitter tonic, phylla, G. punctata, G. purpurea,
G. macro-
Menyanthes
(Buckbean) and Sabatia angularis (American Centaury). Because the tone of the muscle in the
trifoliata
gastro-intestinal
tract
as
well
secretion of the digestive juices
as is
the
con-
by nervous as well as chemical stimulation, an increase in nervous activtrolled
ity
may
acidity
Plants used for indigestion include
is
During convalescence or
intestine
lead or
intestine,
either
spasm
known
in
to all
as colic.
may
in
of
and
is
vomit-
often
com-
bined for this purpose with Filipendula ulmaria, Chamaemelum nobile and Peppermint (Mentha x piperita).
and Wild
Yam
constipation.
cerns
divided
into
Below
Purgatives
main
may
classes
:
be bulk
:
The
performs several
liver
important functions besides producing bile
for use
in the digestive process
:
the removal
of waste products from blood, the destruction
of
substances.
tincture
three
purgatives, which simply increase the volume of the intestinal contents and so
Emesis (vomiting) cases of poisoning by the
effective, especially in
preparations for digestive problems con-
villosa).
be induced
and
safer
ing during pregnancy
parts
Many members
gently acting herbs include mints, Acorus and gentians
administration
associated with side-effects. Ballota nigra is
Purgatives The major use of herbal
More
root (Dioscorea
act
hyper-
which are powerful antispasmodics. Good examples are Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramon-
calamus, Alpinia ojficinarum
Anti-emetics include some herbs containing anticholinergic properties which
of the
hyos.cine,
certain
by the most
it
gastric
of the Solanaceae family contain simple tropane alkaloids, such as atropine and
ium.
stomach and removes rapidly effective means.
of worn-out blood
vital detoxification
cells,
and
the
of drugs and harmful
vena cava
hepatic veins liver
-
spleen
ortal vein
hepatic artery
common bile
duct
intestine
59
MEDICINAL USES promote a
'natural' peristalsis
defaecation act
and hence
lubricant purgatives, which
;
by generally loosening and softening epiglottis
and irritants, which exercise a localized irritant action on the wall of the large bowel, inducing the impacted faecal mass;
reflex evacuation.
Foods which contain a high proportion of indigestible cellulose or 'roughage' such
blood vessels of heart
bran or seeds of Plantago species are not destroyed by digestion and swell by absorbing water; when they reach the lower intestine, therefore, they act as bulk as
right
bronchus
purgatives.
As the name tives
suggests, lubricant purga-
include mucilages and
oils
which are
lobes of right lung
heart
extracted from a variety of plants, including the Psyllium species, Athaea
officinalis.
(Castor Oil Tree) and
Ricinus communis
Olea europaea (Olive Tree). Irritant purgatives are used either because they are toxic hence causing a violent reaction to the presence of the poison, for example, Ricinus communis
and certain Podophylsome specific physiological action. Toxic irritant purgatives are seldom used because they are danseeds (Castor
oil)
lum species, or for
aorta
gerous.
Of those which
cause a specific physio-
most effective are the which contain glycosides based on the anthraquinone nucleus. The main examples are Senna Cassia angustijolia and C. acutifolia), Aloes (Aloe ferox, for and example), Rhubarb Rheum spp logical action, the
species
certain
members
of the
Rhamnaceae such
Rhamnus frangula Alder Buckthorn and Rhamnus purshiana (Cascara
as
|
.
Injection
of extracts of these
plants
Diseases of the liver
may
lead to the
impairment of the metabolism of all kinds of foods and. since the liver is the main organ of detoxification in the body, to an accumulation of waste products. As the liver is closely associated with the gall-bladder problems of these organs are
as Anise.
Fennel and
and certain Labiatae Rosemary, for example).
Mint and
Umbelliferae such Dill,
DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM When we
breathe, air
is
taken
first
into the
Hence
nasopharynx and then into the chest via
but orally they take eight hours or more to exert their effect. This is because the active principles are in the form of inactive
some herbs are accredited with both
the windpipe, or trachea. This divides into two bronchi one for each lung and then
tion of bile,
further into smaller tubes, bronchioles.
These are well absorbed from the small intestine and are then hydrolyzed by enzymes in the blood to give the active aglycones. These latter compounds are excreted into the colon where they irritate the mucosa to produce evacuation.
the liver itself,
The
results in
purgation
in
about 30 minutes
glycosides.
This process takes several hours and for this reason extracts of such plants are best taken at night. Diarrhoea, an increase in the fluidity and frequency of the stools, has usually been treated with plants which predominantly contain astringent tannins.
The
action
of these
compounds
is
to
coagulate protein in a thin layer of the gut lining thereby stopping its secretory action.
Common
Potentilla
examples of such herbs are Agnmonia species.
species,
Rubus idaeus, Polygonum and Ulmus campestris.
Quercus species, bistorta
60
usually considered in association.
choleretic action (stimulating the produc-
and thus working directly on and cholagogue action increasing the release of bile from the gall-bladder Important cholagogues are .
Berberis vulgaris
Balmonv
Barberry Chelone glabra Taraxacum officinale ,
and
Dandelion).
The Dandelion action
and
is
also possesses choleretic
one of the most useful plants
for treating liver disease. It
is
employed
gall-bladder
.
inflammation of and cholelithiasis
also relieve the
first
as alveolar ducts,
each
leading to an alveolar sac. These alveoli
and they commain body of the lung itself. They
are small hollow spheres prise the
have very thin cell-walls which are well supplied with minute blood vessels called capillaries.
The respiratory system Oxygen from
the air contained in the
it
alveoli diffuses across the cell-walls into
stage of cirrhosis.
the blood and in exchange waste products, notably carbon dioxide, are expelled into the air. This exchange of gases is known as respiration. At even breath the air con-
(stones in the gall-bladder or bile duct
may
known
in
jaundice, cholecystitis the
bronchioles branch further into very
fine tubules
;
Another important choleretic is Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke which has also been shown to promote liver regeneration, following damage by poisons. Flatulence can be treated with the carminative plants which contain volatile oils. Important here are the aromatic
tained in the lungs
is
partially
exchanged
for fresh air from the atmosphere. Oxygen is required for nearly all the biochemical processes which occur in the
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM to
bronchiole
lung
air
pulmonary vein
passage
from pulmonary artery
alveolus
:fY
bronchus
^bJ^m ess, ** capillary
alveolus
Left
Diagrammatic
:
representation
of the respiratory system. Increasing magnification of a portion of one lung (above)
show
to
its
internal structure,
and
relationship between blood vessels
which allows
alveoli,
the air
the
an increased activity of these glands. There may, in addition, be spasm of the muscle in the walls of the bronchi adding to the
Arabs.
obstruction.
tussive agents
Another condition of the bronchial system which causes considerable suffering is asthma. This is frequently of allergic
rest
tion
exchange of oxygen
The
blood
is
in
a
high
therefore vital.
rapid removal of carbon dioxide is important because high blond
contribute
also
to
that attacks (pro-
equally
origin,
or tissue concentrations of this substance
nounced constriction of the bronchi and excessively viscous secretions which lead to the characteristic wheezing of asthma
depress many enzyme processes. Most of the oxygen in the blood is not simply dissolved in the body fluid but is actively bound to a special molecule called
may
haemoglobin, found within the red blood corpuscles. This is complex organic ;i
molecule, rather like the light-absorbing of green plants in its structure,
chlorophyll
but
instead
magnesium
of containing
an atom of
as in chlorophyll
it
is
bound
This is the main reason that our diet should contain an adequate quantity of this element, for a deficiency of iron or to iron.
its
to
inefficient utilization in the
body leads
anaemia. As blood passes around the organs ol oxygen from the oxygenated
the body,
haemoglobin passes into the cells to be used up in their chemical processes, and each cell exchanges its waste carbon
The commonest
chronic disordei
ol
the
chronic bronchitis inflammation of the bronchi), which may tract
be associated with
ment
of
that
is
sufferers) are
a
specific
particular
to say
induced by the inhalation of
foreign
type
of
substance, pollen.
often
a
Treatment
bronchi using bronchodilators, and some of the best known of these are Ephedra species.
consists of the relaxation of the
is
emphysema
enlarge-
may
be caused
the alveoli). This
as
Cough
is
foreign
materials.
tussives (like alkaloids
is
effective
in
chronic
asthma for which purpose the North American Indians smoked the leaves. In India the and
related
nicotianaefolia
L.
bronchial
is
used in
the
same way. The following plants are also commonly employed in both asthma and bronchitis often in combination with each other: Drosera rotundifolia
,
Euphorbia hirta,
Polygala
senega,
Symplocarpus foetidus and
Urginea maritima.
A relatively new treatment for asthma depends on the administration of a semisynthetic substance which is a derivative
from Opium, the
dried latex of Papaver somniferum) act by
suppressing
this
reflex.
They
are
thus
widely used in cough syrups. Also used are extracts of Wild Cherry bark (Prunus serotina or P. virginiana) which was once frequently used with a complex bitter compound produced by the Greater
Wild Lettuce (Lactuca virosa) combined action is sedative as well as
Prickly or the
;
phlegm
infiata
may
and promote sleep. Cough is conby a reflex from a centre in the central nervous system, and many anti-
to treat this condition.
Lobelia
and
Anti-cough or antibe needed to facilitate
trolled
anti-tussive.
bronchitis
a natural reflex to help clear
the respiratory system of secretions
which contain ephedrine. Ephedra has been used for 5000 years by the Chinese
Grmdelia camporum, Sanguinaria canadensis,
dioxide-.
respiratory
an anti-asthmatic agent among the
viscous secretions.
and the maintenance of level in the
air pollu-
the
in the blood.
body,
Smoking and
compound isolated from the mediterranean umbelliferous plant Ammi visnaga - a plant which has a long history
of khellin, a
and
with waste carbon dioxide
oxygen
by recurrent episodes of infection which lead to an increased number of the mucus glands and therefore an increase in
For difficulty a
in clearing the chest
class
known
of agents
of as
may
be used. These act cough or by increasing the fluidity of an excessively viscous bronchial secretion. The best-known irritant or cough-inducing expectorant is tincture of syrup of Ipecacuanha used in a much weaker concentration than that for promoting emesis. Other expectorant herbs include Cowslip (Primula verts), Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), Mullein Verbascum thapsus) and Snakeroot (Polygala senega), all of which contain saponins
expectorants
either by inducing
(
(detergent-like substances) that aid dissolution of sputum.
employed
as
Viola odorata
an expectorant;
it
is
also
contains a ()t
MEDICINAL USES glycoside, violarutin, as well as saponins.
Primary infection of the upper respiratory tract is in go per cent of cases caused by minute living particles called viruses. These may be highly infectious (demonstrated by the occurrence of the common cold), and so far few plants have been shown to possess specific anti-viral activity. General resistance to these and other infections in the body may be increased, however, by employing Phytolacca americana, which stimulates the immunological defence system. Where primary viral infection is followed by bacterial infection a
number
of plants are
is
The nervous system That part of the peripheral system which is under active control is called the voluntary system and is concerned with the skeletal muscles while the involuntary or
acts
on the muscles
from min-
controlled by will, such as the heart or the
(Allium
bladder.
Messages are conducted by changes
strongly antibacterial as are
Cone flower Elecampane
autonomic system
of the organs and glands which cannot be
ute plants, the moulds). Garlic sativum)
pulses in the reverse direction.
power of
used, although few possess the antibiotics (originally isolated
and the peripheral nervous system comprising the major nerves which connect the spinal cord with the minute nerve-endings in every part of the body. The peripheral system conducts messages from the organs to the central nervous system and also conveys controlling imcord,
and
{Echinacea angustifoliai, {Inula helenium).
in
the electrical balance of the nerve cells or
neurones concerned. More than one cell involved with each pathway, and the electrical change is transmitted from one cell to another by the release of tiny amounts, or quanta, of a special chemical substance called a transmitter. This process can be illustrated with a specific example. When you burn your
two in
The nervous system grates
all
controls
and
the activities of the body.
inte-
There
are two main parts: the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal
hand, temperature-detecting Below
:
showing
The autonomic
nervous system,
the opposing actions
of the
parasympathetic and sympathetic parts on various organs of the body. receive nerves
Most organs
of both systems
and
are
controlled by impulses from each.
cells in the
skin activate nerve-endings. This is
message
passed along afferent or sensory nerve
fibres
to
changes.
spinal
the
When
cord
by
electrical
the message arrives at the
spinal cord, a chemical transmitter passes it
across the synapse
the junction
between
activates another
cord.
The
'perceived'
and
down
as
a result an impulse
down
the spinal cord
the efferent or
are controlled in distinct regions of the
ies
and brain by two sets of nerve - the sympathetic and the parasympathetic - which, generally speaking,
spinal cord cells
The parasympathetnervous system is responsible, for example, for increased blood-flow to the digestive system after a meal, and the decrease in size of the pupil in bright sunlight. The transmitting substance for these act in opposite ways. ic
is known as acetylcholine. The sympathetic nervous system, which
nerves uses
mainly adrenaline and noradrenaits transmitter compounds, comes
line as
into effect in conditions of stress such as fear
and anger, and
acts antagonistically
of the parasympathetic sympathetic stimulation causes increase both in pupil size and to
stimulation
system.
Thus
heart-rate but, at the
same
time, constric-
and abdominal viscera. All these actions prepare the body for intense activity. tion of the blood-vessels in the skin
At a higher level of activity functions such as consciousness, thought, memory.
saliva
saliva
glands
glands heart
heart
lungs
lungs
stomach
stomach
intestine
intestine
bladder
bladder
spinal
cord
sympathetic trunk
is
and then motor nerve to the muscles of the arm and hand - which is withdrawn involuntarily from the heat. Function of organs autonomic activit-
passes
pupil
pupil
neurone
"message"
sympathetic
parasympathetic
62
and
spinal
transmitted up the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex in the brain. The pain is
is
DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
cells)
the
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM touch receptors central nervous
in
the skin
system
* ^
'6^
K.
effectors and receptors in the muscles and tendons
and reasoning
reside
in
the superficial
layer of the cerebral cortex in the brain. In
man, with
his
high intellectual capacity,
dominate
these portions of the brain
all
Co-ordination of the reflexes is carried out in a smaller region of the brain called the hypothalamus. The mid-brain and medulla are concerned with the maintenance of the wakeful state land hence also sleep temperature regulation,
the
Passion-flower
[Passiflora
incarnata)
which contain the alkaloids passiflorine, harmol. and harmine, are also used as sedatives. Other popular medicinal plants category include Lady's Slipper
others.
in
respiratory regulation
American Valerian; and Tilia species. Drugs acting on the peripheral nervous system may be divided into two groups depending on whether they exert their effect on the sensory or motor neurones. In
.
and maintenance
of blood pressure.
this
(Cypripedium
the
first
pubescens\
class
fall
also
nervous
central
the
which
relieve
pain,
the strongest of these
system
are
those
the analgesics,
known
and
in the plant
kingdom are derived from Poppy Papaver sommjerum
Opium
the
Historically the best-known pain-killer
Mandrake
which,
like
root
Mandragora
Henbane
i
officinarum
Hyoscyamus
nigei
.
contains the alkaloids hyoscyaminc and
scopolamine. Both were used during early
Other analgesics include Bos-
surgery. wellia
serrata,
Chrysanthemum anemijolium.
Ervatamia dichotoma and '
ontain
certain
many
essential
herbs which
oils,
such
as
Erythroxylum
irritants
coca
,
American
the
physiological
of Physostigma venenosum
its
active ingredients arc terpenoid
pounds
t
is :
com-
ailed \;de pot notes, present in the
root-Stock The Indian spe< ies V. wallnhn is even more effective. Extra* ts of fresh
linking with the
via the central nervous system.
The
reflex
response causes the cigarette to be dropped.
Below: Henbane fHyoscyamus rarely used today since
it
contains
niger,)
is
many
powerful substances but, historically,
it
has
been very important.
.
Drugs which act on the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system in the opposite way, that is by inhibiting or
Adrenergic drugs, or those acting on neuromuscular junction, include stimulants such as ephedrine from Ephedra species) and drugs acting
officinalis
pain of a cigarette
pathway (red) effector pathway (green)
the receptor
such as nicotine in the leaves oi .\icotiana (from Pilocarpus jaborandi) or eserine isolated from the beans
hallu-
depressant
and
tabacum.i, pilocarpine
and
A well-known
the reaction to the
burn,
autonomic system include stimulants which act like an excess of acetylcholine
simu-
tincture of Valerian {Valeriana
show
of tin
transmitter
tranquillizers; and, conversely, the
cinogens.
reflex consists
and counter-
antagonizing the effects of acetylcholine, include the tropane alkaloids from many species of the family Solanaceae, for example, Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus
lants such as antidepressants
:
from, for example, the seed of
Wintergreen whose oil comprises mainly methyl salicylate. Other central nervous system drugs include the depressant group comprising the anaesthetics, hypnotics, sedatives and Caultheria procumbens
A
of the and an involuntary muscle movement. The diagrams left
stimulation of a receptor neuron
Mustard and the oil of Wintergreen. Drugs which act predominantly on the cholinergic nerves that is those in which the chemical compound, acetylcholine, is
.
is
shrub,
as
the local anaesthetics
(such as cocaine from the South
Treatment of nervous disorders The most widely used drugs which act on
known
Above and
niger.
the sympathetic
way (antagonists such as from both Rauvoljui rpentina reserpine and R. vomitoria) and ergotamine (from in the
opposite
\
(Jlaviceps purpurea).
63
SELF-HELP
SELF-HELP WITH HERBS
are frequently described as a diuretic, but
mainstream medical profession and unorthodox practitioners have tended to dissuade ordinary people from treating themselves or obtaining the means or information for doing so. This opposition was often concerned with the profit motive and, equally, no doubt because of the need for secrecy to
they must not be used where there is a kidney inflammation. Similarly, some
history both the
Throughout
lack of knowledge, ineffective remedies or even outright charlatanism. The strongest argument today against self-medication is the danger of misdiagnosis. Certain commonplace symptoms, such as vomiting, stiff neck, head-
conceal
ache,
fever
themselves
or
earache,
may seem
in
complaints. But, con-
trivial
sidered in the perspective of other associ-
symptoms and dispositions and case
the
ated
patient's
pre-
symp-
history, such
toms may indicate a much more serious problem. Since any complaint is best treated immediately, it is important to remember that if symptoms do not disappear very quickly, proper qualified advice must be sought. Children must never be treated with herbal remedies, or with any other form of home medication; in children ordinary symptoms such as those of the common cold may develop into a potencondition
tially serious
in as
quickly as 24
may
herbs
person
blood pressure in a suffering from hyper-
raise the
already
more than 12 hours as they may deteriorate. Even under ideal conditions herbs lose their activity: leaves, flowers and fruit
seeds,
should be used within one year; roots and rhizomes within three
and there are some plants which must never be taken internally by preg-
years.
nant women.
weight of remedy used is 30 g. For those remedies containing more than one herb, the combined weight is still 30 g.
tension,
There
is
also the question of correct
how and when the dose should be administered, and the length of time for which a remedy should be taken. Lack of dosage:
In both infusions and decoctions the
Used
Infusion
water-soluble dense parts of leaves, stems and
to extract the
knowledge of correct herb combinations, and the use of incorrect doses, can produce
substances from the
adverse
is also sometimes employed on thin, small or chopped roots and fruits. The method consists of pouring 500 ml
Simply because herbs are natural prodoes not follow that their use in medicine is any easier than the use of
ducts
it
substances - in
It
method
oz to of boiling water on to 30 g (or 20 fl ozs) of the finely cut material con-
for these reasons, therefore, that
tained in a porcelain, stone or glass vessel,
it is
is
many
the
as
the
ways,
synthetic
indeed,
such
herbs
flowers,
effects.
more complicated.
recommended many popular modern 'herb-
1
self-medication cannot be
fitted
and why
volatile substances
als'
less
may
so
be considered with interest, but
be
with a tight
lost
The
lid.
lid
keeps in the
which would otherwise
during the required
not as medical manuals. In this chapter
normally
some examples have been given of plants
straining the liquid
10 for is
or
minutes
15
After
infusion.
allowed
to cool to
below blood heat before the dose
medically effective in disturbances of the
just
cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and
taken,
demonstrate the effectiveness of herbal medicine as administered by a properly qualified prac-
one cup of infusion taken three times a
systems
digestive
titioner.
Some
to
or
it
completely.
may be allowed The normal dose
to is
is
cool
up
to
day, usually before meals.
of these plants are poison-
Hard
hours.
ous even in only moderate doses. There
Decoction
Apart from mis-diagnosis, some individuals do not tolerate certain plant material either because of an intrinsic allergic problem, or because an organ or system in the body is malfunctioning to some extent. Juniper berries, for example.
are,
however, many simple conditions which can be treated at home so long as the warnings above are fully considered.
rhizomes, bark, seed, and
PREPARATIONS
500 ml (or oz to 20 fl ozs) of cold water an enamel or glass vessel and allowing it to soak for 10 minutes. The temperature is raised to boiling point and the mixture then simmered for 10 to 15 minutes; this is
purposes of self-care, only three methods
need be employed. Infusion involves
external application only.
Left
:
There are many
different
ways of
preparing herbal remedies but for the
extraction
tin
of water-soluble substances from
the less dense parts
of a herb, such as
leaves, stems or flowers.
Decoction
extraction
its
is
best
for hard plant parts which will release their
water-soluble parts only after being soaked in hot water. Poultice simply
means
the use
afresh plant by bruising or crushing pulp, which
is
then
it
Other
of
into a
mixed with a
methods
of specific
to
groups of active
materials from a plant, so that alcoholic
may
indicate all three methods, kettle, a
and
include a
good mortar and
of wooden spoons, storage jars, and, most importantly, a wide range of dried and fresh herbs. 1 Other methods
pestle,
)
a fine strainer,
lots
preparing herbal remedies require a
greater knowledge of
pharmacy and
are best left to the experts.)
entire
process
usually one cup
Still
other methods are related to the
physical nature of the herb
itself;
pouring
its
may
constituents,
whereas the same procedure is perfectly satisfactory for most leaves and flowers. A complete understanding of all the
methods of preparation of herbal remedies requires a knowledge of phar-
different
macy, and is thus not relevant to self-care. For this purpose only three methods need be employed, namely infusion, decoction and poultice. These should always be made fresh before use, and never kept for
the
(or slightly less)
Poultice
extract only a fraction of
saucepan and
the
vessel
should be kept covered. After straining and cooling the dose may be taken; this is
released or solubilized in water.
of hot water,
body surface. The variety of containers and implements assembled here
followed by a further 10 minutes steeping.
times a day before meals.
be
boiling water over a thick hard root
in readiness for application
1
1
in
needed to remove therapeutic chemicals which would not be
solutions
moistening material, such as small quantities
directly to the
the
release
more prolonged hot water treatment. This requires adding 30 g of the herbal remedy
During related
are
wood
their water-soluble constituents only after
i(
remedies may be prepared in several different ways. Some methods are directly related to their form of administration - poultices, ointments, creams and salves, for example, are obviously for
Herbal
plant parts such as roots,
This method
may
three
utilize either
which is bruised and a pulp, and then mixed with a
fresh plant material
crushed to small quantity of hot water; or dried herbs which are softened by mixing with host pastes, which act as a suspending material, made from flour, bran, corn meal or other suitable vehicles. If the latter method is employed 60 g of dried herbs are mixed with 500 ml (or 2 ozs to 20 fl ozs) of fairly loose paste. Both fresh and dried plant poultices are best applied indirectly to the skin by sandwiching the paste
between thin cloth prior to application the affected part of the body surface.
to
65
SELF-HELP TABLE
Left
Herb farms, such as
:
the one
shown
here,
can supply the herbs used in the following recipes.
Below
:
is for adults - children Herbal remedies should
The dosage
must not be
treated.
be taken daily for two to three weeks.
No
medication should be taken continuously
sometimes better
The figures
; it is
vary the formulations
to
indicate the proportionate parts
by weight.
Key
ACIDITY
see Dyspepsia
1
1
ANAEMIA
Golden Seal Myrrh rs
Dandelion
Spinach Watercress
As salad herbs,
rs
resin
bd
buds
hb
herb
rt
root
bl
bulb
If
leaf
sd
seed
cl
clove
Witch Hazel,
distilled
Wormwood
1
Angelica
1
Nettle
water of
If
1
If 1
Walnut Sage If
If
Peppermint
Gentian
hb If
Marigold fl Black Bryony hb
cup
1
hr before
European Centaury hb 1 St Johns Wort hb Infusion: 2 cups per day
Linseed sd rt
Sweet Flag Caraway sd
Cuckoopint If Lime bk Herb Robert If Rue hb Fenugreek sd Sanicle hb
rt
1
Agrimony hb
1
Gentian
1
Calumba
1
European Centaury hb
Hemp Agrimony hb Apply hot poultices of any of the
rt
rt
Decoction: ^ cup meals
7
1
Bogbean hb
1
Blessed Thistle hb
1
Mugwort
Infusion: \
If
cup
1
hr before meals
Globe Artichoke If 1 Gentian rt Decoction: \ cup 1 hr before meals 1
Garlic
Rosemary hb
cl
Echinacea rt Juniper by
Poultice or Decoction
Renew
hr before
(external use)
1
above, alone or at least
in
combination.
4 times a day
BURNS
1
1
If
Comfrey If St Johns Wort hb
cups per day
European Centaury hb 1 Thyme hb 1 White Horehound If 1 Hyssop hb Infusion: 2 cups per day
If
Oak If Cabbage
Decoction: ± cup \ hr before
2
fl
Cowslip
meals
Infusion: 2
ANTISEPTIC
hr before meals
cups per day 1
Birch
I
meals
If
2 Nettle
Hyssop hb Arnica
rt
Infusion: 5
Infusion: 2
BAD BREATH
see Halitosis
1
Cucumber
2
Comfrey
1
Oak bk
1
Marigold
ft
If
fl
Johns Wort hb Poultice: renew frequently 2 St
1
Marigold
1
Sanicle hb
1
Plantain
fl
If
Comfrey If 2 Lady's Mantle hb 2
1
Onion Myrrh
1
Melilot hb
1
Thyme hb
1
BILIOUSNESS
bl
see Nausea
rs
Poultice:
Plantain
1
If
2
Poultice 1
Golden Rod hb
1
Wintergreen
1
If
Rue hb Southernwood hb
Poultice or Infusion
66
renew
frequently
BLEEDING
Poultice or Decoction
1
petals
(lack of)
1
or vegetables:
frequently
1
Pt
fruit
Apply on cotton wool
Agrimony hb Infusion: 1 cup
Moss
Iceland
1
flower
ft
BRUISES APPETITE
Nettle
1
ft
berry
Decoction, use diluted
Comfrey
1
bark
by
rt
Chives
1
bk
1
Cranesbill
rt
1
Raspberry
If
1
Bistort
1
rt
Decoction: as a poultice or wash
Chickweed hb Golden Seal rt Irish Moss hb
Poultice:
Burdock Marigold
renew rt fl
frequently
SELF-HELP TABLE
Coltsfoot Plantain
If
Flag
If
Eucalyptus
1
Garlic
1
If
cup before
1
retiring
Severe 3
CONJUNCTIVITIS
1
2
Eyebright hb
1
Infusion: apply as lotion or
Senna If Marjoram
If
Chamomile Sweet Flag
fl
rt
eyewash
Peppermint If Decoction: 7 cup before
Marigold fl Fumitory hb 1 Eyebright hb Infusion: apply as lotion or
4 Senna If 1 Ginger rt 4 Sweet Flag
eyewash
Decoction:
1
retiring
Blessed Thistle hb
Rue hb Mugwort hb
2 Horseradish
1
1
rt
2 Blessed Thistle
Mallow Sage If
1
Coltsfoot
Walnut
2
hb 1
Golden Seal Rose pt
1
Elder
1
If
1
If
2
fl
1 1
2
Chamomil?
4 Slippery Elm bk (powder) 1 Cayenne (powder) 2 Blessed Thistle hb
1
1
Cornflower
Poultice
1
Melilotfl
2 Plantain
Golden Rod hb 2 Yarrow hb 1 Hawthorn fl Infusion: 2 cups a day
Coltsfoot Fennel sd
If
1 1
and
1
Sundew hb Thyme hb Aniseed sd 3 cups per day
Infusion:
Fennel sd
2 Irish
1
Rue
1
If
Moss hb
Thyme
If
4 Elecampane rt 2 Aniseed sd 4 Liquorice rt 4 Lungwort If 1 Fennel sd Decoction: 3 cups per day
Mild
Fruit juices, especially
rt
Elecampane rt White Horehound. hb
fl
4 Slippery Elm bk (powder)
Blood Root
retiring
Decoction: 3 cups per day
Decoction apply as eye compress
prune
Cabbage
Poultice
cup before
Suppressant
1
CONSTIPATION
7
fl
apply as lotion or eyewash
2
rt
rt
If
Infusion: dilute 1:3 with water
Angelica rt 2 Lady's Mantle hb
2
Rhubarb
COUGHS
rt
Decoction: dilute 1:5 with water and apply as lotion or eyewash
If
Poultice
1
Angelica rt Alder Buckthorn bk
Infusion:
cl
the vapour
Poultice
1
1
2 If
Couch-grass hb Borage If Dandelion If
rt
CHILBLAINS
1
1
rt
Decoction: wash carefully with any of the above, alone or in combination
1
Sage If Marjoram
1
Pour on boiling water and inhale
Tormentil
1
1
1
Willow If Elm bk Avens rt
2
2
1
Hound's Tongue Lady's Mantle If
Sweet
Rosemary hb Peppermint If
1
If
Figs
COLDS
Expectorant
Dates Prunes 1
Yarrow
1
Elder
1
Peppermint
1
Raisins
Bran
If
3-4 cups per day
Infusion
2 Coltsfoot
Rhubarb
fl
fl
1
Hyssop hb White Horehound. hb Infusion 3 cups per day
in the diet,
1
2 1
or their intake
2
increased
1 1
Elder
fl
1
Lime
fl
Psyllium sd Alpine Plantain sd Decoction: do not strain, drink 3 cups per day
1
1
Bayberry bk 1 Ginger rt Infusion 2 cups per day.
in
doses
small
1 1
Liquorice sd
Fennel sd Linseed sd
1
Ginger
rt
3 cups per day
Infusion
1
Liquorice
2 Elder 1
Meadowsweet hb
2 Violet 1
rt
fl
Garlic
fl
cl
Decoction 2 cups per day
1
fl
Marshmallow rt Soapwort hb or
rt
Mullein hb Balm of Gilead bd
cups per day
Sage If Marshmallow
1
Coltsfoot
1
Comfrey
rt
If If
Infusion 3 cups per day
Decoction 3 cups per day 4 Boneset hb 4 Elder fl 4 Yarrow fl
rt
1
1
1
1
Cowslip
Infusion: 2
1
Infusion 3 cups per day
Liquorice
Decoction 3 cups per day
Spinach Apples The above should be incorporated
1
If
White Horehound. hb
Turnera hb
Yellow Dock rt 1 Dandelion rt Decoction: 3 cups per day
CUTS
see Bleeding
DIARRHOEA
1
2 Alder 1
Ash
1
Alder
1
Buckthorn bk
Bilberry
If
Bistort
fl
Peppermint
Infusion:
bed
Tormentil
1
If
cup before
retiring to
rt
Agrimony hb Ground Ivy hb Oak bk ft
rt
Elm bk Yarrow hb Lady's Mantle hb
67
MEDICINAL USES Cranesbill
GARGLE
rt
Decoctions of any of the above, alone or in combinations. Up to 2 cups per day taken in small doses
1
Red Sage
1
Valerian
2
Chamomile
rt fl
If
Myrrh rs Marigold fl Decoction: as required 1
Lavender fl Infusion: 2 cups per day 1
1
1
Jambul
1
Oak bk
ft
2 Raspberry
Sweet
1
rt
hb
2 Tormentil
Peppermint
2 Marigold
1
day
hb Rosemary hb Infusion: 3 cups per day 2 Blessed Thistle
fl
1
Marshmallow Sage hb
rt
INDIGESTION
3 or more cups per day
Infusion: 1
If
Marshmallow If cups per day
Infusion: 3
Sanicle hb
1
Lavender
1
Thyme hb
1
Tormentil
1 1 1
If
1
to
fl
2
Dandelion
1
Meadowsweet hb
1
Limefl
1
Marshmallow
rt
Infusion: as required 1
Meadowsweet hb Lemon Balm
Peppermint
cup as required, not exceed 4 cups per day
in
Meadowsweet hb
1
rt
If
Herb Robert hb Decoction: as required
DYSPEPSIA
1
Hops hb Valerian
1
1 Ginger rt Decoction: 3 cups per day, small doses
1
1
1
Infusion: 2 cups per
If
Infusion: as required 1
rt
Thyme hb
Infusion:
1
2 Blackberry
Decoction. 3 cups per day. in small doses
1
Cleavers hb
If
Flag
2 Plantain
1
Golden Seal rt Herb Robert hb Sage If Sea salt
If
rt
Infusion: 4 cups per
Decoction: as required
1
Parsley hb
1
Sage
day
If
Fennel sd Decoction: 2 cups per day 1
1
Sweet Flag
1
Meadowsweet hb
HALITOSIS
rt
Decoction: 3 cups per day
Anise sd
Cardamom
1
sd
Sweet Flag
rt
Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not to exceed 2 cups per day 1
1
Gentian
1
Chamomile
1
Angelica
1
Lemon Balm
Clove Angelica rt Fennel sd Peppermint
rt fl
rt
If
If
Decoction: 3 cups per day
1
Parsley
If 1
Sweet
Flag
rt 1
1
Wormwood
2
Coriander sd
2
Sage
hb
Dill
If
Liquorice rt Infusion: 7 cup per day
see Coughs
sd
of any of the above. combination. Consider the need for a laxative, dental care. treatment of flatulence or stomach little
alone or
in
1
Wormwood
1
Chicory
1
1
Anise sd Fennel sd
1
Orris
1
rt
1
Meadowsweet hb
Caraway sd
in
Sweet Flag
Decoction: gargle frequently 2 Lavender
Peppermint
2
Caraway sd
1
Garlic
1
Yarrow
If
cl
2
Sage
fl
If
to
exceed
Lemon Balm hb Chamomile fl
Peppermint If Infusion: 2 cups per day
HEADACHE
Irish Moss Chickweed
Carrot
1
Lime
1
Lemon Balm hb
Coltsfoot
Borage
1
Rosemary hb
Linseed
Cucumber
Houseleek
Slippery Elm
fl
Infusion: as required.
1-4 cups
per day 1
Caraway sd
1
Fennel sd
1
Mugwort hb
Anise sd Decoction: 3 cups per day 1
1 1
1 1
Lovage
1
1
3 cups per day
Vervain hb Scullcap hb
Infusion:
3 cups per day
rt
Cumin sd Thyme hb
Decoction: 2 cups per day
68
Catmint hb Rosemary hb
Infusion:
1
Winter Savory hb Angelica rt
1
5 cups per day
INFLAMMATIONS cups per day
1
1
7
Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle 3 times per day
Apple
1
rt
Turnera hb 1 Cola ft 1 Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not
1
fl
Infusion: 2
1
taken
small doses
1
Decoction: 3 cups per day 2
rt
2-3 cups per day.
2 Sarsaparilla
rt
hb
rt
hb
2 Basil
acidity.
1
4 Sweet Flag Ginger rt
If
Woodruff hb Decoction: 2 cups per day
Infusion:
FLATULENCE
2
If
1
Chew a
1
EXPECTORANTS
Tarragon
Fennel sd Gentian rt Peppermint
1
Yarrow
1
Scullcap hb
Infusion:
fl
2—3 cups per day
Oats
Purple Loosestrife
Onion
White Pond Okra Lungwort
Parsley
Comfrey Pumpkin
Lily
Marshmallow
Watercress Iceland Moss Any of the above may be crushed and pulped with a little hot water to produce a poultice suitable for application to inflammations or
swellings
INFLUENZA
see Colds
SELF-HELP TABLE Black Horehound hb 1 Decoction: 3 cups per day
INSECT BITES Houseleek
Parsley
Leek Olive
1
1
Golden Rod hb
1
1
Meadowsweet hb
Sage hb Black Horehound hb 1 Vervain hb 1 Pennyroyal hb Infusion: 3 cups per day (not during pregnancy)
If
fl
If
bl oil
Plantain
cl
If
Rue If St Johns Wort Marigold
Garlic
Eaten raw: 2 per day
Infusion: gargle
Summer Savory Infusion: gargle
If
Pennyroyal
If
Comfrey If Crush the fresh plant of any of the above and rub on the sting
Red Sage
1
Raspberry If Ginger rt Peppermint hb
1
Lemon Balm hb
1 1
Bayberry bk
cups per day
Infusion: 2
If
Infusion: gargle
Decoction: gargle
Repellent
Clove
Lavender of Pennyroyal
Oil of Oil
Elder
TONICS
Chew one
slowly
(crushed)
If
see Burns
INSOMNIA SEDATIVES Valerian
Lime
Betony hb
1
Scullcap hb
fl
Fennel sd Aniseed sd Passion flower hb (i cup only)
Infusion:
1 1 1
1 1
1
1
sd Fennel sd Dill
3 cups per day
1 1
1 1
Lime
fl
Hops hb Lemon Balm hb Valerian
Infusion
cup
(see also Gargle)
Poke Root
Lady's Slipper hb
TOOTHACHE
Hyssop hb Lemon Balm hb
Mallow
Eaten raw. 2 per day
Clove
oil
to tooth cavity,
rt
1
Mistletoe hb
2
Scullcap hb
but avoid
gums
cups per day.
in
small
Chamomile
fl
Infusion: repeatedly rinse
doses 2 Mistletoe hb 4 Lime fl
Hawthorn
ft
VOMITING or
2
fl
Decoction 2 cups per day. small doses
in
1
Lavender
1
Orange
1
Lemon Balm hb
1
Basil
fl
1
1
Valerian
2
(see also Nausea)
Peppermint hb Spearmint hb European Centaury hb
2
Chamomile
1
Wormwood
fl
hb
Infusion sip as required, to 3 cups
fl
hb Hops hb
2
mouth
per day
1
Chamomile Lemon Balm hb
1
Peppermint hb
1
Fennel sd
1
European Centaury hb
1
rt
fl
fl
1
Mullein hb Coltsfoot If
1
Marshmallow
1
If
and chew gently
Apply
cl
Mallow
4-5 cups per day
.
2 Valerian
1
Infusion 4 cups per day
1
ft
If
Turnera hb Saw Palmetto by 1 Cola ft 1 Oats sd Decoction: 2 cups per day. in small doses
Hedge Mustard hb
1
Sace
rt
Decoction: gargle
Garlic
1
fl
Soften,
at night
8 Coltsfoot If 4 Blood Root rt 4 Balm of Gilead bd 1
Dog Rose
1
Oats sd Hops hb
Infusion: 2
LARYNGITIS
Hibiscus
Lavender fl Infusion: 4 cups per day
rt
I
1
1
1
3 cups per day
1
1
ft
Infusion 3 cups per day
1 Peppermint hb Decoction I cup at night
1
Dog Rose
Infusn
Lady's Slipper hb Oats sd Scullcap hb
Infusion:
1
1
2
If
Peppermint If Infusion: 3 cups per day
1 fl
Lavender fl Woodruff hb Thyme hb Infusions of any of the above. cup at night
Dandelion Chicory rt
1
rt
Hops hb Chamomile
1
1
SCALDS
Liquorice
Infusion 2 cups per day. Or take alone. 2 cups per day
any one rt
Infusion: as required
SORE THROAT
rt
Infusion 3 cups per day
LAXATIVES
see Constipation
NAUSEA
1
Golden Seal
1
Thyme hb
2
Sage
During Pregnancy
rt
1
If
Iceland
Moss hb
Black Horehound hb Decoction: 2 cups per day
Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle
1
1
Black Horehound hb Infusion: 2
cups per day
1
Galangal
1
Marshmallow
rt rt
1
Bistort
1
Balm
rt
of Gilead
1 Sanicle hb Decoction, gargle
bd
1
Chamomile
1
Meadowsweet hb
1
fl
Black Horehound. hb cups per day
Infusion: 2
69
\
*
'--
c
v
;
•••
*Jk-,
.
Savory (Satureia hortensis), Sesame seeds Sesamum indicum), and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris
.
(left)
and Cinnamon
of their It is
specific
surprising to
how many of the drinks
most and reserve
for
that
special
we oc-
although they may not always be immediately identifiable. Some of the most popular alcoholic drinks, ranging from sweet mead to mulled wines and exotic liqueurs,
derive
their
special
qualities
American iced juleps are made of bourbon whisky, sugar, Mint sprigs and ice and American cobblers and coolers are similarly flavoured with pleasantly additive herbs.
Pimms No.
1
is
decorated with
Borage officinalis and Mint Mentha spp Spices such as Cinnamon sticks (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cloves [Sysprigs (Borago .
zygium aromaticum tana cardamomum
1,
Cardamom
seeds (Ele-
and
sometimes root Ginger (Zingiber officinale are added to mulled red wines and Swedish gldgg.
Many Below: Coriander
much
with
from herbal additives.
Melissa didyma
istic
aperitif
wines owe their character-
flavours to herbs.
(right) plants. Both of these herbs can be
misia absinthium
used for flavouring hone) and mulled nine. Coriander and Cinnamon have both been used
anisum
for thousands ofyears.
Candied Angelica
and cover. Stand
place for one week before use.
sugar
casions owe their desirable taste and smell to the judicious use of certain herbs -
(
and
and newly opened flowers or buds should be good specimens young and unblemished. A sugarboiling thermometer is a useful aid in candying.
may be warmed honey clover or orange blossom Pour the warmed honey conBruised fresh herbs and spices
delicious
leaves, stems
stage (234°F or 94°C).
prize
to
in
Herbs have always provided alcoholic flavour and properties.
Additional
ouring and flavouring can occasionally be added, and the crystallized, as opposed to the candied, forms are encrusted with a surface layer of fine sugar crystals.
can be infused
for use in fruit dishes.
Mark
The leaves, stems, Mowers and buds of many herbs and fragrant flowers can be
The
puddings. Sprigs of Lemon Balm officinalis
realize just
attractively preserved using sugar syrups
be mixed with sugar
HERBS IN ALCOHOL
Herb honeys
and then dried to retain colour and shape making
Ground Cinnamon
biscuits.
Cardamom may
archangelica stems on a wire cake tray. Dry on foil-covered baking trays in a barely warm oven at about 100 F 38 C or
HERB AND FLOWER CONFECTIONS
confections.
is
(Melissa
dark cupboard.
decorative
delicious in ice cream, egg custard,
51
is
Wormwood
(Arte-
used in vermouth and
Anise (Pimpinella Pernod, bitter herbs in Campari, and globe artichokes (Cynara scolyabsinthe
in
production,
HERB WINES Mead
mus) are used in Italian Cynar.
is
flavoured with herbs such as Rosemary [Rosmarinus officinalis and spices such as i
zeylanicum), (Cinnamomum Cinnamon Nutmeg (Myristica jragrans Mace, .
Transfer to a cold place for a further two days. Strain and bottle using robust flasks. Screw the tops down firmly only when fermentation has ceased. Store for
about one week only.
not a brew for
It is
long storage.
with herbs. Creme de Menthe, for example, is flavoured with Mint oils (Men-
Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer
Kiimmel is Cumin [Cuminum cyminum) and Caraway flavoured (Carum carvi) and Green Chartreuse may contain over one hundred different plant flavours. spp
.
Aquavit
[Cuminum
Cumin-flavoured
is
cyminum) and gin
is
flavoured with Juniper
Juniperus communis).
Dandelion plants with taproot demerara or light brown sugar i5g (j oz) crushed root Ginger juice of 2 lemons liquid ale yeast
water
to 4.5I
(
1
berry leaves
Rubus
i
idaeus
Chamomile
,
nobile Burdock Arctium and leaves, Betony \Stachys Agrimony Agnmoma eupatona
(Chamaemelum
,
root
lappa)
officinalis.,
,
Dandelion Nettles
(Taraxacum
(Urtica
officinale)
Hops
dioica\,
leaves,
[Humulus
lupulus, Dock Rumex crispus< and Horehound Marrubium vulgare) leaves. Ground (
•
Ginger Zingiber <
Botanic Beer 50g 50g 50g 50g 25g
A
typical
sugar.
then bottle.
Allow
Meadowsweet
(2 ozj
Agrimony
(2 ozj
Raspberry leaves Hyssop
oz) 2!
SUgai
11)
litres (2 galls
water
ale yeast Boil the leaves in the utes. Strain.
add a
Add
water
the sugar.
ale yeast
little
and
15
min-
When
tepid
for
herb wine-makers task since equipment for fermentation and storage is readily available. A wide range of plant material may be used in herb winemaking such as Cowslip flowers (Primula
and bring
Simmer
nale
,
offici-
Elder flowers (Sambucus nigra Com(Symphytum officinale Coltsfoot
for
the boil, adding the
about
10
minutes.
Decant into a Add the lemon juice
to cool until tepid. flask.
yeast. Stir to mix. Bottle after four
Marigold Wine 2.3I (4 pts)
flowers
(
Marigold flowers
2 oranges
lemon
1.4kg 13 lb) sugar
.
root
frey
to
months, tying the corks down.
1
Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum
veris),
4.5I
(i
gall)
water
.
Tussilago farfara
Lemon Balm
,
Rosemary
I5g (j oz) baker's yeast
Rose petals (Rosa spp RhuRheum rhabarbarum Burnet Poterium sanguisorba and Bramble tips. Note that measurements in wine-making are usually by volume. Do not press the herbs down in the jug but firm them by 'bumping' the jug once or twice.
Put the flowers, the thinly pared orange and lemon rinds and the juice of the orange and lemon into a large bowl. Pour on the water which has been brought to the boil with the sugar. Allow to cool. Add the yeast. Stir thoroughly, cover and leave in a warm place for one week. Strain into a fermentation jar, cover and leave in a warm place until fermentation
Dandelion Wine
ceases. Store in a cool place for three to
Melissa
officinalis
.
(Rosmarinus |,
.
four weeks before bottling.
Dandelion (lowers 4.3I gall water 2 large oranges pts
2.3I
bottle.
J
large
lemon
V>g (2 oz) raisins 2
1
Stir
1
Nettle Beer
2
facili-
stir.
the
tates
1
1
home wine-making
and
leave for three days, stirring occasionally.
and in
barb
Betony
(1
The upsurge
Pour on Cover and
into a large bowl.
fermentation
Herb wines
officinalis).
(2 oz)
Put the flower-heads and thinly peeled
washed roots in some of the water, and add the rest of the ingredients. Ferment until most of the sugar has gone,
recipe for
is:
(2 oz)
.2kg
1
9
often used to
officinale) is
flavour the brew.
of tartaric acid will suffice).
the boiling water
Boil the
.
i5g (\ oz) yeast (preferably champagne activated two days before being added, but baker's yeast creamed with some of the sweetened must and a pinch
lemon rinds
gall)
cool
Alcoholic beverages Herb beers and ales can provide the amateur beer-maker with new experimental lines based on herbs such as Meadowsweet [Filipendula ulmana Rasp-
water
yeast
lb)
( 1
(tightly
'•4 k g (3 Ib ) su g ar
(8 oz)
225g 450g
560ml (1 pt) Elder flower-heads packed into the measure) 2 lemons 4.5I (1 gall) boiling
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum and Ginger (Zingiber officinales Liqueurs are flavoured
tha
Elder flower Wine
kg (i\ lb) young Nettles
tops onl\
1.
tablespoons ye, 1st
6kg
(3^ lb
sugar
lemons Put the flowers into the water in a large
teaspoon ground Ginger
4.5I
water demerara or light brown sugar cream of tartar
gall)
fi
45g
1
lb
25g
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